CHAPTER 9: Escape, Avoidance, and Punishment
Test Bank for Chapter 9
Escape and Avoidance
1.
Which type of consequence serves to motivate escape behavior and avoidance behavior?
a) Positive reinforcement
b) Positive punishment
c) Negative reinforcement
d) Negative punishment
Answer: C
Page number: 335
Feedback: Negative reinforcement serves to motivate escape behavior and avoidance behavior. Negative
reinforcement consists of the removal of an aversive stimulus following a response, which then leads to an
increase in the strength of that response.
2.
In general, when we are confronted with an aversive situation, the development of avoidance behavior _____
the development of escape behavior.
a) precedes
b) follows
c) occurs more quickly than
d) is more certain than
Answer: B
Page number: 335
Feedback: In general, when we are confronted with an aversive situation, the development of avoidance
behavior follows the development of escape behavior.
3.
Which of the following would be the typical sequence of stimuli in a shuttle avoidance procedure?
a) The presentation of a shock is followed by the sound of a tone.
b) The sound of a tone is followed by the offset of a shock.
c) The sound of a tone is followed by the presentation of a shock.
d) The offset of a shock is followed by the sound of a tone.
Answer: C
Page number: 336
Feedback: In a typical shuttle avoidance procedure, a stimulus of some sort is presented followed by a mild
electric shock.
4.
In a shuttle avoidance procedure involving the stimuli of a tone and a shock, the _____ serves as the SD for the
_____ response.
a) shock; avoidance
b) shock; escape
c) tone; escape
d) escape response; avoidance
Answer: B
Page number: 336
Feedback: In a shuttle avoidance procedure involving the stimuli of a tone and a shock, the shock serves as the
SD for the escape response.
FN
5.
In a shuttle avoidance procedure involving the stimuli of a tone and a shock, the _____ serves as the SD for the
_____ response.
a) shock; avoidance
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b) tone; escape
c) tone; avoidance
d) avoidance response; escape
Answer: C
Page number: 336
Feedback: In a shuttle avoidance procedure involving the stimuli of a tone and a shock, the tone serves as the
SD for the avoidance response.
6.
In a shuttle avoidance procedure, an animal first learns to _____ the aversive stimulus and then learns to _____
it.
a) escape; avoid
b) avoid; escape
c) escape; attack
d) notice; avoid
Answer: A
Page number: 335
Feedback: In a shuttle avoidance procedure, an animal first learns to escape the aversive stimulus and then
learns to avoid it.
Two-Process Theory of Avoidance
7.
The first process in Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance involves:
a) classical conditioning of a fear response to a CS.
b) classical conditioning of an approach response to a CS.
c) negative punishment resulting from the reduction of fear.
d) negative reinforcement resulting from the reduction of fear.
Answer: A
Page number: 337
Feedback: According to Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance, two processes are involved in learning an
avoidance response. The first process is classical conditioning of a fear response to a CS.
8.
According to the two-process theory of avoidance, the first step in the development of an avoidance response is
the creation of a(n):
a) intermittently reinforced escape response.
b) classically conditioned escape response.
c) intermittently reinforced fear response.
d) classically conditioned fear response.
Answer: D
Page number: 337
Feedback: According to Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance, two processes are involved in learning an
avoidance response. The first process is classical conditioning of a fear response to a CS.
9.
The second process in Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance involves:
a) classical conditioning of a fear response.
b) classical conditioning of an approach response.
c) negative punishment resulting from the reduction of fear.
d) negative reinforcement resulting from the reduction of fear.
Answer: D
Page number: 338
Feedback: The second process in Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance is operant conditioning, in which
moving away from the CS is negatively reinforced by a reduction in fear.
10. The second process in Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance involves _____ in the form of _____.
a) negative punishment; fear induction
b) negative reinforcement; fear reduction
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c) negative reinforcement; shock removal
d) negative punishment; shock presentation
Answer: B
Page number: 338
Feedback: The second process in Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance is that of operant conditioning, in
which moving away from the CS is negatively reinforced by a reduction in fear.
QZ
11. Allen, who was bullied as a child, feels anxious whenever he sees a gang of teenagers walking toward him. As
a result, he usually crosses the street so that he does not have to walk past them. This example best illustrates
the _____.
a) Premack principle
b) two-process theory of avoidance
c) latent inhibition effect
d) species-specific defense reaction theory
Answer: B
Page number: 338
Feedback: The example best illustrates the two-process theory of avoidance. Mowrer’s two-process theory of
avoidance proposes that avoidance behavior is the result of two distinct processes: (1) classical conditioning, in
which a fear response comes to be elicited by a CS, and (2) operant conditioning, in which moving away from
the CS is negatively reinforced by a reduction in fear.
WWW
12. One difficulty with the two-process theory of avoidance is that:
a) avoidance responses are difficult to extinguish.
b) avoidance responses extinguish very quickly.
c) escape responses are difficult to extinguish.
d) escape responses extinguish very quickly.
Answer: A
Page number: 338
Feedback: Mowrer’s two-process theory generated an enormous amount of research, with researchers soon
discovering several difficulties with it. One problem was that avoidance responses are often extremely
persistent and are difficult to extinguish.
13. According to the anxiety conservation hypothesis, avoidance responses persist because:
a) avoidance occurs too quickly for the shock to be felt.
b) escape occurs too quickly for the fear to extinguish.
c) avoidance occurs too quickly for the fear to extinguish.
d) escape occurs too quickly for the shock to be felt.
Answer: C
Page number: 338
Feedback: According to the anxiety conservation hypothesis, avoidance responses persist because they usually
occur so quickly that there is insufficient exposure to the CS for the conditioned fear to fully extinguish.
14. Although Hau was bitten only once by a dog many years ago, he nevertheless persistently stays away from
dogs. According to the anxiety conservation hypothesis, Hau’s fear of dogs does not extinguish because:
a) his escape response does not tell him that his fear of dogs is merely psychological.
b) others are to blame for his displays of anxiety.
c) his low self-esteem serves to conserve and heighten his anxiety.
d) his avoidance response to dogs occurs so quickly that his fear does not have time to extinguish.
Answer: D
Page number: 338
Feedback: Hau’s fear of dogs does not extinguish because his avoidance response to dogs occurs so quickly
that his fear does not have time to extinguish. According to the anxiety conservation hypothesis, avoidance
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
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responses usually occur so quickly that there is insufficient exposure to the CS for the conditioned fear to fully
extinguish.
15. Robert has a bug phobia. According to the anxiety conservation hypothesis, his fear of bugs does not
extinguish because any exposure to bugs:
a) is negatively reinforced.
b) is negatively punished.
c) is too brief for extinction to take place.
d) results in incubation of the fear response.
Answer: C
Page number: 338–339
Feedback: Robert’s fear of bugs does not extinguish because any exposure to bugs is too brief for extinction to
take place. According to the anxiety conservation hypothesis, avoidance responses usually occur so quickly
that there is insufficient exposure to the CS for the conditioned fear to fully extinguish.
16. A rat has learned that if it presses a lever every 30 seconds, it can avoid receiving a shock. After many sessions,
you notice the rat leisurely wandering about the chamber during the time period preceding each lever press. On
the surface, this behavior seems to _____ Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance.
a) provide strong support for
b) provide at least moderate support for
c) be irrelevant to
d) contradict
Answer: D
Page number: 339
Feedback: The rat’s behavior seems to contradict Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance. Researchers
discovered that once the animals had become adept at making the avoidance response, they seemed to become
almost nonchalant and relaxed while carrying it out.
17. In defense of the two-process theory of avoidance, it has been argued that:
a) avoidance responses almost never extinguish.
b) animals that continue to avoid a feared situation also continue to experience at least some fear of the CS.
c) Both a and b are correct.
d) Neither a nor b is correct.
Answer: B
Page number: 339
Feedback: Evidence suggests that if an animal completely loses its fear of the aversive CS, then, just as twoprocess theory predicts, the avoidance response ceases to occur. But as long as some fear remains, the
avoidance response continues, suggesting that fear reduction is still functioning as a negative reinforcer for the
behavior.
18. Levis’ answer to the problem that the “nonchalant” animal poses for the two-process theory of avoidance is
that:
a) the animal nevertheless feels a residual amount of fear.
b) the animal’s fear will gradually return after further conditioning trials.
c) fear does not play a role in the maintenance of an avoidance response.
d) the animal actually feels extreme fear even if it looks relaxed.
Answer: A
Page number: 339
Feedback: Levis has argued that although animals in avoidance experiments may become significantly less
fearful with experience, there is no evidence that they become completely nonfearful. As long as some fear
remains, the avoidance response continues, suggesting that fear reduction is still functioning as a negative
reinforcer for the behavior.
19. Arthur owns a restaurant in a neighborhood controlled by organized crime. Local merchants often pay
‘protection’ money to gang members in order to avoid risking their businesses. When a gang representative
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comes to Arthur’s restaurant at the beginning of every month, Arthur hands over an envelope full of cash and
has a pleasant conversation with the gang member. By Arthur’s actions, it would appear as if he has no fear and
yet continues to pay money to the gang. What would Levis (1989) suggest about Arthur’s apparent
nonchalance?
a) If Arthur truly had no fear, he would not continue to pay money to the gang members.
b) Arthur is less fearful as a result of experience.
c) Arthur truly has no fear of the actions of the gang.
d) Both a and b are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 339
Feedback: Levis would suggest that if Arthur truly had no fear, he would not continue to pay money to the
gang members. He would also argue that Arthur is less fearful as a result of experience.
20. According to Levis (1989), seemingly nonchalant animals who continue to avoid the aversive stimulus are:
a) truly relaxed.
b) merely suppressing their fear.
c) still experiencing a residual amount of fear.
d) exhibiting an avoidance response that has now become a conditioned reflex.
Answer: C
Page number: 339
Feedback: Levis has argued that although animals in avoidance experiments may become significantly less
fearful with experience, there is no evidence that they become completely nonfearful. As long as some fear
remains, the avoidance response continues, suggesting that fear reduction is still functioning as a negative
reinforcer for the behavior.
WWW
21. According to the one-process theory of avoidance, the act of avoidance is negatively reinforced by:
a) a reduction in fear.
b) an increase in feelings of relief.
c) the lower rate of aversive stimulation with which it is associated.
d) negative punishment followed by the escape response.
Answer: C
Page number: 339
Feedback: According to one-process theory, the act of avoidance is negatively reinforced simply by the lower
rate of aversive stimulation with which it is associated. Thus, the rat in a shuttle avoidance task persistently
climbs over the barrier when the light comes on because this action results in a decreased rate of shock, and not
because it results in decreased feelings of fear.
QZ
22. The two-process theory of avoidance is to _____ as the one-process theory is to _____.
a) negative reinforcement; negative punishment
b) negative punishment; negative reinforcement
c) avoidance; escape
d) less fear; less shock
Answer: D
Page number: 337–339
Feedback: The two-process theory of avoidance is to less fear as one-process theory is to less shock.
23. The attractive aspect of the _____ is that it does away with any reference to an internal state of fear, the
existence of which has to be inferred.
a) two-process theory of avoidance
b) latent inhibition effect
c) anxiety conservation hypothesis
d) one-process theory of avoidance
Answer: D
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
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Page number: 339
Feedback: The attractive aspect of the one-process theory of avoidance is that it does away with any reference
to an internal state of fear, the existence of which has to be inferred.
Avoidance Conditioning and Phobias
24. According to Mineka, experimental avoidance in animals differs from phobic avoidance in humans in that:
a) humans avoid the US but not the CS.
b) only one conditioning trial is typically required to establish a phobia.
c) phobic avoidance is never as consistent as experimental avoidance.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: B
Page number: 340–341
Feedback: Mineka has claimed that there are limitations in applying models of experimental avoidance to
human phobias. Experimental avoidance typically requires at least a few pairings of the CS and the US (e.g.,
light and shock) before avoidance has been reliably established. Human phobias often require only a single,
brief conditioning trial to produce avoidance that is both strong and persistent.
25. Experimental avoidance typically requires at least a few pairings of the _____ and the US before avoidance has
been reliably established.
a) NS
b) CS
c) CR
d) UR
Answer: B
Page number: 340
Feedback: Experimental avoidance typically requires at least a few pairings of the CS and the US (e.g., light
and shock) before avoidance has been reliably established, and even then is usually less than 100 percent
certain.
26. According to Mineka, phobias in humans and experimental avoidance in rats differ in that:
a) rats avoid the CS.
b) experimental avoidance require a single, brief conditioning trail to produce avoidance that is strong.
c) human phobias typically require several conditioning trials to produce avoidance that is persistent.
d) None of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 340
Feedback: Mineka has claimed that there are limitations in applying models of experimental avoidance to
human phobias. Experimental avoidance typically requires at least a few pairings of the CS and the US (e.g.,
light and shock) before avoidance has been reliably established. Human phobias often require only a single,
brief conditioning trial to produce avoidance that is both strong and persistent.
QZ
27. Donna has a fear of wasps and refuses to go to the park in the summer when wasps are most numerous. Which
critical factor in the maintenance of phobic behavior does this scenario illustrate?
a) Classical conditioning
b) Reducing the likelihood of encountering the CS
c) Increasing the effort of avoiding the feared event
d) Intermittent negative reinforcement
Answer: B
Page number: 342
Feedback: The scenario illustrates the reduction in the likelihood of encountering the CS. Stampfl’s results
seem to confirm that a critical factor in the maintenance of phobic behavior is that the avoidance response
occurs early in the sequence of events leading up to the phobic stimulus, thereby minimizing the effort
involved in avoiding the stimulus.
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FN
28. Prior to Stampfl’s experiment, which critical factor in phobic behavior patterns was absent in most
experimental avoidance procedures?
a) The opportunity to make an early avoidance response
b) The opportunity to make a late avoidance response
c) Classical conditioning of a fear response
d) Negative reinforcement of an avoidance response
Answer: A
Page number: 341
Feedback: The opportunity to make an early avoidance response is typically absent from most experimental
avoidance procedures. Stampfl, however, designed an apparatus that provided just such an opportunity.
29. According to Stampfl, a critical factor in the maintenance of phobic behavior is:
a) last minute avoidance of the aversive stimulus.
b) cognitive avoidance of the appetitive stimulus.
c) early avoidance of the aversive stimulus.
d) negative contrast effects between safety and danger.
Answer: C
Page number: 341
Feedback: Stampfl’s results seem to confirm that a critical factor in the maintenance of phobic behavior is that
the avoidance response occurs early in the sequence of events leading up to the phobic stimulus, thereby
minimizing the effort involved in avoiding the stimulus.
30. According to research conducted by Stampfl, a critical factor that helps to maintain people’s wasp phobias is
that:
a) they run away whenever a wasp draws close to them.
b) they are intermittently exposed to a wasp.
c) they are intermittently stung by a wasp.
d) they plan events such that they almost never encounter a wasp.
Answer: D
Page number: 342
Feedback: A critical factor that helps to maintain people’s wasp phobias is that they plan events such that they
almost never encounter a wasp. Stampfl’s results seem to confirm that a critical factor in the maintenance of
phobic behavior is that the avoidance response occurs early in the sequence of events leading up to the phobic
stimulus, thereby minimizing the effort involved in avoiding the stimulus.
31. According to Stampfl, an important factor that underlies the development of _____ avoidance responses in
phobias is _____.
a) early; effort reduction
b) late; effort reduction
c) early; effort induction
d) late; effort induction
Answer: A
Page number: 342
Feedback: According to Stampfl, an important factor that underlies the development of early avoidance
responses in phobias is effort reduction.
32. Stampfl’s procedure focuses on the fact that people with phobias typically make the _____ early in the chain of
events leading up to the feared stimulus.
a) avoidance response
b) escape response
c) appetitive response
d) species-specific defense reaction
Answer: A
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Page number: 341
Feedback: Stampfl’s procedure focuses on the fact that people with phobias typically make the avoidance
response early in the chain of events leading up to the feared stimulus. The phobic individual learns to make
the avoidance response early in the chain of events so as to minimize the effort of avoiding.
33. In terms of the anxiety conservation hypothesis, exposure to the aversive stimulus is so minimal that the
avoidance response is extremely resistant to _____.
a) repression
b) the escape response
c) extinction
d) the species-specific defense reaction
Answer: C
Page number: 342
Feedback: In terms of the anxiety conservation hypothesis, exposure to the aversive stimulus is so minimal that
the avoidance response is extremely resistant to extinction. It is therefore not surprising that phobic behaviors
are often extremely persistent.
Avoidance Conditioning and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
34. Obsessions are to _____ as compulsions are to _____.
a) thoughts; actions
b) actions; dreams
c) dreams; thoughts
d) actions; thoughts
Answer: A
Page number: 343
Feedback: Obsessions are to thoughts as compulsions are to actions. Persistent thoughts, impulses, or images
are called obsessions, while repetitive, stereotyped actions are called compulsions.
35. Constantly worrying about whether you locked the door as you left your apartment this morning is an example
of a(n ):
a) phobia.
b) compulsion.
c) obsession.
d) Both a and b are correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 343
Feedback: Constantly worrying about whether you locked the door as you left your apartment this morning is
an example of an obsession. Persistent thoughts, impulses, or images are termed obsessions.
36. In general, obsessions and compulsions have _____ effects on anxiety.
a) weak
b) similar
c) opposite
d) unpredictable
Answer: C
Page number: 343
Feedback: Obsessions and compulsions have opposite effects on anxiety. In general, obsessions are associated
with an increase in anxiety, whereas compulsions are associated with a decrease in anxiety.
37. In the context of obsessions and compulsions, hand-washing is to thoughts about germs as _____ is to _____.
a) a decrease in anxiety; an increase in anxiety
b) an increase in anxiety; a decrease in anxiety
c) desensitization; flooding
d) flooding; desensitization
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Answer: A
Page number: 343
Feedback: Hand-washing is to thoughts about germs as a decrease in anxiety is to an increase in anxiety. In
general, obsessions are associated with an increase in anxiety, whereas compulsions are associated with a
decrease in anxiety.
WWW
38. One difference between obsessive-compulsive disorder and a phobia is that a phobia typically involves a(n)
_____ avoidance response, while obsessive-compulsive disorder involves a(n) _____ avoidance response.
a) active; passive
b) passive; active
c) overt; covert
d) covert; overt
Answer: B
Page number: 343
Feedback: The role of avoidance in OCD is virtually the same as in phobic behavior, except that OCD typically
involves an active avoidance response while phobic behavior typically involves a passive avoidance response.
39. For Janine, who has been diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder, thoughts about possible germs on her
body produces a(n):
a) increase in anxiety.
b) reflexive tendency to avoid showers.
c) decrease in anxiety.
d) feeling of intense pleasure.
Answer: A
Page number: 343
Feedback: For Janine, who has been diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder, thoughts about possible
germs on her body produces an increase in anxiety. In general, obsessions are associated with an increase in
anxiety.
40. For Salima, who has been diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder, checking the apartment door to make
sure it is locked results in a(n) _____ in feelings of _____.
a) decrease; pleasure
b) increase; competence
c) increase; anxiety
d) decrease; anxiety
Answer: D
Page number: 343
Feedback: For Salima, checking the apartment door to make sure it is locked results in a decrease in feelings of
anxiety. In general, compulsions are associated with a decrease in anxiety.
FN
41. In the context of obsessive-compulsive disorder, compulsions are characterized by _____.
a) persistent thoughts
b) images
c) impulses
d) stereotyped actions
Answer: D
Page number: 343
Feedback: Obsessions are characterized by persistent thoughts, impulses, or images. Compulsions are
characterized by repetitive, stereotyped actions.
42. Exposure and response prevention therapy for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder involves
prolonged exposure to the anxiety-arousing event while _____ in the _____ behavior pattern that reduces the
anxiety.
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a) not engaging; compulsive
b) engaging; obsessive
c) not engaging; obsessive
d) engaging; compulsive
Answer: A
Page number: 343–344
Feedback: Exposure and response prevention therapy (ERP) for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive
disorder involves prolonged exposure to the anxiety-arousing event while not engaging in the compulsive
behavior pattern that reduces the anxiety.
43. Which of the following treatment procedures is effective in the treatment of OCD?
a) Exposure and response prevention
b) Latent inhibition
c) A DRO or DRI procedure
d) A DRL procedure
Answer: A
Page number: 343
Feedback: Two-process theory helped clarify our understanding of OCD and led to the development of the first
effective treatment for the disorder. This treatment method is known as exposure and response prevention
(ERP).
WWW
44. Which of the following is likely to be a task involved in an exposure and response prevention treatment for a
cleaning compulsion?
a) Going for days without a shower
b) Staying away from garbage cans
c) Constant cleaning to the point where it becomes aversive
d) Both a and b are correct.
Answer: A
Page number: 344
Feedback: A task that is likely to be involved in an exposure and response prevention treatment for a cleaning
compulsion is going for days without a shower.
45. Exposure and response prevention therapy for OCD makes use of:
a) flooding therapy.
b) systematic desensitization.
c) both flooding therapy and systematic desensitization.
d) neither flooding therapy nor systematic desensitization.
Answer: C
Page number: 344
Feedback: As with recent versions of exposure-based treatments for phobic behavior, ERP combines the
graduated exposure of systematic desensitization with the prolonged exposure of flooding therapy.
QZ
46. Obsessive-compulsive disorders often arise:
a) following a traumatic encounter with the relevant event.
b) as a direct result of classical conditioning.
c) during times of stress.
d) Both a and b are correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 344
Feedback: People with OCD are usually unable to recall any particular conditioning event that could account
for an obsessional anxiety response. People who have a contamination fear, for example, typically do not
recall, say, falling into a cesspool before the onset of the fear. On the other hand, onset of OCD does often
coincide with a period of stress.
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47. Which of the following is most likely to precede the development of a tendency to continually wash one’s
hands?
a) Repressed memories of abuse
b) A stressful divorce
c) A puppy accidentally defecating on one’s hands
d) A sudden fright
Answer: B
Page number: 344
Feedback: A stressful divorce is most likely to precede the development of a tendency to continually wash
one’s hands. The onset of OCD often coincides with a period of stress.
48. The development of OCD may result from the process of:
a) US revaluation.
b) occasion setting.
c) sensory preconditioning.
d) selective sensitization.
Answer: D
Page number: 344
Feedback: Just as the process of selective sensitization might lead to the development of a phobia, so too it
might lead to the development of OCD.
49. On a cognitive level, people with OCD generally fail to realize that:
a) intrusive thoughts are uncommon and abnormal.
b) some thoughts are essentially respondents that are automatically elicited by certain stimuli.
c) obsessive thoughts are operants that require forceful elicitation by stimuli.
d) they constantly avoid responsibility for their behavior.
Answer: B
Page number: 344
Feedback: On a cognitive level, people with OCD generally fail to realize that some thoughts are essentially
respondents (reflexes) that are automatically elicited by certain stimuli, and that it is futile to try to control such
thoughts.
50. Janice is bothered by persistent thoughts that she has left her apartment door unlocked. This thought pattern is
best classified as:
a) a negatively reinforced operant.
b) a positively reinforced operant.
c) a respondent.
d) adjunctive behavior.
Answer: C
Page number: 344
Feedback: Janice’s thought pattern is best classified as a respondent. People with OCD fail to realize that some
thoughts are essentially respondents (reflexes) that are automatically elicited by certain stimuli and that it is
futile to try to control such thoughts.
51. In the context of OCD, which of the following is incongruent with the two-process theory of avoidance?
a) Patients display late rather than early avoidance.
b) Patients display early rather than later avoidance.
c) OCD is usually initiated by a clear instance of classical conditioning.
d) Patients usually cannot recall a particular conditioning event that led to the obsession.
Answer: D
Page number: 344
Feedback: Although Mowrer’s two-process theory has proven quite useful in enhancing our understanding and
treatment of OCD, it does not provide an entirely adequate explanation for it. For example, people with OCD
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11
are usually unable to recall any particular conditioning event that could account for the obsessional anxiety
response.
WWW
52. Obsessions are characterized by _____.
a) stereotyped actions
b) persistent impulses
c) repetitive actions
d) suicidal tendencies
Answer: B
Page number: 343
Feedback: Obsessions are characterized by persistent thoughts, impulses, or images. Repetitive, stereotyped
actions are termed compulsions.
53. OCD was once considered a particularly difficult disorder to treat. This changed when clinicians began
analyzing OCD in terms of _____.
a) phobic conditioning
b) experimental neurosis
c) avoidance conditioning
d) anxiety conservation
Answer: C
Page number: 343
Feedback: OCD was once considered a particularly difficult disorder to treat. This changed when clinicians
began analyzing OCD in terms of avoidance conditioning, especially Mowrer’s two-process theory. The
applicability of this theory to OCD lies in the fact that obsessions and compulsions have opposite effects on
anxiety.
Punishment
Types of Punishment
54. Ted lost his job after arguing with his boss. As a result, in his subsequent jobs, he never again argued with the
boss. This is an example of:
a) negative reinforcement.
b) extinction.
c) negative punishment.
d) positive punishment.
Answer: C
Page number: 347
Feedback: The scenario is an example of negative punishment. Negative punishment consists of the removal of
a certain event following a response, which then leads to a decrease in the future strength of that response.
55. Jorge was given an extra homework assignment after making faces at a teacher one day. He never again made
faces at the teacher. This scenario is an example of:
a) avoidance conditioning.
b) extinction.
c) negative punishment.
d) positive punishment.
Answer: D
Page number: 347
Feedback: The scenario is an example of positive punishment. Positive punishment consists of the presentation
of a certain event following a response, which then leads to a decrease in the future strength of that response.
The behavior results in the delivery of something the person or animal hates.
56. Solitary confinement in prison, to the extent that it is effective, is an extreme example of _____.
a) response cost
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b) time-out
c) positive punishment
d) negative reinforcement
Answer: B
Page number: 348
Feedback: Solitary confinement in prison, to the extent that it is effective, is an extreme example of time-out.
Time-out involves the loss of access to positive reinforcers for a brief period of time following the occurrence
of a problem behavior.
57. Being stranded on a desert island is most similar to:
a) negative punishment.
b) response cost.
c) time-out.
d) Both a and c are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 348
Feedback: Being stranded on a desert island is most similar to a type of negative punishment known as timeout. Time-out involves the loss of access to positive reinforcers for a brief period of time following the
occurrence of a problem behavior.
58. _____ is the removal of a specific reinforcer following the occurrence of a problem behavior.
a) Positive reinforcement
b) Positive punishment
c) Time-out
d) Response cost
Answer: D
Page number: 348
Feedback: Response cost is the removal of a specific reinforcer following the occurrence of a problem
behavior. Response cost is a type of negative punishment.
59. Having one’s car towed away for parking in a no parking zone is most similar to the concept of _____.
a) time-out
b) positive punishment
c) response cost
d) negative reinforcement
Answer: C
Page number: 348
Feedback: Having one’s car towed away for parking in a no parking zone is most similar to the concept of
response cost. Response cost is the removal of a specific reinforcer following the occurrence of a problem
behavior.
60. Ideally, a time-out procedure should be:
a) followed by the reinforcement of appropriate behavior.
b) fairly long.
c) combined with a response cost procedure.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: A
Page number: 348
Feedback: Ideally, a time-out procedure should be followed by the reinforcement of appropriate behavior. A
time-out period as short as a minute may be all that is required to effectively suppress the unwanted behavior,
especially if one immediately sets out to reinforce more appropriate behaviors as soon as the child is returned
to the normal setting.
61. Making a child sit in a corner for being too noisy is an attempted _____ procedure, while turning off the
television for being too noisy is an attempted _____ procedure.
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
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a) response cost; time-out
b) time-out; response cost
c) negative punishment; positive punishment
d) positive punishment; negative punishment
Answer: B
Page number: 348
Feedback: Making a child sit in a corner for being too noisy is an attempted time-out procedure, while turning
off the television for being too noisy is an attempted response cost procedure.
FN
62. Joanne’s favorite hat was taken away from her by her parents because she was being disobedient. As a result,
she was never again disobedient to her parents. This scenario is an example of:
a) positive punishment.
b) time-out.
c) response cost.
d) negative reinforcement.
Answer: C
Page number: 348
Feedback: The scenario is an example of response cost. Response cost is the removal of a specific reinforcer
following the occurrence of a problem behavior.
WWW
63. Jessica whines for extra helpings when she is given dessert at the dinner table. In order to put an end to the
whining, her mom decides to stop giving her extra dessert when she whines for it. Her mom is attempting to
use a(n) _____ procedure.
a) positive punishment
b) negative punishment
c) blocking
d) extinction
Answer: D
Page number: 348
Feedback: Jessica’s mom is attempting to use an extinction procedure. In the case of extinction, a behavior that
used to produce a reinforcer no longer does, and the person therefore stops performing the behavior.
64. Jessica whines for extra helpings when she is given dessert at the dinner table. In order to put an end to the
whining, her mom decides to take away all of her dessert whenever she whines. Her mom is attempting to use
a(n) _____ procedure.
a) positive punishment
b) negative punishment
c) negative reinforcement
d) extinction
Answer: B
Page number: 348
Feedback: Jessica’s mom is attempting to use a negative punishment procedure. In the case of negative
punishment, performing a behavior results in the loss of a reinforcer that the person would otherwise possess.
65. When the frequency of a behavior declines because performing the behavior no longer leads to something, the
process involved is called:
a) negative punishment.
b) positive punishment.
c) extinction.
d) negative reinforcement.
Answer: C
Page number: 349
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Feedback: When the frequency of a behavior declines because performing the behavior no longer leads to
something, the process involved is called extinction.
66. No longer getting a cookie is to _____ as removal of a cookie is to _____.
a) extinction; negative punishment
b) extinction; positive punishment
c) positive punishment; negative punishment
d) negative punishment; positive punishment
Answer: A
Page number: 349
Feedback: No longer getting a cookie is to extinction as removal of a cookie is to negative punishment. If a
behavior grows weaker because performing the behavior no longer leads to something, it is termed extinction.
If performing the behavior leads to the removal of something that you would otherwise possess, it is termed
negative punishment.
FN
67. No longer getting food following a certain behavior is to _____ as withdrawal of food following a certain
behavior is to _____.
a) extinction; positive punishment
b) extinction; negative punishment
c) negative punishment; positive punishment
d) positive punishment; negative punishment
Answer: B
Page number: 349
Feedback: No longer getting food following a certain behavior is to extinction as withdrawal of food following
a certain behavior is to negative punishment.
68. When Larry went swimming in the mountain lake, he almost froze to death and never again tried it. This is an
example of _____ punishment.
a) secondary
b) generalized secondary
c) intrinsic
d) extrinsic
Answer: C
Page number: 349
Feedback: The scenario is an example of intrinsic punishment. Intrinsic punishment is punishment that is an
inherent aspect of the behavior being punished. In other words, the activity itself is punishing.
69. Eating rotten food is an _____ event; getting a traffic fine for speeding is an _____ event.
a) extrinsically punishing; intrinsically punishing
b) intrinsically punishing; extrinsically punishing
c) extrinsically punishing; extrinsically punishing
d) intrinsically punishing; intrinsically punishing
Answer: B
Page number: 349
Feedback: Eating rotten food is an intrinsically punishing event; getting a traffic fine for speeding is an
extrinsically punishing event. Intrinsic punishment is punishment that is an inherent aspect of the behavior
being punished. Extrinsic punishment is punishment that is not an inherent aspect of the behavior being
punished, but simply follows the behavior.
70. Primary punishers are also called _____, and secondary punishers are also called _____.
a) unconditioned punishers; conditioned punishers
b) generalized punishers; conditioned punishers
c) unconditioned punishers; generalized punishers
d) conditioned punishers; unconditioned punishers
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
15
Answer: A
Page number: 350
Feedback: Primary punishers are also called unconditioned punishers, and secondary punishers are also called
conditioned punishers.
71. Being punched in the face is a(n) _____, while getting a demerit point for speeding is a(n) _____.
a) secondary punisher; intrinsic punisher
b) primary punisher; secondary punisher
c) extrinsic punisher; intrinsic punisher
d) primary punisher; intrinsic punisher
Answer: B
Page number: 350
Feedback: Being punched in the face is a primary punisher, while getting a demerit point for speeding is a
secondary punisher. A primary punisher is an event that is innately punishing. A secondary punisher is an event
that has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with some other punisher.
72. Andrea works in a home for adults with behavioral and mental disorders. There is a ‘marble system’ that is
used to reinforce and punish the behavior of the residents. Green marbles are given for good behavior; red
marbles are given for problem behavior and are associated with various consequences. The residents do not
like to get red marbles. In this scenario, the red marbles are examples of _____.
a) secondary punishers
b) extrinsic punishers
c) generalized punishers
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 349–350
Feedback: In the scenario, the red marbles are examples of secondary, extrinsic, and generalized punishers. An
extrinsic punisher is a punisher that is not an inherent aspect of the behavior being punished, but simply
follows the behavior. A special type of secondary punisher is a generalized punisher, which is an event that has
become punishing because it has in the past been associated with many other punishers.
73. For a person who truly regards money as the root of all evil, accepting a bribe would likely function as a(n)
_____ punisher.
a) primary
b) intrinsic
c) generalized
d) generalized primary
Answer: C
Page number: 350
Feedback: For a person who truly regards money as the root of all evil, accepting a bribe would likely function
as a generalized punisher. A special type of secondary punisher is a generalized punisher, which is an event that
has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with many other punishers.
QZ
74. Rob is fined for driving over the speed limit. This is an example of _____.
a) time-out
b) extinction
c) response cost
d) repression
Answer: C
Page number: 348
Feedback: Rob being fined for driving over the speed limit is an example of response cost. Response cost is the
removal of a specific reinforcer following the occurrence of a problem behavior.
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75. Both negative punishment and _____ involve the removal of reinforcers and result in a decrease in the strength
of a behavior.
a) repression
b) extinction
c) conditioned suppression
d) experimental neurosis
Answer: B
Page number: 348
Feedback: Both negative punishment and extinction involve the removal of reinforcers and result in a decrease
in the strength of a behavior.
Problems with the Use of Punishment
76. Which of the following is a problem associated with using punishment?
a) It does not directly strengthen more appropriate behavior.
b) Strong emotional reactions may interfere with learning.
c) The use of punishment is often strongly reinforced.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 351–352
Feedback: Some of the problems associated with using punishment are as follows: the punishment of
maladaptive behavior does not directly strengthen the occurrence of adaptive behavior, punishment is likely to
elicit a strong emotional response, and the use of punishment is often strongly reinforced.
77. Tom yells at his parrot whenever it squawks because the squawking bothers the neighbors in the next
apartment. Why is this procedure less than ideal?
a) The parrot could become very passive.
b) The parrot might still squawk when Tom is not home.
c) The parrot might become fearful of Tom.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 351–352
Feedback: When Tom yells at his parrot whenever it squawks, the parrot could become very passive. It might
also still squawk when Tom is not home and become fearful of Tom.
WWW
78. Which of the following is a problem associated with the use of punishment?
a) The recipient may avoid the person who delivers the punishment.
b) The recipient may become aggressive.
c) The recipient may later use punishment to control others.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 351–352
Feedback: Some of the problems associated with the use of punishment are as follows: the recipient may avoid
the person who delivers the punishment, the recipient may become aggressive, and the recipient may later use
punishment to control others.
79. Roberto was severely chastised by Ms. Veneka for asking inappropriate questions in class. Problems arising
from this include the possibility that Roberto may:
a) avoid Ms. Veneka whenever possible.
b) refuse to say anything in future classes.
c) Both of these are correct.
d) Neither of these are correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 351
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
17
Feedback: Problems arising from the chastisement of Roberto include the following: Roberto may avoid Ms.
Veneka whenever possible and refuse to say anything in future classes.
80. Which procedure is especially likely to result in strong emotional responses such as crying or other displays of
distress?
a) Positive punishment
b) Negative punishment
c) Learned helplessness
d) Experimental neurosis
Answer: A
Page number: 351
Feedback: One of the arguments against punishment is that it is likely to elicit a strong emotional response.
This is especially the case with the use of positive punishment, such as spanking or yelling, which is likely to
result in crying or other displays of distress.
81. Punishing your dog for chewing the newspaper might only teach the dog:
a) to avoid you.
b) to not chew the paper when you are around.
c) Both a and b are correct.
d) Neither a nor b is correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 351
Feedback: Punishing your dog for chewing the newspaper might only teach the dog to avoid you and to not
chew the paper when you are around. Punishment might simply teach an individual or animal to avoid the
person who delivered the punishment and to suppress the unwanted behavior only when that person is present.
82. The use of punishment can be quite seductive in that it often results in a(n):
a) immediate negative reinforcer.
b) delayed negative reinforcer.
c) immediate positive reinforcer.
d) delayed positive reinforcer.
Answer: A
Page number: 352
Feedback: The use of punishment can be quite seductive in that it often results in an immediate negative
reinforcer. Since punishment often has an immediate effect in stopping an unwanted behavior, the use of
punishment is often strongly reinforced.
FN
Benefits and Effective Use of Punishment
83. Side effects of punishment can sometimes include:
a) improvements in mood.
b) enhanced social behavior.
c) Both a and b are correct.
d) Neither a nor b is correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 353–354
Feedback: Punishment can sometimes lead to an increase in social behavior. Punishment also sometimes
results in an improvement in mood, such as less crying.
84. Marla was severely chastised as a result of behaving in an aggressive manner toward her classmates. Which of
the following is likely to result from this event?
a) Anger
b) Improvements in mood
c) Improvements in social behavior
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d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 351, 353–354
Feedback: Marla may show anger, improvements in mood, and improvements in social behavior. In addition to
quickly suppressing a particular behavior pattern, punishment can also have some beneficial side effects.
85. Which of the following behaviors is likely to occur after Sammy is yelled at for throwing his food?
a) He will become more sociable.
b) He will be in a better mood than he was prior to the scolding.
c) He will pay attention to those around him.
d) All of these can result from Sammy being scolded.
Answer: D
Page number: 353–354
Feedback: After Sammy is yelled at for throwing his food, he will likely become more sociable. He will also
likely be in a better mood than he was prior to the scolding and will pay attention to those around him.
QZ
86. The improvements in mood resulting from punishment is most likely to be due to:
a) the release of innate appeasement gestures.
b) the disruption of an ongoing state of agitation.
c) increased attention to others.
d) Both a and c are correct.
Answer: B
Page number: 354
Feedback: Punishment sometimes results in an improvement in mood. In some cases, it may be that a child was
misbehaving because he or she was in some way agitated; in such cases, the punishment might distract the
child and disrupt the agitation.
87. An increase in social behavior resulting from punishment is most likely to be due to:
a) the activation of an innate tendency in humans to become more sociable.
b) the disruption of an ongoing state of agitation.
c) the suppression of dangerous behavior along with sociable behavior.
d) Both a and c are correct.
Answer: A
Page number: 353–354
Feedback: Punishment can sometimes lead to an increase in social behavior. One possibility for this is that
punishment may activate an innate tendency in humans to become more sociable in an effort to restore one’s
relationship with others.
88. For punishment to be maximally effective, it should be:
a) consistent.
b) immediate.
c) intense enough to stop the behavior.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 354
Feedback: For punishment to be maximally effective, it should be immediate rather than delayed. It should also
consistently follow each occurrence of the unwanted behavior and be intense enough from the outset to
suppress the target behavior.
89. Punishment is most effective when it is:
a) delayed.
b) delivered with gradually increasing intensity.
c) delivered intermittently rather than consistently.
d) None of these are correct.
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
19
Answer: D
Page number: 354
Feedback: Punishment is most effective when it is immediate rather than delayed. Punishment should also
consistently follow each occurrence of the unwanted behavior and be intense enough from the outset to
suppress the target behavior.
90. For punishment to be maximally effective, it should be:
a) intermittent.
b) delayed.
c) accompanied by an explanation.
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 355
Feedback: For punishment to be maximally effective, it should be accompanied by an explanation. With
individuals who have language capacity, punishment is more effective when accompanied by an explanation.
91. Punishment is generally more effective when it is:
a) delivered intermittently rather than consistently.
b) intense enough from the outset to suppress the target behavior.
c) combined with negative reinforcement.
d) delayed.
Answer: B
Page number: 354
Feedback: Punishment should be intense enough from the outset to suppress the target behavior (though not so
intense as to be unnecessarily abusive).
92. Shazia wishes to stop her five-year-old daughter from pulling the cat’s tail. To do so most effectively, she
should:
a) start with a very mild reprimand and then gradually increase its severity.
b) accompany a punishment with an explanation.
c) leave the child alone when she sees her treating the cat well.
d) wait for several hours before handing out a punishment.
Answer: B
Page number: 355
Feedback: With individuals who have language capacity, punishment is more effective when accompanied by
an explanation. A possible reason for this is that an explanation will help clarify the exact behavior that is being
punished, thereby making it easier for the child to avoid punishment in the future.
FN
93. Unlike intermittent reinforcement, punishment has the strongest effect on behavior when it is:
a) suppressed.
b) delayed.
c) delivered continuously.
d) delivered intermittently.
Answer: C
Page number: 354
Feedback: At least at the outset, punishment should consistently follow each occurrence of the unwanted
behavior. Unlike intermittent reinforcement, which has a strong effect on behavior, intermittent punishment
tends to have a weak effect on behavior.
94. A problem with the use of punishment is that the punishment is typically:
a) delayed.
b) intermittent.
c) intense enough to suppress the target behavior.
d) Both a and b are correct.
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Answer: D
Page number: 354
Feedback: Problems with the use of punishment is that the punishment is typically delayed and intermittent. As
much as possible, punishment should be immediate rather than delayed. At least at the outset, punishment
should consistently follow each occurrence of the unwanted behavior.
95. When Vinita fought with her friends over the toys they were playing with, her mother made her sit in the
corner for a minute. Following this, the most important thing for Vinita’s mother to do is to:
a) impose further time-out periods if Vinita continues to fight.
b) strongly reward Vinita’s behavior of playing cooperatively in future.
c) tell Vinita that she will be further punished if she misbehaves again.
d) gradually increase the level of punishment if she misbehaves.
Answer: B
Page number: 355
Feedback: The most important thing for Vinita’s mother to do is to strongly reward Vinita’s behavior of playing
cooperatively in future. Applying a time-out period to a child for playing inappropriately might have little
effect if the child’s behavior of playing appropriately has not been adequately reinforced.
96. The most important factor in punishing inappropriate behavior is to:
a) positively reinforce appropriate behavior.
b) negatively reinforce appropriate behavior.
c) intermittently punish the inappropriate behavior.
d) deliver a delayed rather than an immediate punishment.
Answer: A
Page number: 355
Feedback: Punishment of inappropriate behavior should be combined with positive reinforcement for
appropriate behavior. This is perhaps the most important rule.
97. In general, _____ punishment is preferable to _____ punishment.
a) negative; positive
b) positive; negative
c) intrinsic; extrinsic
d) extrinsic; intrinsic
Answer: A
Page number: 355
Feedback: Negative punishment is generally preferable to positive punishment. Negative punishment
procedures, such as time-out and response cost, are generally less likely to produce many of the harmful side
effects associated with punishment as opposed to positive punishment procedures such as spanking and yelling.
98. Identify a true statement about punishment.
a) Ideally, it should be intermittent in nature.
b) It is most effective as its intensity gradually increases.
c) It is the least effective when accompanied by an explanation.
d) Ideally, it should be immediate rather than delayed.
Answer: D
Page number: 354
Feedback: As much as possible, punishment should be immediate rather than delayed. At least at the outset,
punishment should consistently follow each occurrence of the unwanted behavior.
Theories of Punishment
Conditioned Suppression Theory
99. According to the conditioned suppression theory of punishment, punishment does not weaken a behavior but
instead:
a) produces an emotional response that interferes with its occurrence.
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
21
b) produces a strong suppression of emotions.
c) results in strong inhibitory conditioning.
d) weakens other similar behaviors.
Answer: A
Page number: 356
Feedback: The conditioned suppression theory of punishment assumes that punishment does not weaken a
behavior but instead produces an emotional response that interferes with the occurrence of the behavior.
100. After being bitten by the neighbors’ dog while trying to pick apples from their apple tree, Midori became so
fearful that she lost interest in the apples. This example fits best with the _____.
a) approach-avoidance conflict
b) Premack principle
c) avoidance theory of punishment
d) conditioned suppression theory of punishment
Answer: D
Page number: 356
Feedback: The example fits best with the conditioned suppression theory of punishment. The conditioned
suppression theory of punishment assumes that punishment does not weaken a behavior but instead produces
an emotional response that interferes with the occurrence of the behavior.
101. According to Skinner’s conditioned suppression theory of punishment, punishment will typically have _____
on behavior.
a) permanent effects
b) temporary effects
c) almost no effect
d) unpredictable effects
Answer: B
Page number: 356–357
Feedback: According to Skinner’s conditioned suppression theory of punishment, punishment will typically
have temporary effects on behavior. The temporary effect that Skinner found when he attempted to punish a
rat’s behavior led him to conclude that punishment is an ineffective means for producing a lasting change in
behavior.
QZ
102. Skinner’s experiment utilized a relatively weak form of punishment: a device that slapped a rat on the paw
when it attempted to press a lever. Subsequent research revealed that _____ forms of punishment are capable
of suppressing behavior for _____ periods of time.
a) weak; long
b) weak; short
c) more intense; much longer
d) less intense; much longer
Answer: C
Page number: 357
Feedback: Skinner’s experiment utilized a relatively weak form of punishment: a device that slapped a rat on
the paw when it attempted to press a lever. Subsequent research revealed that more intense forms of
punishment are capable of suppressing behavior for much longer periods of time.
103. Tom yelled at his parrot when it started squawking in response to a noise in the hallway. As a result, it stopped
squawking. According to the conditioned suppression theory of punishment, this is because:
a) a high probability behavior has been followed by a low probability behavior.
b) a low probability behavior has been followed by a high probability behavior.
c) the parrot is so emotionally upset that it is no longer inclined to squawk.
d) the connection between the noise in the hallway and squawking has been weakened.
Answer: C
Page number: 356
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Feedback: The parrot stopped squawking because it was so emotionally upset that it was no longer inclined to
squawk. The conditioned suppression theory of punishment assumes that punishment does not weaken a
behavior but instead produces an emotional response that interferes with the occurrence of the behavior.
Avoidance Theory of Punishment
104. According to the _____ theory of punishment, the underlying process in punishment is actually _____.
a) avoidance; positive reinforcement
b) conditioned suppression; negative reinforcement
c) conditioned suppression; the Premack principle
d) avoidance; negative reinforcement
Answer: D
Page number: 357
Feedback: According to the avoidance theory of punishment, the underlying process in punishment is actually
negative reinforcement. According to this theory, punishment actually involves a type of avoidance
conditioning in which the avoidance response consists of any behavior other than the behavior being punished.
105. After injuring his knee while rollerblading, Jared spends the rest of his summer playing computer games and
swimming so that he will not get another injury. This example fits best with the:
a) Premack approach.
b) drive theory of punishment.
c) avoidance theory of punishment.
d) conditioned suppression theory of punishment.
Answer: C
Page number: 357
Feedback: The example fits best with the avoidance theory of punishment. According to the avoidance theory
of punishment, punishment actually involves a type of avoidance conditioning in which the avoidance response
consists of any behavior other than the behavior being punished.
FN
106. Dan hates doing his taxes. As a result, when the tax deadline is approaching, Dan seems to do everything but
his taxes. He cleans his apartment, washes his car, takes on extra shifts at work, and even volunteers to
organize a block party. With which theory of punishment is his behavior most consistent?
a) The Premack principle
b) The avoidance theory of punishment
c) The conditioned suppression theory of punishment
d) Both a and b are correct.
Answer: B
Page number: 357
Feedback: Dan’s behavior is most consistent with the avoidance theory of punishment. According to the
avoidance theory of punishment, punishment actually involves a type of avoidance conditioning in which the
avoidance response consists of any behavior other than the behavior being punished.
107. In the context of the _____ theory of punishment, a significant aspect involved in punishment is negative
_____.
a) avoidance; punishment
b) Premack; punishment
c) avoidance; reinforcement
d) Premack; reinforcement
Answer: C
Page number: 357
Feedback: According to the avoidance theory of punishment, a significant aspect involved in punishment is
negative reinforcement. According to this theory, punishment actually involves a type of avoidance
conditioning in which the avoidance response consists of any behavior other than the behavior being punished.
WWW
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
23
The Premack Approach to Punishment
108. According to the Premack approach to punishment, a(n) _____ behavior can be used to punish a(n) _____
behavior.
a) low probability; high probability
b) high probability; low probability
c) covert; overt
d) overt; covert
Answer: A
Page number: 357
Feedback: According to the Premack approach to punishment, a low probability behavior (LPB) can be used to
punish a high probability behavior (HPB).
109. According to the Premack principle of punishment, which of the following constitutes a contingency of
punishment for a teenage boy who likes watching television and dislikes doing chores?
a) Watching television —> doing chores
b) Doing chores —> watching television
c) Too much of television
d) Too little television
Answer: A
Page number: 357–358
Feedback: For a teenage boy who likes watching television and dislikes doing chores, a contingency of
punishment would be watching television —> doing chores. If watching television is followed by the
consequence of being made to do chores, then the boy will be less likely to watch television.
110. According to the Premack principle of punishment, which of the following constitutes a contingency of
punishment for a person who is likely to watch TV and unlikely to clean the bathroom?
a) Watching TV —> cleaning the bathroom
b) Cleaning the bathroom —> watching TV
c) Watching TV less than 30 minutes per day
d) Cleaning the bathroom once a week
Answer: A
Page number: 357–358
Feedback: For a person who is likely to watch TV and not likely to clean the bathroom, a contingency of
punishment would be watching TV —> cleaning the bathroom. The Premack principle of punishment holds
that a low-probability behavior (LPB) can be used to punish a high-probability behavior (HPB).
111. Vanessa is highly likely to shop and very unlikely to do laundry. According to the Premack principle of
punishment, which of the following would be a contingency of punishment for Vanessa?
a) Doing laundry —> shopping
b) Shopping —> doing laundry
c) Not doing laundry —> no shopping allowed
d) None of these are correct.
Answer: B
Page number: 357–358
Feedback: According to the Premack principle, the contingency of punishment for Vanessa would be shopping
—> doing laundry. The Premack principle of punishment holds that a low-probability behavior (LPB) can be
used to punish a high-probability behavior (HPB).
112. The _____ views punishment as the mirror opposite of reinforcement.
a) avoidance theory of punishment
b) conditioned suppression theory of punishment
c) Premack approach to punishment
d) All of these are correct.
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Answer: C
Page number: 358
Feedback: The Premack approach to punishment views punishment as the mirror opposite of reinforcement. In
this sense, it differs from the conditioned suppression theory of punishment and the avoidance theory of
punishment.
QZ
Noncontingent Punishment
Learned Helplessness
113. A meteor hurtling out of the sky and destroying your house most closely aligns with the concept of:
a) secondary punishment.
b) noncontingent punishment.
c) contingent punishment.
d) extrinsic punishment.
Answer: B
Page number: 359
Feedback: A meteor hurtling out of the sky and destroying your house most closely aligns with the concept of
noncontingent punishment.
114. In the research study on learned helplessness conducted by Seligman and Maier, dogs in the escapable-shock
condition _____ dogs in the inescapable-shock condition.
a) received fewer shocks than
b) received more shocks than
c) received the same amount of shock as
d) received less predictable shocks than
Answer: C
Page number: 359
Feedback: In the original research on learned helplessness conducted by Seligman and Maier, dogs in the
escapable-shock condition received the same amount of shock as dogs in the inescapable-shock condition.
115. In the research study on learned helplessness conducted by Seligman and Maier, dogs that were first exposed to
the escapable-shock condition later learned to avoid shocks _____ than dogs that were first exposed to the
inescapable-shock condition.
a) more readily
b) less readily
c) no differently
d) less cognitively
Answer: A
Page number: 359
Feedback: In the research study on learned helplessness conducted by Seligman and Maier, dogs that were first
exposed to the escapable-shock condition later learned to avoid shocks more readily than dogs that were first
exposed to the inescapable-shock condition.
116. In the Seligman and Maier (1967) experiment, the dogs that made no effort to avoid shock were those that had
been exposed to:
a) extinction.
b) inescapable shock.
c) escapable shock.
d) unpredictable shock.
Answer: B
Page number: 359
Feedback: In the Seligman and Maier (1967) experiment, the dogs that made no effort to avoid shock were
those that had been exposed to inescapable shock. In an inescapable-shock condition, the dogs received a
series of shocks but were unable to do anything about them.
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
25
WWW
117. The term _____ refers to a decrement in learning ability that results from repeated exposure to uncontrollable
aversive events.
a) experimental neurosis
b) learned optimism
c) posttraumatic stress disorder
d) learned helplessness
Answer: D
Page number: 359–360
Feedback: The term learned helplessness refers to a decrement in learning ability that results from repeated
exposure to uncontrollable aversive events.
118. Rita is an elementary school student who is often cruelly teased by a classmate. The teachers ignore her pleas
for help as do her other classmates. Seligman would predict that, as time passes, Rita is likely to _____ her
efforts to stop the teasing. In other words, she will exhibit _____.
a) increase; experimental neurosis
b) increase; learned helplessness
c) decrease; experimental neurosis
d) decrease; learned helplessness
Answer: D
Page number: 359–360
Feedback: Seligman would predict that, as time passes, Rita is likely to decrease her efforts to stop the teasing.
In other words, she will exhibit learned helplessness. Learned helplessness refers to a decrement in learning
ability that results from repeated exposure to uncontrollable aversive events.
119. Nicole is taking a class that makes her very frustrated. She and her classmates say that they cannot get good
grades no matter what they study or how they study. They argue that they are unable to answer questions in a
way that satisfies their instructor. They feel like they have tried everything within their power to increase their
grades but are getting nowhere. This situation best illustrates the concept of _____ and will likely urge the
students to _____.
a) experimental neurosis; work harder during class
b) learned helplessness; stop trying to improve their grades
c) escape learning; stop going to class
d) shaping; gradually find a solution to the problem
Answer: B
Page number: 359–360
Feedback: The situation best illustrates the concept of learned helplessness and will likely urge the students to
stop trying to increase their grades. Learned helplessness refers to a decrement in learning ability that results
from repeated exposure to uncontrollable aversive events.
120. In their theoretical account of learned helplessness, Seligman and Maier (1967) proposed that the dogs became
helpless because they had learned that there is a(n) _____ contingency between their behavior and its
outcomes.
a) strong
b) moderate
c) inconsistent
d) lack of
Answer: D
Page number: 360
Feedback: Seligman and Maier (1967) theorized that the dogs became helpless because they had learned during
exposure to inescapable shock that any attempt to escape was useless—in other words, that there was a lack of
contingency between making a response and achieving a certain outcome.
26
CHAPTER 9
121. The famous psychoanalyst, Alfred Adler, was sickly as a small child but worked hard and overcame his
weaknesses. Research on _____ suggests that later in life, Adler would have been less vulnerable to depression
than a child who had never overcome adversity in childhood.
a) noncontingent punishment
b) learned helplessness
c) learned optimism
d) experimental neurosis
Answer: B
Page number: 360
Feedback: Experiments on learned helplessness have revealed that prior exposure to escapable shock often
immunizes an animal against becoming helpless when it is later exposed to inescapable shock; the animal will
persist in trying to escape the shock rather than give up. This suggests that a history of successfully
overcoming minor adversities might immunize a person against depression when the person is later confronted
by more serious difficulties.
122. Research on learned helplessness suggests that a useful means of treating some forms of _____ would be to
arrange for the person to have repeated experiences with _____ at something.
a) neurotic anxiety; succeeding
b) depression; succeeding
c) neurotic anxiety; failing
d) depression; failing
Answer: B
Page number: 360
Feedback: Researchers have discovered a way to eliminate learned helplessness. Behavioral treatments for
depression often involve encouraging the patient to accomplish a graded series of tasks, starting with relatively
minor tasks, such as writing a letter, and progressing to more difficult tasks, such as seeking a new job.
123. Research has shown that learned helplessness can sometimes be alleviated by providing a strong cue that
signals the occurrence of a(n) _____ escape response.
a) successful
b) unsuccessful
c) attempted
d) vigorous
Answer: A
Page number: 360
Feedback: If animals are given a very salient feedback stimulus whenever they make a successful escape
response, such as by sounding a loud bell, the learned helplessness effect may disappear and the animals may
once more learn such tasks effectively.
124. Based on research conducted on the ways to overcome learned helplessness, a useful treatment for a student
who has difficulty solving math problems would most likely be to:
a) clearly inform the student whenever he is successful.
b) flood him with unsolvable math problems.
c) eliminate pressure by telling him that he is in fact poor at math.
d) provide the student with a stimulant.
Answer: A
Page number: 360
Feedback: Based on research conducted on the ways to overcome learned helplessness, a useful treatment for a
student who has difficulty solving math problems would be to clearly inform the student whenever he is
successful.
FN
Masserman’s Experimental Neurosis
125. Masserman was able to induce neurotic symptoms in cats by exposing them to:
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
27
a) unpredictable, controllable presentations of food.
b) uncontrollable, predictable presentations of food.
c) controllable presentations of aversive stimuli.
d) unpredictable presentations of aversive stimuli.
Answer: D
Page number: 361
Feedback: Masserman was able to induce neurotic symptoms in cats by exposing them to unpredictable
presentations of aversive stimuli. He found that cats that experienced unpredictable electric shocks or blasts of
air while eating often developed a pattern of neurotic-like symptoms.
QZ
126. The symptoms of experimental neurosis that Masserman discovered included:
a) normally quiet cats becoming agitated.
b) normally active cats becoming passive and withdrawn.
c) counterphobic responses to cues associated with feeding.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 361
Feedback: Masserman found that normally quiet cats became restless and agitated, and normally active cats
became withdrawn and passive. The cats also developed phobic responses to cues associated with feeding
(since feeding had become associated with shock), as well as unusual “counterphobic” responses.
127. The symptoms of experimental neurosis that Masserman discovered included:
a) normally active cats becoming agitated.
b) normally quiet cats remaining passive and withdrawn.
c) Both a and b are correct.
d) Neither a nor b is correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 361
Feedback: Masserman found that normally quiet cats became restless and agitated, and normally active cats
became withdrawn and passive.
128. Many symptoms associated with Masserman’s experimental neurosis are similar to those found in _____ in
humans.
a) borderline personality disorder
b) posttraumatic stress disorder
c) depression
d) bipolar disorder
Answer: B
Page number: 361
Feedback: Recent work (but with rats, not cats) has shown that many of the symptoms associated with
Masserman’s experimental neurosis are similar to those found in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in
humans. PTSD is a disorder that results from exposure to unpredictable life-threatening events, such as
tornadoes, physical and sexual assaults, and battlefield experiences.
129. Bob was struck by lightning one day in the park. Later, while recuperating in the hospital, he was suddenly
assaulted by the patient in the next bed (who was having a psychotic reaction to all the drugs he had been
given). After these incidents, Bob had trouble sleeping and often had nightmares. He also began avoiding both
parks and hospitals and displayed an irrational fear of both places. Based on this information, Bob is likely to
be suffering from:
a) learned helplessness.
b) multiple personality disorder.
c) posttraumatic stress disorder.
d) experimental neurosis.
Answer: C
28
CHAPTER 9
Page number: 361
Feedback: Based on the information, Bob is likely to be suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
PTSD is a disorder that results from exposure to unpredictable life-threatening events, such as tornadoes,
physical and sexual assaults, and battlefield experiences. Symptoms include sleep difficulties, exaggerated
startle response, intrusive recollections about the trauma, and nightmares.
130. According to Masserman, unpredictable shocks delivered in a setting in which an animal typically eats food are
especially likely to induce neurotic symptoms. Based on this information, which of the following is most likely
to result in the development of symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?
a) Being hit by a car while having a barbecue in your backyard
b) Being hit by a car in an unfamiliar town
c) Knowing that something bad will happen and that you are responsible for preventing it
d) Knowing that something bad will happen and not being able to do anything about it
Answer: A
Page number: 362
Feedback: Being hit by a car while having a barbecue in your backyard is most likely to result in the
development of PTSD. The symptoms of PTSD are more likely to arise when a person is unexpectedly
attacked in the safety of his or her own home as opposed to a strange or dangerous area of town.
WWW
131. Masserman’s experimental neurosis procedure is to _____ as Seligman’s learned helplessness procedure is to
_____.
a) predictability; unpredictability
b) controllability; unpredictability
c) uncontrollability; controllability
d) unpredictability; uncontrollability
Answer: D
Page number: 362
Feedback: Masserman’s experimental neurosis procedure is to unpredictability as Seligman’s learned
helplessness procedure is to uncontrollability. The typical learned helplessness procedure involves repeated
exposure to aversive events that are predictable but uncontrollable. Masserman’s experimental neurosis, on the
other hand, involves infrequent but unpredictable exposure to aversive events.
FN
132. Lack of control seems to be the critical factor involved in _____, while lack of predictability is the critical
factor involved in _____.
a) conditioned suppression; conditioned avoidance
b) conditioned avoidance; conditioned suppression
c) learned helplessness; experimental neurosis
d) experimental neurosis; learned helplessness
Answer: C
Page number: 362
Feedback: Lack of control seems to be the critical factor involved in learned helplessness, while lack of
predictability is the critical factor involved in experimental neurosis. The typical learned helplessness
procedure involves repeated exposure to aversive events that are predictable but uncontrollable. Masserman’s
experimental neurosis, on the other hand, involves infrequent but unpredictable exposure to aversive events.
And Furthermore: Dissociative Identity Disorder: A Behavioral Perspective
133. Behaviorists have traditionally viewed multiple personalities as distinct patterns of behavior that result in
response to:
a) prolonged exposure to distinct yet extremely monotonous tasks.
b) distinctly different contingencies of reinforcement.
c) unpredictable contingencies of reinforcement.
d) uncontrollable contingencies of reinforcement.
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
29
Answer: B
Page number: 364
Feedback: Behaviorists have traditionally viewed multiple personalities as distinct patterns of behavior (both
overt and covert) that have arisen in response to distinctly different contingencies of reinforcement. This
reasoning has been carried a step further in the posttraumatic model of DID, which assumes that DID usually
results from childhood trauma.
134. According to the posttraumatic model of dissociative identity disorder (DID), an abused child can more easily
cope with everyday life by usually forgetting about the abusive incidents and by pretending that the abuse is
happening to someone else. In behavioral terms, this self-deception can be conceptualized as a type of covert:
a) avoidance response.
b) form of learned helplessness.
c) attention-seeking device.
d) appetitive response.
Answer: A
Page number: 364
Feedback: In behavioral terms, this self-deception can be conceptualized as a type of covert avoidance
response that is negatively reinforced by a reduction in anxiety.
135. The _____ of dissociative identity disorder (DID) suggests that the disorder arises as a consequence of
avoidance learning, while the _____ of DID suggests that the disorder arises as a consequence of social
reinforcement and observational learning.
a) sociocognitive model; posttraumatic model
b) punishment model; reinforcement model
c) posttraumatic model; sociocognitive model
d) Premack model; Masserman model
Answer: C
Page number: 364
Feedback: The posttraumatic model of dissociative identity disorder (DID) suggests that the disorder arises as a
consequence of avoidance learning, while the sociocognitive model of DID suggests that the disorder arises as
a consequence of social reinforcement and observational learning.
136. Evidence that shaping might sometimes be involved in the development of dissociative identity disorder (DID)
includes the fact that as therapy progresses:
a) alter personalities become integrated with each other.
b) the number of alter personalities displayed by patients usually decreases.
c) patients becomes more adept at switching from one alter to another.
d) alter personalities become more similar to one another.
Answer: C
Page number: 364
Feedback: The number of alter personalities displayed by patients usually increases as therapy progresses, as
does the patients’ ability to quickly switch from one alter to another. This suggests that a process of shaping
may be involved.
Fill-in-the-Blank Items
Most of these items are taken from or are very similar to the end-of-chapter test items in the text; the items at the end
that are marked WWW are posted on the student resource website.
1.
30
For children who are old enough to understand language, punishment should always be combined with a(n)
_________.
Answer: explanation
Page number: 355
CHAPTER 9
Feedback: For children who are old enough to understand language, punishment should always be combined
with an explanation. With individuals who have language capacity, punishment is more effective when
accompanied by an explanation.
2.
Otto woke up one night to find an intruder standing over him in his bedroom. When the intruder saw that Otto
was awake, he stabbed him and fled. Boyd was walking through an alley in a strange part of town one night
when he too was stabbed. In keeping with certain research findings on experimental _________, the person
most likely to suffer symptoms of PTSD is _________.
Answer: neurosis; Otto
Page number: 361
Feedback: In keeping with certain research findings on experimental neurosis, the person most likely to suffer
symptoms of PTSD is Otto. Symptoms of PTSD are more likely to arise when a person is unexpectedly attacked
in the safety of his or her own home as opposed to a strange or dangerous area of town.
3.
Robert did not want to go to school one morning, and so pretended that he was ill. Sure enough, his mother fell
for the trick and let him stay home that day. Thereafter, Robert often pretended that he was ill so that he did not
have to go to school. Robert’s tendency to pretend that he was ill was strengthened through the process of
_________.
Answer: negative reinforcement
Page number: 335
Feedback: Robert’s tendency to pretend that he was ill was strengthened through the process of negative
reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is associated with two types of behavior: (1) escape behavior, in which
performance of the behavior terminates the aversive stimulus, and (2) avoidance behavior, in which
performance of the behavior prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring.
4.
The theoretical difficulty with avoidance behavior, as opposed to escape behavior, is that the individual is
moving from one _________ situation to another, and it is difficult to see how a lack of change can serve as a
reinforcer.
Answer: nonaversive
Page number: 337
Feedback: The theoretical difficulty with avoidance behavior, as opposed to escape behavior, is that the
individual is moving from one nonaversive situation to another, and it is difficult to see how a lack of change
can serve as a reinforcer.
5.
According to Mineka, there are limitations in the extent to which experimental demonstrations of avoidance are
analogous to human phobias. For example, in an experimental demonstration of avoidance that involves a tone
and an aversive air blast, the rat will likely require _________ conditioning trial. By comparison, a bee phobia
in humans typically requires _________ conditioning trial.
Answer: more than one; one
Page number: 340–341
Feedback: Experimental avoidance typically requires at least a few pairings of the CS and the US before
avoidance has been reliably established. By contrast, human phobias often require only a single, brief
conditioning trial to produce avoidance that is both strong and persistent.
6.
Mowrer’s two-process theory seems highly applicable to obsessive-compulsive disorder in that the occurrence
of an obsessive thought is associated with a(n) _________ in anxiety, while performance of a compulsive
behavior is associated with a(n) _________ in anxiety.
Answer: increase; decrease
Page number: 343
Feedback: Mowrer’s two-process theory seems highly applicable to obsessive-compulsive disorder in that the
occurrence of an obsessive thought is associated with an increase in anxiety, while performance of a compulsive
behavior is associated with a decrease in anxiety.
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
31
7.
Losing your wallet by being careless is an example of a(n) _________ punisher, while getting a shock by being
careless is an example of a(n) _________ punisher (assuming in each case that the behavior of carelessness
subsequently _________ in frequency).
Answer: negative; positive; decreases
Page number: 347
Feedback: Losing your wallet by being careless is an example of a negative punisher, while getting a shock by
being careless is an example of a positive punisher (assuming in each case that the behavior of carelessness
subsequently decreases in frequency).
8.
Making a child sit in a corner for being too noisy is an example of a(n) _________ procedure; while turning off
the television set for being too noisy is an example of a(n) _________ procedure.
Answer: time-out; response cost
Page number: 348
Feedback: Making a child sit in a corner for being too noisy is an example of a time-out procedure; while
turning off the television set for being too noisy is an example of a response cost procedure.
9.
If you punish a dog for making a mess on the carpet, the dog might learn to avoid _________ rather than avoid
making a mess on the carpet.
Answer: you
Page number: 351
Feedback: If you punish a dog for making a mess on the carpet, the dog might learn to avoid you rather than
avoid making a mess on the carpet. Punishment might simply teach an individual or animal to avoid the person
who delivered the punishment.
10. If a father punishes his son for being aggressive with his playmates, the son may learn to not be aggressive only
when the father is _________.
Answer: present (or nearby)
Page number: 351
Feedback: If a father punishes his son for being aggressive with his playmates, the son may learn to not be
aggressive only when the father is present (or nearby).
11. According to the _________ theory of avoidance, the act of avoidance is negatively reinforced simply by the
lower rate of aversive stimulation with which it is associated.
Answer: one-process
Page number: 339
Feedback: According to the one-process theory of avoidance, the act of avoidance is negatively reinforced
simply by the lower rate of aversive stimulation with which it is associated.
12. An important factor in maintaining a phobia is that the avoidance response occurs early in the sequence of
events leading up to the phobic stimulus, thereby minimizing the _________ involved in avoiding the stimulus.
Answer: effort
Page number: 342
Feedback: Stampfl’s results seem to confirm that a critical factor in the maintenance of phobic behavior is that
the avoidance response occurs early in the sequence of events leading up to the phobic stimulus, thereby
minimizing the effort involved in avoiding the stimulus.
13. One difference between OCD and a phobia is that _________ generally involves a passive avoidance response,
while _________ generally involves an active avoidance response.
Answer: a phobia; OCD
Page number: 343
Feedback: One difference between OCD and a phobia is that a phobia generally involves a passive avoidance
response, while OCD generally involves an active avoidance response.
WWW
32
CHAPTER 9
14. According to the _________ principle, if Joan likes to watch television and hates to study, then studying can
serve as a(n) _________ for watching television.
Answer: Premack; punisher
Page number: 357
Feedback: According to the Premack principle, if Joan likes to watch television and hates to study, then
studying can serve as a punisher for watching television.
WWW
15. One problem with punishing a child for being disruptive is that it will likely have a(n) _________ effect in
suppressing the behavior, which then serves as a strong _________ reinforcer for the use of punishment.
Answer: immediate; negative
Page number: 352
Feedback: One problem with punishing a child for being disruptive is that it will likely have an immediate
effect in suppressing the behavior, which then serves as a strong negative reinforcer for the use of punishment.
WWW
Short-Answer Items
Most of these items are end-of-chapter study questions from the text; those marked WWW are additional items from
the student resource website.
1.
Distinguish between escape behavior and avoidance behavior.
Answer: In escape behavior, performance of the behavior terminates the aversive stimulus. In avoidance
behavior, performance of the behavior prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring.
Page number: 335
2.
Describe the evolution of avoidance behavior in a typical shuttle avoidance procedure.
Answer: A rat is placed in a chamber divided by a low barrier. A stimulus of some sort, such as a light, is
presented for, say, 10 seconds, followed by a mild electric shock. The rat can escape the shock by climbing over
the barrier to the other side of the compartment, and it will quickly learn to do so. At this point, the presence of
a shock is a discriminative stimulus that sets the occasion for the escape response of crossing the barrier. As the
rat learns to associate the light with the shock, it will begin crossing the barrier whenever the light is presented
and before the shock begins. The light is now the effective discriminative stimulus for the avoidance response
of crossing the barrier.
Page number: 336
3.
Describe Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance.
Answer: Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance proposes that avoidance behavior is the result of two
distinct processes: (1) classical conditioning, in which a fear response comes to be elicited by a CS, and (2)
operant conditioning, in which moving away from the CS is negatively reinforced by a reduction in fear.
Page number: 338
4.
Outline two criticisms of Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance.
Answer: One problem is that avoidance responses are often extremely persistent even when the US is no longer
presented. In other words, extinction does not seem to occur. A second problem is that after repeated avoidance
trials, researchers found that animals appeared to show no evidence of fear but continued to make the avoidance
response anyway.
Page number: 338–339
5.
What is the anxiety conservation hypothesis? Outline Levis’ answer to the problem of the “nonchalant” rat.
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
33
Answer: According to the anxiety conservation hypothesis, avoidance responses occur so quickly that there is
not sufficient exposure to the CS for the conditioned fear to fully extinguish—that is, a good deal of the
conditioned fear is conserved because exposures to the CS are too brief for extinction to take place. For this
reason, avoidance responses can be extremely persistent.
Levis’ answer to the nonchalant rat problem is that although the rats may become significantly less fearful
with experience, there is no evidence that they become completely nonfearful. And as long as some fear
remains, fear reduction can still function as a negative reinforcer for the avoidance behavior.
Page number: 338–339
6.
In what ways is experimental avoidance conditioning different from human phobic conditioning?
Answer: Experimental avoidance in animals seems to condition less readily than phobic avoidance in humans.
Avoidance conditioning typically requires at least a few pairings of the CS and the US (e.g., light and shock)
before avoidance has been reliably established. And even then, the avoidance response is usually less than 100%
certain. By contrast, human phobias often require only a single, brief conditioning trial to produce an avoidance
response that is both strong and persistent.
Page number: 340–341
7.
According to Stampfl, what is a critical factor in the development and maintenance of phobic behavior?
Answer: A critical factor in the maintenance of phobic behavior is that the avoidance response occurs early in
the sequence of events leading up to the phobic stimulus, thereby minimizing the effort involved in avoiding the
stimulus.
Page number: 342
8.
How can two-process theory account for obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Answer: In general, obsessions are associated with an increase in anxiety, while compulsions are associated
with a decrease in anxiety. From the perspective of two-process theory, the feeling of anxiety is a classically
conditioned response, while the compulsive behavior is an operant response that is negatively reinforced by a
reduction in anxiety.
Page number: 343
9.
Distinguish between time-out and response cost procedures.
Answer: Time-out involves the loss of access to positive reinforcers for a brief period of time following the
occurrence of a problem behavior. Response cost involves the removal of a specific reinforcer following the
occurrence of a problem behavior.
Page number: 348
10. What is the distinction between extrinsic punishment and intrinsic punishment?
Answer: Intrinsic punishment is punishment that is an inherent aspect of the behavior that is being punished.
Extrinsic punishment is punishment that is not an inherent aspect of the behavior being punished, but simply
follows the behavior.
Page number: 349
11. What is the distinction between a primary punisher and a secondary punisher? What is a generalized punisher?
Answer: A primary (or unconditioned) punisher is an event that is naturally punishing. Loosely speaking, these
are events that we are born to dislike. A secondary (or conditioned) punisher is an event that has become
punishing because it has in the past been associated with some other punisher. A generalized punisher is one that
has become associated with many other punishers.
Page number: 350
34
CHAPTER 9
12. Briefly outline at least five of the problems concerning the use of punishment.
(Note: Students often find it quite difficult to reproduce all seven problems on a quiz or exam without
inadvertently forgetting one or two. For this reason, I typically ask them to outline five of the problems.)
Answer: (1) Punishment of an inappropriate behavior does not directly strengthen the occurrence of
appropriate behavior, and may even result in a general suppression of behavior.
(2) The person delivering the punishment could become an SD for punishment, with the result that the
unwanted behavior is selectively suppressed only when he or she is present.
(3) Punishment might simply teach the individual to avoid the person who delivered the punishment.
(4) Punishment is likely to elicit a strong emotional response.
(5) Punishment can sometimes elicit an aggressive reaction.
(6) The use of punishment, through the process of modeling, could teach the person that punishment is an
acceptable means of controlling behavior.
(7) Because punishment often has an immediate effect in stopping an unwanted behavior, the use of
punishment is often strongly reinforced.
Page number: 351–352
13. What is the major advantage of punishment over extinction? What are three beneficial side-effects of
punishment?
Answer: The major advantage of punishment is that it results in a quick suppression of maladaptive behavior,
while extinction often takes considerable time to have an effect. Beneficial side effects of punishment include
(1) increases in social behavior, (2) improvements in mood, and (3) increased attention to the environment.
Page number: 353–354
WWW
14. Outline at least five characteristics of effective punishment.
(Note: As with the earlier question, students often find it difficult to reproduce all 6 characteristics on a quiz or
exam without inadvertently forgetting one.)
Answer: 1. As much as possible, punishment should be immediate rather than delayed.
2. At least at the outset, punishment should consistently follow each occurrence of the unwanted behavior.
3. Punishment should be intense enough from the outset to suppress the target behavior (though—and this is
the tricky part—not so intense as to be unnecessarily abusive).
4. Negative punishment is generally preferable to positive punishment since it will produce fewer adverse side
effects.
5. With individuals who have language capacity, punishment is more effective when accompanied by an
explanation.
6. Punishment of inappropriate behavior should be combined with positive reinforcement for appropriate
behavior.
Page number: 354–355
15. Describe the conditioned suppression theory of punishment.
Answer: The conditioned suppression theory of punishment assumes that punishment does not weaken a
behavior but instead produces an emotional response that interferes with its occurrence.
Page number: 356
WWW
16. Describe the avoidance theory of punishment and the Premack approach to punishment.
Answer: The avoidance theory of punishment holds that punishment actually involves a type of avoidance
conditioning in which the avoidance response consists of any behavior other than the behavior being punished.
According to the Premack principle of punishment, a low probability behavior can be used to punish a high
probability behavior.
ESCAPE, AVOIDANCE, AND PUNISHMENT
35
Page number: 357
17. Describe the basic experimental procedure (with control group) that was first used to demonstrate learned
helplessness in dogs. Describe the outcome that was observed as well.
(Note: A very complete answer might look something like the following. Students will produce a more
abbreviated answer.)
Answer: Dogs were suspended in a harness and exposed to one of three conditions. In an inescapable-shock
condition, the dogs received a series of shocks but were unable to do anything about them. In an escapableshock condition, the dogs also received shocks but were able to terminate each shock by pressing a panel with
their snout. Each dog in this condition was also yoked to (paired up with) a dog in the first condition, such that
when it turned off the shock for itself, it also turned off the shock for its partner dog in the other condition.
Finally, some dogs were in a no-shock control condition. These dogs were never shocked and simply waited out
the session suspended in the harness.
In the next phase of the experiment, all of the dogs were exposed to a shuttle-avoidance task. The dogs
from the no-shock control condition and the escapable-shock condition quickly learned the avoidance task. The
dogs from the inescapable-shock condition, however, initially ran around, then laid on the floor and made no
effort to escape the shock. The few dogs that did by chance jump over the barrier seemed unable to learn from
this experience and failed to repeat it on the next trial. In summary, the prior exposure to inescapable shock
seemed to impair the dogs’ ability to learn to escape shock when escape later became possible.
Page number: 359
18. How can learned helplessness in dogs be eliminated? How can dogs be immunized against the development of
learned helplessness?
Answer: To eliminate learned helplessness, the helpless animal is repeatedly forced to escape the aversive
stimulus—for example, by repeatedly dragging it from the shock side of the chamber to the no-shock side—
until it eventually starts escaping on its own. Experiments have also revealed that prior exposure to escapable
shock often immunizes an animal against becoming helpless when it is later exposed to inescapable shock; the
animal will persist in trying to escape the shock rather than give up.
Page number: 360
19. Describe Masserman’s procedure for inducing experimental neurosis in cats, and list some of the symptoms he
observed.
Answer: Masserman exposed cats to unpredictable electric shocks or blasts of air while eating. As a result, these
cats developed a pattern of neurotic-like symptoms. For example, normally quiet cats became restless and
agitated, while normally active cats became withdrawn and passive—sometimes even to the point of becoming
rigidly immobile (a symptom known as catalepsy). The cats also developed phobic responses to cues associated
with feeding (since feeding had become associated with shock), as well as unusual “counterphobic” responses.
For example, a cat might run to the goal box, stick its head inside the box, and then simply stare at the
experimenter.
Page number: 361
20. Explain the term positive punishment.
Answer: Positive punishment consists of the presentation of a certain event following a response, which then
leads to a decrease in the future strength of that response. In simple everyday terms, the behavior results in the
delivery of something the person or animal hates, so the subject is less likely to behave that way in the future.
Receiving a spanking for swearing and being reprimanded for talking back to the boss are both examples of
positive punishment (given that these consequences result in a subsequent decrease in the frequency of these
behaviors).
Page number: 347
21. Outline the treatment method for OCD known as exposure and response prevention (ERP).
36
CHAPTER 9
Answer: As with recent versions of exposure-based treatments for phobic behavior, ERP combines the
graduated exposure of systematic desensitization with the prolonged exposure of flooding therapy. For example,
a compulsive cleaner might be required to first touch objects associated with slight anxiety (such as door
handles and hand rails), then objects associated with moderate anxiety (such as garbage cans and dogs), and
finally objects associated with intense anxiety (such as dead birds and dog excrement). These graduated
exposures are first carried out imaginally—given that the person has good imagery ability—and then in vivo—
given that live exposure to the anxiety-arousing event is practical. The exposures are also relatively long, often
90 minutes or more, which ensures sufficient time for the anxiety to begin to extinguish. In addition to
scheduled treatment sessions, the client is told to practice exposures at home. The client is also told not to
perform any compulsive behavior patterns; for example, a compulsive washer might be instructed to avoid all
nonessential showers except for one 10-minute shower every 5 days. Once the obsessive-compulsive pattern has
been successfully eliminated, normal patterns of behavior are then reestablished.
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22. According to Boice, how might punishment be related to the tendency of procrastination among faculty
members at a university? What treatment procedure did Boice use to help professors overcome their tendency to
procrastinate?
Answer: Boice found that productive faculty tended to engage in short, consistent writing sessions spread
throughout the week, while nonproductive faculty tended to engage in intermittent “binge” episodes of writing
spread far apart—that is, they frequently procrastinated, and then, when they did write, they wrote intensively
for long periods of time. Although the procrastinators believed that long, intense writing sessions were
necessary to be productive, Boice concluded that binge writing itself was part of the problem. However
invigorated one might feel during an intense session of writing, this pattern of work is so effortful that one soon
starts to avoid it. In essence, binge writing sessions are sufficiently aversive that they punish the act of writing.
On the basis of these results, Boice devised workshops for faculty members to help them overcome their
tendency to procrastinate. A major component of these workshops is to learn to write in brief daily sessions,
perhaps only 30 minutes per day to begin with, with the act of stopping on time as important as starting on time.
The goal is to break the tendency to engage in binge writing sessions and to begin to experience writing as less
effortful and more enjoyable. Combined with other tactics, such as establishing a balanced lifestyle, arranging a
comfortable writing environment, and seeking out mentors for feedback, these workshops have proven to be
very effective in helping many faculty members become more productive.
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