LOGICAL AND CRITICAL THINKING
LOGIC
ORIGIN OF LOGIC
 Middle English from Old French
logique from Latin logica from Greek
“logos” logike (tekhne) (art) of
reasoning.
 Which has a variety of meanings
including word, thought, idea,
argument, account, reason or principle
and criteria of valid inference and
demonstration. It attempts to distinguish
good reasoning from bad reasoning.
DEFINITIONS
 Is the science of reasoning, proof,
thinking, or inference.
 Is the field of study concerned with
analyzing arguments and appraising
their correctness or incorrectness.
 Logic in both the broad and the
narrow sense is an element of critical
thinking.
LOGIC: The SCIENCE & ART of REASONING
 Logic as a SCIENCE, on the other
hand, “investigates, discovers,
expresses, systematizes, demonstrates,
and explains the laws of
correct thinking.
 Logic as an ART, on one hand, direct
reason. As an ART it guides
man’s reason so that he can proceed with
order and precision in the
search for meaning.
TYPES OF LOGIC
1. FORMAL LOGIC
 A formal system (also called a logical
calculus) is used to derive one
expression (conclusion) from one or
more other expressions (premises).
These premises may be axioms (a selfevident proposition, taken for
granted) or theorems (derived using a
fixed set of inference rules and
axioms, without any additional
assumptions).
Example:
Premises: Bicycles have two wheels. Jan is
riding a bicycle.
Conclusion: Jan is riding on two wheels.
Explanation: The premises are true and so
is the conclusion.
2. INFORMAL LOGIC
 Informal logic is a recent discipline
which studies natural language
arguments, and attempts to develop a
logic to assess, analyze and
improve ordinary language (or
"everyday") reasoning.
 It focuses on the reasoning and
argument one finds in personal
exchange, advertising, political debate,
legal argument, and the
social commentary that characterizes
newspapers, television, the
Internet and other forms of mass media.
Example:
Premises: There is no evidence that
penicillin is bad for you.
I use penicillin without any problems.
Conclusion: Penicillin is safe for everyone.
Explanation: The personal experience
here or lack of
knowledge isn’t verifiable.
3. SYMBOLIC LOGIC
 is the study of symbolic abstractions
that capture the formal features of
logical inference. It deals with the
relations of symbols to each other,
often using complex mathematical
calculus, in an attempt to solve
intractable problems traditional
formal logic is not able to address.
 It is often divided into two subbranches:
• Predicate Logic
• Propositional Logic
Example
Propositions: If all mammals feed their
babies milk from the mother
(A). If all cats feed their babies mother’s
milk (B). All cats are
mammals(C). The Ʌ means “and,” and the
⇒ symbol means “implies.”
Conclusion: A Ʌ B ⇒ C
Explanation: Proposition A and
proposition B lead to the conclusion,
C. If all mammals feed their babies milk
from the mother and all cats
feed their babies mother’s milk, it implies
all cats are mammals.
4. MATHEMATICAL LOGIC
 In mathematical logic, you apply
formal logic to math. This type
of logic is part of the basis for the logic
used in computer sciences.
 In the 1950s and 1960s, researchers
predicted that when human
knowledge could be expressed using logic
with mathematical notation, it would be
possible to create a machine that reasons
(or artificial intelligence), although this
turned out to be more difficult than
expected because of the complexity of
human reasoning.
 Mathematics-related doctrines
include:
• Logicism
• Intuitionism
METHODS OF REASONING
1. INDUCTIVE REASONING
 Is the process of reasoning that moves
from specific observations to broader
generalizations.
Example:
Every fall there have been hurricanes in the
tropics. Therefore, there will be hurricanes in
the tropics this coming fall.
2. DEDUCTIVE REASONING
 Deductive logic (also called deductive
reasoning or deduction) is a precise and
well-ordered system that aims to provide
definite support for a conclusion.
Example:
All oranges are fruit.
All fruits grows on trees.
Therefore, all oranges grow on trees.
DIVISION OF LOGIC
1. MATERIAL LOGIC
 is concerned with the content of
argumentation. It deals with the truth of the
terms and the propositions in an argument.
2. FORMAL LOGIC
 is interested in the form or structure
of reasoning. The truth of an argument is of
only secondary consideration in this branch
of logic.
Material Logic: Acts/Level of the Mind
1. SIMPLE APPREHENSION
 Simple apprehension is the act by
which the mind grasps the
concept or general meaning of an object
without affirming or denying anything
about it.
2. JUDGMENT
 It is the act of the mind by which we
compare two concepts either they agree or
not. If we put concepts together, the end
result is called judgement or proposition.
3. REASONING
 Is the act of the mind by which we
derive new truths from
previously assumed truth. The mind combines
several judgements or propositions in order to
arrive at a previously unknown judgement, it
is called syllogism.
MENTAL
OPERATIONS
1. Simple
Apprehension
2. Judgement
3. Reasoning
PRODUCTS
Concept
Mental
Propositions
Mental
agreement or
disagreement
EXTERNAL
SIGNS
Oral and written
terms
Oral and written
propositions
Oral and written
arguments
PHILOSOPHY
 Systematic study of ideas and issues, a
reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths
such as those about existence, reason,
knowledge, values, mind, and language, a
quest for a comprehensive
understanding of the world.
 Philosophia (Philos “the love, Sophia
“wisdom”)
“Wonder is the feeling of a philosopher,
and philosophy begins in wonder”
~Socrates
Major Areas of Philosophy
❖
❖
METAPHYSICS
 The study of nature of reality, of what
the world, what it is like, and how it is
ordered.
▪ Is there a god?
▪ What is truth?
▪ What is a person? What makes a
person the same through time?
▪ Is the world strictly composed of
matter?
▪ Do people have mind? If so, how is
the mind related to the body?
▪ Do people have free wills?
▪ What is it for one event to cause
another?
EPISTEMOLOGY
 Studies about the nature, scope,
meaning, and possibility of
knowledge.
▪
▪
▪
▪
What is knowledge?
Do we know anything at all?
How do we know what we know?
Can we justified claiming to know
certain things.
❖
ETHICS
 Concerns what we ought to do and
what it would be best to do.
▪
▪
▪
▪
❖
What is good? What makes actions or
people good?
What is right? What makes actions
right?
Is morality objective or subjective?
How should I treat others?
AESTHETICS
 Also called esthetics, the
philosophical study of beauty and
taste. It is closely related to the
philosophy of art, which is concerned
with the nature of art and the
concepts in terms of which individual
works of art are interpreted and
evaluated.
Philosophical Reasoning
➢ Reasoning - Generally seen as means
to improve knowledge and make
better decisions.
➢ Philosophical reasoning- its roots is
about engaging in discourse- one that
ask the participants to argue a point, a
thought, an issue with logic.
TYPES OF ARGUMENTS
1. Deductive method - Moves from the more
general to the specific
Deductive arguments are supposed to be
watertight.
Example of a deductively valid argument
➢ All men are mortal
➢ Socrates is a man
➢ Socrates is mortal
2. Inductive method - Moves from a specific
case to a more general conclusion
Inductive arguments don’t need to be as
rigorous as deductive arguments in order to
be good arguments.
Example of a strong inductive argument
would be
➢ The sun has not exploded for all its
existence. therefore…
➢ The sun will not explode tomorrow
Nature of Philosophy
1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about
life and the universe, which are often held
uncritically.
2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and
criticizing our most deeply heald conceptions
and beliefs.
3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look a
the world as a whole.
4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of
language and clarification of the meaning of
words and concepts.
5. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems
that interest people and for which
philosophers always have sought answers.
HISTORICAL OUTLINE OF PHILOSOPHY
A. THE PRE-SOCRATIC PERIOD
 An era wherein philosophers started
to became well-known and became
active before the contemporaries of
Socrates and Socrates itself.
Philosophers in this era started to ask
questions about human and world’s
existence. And favors of more rational
explanation.
Philosophers of this era are:
o Democritus
o Pythagoras
o Thales
o Anaximander
o Anaximenes and etc.
B. THE SOCRATIC PERIOD
 An era denoting contemporary
philosophers of Socrates and his
influential time. Where ethics, logic,
metaphysics, art, literature,
psychology, biology, and politics were
proposed in this era.
Philosophers of this era are:
o Socrates
o Plato
o Aristotle
C. THE MEDIEVAL AGE
 From the fall part of Roman Empire to
Renaissance. Philosophers of this era,
heavenly influenced by Christianity and
mainly proving the existence of deity.
o
o
o
o
o
Philosophers of this era are:
Augustine
Thomas Aquinas
Bonaventure
Albert the great
Roger Bacon and etc.
D. THE RENAISSANCE
 The bridge from medieval period and
start of modern period of philosophy.
In this era, is the rebirth of classical
civilization and learning; a rise in
humanist philosophy and away from
religions movement.
Philosophers of this era are:
o Francis Bacon
o Niccolo Machiavelli
E. THE MODERN PERIOD
 From 19th – 20th century. In this era,
philosophers are mainly scientific and
has strong political point of views.
Philosophers of this era are:
o Rene Descartes
o Karl Marx
o John Stuart Mill
o George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
o Soren Kierkegard and etc.
F. THE CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
 The present period of philosophy (late
19th-21st century). Philosophy in this
period was focused on
professionalization of discipline and
rise of analytic philosophy.
Philosophers of this era are:
o
Jean Paul Sartre
o
Gabriel Marcel
o
Rudolf Carnap
o
Ludwig Wittgenstein
o
Bertrand Russell and etc.
Types of Thinking:
1. Perceptual or concrete thinking
2. Conceptual or abstract thinking
3. Reflective thinking
4. Creative thinking
5. Critical thinking
6. Non-directed or associative thinking
7. Convergent vs. Divergent thinking
➢
PERCEPTUAL THINKING
 It is based on perception
 Perception is the process of
interpretation of sensation according
to one's experience.
 It is also called concrete thinking as it
is carried over the perception of
actual or concrete and events.
 It is one dimensional and literal
thinking which has limited use of
metaphor without understanding
nuances of meaning.
 Being the simplest form of thinking,
small children are mostly benefited by
this type of thinking.

CONCEPTUAL THINKING
 It does not require the perception of
actual objects or events.
 It is also called abstract thinking as it
makes the use of concepts or abstract
ideas.
 It superior to perceptual thinking's as it
economizes efforts and understanding
and helps in discovery and invention.
 It is ability to appreciate nuances of
meaning.
 It is multidimensional thinking with
ability to use metaphors and
hypothesis appropriately.
 Language place an important part in
conceptual thinking.
THINKING
What is thinking?
THINKING IS an activity concerning ideas,
symbolic in character, initiated by a problem
or task which the individual is facing, involving
some trial and error but under the directing
influence of that problem and ultimately
leading to a conclusion or solution of the
problem.
Additional definitions:
 "Thinking is the organization and
reorganization of current leraning in
the present circumstances with the
help of learning and past experiences"
(Vinacke1968).
 "Thinking is the perceptual
relationship which provides for the
solution of the problem" (Maier).
Nature of Thinking:
• It is essentially a cognitive activity.
• It is always directed to achieve some and
purpose.
• It is described as a problem-solving
behavior.
• It is a symbolic activity.
•It is mental exploration instead of motor
exploration
•It can shift very rapidly.
• It is an internal activity.

REFLECTIVE THINKING
 Aims in solving complex problems.
 Requires reorganization of all the
relevant experiences to a situation
or removing obstacles instead or
relating with that experiences or ideas.
 Associated to analytical thinking
➢
CREATIVE THINKING
 It refers to the ability for original
thinking to creative or discover
something new.
 It is the ability to integrate the various
elements of the situation into a
harmonious-whole to create
something novel.
 In order words, cognitive activity
directed towards some creative work
refers to creative thinking.
 Creative thinkers are great boons to
the society as they enrich the
knowledge of mankind.
 Tries to achieve something new, to
produce something original and
something unique.
➢
CRITICAL THINKING
 This thinking helps a person in
stepping aside from his own personal
beliefs, prejudices and opinions to
sort out the
faiths and discover the truth, even at
the expense of his basic belief system.
 Higher order well-disciplined thought
Process

NON-DIRECTED THINKING
 Non-directed and without goal
 Reflected through dreaming and
other free-flowing uncontrolled
activities.
 Delusion – a withdrawal behavior that
helps an individual to escape from the
demands of the real world by making
his thinking face non-directed and
floating, placing him somewhere,
ordering something unconnected with
his environment.

CONVERGENT THINKING VS
DIVERGENT THINKING
• Convergent thinking is cognitive
processing of information around a
common point, an attempt to bring
thoughts from different directions into a
union for common conclusion
• Divergent thinking starts from a
common point and moves outward into a
variety of perspectives. e.g.; teachers use
the content as a vehicle to prompt diverse
or unique thinking among students rather
than a common view.
Development of Thinking
1. Adequacy of the knowledge and experience
2. Adequate motivation and definiteness of
aims
3. Adequate freedom and flexibility
4. Incubation
5. Intelligence and wisdom
6. Proper development of concepts and
language
7. Adequacy of reasoning process
Errors of Thinking
o
Our thinking is defective because we
have allowed ourselves to be swayed by our
emotions.
o
Many times, our thinking become
fallacious, and cannot view the problem from
different angles broadly.
o
Many of our thinking may also be
distorted by superstitions or by lack of
information that is relevant to the subject.
o
Many of our wishful thinking are also
unscientific thinking. Our prejudices and
biases cause conflicts, rationalizations and
delusions which are defective thinking as
well.
IDEA
What is idea?
 Idea is the intellectual presentation or
"image" of a thing.
 An abstract presentation of things and
may be expressed or define only by
meaningful terms.
 Any conception existing in the mind as
a result of mental understanding,
awareness, or activity.
Nature of Idea
 Idea is the building blocks of
knowledge.
 A constitutive that make up
judgement, and judgement may
express either truth or errors.
Formation of ideas:

Senses

Imagination

Abstraction

Intellect
Properties of ideas:

Comprehension

Extension
COMPREHENSION
- The sum-total of all the thought-elements
contained in the idea.
- Also known as implications or connotation of
the idea.
It is manifested by definition.
EXTENSION
- The sum-total of the individuals and classes
or group to which an idea can be applied.
- Also known as application or denotation.
- It is manifested by division.
The two properties of idea (Comprehension
and Extension) are in inverse ratio to each
other:
1. Greater Comprehension: Lesser Extension
2. Lesser Comprehension: Greater Extension
Types According to Comprehension:
1. Simple and Compound (Structure)
2. One and Multiple (General View)
3. Concrete and Abstract ( Subject)
4. Absolute and Relative (By Relation to
another comprehension)
❖
Simple and Compound (Structure)
Simple – expresses a single conceptual
feature, applicable to all if not most.
Ex.
Being, Existence
Compound –expresses several conceptual
elements/features.
Ex.
device
Man- rational animal
Computer – electronic processing
❖
One and Multiple (General View)
 One – expresses one thing, nature or
formal feature.
Ex.
Man, House
 Multiple – expresses explicitly a thing
as modified by another thing.
Ex.
Poor man
Three story house
❖
Concrete and Abstract (Subject)
 Concrete – with a subject
Ex.
Physical – physiological (itch)
 Abstract – expresses only a nature or
formal feature without a subject.
Ex.
Justice
Religiosity
❖
Absolute and Relative (By relation to
another comprehension)
• Absolute – exists in itself and for itself
Ex.
Man, Animals, Minerals
• Relative – necessarily bears a relation to
something else.
Ex.
Substitute teacher
Vice-president
Types According to Extension:
1. Singular – applies to a single member of
class
Ex.
Diamond – the hardest mineral
2. Universal – applies individually to all
members of class
Ex.
Car (SUV, Sedan, Ferrari)
3. Particular – applies to some members of
class
Ex.
Half a dozen
4. Collective – applies to a all members of a
class counted as one.
Ex.
UST Philets Batch 1968
5. Transcendental – applies to all members of
all classes.
Ex.
Being, Truth
Types according to relation:
1. IDENTICAL and EQUIVALENT (refer to same
objects)
Identical – same conceptual features
• 3+2 and 2+3
• God= Absolute being
Equivalent- different conceptual features
• 5x1 and 4+1
• Salt and NaCl
2. PERTNENT and IMPERTINENT (refer to
different but related objects)
Pertinent- somehow related to each other
• Freedom and Responsibility
• Food and Drinks
Impertinent- neither related to opposed to
each other
• Toothpaste and Rooster
• Love and clear water
3. COMPATIBLE and INCOMPATIBLE
Compatible- with features that may exist in a
subject
• Beauty and Intelligence
• Faith and Reason
Incompatible- with features that may not
coexist in a subject
• Square and circle (in one figure)
• Darkness and Light (in one space)
TYPES OF INCOMPATIBLE CONCEPTS:
1. Contradictory- negation
• Black- Non-black
• Open- Non-opened
2. Contrary- opposition
• Black-white (extreme opposites)
• Open-closed
3. Privative – absence
• Sight-Blindness (absence of sight)
4. Correlative- complementariness
• Man-Woman
AUTHORITY
ORIGIN:
The word “Authority” is derived from the
Latin word “austoritus” meaning invention,
advice, opinion, influence, or command in
English.
❖
In the fields of sociology and political
science, authority is the legitimate power
of a person or group over other people.
❖
In a civil state, authority is practiced
in ways such a judicial branch or an
executive branch of government.
❖
In the exercise of governance, the
terms authority and power are inaccurate
synonyms. The term authority identifies
the political legitimacy, which grants and
justifies the ruler's right to exercise the
power of government; and the term power
identifies the ability to accomplish an
authorized goal, either by compliance or by
obedience; hence, authority is the power to
make decisions and the legitimacy to make
such legal decisions and order their
execution.
POWER + LEGITIMACY = Authority
❖
Authority means legitimate power
which has been approved by the people or
power in accordance with the constitution
or the law of the state.
❖
In English, “Authority” can be used to
mean power given by the state.
❖
According to Michael in Encyclopedia
of social sciences, authority is the capacity,
innate or acquired for exercising
ascendancy over a group.
❖
Weber defined domination
(Authority) on the chance of commands
being obeyed by a specific group of people.
MAX WEBER TYPOLOGY OF AUTHORITY
Weber divided legitimate authority into
three types:
1. TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY
2. CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY
3. LEGAL RATIONAL AUTHORITY
In contemporary philosophy, there are at
least three prevailing ways to understand
what a concept is:
❖
CONCEPTS AS MENTAL
REPRESENTATIONS
❖
CONCEPTS AS ABILITIES
❖
CONCEPTS AS ABSTRACT OBJECT



Importance of authority
1. Authority can be used to provide order and
security in people's lives.
2. Authority can be used to manage conflict
peacefully and fairly.
3. Authority can be used to protect important
rights and freedoms.
4. Authority can be used to ensure that
benefits and burdens will be distributed fairly.
CONCEPT
 CONCEPTS are defined as an abstract
ideas. They are understood to be the
fundamental building blocks or the
concept behind principle, thoughts and
beliefs. This is the best way to represent
a person, place , or things by referencing
the object without acknowledging it fully.
 A concept is a product of conceptual
Ego thinking mind, that is limited to
perceptually created abstractions,
language, ideas and symbols. Through
mental observation, a concept is created
to describe, explain, and captures reality
as it understood. But a concept, label or
name is not what a thing in reality.
CONCEPTS serves as building blocks of
what are called mental representation.
Mental representation, in turn, are
building blocks of what are called
propositional attitudes.
CONCEPT maybe exact or inexact. It is
instantiated by all of actual or potential
instances, whether those are things in
real world or other ideas.
Every concept is part of hierarchical
model of concept classification which
means that you can be very general or
very specific in classifying something.
The HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF CONCEPTS
CLASSIFICATION includes three levels of
concept:
❖
SUPERORDINATE CONCEPTS – are the
most general way to classify something.
❖
BASIC CONCEPTS – which are more
specific than superordinate concepts.
❖
SUBORDINATE CONCEPTS – the most
specific category of a concept.
THEORY
What is Theory?
-a formal statement of the rules on which a
subject of study is based or of ideas that are
suggested to explain a fact or event or,
more generally, an opinion or explanation
(Cambridge Dictionary).
THEORY IS:
IDIOGRAPHIC- Explain a single situation or
event in idiosyncratic detail.
NOMOTHETIC- Explains a class of situations or
events rather than a specific situation or
event.
ELEMENTS OF A THEORY
❖ CONSTRUCTS: The ‘what’ of theories.
❖ PROPOSITIONS: The ‘how’ of theories.
❖ LOGIC: The ‘why’ of theory.
❖ BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS/ASSUMPTIONS: The
‘who, when, and where’ of theory
COMPONENTS OF A THEORY
❖ CONCEPT (symbolic representation of
an actual thing)
❖ CONSTRUCT (no physical referent, for
instance learning, freedom, etc.)
❖ PRINCIPLE (relationship between two
or more concepts/construct)
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES SERVE TWO
IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS:
 They help us to understand or explain
what is going on around us.
 They help us predict future events (Can
be causal or correlational)
IMPORTANCE OF THEORY
 Theory provides concepts to name
what we observe and to explain
relationships between concepts.
 Theory allow us to explain what we see
and to figure out how to bring about
change.
 Theory is a tool enables us to identify a
problem and to plan a means for
altering the situation.
 Theory is to justify reimbursement to
get funding and support – need to
explain what is being done and
demonstrate that it works – theory and
research.
 Theory is to enhance the growth of the
professional area to identify a body of
knowledge with theories from both
within and without the area of distance
learning. That body of knowledge grows
with theory and research. Theory
guides research.
DEVELOPMENT OF THEORIES
Theory is constantly revised as new
knowledge is discovered through research.
Three stages of theory development in any
new ‘science’.
1. Speculative – attempts to explain what is
happening.
2. Descriptive – gathers descriptive data to
describe what is really happening.
3. Constructive –revises old theories and
develops new ones based on continuing
research.
BENEFITS OF THEORIES
✓ Provides underlying logic for
phenomena.
✓ Aids in sense-making through strategic
synthesis of empirical data.
✓ Identifies constructs and relationships
worthy of further research.
✓ Contributes to cumulative knowledge
by bridging gaps or causing
reevaluation of phenomena.
“Theory helps us to bear our ignorance of
fact.”
-George Santayana
Syllogisms
A set of statements called premises, which
lead to one logical conclusion.
Is a deductive argument in which a conclusion
is inferred from two premises
If the premises are true, (and we assume they
are), then the conclusion must be true.
- this symbol means “therefore”. It signals the
conclusion
CONTAINS THREE (3) PARTS
1. MAJOR PREMISE- premise containing the
major term
2. MINOR PREMISE- premise containing the
minor term
3. CONCLUSION- proposition that contains
the major term ad the minor term
Three (3) syllogistic types
❖
Categorical
❖
Conditional
❖
Disjunctive
 CATEGORICAL
 Is a deductive argument consisting of
3 categorical propositions that
together contain exactly 3 terms, each
of which occurs in exactly two of the
constituent propositions.
 Is in standard form when its premises
and conclusion are all in standardform categorical propositions and are
arranged in a specified order.

Enthymeme
 an informally stated syllogism with an
implied premise.
 The conclusion is always used to
identify the terms of the syllogism.
o
Major term- it is the predicate of the
conclusion
- Symbolized by letter (p) for
predicate
o
Minor term- it is the subject of
conclusion
- symbolizes by letter (s) for subject
o
Middle term- cannot be found in the
conclusion, appearing instead in both
premises.

➢
Valid categorical syllogisms
“all fruits are plants. A peach is a fruit.
Therefore, a peach is a plant”
- the term “fruit” is the middle term, that of a
category, the major premise of a categorical
syllogism. In this example, peach fits into fruit
which fits into plants. You can also think of
the middle term as the term that appears in
both premises but not in the conclusion of a
categorical syllogism.
➢
“all trees are plants. A redwood is a
tree. Therefore, a redwood is a plant.
- this categorical syllogism, has there
terms (trees, plants, and redwood).
 Invalid categorical syllogisms:
➢ “all the people in the math classroom
are students. Betty is in the math
classroom. Therefore, fred is a
student”
- a valid categorical syllogism may
only have three terms, and this one has four
(“all the people in the math
classroom,
“students”, “betty”, and “fred”.)
➢ “some Americans believe in ufo
abductions. I am an American.
therefore., I must believe in ufo
abduction.”
- the middle term “some Americans”
is not used in an unqualified or universal
sense, so the conclusion
cannot be
certain. If the conclusion was “therefore, I
might believe in ufo abduction” it would be a
valid categorical enthymeme.
 Conditional syllogism
➢ “if-then” syllogism
➢ The minor premise must either affirm
the antecedent or deny the
consequent
➢ If the minor premise affirms the
antecedent the conclusion must
affirm the consequent.
➢ If the minor premise denies the
consequent the conclusion must deny
the antecedent.
Types
 Affirming the antecedent
- saying the “if” condition did in fact occur
 Denying the consequent
- Saying the “then” part did not occur.
In the major premise of a conditional
syllogism, the antecedent is the “if…”
phrase and the “then…” phrase is known
as the consequent
Conditional syllogism establishes two
things:
o If the antecedent happens, the
consequent has to happen, AND
o If the consequent doesn’t happen, the
antecedent couldn’t have happened,
and you cannot draw a valid conclusion.
Valid conditional syllogism:
o “if the sky is blue there won’t be rain.
The sky is blue today. Therefore, there
won’t be rain.”
- this takes the form of “if a then b,”
so it is a conditional syllogism.
Invalid conditional syllogism:
o “if i drink beer then i will get fat. I drink
beer. Therefore, i am in good shape.”
- the minor premise affirm the
antecedent, but the conclusion does not
affirm the consequent as it should.
TWO (2) FALLACIES INVOLVED
- denying the antecedent
- affirming the consequent
 DENYING THE Antecedent
EX.
If you go to school, you will learn something.
You do not go to school
You will not learn anything (not necessarily!
One may learn out of school).
 Affirming THE CONSEQUENT
EX.
If you go to school, you will learn something.
You learn something
You go to school
( again, one may learn elesewhere)
REASONING
WHAT IS REASONING?
 the process of thinking about
something in a logical way in order to
form a conclusion or judgment.
 the ability to assess things rationally by
applying logic based on new or existing
information when making a decision or
solving a problem. Reasoning allows
you to weigh the benefits and
disadvantages of two or more courses
of action before choosing the one with
the most benefit or the one that suits
your needs.
TYPES OF REASONING

Deductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning

Abductive reasoning
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
 happens when a researcher works
from the general information to the
more specific.
 Deductive reasoning is a logical
approach where you progress from
general ideas to specific conclusions.
It's often contrasted with inductive
reasoning, where you start with
specific observations and form
general conclusions.
Examples:
Premise: All insects have exactly six legs.
Premise: Spiders have eight legs.
Conclusion: Therefore, spiders are not insects.
Premise: Blue litmus paper turns red in the
presence of acid.
Premise: The blue litmus paper turned red
after I dropped some liquid on it.
Conclusion
acidic.
: Therefore, the liquid is
2. John’s old car won’t start. It’s raining.
Therefore, John’s old car won’t start when it’s
raining.
(Use a specific case to reach a broad
generalization)
STAGE
EXAMPLE 1
EXAMPLE 2
1. Specific
observation
Nala is an
orange cat
and she purrs
loudly.
Baby Jack said
his first word
at the age of
12 months
old.
2. Pattern
recognition
Every orange
cat I've met
purrs loudly.
All observed
babies say
their first
word at the
age of 12
months
3. General
conclusion
All orange cats
purr loudly.
All babies say
their first
word at the
age of 12
INDUCTIVE REASONING
 is the opposite of deductive
reasoning. Inductive
reasoning makes broad generalization
from specific observations.
 is a method of drawing conclusions by
going from the specific to the general.
It’s usually contrasted with deductive
reasoning, where you go from general
information to specific conclusions.
ABDUCTIVE REASONING

Examples:
1. Every time you eat fried shrimp, you get
stomachache. Therefore, fried shrimp causes
indigestion.
(What you’re doing is moving from the
specific–a particular observation–to the
general–a larger conclusion.)

Abductive reasoning, unlike deductive
reasoning, yields a plausible conclusion
but does not definitively verify it.
Abductive conclusions do not eliminate
uncertainty or doubt, which is
expressed in retreat terms such as
"best available" or "most likely". One
can understand abductive reasoning as
inference to the best explanation,
although not all usages of the terms
abduction and inference to the best
explanation are equivalent.
is to abduce (or take away) a
logical assumption, explanation,
inference, conclusion,
hypothesis, or best guess from an
observation or set of
observations. Because the conclusion is
merely a best guess,
the conclusion that is drawn may or
may not be true.
Example:
You have a cough, a fever, a runny nose,
chills, an aching body. You have these
symptoms for several days. Given this
information, your best guess is that you have
influenza or flu. But you are not completely
certain.
INFERENCE
WHAT IS INFERENCE?
Nature of Reasoning
 Logic is the science of correct thinking.
It starts with ideas and terms and leads
to the formation of judgment and
proposition. Using judgment and
proposition it proceeds to the
intellectual activity called INFERENCE.
ORIGIN:
 Comes from the word “infer” which
means to observe through the senses.
 Inferences are steps in reasoning,
moving from premises to logical
consequences; etymologically, the
word infer means to "carry forward".
 Inference is theoretically traditionally
divided into deduction and induction, a
distinction that in Europe dates at least
to Aristotle (300s BCE).
 To conclude a hypothesis.
 A conclusion or opinion formed from
known facts or evidence.
 An inference is a conclusion that has
been reached by way of evidence and
reasoning. For example, if you notice
someone making a disgusted face after
they've taken a bite of their lunch, you
can infer that they do not like it.
Inference is the act of drawing conclusions
about something on the basis of information
that you already have.
The reasoning involved in drawing a
conclusion or making a logical judgment on
the basis of evidence and reasoning rather
than on the basis of direct observation.
NOTION OF INFERENCE
The process in which from a sequence of
propositions, we arrive at a conclusion. The
mind proceeds from one proposition to other
propositions.
In logic, an argument consists of statements.
One or more of the statements is alleged
information (premises) and one statement
(the conclusion) is an inference from the
alleged information (premises).
Example:
The dog's been barking for hours—he needs
to go outside
FORMAL AND MATERIAL SEQUENCE
Nature of Reasoning
The sequence is FORMAL and the argument is
said to be formally valid or formally correct if
the sequence is from the form of inference.
The sequence is MATERIAL and the argument
is said to be materially valid if the sequence is
from the special character of though-content.
Example of Inference that is
formally valid:
Every S is a P ; therefore some P is an S.
S = dog ; P = animal
Every dog is an animal ; therefore some
animal is a dog.
Example of Inference that is informally valid
but materially valid:
Every triangle is a plane figure bounded by
three straight lines;
therefore every plane figure bounder by three
straight lines is a triangle.
2 PARTS OF INFERENCE
1. Antecedent - That which goes before
2. Consequent- That which follow after or
that which is inferred by the antecedent.
Inference is applied to a series of propositions
so arranged that one, called the consequent
and those series of proposition is called the
antecedent .
Whenever we use the terms “sequence”,
“inference”, “validity”, “correctness of
argumentation”, and so on, without
qualification, we shall understand them in
their formal sense unless it is clear from the
context that we are speaking of material
sequence.
TRUTH AND FORMAL VALIDITY
 Logical truth consists in the
conformity of our minds with reality.
 A proposition is true if things are as
the proposition says they are.
 Logic studies reason as an instrument
for acquiring truth, and the
attainment of truth must ever remain
the ultimate aim of the logician.
Example of technically correct though the
premises and the conclusion are false:
No plant is a living being; but every man is a
plant; therefore, no man is a living being.
The following syllogism is not correct
formally although the premises and the
conclusion are true:
Mediate and Immediate
Mediate Inference consists in deriving a
conclusion from two or more logically
interrelated premises
Example:
All mammals have backbones.
Humans are mammals.
Therefore, humans have backbones.
Immediate Inference consists in passing
directly from a single premise to a
conclusion.
Example:
No Dalmatians are cats.
Therefore, no cats are Dalmatians
Every dog is an animal; but no dog is a plant;
therefore, no plant is an animal.
ASSUMPTION

Deductive and Inductive

Deductive Inference, are inferences
arrived at through deduction
(deductive reasoning), can guarantee
truth because they focus on the
structure of arguments.
Example:
Statement 1: Either you can go to the movies
tonight, or you can go to the party tomorrow.
Statement 2: Since you cannot go to the
movies tonight.
Conclusion: So, you can go to the party
tomorrow.

Inductive Inference is the process by
which we use general beliefs we have
about the world to create beliefs about
our particular experiences or about
what to expect in the future.
Example:
Data: I see fireflies in my backyard every
summer.
Conclusion: This summer, I will probably see
fireflies in my backyard.


An assumption is something that you
assume to be the case, even without
proof.
Assumptions there are something
assume or taken for granted
For example , A nurse may assume
that a post-operative patient will wish
to be given analgesia as soon as pain
is experienced.
Ennis (1982) distinguishes two classes
of assumption: Used Assumptions and
Needed Assumptions
Used assumption
▪ assumptions which the creator 'uses',
or 'makes' in forming an argument.
Needed Assumption
▪ are assumptions which the argument
analyst judges to be 'required'.
Two important ways that an assumption is
like a thesis:
o
o
An assumption can be proved and
disproved.
An assumption can be expressed only
as a complete, declarative sentence.
All arguments—all attempts to prove
something—require assumptions and they are
needed to be tested to be sure a person
thinks they’re valid.
Types of Assumptions
❖
❖
Explicit (directly stated)
-directly state information.
For example, ‘’His eyes are Blue’’
Implicit (not directly stated but implied)
- this is something that is implied or
indirect you will have to infer to
understand.
For example, ‘’His eyes reflect the
colour of the sky on a sunny day
Proposition
What is Proposition?

Is the verbal expression of judgement
in which something is affirmed or denied.

Is the basic unit of language.

It is what we assert, state and claim.
They are expressed by declarative sentences.

It is either true or false.
Example:
1 +1 = 2
(True)
The normal BP is 120/80 (True)
The normal temperature is 38 degree Celsius.
(False)
o
Assumption can be:
▪ Factual
▪ Analytical
▪ Moral

Some assumption deals with facts,
like statement “All the men are mortal”.
Assumption deal with straightforward factual
information that can be measured or
observed directly.

Analytical assumption are based on
facts, but they go a step further in making
some sort of statement about the facts,
interpreting the, analyzing them, explaining
them and evaluating.

Still other assumptions deals with
values. Unlike factual and analytical
assumption, which can be defended with
evidence and reason, it is almost impossible
to prove values. Either you share them or you
don’t. One example of assumption based on
values is that pr people and people of color
should not experience unfair impacts simply
because of their socioeconomic status. This
Assumption depends on ideas about what is
‘Fair’ that are very difficult, if not impossible,
to defend with evidence and reason.
We use such sentences to make all
sorts of assertions, from routine
matters of fact such
“the Earth revolves around the Sun”,
o to grand metaphysical theses such
“the reality is an unchanging, featureless,
unified”
o and to claims about morality such
“it is a sin to make a crime.”
3 TYPES OF PROPOSITION
1. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION – Is one which
gives a direct assertion of agreement or
disagreement between the subject and the
predicate term.
2. HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION- Does not
declare unconditional affirmation or denial,
but expresses a relation of dependence such
as an opposition or a likeliness between two
clauses.
3 .MODAL PROPOSITION- Which does not just
only affirm or deny the predicate of the
subject but also states the manner or mode
of in which the predicate is identified.
ELEMENT AND STRUCTURE OF A
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
 SUBJECT TERM is the object affirmed
or denied in the proposition.
 PREDICATE TERM is the quality or
attribute affirmed or denied by the
subject.
 COPULA is the element that links the
subject to the predicate.
Example : She is beautiful
She (subject)
Is (copula)
Beautiful (predicate)
QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF PROPOSITIONS


The quality of a proposition consists in
the nature of the proposition as either
affirmative or negative.
The quantity of the proposition
consists in the nature of the proposition
as either universal or particular. It
refers to the denotation or number of
individuals or referents to whom the
subject term applies.
UNIVERSAL QUALIFIERS. All, every, many,
whatever, whenever, anything, no, none,
nothing, never, and others similar to these.
PARTICULAR QUALIFIERS. Some, most,
several, many, few, at least one, not all,
majority and others.
4 TYPES OF PROPOSITIONS
1. Universal Affirmative Propositions or “A”
Proposition
2. Universal Negative Propositions or “E”
Proposition
3. Particular Affirmative Propositions or “I”
Proposition
4. Particular Negative Propositions or “O”
Proposition
•
Compound/complex proposition- when one or more
proposition are connected through various connectives
such and / or.
Ex. Asthma is an auto-immune disease and HIV is respiratory
disease.
Proposition 1
connectivity
Proposition 2
Propositional logic (also called “sentential
logic”) is the area of formal logic that deals
with the logical relationships between
propositions. The fundamental unit in
propositional logic is a statement or
proposition.
There are types of propositional logic
1. Conjunction any two proposition can be
combined by the word “and” otherwise
known as conjunction (^).
Truth-functional connective is a way of
connecting propositions such that the truth
value of the resulting complex proposition can
be determined by the truth value of the
propositions that compose it.
▪
The conjunction is true if and only if
both conjuncts are true. We can
represent this information using what is
called a truth table.
1. asthma is an auto-immune
disease and HIV is a
respiratory disease
2. the normal BP is 120/80
and the normal temperature
is between 36.5-37.5 degree
celcius
p
T
q
F
p^q
F
T
T
T
2. Negation - is a single proposition which can
be changed by using negation “not”. It is
truth-functional operator that switches the
truth value of a proposition from false to true
or from true to false. the symbol we will use
to represent negation is called the “tilde” (~).
Example:
“dogs are mammals” is true statement
then we can make that statement false by
adding a negation. In English, the negation is
most naturally added just before the noun
phrase that follows the linking verb like:
“Dogs are not mammals” is false statement
But another way of adding the negation is
with the phrase, “it is not the case that” like
this:
“It is not the case that dogs are mammals.”
“Charlie tracked mud through the house”
“Violet tracked mud through the house”
4. Conditional is a common type of sentence.
It claims that something is true, if something
else is also. The English phrase that is most
often used to express conditional statements
is “if…then.”
For example, If it is raining then the ground it
wet.
Like conjunctions and disjunctions,
conditionals connect two atomic
propositions. There are two atomic
propositions in the above conditional:
“It is raining.”
Example:
“Cebu is the capital city of Philippines” is false.
But we can make that statement true by
adding a negation:
“Cebu is not the capital city of Philippines”
“It is not true that Cebu is the capital city of
Philippines”
The negation symbol is used to translate these
English phrases:
Not
it is not the case that
it is not true that
it is false that
3. Disjunction, any two proposition combined
by the word “or”. The symbol we will use to
represent a disjunction is called a “wedge” (v).
It is also common that the “or” is preceded by
an “either” earlier in the sentence, like this
Ex. Either Charlie or Violet tracked mud
through the house.
What this sentence asserts is that one or the
other (and possibly both) of these individuals
tracked mud through the house. Thus, it is
composed out of the
following two atomic propositions:
“The ground it wet.”
The proposition that follows the “if” is called
the antecedent of the conditional and the
proposition that follows the “then” is call the
consequent of the conditional.
The conditional statement above is not
asserting either of these atomic propositions.
Rather, it is telling us about the relationship
between them. Let’s symbolize “it is raining”
as “R” and “the ground is wet” as “G.” Thus,
our symbolization of the above conditional
would be:
CONCLUSION
WHAT IS A CONCLUSION?
Science:
A conclusion is the final claim of the
scientist made upon analyzing the
experimental data (evidence).
Law:
A final arrangement or settlement, as of a
treaty.
Literary:
A conclusion is the final piece of writing in a
research paper, essay, or article that
summarizes the entire work.
▪
Logic:
Conclusion
the conclusion is the claim that an argument
is trying to establish.
Types of Conclusion

Logical or Formal
Which follows from its premises and is
verifiable by any of the classical
methods of formal reasoning, such as
the syllogism or deduction.

Personal
A conclusion rooted in the subjectivity
of the person who formulates it, but
that is not for that reason equivalent to
an opinion. Personal conclusion must
be valid, verifiable, even if they arise
from individual experience.



▪
Theoretical
Those that propose new possible
knowledge on which to build new
research or reflections on the subject in
the future.
Summary
Those that condense or round off what
has been seen or argued previously,
offering a kind of final recapitulation
before adding final ideas.
Recommendation
Those that reflect on the way in which
the argumentation or investigation was
carried out and offer clues to the future
researcher from it.
Logical Vocabulary
Argument
It is a systematic combination of one or
more than one statements, which are
claimed to provide a logical support or
evidence. Also, the chief concern of
logic.
Statement
is a declarative sentence that has a
truth-value of either true or false. It is a
sentence that has truth-value.
However, there are sentences that are not
statements, hence are not used to construct
an argument.
Examples:
a) Would you close the window? (Question)
b) Let us study together. (Proposal)
c) Right on! (Exclamation)
d) I suggest that you read philosophy texts.
(Suggestion)
e) Give me your ID Card, Now! (Command)
Statements that make up an argument are
divided into premise(s) and conclusion


Premise - is a statement that set forth
the reason or evidence, which is given
for accepting the conclusion of an
argument. It is claimed evidence.
Conclusion- is a statement, which is
claimed to follow from the given
evidence (premise). In other words, the
conclusion is the claim that an
argument is trying to establish.
EXAMPLE:
All Ethiopians are Africans.
(Premise 1)
Tsionawit is Ethiopian.
(Premise2)
Therefore, Tsionawit is African. (Conclusion)
INDICATORS
o Therefore
o Wherefore
o Accordingly
o Provided that
o It must be that
o we may conclude
o entails that
o Hence
o It shows that
o Whence
o Thus
o Consequently
o We may infer
o It implies that
o As a result
o So
NOTE:
In argument that contains any of the
conclusion indicator words, the statement
that follows the indicator word can usually be
identified as the conclusion.
Integration
What is Integration?
Integration is the act of bringing together
smaller components into a single system that
functions as one.
Example 1:
There is no definite way to prove any one set
of religious belief to the exclusion of all
others. For that reason religious freedom is a
human right.
(Premise) There is no definite way to prove
any one set of religious belief to the exclusion
of all others
(Conclusion) Religious freedom is a human
right
(Conclusion indicator) For that reason.
Example 2:
Sarah drives sports car. This implies that
either she is rich or her parents are.
SYNONYMS
 Assimilation
 Blending
 Combination
 Incorporation
 Fusion
 Linking
 Merging
 union
OPPOSITE
 seclusion
 segregation
 separation
DICTIONARY
o the action or process of successfully
joining or mixing with a different group.
(Premise) Sarah drives a sports car
(Conclusion) either she is rich or her parents
are.
MATHEMATICS
o the finding of an integral
A Good Conclusion:
 Relevant
 Concise
 Valid
SCIENCE
 the incorporation of the genetic
material of a virus in to the host
genome.
How are the conclusions drawn?
 Review and understand the premises
 Round up or take up the problem
 Write the conclusions
PSYCHOLOGY
 the coordination of processes in the
nervous system, including diverse
sensory information and motor
impulses.
PSYCHOANALYSIS
 the process by which a well-balanced
psyche becomes whole as the
developing ego organizes the id, and
the state that results or that treatment
seeks to create or restore by countering
the fragmenting effect of defense
mechanisms.
INTEGRATION OF THE BRAIN
 Integration occurs when neurons from
the prefrontal cortex connect with
neurons in the limbic system and
brainstem. The linking of the areas,
through the firing of neurons, creates
neural pathways. Repeated return to
the state of integration causes those
neural pathways to strengthen and
become permanent.
 An integrated brain is one that has a
more interconnected Connectome and
therefore can be seen as more “whole”
(vs. disconnected). When our brain is
whole then the left and right brain are
balanced and the different parts of our
brain can communicate effectively with
each other.
INTEGRATED THINKING
 From the book of Creating Great
Choices coined by Jennifer Riel and
Roger Martin the method called
Integrative Thinking involves taking
different ideas and examining the
problem they are trying to solve, with
the end goal of opening up to new
thinking and innovation.

Integrated Thinking reframes decision
making by moving it away from the
process of settling on a compromise,
towards actively breaking a challenge
or opportunity down into its core
elements and reassembling them into a
new option that doesn’t compromise.
TYPE OF INTEGRATION
 Cooperation
- Networking, dialogue over issues, informal
attempts to work together
- Does not require a change in autonomy of
participating organizations,
- Possible management by a steering
committee or management committee
 Coordination
- A sense of cooperation, a process of
negotiation, a sense of overseeing (requiring
consistency).
- A means of planning, a strategic or corporate
activity, some organizational change,
meaningful training.
- Commitment to the aims of other players
 Collaboration
- Partnership, contracts, planning and goalsbased coalitions, shared objectives
- Strategic service delivery arrangements or
planning
- Joint planning, implementing and
evaluating of policies.
HOW DO I MAKE MY BRAIN MORE
INTEGRATED?
1. Attention to be focused
2. Awareness to be open
3. Intention to be kind
Healthcare Integration means
Collaboration between health professionals
to provide complete treatment to patients
and improve overall well-being.
Integration of Nursing Practice
o Nursing integration is the capstone
immersion experience designed to
provide the student with an
opportunity to synthesize the
knowledge and skills acquired during
previous coursework.
Integrative Medicine
o An approach to medical care that
recognizes the benefit of combining
conventional (standard) therapies (such
as drugs and surgery) with
complementary therapies (such as
acupuncture and yoga) that have been
shown to be safe and effective.
3 Benefits to Behavioral Health Integration
1. Improved Health Outcomes. Behavioral
health and physical health are interlinked.
2. Healthcare Cost Reduction. Integrating
behavioral and physical healthcare has a
significant impact on costs.
3. Helps Transition to Patient-Centered Care
Model.
WHY IS INTEGRATED CARE IMPORTANT?
Without integration at various levels [of
health systems], all aspects of health care
performance can suffer. Patients get lost,
needed services fail to be delivered, or are
delayed, quality and patient satisfaction
decline, and the potential for costeffectiveness diminishes.
TYPES OF INTEGRATED HEALTH SYSTEMS
1. Functional integration
In which multiple relationships exist and are
coordinated across the various units and
departments as a way to provide the best
value and service to patients.
2. Physician integration
In which the physicians and the organizations
they're working with and/or associated with
share the same values, visions, and objectives
as a way to limit differences in the patient
care provided.
3. Clinical integration
In which services provided to patients can
come from many different providers and
organizations.
APPLICATION
Critical thinking is the ability to analyze facts
and form of judgments.
What is Application
❖ Is the action of putting something into
operation. (Meriam Webster
dictionary).
❖ The act of putting to a special use or
purpose.
❖ The act of applying to a particular
purpose or use.
APPLICATION OF CRITICAL THINKING
IN NURSING PRACTICE
 Nurses who want to provide their
patients with better care will quickly
discover that critical thinking skills will
help them substantially. By applying the
ability to think through problems and
evaluate the information in front of
them, nurses will quickly become more
effective at their jobs.
 According to Scriven and Paul, critical
thinking is the mental active process
and subtle perception, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation of information
collected or derived from observation,
experience, reflection, and reasoning.
 According to Sollars, “Nurses use
critical thinking in every single shift”.
Critical thinking in nursing is a
paramount skill necessary in the care of
your patients. Nowadays, there is more
emphasis on machines and technical
aspects in nursing, but critical thinking
plays an important role.

Critical thinking, combined with
creativity, refine the result as nurses
can find specific solutions to specific
problems with creativity taking place
where traditional interventions are not
effective.

Supposition theory originated in the
medieval Latin West. Its early
development, probably in the second
half of the twelfth century, is
mysterious
Kinds of Supposition
APPLICATION OF NURSING THEORY

Nursing theories can also help assist
nurses in better understanding the
rationale for using care procedures, the
outcomes of those procedures, and
how to optimize practices for the future
of care. Different methodologies can be
used by health care professionals to
convert theory into applicable practice.

Applications of nursing theory can help
health care professionals evaluate and
assess their care initiatives more
effectively and forecast outcomes in
situations that could save lives.
SUPPOSITION
What is Supposition?



Supposition is a relation between a
term, and the objects which it
ultimately signifies. It is analogous to
the concept of reference in modern
philosophical logic, except that it is a
property of common terms as well as
singular terms, rather than of singular
terms alone, according to scholarship
logic.
The word supposition (Lat. suppositio )
originally meant substitution, and
commonly indicates an assumption,
hypothesis, or theory.
There are various subdivisions or kinds
of supposition, of which the most
significant is ‘personal’ supposition, the
relation between a common term like
‘man’ and all men, or between a proper
name like ‘Socrates’ and the individual
it refers to (Socrates).
1. Improper and proper.
 Improper supposition is when an
utterance supposits according to the
signification of another utterance, as
in analogy (such as when we say that
a storm is angry, or that someone is a
lion]) or irony (“he has married a
treasure”).
 Proper supposition is when an
utterance supposits according to to
the signification that is imposed on it
in common usage.
2. Personal, material and simple
 Personal supposition is when the
subject or the predicate of a
proposition supposits for its ‘ultimate
significates’. For example, when the
term ‘man’ supposits for any man in
the proposition ‘a man runs’.
 Material supposition is when an
utterance supposits for itself.
 Simple supposition this is when a
term stands for a common or
universal nature or (according to
writers such as Ockham) when it
stands for a universal concept.
3. Common and discrete
 Common supposition is when a term
naturally supposits for more than one
thing, such as the term 'man' standing
for all men, however many there are.
 Discrete supposition is when the term
naturally stands for just one thing,
such as 'Socrates' or 'this man'.
4. Natural and Accidental.
 Natural Supposition is when a term
stands for every thing which it can
possibly stand for (e.g. when 'man'
naturally stands for past, present or
future men)
 Accidental Supposition is when it
stands for things by contextually
determined features such as the tense
of the verb, or the predicate.
5. Confused and determinate.
 Determinate supposition is when the
proposition has to be verified by some
determinate individual, i.e. we can
‘descend to singulars’ by a
disjunction. For example, the
proposition ‘a man is running’ is true
if the man Socrates is running, or
Plato is running, or Aristotle is
running, and so on ‘for all the
singulars’. Otherwise it is Confused
APPELLATION
Definition
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Defined as the calling of something.
Literally means the calling of object.
In logic it means the function of a term
denomination another term.
Conversely, the denomination of a term
by another.
TWO PARTS OF APELLATION
1. Appellant
Denomiting term or something called the
modifying term.
2. Appellate
Denominating term or otherwise known as
the term modified
KINDS OF APELLATION
❖ Material Appellation
- When the appellant is applied to the
subject only as identified by the feature or
nature expressed but not classified.
- E.g. a poor philosopher, that is a financially
hard up man who is a philosopher.
❖ Formal Appellation
- When the appellant is applied to the
subject as identified and qualified by the
feature and nature expressed.
- E.g. a poor philosopher, that is, one who is
not adept in philosophy.
❖ Precise Appellation
- When the sense of the appellation is
definite and clear.
- E.g. excellent students are assets to the
school.
❖ Imprecise Appellation
- When the sense of the appellation is not
definite and clear.
- E.g. excellent students are burden to the
school. It may financially poo, or academically
poor students.
❖ Remarks Appellation
- A shift or change in appellation changes
also makes four terms in a syllogism which
apparently implies only three terms.
- E.g. a good artist is an expert performer.
But Pedro is good artist (a good man)
therefore Pedro is a an expert performer. (it
does not follow)