A JOHN CATT PUBLICATION
TOOLS
TEACHERS
FOR
How to teach, lead, and learn like
the world’s best educators
OLIVER LOVELL
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Oliver (Ollie) Lovell is a
teacher, author, blogger,
and podcaster in Melbourne,
Australia. He runs the
popular ‘Education Research
Reading Room’ podcast,
and Tools for Teachers is
his second book following
the bestselling Sweller’s
Cognitive Load Theory in
Action. You can stay up to
date with Ollie’s thoughts
and insights into education
at www.ollielovell.com.
TOOLS
TEACHERS
FOR
How to teach, lead, and learn like
the world’s best educators
OLIVER LOVELL
First published 2022
by John Catt Educational Ltd,
15 Riduna Park, Station Road,
Melton, Woodbridge IP12 1QT
Tel: +44 (0) 1394 389850
Fax: +44 (0) 1394 386893
Email: enquiries@johncatt.com
Website: www.johncatt.com
© 2022 Oliver Lovell
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers.
Opinions expressed in this publication are those of the contributors and
are not necessarily those of the publishers or the editors. We cannot accept
responsibility for any errors or omissions.
ISBN: 978 1 915261 06 9
Set and designed by John Catt Educational Limited
SUPPORT FOR
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Tools for Teachers is a rare gift. Brimming with practical examples, and
beautifully organised for time-poor teachers, this book offers important
insights on the core aspects of teaching that really matter. Teachers
around the globe will adore this, because it respects their time and the
complexity of their work. Ollie Lovell – you are a national treasure.
Bron Ryrie Jones, Instructional Coach, Docklands Primary School
Over the years, I have become convinced that opportunity cost is the
single most important idea in the improvement of education; each hour
that teachers spend doing one thing is an hour they don’t have to spend
on something else. We normally think of this in terms of the time spent
teaching, but it applies just as strongly to teacher professional development,
and that is why Tools for Teachers is such a valuable resource. You could
spend over a hundred hours listening to the wonderful conversations
that Oliver Lovell has had with the dozens of education luminaries
who have visited the Education Research Reading Room over the last
five years. Or you could, instead, just read Tools for Teachers with its
brilliant synthesis of the ideas Oliver’s guests have shared. No matter
how long you have been engaged in education, I am sure that you will
find important, surprising, and useful insights into teaching, class
management, curriculum and leadership in this book. Anyone who is
seriously interested in understanding how to use educational research to
improve what happens in schools and colleges needs to read this book.
Dylan Wiliam, Emeritus Professor of Educational Assessment,
University College London
When I listened to Andrew Martin being interviewed on the ERRR
podcast back in 2017, I was both captivated and worried. Captivated
because this was the single best piece of media I had consumed about load
reduction (and I had consumed a lot), and worried because the Aussie
bloke asking the questions was a much better interviewer than me.
Over the last five years, Ollie has (somewhat annoyingly!) gone from
strength to strength. The research and preparation he undertakes for
each podcast episode are unparalleled. Combine this with Ollie’s passion
for education, genuine interest in his guests, and charming interview
style, and the monthly dose of auditory gold that is the ERRR podcast is
the result. For example, if you have any interest at all in maths teaching,
leading a department, or classroom culture, stop reading this now and
check out the Sammy Kempner episode – genuinely the best episode of
any podcast I listened to in 2021.
I have learned so much from Ollie over the years, and it is amazing to see
the key ideas for the podcast distilled, explained, and organised in this
wonderful book. Perhaps the highest compliment I can pay is where I have
placed the book on my bookshelf: sandwiched between Doug Lemov’s
Teach Like a Champion 3.0 and Tim Ferris’s Tools of Titans. Whatever
your teaching phase, subject, or experience, there is plenty in here for you.
Craig Barton, Host of the Mr Barton Maths Podcast
and author of How I Wish I’d Taught Maths
The way that Tools for Teachers deals with regulation and relationships
and delves into the complexities of teaching children with learning and
behavioural difficulties will assist both experienced and new teachers to
develop ways of thinking about children who have been affected by abuse
and neglect in their early lives. Lovell presents this material in a very
accessible way, which is no mean feat, as the theories he has drawn from,
namely trauma theory and attachment theory, can be very complex and
difficult to absorb. This is a great chapter that will provide much benefit
for that ‘difficult to reach’ 5% of students who do not respond to usual
teaching methods.
Laurel Downey, Expert in childhood trauma and
CEO of Catalyst child and family services
Ollie is like a distiller of very fine whisky. He takes the highest quality
ingredients in an area of education, and selects which elements to focus
on to bring about a highly palatable blend. It’s always a pleasure and a
journey of enlightenment to read or listen to what Ollie has learned and
this book is no exception. I can’t think of an educator whose practice
wouldn’t be enhanced by this book.
Lyn Stone, Educational linguist/Literacy consultant,
Lifelong Literacy
It’s like putting on the brain of a modern edu-polymath.
Peps Mccrea, Dean at Ambition Institute
In this book, Ollie Lovell’s ERRR podcasts – a treasure trove of expert
reflections, practical tips, tried and tested strategies, and helpful models
– are brought together in themed chapters to inspire all educators, from
early years teachers to seasoned veterans. Ollie talks his readers through
each essential element (be it direct instruction, relationship building,
managing behaviour or motivating students) clearly and logically,
building up our understanding sequentially as all great teachers do. Tools
for Teachers is an essential guide for anyone who strives to become the
best educator they can be.
Rachel Macfarlane, Director of Education Services, Herts for
Learning Ltd and author of Obstetrics for Schools
In my five years as Director of Catholic education leading a system of
56 schools, more than 22,000 students, and over 3,000 staff, I have spent
countless hours searching out the best work on approaching learning
and teaching and school improvement. The Education Research Reading
Room is genuinely the best educational podcast available. I have found
the insights invaluable in shaping the educational direction of our system.
This book distils the best insights from ERRR in a digestible and clear way.
This is a book that I am sure every teacher would benefit from and I hope
every teacher in my own system reads closely to build detailed knowledge
of how students learn and how we can efficiently and effectively respond
to the learning needs of our students through our teaching.
Ross Fox, Director of Catholic Education,
Archdiocese of Canberra & Goulburn
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book has been many years in the making, over half a decade in fact!
As such, there are many people who have played a role in its collective
creation.
I credit Cameron Malcher, host of the Teachers’ Education Review podcast,
with giving me my first break in podcasting. Cameron encouraged me
to contribute an interview segment to his podcast. And this experience,
coupled with his encouragement and support, gave me the confidence to
finally start the Education Research Reading Room podcast!
Catherine Scott and Steve Dinham also helped me to get the podcast
established in the early days. From spreading the word about the ERRR,
to assisting me in arranging recording venues for what were initially live
recording events, both Catherine and Steve played key roles in initially
getting the podcast off the ground.
My third acknowledgement must go to the wise and generous guests
who have contributed the insights and the takeaways that form the basis
of this book. I’m constantly astonished, and elated, that busy educators
and education researchers are willing to freely give up their time to talk
to a stranger about teaching and learning. Our conversations over the
years have continually sustained me, and have been the main source of
intellectual nourishment keeping me going through some of the more
challenging periods of my teaching career. To these guests, listed in full
in the appendices, I owe an eternal debt of gratitude.
There has also been a collection of excellent audio technicians who have
helped me with the nuts and bolts of the podcast over the years. A big
thanks in this vein goes to Teej Umredkar, Jorge González, Jezmyr Bernado,
and Filip Đorđević for your mammoth efforts to help my guests’ wisdom
to shine through, and for making me sound smarter than I really am.
A final but crucial podcast-specific thank you goes to the Patreons of the
ERRR podcast. These are the generous individuals and institutions who
choose to make a monthly donation to support the ongoing production
of the show. Your donations have played an integral role in making the
ERRR Podcast a sustainable project for me and I’m so glad that I’ve been
able to acknowledge many of you by name in the appendices!
There are also many people whom I have to thank for their contributions
to turning the ideas from the podcast into this text that you now hold in
your hands.
When writing my first book, Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory in Action,
I found it incredibly valuable to progressively send chapters as I wrote
them to John Sweller for his review and feedback. From that experience,
I knew that I needed a similarly diligent, wise, and insightful reader to
offer progressive feedback as I wrote Tools for Teachers. Wendy Taylor has
been that reader. Quickly and meticulously reading every word as I sent
it to her and balancing this commitment around her own teaching load
and family life, Wendy’s suggestions (and her encouragement!) provided
the motivation I needed to finally finish this text on my fourth attempt!
Thomas Firth also provided crucial feedback on the text in its entirety,
both at the macro (structure and ideas) and the micro (grammar and
punctuation) levels, polishing and improving the work significantly.
Dylan Wiliam offered a number of excellent challenges and suggestions
right throughout the text that pushed my thinking and have improved
the accuracy and impact of the book. I also thank Gabriel Palmer and
Michael Pershan for their thoughtful readings of, and feedback on,
significant portions of this text.
In relation to specific chapters, I give thanks to the following people:
Lorraine Hammond for her insightful suggestions in relation to the
explicit instruction chapter; Bill Rogers for carefully and meticulously
working through the behaviour management chapter, and especially for
his suggestions on language modification, in addition to Mark Dowley
for his reflections on this same chapter; Harry Fletcher-Wood for his
thoughts on the motivation chapter, and for reviewing some much earlier
versions of other chapters and offering extremely useful style suggestions
that I subsequently implemented; Laurel Downey for her review of the
chapter on regulation and relationships; Rachel Macfarlane for her
enthusiastic support and review of the chapter on purpose; Jay McTighe
and Patrick Sanders for their reflections on what I’d written about
curriculum; Tom Sherrington for overseeing the leadership chapter; and
Adrian Simpson for picking apart my writings on reading and evaluating
education research (and for initiating an in-depth conversation that I look
forward to continuing on this topic).
I owe a great deal to Tom Sherrington for his thoughtful review of the
book and for his encouragement to make clearer the distinction between
the ideas of ERRR guests and my own synthesis, insight, and original
ideas. I’m also incredibly grateful to Tom for his willingness to write the
foreword, and his ongoing support for me and my work as an educator.
Tom has played an enormous role in my development as an educator,
author, and presenter far beyond just this book, and I know that he has
done the same for many more like me. Tom’s impact on education cannot
be overstated.
Thank you to Jonathan Barnes and Alex Sharratt, and John Catt
Educational more broadly, for their willingness to take on another book
project with me and for being so responsive and flexible with various
requests and arrangements to do with the book. An author really couldn’t
ask for a more reasonable, level-headed, and supportive publisher. Further,
the knowledge that Jonathan and Alex were keen to work together again
was a big impetus for me having a fourth crack at, and finally completing,
Tools for Teachers. JCE’s ongoing sponsorship of the ERRR podcast has
also played a crucial role in keeping the podcast going and each month
I’m excited to be able to promote a new John Catt title and to bring more
great books to the attention of my listeners. Thank you also to Gráinne
Treanor for her careful and professional copyediting.
And finally, a big thank you to my family: Madeleine, Malcolm, Elliott,
and my partner Holly. Your unrelenting support and encouragement for
me, this project, and all my other work, forms the solid base that acts as
the springboard for everything I do. A particular thank you also goes
to Holly, for all of her incredible work on the podcast behind the scenes,
from proofreading countless mail-outs, articles, and summaries that I
write, to being a thoughtful and wise sounding board for new directions
and ideas for the podcast and more. I look forward to continuing our
exciting journey together.
This book represents the culmination of the efforts and contributions
of many, many people, including those mentioned above, but also many
more. Thanks also to you, the reader, for your contributions to bringing
the words within these pages to life as you implement these ideas and
practices in your own classrooms.
In gratitude,
Ollie Lovell.
March 8th, 2022.
For Mum and Dad,
my first teachers
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Foreword
Introduction
7
15
19
PART 1: TEACH
Chapter 1 Explicit Instruction
Chapter 2 Behaviour Management
Chapter 3 Motivation
Chapter 4 Regulation and Relationships
25
81
115
135
PART 2: LEAD
Chapter 5 Purpose
Chapter 6 Curriculum
Chapter 7 Leadership
159
179
209
PART 3: LEARN
Chapter 8 Reading and Evaluating Education Research
245
Closing Words
Appendix 1 Michael Pershan’s Worked Example Routine
Appendix 2 Effect Sizes
Appendix 3 The ERRR Podcast: List of episodes from the first five years
Appendix 4 Supporters of the ERRR Podcast
279
283
287
289
293
FOREWORD
‘What truly matters is teacher expertise.’ John Hattie, ERRR #018
‘Engagement is when you engage the theory of action that drives
the practices you want to improve; that means it’s revealed, it’s
discussed, it’s evaluated and everybody knows what it is that they
have done or not done collectively that produces those results.’
Viviane Robinson, ERRR #028
‘Hello listeners and lovers of learning and welcome to the
Education Research Reading Room, the podcast that brings
you into the discussion with inspiring educators and education
researchers. I’m Ollie Lovell, and it’s a pleasure to be your host in
the ERRR. I’ll start today by acknowledging the Woiwurrung and
Boonwurrung people of the Kulin Nation, on whose lands this
podcast was recorded, pay my respects to elders past and present
and acknowledge that colonisation and dispossession are ongoing
processes.’ Ollie Lovell – at the start of every ERRR episode
Those three quotes capture something of the spirit of Ollie Lovell’s
magnificent podcast, the Education Research Reading Room, that has
informed a great deal of this excellent book, Tools for Teachers. Ollie
epitomises so much of what makes teaching such a great profession
to be in right now. He engages with the world of education and the
business of teaching with a real sense of purpose; a sincere commitment
to his students and to the value of education to students everywhere. He
brings extraordinary energy, integrity, and enthusiasm to his earnest
explorations of ideas with teachers and researchers from around the
world. He asks questions; he probes; he seeks a deeper understanding.
And then he shares; he promotes the ideas that cut through from research
to the classroom and back the other way, communicating with clarity and
passion through his writing and broadcasting, harnessing the power of
social media to reach thousands of readers and listeners.
I first encountered Ollie Lovell via Twitter, where he was sharing his
superb curation of blogs and ideas via his Teacher Ollie’s Takeaways blog
posts. I was immediately impressed by the scope of his recommendations
and how relevant they were to teaching in the UK – and everywhere. Here
was someone deeply engaged with ideas and people in that important
space where education research and teaching practice intersect. In
particular, I was first drawn to Ollie’s reports of his discussions with
John Sweller about cognitive load theory (CLT) and related ideas such as
goal-free problems and element interactivity. Later, when we began to put
together the In Action book series, Ollie was the obvious and immediate
choice for someone to write about CLT and he did a magnificent job.
Ollie’s first book, Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory in Action, is an
archetype of the genre: a teacher–practitioner engaging with research
concepts and bringing them to life in a practical, concise, and accessible
manner, shedding light on theoretical research-informed ideas through
the experience of applying the ideas in real situations. However, one
critical theme in our author–editor discussions was to be more explicit
about showing where Ollie had started to shape the original ideas into
something that was very firmly of his own making. For example, Ollie
had distilled the wide-ranging complexity of cognitive load theory into
five core ideas – neatly represented as the ABCDE of CLT. The capacity
to see research ideas from an end-user’s perspective with enough clarity
to filter out the key concepts and present them for others to engage with
can only come from someone with the depth of experience, firmly rooted
in classroom practice, that Ollie has. This is why the teacher–researcher
intersection is so vital.
It now seems to me that Ollie has always been on a journey towards this
book that you now hold in your hands, Tools for Teachers. It’s the natural
and inevitable culmination of all he has gathered and gleaned so far,
through all his explorations and enquires, from all his own classrooms
and conversations. Although at one level it’s a joyful and fascinating
account of all he has learned from his ERRR guests, Ollie’s determination
to make it more directly a practical aid for teachers has shaped the book’s
structure from the start. Once again, he has taken ideas that originate
from multiple sources to synthesise his own models. In this fabulous
book you will be introduced to the most stripped-back, direct summary
of instructional teaching you will ever find, PIC: Plan, Instruct, Check
for Understanding. From that simple exoskeleton all the richness of a
complex classroom hangs, with multiple ideas interacting in a mutually
reinforcing way. The visual end-of-chapter summaries show clearly
how a wide sweep of ideas interact, illustrating the ever-present tension
between seeking clarity and simplicity whilst embracing complexity in
the subtle interplay of multiple factors in a learning process. Packed with
curriculum examples, the book really is a joy to read and I’m certain
that teachers everywhere will find this a go-to resource to support their
practice. It’s rare to read anything that explores the details of teaching
in the way that Ollie captures here, weaving ideas together so that the
complexity of it makes sense and feels manageable.
In the book’s later sections, which move beyond classroom teaching,
Ollie also explores wider themes around education, locating pedagogical
concerns in the context of our curriculum choices and our ideas about the
purpose of education. He then introduces us to the Three M’s of Leadership:
Mission, Mindset, and Management. Again, the clarity of this framework is
brilliant. Drawing on the wisdom of his ERRR guests and his own insights,
Ollie sets out an excellent set of ideas for school leaders, particularly in
relation to how they support the core business of developing teacher
expertise which, to return to Hattie, is what truly matters.
It’s been exciting to follow Ollie’s star as it rises and I’m certain that this
book will leave its readers feeling as inspired and enlightened as I have
been. Most importantly, this means that a lot more students around
the world will be taught in ways that will support them to develop the
knowledge and understanding they need to explore the world of ideas
with real confidence. That’s the ultimate goal and that’s the spirit in
which Ollie always approaches his work.
Tom Sherrington, author and consultant
INTRODUCTION
In late January of 2017, with sweaty palms and a genuine worry that
nobody would ever listen, I pressed ‘publish’ on the first episode of the
Education Research Reading Room (ERRR) podcast. This simple act set
in motion a learning trajectory that I could never have imagined. Over
the past five years since that first episode, I have had unparalleled access
to the world’s best teachers, educators, and education researchers, and
had the opportunity to grill them, often for several hours at a time, about
the nitty-gritty of what it is that they do to educate and support students.
It is not an exaggeration to say that these 60 conversations, and the more
than 20 hours of preparation, reading, research, and reflection that I
have done before and after each of these discussions, have been the best
professional development that I could have possibly imagined. The guests
of the ERRR podcast have shaped and changed me for the better, both as
an educator and as a person.
But it isn’t just me that they’ve shaped; they have also shaped listeners of
the ERRR. From the more than half a million downloads the podcast has
received over the years, I get emails from teachers and leaders on a weekly
basis sharing how the wisdom of the ERRR’s guests has improved their
practice, whether it’s helping them to motivate their students, provide clearer
instruction, or manage behaviour in their classroom, and much more.
There are some big success stories too. Perhaps the single biggest change
directly attributable to the podcast that I’m aware of is the evidenceinformed approach that Catholic Education in the Archdiocese of
Canberra & Goulburn (CECG) is currently taking to instructional
practice and literacy instruction right across their system.
19
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Back in 2018, Director of CECG, Ross Fox, listened to episode 24 of the
ERRR podcast with Lorraine Hammond. Within that episode, Lorraine
spoke about instructional coaching and her approach to Explicit Direct
Instruction of literacy that was having a phenomenal impact in schools
right across the country, including up in Western Australia’s remote
Kimberley (work for which Lorraine has since been awarded a Medal of
the Order of Australia).
Ross reached out to Lorraine, after which they collaborated as part of
the launch and implementation of the Catalyst program, an evidenceinformed professional learning program in their system’s 56 schools,
improving the education of more than 25,000 students. It’s humbling
to consider that the ideas shared through a simple conversation on the
ERRR podcast have such power to change lives.
This book is designed to continue and enhance this positive impact of the
ERRR podcast. By summarising some of the most valuable and actionable
insights from the first five years of the ERRR, I aim to put into your hands
the tactics, techniques, and mental models of the world’s best educators.
Given the fact that within these pages you will find ideas from five years
of interviews with education leaders, it would be unreasonable to expect
any reader to pick it up and be able to apply all of the ideas at once.
Instead, it’s best to see Tools for Teachers as just that, a toolbox. Learning
to use these tools has been a lifetime’s work for many ERRR guests, and
it’s likely to be the same for any reader, as it no doubt will be for me. But
having these experts’ tools detailed and described within these pages will
hopefully make the task of mastery easier, and clearer. And there’s no
better time to start than now.
So let’s get started! Let’s begin to look at these tools, play with them, try
them out, and adapt them to fit our own needs and those of our students.
It is my hope that you find value in this book from the first page to the
last, as well as a good dose of inspiration that flows directly from the ideas
and generosity of the masters who have come before.
I always welcome feedback from readers. So please do reach out if you
feel that any of the tools and ideas shared have shifted your practice or
perspective, or if you have any further questions, comments, thoughts,
20
InTROduCTIOn
or reflections. You can get me via Twitter (@ollie_lovell) or email (ollie@
ollielovell.com).
Within these pages
Given the volume and diversity of ideas within Tools for Teachers, I
would encourage you to use this as a reference text, and therefore to jump
straight to whichever topic and chapter you find most draws you in. I
have purposefully written each chapter in such a way that it can be read
in isolation, as well as fitting into the narrative of the whole book. With
that in mind, here are a few brief comments about what you’ll find herein.
There are a handful of key ideas that it’s absolutely imperative for teachers
to know. These include how to teach effectively, how to manage a class,
and how to motivate students. This is why I have started this book
with chapters on Explicit Instruction, Behaviour Management, and
Motivation. It is a good idea for all those who teach within a standard
classroom setting to start, therefore, at the beginning.
Following this we have Chapter 4 on Regulation and Relationships, which
aims to deepen and build upon ideas from the Behaviour Management
and Motivation chapters that precede it. These first four chapters form
Part 1 of the book, ‘Teach’.
In part two of the book, ‘Lead’, we move beyond the single teacher’s
classroom to consider the diversity of claimed Purposes of education
(Chapter 5) and different ways to think about how to structure a school’s
Curriculum (Chapter 6). Chapter 7 shares a three-part Leadership model,
focussing on mission, mindset, and management. These chapters aim
to help the reader zoom out and see how the bigger ideas of purpose,
curriculum, and leadership link to what goes on in the classroom, as well
as introducing some practical frameworks for understanding education’s
purpose, leadership and curriculum design.
In the book’s final section, ‘Learn’, Chapter 8 supports us to maintain
perspective, read for detail, and read with an open mind when Reading
and evaluating education research.
So, without further ado, let’s jump straight into Part 1, of Tools for
Teachers.
21
PART
TEACH
1
CHAPTER 1
EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION
Explicit
Instruction
Can be summarised
with the PIC model
Plan
Plan the
Participation
Instruct
Plan the
Content
I Do
Check for Understanding
Ask
Questions
Observe
Provide Feedback
and Adapt
Instruction
We Do
You Do
This is a knowledge map for this chapter. Refer back to it as you read through this chapter to help you
organise the ideas that you’re learning in a coherent schema. Also see the completed knowledge map
on pages 78 and 79 to see how all of the ideas in this chapter fit together.
25
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Arguably, the foremost role of a teacher is to support students’ academic
success. And when it comes to supporting academic success on standard
measures, high quality explicit instruction is arguably the most valuable
tool in the teacher’s arsenal. This is why I’ve worked hard to interview and
explore the work of many of the world’s leaders on explicit instruction
over the past five years.1
In this chapter I present a model of explicit instruction that I have synthesised
from these world experts, as well as many years of experimentation,
successes, and failures, within my own classroom. The PIC model – Plan,
Instruct, Check for Understanding – is a memorable and practical way for
teachers to teach, and students to learn, in classrooms. In this chapter, I
describe in detail each of the three phases of the PIC model, and provide
guidance regarding how to execute each of these three steps with confidence,
effectiveness, and efficiency. But first, what is explicit instruction?
WHAT IS EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION?
World-renowned explicit instruction expert Anita Archer – the originator
of the phrase, ‘I do, We do, You do’ – provided the following description
of explicit instruction in our discussion:2
Everyone who goes in and looks at a teacher teaching knows
explicit instruction and not explicit instruction. [With explicit
instruction], you look [at the teaching] and say, ‘Oh, it’s
structured. Oh, it’s unambiguous. Oh, it’s direct.’ Those kinds of
adjectives would be immediately seen. Now the title of the book
that I wrote with Charles Hughes on explicit instruction, we call
it Explicit Instruction: Instruction that is effective and efficient.
Effective, because the biggest idea I would want to get across to all
educators is to keep their eye on the outcome, which is learning.
So often we get caught up in activities, we get caught up with what
seems like a good idea. But we forget the big outcome is what is
the content that you’ve chosen? That is learning.
1.
2.
26
Including Anita Archer, John Hollingsworth, and Lorraine Hammond, as well as inspiring
teachers such as Craig Barton and Sammy Kempner.
ERRR #060. Anita Archer on Explicit Instruction (14:24).
ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
From Anita’s brief description, we can see two key components of explicit
instruction: explicit learning goals and explicit instructional methods.
These relate to the meaning of the word ‘explicit’ itself. Explicit: fully
revealed or expressed without vagueness. During explicit instruction,
neither what students are expected to learn, nor how they are expected
to learn it, is vague or ambiguous.
When it comes to learning goals, the teacher is crystal clear about what
they want the students to be capable of by the end of the lesson, and
they evaluate every instructional decision with respect to that learning
goal. It is also likely that they’ll explicitly share that learning goal with
their students. Most of this work is done by the teacher before the lesson,
within the plan stage.
On the instructional front, it will be very clear what the students are
expected to do at every moment within the lesson, and this direction will
come from the teacher. Explicit instruction expert Lorraine Hammond
suggests that this usually looks like the teacher proceeding in small steps,
checking for student understanding frequently, and achieving active
and successful participation. This relates to the instruct and check for
understanding phases of explicit instruction.
The learning goals and the instructional methods are the explicit parts
of explicit instruction. Below we see how this plays out throughout: Plan,
Instruct, Check for understanding.
PLAN
We can think of planning in two different areas: planning the content
and planning participation.
Plan the content
In planning the content, we’re effectively planning to help students move
from novice, to expert, in a specific area or in relation to some specific
information. To do this, we first need to understand how knowledge is
structured in the mind of an expert. This gives us an end point so that
we clearly understand what we’re trying to scaffold our students towards.
27
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
THE KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURE OF EXPERTS
One of the key ways knowledge is structured in the minds of experts
is in terms of if–then statements, also referred to as situation → action
pairs. In short, experts are able to recognise familiar problem-solving
situations, and then automatically select an effective action to take given
that situation.
For example, a writer may recognise that they want to build suspense (if),
so they shorten their sentences (then). A stockbroker may recognise a
pattern in a price chart (if) and execute an appropriate trading algorithm
(then). Or a mathematician may see a certain problem (if) and know a
procedure that will help them to make progress towards an action (then).3
Planning as if–then statements
We can think of our teaching in terms of the if–then statements that we
are trying to establish in our students’ long-term memory. An example
from mathematics could be: If you have a right-angled triangle and
the lengths of two of the sides, then you can use Pythagoras’ Theorem
to calculate the length of the remaining side. In English as a Second
Language, we could have: If using more than one adjective to describe
a noun, then ensure that they’re in the order: general opinion, specific
opinion, size, shape, age, colour, nationality, material.4
Relating to the idea of if–then rules, Sammy Kempner shared his maths
department’s approach to teaching core mathematical knowledge at The
Totteridge Academy (TTA). At TTA, they use chants to teach if–then
knowledge. A chant is a call and response sentence that is started by the
teacher and finished by students. Here are some examples shared by Sammy:
3.
4.
28
For more on situation → action pairs, see Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory in Action.
Woodbridge: John Catt Educational (pp. 27–29).
This is a fun fact. For example, you could describe a backpack as a ‘big, rectangular, yellow
backpack’. But it would be weird to describe it as a ‘yellow, rectangular, big backpack’. This is
something that is totally unconscious to native speakers. But for language learners, seeing it
explicitly laid out can be helpful. When we get adjective order wrong, it sounds really weird!
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/grammar/english-grammar-reference/adjective-order.
ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
Teacher says (if)
Students respond (then)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Angles in a triangle…
Coordinates…
Prime numbers…
If you do it on one side…
Perimeter is…
add up to 180 degrees
x then y
have exactly two factors
do it on the other
the distance around a 2D shape
By rehearsing these in class to the point of automaticity, Sammy’s
department is explicitly planning the if–then knowledge that their
students will have quick access to. If students see a triangle, then they’ll
know the internal angles add to 180 degrees. If they see the word
‘perimeter’ in a question, then they’ll know that it’s referring to the
distance around the 2D shape in question.
This structured approach takes the guesswork out of what students know,
and how they are supposed to know it. The result of the TTA maths
approach is that the learning growth of their students has been amongst
the 10 highest schools in the country for several years now. Such rehearsal
fits well in a Daily Review at the start of a lesson (more on Daily Reviews
later in this chapter). Only through frequent rehearsal and reinforcement
can students reach automaticity.
Planning with bullet-proof definitions
Another useful way to explicitly plan for lessons is to construct
bullet-proof definitions. A bullet-proof definition is a simple statement
regarding what students are to know by the end of a lesson that they
didn’t know at the start. For example, by the end of the introduction to
this chapter, I wanted you, the reader, to know that ‘In explicit instruction,
what students are expected to learn and how they are expected to learn it
is clear and comprehensible to all involved’.
Some more examples include:
• Science lesson learning intention: Identify and communicate sources
of experimental error.
Bullet-proof definition: Experimental error is the difference between
a measurement and its true value.
29
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
• History lesson learning intention: Analyse the causes of the Cold War.
Bullet-proof definition: Cold War was a period of tense competition
(1947–1991) between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union
(USSR) without direct war between the two powers.5
You can think of bullet-proof definitions as clear, single-sentence
summaries of the big ideas for a lesson, a perfect way to make the content
that is being targeted explicit: fully revealed and expressed without
vagueness. Constructing one, or even a few, bullet-proof definitions at
the start of your planning process is an excellent way to get on the right
track for an explicit lesson.
Planning learning intentions
Learning intentions, which in many ways build upon the idea of bullet­
proof definitions, focus the mind of students (and the teacher) on exactly
what is to be learnt. However, constructing a quality learning intention
can often be challenging.
Creators of Explicit Direct Instruction (EDI), John Hollingsworth and
Silvia Ybarra, offer a clear way to turn curriculum standards into learning
intentions (also known as ‘learning objectives’). During our discussion,6
John suggested taking a standard and drawing a squiggly line under any
of the verbs (skills) and circling any of the nouns (concepts to be taught).
Here I’ll underline the skills and place the concepts in italics (because
of formatting constraints). This is helpful because often curriculum
standards contain many separate ideas which need to be separated into
many separate learning intentions. Here is an example:
• Curriculum standard from the Australian curriculum, Science, Year 9:7
• ‘Plan, select and use appropriate investigation types, including
field work and laboratory experimentation, to collect reliable
data; assess risk and address ethical issues associated with these
methods.
5. More examples given in Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory in Action (see pp. 69–70).
6. ERRR #037. John Hollingsworth on Explicit Direct Instruction.
7. Australian Curriculum, Year 9 Science (Version 8.4). (2021). Retrieved 14 December 2021,
from https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/science.
30
ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
• Possible learning intentions that could be constructed from this
standard.
• Compare and contrast data collection within scientific field
work and laboratory experimentation
• (this will help learners to select which is most appropriate
for a given situation)
• Communicate the risks and ethical issues associated with field
work and laboratory experimentation
• Collect and present data from a laboratory experiment
• (practical)
• Collect and present data from a field experiment
• (practical)
• Describe the key stages when planning field and laboratory
experiments
• (this helps students to learn to plan)
• Final assessment task (that brings together all of the learning intentions)
• Students are presented with a scenario or question to answer.
They must select whether a laboratory experiment or a field
experiment would be more appropriate, justify why, and outline
the steps required in order to carry out such an experiment.
Using these resources, the teacher will need to devise a learning
intention for this class. For instruction, a full Explicit Direct Instruction
(Hollingsworth and Ybarra) learning intention introduction includes the
teacher first reading it out, then students chorally reading it, students
then telling their partners what the learning intention is (pair–share),
then the teacher calling on a student to state the learning intention to
the class.
Within the introduction to a lesson, the teacher will follow the learning
intention with a comment on the relevance of the current topic, as well as
activating prior knowledge. I have included examples of what relevance
and activating prior knowledge could look like within the ‘Instruct’
section of this chapter.
31
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Planning knowledge structures
At the basic level, knowledge is stored as if–then structures in the minds
of experts. However, this only captures part of the expert’s knowledge
structure. At the broader level, these if–then statements are themselves
stored in schemas or networks of knowledge that we’d ideally like our
students to build into their long-term memories too.
Schemas can be usefully thought of as a collection of single-sentence
summaries that result in cohesive and integrated information networks.
For example, in Doug Lemov’s Teach Like a Champion 2.0, the first
chapter contains some of the following ideas:
• If you want to check for understanding, then you can do so via
questioning or observation.
• If you want to increase the reliability and validity of your questioning,
then you should reject self-report.8
• If you want to improve the efficiency of your observations, then you
should standardise the format.
These ideas are all valuable in isolation. However, in the mind of an expert,
they are not stored in isolation; they are stored in an organised structure
that guides the expert to an appropriate instructional technique for a given
situation. Here’s an example of what this knowledge structure might look
like in an expert teacher’s long-term memory, based upon some of the core
ideas presented in Chapter 1 of Teach Like a Champion 2.0:
8. Self-reporting is when students make judgements of their learning rather than teachers’
checking of objective measures. More on this later in the chapter.
32
ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
Check for Understanding
through
or
Questioning
Observation
To ensure reliability and
validity in questioning
Reject
self-report
Use targeted
questioning
improved by
Standardising
the format
Tracking not
watching
Quality assurance
through
Show me
checking
Explicitly presenting such a schema to readers or teachers can help them to
more clearly see the structures of the expert teacher’s knowledge structure
and how all the pieces fit together. This supports the establishment of
greater ‘coherence’, an idea explored more in Chapter 6 (Curriculum).
Providing explicitly mapped-out knowledge structures, like these, can
help students to see the connections between the bullet-proof definitions,
and the learning intentions, that you introduce them to from lesson to
lesson. Let me provide another example.
One of the topics that I’ve taught in recent years, and one that many
students have particularly struggled with, is modelling financial growth
and decay. Students get confused with different types of growth and decay,
(e.g. simple (arithmetic) vs compounding (geometric)) and the numerous
formulas that are relevant to them. To try to combat this, I constructed
the following schema diagram, which makes the relationships between
the different ideas in the topic clearer to students, as well as stepping them
through the decision-making process to work out which equation to use
in a given situation.
This can be done simply by handwriting it on the board, using OneNote,
or similar (this is the first iteration that I shared with students):
33
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Sequences can be
Geometric
Arithmetic
(x)
Such
as
(+, –)
Such
as
Simple
interest
o
= ...
=
n +1
+
n—
Unit­cost
depreciation
Flat­rate
depreciation
o
D
= ...
= R
n
n +1
Compound
interest
n
Recurrence
relations
=
+
o—
Reducing­balance
depreciation
nD
n
=
o
R
n
Equation for the value
after n­periods
Sequences are
modelled by
Also
D=
100
x
+
R=1—
cpy x 100
Or, it can be written out more formally as follows (this is the current
iteration):
34
ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
Sequences can be
Arithmetic
(+ or –)
Geometric
(× or ÷)
Such as
Simple
interest
Such as
Flat-rate
depreciation
Unit-cost
depreciation
Compound
interest
Reducing-balance
depreciation
The value of a
The value of the
next term
point in time
Which we call
Which we call
A recurrence
relation
Equation for the value at
timepoint 'n'
Such as
Such as
Vo = …
V n+1 = V n ± D
Vo = …
V n+1 = RV n
Interest is +
Depreciation is –
And D = Vo cpy x 100
Vn = Vo Rn
V n = V o ± nD
Interest, R = 1 +
cpy x 100
Depreciation, R = 1 –
cpy x 100
Notes:
Vo is the initial value
Vn +1 is the next term
Vn is the value of the sequence at a specific time
point 'n'
D represents the amount by which an arithmetic
progression grows or shrinks each step
R is the amount by which we multiply the previous
term in a geometric progression
35
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Explicitly sketching out a schema, introducing it progressively, and
giving students opportunities to apply it, can help students build a more
coherent knowledge structure.
Planning examples and non-examples
It isn’t sufficient to tell students what they need to learn (such as through
learning intentions, bullet-proof definitions, and knowledge schemas); we
also need to show them. This highlights the key importance of modelling,
often through examples and non-examples, a concept or procedure.
The successful implementation of an example or non-example crucially
hinges upon good preparation. Far too often, a teacher will make up an
example on the spot, or rely upon textbooks that often provide incomplete,
insufficiently explicit, or poorly chosen examples.
To successfully plan your examples (often referred to as ‘I do’), the
questions that you do with students (‘We do’) and the questions that
they then move on to do during independent practice (‘You do’) requires
having a clear picture in mind of how those examples are to be used in
class, at what points you will conduct checks for understanding, and what
the likely misconceptions are that students will hold. I sketch several such
examples later on in this chapter that aim to provide an understanding of
how quality explicit instruction of examples and non-examples can look,
which can then be used to inform planning of your own lessons.
Revisit and review
One of the most commonly forgotten, but most important parts of content
planning, is planning when to revisit a given item of knowledge, or a given
skill. Through rigorous self-experimentation, the father of experimental
psychology, Herman Ebbinghaus, demonstrated in the late 1800s9 that
humans forget in a predictable way. Thus, it should be no surprise to us
that without providing opportunities for students to revisit content, they
are very likely to forget it.
9.
36
The explicit details of Ebbinghaus’s research, how he controlled for the variation in the degree
of learning, and how he measured his retention in particular are fascinating. For readers
who would like more information about this, I would recommend the brief Introduction
to Memory, Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913) by Robert H. Wozniak. Accessible at: http://
psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/wozniak.htm.
ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
It is crucial to build into your planning some form of review – ideally
daily, weekly, and monthly review – to provide quality opportunities for
students to retrieve, and be reminded of, key content and skills. Reviews
can be as simple as one question from last lesson, one question from
last week, and one question from last month, or can be more complex,
utilising well-structured and planned slideshows, or learning technology
such as Anki, Podsie, or Carousel10 to strategically embed core knowledge
into students’ long-term memory.
As I reflect upon the schools, especially primary schools, that I have
visited and that are having the biggest impacts on student learning,
one common factor is high quality Daily Reviews. Daily Reviews are
carefully planned, fast-paced reviews of prior content with the explicit
aim of scaffolding students towards automaticity of foundational skills.
To identify the content to include within your daily reviews, simply ask,
‘What would it be good for my students to know automatically and off by
heart for success in this subject?’
For primary literacy, this could include things like phonemes, high
frequency irregular words (like, does, said, you, want, from, was, the),
vocabulary, identifying sentence fragments, and appositives. For primary
maths it could include times tables, skip counting, adding and subtracting
fractions, subitising, and vertical addition and subtraction. This is also
a great place to embed practice of the ‘chants’ that we learnt about in
the ‘Plan the knowledge’ section at the start of this chapter, in addition
to short questions that give students opportunities to apply the skills
associated with each chant in a targeted and time-efficient way.
…
Once we’ve explicitly planned the content through constructing if–then
statements, chants, bullet-proof definitions, or schemas, and planned
when to revisit core content,11 we’re ready to begin explicitly planning
the participation.
10. https://www.ollielovell.com/anki, https://www.podsie.org, https://www.carousel-learning.com.
11. We also need to plan things like our modelling, worked examples, and explanations, but I’ll
go into more detail about this in the ‘Instruct’ section.
37
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Plan the participation
To prepare for effective and efficient instruction it can be useful to
do initial groundwork to establish three things: an attentional cue,
engagement norms, and a culture of error.
An attentional cue12
How many times have you asked for the class’s attention, only to be left
waiting as students seemingly haven’t noticed, or don’t at all seem to care?
We’ve all tried different approaches such as:
• ‘I’m counting down… Five, four, three, two, one.’
• ‘I’ll keep you in at the end of class if we don’t settle quickly.’
• Or the more productive ‘positive narration’: ‘I can see that Harry’s
ready. Mark’s eyes are this way and looking. I’m waiting for two now.
Justine’s ready to roll. One more… And we’re there.’
But what if we use a simple cue and have our students’ attention within a
very short time period, something like five seconds? This is the idea of an
attentional cue. It’s a process, often call and response, that we train our
students in to ensure that we can have their full attention very quickly.
Attentional cues can take many forms. Here are some examples:
Teacher says
Students say
• Waterfall
• One, two
• Founded in…
• Shhhhhhh
• Eyes on you
• Eighty Two (School’s founding year. I’ve used this with older
students)
• Prepared, Polite, Productive (emphasising behavioural
expectations)
• Go, Go, Go (or something else from a school team chant or similar)
• (Students raise their hands in response and stop talking)
• In our class…
• Dodgers, Dodgers
• (Teacher raises hand)
As with any engagement norm (see the next section), your attentional
cue should be established explicitly, and should be practised at the outset.
Here’s how this could go:
12. I first learnt about attention cues through the work of Hollingsworth and Ybarra in their book
Explicit Direct Instruction: The power of the well-crafted, well-taught lesson (Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage, 2018). They call it an ‘Attention Signal’.
38
ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
T: So that we’ve got maximum time for learning in our class, it’s
important that I have a quick way to get your attention. So, whenever
I call out, ‘One, two’ in our class, I want you to all reply, ‘Eyes on you’
in a confident voice, then immediately stop talking. Ready? One, two.
S: Eyes on you
T: Great, let’s do it again. One, two.
S: Eyes on you.
T: Excellent. Now, I want you to talk with your partner in your library
voice for about 20 seconds, and as soon as you hear me say, ‘One, two’
you should immediately say, ‘Eyes on you,’ stop talking, and look at
me. Ready? Go…
After some time of students talking
T: One, two.
S: Eyes on you.
(Then repeat twice, once with ‘inside voice’ talking and finally with
‘outside voice’ talking)
Once an attentional cue has been established, it must be reinforced to
keep it fresh. It’s great to use at the end of any ‘turn and talk’ or ‘pair–
share’. It’s also worth practising it before going into a pair–share if it’s
been a while since it was last used.
Engagement norms
Engagement Norms is a term from John Hollingsworth and Silvia Ybarra’s
Explicit Direct Instruction, or EDI. They’re a set of tools that a teacher
develops in order to keep students engaged and learning and actively
participating. It includes things like, ‘pronounce with me’, ‘track with
me’, ‘pair–share’, and ‘mini-whiteboards’ (attentional cue from above is
also an example of an engagement norm). Below is a brief description of
the engagement norms from Explicit Direct Instruction. Each needs to be
introduced in a similar manner to the attentional cue example given above:
39
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
• Pronounce with me
• Model the pronunciation of hard words. For example:
• Teacher: ‘Pronounce with me, Perimeter’
• S: ‘Perimeter’
• T: Again, ‘Perimeter’
• S: ‘Perimeter’
• Track with me
• Have students actively point at the board and track with their
fingers what they’re reading.
• Alternative idea: During whole class reading, students at Michaela
Community School use a ruler to show which line they’re up to in
their text (a good option if students are reading from books or
printouts in front of them rather than from on the board).
• Read with me (Meaning: read along in unison with me)
• Three options
1. Fully tracked: Teacher reads, students all read chorally
2. Pronounce the hard words: Teacher pronounces hard words,
whole class reads together
3. Whole class reads together
• Read with me is often used to read out a learning intention
within Explicit Direct Instruction (EDI)
• Gesture with me
• Often adding an action to an activity can help to encode
the memory of a concept more effectively. Used similarly to
‘pronounce with me’.
• Whiteboard
• With whiteboards (often called ‘mini-whiteboards’, ‘show me
boards’ or ‘response cards’13), each student has their own
mini-whiteboard and uses it to respond to simple questions (e.g.
multiple-choice, quick answers that require a single number
or fewer than five or so letters). I like to get students to ‘Hover’
their whiteboard once they’ve written an answer – ‘Hovering
now, answer side down so that I can see you’re ready’ – then ask
13. Marsh, R. J., Cumming, T. M., Randolph, J. J., and Michaels, S. (2021). Updated meta-analysis
of the research on response cards. Journal of Behavioral Education. doi:10.1007/s10864-021­
09463-0.
40
ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
younger students to ‘Chin it’ (hold their board under their chins)
or older students to ‘Show me’ once the whole class is hovering.
This also gives great opportunities to ‘warm call’, i.e. pick a
student with a good or correct answer and ask them to share it
or explain it to the class.
• Pair–share
• Pair–share is when the teacher gives students a brief opportunity
to speak with a partner about the question or topic at hand.
• EDI suggests that pair–share should be used EVERY time a
question is asked by the teacher.
• My favourite time to use pair–share, modelled after Eric Mazur’s
‘Peer Instruction’ method, is after I’ve checked for understanding
using whiteboards and seen that about 50% of the class is correct.
When this happens, run a pair–share, bring students back
with the attentional cue, then run a check for understanding
on whiteboards again to see who has changed their answer.
Hopefully you’re now at 80% or more correct within the class.
Cold call on a student who changed their answer and ask them
to explain to the class why they did so.
• It’s important to note that outside of EDI, pair–share is often
called think–pair–share. This is an important distinction,
because the ‘think’ phase is crucial. This is the phase in which
students independently retrieve the information, and therefore
benefit from the retrieval effect. So ensure that sufficient time is
allocated to independent thinking and retrieval prior to students
discussing with their partner, or the class.14
• Complete Sentences
• Encouraging students to answer in complete sentences is an
excellent method for reinforcing the academic vocabulary that
you are teaching, as well as the concept. It also has the promise
of increasing student confidence. In the beginning, and for
struggling learners, write out the sentence stem on the board.
Eventually, students should be able to construct the sentence
stem from the question.
14. Jones, K., and Wiliam, D. (2021). Getting the ‘Think–Pair–Share’ Technique Right.
https://www.ascd.org/blogs/getting-the-think-pair-share-technique-right.
41
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
• Example. Teacher: Which of these numbers is a prime number
and why?
• Sentence stem (written on board): ___ is a prime number
because ___
• Student says: Seven is a prime number because it has exactly
two factors.15
As mentioned, the key with any engagement norm is to explicitly
introduce them (including an explanation of why you’re doing it), and
reinforce them over time.
…
Once we’ve planned the content, and planned the participation, we’re
ready for instruction.
INSTRUCT
We can think of instruction in three distinct phases – Introduction, I do,
We do – which are then followed by independent practice (You do). This
section sketches out how to tackle Introduction, I do, and We do.
Introduce
The introduction to a topic often contains three key stages: learning
intention, relevance, activating prior knowledge. We have already
considered planning learning intentions in the prior section. Therefore,
here I focus on how to touch upon relevance within your instruction, as
well as how to activate prior knowledge.
Relevance
The relevance of an idea or topic should be kept quick and sharp, and
definitely under 30 seconds (a few brief sentences). This is a good opportunity
to highlight the importance of the topic, and can also be a good time to
foreshadow the effort that will be required to tackle it. Here is an example:
15. From a review of this chapter, Lorraine Hammond offered the following additional note to
readers: Note that the student has just reminded the rest of the class that prime numbers have
exactly two factors, and that seven is an example of a prime number. Should the student just
say seven, the teacher would say, ‘Help me to understand why seven is a prime number.’
42
ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
Image
Teacher Says
The Richter Scale
Richter Magnitude
Equivalent KG of TNT
More common
Frequency
9
20 trillion kg
8
60 billion kg
7
20 billion kg
6
60,000,000 kg
5
4
3
2
1
20,000,000 kg
60,000 kg
20,000 kg
600 kg
0.6 - 20 kg
Relevance: Today we’re looking at logarithms.
Logarithms are useful when dealing with
ranges of numbers that are very large. For
example, when measuring the strength of
an earthquake, we use a logarithmic scale
because weak earthquakes are very weak, but
strong earthquakes are very, very strong.*
Effort: Logarithms can be tricky for students
at first, so today’s lesson will take significant
effort, but I’m confident that careful listening
and careful practice will lead you to success.
Let’s get started.
Less common
*Whilst the Richter scale is referenced here, and news media often still refers to the Richter scale, the vast majority of
seismological authorities use other scales today.
At just over 80 words, this introduction should take less than 30 seconds
at average speaking speed.
The EDI approach suggests addressing relevance at the end of the lesson,
but I have personally found it helpful to foreground the relevance, as it
helps students to see the value of the task (more on the importance of
value in Chapter 3 on Motivation).
Activate prior knowledge
Once the learning intention is established and shared with students,16
and relevance is highlighted, the next step is activating prior knowledge.
There are two main ways to activate prior knowledge: via a universal or
shared experience, or a sub-skill review.
Example: Prompt students to recall a universal experience:17
Lesson focus: Describe the Government of the Roman Republic
16. Again, learning intentions do not always have to be explicitly shared with students, depending
upon the purpose and structure of the lesson. But this is a safe default in the majority of
lessons.
17. Both this example and the shared experience example ideas were provided by John
Hollingsworth.
43
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Activating prior knowledge questions: How did we come up with the
classroom rules? Have you ever come up with the rules differently in
another class?
These questions relate the current topic of study – government – to
something that students are already familiar with – classroom rules – and
act as an anchor for their new learning, as well as providing a personal
grounding for them to which to relate the lesson’s information.
Example: Generate a shared experience:
Lesson focus: Identify and Communicate Sources of Experimental Error
Activating prior knowledge activity:
Teacher: Let’s collect some data. We are running an experiment, and
I need to know the time that we’re starting it. Everyone look at the
clock in the room, or on your own watch, and write down the exact
time (to the second if you can) on your mini-whiteboard when I say,
‘Go’. Ready, set, go.
Break
T: Hovering, and now… chin it!
What you should see is a range of answers from students. Highlight this
with something like:
T: Isn’t it interesting that we have such a range of answers from a
simple activity like recording the time? Even though we checked
the time at the same time, many of us got different answers! The
difference between your answers and the true time that you recorded
them is known as ‘experimental error’, and we always need to account
for this error whenever we’re doing an experiment. Today we’re going
to learn how to do this.
Example: Activate prior knowledge via a sub-skill review:
Sub-skill review simply means giving students practice with a skill that
is a prerequisite to the content that’s about to be taught. For example,
you could review the locations of some countries on a map prior to
talking about a war involving those countries, you could have students
44
ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
practise identifying different tenses in Spanish prior to a lesson on verb
conjugation based upon tenses, or you could have them review the notes
on a piano keyboard prior to teaching basic chords.
Depending upon how you and your school structure your instruction,
this sub-skill review could be done just before the new content to be
taught or it could be part of a structured Daily Review during the usual
time that you have allocated for such a review.
I do
Following an introduction, ‘I do’ is the phase during which the teacher
models to students what it is that they will soon have an opportunity
to learn or do. This is perhaps the key instructional phase that makes
explicit instruction explicit. The teacher demonstrates the full process
(or a segment of the process) from start to finish to give students a
clear picture of what success looks like. Four valuable things to keep in
mind whilst planning or carrying out an ‘I do’ are as follows: model the
thinking process, provide non-examples based upon critical attributes,
provide templates, and avoid transience.
Model the thinking process
Earlier we considered how, in the planning phase, it’s valuable to consider
the knowledge structures that we are trying to support our students to
acquire. For example, when considering whether or not it is appropriate
to use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the unknown side of a right-angled
triangle, the knowledge structure for students to master may look as
follows:
45
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Is it a right-angled
triangle?
No
Yes
Can’t use Pythagoras’
Theorem
Do we have the lengths
of two of the sides?
No
Yes
Can’t use Pythagoras’
Theorem
Can use it!
a2 + b2 = c2
Is the longest side
missing or one of the
shorter sides?
Missing longest
Missing shorter
Replace a and b
with the side lengths
c
Replace b with the
shorter side length and
c with the hypotenuse
a
Example:
32 + 42 = c2
…
∴ c=5
Example:
a2 + 42 = 52
…
∴ a=3
Knowledge tree structure for an expert using Pythagoras’ Theorem
The job of the teacher is to teach in such a way that students end up with
a replica of this knowledge structure in their long-term memory. They do
this by modelling their own thought process. However, this likely can’t
all be done at once. When the complexity of the to-be-learnt information
is too great, it’s often useful to segment that information into smaller
chunks. For example, an introduction to Pythagoras’ Theorem could just
46
ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
focus on the top three layers of this decision tree – that is, working out
if Pythagoras’ Theorem can be used, but leaving out the ‘how’ until later.
Here’s how this could look for a teacher running an ‘I do’ regarding how
to determine whether or not Pythagoras’ Theorem is appropriate:
Teacher: ‘In this section of the lesson, we are learning when it’s
appropriate to use Pythagoras’ Theorem. Here’s how we know.’
Writes on board then has whole class read out chorally:
If you have a right-angled triangle and you have the lengths of two
of the sides, then you can use Pythagoras’ Theorem to calculate
the length of the remaining side.
T: ‘Let me show you what this means. Look at this triangle and
question.’
Draws on board:
Can Pythagoras’ Theorem be used to find the unknown side for
this triangle?
6
8
T: ‘We know that (traces finger along words that were previously written
whilst reading, emphasising the critical attributes) if you have a rightangled triangle and you have the lengths of two of the sides, then you can
use Pythagoras’ Theorem to calculate the length of the remaining side.
So, I need to ask myself two questions.
First, I ask myself, is this a right-angled triangle?
Yes, I know that it’s a right-angled triangle; it has this square in the
corner that tells us that that corner has an angle of 90 degrees (writes
‘90°’ next to the 90 degrees symbol)
Second, I ask myself, do I have two of the sides?
47
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Yes, I have two side lengths, 6 and 8.
Therefore, I know I can use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the missing
side. Now let’s do one together.
In this vignette, the teacher has stepped their students through the
decision tree that they themselves use to determine whether or not
Pythagoras’ Theorem is applicable. This is then reinforced throughout
the ‘We do’ section.18
(Also note how the teacher flags, ‘I ask myself’. This is to prevent students
from calling out the answer by making it clear that it’s a rhetorical
question.)
A similar ‘I do’ in primary school could look as follows:
Teacher: We’re now going to add adjectives to make our sentences more
interesting and add information for the reader. Adjectives describe
nouns. (Teacher to write ‘Adjectives describe nouns’ on the board, or
have it in a slide.)
Consider this sentence (writes on board):
There is a dog.
To add an adjective, first I need to identify the noun. A noun is the
name of a person, place, thing, or animal, like dog. So here, the noun
is dog.
I need adjectives for dog. Remember, adjectives describe nouns
(points to the board) and dog is the noun.
I am thinking of brown, a colour to describe a dog. I am thinking of
tiny, another word that describes the size of a dog. Can you think of
another adjective to describe a dog?19
18. It is also worth mentioning that the ‘I do’ can be done without the teacher talking, such as
in Craig Barton’s ‘silent teacher’ routine. In some situations, and for some content, this can
be useful also, as it can reduce extraneous information (often it’s hard for us teachers to use
economy of language) and can help students to focus more fully on the modelling.
19. Thanks to Lorraine Hammond for contributing this example.
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ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
Provide non-examples based upon critical attributes
We all know that it’s important to provide examples, but often we
overlook non-examples for our students. However, non-examples are
absolutely critical to learning. Why? Because they demonstrate to our
students the ‘boundary conditions’ (limitations) of the knowledge and
skills that we are teaching them. Said another way, examples demonstrate
to students where the knowledge and skills that we’re teaching them can
be applied; non-examples show them where they can’t.
But how is it that we can generate non-examples and what makes a good
one? Anita Archer suggests that we should use the critical attributes of
an if–then statement to design our non-examples. Let me give you two
examples to make this a little clearer.
A simple example, offered by Dylan Wiliam, relates to teaching students
what is and isn’t a bird. By highlighting core critical attributes of a bird –
that they are warm-blooded vertebrates with feathers, a beak, and wings
– teachers are then well placed to discuss with students examples and
non-examples. By providing the non-example of a bat, and highlighting
that it doesn’t align with at least two of the critical attributes (i.e. doesn’t
have a beak and doesn’t lay eggs), students come to a fuller understanding
of the definition of a bird.
From mathematics, we can consider again the if–then statement from
above: ‘If you have a right-angled triangle and if you have the lengths
of two of the sides, then you can use Pythagoras’ Theorem to calculate
the length of the remaining side.’ We have two critical attributes, or
conditions, for us to know that Pythagoras’ Theorem can be used.
These critical attributes are underlined above: the first is that the triangle
must be right angled, and the second is that we must already have the
lengths of two sides. Thus, we could construct an example and two
non-examples based upon this. In the example, all critical attributes
(pre-conditions) are satisfied. In each of our two non-examples, one of
the critical pre-conditions is violated, as demonstrated on the next page:
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
For which of the following triangles would it be appropriate to use
Pythagoras’ Theorem? Provide reasons for your answer in each case.
a
c
b
7
6
8
e
d
8
8
f
11
6
4
4
8
Below are example answers for each triangle:
a. Yes, Pythagoras can be used, because it is a right-angled triangle and
we have the lengths of two sides.
b. No, Pythagoras can’t be used because it isn’t a right-angled triangle.
c. No, Pythagoras can’t be used because we only have the length of
one side.
d. No, Pythagoras can’t be used because we aren’t sure that it’s a rightangled triangle.
e. No, Pythagoras can’t be used because we only have the length of
one side.
f. Yes, Pythagoras can be used, because it is a right-angled triangle, and
we have the lengths of two sides.
Non-examples show students the dead ends in our decision tree (see the
diagram on the next page), help them to answer the question, ‘Can I apply
this knowledge or process to this new situation?’ and are best introduced
in either the ‘I do’ or the ‘We do’ phase.
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ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
Is it a right-angled
triangle?
No
Yes
Can’t use Pythagoras’
Theorem
Do we have the lengths
of two of the sides?
No
Can’t use Pythagoras’
Theorem
Yes
Can use it!
a2 + b2 = c2
Non-examples show
the dead ends in our
decision tree
Non-examples target the dead ends of a decision tree
Provide templates
The use of templates acknowledges that students often aren’t able to
perform at the level of an expert from the outset, but that exceptional
work can be produced if adequate support is provided. Just as scripts are
helpful for teachers as they first learn to master behaviour management
(see the next chapter), so are scripts and templates valuable for novice
students. Below are both a secondary and a primary level example of this:
Secondary Example: Writing the title of a science report
For example, when students are learning to write a science report, they
may not know how to write an appropriate title. In such a case, the
following templates and examples could be provided:
An appropriate title states the question that you’re trying to answer.
The question will detail that you are trying to determine the impact
that your independent variable has on your dependent variable. In
this way, the sentence will usually take the general form:
How does (independent variable) (relational word) (dependent
variable)? ← A template
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
For example, one independent variable may be ‘mass’, a relational
word could be ‘impact’, and your dependent variable could be
‘friction’. Put together, this would form the question: ‘How does mass
impact friction?’ It is also important to add context to your question,
such as ‘How does the mass of a wooden block impact friction on
an inclined plane?’
Some good examples of relational words you could use are:
‘influence’, ‘impact’, ‘affect’, ‘change’, or ‘determine’.
Here are some examples of good experimental titles; some are
harder than others. A slash ‘/’ indicates you could select from the
options offered on either side of the slash. Independent variables
are underlined, dependent variables are in italics, and relational
words are bold.
• How does release angle/projectile mass impact the range/flight
time/height of a catapult?
• How does displacement/projectile mass/spring constant
influence the range/flight time/height of a slingshot projectile?
• How does spring constant affect a spring’s period of oscillation?
• How does mass/release height change the period of a pendulum/
range of an object struck by a pendulum?
• How does mass determine the rate of descent of a parachute?
• How does rate of descent/travel time/frictional force depend
upon slope angle/height/object surface area of a sliding object?
Primary Example: Using new words in the context of a writing prompt20
Imagine you have just taught the class two new words: colossal and
vicious. You have provided them with clear, student-friendly definitions
(Colossal: really, really big | Vicious: mean and dangerous), illustrated
these definitions with many examples and non-examples, and checked
for understanding throughout. Now you’d like students to put these new
words into practice in response to a writing prompt.
20. Gratitude to Dr Lorraine Hammond, Jared Bussell and Jordan O’Sullivan for generously
providing this example.
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ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
The writing prompt is a GIF21 of a massive shark jumping out of the water
and seizing a seal in its mouth.
Your writing prompt could look as follows (note the inclusion of target
vocabulary from previous lessons on the right hand side). The use of colour
(which is seen as different shades in the black and white print of this book)
makes explicit the components of a compound sentence and this writing
activity provides an opportunity to put the new vocabulary to use.
When, who what it did, co-ordinating conjunction who what it did .
vicious
colossal
petrifying
razor-sharp
savage
monstrous
If your students are used to writing to a formula like this (When, who
what it did, co-ordinating conjunction who what it did), model one
example and then they can complete the task independently by following
the prompts.
A good example of a teacher worked example, or a quality student response,
could be:
At dusk, an unsuspecting seal played in the waves, so a vicious predator
suddenly attacked.
If your students are not familiar with such a sentence-writing formula,
the following grid could be used to clarify it for them, and could be used
to construct some examples together.
21. A GIF is like a very short video clip with no sound, that repeats. You may have seen them
shared on social media.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Compound Sentence
who
what it did,
At dusk,
an unsuspecting seal
floated in the water,
As the
seagulls circled,
a brown seal
played in waves,
Yesterday,
a friendly seal
hunted fish,
When,
co-ordinating
conjunction
so
but
or
yet
and
who
what it did
a____shark
____ly attacked.
a____great white
____ly mauled it.
a____predator
____ly devoured it.
This way, your weakest students will have a model to follow and everyone
will be reminded of how to construct a compound sentence and be closer
to committing this to long-term memory.
Remember, explicit instruction is about making things explicit. By
providing templates that clearly map out for students exactly what success
looks like, and exactly how to get there, we give them the best shot at
improvement, achievement, and confidence.
…
A quick note on differentiation. Differentiation is often thought of in
terms of providing tasks of differing levels of difficulty to students of
differing achievement levels. However, the outcome of such an approach
is that some students reach standard, and some students don’t. I prefer to
think of differentiation in terms of providing different levels of support
to students of differing achievement levels. This way, all students are
more likely to reach standard, some just receive more scaffolding to do
so. Templates and examples to the level of specificity provided above are
a great way to offer robust support to those students who need it.22
Avoid transience
The transient information effect, an idea from Cognitive Load Theory,
tells us that when new information is only visible or audible to students
22. However, it’s also important to consider whether the scaffolding is supporting the learner to
improve, or simply their work. As Dylan Wiliam notes, sometimes we can provide too much
structure, and this improves the work, but not the learner. To ensure that the learner is also
supported to improve, it is helpful to fade the scaffolding (progressively remove it) over time
and allow them to do more and more of the task independently.
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ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
for a limited amount of time and then disappears again, this makes it
much harder for students to learn.
What this means for us is that, during instruction, it is imperative that
all key information that is new to them remains visible for students’
reference right throughout the instructional process.
In the Pythagoras example above, the teacher starts by writing on the
board the key sentence for all students:
If you have a right-angled triangle and you have the lengths
of two of the sides, then you can use Pythagoras’ Theorem to
calculate the length of the remaining side.
By writing this on the board, the key idea is there for all students, and
the teacher, to see and refer to right throughout instruction. If this were
just spoken by the teacher, it could be hard for students to remember it
whilst they were walked through the process.
Michael Pershan, author of Teaching Math with Examples, provides a
novel approach to worked examples that takes excellent account of the
transient information effect.’ He presents students with a fully written
worked example for students to study, then some prompts for students to
consider, such as is pictured below:23
Example:
3/4 of a can of paint is enough to paint 1 wall.
How many walls could you paint with 2 cans of paint?
Marcia’s solution:
Questions:
•
Why did she split the cans of the paint into quarters?
•
How did she know that two-quarters of paint would cover two-thirds of a wall?
23. From Michael Pershan’s Teaching Math with Examples. Woodbridge: John Catt Educational, p. 33.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Michael then has a structured and strategic process for scaffolding
students through this type of question that is incredibly powerful
(summarised in Appendix 1, because this chapter is already getting too
long!).24 This is in contrast to the way that teachers often do worked
examples on the board with limited planning, which often results in them
stating verbally (speech is transient) many of the key points rather than
writing them down explicitly. With a thoroughly planned approach like
Michael’s, it’s easier to ensure that all key parts are presented in a less
transient format.
The transient information effect is an incredibly rich and informative
Cognitive Load Theory effect for teachers. I have written about it in more
detail in Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory in Action (see pages 88 to 93).
We do
Once we have modelled the expert’s thinking process, our goal is to
then step students through the expert’s thinking process. It is usually
too big of a jump from seeing an expert perform to performing like an
expert oneself. This is where ‘We do’ comes in. To the question, ‘What’s
the biggest mistake that teachers make when doing this?’, Anita Archer
quickly replied, ‘Skipping the “We do”!’
Building on our Pythagoras’ Theorem example from before, here’s what
a ‘We do’ could look like:
T: ‘Here is another triangle.’
Draws on board
4
4
24. Listen to https://www.ollielovell.com/errr/michaelpershan/ for more info, or get a copy of
Teaching Math with Examples. This is a book that every teacher, especially maths teachers,
should own (and read too)!
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T: ‘The question is, can we use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the missing
side of this triangle? We know that (re-reads the if–then statement,25
tracing with their finger). So, we can ask ourselves the first question. Is
this a right-angled triangle? Choral response in 3, 2, 1.’
Students: ‘Yes.’
T: ‘I want you to now think to yourself, how do we know this is a rightangled triangle?… waits 5 seconds… Ok, pair–share to discuss when
I say ‘Go’, then I’ll call on someone to answer. How do we know this
is a right-angled triangle? Door-side partner talks first. Go?… waits
15 seconds for students to share… uses attentional cue: Waterfall…
S: Shhhhhhhhh
T: Excellent everyone, great to see your attention back so quickly.
Abdi, how do we know this is a right-angled triangle?
Abdi: ‘Because it’s got the box in the corner.’
T: ‘Correct answer, full sentence please, Abdi.’
Abdi: ‘We know that this is a right-angled triangle because it has the
90 degree box in the corner.’
T: ‘Excellent, Abdi. Our second question, do we have the lengths of
two of the sides? Choral response in 3, 2, 1.’
S: ‘Yes.’
T: ‘So, can we use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the missing side?
Choral response in 3, 2, 1.’
S: ‘Yes.’
T: ‘Correct, we can use Pythagoras’ Theorem because it is a rightangled triangle, and we have the lengths of two sides. Here’s another
example.’
25. If you have a right-angled triangle and you have the lengths of two of the sides, then you can
use Pythagoras’ Theorem to calculate the length of the remaining side.
57
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Draws on board:
7
8
T: ‘The question is, can we use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the
missing side of this triangle? With a hand up, what is the first
question we need to ask ourselves? Angela?’
Angela: ‘Is it a right-angled triangle?’
T: ‘Correct. Angela. Class, choral response, is it a right-angled
triangle?’
S: ‘No.’
T: ‘Correct. I’m going to call on someone with my pop sticks now, so
I want you to get ready to answer the question, how do we know it
isn’t a right-angled triangle? Five seconds of thinking time.’ (Teacher
counts to five in their head.) ‘Magnus.’
Magnus: ‘We know it isn’t a right-angled triangle because it hasn’t got
the 90 degree square in a corner.’
T: ‘Correct Magnus. And I love how you answered in a full sentence
there, fantastic work. So, it isn’t a right-angled triangle. Choral
response, can we use Pythagoras’ Theorem?’
S: ‘No.’
T: ‘Perfect. One final example for us to do together.’
Draws on board:
11
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ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
T: Whilst referring to the knowledge map (p. 51) ‘Again, the question
for us to answer is, and no calling out thanks, can we use Pythagoras’
Theorem to find either of the unknown sides on this triangle?
Question 1, choral response, is this a right-angled triangle?’
S: ‘Yes.’
T: ‘Second question, choral response, do we have the length of two
sides?’
S: ‘No.’
T: ‘So, choral response, can we use Pythagoras’ Theorem?’
S: ‘No.’
T: ‘Excellent work everyone. You now have six similar problems in
your booklet. You have three minutes and two seconds26 to complete
these now, and then we’ll go through the answers. Go.’ Students
proceed to the ‘You do’.
This vignette is designed to clearly show how a ‘We do’ steps students
through the thinking process of an expert. In this way, it transitions them
from seeing an expert at work (I do), towards practising independently
(You do).
You do
Not formally part of the ‘instruct’ phase, the purpose of ‘You do’ is to give
students sufficient practice with key skills or knowledge such that they
can begin to chunk and automate it in long-term memory. We all have
a limited working memory capacity and can therefore only think about
a limited number of ‘chunks’ or ‘elements’ of information at any one
time. However, what constitutes a ‘chunk’ depends upon what is stored
in long-term memory already!
Through practice, students can store bigger and bigger ‘chunks’ of
information in long-term memory, and this is the foundation of higherorder thinking and problem-solving. For example, writing the letter ‘A’
may initially be a very challenging task for a young child, but over time,
26. Giving a really specific time period like this can be fun for students if done from time to time.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
this is practised to the point of automaticity, and a fluent writer can write
‘A’, and thousands of words containing the letter ‘A’, without any conscious
thought. ‘You do’ facilitates this chunking and automation.27
Three key characteristics of quality ‘You do’ practice are as follows: 1.
The practice should start from similar problems to the ‘I do’ and ‘We do’
examples, and gradually increase in complexity. 2. There should be a lot
of it; students can’t chunk and automate without sufficient repetition. 3.
Practice must be spaced. If students only practise on one day, it’s highly
unlikely that they will remember the skills or knowledge taught to them
for the long term. More on the importance of spacing in Chapter 6
(Curriculum).
CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING
Legendary UK educator Tom Sherrington, in response to the question
‘What’s the most important thing for teachers to do in their instruction?’
gave a clear and direct answer: ‘Check for understanding!’28 I couldn’t
agree more. Adding weight to this argument, Doug Lemov reminds
us that the famous basketball coach John Wooden defined teaching as
follows: ‘Teaching is knowing the difference between “I taught it” and
“They learned it”.’ Put simply, without checking for understanding (CFU),
there’s no way for us to know whether our students have learnt it, or
whether we’ve just taught it. By this definition, without CFU, a teacher
can’t truly call themselves a teacher!
Earlier in this chapter, within the knowledge structures section, we were
introduced to Doug Lemov’s model of checking for understanding (CFU).
This model clearly shows us that there are two main ways to check for
understanding. We can either ask questions of our students, or we can
observe their work. Here’s the diagram of that model again:29
27. More on chunking and automation in Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory in Action (see pp.
20–22).
28. ERRR #045. Tom Sherrington on ‘The Most Important Thing’.
29. For a full discussion of the six techniques pictured at the bottom of this diagram, see Doug
Lemov’s Teach Like a Champion 2.0, on which it was based, or the updated Teach Like a
Champion 3.0.
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Check for Understanding
through
or
Questioning
Observation
To ensure reliability and
validity in questioning
Reject
self-report
Use targeted
questioning
improved by
Standardising
the format
Tracking not
watching
Quality assurance
through
Show me
checking
The data collection phase of Check for Understanding includes questioning
and observation. Following this, teachers have the opportunity to act
on this information by providing feedback and adapting instruction.
Methods for questioning and observation are outlined below.
Ask questions
Asking questions is a direct attempt to see what is in the mind of our
learners, which ideas have stuck, and what has been understood from
our instruction. Four valuable techniques for asking questions are: Reject
self-report, cold call, no opt-out, and sample all students.
Reject self-report
Reject self-report means that we shouldn’t ask students, ‘Have you got
that?’, but instead should ask questions like, ‘Which of these two options
is more correct?’ (students write answer on their whiteboards) or, ‘Write a
one-sentence summary of what we just learnt’, or other tasks that require
students to demonstrate understanding rather than just report it.
This is important for two reasons. Firstly, students’ self-reports are often
wrong. That is, students think they’ve understood something, or think
they’ll be able to do something themselves, when this actually isn’t the
case. The second reason why rejecting self-report is important is that even
if students accurately identify that they don’t understand something, it
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
takes a very, very confident student to answer a ‘Got that?’ asked to the
whole class with, ‘No, I didn’t, Miss. Can you please explain it again in
a different way?’
It can be hard to break this habit of asking vague ‘Got that?’ questions.
But crucially, when you feel yourself wanting to ask a self-report question
like, ‘Everybody got that?’ or, ‘Does that make sense?’, you’re signalling to
yourself that it’s a great time to reject such a self-report and ask a checking
for understanding (CFU) question instead. Replacing self-report with a
check for understanding allows you to gain some objective information,
and you and your students will be better off.
In Teach Like a Champion 3.0 Lemov renamed ‘Reject self-report’ as
‘Replace self-report’, highlighting the fact that we can identify key CFU
pause points by asking, ‘Where would I be tempted to ask a vague
question like, ‘Got it?’ in this lesson?’ then inserting CFUs at these points.
Lemov reminds us that misunderstandings are like snowballs. The longer
they go on for the larger and more destructive they get, so it’s a good idea
to catch them early. Rejecting self-report is a good way of doing this.
Cold call
Cold calling is calling on students without them raising their hands or
indicating their desire to participate in another way. Cold calling is a way
of ensuring that everyone is involved in class. Doug sees this as an inclusive
technique; it’s a way of saying, ‘I would like to know what you think. I care
about your opinion. I’d like to know what you’re thinking right now.’
It’s a good idea to balance the use of cold calls with hand raising, because
this also allows students to enthusiastically contribute and builds a culture
in which both student-initiated and teacher-initiated participation are
welcomed and expected. (Dylan Wiliam suggests 80% cold call and 20%
voluntary student responses.)
In our discussion, Doug and I also spoke about the idea of Warm call, that
is, using cold call as an opportunity to highlight the quality work of a
student who often struggles in class. If Harry usually struggles, but you’ve
seen he’s done a good job of the current question on his mini-whiteboard,
you could ‘warm call’ him to give him an opportunity to share his answer.
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ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
One key mistake that many teachers make with cold call is that they call
on a specific student prior to asking the question to the class, e.g. ‘Harry,
what’s the capital of Russia?’ This is a mistake because it ensures that Harry
is the only person in the class who is thinking about the question! Instead,
you should always pose the question first, give thinking, discussion, or
writing time, then identify a student to call upon, e.g. ‘Think about this
question and I’m going to call on someone to share their answer in five
seconds. What is the capital of Russia? (waits five seconds). Harry?’
I put it to Doug that some teachers don’t feel comfortable cold calling
because they feel that it puts students on the spot. Doug replied that this
can be the case, but teachers can address it head on by introducing cold
call to their class at the start of the year. He suggested the following script:
In this class I sometimes will ask your opinion whether you’ve
raised your hand or not. Because sometimes you bring something
particular that I want to understand or I need to understand as a
teacher what everyone is thinking or I want to ensure everyone’s
chance to respond. So know that when I call on you it’s because I
care about you and I care about your ideas. This is called ‘cold call’.
If I cold call you and you’re stuck it’s ok to say, ‘I don’t know’, or
‘I don’t know yet’, and that’s fine, I’ll go to someone else then I’ll
give you another opportunity to have a go. Everyone is going to
get cold called in this classroom, and everyone is probably going
to get stuck at some point, and that’s all part of our learning.
No opt-out
Sometimes, when students are called on, they simply say, ‘I don’t know’.
No opt-out is a strategy that teachers can use to address this.
In no opt-out, when a student says, ‘I don’t know’, the teacher replies with
something like, ‘That’s ok. Have a go anyway’, or, if the student won’t have
a go, say, ‘Ok. I’m going to go to some other students and then I’ll come
back to you and give you another chance.’
This can be enhanced by combining ‘No opt-out’ with ‘Stretch it’, i.e.
after the student has re-answered the initial question (after you’ve come
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
back to them after going to another student or two), you could have them
demonstrate understanding, rather than just repeat a previous response,
through asking, ‘Here’s another question. Show me what you can do.’
No opt-out sends the message to students, ‘If you get things wrong, that’s
fine, and that’s a normal part of learning. But I will always expect you
to try.’
Sample all students
This idea was shared earlier, but it bears repeating. When I asked Dylan
Wiliam, ‘What advice would you give to your first year teacher self?’, he
replied as follows:30
If I chose one thing that I would be most critical of my 40-years­
ago self, it was the idea that I’d make decisions about what to do
with the whole class, based on the response of a single confident
volunteer… For many years I did what other teachers did… We’ve
got to get better evidence about what’s happening in most people’s
heads to make smart decisions about what to do next. That’d be
the one thing for my first-year-teacher self.
A single confident volunteer isn’t sufficient to base your instructional
decision-making on. Instead, use technologies like Anita Archer’s ‘hold
up’31 (pictured on the next page), mini-whiteboards, hand signals (e.g.
finger voting for multiple-choice options32), plickers,33 or other wholeclass methods, to get a picture of every student’s level of understanding.
If you don’t have the ability to sample all students, Hollingsworth and
Ybarra suggest that three cold calls (ensuring students are chosen at
random) can give a good sample of the class’s knowledge. But it will never
be as comprehensive as sampling all students.
30.
31.
32.
33.
64
ERRR#023. (1:58:16).
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t8koWxIDsj0&t=132s.
Hold up one finger to choose A, two for B, and so on.
https://get.plickers.com/.
ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
Anita Archer’s ‘Hold up’ example. Students indicate with a finger which
response they would give and hold this up for the teacher to see
Taking a wide sample helps us to make better instructional decisions in
the classroom.
Observe
In addition to asking questions, simply observing the work of students is
a great way to check for understanding. As mentioned, mini-whiteboards
are a great tool here, but there are other things that we can do too. Three
valuable ideas to help improve observations are: standardise the format,
tracking not watching, and set multiple problems.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Standardise the format
When we walk around the class whilst students are working, it can often be
very hard to work out what they’re actually doing, and where they may need
help or guidance. This is because students may be working on different
parts of their page, with different setting out, and with other variations
in their approach. ‘Standardise the format’ means getting all students to
work in a consistent way so that your eyes immediately know where to go
to identify whether students are on track. This saves time and energy.
On this point, Doug Lemov commented that ‘efficiency is the most
underrated word in education.’ For example, if it takes 30 seconds to
find the work of a student and check it instead of 5 seconds, it’ll take 15
instead of 2.5 minutes to check the work of every student in a class of 30
students as you make your way around the classroom!
You can standardise the format in many places. Having students set out
their workbooks all in the same way will make it easier to check work;
using ‘work packets’ or printed worksheets can do the same. Even having
students hand in their workbooks, open to the homework page for easy
checking, can save time. In mathematics, providing a set of numbered
axes can make it much quicker to check students’ work. The key idea here
is simply to ask yourself, ‘How can I make it easy for me to see, at a glance,
whether my students are on track?’ and set up student work to facilitate
this quick check for understanding via observation.
Tracking, not watching
Once students have started individual work, or a short independent
task, it can be tempting for the teacher to wander around the classroom,
casually watching the students work. Lemov’s point with ‘tracking, not
watching’34 is that rather than simply watching the students working, we
should actively track what they’re doing.
This requires having clarity about what you’re looking for, and moving
with purpose around the room. Know what you want to see on students’
pages, and look for this. Make frequent corrections and affirmations,
and provide guidance to keep all students moving in the right direction.
34. Renamed ‘Active observation’ in Teach Like a Champion 3.0.
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ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
Related to this, Doug emphasised the immense difficulty of taking
‘mental notes’ whilst going around the classroom (especially for earlycareer teachers), and stressed the importance of being clear about what
you’re hunting for, then making written notes about which student
responses, or types of responses, you want to comment upon or refer to
when you bring it back to whole-class teaching. In this case, tracking =
writing it down.
Set multiple problems to keep all students engaged
This simple but important idea originates from explicit instruction and
literacy expert Lorraine Hammond. When we set problems for students
as part of a ‘You do’, and circulate to track progress, students inevitably
work at different paces. If we only set one or two problems, this can mean
that our quicker students may be finished whilst we’re still helping the
students who are working more slowly to get into the initial questions. By
setting multiple problems at the outset, with the problems getting harder
as they go, all students can be kept engaged whilst simultaneously giving
you time to help those who need it most.
Another reason why checks for understanding are important: Creating a culture of
error and promoting help-seeking
Some teachers feel a bit reluctant when it comes to using checks for
understanding. They feel that it’s akin to ‘putting students on the spot’
or putting them under pressure when they don’t feel ready. This can be
the case in some classrooms, but the remedy is often to actively build a
culture of error.
Establishing a culture of error and help-seeking in the classroom means
that students see mistakes as learning opportunities, and they’re not
afraid to ask for help and to give things a go. Based upon my discussions
with Aaron Peeters in ERRR Episode 41, I distilled three main reasons
why students often don’t ask for help in the classroom.
There are three key questions which students may ask themselves that
can act as barriers to help seeking. These are: ‘How will I be perceived if
I ask for help?’, ‘Will the teacher/my classmates be annoyed if I ask them
for help?’, and, ‘Will I actually learn if I ask for help?’ I summarise these
three questions with the acronym PAL, expanded upon in the following.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
How will I be perceived if I ask for help?: Students are often worried that
if they ask for help, they’ll look stupid. But, as Aaron put it, ‘Kids aren’t
worried about being wrong, they’re worried about being the only one who
is wrong.’ Thus, to address students’ worry about how they’ll be perceived,
we need to change the classroom culture in relation to student errors.
The reason why student errors become such a big deal is because of what
Aaron calls the ‘Cycle of protection’, which I’ve summarised as follows:
Teacher sees
students’ anguish
when errors are
revealed
Students feel even
more uncomfortable
when their errors
are revealed
Correct answers
become the norm.
Thus, making an
error becomes an
even bigger deal!
Teacher doesn’t
want students to
feel uncomfortable
Teacher reduces
instances in which
students’ errors
are revealed (e.g.
only calls on correct
students)
The cycle of protection – Ollie’s interpretation
It’s our job to break this cycle of protection. This is primarily done by
using checks for understanding.
Each time a student answers incorrectly is an opportunity for the teacher
to build a culture of error with their response. They can do this by saying
things like, ‘I’m so glad you gave that answer because this is a tricky concept
and you’ve given me an opportunity to address something that I know
everyone will benefit from.’ Similarly, mini-whiteboards make the error
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ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
rate very clear too. ‘I can see about 60% of us are still struggling with this.
It’s great that I know this because now we can do some more practice!’
Teachers can also pick specific student errors to highlight as common
misconceptions, or use resources such as AlgebraByExample, which
include staged errors such as the following, as learning tasks.35
Sally didn’t solve this problem correctly.
Here is her work:
3.7
x 1.4
Your turn:
• Sally didn’t put the
decimal point in the right
place. Where should the
decimal point go?
0.37
x 0 .1 4
• When multiplying, how
do you determine where
the decimal point goes in
the product?
Using learning materials that include errors can explicitly frame errors
as learning opportunities for students, and materially contribute to a
‘culture of error’ within your classroom.
Will the teacher/my classmate be annoyed if I ask them for help?: Students
don’t want to feel like they’re a nuisance to others. We can help to avoid
this by explicitly promoting ‘brain, book, buddy’ in the classroom (if you
have a question, first think about the answer, then look at your notes or
texts, then ask a buddy), by introducing ‘ask passes’ in your class (a little
handwritten or printed ticket that says ‘ticket for help’ that students are
expected to use before the end of class), or by using Sammy Kempner’s
approach of valorising helping others and framing it as ‘the hardest job
in the classroom’.
Will I actually learn if I ask for help?: This concern can be traced back to
two different sources; the first is how good the teacher is at providing help
when asked, and the second is the student’s self-efficacy. To ensure that
we are helpful when students ask for help, we need to focus on continually
developing ourselves as quality teachers, applying the ideas from this
chapter and elsewhere.
35. Excerpt from AlgebraByExample used with permission of SERP. © Strategic Education
Research Partnership serpinstitute.org.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
For students who have had a lifetime of experience of asking for help,
receiving an explanation, and still not getting it (and therefore feeling
even ‘dumber’), their belief that they won’t learn from help could stem
from low self-efficacy. Over time, they may decide that it’s socially safer
to just avoid the help altogether than to seek help when confused.
In cases such as these, we can use data/formative assessment (mini­
whiteboards, regular quizzes, etc.) to identify students who are struggling,
target them with effective instruction, and give them an experience of
success. Students overcoming this worry is only really going to come
from a collection of new experiences that counteract their long history
of not getting it. In this vein, effective instruction is the key, along with
being supportive and using phrases such as, ‘This is tricky, it may take a
few times until you get it’, or ‘Most students have trouble with this topic.’
Again, normalise the errors.
Provide feedback and adapt your instruction
Once you have checked for understanding, either by asking questions or
via observation, and established what your students know, you’ll be in a
well-informed position to provide feedback and adapt instruction.
In our feedback and adaptation, it’s useful for us to: understand how
feedback works, have a comprehensive repertoire of ways to give feedback,
and have the skills and disposition to deal with an incorrect response
from students in a caring and compassionate way. These are the final
three ideas in this chapter on explicit instruction.
Understanding how feedback works
How does feedback work? It either teaches students something new, or it
motivates them to learn something new themselves.36
This is a simple but powerful idea. It puts checking for understanding into
perspective, and frames it as a data gathering exercise that can then be
used to direct our future instruction. Often the best way to give students
36. I got this idea from Michael Pershan, who in turn credits Kluger and DeNisi with its origin:
Kluger, A. N., and DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance:
A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory.
Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254.
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ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
effective feedback is simply to reteach what they’ve demonstrated they
don’t yet understand or can’t yet do. In fact, Michael Pershan initially set
out to write a book on feedback, but ended up writing a book on worked
examples after he realised that worked examples37 are often the best form
of feedback!
The second part of the feedback mechanism (motivating students to learn
something new), tells us that feedback can also work if we don’t do the
explicit teaching, but if, instead, we simply direct students to where they
can find that information, provided that they’re sufficiently motivated to
do that work themselves.
Importantly, if we provide students with feedback, but that feedback
only tells students what they got wrong, but not how to get it right, and
doesn’t motivate them to find out how to get it right for themselves, it’s
unreasonable for us to expect any impact from that feedback.
Techniques for providing effective feedback
Hollingsworth and Ybarra’s Explicit Direct Instruction framework provides
seven practical steps for teachers to take to give effective feedback. These
techniques are designed to be used throughout the course of teaching – that
is, to be used in the moment after you’ve cold called a student, or reviewed
student answers on mini-whiteboards or similar.
This is different from what many teachers usually think of as feedback,
which in many cases includes writing personalised comments on students’
work. This approach is only effective if students then take that feedback
and do something with it. Unfortunately, it’s often the case that teachers
spend hours writing detailed comments to students, only to see them look
at their mark then close their book (or in some sad cases, screw up the
paper and throw it in the bin).
Instead, it’s worth emphasising in-the-moment feedback during the
lesson. This is the feedback focussed on in the following. When
individual feedback is required on assignments, consider whether there
are ways to turn it into a metacognitive group or self-reflection task. See
a science report example at https://www.ollielovell.com/olliesclassroom/
science_reports_1-0/
37. Teaching Math with Examples.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Hollingsworth and Ybarra offer several during-class feedback techniques:
Provide cues and prompts
When students are struggling to recall an answer, it’s often useful to provide
them with hints or prompts to recall the answer. This is a great strategy, and
hints like, ‘It starts with a “p”’ can be effective.38 However, Hollingsworth
and Ybarra suggest that hints should not be related to either the spelling or
the sound of the correct answer, but instead to the meaning. For example, if
the answer that a student is seeking is ‘prime number’, instead of prompting
with, ‘It starts with “p”’, you could prompt with: ‘How many factors does
this number have?’, then follow this up with, ‘And what’s the mathematical
term that we use to describe a number that has exactly two factors?’
I’ll come back to you
A version of no opt-out, if a student offers ‘I don’t know’ or ‘I don’t want
to answer’, is to say ‘Ok, but I’ll come back to you in a moment to give
you another shot.’ Then, ask another student the same question, and then
return to the original student and ask them the question to give them
another go to repeat or build on the correct student’s answer.
If the question requires a complex answer (such as a question requiring
multiple reasons, some argued justification, or similar), you could also
say, ‘Ok. But I’m going to ask three more students now, then I’ll come
back to you after and ask you which of the three answers you think was
best and why.’
This strategy (I’ll come back to you) is particularly difficult for earlycareer teachers to implement because keeping track of who has been
asked can be a cognitively taxing activity amongst all else that is going
on in the classroom. It is incredibly powerful, but it requires practice to
be consistent.
Pair–share again
If multiple students answer incorrectly, sometimes simply saying, ‘We’re
38. Vaughn, K. E., and Kornell, N. (2019). How to activate students’ natural desire to test
themselves. Cognitive Research: Principles & Implications, 4, 35.
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ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
not quite there yet. Discuss this again with your partner and make sure
you pay attention to (e.g. the definition at the top of the page)’ can be
enough of a prompt to get the class on track.
De-escalate to multiple-choice
Rephrasing the question as a multiple-choice question lowers the bar.
It can also provide a way to refer back to the concept being taught. In
addition, as well as discussing why option A is correct, you can also
discuss why options B, C, and D may be incorrect, therefore reinforcing
the core concept for students. (Often de-escalating to multiple-choice is
most practical and easily implemented, if not previously planned for, if
you just provide students with two options, A and B.)
Explain your thinking
If a student with an incorrect answer is asked to explain their thinking,
it can provide insights into their misconception. If it’s asked of a student
with a correct answer, it can provide insights for their classmates
regarding how to approach the question, or similar questions. I suggest
saying, ‘Please share how you came to that answer’ very frequently when
students provide responses, and doing so in a way such that students
don’t know whether or not their answer is correct (i.e. ‘manage your
tell’ – Lemov). This creates a classroom culture in which students know
that they’ll be asked to explain their thinking, so they learn to justify their
answers to themselves prior to giving an answer.
Read the answer
Imagine you cold call a student, they say, ‘I don’t know’, you use no-opt
out, but when you come back to them, they still don’t seem to know. In
such a situation, you can either have that student read the answer, or they
can echo your answer to the question. For example:
Teacher: Repeat after me. This number is an example of…
Student: This number is an example of…
Teacher: A prime number.
Student: A prime number.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
This can be a valuable last resort approach to keep the class moving in the
moment whilst also noting that this student will likely require additional
help later on during the lesson.
Reteach:
If your checks for understanding suggest to you that a reasonable portion
of the class don’t have a solid understanding of the content that you are
teaching, the best feedback is probably simply to reteach the content.
Dealing with an incorrect response from students in a supportive way
When we feel like we’ve taught a concept well, explained it clearly, and
been very explicit with the templates we’ve used, it can sometimes be
frustrating when students still seem to get questions wrong when called
upon. This is especially the case if we feel like they perhaps weren’t
listening for a portion of the instruction.
However, coupling high expectations through practices like no opt-out
with a supportive and enthusiastic tone is the best way to keep students
simultaneously reaching for the stars and feeling like you’re on their side
to get them there.
Michael Pershan modelled what this can look like during our podcast
discussion. Michael suggested using the phrase, ‘That’s not right, but...’
then giving them credit for something that they said. In short, find the
thing that they said correctly, acknowledge that, then build on it to
correct the incorrect part.
Here’s an excerpt from the interview with Michael:39
Scenario: Student was asked what the next best step is. They were
trying to solve 4 = c2 for c. And the correct step at this point is to take
the square root of both sides.
Divided by c [the answer provided by the student]. Okay, so that’s very
often a very good move, right? Very often a very good move. But when
it’s c squared, we don’t want to do that. Instead, we want to do something
else. Do you think you know what? It’s not dividing by c. But do you
think you know what it is when it’s squaring?… (gives wait time)... What
39. ERRR #051. Michael Pershan on Worked Examples (1:27:11).
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ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
it is, it’s basically undoing c squared, do you think you know?... (waits a
little longer)... It’s okay? It’s okay. It’s totally fine. What it is, is I’ll show
you… [this portion of the interview is better listened to, especially as the
tone is so important. Listen from 1 hour and 27 minutes in ERRR #051].
Michael’s style may be different from your own, but the important thing
here is for us to be aware of the tone that we’re using when addressing
students’ incorrect answers. If we sound cross, we act against the culture
of error that we’re trying to build within the classroom. If we sound
upbeat and encouraging, we enthusiastically nudge our students forward.
Play around with it and find your own style. It’s also very valuable to
video record yourself teaching, as this is the best way to get a clear picture
of reality regarding how you’re coming across in the classroom.
SUMMARY
Explicit instruction is unambiguous. That is, it’s clear to students what
they’re learning, and how they’re supposed to be learning it. It can be
thought of in three phases: Plan, Instruct, Check for understanding.
We plan the content that we hope to deliver, and we plan the way in which
we hope students will participate.
When it comes to planning the content, planning the explicit knowledge
is important. This can be thought of in terms of if–then statements,
and can be supported with bullet-proof definitions and by making
knowledge structures explicit, especially with the use of knowledge maps
or diagrams. Also plan your examples and non-examples well in advance.
All key ideas should also be periodically revisited over time.
When it comes to planning the participation, plan an attentional cue
and establish engagement norms (my favourite is mini-whiteboards).
These are all best established by explicitly outlining your expectations,
explaining why these participation routines are important, and
consistently reinforcing them over time.
Instruction begins with a learning intention, which can be designed by
dissecting the nouns and verbs within a curriculum standard. Relevance
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
is important, but should be addressed in under 30 seconds, and is
quickly followed by activation of prior knowledge, which can be done
by prompting students to recall a universal experience, generating a
shared experience, or simply supporting them to review a prerequisite
or sub-skill.
A key portion of the instruct phase is modelling the thinking of an
expert by completing an ‘I do’ whilst thinking aloud to students. We then
scaffold students towards ‘You do’ by walking them through the thought
processes of an expert using targeted questioning (‘We do’).
During this transition from ‘I do’ to ‘You do’, templates can be used to
scaffold students’ work, non-examples can be generated by targeting
critical attributes (the dead ends of decision trees), and transience
should be avoided where possible (which is true throughout the entire
instructional routine).
‘You do’ practice should start with activities similar to those from ‘I do’
and ‘We do’, a lot of it should be provided, and practice should be spaced
over time.
Both during and after instruction, a teacher must check for understanding
(the most important step of the process!). This is done through
questioning or observation. If questioning, cold call, don’t let students
opt out, reject self-report, and sample a large number of students. If
observing, make your life easier by standardising the format, tracking
rather than watching, and setting enough problems to give you time to get
around the class whilst keeping the fastest workers occupied. Checking
for understanding also builds a culture of error.
Once you have checked for understanding, you’re well placed to offer
feedback and decide where to take the lesson next. Feedback works
by teaching students something new, or by motivating them to learn
something new for themselves. If neither of these conditions is met, the
feedback will be essentially worthless.
There are a range of ways of giving feedback, including providing cues
and prompts, using ‘pair–share again’, and asking students to explain
their thinking. When we deal with a student’s incorrect response to a
76
question, it’s important that we do so with high expectations, but also a
warm and enthusiastic tone.
These concepts above are some of the biggest ideas within explicit
instruction. But what the teacher does is just one side of the equation;
students also have to come to the party for learning to occur. For this,
they need appropriate behaviour, and motivation to learn, the topics of
our next two chapters.
TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Explicit
Instruction
Can be summarised
with the PIC model
Plan
Instruct
Plan the
Participation
Plan the
Content
Plan your
Engagement Norms
Knowledge is stored as
situation–action pairs
Briefly introduce relevance
Recall a universal experience
Such as an
Attentional Cue
Which are situated in
knowledge structures
(schemas)
Activate Prior Knowledge
Or generate a shared
experience
So, plan Bullet-Proof
Definitions
Model the
thinking process
And others:
Pronounce with
me, Pair–share,
Complete
sentences, etc.
Which it’s useful to
make explicit to
students (through concept
maps like this one)
And plan Learning
Intentions (underline skills,
concepts in italics)
Model examples and
non-examples
Provide templates
And plan examples and nonexamples (based
on critical attributes)
Avoid transience
Guide them through
the thinking process
And explicitly plan to revisit
all content over time
78
I Do
We Do
You Do
ExpLICIT InSTRuCTIOn
Entails Explicit
Learning Goals
How will I be Perceived
if I ask for help?
Supported by a Culture of
Error (established by
addressing the questions)
Entails Explicit
Instructional Methods
Will they be Annoyed
if I ask for help?
Will I Learn if I ask
for help?
Check for Understanding
Ask Questions
Observe
But reject self-report, and
instead…
Sample all students
objectively
By using mini-whiteboards
or similar
Provide Feedback and Adapt Instruction
Feedback works by teaching
something new or motivating students
to learn something new
Or use ‘Cold call’
So, use Hollingsworth and
Ybarra’s feedback techniques
And use ‘No opt-out’
when students don’t know
the answer
And deal with student contributions
in a supportive way
Which you can make easier by
standardising the format
Ensure that you track rather
than watch
Gradually increase problem
complexity
Provide A LOT
of practice
Cues and prompts, I’ll
come back to you, pair–share
again, de-escalate
to multiple choice,
explain your thinking,
read the answer, etc.
Set multiple
problems to keep students
engaged
79
CHAPTER 2
BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT
Behaviour
Management
Is based on a set
of key ideas
Can be thought of as
Proactive
Support your staff
Responsive
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Teachers often lament that their teacher training didn’t prepare them for
the realities of the classroom, and this complaint is often most loudly
heard in relation to behaviour management. Compounding this issue,
there are many in the teaching community who suggest that a teacher’s
ability to handle a class is not something that can even be taught in
teacher training, but rather is just something that gets better with
‘experience’ or depends heavily on factors such as the teacher’s gender,
physical size, personality, or age.
The assertion that effective behaviour management is wholly dependent
upon such factors is mistaken. Regardless of who you are, or where you’re
at in your career, there are many systematic things that you can do to
reduce disruptions in your lessons and promote a classroom environment
that is conducive to learning. This chapter combines key takeaways
from behaviour management expert Bill Rogers, the United Kingdom’s
behaviour management ‘tzar’ Tom Bennett, and my own experience and
ideas to help you do this.
This chapter begins with the need that underlies all behaviour – the
need to belong – which lays out two key ideas regarding behaviour: that
it is both a curriculum and an act of maintenance. We then get into the
nitty-gritty of how to establish, respond to, and follow up on distracting,
disruptive, and challenging student behaviour.
THEORY: FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOUR AND BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT
Behaviour stems from the need to belong
Bill Rogers has been travelling the world and speaking on the topic of
behaviour management for decades. He’s in a school, on the ground,
working with teachers on a weekly basis, and is regarded as one of the
world’s premier behaviour management – or ‘behaviour leadership’ as
he likes to call it – authorities. Towards the beginning of our discussion
together, I asked what Bill has learnt over the years about what drives
student behaviour. He replied:40
40. ERRR #031. Bill Rogers on Behaviour Management (16:27).
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BEHAvIOuR MAnAgEMEnT
If there’s anything I’ve learned about social psychology and
individual psychology, this is where I think Alfred Adler and
several other psychologists like Maslow and Erickson, and Piaget
[got it right]... Our primary social need is to belong. If students
don’t believe they can belong or from their family circumstances
they haven’t learned to belong in reasonably cooperative ways...
[w]hen they come to school… they find other ways to belong.
And the most common way they belong is by drawing significant
attention to themselves.
This is a theme echoed by author of The Learning Rainforest, Tom
Sherrington: ‘I think the most important thing about [student behaviour] is
feeling that you belong, and that you have a stake, that [school is] for you.’41
Tom Bennett, advisor to the UK government on behaviour management,
put it in very similar words:42
we all seek meaning, we all seek value in our lives, we need to
matter. We need to feel like we’re not rubbish... And kids feel this,
and adults feel this. And because of that, people will do a lot to
try and achieve the esteem of others.
This idea, that our primary need is to belong, provides a crucial grounding
and context for the practical ideas that follow in this chapter.
Behaviour management is designed to safeguard rights
It can be easy to fall into the trap of believing that we manage students’
behaviour because an orderly classroom is a good classroom, or because
it’s important for students to follow school rules as an end in themselves.
But Rogers emphasises that the purpose of rules is to protect and preserve
the rights of all those in our school community.
Whenever we’re finding it difficult to work out how to deal with a situation,
how to respond to a student misdemeanour, or even how to design rules
if you’re working at that level within your school, it’s important to think
back to these rights.
41. ERRR #045. Tom Sherrington on The Most Important Thing (1:48:44).
42. ERRR #046. Tom Bennett on Behaviour Management (30:42).
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The three rights that Rogers consistently emphasises are: the right to feel
both physically and psychologically safe, the right to respect and fair
treatment, and the right to learn. All students and all members of our
community have these rights, and the purpose of rules and regulations
is to put in place boundaries to ensure that these rights are protected at
all times.
Behaviour management is a curriculum
Behaviour management isn’t a one-shot show. It requires structured and
systematic planning, and careful and rigorous implementation over time.
As is emphasised in Tom Bennett’s book, Running the Room, behaviour
management is a curriculum.
Once we see behaviour management as a curriculum, we realise that we
must apply many of the standard curriculum principles to it. These include:
• a clear ‘scheme of work’ that lays out what we want students to
master
• checks for understanding
• the fading of guidance, from modelling to independent practice
• frequent revisiting of core ideas
• reteaching when necessary
Behaviour management should be both responsive and proactive
Given that behaviour management needs to be a curriculum, this means
that it must be not only responsive, but also proactive. When we speak
about behaviour management, it’s usually framed in responsive terms.
For example, we say, ‘What should a teacher do when a student… (calls
out, says something offensive, talks back, etc.)?’ However, this frames
the teacher as always responding to disruptive behaviour. A proactive
approach, in contrast, starts behaviour management on the front foot,
and deliberately sets out to support students to engage with themselves,
others, and schoolwork in healthy and productive ways.
This idea can be captured with an analogy relating to physical health.
If our goal is to live a long and healthy life, we don’t just ensure we live
close to a hospital, buy lots of first aid kits and an in-home CPR device,
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and make sure we’re surrounded with people who can respond well if
something happens to us. We should ideally take proactive action by
also establishing a routine of regular exercise, a healthy diet, and strong
social connections, drive a car with a high safety rating, and carefully
manage any big trees near our house. But it isn’t enough to focus unduly
on either the proactive or the responsive action; a long and healthy life is
more likely if we prepare in both ways.
The most powerful behavioural factor in your classroom is behavioural norms
Humans are social beings, and we look to others to work out what is
reasonable behaviour, and for clues as to how to behave ourselves. In
line with this, behavioural norms within your classroom are the set of
behaviours that students know signal belonging. If you conform to the
norms, you will belong. If you don’t, you will likely not be fully accepted
by the group.
As teachers, we can harness the idea of norms to drive the kind of
behaviour that we’d like to see in the classroom. We must establish
dominant norms that mean that students derive a sense of belonging,
and esteem, through academically and socially productive behaviours.
Key to this is identifying when students are exemplifying the norms that
you want to promote, and acknowledging this behaviour to them, the
class, and the student body at large. It also requires reliably addressing
behaviour that is not conducive to learning. ‘What you permit, you
promote’ – Doug Lemov.
Consequences: Certainty trumps severity (also strive for immediacy)
Certainty: Emphasised in the writing of Rogers, and quoted by Bennett
on the podcast, this key idea is simple: when you tell a student that there
will be consequences, there needs to be consequences. Any time that
you don’t follow through, students will learn that they can get away with
disruptive behaviour, and will likely push the boundaries ever more.
Having certain consequences is similar to having permanent speed
cameras on the road. The knowledge that you will definitely get caught if
you speed through a particular section of road is usually enough to keep
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most drivers from speeding in that section. However, if there might be a
speed camera somewhere, there will be a sub-set of drivers who think it’s
probably worth the risk of getting caught to act against the rules.
When certainty is established, this can be a beautiful thing. A mentee
of mine, Amy, started a teacher research project in which she focussed
on helping students be organised for and within class, part of which
included doing an equipment audit every class. Any time students failed
to bring all of the equipment on their list, they would be kept back for
10 minutes after class. Amy was so consistent with her enforcement of
this consequence that students had been known to text their parents at
lunch time with a message like, ‘Hi Dad, I forgot my calculator. Could
you please bring it in for the last period? If not, I’ll be 10 minutes late for
pick-up.’
Another reason why certainty is crucial is because one of the key
mechanisms of sanctions or consequences is that they reinforce social
norms. By publicly (using a supportive rather than ‘shaming’ tone)
making it clear that certain behaviours result in certain outcomes within
your classroom, and by reinforcing which behaviours are and aren’t
acceptable, you are broadcasting to students the norms that you’re trying
to promote. Certainty is crucial in this respect.
Immediacy: In addition to certainty, ensuring that consequences are
immediate, or close to immediate, is also beneficial. If a student receives
a Friday detention for something that occurred on Tuesday (or even
Thursday!) it can make it very hard for that student to connect their
behaviour with the received consequence in their mind. This is also
a point emphasised by Harry Fletcher-Wood in our discussion about
building habits of success.43
Rewards: Make them unexpected so as not to undermine intrinsic motivation
There is a vast body of research44 that attests to the fact that predictably
rewarding behaviour can actually reduce a person’s intrinsic (self-driven
43. ERRR #057. Harry Fletcher Wood on Habits of Success.
44. For a great summary of this research, see Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about
what motivates us. Penguin.
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and internal) motivation to complete the rewarded task. For example,
students who enjoy drawing may draw less if they are encouraged to do so
with rewards. As a result, it is best to keep rewards as pleasant surprises
for students.45 In line with this, using ‘now–that’ rewards (e.g. ‘Now that
you’ve done your work, we can play a class game’) at unexpected times
is much more effective then ‘if–then’ rewards (e.g. ‘If you do your work,
then we can play a class game’), when it comes to preserving students’
intrinsic motivation to complete tasks.
In a review of this chapter, Bill Rogers also highlighted that, when used
too frequently, rewards can start to dominate the relationship between
the rewarder (the teacher) and the reward receiver (the student). However,
as Rogers pointed out, rewards are an incredibly fragile and shallow base
from which to try to build a relationship. Making rewards unexpected
also opens up the opportunity to forge stronger relationships on longerlasting and more intrinsic factors.
Behaviour management is an act of maintenance
The final foundational idea in this theory section is that behaviour
management is an act of maintenance. All knowledge and skills, without
regular use or practice, will degrade over time. Behaviour is no different.
A solid classroom routine established in week one of term one will
naturally tend towards disorder as weeks go on without conscious and
active maintenance on the part of both teachers and students. Towards
the end of this chapter, we will review some strategies for maintaining
behaviour at a high standard.
PROACTIVE BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT
Bill Rogers splits the arc of a teacher with a new class into three phases:
the establishment, maintenance and consolidation, and the cohesive
phases. The establishment phase is when the teacher has the opportunity
to signal to the class what they would like the class’s behavioural norms
45. Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., and Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children’s intrinsic interest
with extrinsic reward: A test of the ‘overjustification’ hypothesis. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 28(1), 129.
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to be, and it’s crucial that this stage is developed well so as to form a
solid foundation for the later phases. As such, we now turn to one topic
that isn’t talked about nearly enough within education: how to run a first
lesson with a new class.
The first lesson with a new class
When students enter their first lesson with a new teacher, there are two
main questions going through their minds: 1. How am I going to belong
here? and 2. What kind of teacher do I have and how are they going to
lead and teach me?46 Within this first lesson, it’s imperative that you
unambiguously answer both of these questions.
You can answer this first question, ‘How am I going to belong here?’ in
two key ways: firstly, in your opening introduction; and secondly, by
explicitly outlining the behaviour that is expected.
Here’s how Tom Bennett introduces himself to a new class:47
Welcome to my classroom. My name is Mr Bennett and this year
we’re going to be learning about Philosophy and Ethics, and I really
love my subject. I hope that you do too. I know that you can all
succeed in one way or another. I don’t care how good you are at it
now. But we’re all going to get really good at this, or we’re going to
get better. I’ll do my best to make sure that happens, and I need
you to work as hard as you can. And in return we’re going to look
after each other, and we’re going to have a dignified, safe, and calm
space. And this is the behaviour we need in order to achieve that…
The above script contains the following key points: You can all achieve, I
matter, you matter, the subject matters, this is why we’re going to behave
the way we’re going to – and Tom would then lead into an introduction
of the kind of behaviour that students will exemplify within your class.
I would highly recommend that you explicitly script out what you will say
at the very start of your first lesson with a new class. This is particularly
important if you have just moved to a new school. If you are new to a
46. ERRR #031. Bill Rogers on Behaviour Management (21:27).
47. ERRR #046. Tom Bennett on Behaviour Management (25:43).
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school, ask other teachers in the school to identify what is likely to be
most important to the students, and what some of their apprehensions
may be. I did this when I recently moved to my new school and discovered
that my year 12 students would want to know who I was, and that I was
qualified to teach them and help them achieve in their end of school
exams. Based upon this, I scripted and delivered the following during my
first lesson at this new school:
Good morning, everybody. I’m Mr Lovell and this year I’ll be
taking you for further mathematics.
I really like teaching further maths because it’s a subject in which
any student can be successful if they’re willing to put in the work.
Being successful in further mathematics is a matter of being
diligent, organised, and working hard. And it’s my goal to assist
you in doing that this year. My number one goal is to help you to
achieve your target study score in your final exams, and I will do
everything in my power to help you to achieve that. As I’m sure
you’ve noticed, I’m a new staff member to [school name] for this
year so I thought you might like to know a little about me. I’m
in my sixth year of teaching and this is my fourth year teaching
further mathematics.
I’ve worked as an [examination board] assessor for further
mathematics, so I know exactly what the examiners are looking
for, and throughout the year I’ll give you really clear guidance
regarding what you need to do to get the marks in your end of
year exam. Before we jump into some mathematics, I’d like to
also find out a little about you…
Preparing and practising a script (not to word-for-word accuracy, but just
to the point that you can address the main points without reading it off
a piece of paper, which would undermine your credibility with the class),
helps you to send a clear message to students in that crucial first lesson
when they are receptive to new behavioural norms being established.
In terms of explicitly outlining the behaviour expected, it is useful to have
a framework that outlines, in a memorable way, your clear expectations.
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Any set of simple rules will do, but I have developed the following
framework that encapsulates the core behaviour and disposition that I
expect from students in a traditional classroom. I call it the three P’s. I
expect students to be:
• Prepared
• Polite
• Productive
One way to introduce these is to write these three dot points on the board
and then ask students for examples of how each of these things may be
displayed in the classroom. After a minute or two of responses, you
can hand students a summary sheet of these three ideas that explicitly
outlines what they mean to you, and what they will mean in your
classroom. Here’s an example:
In this classroom students are...
Prepared
Polite
Productive
This means:
• Arrive to class on time
• Bring
• Calculator
• Workbook
• Textbook
• Pencil
• Eraser
• Ruler
• Completed homework
• To signal your readiness to
learn
• Enter quietly
• Take off your hat
• Be on the lookout for the
first learning task
This means:
• Use people’s names
• No: ‘I agree with what he
said.’
• Yes: ‘I agree with what Bilal
said.’
• No: ‘Hey Sir’ or ‘Hey Mister.’
• Yes: ‘Excuse me Mr Lovell.’
• Professional written
correspondence
• E.g. Start emails with, ‘I hope
you’re having a good day’
or ‘I trust your weekend was
restful’ (etc.)
• Express gratitude and
appreciation for teachers’ and
classmates’ efforts
This means:
• Follow teacher instructions
and stay on task
• Take actions to support rather
than disrupt your own and
your classmates’ learning
• Helpful: Quick and efficient
transitions
• Disruptive: Calling out,
delaying class progress
• Be proactive and assertive
when it comes to your learning
• Do: Ask for help when you
need it
• Do: Provide (polite) feedback
to the teacher
There is quite a bit in this, so it can be good to introduce it over three
lessons, progressively revealing more and more of the framework, and
recapping the previous sections as you go. The younger your students,
the more important it is to be explicit and clear from the outset, but I
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have also found that older students often require more explicitness than
one might expect.
You may also like to outline what each of these three principles means for
you as the teacher and how you plan to teach in line with them for the
benefit of your students. Here’s an example of what this might look like:
In this classroom the teacher is...
Prepared
Polite
Productive
This means:
• Start classes on time
• Thoroughly plan high quality
learning activities
• Take no longer than one week
to return marked tests
This means:
• Speak to students respectfully
(e.g. no shouting at students)
• Maintain a ratio of supportive
to corrective feedback of at
least 3:1 and ideally 5:1
• Express gratitude and
appreciation for students’
efforts
This means:
• Use every minute of class time
effectively
• Productivity requires breaks
as well as hard work, so
provide breaks as required
• Ask for and respond to student
feedback
Regardless of the expectations that you outline, or the way that you do it,
it’s also important to keep it short and succinct. A common mistake that
is made when teachers set out expectations in an early class is to spend
too long in ‘lecture’ mode and not get into learning. In response to that
question, ‘What kind of teacher do I have?’, you want students to quickly
get the message: ‘This is a teacher who keeps us focussed on learning!’
To balance this directive and assertive first lesson approach, it can be useful
to provide messaging to students that clearly communicates to them that
you care about them as people and are keen to meet them where they’re
at. I’ve done this in the past with the use of an ‘About me’ sheet – an A5
(half-letter size) sheet with a series of questions that provide a quick and
efficient way for me to find out about the students in my class. One such
‘About me’ sheet that I regularly use with my year 12 classes looks as follows:
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Songs can be put into a ‘class playlist’ on Spotify (or similar), and these
sheets provide a great foundation for a strong relationship to begin to
form between teacher and student.
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It’s also important to note that, if you do have students fill out an About
me sheet, you must actually read it and work to remember some of the
key points. Aim to remember one key idea from each student’s sheet as
a starting point, then try to revisit them over a coffee for the next few
weeks too to try to remember more of your students’ interests. If you don’t
do this, the activity could backfire, as students can feel you’re putting on
a front and not really interested in them but were just trying to pretend
that you were!
Routines
The first lesson, or within the first few lessons, is a good time to establish
routines that will ensure that key processes run smoothly throughout the
year. Tom Bennett suggests that it’s imperative to have clear routines for
entry, exit, and transitions within your classroom.
One of the key benefits of routines is that they maximise the time available
for learning. If students take two minutes to come in and settle at the start
of class instead of 30 seconds, that can add up to a week’s worth of classes
of missed learning over the course of a year.48 Compound that with a slow
pack-up and inefficient transitions between tasks (handing out books,
etc.), and multiple weeks’ worth of lesson time can quickly slide away.
So, what should an entry routine look like? Whilst I’ve provided
some specific examples below, your entry routine can really take any
form, as long as it’s consistent and sets students up well for learning.
Additionally, keeping in mind the fact that behaviour is a curriculum,
we must remember to explicitly teach it at the outset, then give students
opportunities to practise, and provide feedback and further practice, just
as is the case with any other skill.
Further, we must remember the value of spaced practice. It is the case that,
without regular and consistent reinforcement, the consistency and fidelity
of the routine is likely to begin to slip. To overcome this, it’s important to
schedule regular routine reviews throughout the year. In the first week
you may do it twice in the first lesson, twice in the second, then once in
48. 40 weeks, 5 classes per week, 1.5 minutes longer to settle per class makes 40 × 5 × 1.5 = 300
minutes, or 5 hours, about a week’s worth of classes. This is a calculation worth doing in front
of your class, especially maths classes!
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the third and fourth. You may then practise it twice in week 2, once in
week 3, once in week 4, then again in weeks 6, 8, and 10. Scheduling it into
your calendar at the start of the term can help you to keep it front of mind.
Perhaps even more important than scheduling in routine revisits is
making students reperform a routine when you see the standards slip.
This means, at the start of every class, being alert to the way that students
enter the room and, if they don’t do it respectfully and in the specified
way, making them do it again. I would say that, over the past teaching
year, I have required my year 9 class redo their classroom entry about
12 times (approx. 3 per term) and my year 12 class has redone it about 5
times. When we consistently hold our students to a high standard, they
respond to our expectations.
To assist with smooth entry routine, you want to front load (tell students
what you want to see before you ask them to do it49) and prime students
before every single lesson. Use the doorstep as a threshold50 and prime
your students before class. ‘Good morning, everybody. I hope you had a
good recess. Remember our entry routine, walking in silently, hats off,
and start the do-now on the board, thanks. Entering silently51 now [opens
the door].’ I do this every lesson and it significantly reduces the number
of times we need to redo the routine. Students have busy lives and there
are a lot of things on their mind. The reminder is a very welcome prompt
(and remember to acknowledge students for their efforts each time they
enter in line with the routine also!).
To add even more rigour to your entry routine, every now and then it’s worth
timing how long it takes for students to enter the room and start working.
Challenging your class to do better, and congratulating them on their
progress, can act as a great way to maintain the routine for the long term.
49. Boxer, A. (2020). Front-loading https://achemicalorthodoxy.wordpress.com/2020/10/14/front­
loading/.
50. Lemov, D., Hernandez, J., and Kim, J. (2016). Teach like a Champion Field Guide 2.0: A
Practical Resource to Make the 62 Techniques Your Own. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
51. Depending upon your context, you may want to specify that you’d like students to enter
silently, without talking, with lips sealed, or similar. Bill Rogers prefers the more descriptive,
‘Calmly, quietly, and considerately’, which is an excellent option too.
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You should design, establish, and maintain a routine for anything that
is regularly completed in your classroom. Remember to consider things
that students do each lesson or each week (entering and exiting the class,
setting up their workbook with a learning intention, collecting and
handing back a weekly quiz, completing and marking a do-now, etc.).
Every time you design, establish, and maintain a routine, you free up
more time for learning.
What tone should I take with students?
One of the challenges of teaching, and especially discipline, is finding
your own ‘voice’ and the most effective tone with students. I have tried
many approaches over the years, but the tone that I’ve found most
effective is a kind of supportive enthusiasm. For example, during a first
class with students, you may ask them to enter silently, then find that they
don’t do it. You could address this as follows:
T: I appreciate how you all entered and some of you were helping each
other to grab the learning materials, and you all found your seats
quickly too; that’s great. However, there was one instruction that
wasn’t followed. With a hand up, can anyone tell me what that was?
S: To enter silently.
T: Exactly. Now, it’s really important that we enter silently to set a
focussed and calm tone for the lesson, so now we get a chance to
practise that again and restart the lesson. So everyone up please and
out the door and we’re going to come in again. (Then the teacher
should also do the whole entry routine speech out the front again too,
priming them and reinforcing the expectations about entry. The more
detailed the rehearsal, the better!).
In this script, the teacher has first acknowledged the good work done,
‘helping each other… found your seats quickly’. Secondly, they reinforced
why the routine is important, ‘It’s really important… to set a focussed and
calm tone for the lesson’. Finally, they emphasised practising the routine as an
opportunity rather than a chore, ‘now we get a chance to practise that again’.
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Finding the right tone is a crucial factor to simultaneously maintaining
high behavioural standards and keeping students excited about their
learning and on side. Supportive enthusiasm usually works well.
RESPONSIVE BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT
So far in this chapter we have introduced the value of a proactive
rather than a responsive approach to behaviour management. However,
irrespective of how well you establish expectations, norms, and routines
in your classroom, there will always come times when those expectations
will not be met, and a teacher response will be required. Below are four
big ideas to support your responsive behaviour management.
Describe, direct, offer limited choice
Responding to student misdemeanours can be thought of in terms of
three key layers of response, all of which are spoken about frequently by
Bill Rogers, and the third of which was also emphasised by trauma expert
Laurel Downey.52 Each layer builds upon the prior one, and ramps up the
weight of the response. The basic framework is:
• Describe
• Direct
• Offer limited choice
Imagine a teacher waiting for silence prior to addressing the class. The
response could progress as follows:
• Describe: A number of you are still chatting.
• Direct: I need pens down and eyes on me, thanks.
• Limited choice: It’s important for us to have 50 minutes of learning
time today. Let’s make sure we have that during our class time rather
than needing to run into lunch.
Often just the descriptive response will be sufficient. In many cases, a
description and a direction will suffice. And in other cases, the full three
steps, including limited choice, are required.
52. ERRR #039. Laurel Downey on Teaching Children with Trauma.
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Here’s how this could look if a student was on their phone:
• Describe: Darren, you’re playing with your phone.
• Direct: You know the school rule. The phone needs to be off and
in your bag.
• Limited choice: You can choose to follow the school rule now or we
can talk about it at recess.
For some students, simply saying, ‘You’re playing with your phone’ will
be enough. Sometimes we need to ramp it up, though.
In following this approach, there are a few important things to keep in
mind. These three ideas come from the work of Bill Rogers:
Take-up time – avoiding the stand-off
One of the worst things that can happen when a teacher addresses student
behaviour is to end up in a stand-off, with both teacher and student
staring each other down. Consider the above example. The teacher
follows the above script, ends with, ‘You can choose to follow the school
rule now or we can talk about it at recess’, then stands there staring at
Darren. Darren sits there, staring back at the teacher. No one budges.
Where do you go from here? The problem is you’ve set up a situation in
which Darren risks ‘losing face’ in front of his mates if he complies with you
whilst you’re standing there and waiting for him to comply. Take-up time
avoids this issue. Rather than making Darren comply immediately (and lots
of other kids are probably looking to see what happens), you give the final
limited choice, then you shift your focus somewhere else and give Darren
the ability to comply, hopefully promptly, within his own time.
This can also be used effectively with students chatting. Rather than
barking, ‘Stop chatting’, a teacher could say something like, ‘Year
10, you’re chatting about the football and it’s independent work time
[descriptive]. I’m going over to help Darren with this problem and when I
look over in 30 seconds [take-up time], I want to see you both with heads
down working on the problem too, thanks [directive]’, then leave and help
Darren, giving the students take-up time.
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Tactical ignoring – avoiding the blow-up
Tactical ignoring means focussing on primary behaviour and ignoring
secondary behaviour. For example, we ask a student to put their phone
away, and they do so whilst muttering something under their breath.
Their primary behaviour is that they put their phone away. Their
secondary behaviour is that they mutter under their breath.
If we pull students up on their secondary behaviour, we can quickly end up
in a power struggle. Focus on the primary behaviour and acknowledge it.
Partial agreement – dealing with students arguing
Often students will argue when given a direction. For example, you may
be descriptive, directive, and offer limited choice to ask a student to put
their phone away, to which they might reply, ‘But Ms Smith lets us use
our phones in her class.’
This is a tricky situation, but it can be dealt with by partial agreement. The
teacher response could be as follows: ‘That may be true, but the school rule
is clear. The phone must be off and in your bag.’ Another version of partial
agreement is to use the phrase, ‘Even if…’, such as, ‘Even if other teachers let
you use your phone in class, the school rule is clear. The phone must be off
and in your bag.’ To summarise, partial agreement responses usually start
with, ‘Even if…’, ‘That may be true but…’, ‘Even so…’, or similar.
It’s also helpful to note that ‘Even if’ is the warm version of a similar
phrase, ‘I don’t care.’ Both phrases acknowledge that an objection has
been made by the student, but then suggest that this exception is not
relevant in the current situation. However, ‘Even if’ (and similar phrases)
are much friendlier than the unfortunately common, ‘I don’t care.’
Partial agreement acknowledges what the student has said, then uses that
acknowledgement as a springboard to your next instruction.
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SCRIPTS AS THE BRIDGE BETWEEN PROACTIVE AND RESPONSIVE
BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT
It’s all well and good to know that we should describe, direct, and offer
limited choice when responding to a student’s distracting or disruptive
behaviour. But in a tense moment – when we’re tired, at the end of term, or
at any other time when we’re not on our A-game – it’s incredibly difficult
to respond in a conscious and productive way. At such times, we’re likely to
fall back into bad habits like raising our voice or asking unhelpful questions
like, ‘Why did you do that?’ or ‘Can’t you stop doing that?’ Therefore, to
move from reacting to student behaviour as a novice to responding like an
expert, we need to build automatic and effective responses.53
But how do we build automatic and effective responses? The key here is
to understand that, whilst behaviour is a curriculum for our students,
it is also a curriculum for us! Thus, to build the habits of a behaviour
management master, we must see clear models, get sufficient practice, and
track our progress over time. This is where scripts come in!
Scripts are consciously planned and, ideally, rehearsed responses to
certain situations, behavioural or otherwise, that we can use as templates
of effective responses. We can think of them as worked examples for
teachers. Bill Rogers had the following to say about scripts:54
Plan your language, if you can. I wish somebody had taught
me that, that there are some language cues that you can start
with until you find your own voice. And in finding your own
voice, that framework can assist you. I’ve worked with first year
teachers who don’t know how to settle a class, they don’t know
what to say... So having a framework for how we address whole
class settling, how we address kids who are chatting, how we
address students who are off task, how we communicate the
routines, how we deal with argumentative students, how we
53. Remember from the previous chapters, experts are experts in large part because of the
situation → action pairs that they have stored in their long-term memories. The expert has
many of these that are both productive and automatic. The novice has a limited repertoire,
many of which may not be particularly well refined or developed, and for those actions that
are appropriate, they usually require much more conscious effort to carry out.
54. ERRR #031. Bill Rogers on Behaviour Management (1:56:51).
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deal with kids we want to put toys or objects away, how we give
directed choices. And I’ve worked with first year teachers who
even write these things down on those small library cards, you
know, and they practise it. And in time, that becomes their voice.
They don’t think anymore… It becomes them.
The goal of this section is to provide you with a number of scripts for
different scenarios, a set of situation → action pairs if you will, that should
stand you in good stead for the vast majority of common behaviour
scenarios that a teacher needs to deal with. I have presented these in a table
to make them easy to digest, and I strongly suggest that you copy these
scripts onto cue cards (situation on one side, action on the next), shuffle
them, then practise them. Whilst you do this, you may also like to modify
the scripts to be more in your voice and style, and even create your own for
more and more scenarios!
Once you’ve drilled them alone for a while, have a colleague hold the
cards, set up in your regular classroom, get them to turn their cap
backwards, and then play the role of the student. If you really want to
ramp it up, do so in a group of teachers and have them create disruptions
for you left, right, and centre to simulate the dynamic of the classroom!
Good luck, and happy practising!
Five useful scripts
Scenario (Situation)
Script (Action)
Students chatting when teacher is
waiting for silence
A number of students are still chatting. Pens down, lips closed,
eyes this way, thanks.
Students calling out
(Name), I appreciate your enthusiasm to answer, but hands up to
respond so that we all get a fair go, thanks.
Student says, ‘I hate (subject)’
You don’t have to like (subject). It can be annoying to do things you
don’t like, but it is what we’re doing today. How can I help you?
Student (Harry) disparages another
student (Janet’s) contribution
Excuse me, Janet. Harry, that was a(n) unfair/thoughtless/
ill-conceived/unkind/hurtful comment. If you’d like to disagree
with Janet, you’ll do so respectfully.
Student argues back that another
teacher allows them to do something.
Even if other teachers have different expectations, in this
classroom we (action).
The above come primarily from my discussion with Bill Rogers on the ERRR Podcast.
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Some student actions require a more comprehensive response. Below I
have mapped out a few response templates for such situations.
A student makes a racist remark
Tom Bennett’s main advice here was to, ‘Say as little as possible, if that.’
Respond proportionately. Pause the lesson and ask the student to ‘Leave
the classroom now.’
Follow-up discussion with student:
Look. I don’t believe you meant that, but here’s how it came
across and here’s the impact it actually has on people... This is the
damage it causes, and this is how racism is normalised... (Student:
I didn’t realise!) Right, well I don’t want to hear that again.55
If the student protests and doesn’t want to leave, Tom suggests:
I’ve asked you to leave. That needs to happen now. We’re not
going to discuss this now. We’ll discuss it later. I’m not discussing
this now.56
I would add that this is a particularly good time for partial agreement. If
a student says, ‘But I didn’t mean it’, you could say:
It may be true that you didn’t mean it; we’ll discuss that later.
But right now I’ve asked you to leave the room so that’s what
needs to happen.
Tom also suggested that, at times, some students won’t see what they did
as wrong. He suggested the following.
Listen, I can’t change your mind on that. (But here’s another useful
way to think about it.) But what I can insist upon is your behaviour.
And I know that you want to do well, and I know that you care
about people normally, so let’s try to care about people in this way.57
55. ERRR #046. Tom Bennett on Behaviour Management (Running the Room) (1:12:09).
56. ERRR #046 (1:15:22).
57. ERRR #046. Tom Bennett on Behaviour Management (Running the Room) (1:12:09).
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In addition, Tom suggested trying to value-map onto something that
they actually agree with, as you may be dealing with someone who is
actually racist. Linking better (non-racist) behaviour to something that
you know the student values could be effective. This could be referring
to how multicultural players on one of their favourite sports teams relate
to each other in a respective and supportive way, or similar.58
A student makes a sexist remark
Kids do this in lots of different ways. Again, Bennett suggests that you
start with, ‘You need to leave this classroom now.’
If you have the capacity, you may then like to address the class after
asking a student to leave. Have a ‘threshold moment’.
Listen. I don’t want to lose too much of your learning time. But what
just happened is serious, and I want to address this. In this classroom
we treat each other with dignity. In this classroom we respect
everyone, regardless of sexuality, ethnicity, gender, or anything else.
We just saw an example there where that didn’t happen. And I never
want to hear language like that again. And I don’t want to discuss
this anymore right now because, quite frankly, I’m so disappointed
that I heard that. Now, let’s move on.59
A whole class being loud and acting out
This can be a challenging situation, especially when working with
students in their mid teens in a school in which there isn’t a particularly
strong culture of behaviour. Here we follow the descriptive, directive,
limited choice framework. But we do it slightly differently.
Construct a Noise-o-meter (idea from Bill Rogers) and place x’s on the
board as frequently as you need to (I often do so every five minutes, and
set an alarm that goes off to remind me to do so). This Noise-o-meter,
pictured below, is descriptive, as it provides feedback on students’ current
noise level; it’s directive, as students can see clearly how they need to
58. For some great case studies of this, see Eastwood. O. (2021). Belonging: The Ancient Code of
Togetherness. London: Quercus.
59. ERRR #046. Tom Bennett on Behaviour Management (Running the Room) (1:20:02).
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modify their volume in response to the feedback on the Noise-o-meter
(keeping it within ‘working voices’ or ‘partner voices’ range); and it offers
limited choice: students can choose whether or not they want to modulate
their noise level, and can clearly see the outcomes of that choice (as you
update the right-hand side of the Noise-o-meter each time you add an x).
It can be effective to draw up the Noise-o-meter silently whilst the class
continues being loud behind you. Take your time to write it out, and use
the drawing time to calm yourself down. Then simply turn and point
to relevant sections of the board to show where they’re at, and the result
of their behaviour. I have found this approach extremely effective when
dealing with classes who are having an unusually loud day and really
struggling to focus.
Noise-o-meter
Noise Level
Too loud
+ 2 mins
Okay
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Current
leaving time
x
x
Focussed
work
- 2 mins
x
4 mins
after bell
Time
Noise-o-meter, modelled on the ideas of Bill Rogers
FOLLOWING UP ON BEHAVIOUR
After we have described, directed, and offered limited choice, we often
need to follow up. In this section we look at three key ways of following
up: conversation, detention, and expulsion.
Following up with a conversation
Conversations are a key part of any follow-up. They can stand alone, or
be part of a detention or other sanction. The role of the conversation is
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to build upon the standard format of your first comment. We aim to
raise students’ awareness of their behaviour (descriptive), help them to
understand the kind of behaviour that is expected instead (directive), and
provide them with the required support to take positive action (choice).
A conversation may also play the role of determining some of the
underlying causes behind a student’s behaviour. Bill Rogers gave the
following example of a conversation that he had with a student after he
kept them back for not taking their hat off:
S: I didn’t do anything. Why can’t I go out now?
B: Look, you’re not in trouble. In less than 2 minutes you’re out of here.
But as a new teacher in this class, I was just a bit concerned about you
keeping your hat on. Is there anything I don’t know about?
S: Well, you know the weekend?
B: I only came here today.
S: Well, on the weekend right, I got a really… I got a shit haircut.
B: Oh, did you?
S: Yeah, a really shit haircut. So I really wanted to keep my hat on.
B: Ok, do you mind if I have a look? You don’t have to show me (sees
it). Well, you know, I might see it differently from you, but thanks
for telling me.60
Oftentimes students have legitimate reasons for acting the way that
they do. Bill commented on this interaction, ‘I’m very conscious, when
I keep kids back, of keeping it a repairing, rebuilding activity, not just
a consequential activity alone.’61 For more on this, see the advice on
threshold conversations in the following section.
60. ERRR #031. Bill Rogers on Behaviour Management (1:11:59).
61. ERRR #031.
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Following up with a detention
Detentions can take many different forms, but the point of them is
to temporarily detain (the root of ‘detention’) a student in order to
communicate to them the severity of their actions, and give them an
opportunity to reflect and ‘make up for’ what has occurred. During their
time in detention, we should endeavour to ensure that the consequences
that students face are either natural, logical, or restorative.62
Natural consequences are centred around righting wrongs. This could
mean asking students to apologise verbally or in writing, getting them
to clean graffiti, fix something that is broken, or assist an adult in one of
these or a related task.
Logical consequences are results that naturally flow from a student’s actions.
These don’t require any teacher intervention, e.g. a student acts poorly
towards other students then has fewer people to play with at lunch time.
Restorative consequences are relational consequences aimed at mending
relationships. The narrative could be something along the lines of, ‘You’ve
made a big mess and whilst you’re going to help me clean it up, you’ve
actually used up a lot of my time, so you’re going to help me to do this
other task which I was planning to do during the time that I’ve now spent
cleaning.’ This isn’t about getting the tasks done; it’s about the student
learning about what it takes to mend and improve a relationship.
Bill Rogers suggests having students write a reflection during detention
time, which could take the following form:
What did you do?
What impact did your behaviour have on others?
What rule or right was impacted?
What could you do to make it better?
What support would be helpful to you?
62. ERRR #039. Laurel Downey on Teaching Children with Trauma (1:17:33).
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Rogers adds (based upon a scenario involving a conversation with a male
student):
This writing task should take 10 to 15 minutes. For the rest of that
detention, you can talk with the lad through that; I always get
them to read it back to me. So I can hear their voice as well as their
written voice. And then maybe do a bit of problem-solving with the
lad. And if he’s been in detention three times in close succession,
he’s probably a candidate for a long-term behaviour program.63
Crucially, each detention, whether it be a two-minute detention after
class or a weekend detention (which Rogers argued vehemently against),
should end with what Tom Bennett refers to as a Threshold conversation.
The point of a threshold conversation is to ensure that students leave the
detention (or other sanction) thinking: the teacher wants me in the class,
they want me to do better, I can do better, and I know how to do better.64
That conversation can be as short as 30 seconds, or as long as it needs to
be. The important thing to note, however, is that, if you don’t have this
conversation, the student may leave with the narrative of ‘They punished
me’ and maybe ‘They hate me’. For students to have a hopeful outlook on
the future, and understand that the consequences are about the behaviour,
and not about them, threshold conversations are vital.
Example threshold conversation/comment:
Harry. Now you’ve talked me through what you did, the impact
it had on others, and what you can do to make it right, I really
appreciate and acknowledge the way that you’ve engaged with
this reflection with me today, and the honesty that you’ve brought
to our conversation. I want you to know that this is behind us
now. I don’t hold grudges or anything like that, so in our lesson
tomorrow we start from a clean slate. I thought you did a great
job last term with your project on big cats, and I think it was
really great how you helped Emanuela last Friday with that
experiment. I’m looking forward to our next lesson together.
63. ERRR #031. Bill Rogers on Behaviour Management (1:51:26).
64. ERRR #046. Tom Bennett on Behaviour Management (Running the Room) (1:35:57).
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When a conversation or detention isn’t enough
In situations in which students consistently struggle to behave in ways
that respect the rights of other students and staff, it is necessary to take a
longer-term, more structured approach to ensuring a productive learning
environment. This could take the form of a behaviour plan, and then
perhaps suspension, or expulsion.
Remember, behaviour is a curriculum, so if a student’s behavioural skills
are not at the point that they’re able to follow the school rules yet, the
question is, how can we scaffold them towards success? If a student really
can’t work in a focussed way for 15 minutes straight, the answer isn’t to ask
them to work quietly, it’s to provide a structured way for them to build up
to that point. That could look like setting a target and having them work
quietly for longer and longer periods of time as their stamina increases.
This is a simple behavioural plan, but they can take many other forms too.
The main point is that the goals for the student are specific and achievable,
and that the plan is communicated to teachers, parents, and the student.
Sometimes it’s more appropriate to communicate behaviour plans and
other behaviour-related messages to students in image rather than in (or
in addition to) written form to aid comprehension.
Before setting a behaviour plan, ask, ‘How general is this destructive
behaviour?’ If it is highly variable across classes, then it may have
something to do with the classes, because the student can clearly choose
how they’re behaving. So it may be better to work just with that teacher
and that student. If it is widespread, a coordinated approach involving
multiple teachers is required.
When considering suspension or expulsion (if you are a leader and in a
position to do so), consider the impact on the student in question, as well
as other members of the school community. Internal suspensions (where
a student sits perhaps in the school office or other room and does their
schoolwork) are often more supportive for students than external ones
that send them out on the street and increase disconnection from school.
Expulsions should be used as a mechanism to keep students and staff
within a school safe, so should be used when other approaches to reducing
a student’s dangerous or destructive behaviour have failed. Expulsions
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
may also be necessary when a student’s action has been so hurtful (e.g.
physical or sexual abuse) that significant action is necessary.
Remember, if you do choose to expel a student, it’s best not to draw out
the process. A lengthy suspension followed by an eventual expulsion will
rob students of more learning and relationship-building time than a quick
and decisive decision, and will make it harder for students to connect
their destructive actions with the consequence of expulsion.
A NOTE TO LEADERS: SUPPORTING STAFF WITH STUDENTS’ BEHAVIOUR
As with all curricula, staff should have opportunities for structured and
regular training on behaviour. The ideas within this chapter are a good
start, complemented with the deliberate practice of scripts and responses
to student behaviour outlined earlier. In addition to this, there are several
actions that leadership and peers can take to support staff in managing
behaviour.
Introduce the teacher to the class
When a new teacher, including a relief teacher, begins with a new class,
it is powerful for a member of leadership to introduce the new teacher
to the class.
For a new classroom teacher, the member of leadership may say
something like:
9C. I’d like you to welcome Ms Smith. Ms Smith is a new
teacher and she’s a very talented mathematician. We have been
impressed so far by Ms Smith’s commitment to teaching and you
are all very lucky to have her. As she teaches you, I’d like you to
keep in mind our school values of..., and I’ll be checking in with
Ms Smith about your learning at the end of today’s lesson and
over the coming weeks. Good luck and I’m sure you’re going to
all enjoy working together.
For a relief teacher, especially if they’re taking a particularly rowdy class,
an introduction by leadership is also very helpful. In addition, the senior
leader may want to stay in the class for the first 10 minutes to ensure that
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BEHAvIOuR MAnAgEMEnT
things get off to a good start, then congratulate students on their strong
start as they leave, and hint that they may return to check up on things
before the end of class.
The teacher safety valve
Sometimes a teacher becomes completely overwhelmed by a few students
or an entire class. If a member of leadership notices, or is alerted to this,
there are several things that they can do.
Firstly, they can ask a few key students to leave the class. This can be done
by simply knocking on the door and saying, ‘Excuse me, class. Excuse me,
Mr Smith. I’m wondering if I can borrow two or three students.’
Secondly, the teacher can be removed from class. This is done by means
of the following: ‘Excuse me for a moment, class. Sorry to bother you, Mr
Smith. There’s a message for you at the office.’ This is what Bill Rogers calls
the ‘teacher safety valve’. This safety valve should be pre-arranged, and it is
code for ‘Leave the classroom now, I’ll take the class till the bell goes, and
we’ll debrief later,’ but done in a way that doesn’t demean the teacher.
Keep in mind, this is only a safety valve. It doesn’t work for the long term.
The fact that a safety valve needs to be used is a signal that the teacher
requires longer-term mentoring on behaviour management. Following a
safety valve incident, it’s imperative to debrief with the teacher and offer
this kind of support, and not just send them back into the fray with no
additional skills or knowledge.
SUMMARY
Behaviour stems from the need to belong. Thus, as teachers, part of our
role is to provide students with ways to interact within the classroom that
both satisfies this need and is conducive to learning.
Importantly, the rules and regulations that we are asking students to act
in line with are fundamentally motivated by our desire to uphold the
rights of every member of our learning community. These rights can
include the right to feel physically and psychologically safe, the right to
be respected and treated fairly, and the right to learn.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
We begin this process by realising that behaviour is a curriculum, and
supporting students to improve their behaviour is achieved similarly to
helping them to improve other skills, that is, through a clear scheme of
work, explanation, modelling, practice, and revision over time.
To support your behaviour management, ensure that you balance
proactive and responsive approaches, foster productive norms in the
classroom, aim for certainty over severity when it comes to consequences,
and make rewards unexpected (‘now–that’ rather than ‘if–then’ rewards)
to maintain intrinsic motivation.
Routines are a key factor of behaviour and classroom management to
focus upon. When we can establish routines that ensure smooth and
quick transitions, this saves hours, even weeks, of instructional time
over a year.
When we respond to disruptive student behaviour, we can describe, direct,
and offer limited choice, and do so with a tone that is firm, but also
supportive. We can manage stand-offs and blow-ups by giving students
take-up time, tactically ignoring secondary behaviour, and offering
partial agreement (‘Even if…’, ‘Even so…’, ‘That may be true, however…’).
Scripts are helpful, especially when we’re finding our teacher voice,
and planning and rehearsing scripts to deal with common student
misdemeanours in the classroom can help you to respond calmly and
productively in the heat of the moment. And tools like the ‘noise-o-meter’
can help when a whole class is struggling to settle.
When it comes to follow-ups, we want to follow up quickly so that
students can connect their behaviour to consequences or conversations
that follow; decisions should be made swiftly so as not to leave students
with undue uncertainty or missed learning time; and students should
leave disciplinary conversations with the belief that they’re cared about
and believed in.
Staff can be supported by being introduced to a class, and via the ‘teacher
safety valve’. And remember, behaviour is an act of maintenance; it
requires constant and consistent revisiting to maintain standards.
…
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BEHAvIOuR MAnAgEMEnT
But an absence of troublesome behaviour doesn’t inevitably lead to a
presence of productive learning behaviour and attitudes. This is the topic
of our next chapter, how to motivate our students.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Behaviour
Management
Behaviour stems from the
need to belong
Is based on a set of
key ideas
Can be thought
of as
Behaviour management is
designed to safeguard rights
Proactive
Behaviour management is
a curriculum
Behaviour management
should be both responsive
and proactive
The most powerful behavioural
factor in your classroom is the
behavioural norms
Consequences: Certainty
trumps severity (also strive
for immediacy)
Rewards: Make them
unexpected so as to not
undermine intrinsic motivation
Behaviour management is an
act of maintenance
112
Plan in detail how you’ll introduce
yourself and the subject in your
first class
Be proactive about being
responsive by preparing and
rehearsing scripts
Plan your routines
Introduce norms,
routines, and
expectations with a
tone of supportive
enthusiasm
BEHAvIOuR MAnAgEMEnT
Support your staff
Introduce new
teachers to the class
Responsive
Describe
Tactically ignore secondary
behaviour
Provide ongoing support
and mentorship
Direct
Deal with students talking
back through partial
agreement
Use the teacher safety
valve
Offer limited
choice
Then give
take-up time
Follow up
Conversation
To raise awareness, reinforce
expectations, and listen
Consequences
Natural, logical,
or restorative
Escalate
Don’t leave students in
limbo for too long
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CHAPTER 3
MOTIVATION
Show it ’s valuable
(increase the benefit)
Motivation is a cost–benefit analysis
Show it ’s normal
(students want the benefit
of belonging)
Success is the biggest determiner of
student motivation
Make it easy
(reduce the cost)
Motivation
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
In addition to behaviour management, one of the biggest challenges
that teachers face is that of motivating students. Whether it’s motivating
them to complete work in class, hand in their homework, try their best in
studying for the upcoming test, or read the required chapter prior to class,
ensuring that students are motivated is one of our core tasks.
Through films and popular media, we’re often fed caricatures of the
motivating teacher, giving inspiring speeches to their students or going
the extra mile to track down lost and disengaged students in the back
streets of some suburban ghetto to bring them back to the light. The
reality is that motivating speeches often only have a temporary impact,
and teachers have busy lives and only a few hours a week within their
classrooms to try to have a motivational impact.
Given these constraints, what is it that we can actually do that will realistically
increase student motivation? The answer to this question remained a mystery
to me for a long time and it wasn’t until I was able to read the work of, and
then interview, both Peps Mccrea (Motivated Teaching) and Harry FletcherWood (Habits of Success), and begin to apply their ideas in the classroom, that
I felt I finally had some answers to the motivation question. The vast majority
of the ideas in this chapter come from the work of Peps and Harry and from
my ERRR Podcast discussions with them.
This chapter begins by sketching out key principles that underlie
motivation, then moves on to provide practical advice on how to apply
these principles to the classroom through a three-part framework. We
can motivate students to take action by showing them that an action is
valuable, normal, and easy.
THEORY: WHAT DOES IT TAKE TO MOTIVATE?
Motivation allocates attention
We know from Cognitive Load Theory65 that attention brings information
from our environment into our short-term memory and, when we think
about information in our short-term memory, connect it to things that we
already know, and do other generative learning activities with it (such as
65. For more on this see my book, Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory in Action.
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MOTIvATIOn
organisation and elaboration), that information can be ‘learnt’ (i.e. make
it into long-term memory).
This process could be summarised very simply as follows:
Attention to new information → new information in
short-term memory → new information learnt
One of the key insights from Peps Mccrea is that ‘Motivation allocates
attention in terms of the best available investment’. This enables us to add
an additional step to our chain of learning from above:
Motivation to engage with new information → Attention to
new information → new information in short-term memory →
new information learnt
This is a crucial point, because without motivation to engage with the
to-be-learnt content, students will likely allocate their attention to other
things that they’re more motivated to attend to, such as thinking about
what they want to do on the weekend, the recent game they’re playing, or
their current love interest.
The assertion that motivation allocates attention based upon the best
available investment leads to our next motivational insight.
Motivation is a cost–benefit analysis
Whenever we choose to do something, we do so based upon a cost–benefit
analysis. Put simply, this means that we consider whether or not the likely
benefits of taking the action outweigh the costs.
If a student is deciding whether or not to do the assigned reading of a
book chapter prior to class, their costs and benefits could look as follows:
• Benefits
• Will follow along better in class
• Won’t look stupid in front of my mates
• Teacher will be happy
• Parents will be happy
• Costs
• It’s effort
• Won’t be able to play my favourite game for that same one-hour
period
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
If the student decides (consciously or unconsciously) that the costs are
greater than the benefits, they won’t do it.
The reason why this is important for us to know this is that everything we
do in an attempt to further motivate students targets either the cost or the
benefit. We are attempting to either boost the benefit to students of taking
an action, or reduce the costs.66 Thus, all of the recommendations within
this chapter fit into either the ‘boost benefits’ or ‘reduce costs’ category.
Motivation is not a general trait
Often we make the mistake of describing students as ‘motivated’ or
‘unmotivated’. However, motivation is domain specific. A student may be
unmotivated in mathematics but highly motivated in music. Unmotivated
in PE, but can’t get enough of physics.
Peps Mccrea encouraged us to speak more in terms of ‘This student is
motivated/unmotivated in (context) to do (action) in order to (some
end)’. For example: ‘This student is unmotivated in PE to work on their
running technique in order to improve their 400 m time’; or, ‘This student
is motivated in physics to reflect on their test results in order to address
their knowledge gaps.’
These two statements could be about the same student, and it’s helpful
because it also enables us to see motivation as something that can be
influenced, as it isn’t fixed or an intrinsic characteristic of the students
with whom we’re working.
Success is the biggest determiner of student motivation
If student motivation is domain specific, then the biggest factor influencing
a student’s motivation in a certain domain is their success in that area. If a
student is regularly successful, they have a higher level of certainty (often
called ‘expectancy’) of receiving the benefits of their efforts. As Tom
Sherrington put it, ‘Motivation comes through the joy of improvement.’67
66. Though it’s important here to note that, as Harry Fletcher-Wood emphasises, often these cost–
benefit decisions aren’t made rationally, but rather habitually and unconsciously, or based
upon simply following the behaviour of role models or those around them. This is a point that
I’ll build on later in the chapter.
67. ERRR #045. Tom Sherrington on The Most Important Thing (1:48:44).
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MOTIvATIOn
What this means is that the single biggest factor influencing student
motivation is, as Peps Mccrea puts it, ‘just great teaching’. If we can teach
well, and in a way that is likely to secure student success, then this has a
very high chance of boosting student motivation.
Another way to Secure Success (as Mccrea terms it) is to help students attribute
their success to themselves. When students attribute success to themselves,
it helps them to feel they are more likely to have the power to secure more
success for themselves in future. This, in itself, is motivating. We can help
students attribute success to themselves by highlighting it: ‘Harry, you can be
super proud of your work on this assignment. You were really strategic in the
planning stage, and this really contributed to the overall outcome. Well done.’
Success in the short term (if sustained) can lead to proficiency, which (if
further sustained) can lead to increased academic identity in the long
term! As Mccrea writes:
Over time, pupils can move from telling themselves that, ‘I can
do these questions’ to, ‘I can do fractions’ to, ‘I am good at maths’.
Eventually, if this is replicated across subjects, some may even get
to the point of thinking, ‘I am a great learner.’68
Focus on habits because they deliver long-lasting results
If securing success is the most effective way to increase the benefit side
of the cost–benefit analysis for students, then establishing habits is the
most effective way to reduce the cost. When something becomes a habit,
an automated behaviour, we carry it out with almost no effort at all. This
almost nil effort means that the cost is very low also.
As Harry Fletcher-Wood puts it:
Motivation is fickle, self-regulation is effortful: we can’t rely on
either to get students learning consistently. We can rely on habits:
if students check their working automatically, they’ll do it even
when they’re tired, even when they’re working independently, and
even when they’re under pressure in an exam. Habits get – and
keep – students learning.69
68. Mccrea, P. (2020). Motivated Teaching. Peps Mccrea.
69. Fletcher-Wood, H. (2021). Habits of Success: Getting Every Student Learning.
London: Routledge. (See p. 6.)
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Motivate students by showing that it’s valuable, normal, and easy
Peps Mccrea’s model of motivation includes five components: secure
success, run routines, nudge norms, build belonging, and boost buy-in.
Harry Fletcher-Wood conceives of motivation and habit change in terms
of the SIMPlIFy model: Specify, Inspire and Motivate, Plan, Initiate action,
and Follow up. In an attempt to bring together these two frameworks
and categorise the practical actions that teachers can take to motivate
students in a memorable way, I find it most useful to house all of these
ideas under three key headings. To motivate students, we should show
them that taking action is valuable, normal, and easy.
It’s important to show that taking action is valuable, because this is the
‘benefit’ side of the cost–benefit analysis. Without seeing any value in
an action, any benefit is invisible. In contrast, if it’s highly valuable, the
benefit is obvious also.
Showing that something is normal builds upon that key insight from our
chapter on behaviour management, that our primary need is to belong.
A key way to belong is to fit into the norms of the social group that we’re
seeking to be a part of. Thus, showing that something is a normal action
for students is a key way to increase student motivation.
Showing something is easy is the quickest way to reduce the cost.
If we can demonstrate to students that something is valuable, normal,
and easy, there’s an excellent chance they’ll be motivated to give it a go.
SHOW IT’S VALUABLE
Below are five ways to boost student motivation for an activity by showing
them that it’s valuable.
Explain that an activity is valuable, and have students explain that it’s valuable
The first step to demonstrate the value of something is simply explaining
to students that it’s valuable. This is often the difference between
including, or omitting, a ‘because...’ or a ‘this will mean that…’. In our
chapter on explicit instruction, we called this ‘relevance’.
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In a German lesson, for example, rather than just saying to students,
‘Make sure you practise your vocabulary each day for the next week’, we
could help students to see the value in the task by adding, ‘because, as
we’ve discussed, ongoing practice makes the learning stick.’ This is an
easy thing to do, but it’s also easy to forget to do, and a simple sentence
or two about the benefits of an activity can make all the difference.
An even more powerful approach is to have students explain the value
of an activity themselves. Mccrea suggested that this is called rationale
elaboration. For the example above, we could simply invite students to
pair–share based on the prompt, ‘What are the benefits of practising our
vocabulary each day for the next week?’
A powerful way to embrace this rationale elaboration effect is through
a buddy system. If we want our senior students to utilise effective study
techniques, rather than simply teaching them these techniques and telling
them that they’re important, we can instead teach them these techniques,
provide them with the justifications, then have them run a session for
students in younger years in which they themselves teach the techniques
and explain why they’re important. Often through convincing others, we
convince ourselves!
Help students to feel the value of an activity
We can help students to feel the value of an activity by having them reflect
on a problem, or by simulating a problem for them. Harry Fletcher-Wood
traced the origins of this idea to the work of Dan Meyer (US maths
teacher) who suggests teaching maths with the ‘headache → aspirin’
approach. In this approach, we give students something difficult to do
(induce a headache), then provide them with a mathematical approach
that makes it less painful for them to do that difficult task (provide them
with the aspirin).
Simulate a problem: For example, imagine you’re trying to get students
to be more organised. You could induce a headache by asking them to
find a worksheet from a few lessons back, or by having a race to find
this or that other worksheet. This will highlight to those who are less
organised the state of their organisational system, and may help motivate
them to follow the organisational advice that you subsequently provide.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Reflect on a problem: It isn’t just students that we may have to motivate;
sometimes we need to motivate teachers too. This example relates to
motivating teachers. If you’re running professional development training,
a really effective first activity can be inviting teachers to reflect on some
challenges that they’ve had recently in relation to the thing that you’re
about to provide them with training on. This can help to boost buy-in
and encourage them to engage more deeply with the content that follows.
Have a role model share with students the value of an activity
Young people are often more likely to heed the advice of a role model than
that of a teacher. This can be leveraged to help students see the value of
taking a given action. Fletcher-Wood offered the following:
There’s quite a cool study that was done by Professor Simon
Burgess in the UK. He showed… when the Obamas visited the
UK a few years ago, Michelle Obama went to a particular girls’
school... A few months later, she met some of the girls from that
school at Oxford, and then she invited… some of them over to
the White House. And the results in that one school jumped
by something like 15–20% that year for their public exams. So
contact with someone inspirational, who provides you with an
inspirational message, can be quite powerful. If you don’t have
the time and resources to get Michelle Obama in, there are
[smaller scale ways to do this. As outlined in a] 2016 study called
Even Einstein Struggled,70 [the researchers presented] texts about
Einstein, Marie Curie, and I think there was Faraday and some
stuff about them, but also some stuff about the difficulties that
they had in their life. And it showed that students who were
asked to read these texts got higher grades, and particularly low
attainers,… they tended to identify with these famous people.71
Another approach is to have students look to role models closer to home.
For example, if time management or organisation are current areas of
focus in the classroom, have students ask their parents how they manage
70. https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/edu-edu0000092.pdf.
71. ERRR #057. Harry Fletcher-Wood on Habits of Success (35:17).
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MOTIvATIOn
their time or remember to do all of the things that they need to do
or even motivate themselves to do something that they don’t want to.
Students could alternatively interview older students in the same school,
as younger students often look up to and idolise older kids.
Repeat that it’s valuable
Within schools, young students are bombarded with multiple messages
all day, every day, so the few words that we’ve offered to communicate the
value of an activity to students can often get lost in this informationally
competitive environment. Given this, it’s worthwhile repeating our
messaging about the value of an activity multiple times. We can start by
simply saying it (‘Remember, it’s important to practise our vocabulary on
a spaced schedule to account for the forgetting curve’) and, after time, you
can transition to pair–sharing of the rationale (‘Discuss with your partner
why it’s important to practise this vocab on a spaced schedule’), then you
can further transition to cold calling for a quick reminder about value.72
Follow up to show it’s valuable
One of the clearest ways that we can demonstrate the value of an activity
to students is to follow up on it. If we ask students to do a pre-reading,
we should ensure that we require the use of that pre-knowledge within
the lesson. If we ask students to complete some homework questions, we
should be consistent about checking that it’s done. This also relates to
the idea from our behaviour management chapter that certainty trumps
severity when it comes to consequences.
In order to effectively ‘follow up’, it’s helpful to be able to track progress
or success in some objective way. This can be done ‘offline’ or ‘online’
(two terms from meta-cognition research). ‘Offline’ tracking refers to the
things that can be done before the task has happened (such as setting up
tracking templates and systems) or after the task. It’s easier to track things
in an offline way, because it requires less cognitive space and doesn’t
disrupt the task itself. For example, we can track homework in an offline
way, because we simply collect it up from students after they’ve done it.
We can check for understanding in an offline way through exit tickets.
72. This term is discussed in more detail in the chapter on explicit instruction.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Tracking things ‘online’ means keeping track during an actual task. An
example of this could be monitoring how many students are participating
in a discussion at the same time as you’re trying to facilitate that
discussion. Clearly, this can be very cognitively demanding, as you’re
trying to do multiple things at once. Thus, where possible, we should try
to turn an online monitoring and tracking task, like counting students’
contributions in a class discussion, into an offline monitoring task. In this
discussion example, this could be done by giving each student a token
that they hand in whenever they contribute. These tokens could then be
counted (offline) after the task to reflect upon participation.
We can further increase the impact of tracking and follow-up by making
that follow-up public. For example, students’ homework could be tracked
on a sheet on the wall of your classroom (just be careful that this is seen
as healthy competition rather than public shaming of students impacted
by difficulties beyond their control). Or, if you’re trying to establish an
entry routine, entry times could be tracked publicly on the wall too. The
bottom line is that tracking can help the follow-up process, and consistent
follow-up clearly communicates to students that something is valuable
and important.
SHOW IT’S NORMAL
Showing that something is normal builds on students’ desire to belong.
Here are five ways to do it.
Show it’s normal by speaking as if the norm is already in place
One of the most effective ways of establishing a norm can be to talk as if it’s
already in place. A great time for this is within your scripted introduction
to class at the start of the year. If, for example, you anticipate behaviour
to be a challenge, you could add a few words to your introduction along
the lines of, ‘Students in my classes always work hard and do their best’,
explicitly stating that expected norm. To speak as if a norm is already in
place in terms of homework would be to say something like, ‘Homework
always gets done in this class.’
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Another way to show that a norm is in place is to tell stories of your
previous students who exhibited that norm. For example, ‘In the past
three years every single student in my year 12 class has done 20 practice
papers in the lead-up to the final exam. Each year I’ve emphasised the
importance of this, and each time they’ve taken this advice seriously and
it’s helped them tremendously.’
Show it’s normal by highlighting a trend
One of my favourite suggestions that Peps Mccrea made in our podcast
discussion was the idea of highlighting a trend. In this approach, we
talk a norm into being by identifying instances of it and suggesting that
they’re the start of an inevitable trend that will lead to our desired result.
I used this idea in the following lesson with one of my classes. It went
something like this:
‘We started this term [Term 2] with a bit of a discussion about
homework, standards, and your goals for your mathematics
this year. We’re now in week four and I just wanted to point
out and acknowledge the shift in behaviour that I’ve seen in this
class in comparison with Term 1. People are being much more
consistent, and each week this term I’ve seen more and more of
you handing in your homework. This trend of more and more
people completing their homework is going to help us all do much
better. Fantastic work, and keep it up.’
Show it’s normal by making it visible and reinforcing it
There are two main ways to do this: the first is by positive narration, and
the second is with sanctions.
Positive narration, an idea that I’ve come across through the work of
Doug Lemov, simply means narrating positive behaviour that you see
in the classroom. If we’re trying to establish an entry routine, you can
say things like, ‘I can see that Nic is already in his seat and ready to go’,
or, ‘Wendy has her book out, margin ruled, and the learning intention
written down already.’ Positive narration makes the behaviours that you
want to see more obvious to students and forms the standard against
which they compare themselves.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
As mentioned within our behaviour management chapter, one of the key
roles of sanctions is to reinforce behavioural norms. Using a sanction
quickly and decisively in response to an undesired behaviour sends a clear
message to students that ‘this isn’t something that we do in our class’. So
being ready and willing to use sanctions in this way (whilst ensuring that
sanctions are vastly outweighed by the highlighting of positive student
behaviours) is a valuable tool in the teacher’s toolbox.
Leverage a norm by making sure students feel that they belong
Students only feel compelled to conform to a norm when they feel part of
the group and want to belong more strongly to it. If the opposite is true,
highlighting a norm may cause students to act out in opposition to it,
because they actually don’t feel part of or don’t want to feel part of the class.
This means that we want to ensure a sense of belonging to assist with
norm adoption. This can be done by ensuring that the language that we
use is collective. Phrases like, ‘In our class we…’ or ‘At (school’s name),
we…’ are useful here. Peps also suggested playing games, developing ‘in
jokes’ or doing other activities with your classes that help students to feel
a stronger sense of belonging. I have compiled a list of quick games that
I’ve found useful in the classroom at ollielovell.com/games.
Avoid highlighting unproductive norms
This was another of the most powerful, ‘aha’ moments for me when
discussing motivation with Peps Mccrea. How often have you berated
or seen a colleague berate a class for not doing some desired behaviour?
Well, unfortunately, making public statements like, ‘I’m very disappointed
that so few of you handed your homework in from last lesson’ reinforces
to students that the norm in your class is to do the opposite of what you
want them to do!
Another way we can fall into this trap is by asking for a show of hands
when the majority behaviour is unproductive. ‘Hands up if you got started
on your research project over the weekend like I recommended’ is a good
idea only if you know that the majority of students got that work done over
the weekend. If most students didn’t start, then students will look around
and think, ‘Oh good. I’m glad I didn’t start because nobody else did either.’
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Next time you ask such a question, actively observe what your students
do, and you’ll notice that they look around to see how many students
have their hands up. You can actually see students evaluating norms in
real time!
MAKE IT EASY
Making something easy, and showing that it’s easy, reduces the cost in
students’ cost–benefit analysis, and thereby increases the chance that
they’ll take the action.
Make it easy by specifying exactly what needs to be done
The first step of Harry Fletcher-Wood’s SIMPlIFy framework is ‘Specify’,
and for good reason. Getting clear on exactly what needs to be done
makes getting started much easier. There are several great ways to ‘specify’.
Providing models and checklists for students is a really powerful way to
specify. When students see a work sample they can think, ‘Oh, ok, that’s
what’s wanted. I could do that.’
If we’re having a supportive and more open goal-setting conversation
with a student, or with a colleague (or with ourselves!), it’s useful to get
specific about the number one goal at the outset. In this case, Harry
suggested considering ‘the marginal minute’. Ask, ‘If you had an extra
minute, how would you spend it?’ or, ‘If you could only study for 20
minutes today, what would it be most important for you to achieve?’
These types of questions can help students to gain clarity about what it
really is that they need and want to get done.
Once we know what, in general terms, is most important for them to focus
on, the next step is to get much clearer about exactly what success would
look like. This can be supported in many cases by simply asking, ‘What
would success look like for you here?’ Another, more creative approach,
originating from Oliver Caviglioli, is to prompt with, ‘How would I draw
that?’ This can often be a good stimulus for a deeper conversation about
how they would feel if they achieved success.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Being specific isn’t only useful for students; it’s also useful for parents.
Harry suggested that there is a wealth of research arguing that parents
really want to assist with their children’s schooling, but they don’t know
how. Providing them with a schedule of due work and support regarding
where to find resources or task descriptions can really help to this end.
Make it easy by making the first step easy
Building on the idea of success leading to success, it is important to
consider how we can best start this virtual success cycle. The key insight
here is to make the first step easy. For homework, this can mean making
the first question or two similar to those done in class, so that students
can gain a sense of success early. A similar approach can be used by a
school leader who wants teachers to make more frequent contact home.
They can make it easy to start by providing teachers with a well-collated
list of numbers or emails (so they don’t have to hunt through the school’s
learning management system), and even providing template scripts for
the discussions.
Make it easy by helping students believe that they can do it
We can also boost students’ confidence in their chances of success by
pointing out prior examples of their competence. Fletcher-Wood suggests
the following phrases:
‘You did something just like this last lesson’ or ‘You worked non­
stop for 10 minutes yesterday, I’d like you to do the same again
today.’… We can [also] encourage students to generalise from
past success: ‘You’ve managed everything in the last three lessons,
I’m sure you can manage this.’ 73
This relates to David Goggin’s idea of the ‘cookie jar’,74 keeping a mental
(or physical) note of prominent successes that you’ve had in your life
and drawing on these stories in times of hardship to remind you of your
capacity and that, ‘I’ve overcome similar things before, I can do it again.’
73. Fletcher-Wood, H. (2021). Habits of Success: Getting Every Student Learning. London:
Routledge.
74. Goggins, D. (2021). Can’t Hurt Me: Master Your Mind and Defy the Odds. David Goggins.
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MOTIvATIOn
Make it easy by making it automatic
The topic of routines was covered in detail in the preceding chapter,
and habits were addressed in the intro, so here I’ll just emphasise
the importance of routines and habits from the cost–benefit analysis
perspective. When we establish routines and habits to the point that
they’re automatic for students, we reduce the cost significantly, we make
it ‘easy’ for students to perform the task, and we increase the chances
that they’ll do it. To this end, routines and habits are the same thing but
at different scales. Habits are routines for the individual. Routines are
habits for the class.
SHOW THAT YOU RESPECT AND CARE FOR YOUR STUDENTS
Another point that’s not included within the valuable, normal, and easy
framework, but that’s also crucially important, is the role of relationships.
Dylan Wiliam, in our interview discussion, offered two key pieces of advice.
Firstly, we should signal to students that we care about and believe
in them. Wiliam referenced a study75 in which half of the student
participants were given feedback on a sticky note that said, ‘I’m giving you
these comments so that you’ll have feedback on your paper’ with the other
half of students receiving a note stating, ‘I’m giving you these comments
because I have very high expectations and I know you can reach them’,
which demonstrated the teacher’s belief in the students and care for their
success. This simple note that signalled teacher belief in the student, and
nothing else, led to a significant increase in student performance when
compared to the other, more bland sticky note.
Wiliam also suggested the following in terms of what it takes to be a good
teacher:
I actually happen to think that we should be worrying much
more about the kind of people we get into teaching. Are you a
person who sees your students as fully human, human beings?
75. Yeager, D. S., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Garcia, J., Apfel, N., Brzustoski, P., Master, A.,… and Cohen,
G. L. (2014). Breaking the cycle of mistrust: Wise interventions to provide critical feedback
across the racial divide. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(2), 804.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
They may be small, they may not know as much as you do, but
they are fully human, and with all the rights that being a human
being confers in our societies. And if more teachers started from
that position of just saying, you know, I respect you as a human…
then an awful lot of the issues will just go away... I give a lecture
to a thousand of trainee teachers every year, and I say to them, ‘I
know what you’re worried about. You’re worried about whether
your students will respect you. I have a different worry. I worry
about whether you respect your students.’
Caring for our students, respecting them as fully human beings, and
communicating this to them honestly and authentically is simply the
right thing to do, and is also crucial for student motivation.76
SUMMARY 77
Motivation allocates attention; it’s the cost–benefit analysis that students
go through when deciding whether or not to engage with an activity,
or whether or not to think about what it is that we want them to think
about. Given this, we can increase students’ motivation to do something
by either increasing the benefits or reducing the costs.
The most valuable way to increase the benefits is by simply helping
students to have success. Success is the best motivator, and ‘just good
teaching’, as Peps Mccrea calls it, is the best way to secure success.
The most valuable way to reduce the costs is to make an action automatic
for students by turning it into a habit. When a productive learning
behaviour becomes a habit, it’s done unconsciously and without effort,
meaning there’s almost no cost to it.
But we can also boost benefits by showing that something is valuable and
normal, or reduce the costs by making it easy.
76. Doing this successfully relates a lot to how we condition ourselves to act when responding
to student behaviour (and especially disruptive behaviour). One approach to doing this,
scripts, was explained in detail in Chapter 2 under the heading, ‘Scripts as the bridge between
proactive and responsive behaviour management’.
77. For many more ideas on habit building and motivation, see Harry Fletcher-Wood’s Habits of
Success, and Peps Mccrea’s Motivated Teaching.
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MOTIvATIOn
For example, we can show that something is valuable by explaining that
it’s valuable, helping students to feel that it’s valuable by simulating a
problem for them, or having them reflect on a time that they faced a
problem that this new skill, knowledge, or activity will address, or having
a role model say that it’s valuable. Repetition is also key, and simply
reinforcing the importance of something over time can have a big effect.
Finally, when you follow up with students, using either online or offline
tracking methods, you demonstrate to students how much value you are
placing on that activity.
Students want to feel like they belong; thus, making something seem
normal can be a big motivator. We can show that something is normal
by talking about a norm as if it’s already in place, highlighting a trend,
or highlighting the visibility of target behaviours from students (e.g.
through positive narration). Crucially, norms only work if students feel
a sense of belonging to the group, so use ‘we’ language and bonding
activities like games to establish this. And remember, avoid highlighting
any unproductive norms, like asking, ‘Hands up if you’ve done your
homework’ if anything other than the vast majority have done so!
We reduce the cost of participation by making things easy. Things are
easy when we’ve clearly specified what needs to be done, when we make
the first step easy, and when we help students to see and believe that they
can do it. As mentioned, habits and routines also reduce the cost.
Finally, we need to demonstrate that we respect and care for students.
Students switch off and lose motivation in a class if they feel contempt
from, or contempt for, the teacher. But students also need to have the selfcontrol, the self-regulation, to act in line with their best interests, even if
they’re not motivated to do so. These two key considerations, regulation
and relationships, are addressed in our next chapter.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Show it ’s valuable
(increase the benefit)
Motivation allocates attention
Motivation is not a general trait
Motivation is a cost–benefit
analysis
Motivation
Show it ’s normal
(students want the
benefit of belonging)
Success is the biggest determiner
of student motivation
Focus on habits because they
deliver long-lasting results
Show that you respect and care
for students
132
Make it easy
(reduce the cost)
MOTIvATIOn
Explain that it’s valuable
Help students feel that
it’s valuable
Show that role models think it’s
valuable
Repeat that it’s valuable
Follow up to show it’s valuable
Speak as if the norm is
already in place
Highlight a trend
Make it visible and reinforce it
Ensure that students feel that
they belong
Specify exactly what needs
to be done
Avoid highlighting
unproductive norms
Make the first step easy
Help students believe that
they can do it
Make it easy by making it
automatic
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CHAPTER 4
REGULATION AND
RELATIONSHIPS
Stable relationships are the
foundation for self-regulation
Trauma undermines regulation
Regulation and
Relationships
Relationships are crucial to
healing trauma
Proactive
Regulation and Relationships are
built proactively and reactively
Reactive
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
No matter how well we plan out our behaviour management scripts,
establish norms and routines, and work to boost buy-in or establish
productive student habits for learning, there will always be a sub-set of
students for whom it seems our strategies aren’t working. I have been
told by long-serving teachers that good behaviour management strategies
work for 95% of students, but there will always be about 5% who are hard
to reach.78
Not all students come to school with the capacity to respond effectively
to such behavioural standards or behaviour management techniques, and
at several times throughout my teaching career I’ve found myself asking
questions like, ‘What if they can’t help themselves?’ and ‘What if it’s not
their fault that they are behaving like that?’
These are some of the trickiest questions to answer in education, because
there will never be a clear answer to whether or not a student could or
couldn’t help themselves from acting a certain way in a certain situation.
What we can do, however, is gain a clearer and deeper understanding of
which factors support students to effectively regulate their behaviour, and
which factors make it harder for students to act in line with their long­
term goals and interests. Importantly, we can learn more about some of
the factors that systematically reduce the ability of students to act in line
with their own long-term self-interests, and what we as teachers can do
to support them to better do so.
That is the focus of this chapter. We begin with theory and an exploration
of what supports, and undermines, the ability of students to regulate their
behaviour. We then move into practical strategies to support students’
self-regulation, first looking at proactive and then reactive strategies.
It is my hope that by the end of this chapter you’ll have a deepened
understanding, and a broadened toolbox, for supporting those students
in the 5%.79
78. The reason for this could be trauma, addressed in this chapter. There are also other reasons,
such as students actively making the choice to disengage.
79. Many of the ideas in this chapter are drawn from my discussion with trauma expert Laurel
Downey (ERRR #039) and the report that we discussed during that interview, Calmer
Classrooms: A guide to working with traumatised children, published by the Victorian Office
of the Child Safety Commissioner.
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REguLATIOn And RELATIOnSHIpS
Theory: The foundations of wellbeing
Tom Brunzell is the director of education at Berry Street,80 an organisation
that, amongst other things, helps schools to provide safe and supportive
learning environments for our most vulnerable children in Australia.
Berry Street takes a trauma-informed approach, which means that they
systematically take into account the way that people’s life experiences
have impacted them, and use evidence-informed practices to create
environments and experiences to foster increased wellbeing and success.
For his PhD, Brunzell did a survey of ‘every single trauma-informed
practice model in the world,’81 as well as the vast literature on positive
psychology, and came to the conclusion that student wellbeing can
be usefully understood through the two forces of relationships and
regulation.
‘Relationships’ here is used in the usual sense. That is, relationships are the
connections that an individual has with others in their life. Regulation,
used interchangeably with self-regulation and self-control,82 refers to an
individual’s ability to control their impulses, thoughts, and actions.
Stable relationships are the foundation for self-regulation
The first thing to note about our dual-part framework is that relationships
and regulation are inextricably linked and reinforce each other throughout
the human life span. This connection is captured within the psychological
framework of ‘attachment theory’, a widely accepted theory that describes
how strong and positive relationships during early childhood provide the
foundation for self-regulation in later life.
Attachment theory posits that it is through experiencing early love that
a child comes to the conclusion that they are fundamentally good and
worth loving. Stable attachment is established through early and healthy
touch, talk, and play.
80. https://www.berrystreet.org.au/.
81. ERRR #008. Tom Brunzell, Trauma Informed Positive Education and U.S./Aus Education
(32:51).
82. Vohs, K. D., and Baumeister, R. F. (eds.) (2016). Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, theory,
and applications. New York, NY and London: Guilford Publications, p. 1.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Safe and stable early attachment forms the biological framework for a
child to deal with later stress. Through such attachment, young people
are aided in:
• Feeling a sense of worth: When a child cries and is attended to, they
learn that their distress is worth responding to and this supports the
internalisation of a sense of self-worth.
• Recognising emotions: The caregiver helps the child to identify their
own feeling states by giving them words to describe them: e.g. ‘Oh,
you look tired don’t you’, ‘Looks like someone’s a bit angry’, ‘What
a lovely smile, you must be happy.’
• Dealing with emotions: By physically comforting a child, the
caregiver teaches the child that physical comfort, slowing down, and
taking time are important when experiencing stress.
For a young person or adult to effectively deal with stress, they must be
able to first recognise it, and then take productive actions to manage
it. Attachment theory tells us that the foundations of these two abilities
of recognition and self-soothing are built through safe and stable early
attachment.
Secure early attachment also supports resilience. If a child is exposed to
some stresses in childhood and whilst in the company of a supportive
adult, they learn that stress and distress can be overcome. They also
gain a sense that support is always at hand, and that they are never
fundamentally alone. If a child experiences long periods of stress without
comfort, their body internalises the idea that stress and distress are
painful, prolonged, and a cause for significant alarm.
Trauma undermines regulation
Neglect caused by lack of safe and stable early attachment is a form of
trauma. Trauma also occurs when something so terrible happens that an
individual is unable to cope. From a biological standpoint, during trauma
the body is pumped with chemicals and enzymes (e.g. adrenalin) and this
can go on for long enough to alter the brain’s wiring.
If trauma is experienced by an adult, it can negatively impact patterns
of thinking and ways of understanding the world that they have already
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developed throughout their lifetime. However, if trauma is experienced
by a child, it can form the basis of some of the brain’s key systems and
processes. With trauma-based neurological foundations, the whole world
can appear more dangerous and threatening.
A key impact of this rewiring is that the body’s stress-response systems
can begin to malfunction. For example, for a person with a relatively
trauma-free history, normal life stresses will trigger the body to release
adrenaline; then, when the perceived threat passes, the body releases
cortisol to reduce the adrenaline, helping us to relax and calm down again
in a natural and healthy way. A traumatised person, on the other hand,
may not experience these chemical processes in the standard way. For
example, the body may be conditioned in such a way that it can no longer
healthily recover from a stress event within a reasonable period of time.
Taken together, we call what we know about the impacts of trauma
‘Trauma Theory’. In summary, trauma occurs when an overwhelming
event (or set of events) reprograms the body and mind in such a way that
a stress response is more easily triggered, and less easily recovered from.
The impacts of trauma and how to recognise them
People who have experienced trauma or disrupted attachment naturally
develop, often subconsciously, methods to deal with their negative
experiences. These coping mechanisms are often not the most effective
or healthy way of dealing with stressful situations, but they do help
the person to cope in the short term, so the body learns to use them
when triggered. The two main trauma-related coping mechanisms are
hyperarousal and dissociation. In addition, young people who have
experienced trauma may experience shame.
Hyperarousal is essentially an extended period in which the body and
mind are in the ‘fight’ and/or ‘flight’ response. People who are in this
state can seem hypervigilant, overly reactive, and sometimes aggressive.
They will also likely have a high heart rate and high levels of adrenaline.
These symptoms of hyperarousal can sometimes look like Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Students can appear ‘wired’,
‘bouncing off the walls’, seemingly unable to calm down.
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Dissociation relates to the ‘freeze’ response, with people often ‘making
themselves disappear’. In some cases, a dissociated person can lose an
awareness of their environment, and can also find it hard to remember
things that happened when they were dissociated. If you know that a
student may have a background of trauma, and they appear particularly
aloof, forgetful, or disorganised in class, they could be experiencing some
level of dissociation.
Dissociation can make it harder to notice and understand other people’s
emotions. Dissociated students can also find it harder to recognise the
consequences of their actions or feel empathy. This can make traumatised
students seem inattentive and uncaring. They have subconsciously
switched off some of the brain systems that help them to sense and feel
emotions in order to reduce pain that they feel themselves. Turning these
systems on again, so that they can compassionately interact with the
world, can take time, and can only be done in a safe environment.
People can also sometimes engage in drug or alcohol consumption or
‘cutting’ when dissociated. This can be an attempt to increase the intensity
of their senses or feelings, which can often become significantly deadened
through dissociation.
Shame can be another incredibly harmful impact of trauma that deserves
particular note. Whilst a child who hasn’t experienced trauma may
think, ‘Oh, I did something wrong’ when pulled up on a bad behaviour,
a traumatised child may think or even say to themselves, ‘I’m absolutely
worthless and I can never do anything right’, and they can plummet into
depths of despair, triggered by this sense of shame. As mentioned above
in relation to attachment theory, early and positive attachment helps
young people to develop a sense of self-worth. Without these important
foundations, shame can be overwhelming.
It is important to remember that hyperarousal and dissociation are not
conscious actions of the traumatised child; they are unconscious actions
that the individual has learnt to take on as a defence mechanism to reduce
and cope with overwhelming stress.
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Relationships are crucial to healing trauma
At the beginning of this theory section we learnt that stable relationships
form the basis of effective regulation (attachment theory). Given this, it
makes sense that if a person has trouble self-regulating because they have
missed safe and stable early relationships, the establishment of safe and
stable relationships is important to the process of healing in later life.
Said another way:
The core experiences of psychological trauma are disempowerment
and disconnection from others. Recovery, therefore, is based
upon the empowerment of the survivor and the creation of new
connections. Recovery can take place only within the context of
relationships; it cannot occur in isolation.83
...
We have learnt in this theory section that safe and stable early
relationships form an important foundation for self-regulation and selfworth (attachment theory), that trauma of various types undermines a
student’s ability to regulate their behaviour and emotions, and that this
can present as hyperarousal, dissociation, or shame. We’ve also learnt
that relationships are crucial to healing trauma. The next section looks
at practical strategies for supporting the wellbeing of students, especially
those who have experienced trauma.
PROACTIVE WELLBEING INITIATIVES
When possible, it is ideal to take action that supports students’ regulation
in a proactive way. Here are 10 strategies for doing just that.
Establish strong relationships with students by rejecting deficit theorising
Russell Bishop is an expert in the education of and with the Māori people
of Aotearoa (New Zealand) and has done an enormous amount of work
on the impact of teacher mindsets on student–teacher relationships and
83. Downey, L. (2012). Calmer Classrooms: A guide to working with traumatised children. Child
Safety Commissioner, p. 7.
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student outcomes. He has travelled the world, examining the factors
that lead to the systematic academic underperformance of indigenous
and marginalised groups, and he summarises the main reason for the
systematic underachievement of indigenous people with one key idea:
deficit theorising.
When we as teachers notice that a certain group of people seems to be
underperforming, it is natural for us to look for a logical explanation.
When the explanation that we come up with is based upon perceived
deficits within that group – such as their cultural, socioeconomic, or
family backgrounds, or the environment – we are deficit theorising.
In our discussion, Bishop gave the following illustrative example:84
When I was in Canada a few years ago, I was out on the Queen
Charlotte islands. And I was talking to a school principal there. And I
said to the school principal...
‘How are the indigenous kids getting on?’
And he said, ‘Oh, not very well.’
I said, ‘How come?’
‘Oh, they suffer from depression?... It’s caused by the fact that it’s dark
for three months of the year up here in the Arctic Circle’...
‘One of the symptoms,’ he said, was that ‘students are listless and bored.
They can’t focus on their learning, and they don’t want to engage with
the teacher.’
I said, ‘Oh, that’s interesting.’
So I went away to the next school and I met up with [an indigenous]
assistant teacher… And I said, ‘How long have your people lived in [the
Queen Charlotte Islands]?’
And he said, ‘Oh, 12,000 years or so, say the anthropologists and
archaeologists.’
And so I said, ‘So you guys been depressed for 12,000 years?’
And he said, ‘Oh, no, no, no.’
‘When did this depression start?’ I asked…
‘1769.’
84. ERRR #013. Russell Bishop and the Centrality of Relationships (24:40).
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And I go on to another part of Canada, some time later. And like I do
every time I get a chance to speak to the school principal, I say, ‘How
the indigenous kids getting on at your school?’
And the school principal said to me, ‘Not very well. They don’t do very
well in the state mandated tests and that sort of thing.’
‘How come?’
‘Well, they suffer from foetal alcohol effects.’
And I said, ‘Oh, okay, so who [diagnosed] it?’…
And they said, ‘The teachers, we have [diagnosed] it.’
‘What are the symptoms?’ I asked, and he replied, ‘They’re listless and
bored and have an inability to concentrate, and they can’t interact with
the teacher.’
And I thought, ‘Oh, that’s interesting. I’ve heard of this before.’
And then the next day… I went to a classroom and there was a teacher
teaching away and they were teaching subjects and predicates, doing
English grammar… then, after about 15 minutes, I went up to my
colleague who I was with and I said, ‘I think this foetal alcohol business
might be contagious because I think I’ve got it. I think I’m finding myself
pretty bored and listless and I can’t engage with the teacher and I can’t
make any sense out of what’s going on here!’
Bishop’s story highlights how deficit theorising was used by these two
principals to justify the underachievement of their students. In the first
case, the principal suggested that the reason for their students’ lack of
engagement was that they lived in the Arctic Circle and that there was
no sunlight for three months of the year. In the second, the principal
referred to (undiagnosed) foetal alcohol syndrome. In both cases, Bishop
concluded that it was in fact the teacher’s instruction, not some deficit in
the students’ background, that led to the poor outcomes.
In Bishop’s work more broadly, he found that the only schools that have
been able to raise the outcomes of marginalised students are those in
which teachers do not accept external and unchangeable factors as the
cause of students’ underachievement. These teachers, Bishop argues, are
the ones who are able to establish strong and empowering relationships
with students, because they approach students with the belief that they
really can achieve.
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This is a message echoed by turnaround school principal, and now
principal coach, Rachel Macfarlane. Macfarlane called deficit theorising
‘the Elephant in the room’ in terms of the underachievement of
marginalised students and she addressed it in her school by banning
the use of the word ‘ability’ (encouraging ‘achievement’ instead), using
every opportunity possible to reiterate her and the school’s belief in the
potential of students, and hiring only those aligned with this core belief.
More on this in Chapter 7 on Leadership.
As we learnt at the outset, student wellbeing can be usefully thought of
as a combination of relationships and regulation. Establishing healthy
relationships with students relies in large part on the actions that we take
– our ratio of positive to corrective interactions, the questions we ask about
students’ interests and hobbies, our attendance at important student events –
but it relies just as importantly on the beliefs that we hold about students, and
the reasons that we give for student achievement. Rejecting deficit theorising
is crucial to showing to students that we believe that they can achieve, and is
a necessary foundation for strong student–teacher relationships.
Teach students about regulation
Dan Siegel’s hand model of the brain85 is used around the world to teach
students about regulation. This model is formed with an outwards-facing
fist with the thumb placed inside the fingers. Each part of the hand
represents a different part of the brain:
Prefrontal cortex
Involved in planning, decision making, and regulation
Cerebral cortex
Responsible for thinking
and reasoning
Limbic regions
Includes the
hippocampus and
amygdala.
Senses danger
and triggers the
freeze responses.
85. https://drdansiegel.com/hand-model-of-the-brain/.
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Brain stem
Deals with basic
functions like
breathing.
Spinal cord
Connects the body
and brain.
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The power of this model is that it can be used to show students what
happens when we become emotionally triggered and experience a
reduced ability to regulate our emotions. Dan Siegel articulates that when
we get triggered and become emotionally charged, we can ‘flip our lid’. In
the hand model of the brain, this is represented by lifting the fingertips
away from the thumb and forming an open, outwards-facing hand.
When we ‘flip our lid’, as is represented by this open hand rather than
the fist, the prefrontal cortex (fingertips) loses connection with the limbic
regions (thumb) and therefore loses its ability to help regulate the fight,
flight, freeze response. Rather than being tuned in, balanced, connected,
and flexible, we act impulsively, out of instinct, and even aggressively.
Siegel argues that children as young as five or six can learn about this
model of the brain, and the idea of ‘flipping your lid’, and that it can help
them to understand how their own emotions can sometimes override
their ability to think and the importance and value of regulation. Siegel
states, ‘I’ve had kids come tell me that they’re about to go flip their lids
and they need a break, they need a time out, and by even just naming
that, they can tame it.’86
Provide structure
In many ways, the goal of teaching is for us to help students to integrate
external ideas, information, and habits into their own knowledge
structures and ways of living. One of the main ways that we do this is
through modelling, providing examples to students of what we want them
to learn and then having them emulate those models until they become
a part of them.
Regulation is no different, and one of the key themes that has emerged
through my discussions with world leaders on regulation is the way
that safe, structured, and well-regulated environments provide a solid
foundation for students to become well regulated themselves.
This is particularly important for children who have experienced trauma,
who often have more trouble understanding boundaries than other children.
It is incredibly important to clearly communicate expectations to them. This
86. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gm9CIJ74Oxw&ab_channel=FtMyersFamPsych.
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can be done through clearly written rules (if they can read), with diagrams
to assist when appropriate. It’s important to have children repeat back to you
their understanding of important rules to ensure that they comprehend.
The central concept in working with these children is to be in control
of the relationship without being controlling. The teacher should
be the one to set the tone, rhythm, and emotional quality. [The
student] not being able to control you [the teacher] emotionally
will eventually teach the child that it is safe to trust you.’87
Many of the structures and routines mentioned in the previous chapter
on Behaviour Management are helpful to this end.
Manage transitions
Traumatised children will often find it challenging to undergo transitions.
Minor transitions like entering a room, or leaving for recess, can be
stressful for them. It’s helpful to provide them with extra support at these
transition points. This can be as simple as clearly signposting what will be
happening next, writing on the board what will be happening throughout
the day, or having younger children hold hands whilst they move from
room to room.
Managing transitions is even more important during times of large
transitions, such as moving from one grade to the next, starting with a
new teacher, entering a new class, having a new student join the class, etc.
During these times, clear communication of expectations, and providing
time for students to ask questions about what is likely to happen next, or
even spending some time in their new environment with a trusted peer
or teacher before ‘the big day’ can be helpful.
Provide students with breaks (e.g. brain breaks)
Irrespective of how well regulated our students (or we) are, there will
come times when a break is needed. Brain breaks, terminology that I was
introduced to by Tom Brunzell, are short activities that get students out
of their minds and into their bodies. For example, whilst I was studying
87. Calmer Classrooms, p. 18.
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for my year 12 exams, I attempted to learn to ride the unicycle. Going up
and down my parents’ hallway for 2 to 3 minutes every 40 minutes or so
of studying was a great way to rest the brain.
I have three regular go-to brain breaks that I use in the classroom:
1. Simply throwing a ball (gently, under arm) amongst the students
can work really well. Have them call each other’s names and
establish eye contact prior to throwing it. Introduce one ball to start
with, then introduce more as the class gets better at the game. It’s
also a good way to establish connections between students, and help
them to learn each other’s names.
2. Have students do partner clapping. A teacher can, for example, say,
‘Left, left, right, left’, and pairs of students, facing each other, must
clap their left hands against each other twice, then right, then left
again. Increase the complexity as you go. A sequence could look
like: Left, left, right, right | right, right, left, left | left, left, right, left |
right, right, left, right | left, left, double, double| double, double, right,
right| double, double, right, left| double, double, left, right| double,
left, double, right | double, double, left, right. Students do partner
clapping after each set of four actions, in time with the instructions.
3. Label each of the four corners of the classroom 1, 2, 3, 4. Have one
student close their eyes and sit in the middle of the room, then all
other students choose a corner to go to. The student in the middle
then picks a number from 1 to 4, and the students in that corner are
eliminated. Let the student see who they eliminated, because that’s
the fun part – they always want to get their mates! Last student
standing wins (when there are only a few students left, split the class
in half, door side vs window side, for example).
As mentioned in the prior chapter, see www.ollielovell.com/games for
more short games and brain breaks.
Implement a safe period
For extremely traumatised children, it can be necessary to implement
a ‘safe period’ or ‘amnesty period’ during which the child receives
additional support, and perhaps faces reduced consequences for their
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behaviour. Children in this state have an immense amount of trouble
regulating themselves, and some degree of healing can be necessary
before they are even capable of self-regulating to the point that they can
act appropriately. This period can span three to six months, or different
durations depending upon the individual.
This is something more likely to be relevant for non-school settings
than school settings, as children in this state are unlikely to be able
to function in a normal schooling environment, and schools may not
have the resources to provide the required support. Further, this is not
necessarily something that you would openly communicate with the
child (‘You won’t face the same consequences at the moment’), but rather
an understanding shared between staff who support that child.
Preventative eating
In addition to all the above ideas for supporting students to more
effectively regulate their behaviour, it’s also important for us to recognise
that one of the factors that often undermines students’ self-regulation
abilities is simply that they haven’t eaten enough! Experienced educator
Marnee Shay, who has spent significant time working in flexischools
(schools serving students who feel disenfranchised by mainstream
education), emphasised this point that came to be known through our
podcast discussion as ‘preventative eating’.88
Shay suggested that educators in challenging contexts keep muesli
bars, 2-minute noodles, and other ready-made food at hand and, when
discussing a students’ behaviour with them, be sure to check early on in
a meeting with a student, ‘Have you eaten anything today?’
Parents and carers of children with trauma
A positive relationship will be formed if teachers communicate with
parents and carers not only in response to a negative incident with their
child, but also in response to positives. Keep in mind that parents and
carers may have abuse histories, and may have had negative experiences
of school themselves, and the information in this section may help you
to better understand these parents and carers as well. Actively forging a
88. ERRR #022. Marnee Shay on Indigenous Education, Education Research, and Flexischools
(41:05).
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positive relationship with parents and carers can help to form a strong
and supportive network around the child.
Maintain professional boundaries (for the student, and yourself)
Whilst strong relationships are crucial, it is important to maintain
boundaries in your relationship too. Students move on at the end of the year,
and they can see this experience as rejection if a teacher has promised too
much or become too involved. Relatedly, traumatised students can often
push people away with hurtful or offensive comments, but remember, it
isn’t about you; it’s about everyone else who has let them down, hurt them,
or rejected them. Laurel Downey emphasised that people don’t last in her
field of work (that is, working with children who have experienced trauma)
if they can’t maintain objectivity and not take it personally.
PRACTICE: REACTIVE WELLBEING INITIATIVES
Even after the best proactive preparation, we still need a collection of
tools that help us to effectively react when students struggle to selfregulate. At times like these, it’s important for us to have effective ways
to react and help students to get back on track. The six strategies and
approaches shared below can be considered in tandem with the behaviour
management strategies outlined in the previous chapter.
Each day is a new day
For all traumatised children, it is important that each day is treated as a
new day, and that grudges aren’t held. Teachers and carers must find it
within themselves to forgive, to move on, and to invite the student back
to school – and to learning – in an open and welcoming way (but see p.
107 for advice on dealing with behaviour that endangers others).
Motivate with positivity, not punishment
Traumatised children will respond better to positivity than punishment.
Provide encouragement rather than punitive measures. As mentioned
in previous chapters, you can track your positivity to punishment ratio
through a simple tally during class. You can do so live, have a colleague
do it, or video record yourself and do it after the lesson. Try to keep your
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positivity:punishment or praise:corrective feedback to a ratio of 3:1 at a
minimum, and ideally higher than 5:1 (a suggestion also made in the
relationships section above).
Disrupt downwards spirals
When you sense that a traumatised student may be experiencing some sort
of triggering event, it is important to catch them and disrupt a negative
downwards spiral as soon as possible. This can be effectively done by
giving them a task which is reasonably cognitively demanding, and will
occupy their attention. Laurel suggested having the student count things
(birds outside, trees, etc.). During this section of our discussion, I shared
a story of a colleague who found that an effective way of disrupting one of
his student’s downwards spirals was to ask them, ‘Please give me a hand
and go open the window over there.’
Another way to disrupt a spiral (pending child safety considerations
and the child’s preferences) is through appropriate touch. Sometimes
touching or holding the hand, or rubbing a shoulder, can help to interrupt
a downwards spiral that’s beginning.
A third strategy is encouraging students to breathe: ‘Let’s take three deep
breaths; see if you can take a deeper breath than me!’ can be effective,
especially as hyperaroused students can tend to hold their breath,
reducing oxygen to the brain and further compounding the situation.
Time in, not time out
Traumatised students often have a different experience of isolation to others.
Being sent to the corner to have a time out can seem like total rejection.
Laurel explained this with the metaphor of a rubber band. Students with
typical attachment will feel as though they are attached by an invisible
rubber band to their parents, carers, and others in their life. This means
that if they’re sent away to time out, they have an intrinsic sense that they’ll
be reunited again. For traumatised children, this ‘rubber band’ may not
exist, and they may have no sense that separation will inevitably lead to
reunion. In such a case, getting sent away can be devastating.
Instead of sending these children to time out, call them to time in. Have them
come and sit next to you to finish their work, or to work through some other
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logical consequence that you have set for them. In response to this suggestion,
I asked Laurel about whether this could cause problems, as students may
begin to play up because they’re attention-seeking and they want to come
and sit next to you. To this Laurel replied that students who have experienced
trauma shouldn’t be seen as attention-seeking, but attention-needing. If they
have a need to sit near to you to feel safe and comfortable, then it’s totally
appropriate for you as the teacher to enable that to happen. Remember,
attachment issues are repaired through stable attachment.
Just give them a pen!
As mentioned during the section on dissociation, traumatised students
often have a significant amount of trouble managing themselves, staying
organised, and remembering things. Punishing a student for forgetting
their pen will not ‘teach them a lesson’, it will just further induce stress
and further disrupt their learning. Just give them a pen!
In my own classroom, I always have pens, calculators, and similar to
lend to students. But I also have an equipment borrowing record and
simply write ‘pen’ or ‘calculator’ next to a student’s name whenever an
item is borrowed. I then use this at reporting time to inform my rating
of ‘Student comes prepared to class’ or similar.
Play Tetris to reduce visual memories of a traumatic event
Unfortunately, schools don’t only have to deal with students who have
experienced trauma in the past, but may also encounter situations
in which students are traumatised during their schooling experience.
Whilst this trauma could take many forms, there is one specific type
of trauma that can be reduced by a low-cost and very easy intervention:
traumatising events that contain a significant visual component.
When a person sees a traumatising event, such as a car crash, they could
be plagued with ‘recurrent visual memories’ of the traumatic scene
afterwards. This encoding happens, and is reinforced, when the visual
memories are relived in the hours, days, and weeks following the incident.
As with retrieval of any memory, the retrieval of these traumatic visual
memories further strengthens them, further ingraining the trauma. It
turns out that playing Tetris can reduce the impact of these recurrent
visual memories.
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It may sound trivial, or even insensitive, but having people who have just
witnessed a traumatic incident play Tetris shortly after witnessing the event,
for as little as 20 minutes, has been shown to decrease the prevalence of
recurrent traumatic visual memories.89 This is because Tetris is a game
that is very visually stimulating and cognitively demanding, therefore
disrupting the retrieval and subsequent strengthening of the visual traumas.
I used this strategy myself after seeing a particularly graphic accident and
it really helped me to reduce the vividness of the recurring scene in my
mind over the day or two after the event. Each time the graphic image
would recur (which happened several times throughout the day, and
especially when I was trying to sleep), I just started playing Tetris and I
found that it made those images go away in the moment, but also seemed
to make them come back with less strength the next time.
This is a useful technique not only for teachers to be aware of, but everyone.
SUMMARY
Stable relationships are the foundation for self-regulation. Attachment theory
tells us that safe and stable early relationships help young people to gain a
sense of self-worth, as well as to recognise and deal with their emotions.
Trauma undermines regulation, and trauma occurs when an overwhelming
event, or set of events, reprograms the body and mind in such a way that
a stress response is more easily triggered, and less easily recovered from.
Trauma is often recognised in students as hyperarousal or dissociation.
Hyperarousal is when the body spends an extended period of time in
‘fight or flight’ mode, and can lead to the appearance of being overly
reactive, agitated, or even aggressive. Dissociation is when someone
becomes detached from themselves, their emotions, and the world
around them. Dissociated people can often appear aloof, distracted,
disorganised, or disorientated.
89. Iyadurai, L., Blackwell, S. E., Meiser-Stedman, R., Watson, P. C., Bonsall, M. B., Geddes, J. R.,...
and Holmes, E. A. (2018). Preventing intrusive memories after trauma via a brief intervention
involving Tetris computer game play in the emergency department: A proof-of-concept
randomized controlled trial. Molecular Psychiatry, 23(3), 674–682.
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Importantly, relationships are crucial to healing trauma. ‘Recovery can take
place only within the context of relationships; it cannot occur in isolation.’90
As with behaviour management, we can address regulation and
relationships with both proactive and reactive measures.
Proactively, the first thing for us to do is to reject deficit theorising.
That is, reject narratives (stories) that seek to explain the wholesale
underachievement of particular groups, and replace these narratives with
constant messages about the potential of all students to achieve.
We can also teach students about their emotions, such as through
Dan Siegel’s hand model of the brain. Providing structure, managing
transitions, and providing students with breaks (e.g. brain breaks) can
all create a supportive environment in which a diversity of young people
can flourish. And in some cases, it can be worth establishing a ‘safe’ or
‘amnesty’ period for young people. Also, don’t forget about ‘preventative
eating’; it’s very hard for a young person to focus and regulate if they
haven’t had enough food!
From the reactive perspective, it’s important that young people feel that
each day is a new day, and that they’re supported to keep on trying
to improve, irrespective of past setbacks or challenges. We can also
emphasise positivity over punishment, focussing on ratios of positive to
negative interactions. Disrupting downwards spirals by having young
people count things or do simple tasks can be a good way to distract from
or head off the beginning of a reaction. Further, we can show compassion
to young people by preferencing ‘time in’ over ‘time out’, and by just
giving them a pen if they’re in need of one!
…
These first four chapters – Explicit Instruction, Behaviour Management,
Motivation, Regulation and Relationships – have all focussed on the
methods that we can use within the classroom to establish effective
teaching and learning. For the second half of this book, we zoom out and
look more at the school level, and consider what perspectives, processes,
and mindsets at this level can be helpful to supporting success for the
school as a whole. We begin with a consideration of purpose.
90. Downey, L. (2012). Calmer Classrooms, p. 7.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Stable relationships are the
foundation for self-regulation
Hyperarousal
Trauma undermines regulation
Dissociation
Shame
Proactive
Regulation and
Relationships
Relationships are crucial to
healing trauma
Regulation and Relationships
are built proactively and
reactively
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REguLATIOn And RELATIOnSHIpS
Reject deficit theorising
Teach students about
regulation
Provide structure
Manage transitions
Provide breaks
(e.g. brain breaks)
Implement a safe period
Preventative eating
Recognise that parents may
have also experienced trauma
Each day is a new day
Maintain professional
boundaries
Motivate with positivity, not
punishment
Disrupt downwards spirals
Reactive
Time in, not time out
Just give them a pen!
Play Tetris to reduce visual
memories of traumatic events
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PART
LEAD
2
CHAPTER 5
PURPOSE
People disagree about education
because they disagree about its purpose.
Four key purposes are:
Purpose
Overcome these contradictory
purposes of education by…
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
One question that I’ve consistently wrestled with is this: ‘Why do
educators seem to argue so much about education?’
Over the past five years of the ERRR podcast, I’ve interviewed many,
many very intelligent people. Whilst all of them care deeply about
education, many hold conflicting views about how we should be doing it.
It took me a long time to realise that the source of much of this
disagreement likely lies within the often unspoken assumptions that
we have about education. When we see two people arguing about what
should be done in the classroom, often they’re actually arguing about
what the purpose of education is. They just haven’t as yet taken the time
to stop and explore their argument at a deep enough level.
That’s why I start every episode of the ERRR podcast with one important
question, ‘What do you think should be the purpose of school-based
education?’
If we take the time to understand our own beliefs about the purpose of
education, as well as the beliefs of others, we build a strong foundation
for the mutual sharing of ideas, techniques, and practices to help move
students forwards in a unified way. And we’re also much better placed to
understand the source of many of the long-standing arguments within
education.
In this chapter, we attempt to explore this. We’ll begin with a look at
differing views on the purpose of education, we’ll consolidate these views
into a simple model that describes four of the main purposes of education,
and then we’ll use this model to consider the connection between these
differing views and many of the long-standing debates in education.
My hope is that by the end of this chapter you’ll feel more prepared
to understand your own educational views and those of others, and
therefore feel better placed to take quality practices from all educational
camps to improve your teaching, and your students’ learning.
Purpose: Views from educators
Below are the diverse answers of eleven guests of the ERRR podcast to
the question: ‘What do you believe should be the purpose of school-based
education?’
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Before you read these, I would encourage you to write down your own
response to this question. Just jot it down; then, as you read, see which
components of your answer are reflected in the responses of ERRR guests.
Feel free to modify your own answer as you make your way through this
chapter and read the thoughts and views of others.
What do you believe should be the purpose of school-based education?
John Larmer, co-author (with John Mergendoller and Suzie Boss)91 of
Setting the Standard for Project Based Learning:
I think it’s just great for young people to get turned on by school
subjects, by projects they do, by books they read, their teachers who
are inspirational. So I guess the goal of school then is to get a certain
baseline of cultural knowledge and certain baseline skills but, beyond
that, just being excited about learning, being excited about entering
the world and, and to keep on learning throughout your life.92
Janet Kolodner, author of Project-Based Inquiry Science:93
I think that school should be getting people ready to be the grown­
up people that they will be: there are things they need to learn to
be good citizens, there are things they need to learn to get around
in the world and understand what’s going on, there are things
they need to learn to live a healthy life and… things they need to
learn to thrive… And I think school should act to give everybody
the edges they need to be able to imagine what they could be and
do some day and to move forward in those directions.94
Natalie Wexler, author of The Knowledge Gap:95
I think one purpose is to enable students to lead rich, fulfilling lives.
And I think that that also intersects with the idea that they will make
valuable contributions to the economy. But I think especially in a
91. Larmer, J., Mergendoller, J., and Boss, S. (2015). Setting the standard for project based learning:
A proven approach to rigorous classroom instruction. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
92. ERRR #032. John Larmer on Project Based Learning (5:06).
93. Kolodner, J. (2014). Project-Based Inquiry Science: Diving into science.
94. ERRR #033. Janet Kolodner on Project Based Inquiry Science (4:03).
95. Wexler, N. (2019). The Knowledge Gap: The hidden cause of America’s broken education system
– and how to fix it. New York, NY: Avery.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
democracy, one key role of education is to enable citizens to exercise
their rights and responsibilities in a way that makes sense. And that
is really crucial to the continued functioning of democracy.96
George Zonnios, creator of the learning app Dendro:
[S]chool-based education should nurture that natural love of
learning that we’re all born with… the question that I like to ask
myself is, ‘What happens to the students when we stop pushing
them?’… when they leave my classroom, and they’re on holidays,
when they go to the next level with another teacher, when they’ve
left school… what happens when we stop pushing them? I think
the answer to that question is often, ‘Nothing’. I think that’s a
very uncomfortable answer for teachers. But I think it’s often the
true answer. And the more we look at that, and the more we ask
ourselves, ‘What happens when we stop pushing?’, the more we’re
going to move towards a better model for education.97
John Hollingsworth, co-author (with Silvia Ybarra) of Explicit Direct
Instruction:98
We work a lot with the low-income students in areas of poverty.
And I think everyone will agree that education is kind of the ticket
out of poverty, you need to know something to get a better job,
more than just a generic low-level job that a lot of people can do…
So sometimes I’m trying to think at a big level, what we’re really
trying to do is improve the lives of students.99
Peter Gray, author of Free to Learn:100
To me, education is the sum of everything that a person learns, that
helps that person to live a satisfying and meaningful and moral life.101
96. ERRR #034. Natalie Wexler on The Knowledge Gap (3:19).
97. ERRR #035. Andy Matuschak and George Zonnios on Spaced Repetition Software (20:05).
98. Hollingsworth and Ybarra, Explicit Direct Instruction.
99. ERRR #037. John Hollingsworth on Explicit Direct Instruction (3:14).
100. Gray, P. (2013). Free to Learn: Why unleashing the instinct to play will make our children
happier, more self-reliant, and better students for life. New York, NY: Basic Books.
101. ERRR #038. Peter Gray on the Freedom to Learn (5:20).
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Aaron Peeters, PhD researcher on student help-seeking:
One of the things that I’ve started to think is more important, and
probably schools don’t do well, is helping kids have really adaptive
beliefs about learning… learning from errors and things like that…
if we don’t prepare kids to be able to keep learning after school…
that’s kind of going to disadvantage them later in their life.102
Oliver Caviglioli, information designer (on the purpose of special schools
for students with disabilities):
I think the purpose of education for special schools is to
maximise the inclusion of children in society so they’re active and
engaged. And so, strangely, it is very difficult I think to judge the
effectiveness of a special school by going into a special school. I
think the judgement of a special school really should be delayed
by the figures that come out from the results of the education by
how children engage in society.103
Kate McAllister, co-author (with James Mannion) of Fear is the Mind Killer:104
I think the purpose of school-based education is to help children
develop healthy relationships to themselves, to other people, and
to learning so they can navigate their lives in ways that feel
empowering and satisfying to them. Part of that is collecting
qualifications, but a large part of that is also understanding how
to function in a society made of other human beings.105
Tom Sherrington, author of The Learning Rainforest, Teaching WalkThrus,
Rosenshine’s Principles in Action:106
I think education has many purposes. And I think we need to
acknowledge that. So I suppose if I was to distil it down, I’d say
102. ERRR #041. Aaron Peeters on Why Students Don’t Ask For Help When They Need It (4:43).
103. ERRR #042. Oliver Caviglioli on Information Design (4:29).
104. Mannion, J., and McAllister, K. (2020). Fear is the Mind Killer: Why learning to learn deserves
lesson time – and how to make it work for your pupils. Woodbridge: John Catt Educational.
105. ERRR #043. James Mannion and Kate McAllister on the Learning Skills Curriculum (9:04).
106. Sherrington, T. (2019). The Learning Rainforest: Great teaching in real classrooms. West Palm
Beach, FL: Learning Sciences International; Sherrington, T. (2020). Teaching Walkthrus: Fivestep guides to instructional coaching. Woodbridge: John Catt Educational; Sherrington, T.
(2019). Rosenshine’s Principles in Action. Woodbridge: John Catt Educational.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
it’s to prepare people for a kind of rich, fulfilling life of worthy
purpose… And part of that is probably to be able to, you know,
earn a living, so you need to be a functioning citizen. I think
they are the broad purposes of education. And if we start saying
it’s to do with employment, or it’s just for personal fulfilment, I
think we miss a bit… when I was a headteacher I used to do
assemblies about a life of worthy purpose. And I think that’s quite
an important idea that we try to do good in the world. And in a
way, education is to prepare children to do good in the world.107
Margaret McKeown, co-author (with Isabel Beck) of Questioning the Author:108
That’s such a big question. And I think it would have something to
do with giving kids the resources to meet their goals in life so that
they can make good decisions, evaluate information, and read
and write so that they can get the tasks done that they want to get
done. And I think the other parts of it would be an openness to
learning. And to understand that learning is something delicious.
I mean, even if it’s not always easy, even if you don’t always want
to learn certain things. It’s still this delicious enterprise.109
I selected the above eleven comments on the purpose of education
because I felt that they represented a great cross-section of the views
that have been shared on the podcast over the first five years. Who most
resonated with your own view? Did any of their answers prompt you to
change your own?
Now we move from singular answers to this question, to models, and
consider the models of four prominent educators, each of which aims to
compare and contrast the key purposes of education.
107. ERRR #045. Tom Sherrington on The Most Important Thing (5:18).
108. McKeown, M., and Beck, I. L. (2004). Questioning the Author: An approach for enhancing
student engagement with text. International Reading Association.
109. ERRR #047. Margaret McKeown on Questioning the Author (Reading Comprehension) (5:26).
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WILLINGHAM, EGAN, WILIAM, AND SCHIRO
Daniel Willingham on the purpose of education
Influential psychology professor Daniel Willingham proposes that
differing views on the purpose of education fall under two ‘meta-beliefs’:
the ‘Enlightenment’ and the ‘Romantic’ views. An approach to education
centred around ‘Enlightenment’ thought suggests that the best way to
understand the world is through reason. This approach has its origins
in the 1600s and developed in tandem with the modern scientific
method. Appearing somewhat in response to the Enlightenment view,
the ‘Romantic’ outlook came about in the late 1700s and early 1800s and
asserts that the best way to understand the world is not through reason,
but rather through one’s personal experience.
These two views in particular suggest a key difference in the role of
institutions within society, including the role of schools. An ‘Enlightenment’
outlook sees humans as capable of great things but recognises that we can
be quite selfish and can act in ways that are depraved. Thus, the role of
institutions is to ‘check these negative impulses and make sure that we all
get along’.110 A ‘Romantic’ view instead sees humans as almost divine or
sacred, and therefore sees institutions very differently. ‘Rather than being
benevolent structures that we have set up, that are solving problems for
us, the institutions are the problem, they are the things that are screwing
things up.’111
Within the Enlightenment view, therefore, the purpose of education is to
help humans to check their natural, and oftentimes destructive, impulses
in order to be able to achieve the great things that we’re capable of. A
Romantic, in contrast, would argue that education should act to nurture
the individual and, above all else, ensure that schools are not corrupting
or interfering with these naturally divine beings.
110. ERRR #025. Daniel Willingham on When We Can Trust the Experts (13:30).
111. ERRR #025.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Kieran Egan on the purpose of education
Another author who provides a helpful framework for examining the
purpose of education is Kieran Egan. In his book The Educated Mind,112
Egan proposes three related but ultimately contradictory purposes of
education. There is the goal of socialisation, a Platonic ideal, and a
Rousseauian ideal.
Socialisation
An individual in support of ‘socialisation’ as a key purpose of education
sees the role of schooling as to help students to acquire the beliefs,
values, and norms of a society in order to contribute to social cohesion
and stability. These are seen as key precursors of social and economic
prosperity.
The Platonic ideal
The second purpose, which Egan refers to as ‘the Platonic one’, is centred
around helping students to search for the ultimate truth. Proponents of
this purpose of education would argue that children must be freed from
their conventional beliefs, prejudices, and stereotypes through teaching
the best that has been thought or said,113 and giving them the knowledge
required to critically appraise the world around them.
The Rousseauian ideal
The idea of ‘natural growth’ has its origins in the work of 18th
century writer Jean Jacques Rousseau, an extremely prominent figure in
Romanticism. This approach argues that teachers must act as facilitators
and support students to grow and develop into the humans that they
are destined to become. Or, as Egan put it when I interviewed him, it is
an approach ‘in which we teach people a lot of stuff with very little care
about its actual value, and much more about what it does for the mind
of the student’.114
112. Egan, K. (1997). The Educated Mind: How cognitive tools shape our understanding. Chicago,
IL: Chicago University Press.
113. Arnold, M. (1994). Culture and Anarchy (1869). (Samuel Lipman, ed.) New Haven, CT: Yale UP,
1, p. 164.
114. ERRR #015. Kieran Egan, Gillian Judson, Christa Rawlings, and Layton Stephens on
Imaginative Education.
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Dylan Wiliam on the purpose of education
A similar framework is also represented in Dylan Wiliam’s Leadership for
Teacher Learning, in which Wiliam suggests that ‘reasons that have been
proposed over the years for educating young people’115 can be grouped
into the categories of: transmission of culture, personal empowerment,
and preparation for work and citizenship.
Transmission of culture, for Wiliam, means passing on the wisdom of
the ages, or ‘[t]he great things that have been thought and said’, from
generation to generation.
Personal empowerment means giving students the power to take control
of their lives.
Preparation for work means preparing students to be able to find
rewarding and fulfilling jobs in future.
Preparation for citizenship relates to empowering young people to take
an active role in social life and society, and to be contributing citizens.
In his book, Wiliam points out that these purposes often conflict, and
that he thinks that what teachers need to think about most carefully is
the trade-offs that are entailed in pursuing these various purposes, the
most significant of which, in recent years, is preparation for work. The
work world is changing rapidly and we must, Wiliam suggests, think very
seriously about what that suggests for how we should modify the way we
teach our young people.
Michael Stephen Schiro on the purpose of education
In his book Curriculum Theory,116 Michael Stephen Schiro also explores
the purpose of education in terms of the role of teachers within it. He
suggests four ways to position the teacher. We can see teachers as scholar
academics, learner-centred educators, teachers for social efficiency, or
teachers for social reconstruction.117
115. Wiliam, D. (2016). Leadership for Teacher Learning: Creating a culture where all teachers improve
so that all students succeed. West Palm Beach, FL: Learning Sciences International, p. 8.
116. Schiro, M. (2012). Curriculum Theory: Conflicting visions and enduring concerns. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
117. Schiro, M. Curriculum Theory, p. 176.
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Teachers as scholar academics believe that the role of the teacher is to
convey to their students the accumulated knowledge of human culture,
which they believe is primarily held within each academic discipline.
.
Education for social efficiency places the role of education as preparing
young people for a life of citizenship. This includes their having both
meaningful and valuable work, as well as being participating members
of society. Here, society is the ‘client’, and education’s role is to produce
well-suited outputs (graduates) for that client.
A learner-centred outlook places the student themselves as the client and
posits that education should be tailored to their own individual needs, in
both the social, emotional, physical, and intellectual realms.
Finally, teachers for social reconstruction see and rail against the injustices
of society, from environmental destruction to racism, sexism, economic
inequality, and so on. They see the role of education as preparing young
people to build a more just society, and a brighter future for our world.
…
The purpose of exploring these four different models, as well as the
answers shared by our eleven ERRR guests earlier in the chapter, is to
try to distil from them a set of archetypal beliefs about the purpose of
education. I believe that the vast majority of educators’ responses to the
question of the purpose of education can be described with four basic
viewpoints: education for socialisation, natural development, reasoning
with knowledge, or social reconstruction. Below is a brief summary of each:
Reasoning with knowledge: The purpose of education is to convey
reason-based knowledge to students. Essentially, knowledge is power.
Natural development: Education should support students’
development of self-mastery. All learning is dependent upon knowing
oneself, and this is best achieved through supporting students’
natural development and helping them to grow into themselves. The
student must be the leader of the learning.
Socialisation: The purpose of education is to socialise students into
society such that they can contribute to and participate in it. We should
prepare young people to get a job, pay taxes, and strengthen and benefit
from culture and tradition.
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Social Reconstruction: Society must be improved and reconstructed
to build a better tomorrow and to surpass the inequalities, social
challenges, and environmental damage of today.
The table below summarises how Willingham, Egan, Wiliam, and
Schiro’s views each overlap with this four-part model.
The purpose of
education is…
Daniel Willingham
– When Can You
Trust the Experts
Kieran Egan – The
Educated Mind
Dylan Wiliam –
Leadership for Teacher
Learning (p. 8)
Michael Stephen
Schiro – Curriculum
Theory
Reasoning with
knowledge:
Convey reasonbased knowledge
to students.
Meta-belief:
Enlightenment –
The best way to
understand the
world is through
reason.
Plato and the Truth
about Reality: Free
the individual from
conventional beliefs,
prejudices, and
stereotypes. Reflect
on ideas, establish
truth, be critical.
Transmission of culture
– Passing on the ‘great
things that have been
thought and said’ from
one generation to the
next.
Teachers as Scholar
Academics: Perpetuate
the existence of
one’s discipline by
guaranteeing that
future members of the
discipline will exist.
Natural
development:
Allow students
to discover both
knowledge and
themselves.
Meta-belief:
Romanticism – The
best way to
understand the
world is through
personal experience.
Rousseau and Nature’s Personal empowerment
Guidance: Teachers
– enabling young people
are facilitators rather
to take greater control
than authorities; skill
over their lives.
focus rather than
knowledge; focus on
natural development
of a child.
Teachers as Learner
Centred: Stimulate the
growth of people by
designing experiences
from which people can
make meaning.
Socialisation:
Students should
acquire the beliefs,
values, and norms of
our society. This will
help them be good
contributors, and
workers, and lead to
societal stability.
Teachers for Social
Efficiency: Educators
as unbiased agents
of their client whose
vested interests are
other than their own.
Socialisation:
Education should
support students’
development of
self-mastery.
Social
Reconstruction:
Society must be
improved and
reconstructed
to build a better
tomorrow.
Preparation for
citizenship – preparing
young people to
take an active role in
society and to make a
difference in the world.
Preparation for work –
ensuring that young
people are able to find
fulfilling and rewarding
employment.
Teachers for Social
Reconstruction: Try
to reconstruct the
culture in such a way
that its members
will attain maximum
satisfaction of their
material and spiritual
needs (working for the
downtrodden).
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
But perhaps the most interesting part of this four-part model is the way
in which it helps us to understand why we seem to argue so much about
education!
Tensions and contradictions
I was first alerted to the contradictions between the purposes of education
through the work of Kieran Egan, who suggested that these inherent
contradictions lie at the heart of ‘why education is so difficult and
contentious’.118 Egan’s work discusses the tensions between his three stated
purposes of education. I have built upon this to also include a description
of contradictions between the three purposes of education that Egan
outlined, as well as Social Reconstruction, which Egan didn’t include in
his original model.
1. Socialisation vs social reconstruction: If we are trying to socialise
students, we are trying to have them conform to the norms of society.
In this way, socialisation acts against social reconstruction, which
requires the opposite: challenging norms.
2. Socialisation vs natural development: Socialisation also runs counter
to natural development. Whilst socialisation requires adopting the
norms of society, natural development requires letting a young
person develop of their own accord.
3. Reasoning with knowledge vs natural development: Reasoning with
knowledge requires delivering to students an established canon of
knowledge that they can draw upon to reason with. Again, this may
be seen to stifle a child’s natural development.
4. Reasoning with knowledge vs socialisation: The critical stance that’s
enabled by reasoning with knowledge could lead to the challenge
of the socialisation goal, as critical thought often leads to the
questioning of societal norms.
5. Social reconstruction vs reasoning with knowledge: Further, the
confidence – hubris even – required to embark upon social
reconstruction would likely be undermined with the critical stance
of reasoning with knowledge. I once heard a prominent activist at
118. Egan, K. (2001). Why education is so difficult and contentious. Teachers College Record, 103(6),
923–941.
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a training camp say, ‘The role of the activist is to turn a grey issue
into an issue that is black and white.’ This is not a goal that someone
hungry for knowledge would be happy to pursue.
6. Social reconstruction vs natural development: Finally, joining a
sub-movement for social reconstruction runs counter to natural
development, because it may inadvertently shape the individual in
‘unnatural’ ways.
2
Socialisation
1
Natural
Development
3
4
Reasoning with
Knowledge
6
5
Social
Reconstruction
Tensions between four purposes of education
As I hope is now clear, these age-old contradictions underlie many of the
debates that we see within education today. For example, current debates
around the use of pronouns on university campuses and the teaching of
sexual and gender diversity in schools centre around the tension between
socialisation (which can include socialisation to established norms)
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
and natural development, in addition to tensions between socialisation
and social reconstruction. Similarly, arguments around top-down vs
student-centred curriculum design are undergirded by the tension
between reasoning with knowledge and natural growth. The next time
you encounter a charged debate within education, you may like to take a
step back, reflect, and see if you can detect the beliefs about the purpose
of education that lie beneath.
The importance of overcoming tensions
For a long time, these tensions appeared to me to be insurmountable. That
was until I realised the importance of tensions in retaining balance. Life
itself is a war of competing priorities and tensions. The idea of work–life
balance is an eternal battle between two key ways that we spend our time.
Immediate versus delayed gratification is a tension between enjoyment
now and potential enjoyment in future.
These two tensions that the majority of people face do not mean that we
must throw up our hands and give up, nor swing wildly to one fence or
the other, but they can be taken as a prompt to pause, think, and reflect
upon how we would like to strike the balance between a set of competing
priorities.
It is not the presence of tensions and contradictions that poses an issue, it
is a failure to face them head on and purposefully that creates problems.
And so, as we move forwards with this book, and with education more
broadly, the challenge is for us to periodically pause and ask ourselves,
‘Are we striking the right balance here?’ This isn’t always an easy task, but
it’s an incredibly important one.
How to overcome these tensions and contradictions
It’s all well and good to say that we must overcome these tensions and
contradictions, and open ourselves up to the viewpoints of others, but this
can be incredibly hard when both we, and others, are passionate about
this all-important topic of education. Below are three ideas which have
helped me, and may help others, to bring an open mind to the views of
others.
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Be knowledge-driven, not belief-driven
The first step is to think consciously about what our goal is when we
engage in a discussion about education. Psychological scientist Paul
Klaczynski119 offers a distinction that is useful to us at this juncture.
Klaczynski contrasts taking an approach in which we are ‘belief-driven’
and one in which we are more ‘knowledge-driven’, and argues that we
approach new information differently depending upon what drives us.
People who are more belief-driven believe that they should ‘stick to their
guns’ when presented with new information and are likely to have their
self-esteem tied to the assumption that their beliefs are objectively true.
In contrast, people who are more knowledge-driven may also attach their
self-esteem to a belief system; however, their belief system is centred
around logical analysis, openness to uncertain knowledge and new ideas,
and an explicit preference for having one’s preconceptions challenged and
even proved wrong.
Belief-driven people are focussed on being right. Knowledge-driven
people are focussed on learning.
A knowledge-driven outlook is one that must be cultivated consciously, and
over a long period of time. This kind of approach, involving constantly
putting oneself in situations that push and test our current understandings,
can be disconcerting, but it’s also rewarding. This distinction reminds me
of the old saying about relationships, ‘You can either be right, or you can be
happy.’ To me, happiness is learning, so I try to tie my identity to consistent
growth and development, not to being right.
Choose your friends wisely
Jim Rohn has famously said, ‘We are the average of the five people we
spend the most time with.’ The same is true when it comes to how we
approach new ideas in education. It’s very hard to be open-minded if our
main friends and colleagues in education spend all their time trying to
argue for one side or another.
119. Klaczynski, P. A. (2000). Motivated scientific reasoning biases, epistemological beliefs, and
theory polarization: A two‐process approach to adolescent cognition. Child Development,
71(5), 1347–1366.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Given this, perhaps the most important factor for cultivating a knowledgedriven approach is to cultivate relationships with other knowledge-driven
individuals. By seeking out those who aren’t quick to jump to conclusions
about information or people, and who are always open to new ideas and
ways of doing things, we establish a supportive environment for these
attributes to naturally grow within ourselves.
Make it a mantra
A final approach that I have found particularly helpful is to have a go-to
phrase that helps me to reorient myself at times that I feel I may be going
off course. If I find myself reading something that I disagree with, in a
heated discussion, and especially when preparing for a podcast interview,
I’ll often return to a phrase that helps to remind me of the importance
of an open mind.
My usual go-to comes from the Advices and Queries of my Quaker faith.
The final line of the following excerpt, ‘Think it possible that you may
be mistaken’, is a line that I often repeat to myself in times that I feel my
biases may be getting the better of me. Whilst I most frequently repeat
to myself only the final line, the query is also valuable in its entirety, and
captures the importance of being open to the thoughts, opinions, and
truths of others:
When words are strange or disturbing to you, try to sense where
they come from and what has nourished the lives of others.
Listen patiently and seek the truth which other people’s opinions
may contain for you. Avoid hurtful criticism and provocative
language. Do not allow the strength of your convictions to betray
you into making statements or allegations that are unfair or
untrue. Think it possible that you may be mistaken. (Quaker
Advices and Queries no. 17120)
120. https://qfp.quaker.org.uk/chapter/1/.
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SUMMARY
Many of the disagreements about education, and how it should be done,
likely stem from differing beliefs about the purpose of education.
This is unsurprising, because four of the prominent purposes of education
– reasoning with knowledge, natural development, socialisation, and
social reconstruction – are actually actively in tension and contradiction
with one another.
It’s tempting to think that because contradictions exist, these
disagreements will never be overcome. However, the existence of tensions
and contradictions simply means that our task is to seek balance, rather
than overly favour any one purpose over another.
By seeking to understand another’s beliefs about education’s purpose,
we can better understand why they may favour certain instructional
practices over others, and this enables us to better share and learn.
We can seek to maintain an open mind towards the viewpoints of others
by cultivating a knowledge-driven rather than a belief-driven outlook.
Being knowledge-driven means seeking the truth; being belief-driven
means seeking confirmation and trying to be right.
We can support ourselves to be knowledge-driven by choosing to
associate with others who are also knowledge-driven, and by having an
on-call phrase (e.g. ‘Think it possible that you may be mistaken’) to repeat
to ourselves if we’re feeling as though we may be getting defensive.
Next, we turn our attention to curriculum, the key way in which our
beliefs about the purpose of education are manifested within our
planning for our students’ day-to-day experiences.
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People disagree about education
because they disagree about its purpose.
Four key purposes are:
Purpose
Overcome these contradictory purposes
of education by…
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Reasoning with knowledge
Natural development
Socialisation
Which entail inherent
contradictions
Social Reconstruction
Be knowledge-driven,
not belief-driven
Choose your friends wisely
Make a mantra
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CHAPTER 6
CURRICULUM
Three common curriculum mistakes
Five curriculum design principles
Curriculum
One Big idea: Backwards Planning
Understanding By Design
Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe
Two curriculum models
Kinds of Understanding
Kieran Egan
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
When we plan a school’s curriculum, we essentially plan the experiences
that we hope students will have within and outside of our school gates. As
such, a curriculum is the manifestation of your school’s values and beliefs
about the purposes of education.
Jay McTighe adds that the Latin origin of the term ‘curriculum’ translates
as ‘the course to be run’. Thus, a school curriculum should be considered
the course, or pathway, to designated learning goals. Typically, a
curriculum targets state or national standards in the academic disciplines,
but it may target other valued competencies that cut across subject areas,
such as critical thinking, ability to work effectively with others, selfregulated learning, and habits of mind.
This means that, in addition to beginning curriculum planning with a
consideration of state or national standards, we must also consider it in
terms of our school’s established beliefs about the purposes of education.
This chapter starts with three big mistakes and one big idea for curriculum
planning, moves on to a description of two different curriculum planning
models, and finishes with five principles to aid you with the curriculum
planning process.
CURRICULUM PLANNING: THREE MISTAKES AND ONE BIG IDEA
Three curriculum planning mistakes
Curriculum guru Jay McTighe121 cautions against teachers falling into
three potential traps when they plan curriculum for the learning of their
students: activity orientation, content coverage, and test prep.
Activity orientation
An activity-oriented curriculum focusses on learning activities that seem
fun, or engaging, for students. The result may be a set of consecutively
‘engaging’ activities, but such a curriculum does not ensure that students
will achieve the knowledge and skills that they need for success, in-depth
121. ERRR #021. Jay McTighe on Understanding by Design.
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understanding of key concepts, or even a sense of connection among the
activities. As Anita Archer said back in Chapter 1:122
The biggest idea I would want to get across to all educators is to
keep their eye on the outcome, which is learning. So often we get
caught up in activities, we get caught up with what seems like a
good idea. But we forget the big outcome is, ‘What is the content
that you’ve chosen?’ That is learning.
Content coverage
A curriculum that falls into the content coverage trap starts with a
textbook or list of standards, and teachers march through them, often
placing equal weight on each standard, without sufficient thought as
to what is really most important for students to really understand. This
approach unduly focusses simply on what teachers are covering rather
than on what students are learning. Moreover, if there is too much content
to ‘cover’, teachers may feel the need to keep a rapid pace, which can result
in superficial and disconnected learning and deprive students of the time
needed for active ‘meaning making’ and authentic applications.
It’s also valuable to note that, taking this approach, it’s unlikely that
it’s even possible to ‘cover all the content’. Marzano and Kendall123
reviewed 160 national and state curriculum documents to extract all of
the standards that required teaching and found that, if 30 minutes was
allocated to each standard, an additional 9 years of schooling would be
required! Thus, content coverage is neither desirable nor possible. We
must acknowledge the deep need for conscious prioritisation.
122. ERRR #060. Anita Archer on Explicit Instruction (14:24).
123. Marzano, R., and Kendall, J. (1996). A Comprehensive Guide to Designing Standards-Based
Districts, Schools, and Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. As cited in Wiggins & McTighe’s
Understanding by Design, pp. 60–61.
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Test prep124
Finally, a test prep oriented curriculum primarily focusses on the content
that is likely to be tested on standardised accountability tests, rather than
addressing all important learning outcomes. Thus, such a curriculum can
lead to a narrowing of student experiences and undercut opportunities for
more authentic learning. This approach typically includes lots of ‘practice
tests’ that mimic the format of the accountability tests (e.g. selectedresponse or short answer) and can result in a formulaic approach to
learning (i.e. implying that all learning seeks a ‘correct’ answer). Perhaps
the most harmful example of this is the way in which high-stakes literacy
tests in the US have led to an over-focus on teaching reading ‘strategies’, at
a cost of a focus on valuable knowledge, other subjects (art, music, history,
science), and even reduced recess and lunch time at some schools.125
A big idea: Backwards planning
The main way that teachers can avoid these three traps is to use the
backwards planning126 process. Backwards design of curriculum starts
with desired learning outcomes, and then asks, ‘What learning experiences
and structured support will my students need in order to get to these
outcomes?’ While the backwards planning process can be used with
any desired outcomes including basic skills, content standards, or even
end-of-chapter tests, this approach to curriculum design is much more
powerful when based on a clear understanding of what it would really
look like for a student to display deep understanding, mastery, or genuine
accomplishment for a given topic or domain. The backwards planning
process is best captured in Wiggins and McTighe’s Understanding by
Design curriculum planning framework, explored below.
124.It’s important to note that test preparation, however, plays a crucial role in a number of
situations. For example, test prep for leavers’ exams is a crucial ingredient to success in these
high-stakes assessments. By building familiarity with tests, students can reduce the cognitive
load associated with deciphering instructions, format, and structure during the actual exam,
and free up mental space to complete the assessment tasks to the best of their ability.
125. Wexler, N. (2019). The Knowledge Gap: The hidden cause of America’s broken education system
– and how to fix it. New York, NY: Avery.
126.Wiggins, G. P., Wiggins, G., and McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by Design. Alexandria,
VA: ASCD.
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CURRICULUM PLANNING MODEL 1: UNDERSTANDING BY DESIGN
Understanding by Design (UbD) is based upon a three-stage planning
process: 1. Identify desired results, 2. Determine assessment evidence, 3.
Plan learning experiences and instruction. By beginning with the end in
mind, Wiggins and McTighe’s model supports schools and teachers to
avoid the common errors of curriculum design reviewed above, and to
drive towards alignment of desired outcomes, assessment practices, and
instruction.
One of the great contributions of the UbD framework is that it doesn’t
simply specify that we must first identify desired results, then determine
assessment evidence, and then plan learning experiences and instruction.
But further to that, it provides us with key vocabulary, concepts, and
tools to take each of these stages deeper. We explore some key ideas of
the UbD process below.
Stage 1: Identify desired results
To be effective you must have clear goals, you must have evidence
that you’ve achieved those goals, and the goals have to be worth
it. – Jay McTighe127
In answering the question, ‘What is the intended outcome of our
teaching?’, it’s often tempting to simply accept the goals presented by
curriculum standards, or state or national tests. But one of the great
strengths of the UbD model is that it helps us to move beyond this and
consider in more detail, as McTighe emphasises here, what is really worth
it. It is impossible to cover every national and state standard to the utmost
depth, so the question of what’s worth learning, as emphasised by UbD,
is an absolutely crucial place to start.
Two key UbD concepts to this end are enduring understandings and
essential questions.
Enduring Understandings
Enduring understandings are the ‘big ideas’ from a subject area that are
127. ERRR #021. Jay McTighe on Understanding by Design.
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lasting, transferable, and oftentimes counterintuitive. Here are some
examples:
• Social sciences: The constitution specifies both the limits of a
government’s power and the rights of individuals within society. (Law)
• Biology: Organisms adapt in order to better fit their environment.
(Adaptation)
• Mathematics: The equals sign represents equality. That is, it tells us
that whatever is on either side of it is equal (it does not mean, ‘turns
into’ or ‘gives’). (Equality)
• Physics: An object will continue to move at a constant velocity unless
acted upon by an unbalanced force. (Newton’s first law of motion)
• Chemistry: Sometimes adding a substance to a reaction can speed
up or maintain that reaction, even though it isn’t a direct input or
output of that reaction. (Catalyst)
• Writing: Effective writers focus on their purpose and audience, and
make organisational and stylistic choices accordingly.
• Critical thinking: A critical thinker does not immediately believe
anything that they read, hear, or view. They remain sceptical, ask
probing questions, and seek evidence and reasons for claims.128
Here it is valuable to note that enduring understandings aren’t only
knowledge-based, but can also be process oriented, demonstrated in the
final two points listed above.
Enduring understandings often represent the ‘aha’ moment that a
prominent historical figure had at some point (e.g. Darwin’s natural
selection or Newton’s first law), or a concept that was invented and
then moved a field forward (equals sign, law), and they often have many
manifestations and important and creative implications when applied
to other domains (e.g. the idea of a ‘catalyst’ can be thought of in many
contexts, such as a ‘catalyst of war’ or ‘catalyst of social cohesion’).
In a somewhat circular definition, I find it useful to think about
enduring understandings as ‘the big ideas that someone who has a robust
foundational understanding of a topic or process has made sense of’.
128. These last two list points were added by Jay McTighe following a review of this chapter.
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Janet Kolodner, the designer of Project-Based Inquiry Science,129 had a
good question that guided the design of enduring understandings from
her program: ‘When students go home and sit around the dinner table
with their parents, what would we want them to be able to explain to
them?’ The projects that Janet and her team designed lead to students
having a robust understanding and an ability to describe foundational
concepts like friction, force, and velocity.130
Crucially, Wiggins and McTighe highlight that ‘[e]nduring understandings
are often constructed inductively, building upon specific facts or skills
to focus on larger concepts, principles, or processes.’131 That is, enduring
understandings are the big ideas that students leave with, but those big
ideas are often taught (or uncovered) as the generalisation from multiple
examples or exposures.
An example of this, also given by Wiggins and McTighe, is that ‘we study
Magna Carta because it is an example of the rule of law, whereby written
laws specify the limits of a government’s power and the rights of individuals,
such as due process. This big idea has transcended its roots in 13th-century
England to become a cornerstone of modern democratic societies.’132
Essential questions
Essential questions usually fall within three broad categories. They are
either timeless philosophical questions, questions that are central to an
academic discipline, or questions that help a student to better understand
themselves as learners.
One way that a teacher can begin to design an essential question is to ask
themselves, ‘What kind of questions lead to the kind of answers that form
the key content that I’m required to teach?’ Or, relating to the above, ‘What
questions lead to this enduring understanding?’ The questions that they
come up with should exhibit a set of key characteristics. They should:133
129. ERRR #033. Janet Kolodner on Project-Based Inquiry Science.
130. These are just examples from one of the units; they had units on everything from air quality
to genetics too!
131. Understanding by Design, p. 128.
132. Understanding by Design, p. 128.
133. Based on McTighe, J., and Wiggins, G. (2013). Essential Questions: Opening doors to student
understanding. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Many more examples are given therein.
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1. Be open-ended – no single and final correct answer
2. Be intellectually engaging and thought-provoking for students –
there should be a desire to explore them from the outset
3. Call for ‘higher-order’ thinking, such as inference, evaluation,
prediction, or analysis
4. Allude to transferable ideas and processes within (and often across)
disciplines
5. Lead to further questions
6. Call for justification and support of any answer
7. Be suitable for revisiting over time, over a unit, a year, or multiple years
Essential questions are prominently introduced and displayed at the
beginning of a unit, and referred to consistently throughout. Wiggins
and McTighe offer the following examples of essential questions:134
Subject
Essential Question examples
History and
social studies
• Whose ‘story’ is this?
• How can we know what really happened in the past?
• How should governments balance the rights of individuals with the common good?
Mathematics
• When and why should we estimate?
• Is there a pattern?
• How does what we measure influence how we measure? How does how we measure
influence what we measure (or don’t measure)?
Science
• What makes objects move the way they do?
• How are structure and function related in living things?
• Is ageing a disease?
Art
• What can artworks tell us about a culture or society?
• What influences creative expression?
• To what extent do artists have a responsibility to their audiences?
Stage 2: Determine assessment evidence
Once we have established our goals for our teaching and students’
learning, it is imperative for us to ask, ‘How will we know if our students
have learnt these things?’ This is the purpose of Stage 2, determine
assessment evidence.
The idea that has most stuck out to me from Stage 2 of Wiggins and
McTighe’s framework is the importance of performance tasks. This
134. Essential Questions.
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makes sense because life entails many performances. This is true in the
traditional sense; athletes must perform on the sporting pitch, and actors
and musicians on the stage, but it also applies in other arenas. Scientists
must ‘perform’ experiments, authors must perform when they sit down
with the computer keyboard, and we must all perform in job interviews.
Therefore, it makes sense if school helps students to perform in authentic
contexts, both now and into the future.135
Performances in many domains also naturally entail transfer. When it
comes to non-routine tasks that require adaptation and problem-solving,
it is of very little value for us to only be able to mimic or reproduce a
certain outcome, apply a skill, or recall some knowledge within the
context in which it was learnt. What we need to be able to do instead
is to take what we’ve learnt and apply it in new and unknown contexts
in future. This transfer is needed most when we are performing on
such tasks, because the performance is when we need all our skills and
knowledge to come together when it counts.
Further, and as McTighe emphasised in our discussion,136 it is most
often the performance that motivates the practice. We wouldn’t expect
students to practise endless soccer drills without an ability to engage in a
weekend game, or a scrimmage (small practice game) towards the end of
training. Similarly, we shouldn’t expect our students to tirelessly engage
in academic drills without experiences for them to authentically test out
their skills in new and meaningful situations.
What this means is that, at the same time as considering questions like,
‘What are the big ideas of this subject that we want students to leave
with?’ (enduring understandings), and ‘What questions would naturally
lead to these enduring understandings? (essential questions), it’s also
crucial for us to ask ourselves, ‘What would it look like if students had
truly mastered these skills, and this knowledge, and were able to transfer
them to novel situations?’ and ‘How can we provide such opportunities
for our students?’
135. Whilst also keeping in mind that the way to get ‘performance ready’ often doesn’t look much
like the performance itself, as I wrote about in more detail in Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory
in Action, p. 47.
136. ERRR #021. Jay McTighe on Understanding by Design.
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These authentic opportunities could take a variety of forms. They could
be a presentation, debate, poster, write-up, discussion, or even a test or
examination. The important thing is that the design of the assessment
is driven by what the teacher is trying to determine about students’ level
of expertise, and the inferences that they would like to make from the
assessment. Inevitably, such a decision will include making trade-offs.
Assessment always involves trade-offs
As Dylan Wiliam often emphasises, no assessment can be used to draw
unlimited conclusions about student expertise. What this means is that
the benefit of choosing one particular assessment task must always be
considered against the costs of not choosing another. Tasks (like the
performance tasks mentioned above) often provide valid insight into
students’ abilities to synthesise information and perform in authentic
contexts, and are typically engaging and motivating for students, but
they often only provide insight into a small sub-set of their knowledge
and expertise. Conversely, more structured or routine tasks can be more
time effective and therefore probe knowledge more widely, but often lack
real-world application.
For example, when I was travelling in China a few years ago after a year
of studying Chinese, I became very good at having the kinds of short
conversations that you have whilst travelling. I could speak with strangers
for up to an hour on simple and common topics like travels, my family
and history, cultural differences between Australia and China, and so
on. If I had been given a performance assessment based on a discussion
of these topics, some might have thought I was completely fluent in the
language. However, if I had been given a writing task in Chinese, a broadranging vocabulary test, or any sort of quiz about grammar, I would have
totally flunked it.
On that same trip I met up with a group of friends who had been studying
Chinese at university in Australia for about three years. These friends had
far greater Chinese vocabularies, knowledge of Chinese grammar, and an
ability to write hundreds of Chinese characters (I could write about five),
but they had just arrived in China and their ability to talk and listen with
the locals was almost non-existent. They would have thrived in a written
test, but a performance task would have been a real challenge.
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Neither ‘assessment’ (a conversational ‘performance’ on the streets of
China, or a written test) would have been intrinsically better than the
other. They both probe very important knowledge and skills. The point
is, in an assessment environment in which time and resources are always
constrained, different assessments capture different things.
The writings of Wiggins and McTighe on UbD emphasise performance
assessments. This is valuable because conventional schooling at present is
often dominated by the kind of written assessments that lead to graduates
with large vocabularies, deep grammatical knowledge, but an inability
to fluently converse in their target language. But it would likely be a
mistake if we were to swing the pendulum too far and end up with only
performance assessments, because the range of content (but not the range
of skills) covered in a performance task is often narrower than what could
be covered in the same time span on a written test. As such, performance
assessments often have a large luck component. In the language paradigm,
is the topic discussed one that the student just happens to have an interest
in, or experience discussing?
Assessment always involves trade-offs.
…
Stage 3 of the UbD framework is ‘Plan learning experiences and
instruction’. This can be done in many ways, and explicit instruction
(Chapter 1 of this book) is a great place to start.
…
My podcast interview with Jay McTighe was focussed upon his original
book on the UbD framework, written in partnership with Grant
Wiggins, Understanding by Design (2005). This focussed on Stage 1 of the
framework. For more detailed and practical advice on each of the three
stages, please see the following:
• Stage 1. Identify desired results: Understanding by Design (expanded
second edition). Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe137
137. Wiggins, G., and McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by Design (second (expanded) edition).
Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
• Stage 2. Determine assessment evidence: Designing Authentic
Performance Tasks and Projects: Tools for meaningful learning and
assessment. Jay McTighe, Kristina J. Doubet, and Eric M. Carbaugh138
• Stage 3. Plan learning experiences and instruction: Teaching for
Deeper Learning: Tools to engage students in meaning making. Jay
McTighe and Harvey F. Silver139
CURRICULUM PLANNING MODEL 2: KINDS OF UNDERSTANDING
Whilst the UbD framework suggests that essential questions must be
stimulating and naturally interesting for students, it can sometimes be
hard to work out what exactly is most likely to be engaging for students,
and especially at different ages.
Within his book The Educated Mind,140 Kieran Egan shares a model of
human growth and development141 that can go some way to helping us
to answer this question, that is, how to introduce various topics in a way
that is likely to engage students. Further, Egan goes on to argue what we
should be teaching in schools, and suggests that his proposed solution –
cognitive tools – helps us to move beyond the contradictions between the
differing purposes of education suggested in the previous chapter.
Kinds of understanding
Egan’s ‘kinds of understanding’ proposes a set of developmental stages
that humans move through throughout life. These five kinds of
understandings – somatic, mythic, romantic, philosophic, and ironic –
each aim to describe the prominent cognitive tools that humans rely upon
within these developmental stages, and therefore what is most likely to
intrigue and engage them, and facilitate their learning at these different
stages of life. These kinds of understanding are outlined below.
138. McTighe, J., Doubet, K. J., and Carbaugh, E. M. (2020). Designing Authentic Performance
Tasks and Projects: Tools for meaningful learning and assessment. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
139. McTighe, J., and Silver, H. F. (2020). Teaching for Deeper Learning: Tools to engage students in
meaning making. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
140. The Educated Mind (pp. 1–590).
141. Egan’s model is not empirically validated but is, rather, a model born of observation, reflection,
and research. I encourage you to read the following and consider for yourself to what extent
Egan’s proposed developmental stages match your own experience.
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Somatic understanding
Kieran suggests that ‘somatic just means tools that you’ve got when you’ve
got a body!’142 This kind of understanding is most dominant from birth
to about two years of age. The cognitive tools associated with somatic
understanding include our senses, emotions, pattern recognition, and
humour.
For example, babies engage their senses to understand the world, such
as poking, prodding, sniffing, and tasting a set of keys. Emotions are
prevalent with the mood swings of babies, and mirroring an adult’s
emotions can be a fun, and at times overwhelming, activity. Games that
consist of pattern formation, then pattern breaking and surprise (e.g.
peek-a-boo), are likely to engage a young child’s humour.
Mythic understanding
Mythic understanding is most prevalent from about the ages of two to
eight. Our understanding at this point is shaped by oral speech, but not
yet by the organisational structure of written text (as we can’t as yet read
or write).
This leads to an interest in rhyme and rhythm within language, such as
that within nursery rhymes and songs. Jokes centred around patterns
and anomalies within oral language are engaging. Further, narrative and
stories really draw these students in.
In an attempt to understand the world, they begin to make sense of it
through the use of binary categories: yes–no, right–wrong, good–bad,
hot–cold, boy–girl, etc. Young people in the mythic stage also become
fascinated with the binary of real vs pretend, and are often particularly
interested in fantasy.
As students near the end of the mythic stage, we can push their
understanding of the world by challenging them to extend their thinking
beyond binaries to explore what exists in the in-between.
Romantic understanding
The romantic stage is particularly important because engaging students
142. ERRR #015. Kieran Egan et al. on Imaginative Education (18:20).
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
in school from about 12 to their late teens can be a real challenge. At
this time, we can recognise that romantic understanding is primarily
characterised by interest in stories about the feats and achievements of
inspiring individuals who display characteristics that they themselves
can aspire to.
Accompanying this is a fascination with inspiring human qualities – such
as courage, compassion, selflessness, ingenuity, patience, or endurance.
We can engage students in the romantic stage by introducing a topic
with the story of the individual behind an idea or invention, the trials
and tribulations of their life, and what characteristics they displayed or
developed in order to overcome obstacles.
Romantic stage students are also stimulated by extreme experiences
and the limits of reality, such as Guinness world records (or the biggest,
smallest, fastest, slowest, highest, or lowest, of any category). Collections
also play a prominent role, and young people in this age bracket tend to
become obsessed with collecting things, from trading cards, to coins, to
weird toys or figurines distributed through supermarkets.
…
At this point I’ll pause again to highlight the importance of recognising the
flexibility of these categorisations. Despite the fact that I have been referring
to these kinds of understanding as ‘phases’ and ‘stages’ (and I will continue
to do so), Egan emphasises that these are not discrete stages that individuals
move through during their ‘development’. Instead, the factors mentioned
above in relation to somatic, mythic, and romantic understandings
are collections of interests and characteristics that, once available to an
individual, are present throughout all subsequent stages of human life.
The value of splitting these interests and characteristics into somatic,
mythic, and romantic ‘clumps’ is that these interests often manifest in
this ‘clumped’ way in our students – the baby gets sick of peek-a-boo and
moves on to nursery rhymes; nursery rhymes become boring but fairy
tales hold sway; fairy tales fade in interest and Guinness world records
come to the fore… As such, identifying the kind of understanding that’s
most relevant to a young person at a given time can help us to relate to
them in a way that is most likely to be engaging.
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Philosophic understanding
Somatic, mythic, and romantic understandings are developed by almost
all individuals, in all cultures, throughout the world. However, the next
kind of understanding, philosophic, is only developed when an individual
is specifically guided into it by a community of philosophically minded
thinkers. Philosophic understanding generally relates to -isms, such as
environmentalism, communism, capitalism, feminism, or veganism.
A philosophic approach moves us away from understanding the world in
terms of the stories of individuals, and we are more able to understand
systematic and structural factors which lead to some societies or groups
being dominant or otherwise. They’re more interested in how overarching
models such as ‘communism’ or ‘feminism’ conceive of big issues like
economic inequality, gender issues, or environmental degradation.
We often see people take on a philosophic understanding from their mid
teens to their mid twenties, and they often accept and adopt an -ism
with great commitment and gusto. The upside of this can be a new level
of inspiration and passion for learning and new knowledge. A downside
can be over-commitment to a single framework or model, which can in
some cases lead to extremism.
We can further develop the thinking of such students by encouraging
them to consider the assumptions behind, and the useful limits of, the
frameworks that they’re finding interesting and becoming attached to.
This is often well done by introducing them to an -ism other than their
own.
Some educators become stuck in a philosophic understanding also. When
an individual is belief-driven (an idea introduced in the previous chapter),
they attach themselves to a certain instructional approach, and see their
role as pushing that agenda above all else.
Ironic understanding
In ERRR #015, co-guest Gillian Judson described the remaining kind
of understanding – ironic – as ‘a freedom from the constraints of the
other kinds of understanding’. An ironic understanding represents a
transcendence of any single understanding, and a movement towards an
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ability to select the most appropriate philosophic framework, or somatic,
mythic, or romantic tool, for a given situation.
An ironic outlook is beneficial in that it enables the individual to act more
flexibly upon the world, but one of the losses is often the commitment
and verve of a philosophic perspective. Sometimes too many ironicists in
a room can lead to paralysis by analysis. In the words of George Bernard
Shaw, ‘[t]he reasonable man adapts himself to the world: the unreasonable
one persists in trying to adapt the world to himself. Therefore all progress
depends on the unreasonable man.’143
When it comes to teaching someone who is in the ironic stage, an ideal
interaction is likely to be one in which both teacher and student take it in
turns to push the conversation forward and test each other’s assumptions.
Whilst this dialogic approach can clearly be powerful at all stages of Egan’s
framework, an ironic student is most likely to demand it, and will likely
criticise any model put forth as if that model were the ultimate truth.
…
To share a personal reflection, I came across Egan’s framework when
I was myself firmly stuck in a philosophic view of the world. From my
views on environmentalism to education at the time, I was very fixed
and certain. Reading The Educated Mind helped me to see that there was
another way to be, and helped me to more openly engage with people
whom I identified as having outlooks different from my own. I have
gained so much from this, and it’s a big part of the reason why I’m able
to – and I seek out – interviews with such a diversity of ERRR guests.
But, as mentioned, something is lost in the shift too. It used to be so much
fun to know I was right…
…
One of the practical values of Egan’s framework is to help us understand what
might best engage and stimulate our students at different stages within their
development. The following table summarises some of these ideas:
143. Shaw, G. B (1903). Man and Superman. (a four-act drama). Westminster: A. Constable.
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Stage (all age estimates
are approximate)
What might engage them?
Somatic (birth–2)
• Touch and bodily sensations
• Pattern formation and breaking (e.g. peek-a-boo)
Mythic (2–8)
•
•
•
•
Rhyme and rhythm of language (e.g. poems or nursery rhymes)
Jokes based around language play
Interest in fantasy or imaginary stories
Binaries often used to make sense of the world
Romantic (8–15)
•
•
•
•
Inspiring people (movie stars, musicians, historical figures)
Transcendent human qualities (bravery, compassion, patience, endurance)
Limits of reality (Guinness world records)
Collections (cards, coins, games, etc.)
Philosophic (15–22)
• Grand narratives, systems, theories, -isms (veganism, communism,
feminism)
Ironic (22 onwards)
• Irony and contradiction
• The limits of different arguments, positions, or beliefs. That is, boundary
conditions (when things work and when they don’t)
Teach for cognitive tools
It is the acquisition of new ‘cognitive tools’ that enables a person to move
from one kind of understanding to the next. The skill of oral speech
allows a child to move from the somatic to the mythic stage. Written
language aids the transition from mythic to romantic. Structured inquiry
and an ability to understand cause and effect, and an understanding of
concepts such as power, privilege, and profit support the comprehension
of an overarching philosophy. Finally, an increased self-awareness,
understanding of biases, and conception of both commitment and
relativism can help an individual to move from the philosophic to ironic.
There is significant overlap between Egan’s idea of cognitive tools and
Wiggins and McTighe’s ‘Enduring understandings’. For instance, Egan
suggests that we should focus our teaching around furnishing students
with ever more valuable ‘cognitive tools’ throughout their education.
Spoken and written language are cognitive tools, the structure of a
standard story is a cognitive tool, metaphor is a cognitive tool, ideas such
as ‘false dichotomy’, ‘binary’, ‘spectrum’, ‘hierarchy’, ‘compound growth’,
‘emergence’, or ‘fragility’ are all cognitive tools. Focussing on cognitive
tools in this way helps students to continually develop and participate
more and more in the richness of life and society.
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FIVE CURRICULUM DESIGN PRINCIPLES
In this final section, I draw together many of the ideas from within
this chapter, and some from outside, to sketch out five principles (and
accompanying questions) that can be used to guide your curriculum
planning, irrespective of whether you choose to draw upon any of the
above models or another curriculum planning approach.
Performance – What would it look like for our students to demonstrate
success in authentic contexts?
Say we reflect upon George Zonnios’s answer regarding the purpose
of school-based education,144 and conclude that it is important for us
to create life-long learners who seek out learning opportunities postschooling, then it’s important for us to give students opportunities to
display that disposition within their schooling, and assess (not necessarily
grade) whether or not they are starting to become self-directed and selfmotivated learners.
If we want students to develop healthy relationships with themselves, as
Kate McAllister suggests, then there should be opportunities for students
to display this within school. Perhaps reporting, or parent–teacher
meetings, could be run in a way to allow students to demonstrate their
levels of self-awareness and their modes of self-talk.
If, as John Hollingsworth suggests, we believe that education is a ticket
out of poverty, then performance on high-stakes examinations will form
a key part of the ‘performance’ that we will want to prepare our students
for. In addition, we’d do well to ask ourselves the crucial question of what
knowledge and skills will be required for our students to survive and
thrive once they do get into higher education, and design opportunities for
students to demonstrate this in school so that we can assess their progress.
144. ‘[S]chool-based education should nurture that natural love of learning that we’re all born
with… the question that I like to ask myself is… when they leave my classroom, and they’re
on holidays, when they go to the next level with another teacher, when they’ve left school…
what happens when we stop pushing them?… And the more we look at that, and the more we
ask ourselves, “What happens when we stop pushing?”, the more we’re going to move towards
a better model for education.’ ERRR #035. Andy Matuschak and George Zonnios on Spaced
Repetition Software (20:05).
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As Jay McTighe captures in the idea of the ‘scrimmage’ or ‘authentic
performance’, by taking the time to define in detail the final performative
manifestation of what we hope our students will achieve, we can begin
to gain clarity on what may be required to get our students there, and
we define a success metric that’s truly aligned with our goals, rather
than simply accepting metrics of success that are predefined, such as
standardised tests that only capture a fraction of what most people
suggest is the true purpose of school-based education.
Knowledge – What do our students need to know in order to be successful?
Both cognitive science and the curriculum design models shared above
place knowledge at the heart of any learning endeavour. From creativity
to critical thinking, in domains from chess to chemistry to cycling,
knowledge acts as a crucial foundation to higher-order thinking.145 As
we plan backwards from the outcomes and performances that we hope
our students can become capable of, we must spend time thinking
strategically about the knowledge required.
Much of this knowledge will be defined by the curriculum that is to be
followed, but much of it will also likely originate from desired outcomes.
If we want our students to be able to speak and debate in an engaging and
convincing way, we might like to teach them some rhetorical devices such as
anaphora, asyndeton, and tricolon.146 If we’d like them to write a convincing
story, providing an explicit framework such as North Star Academy’s
STORY framework (Setting, Talking characters, Oops, attempts to Resolve,
Yes – a solution!)147 may be some useful knowledge to target. Chess training
could start with knowledge of different openings, cycling might include the
knowledge to drop your outside foot when taking a flat or off-camber corner.
145. See, for example, Willingham, D. T. (2007). Critical thinking: Why it is so hard to teach?
American Federation of Teachers, Summer 2007, 8–19; and Chase, W. G., and Simon, H. A.
(1973). Perception in chess. Cognitive psychology, 4(1), 55–81.
146. Anaphora: the repetition of a word or series of words for dramatic effect, e.g. ‘I have a dream’
in Martin Luther King Jr.’s speech. Asyndeton: the omission of conjunctions (‘like’, ‘and’) for
a more punchy outcome, e.g. when Julius Caesar said, ‘I came, I saw, I conquered’. Tricolon:
things natural and better when we put them into threes, e.g. There are three things we can do
to motivate students: Show it’s valuable, Show it’s normal, Make it easy.
147. Lemov, D. (2015). Teach Like a Champion 2.0, p. 167.
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Regardless of what you’re teaching, there will always be crucial knowledge
supporting the learning goals that we have for our students.148
A historic perspective, the Trivium
Another author featured on the ERRR podcast on the topic of curriculum
is Martin Robinson. Martin scoured historically relevant books, papers,
and manuscripts to explore the ancient idea of the Trivium. The Trivium
is the three-part framework that has been used throughout history (from
Greco-Roman ideals to medieval European adaptations thereof) as the basis
of instruction. Those three parts are Grammar, Dialectic, and Rhetoric.
‘Grammar’ represents the foundational knowledge of all things, and
there is a grammar to each area of knowledge. For example, we could
have ‘the grammar of wine’ or ‘the grammar of chess’, each of which
constitutes the collection of knowledge and understandings that make
enjoyment of that pastime (drinking or playing) accessible.
‘Dialectic’ is the reasoning, internal (thinking), or external (discussion),
that is enabled once grammar (knowledge) is attained.
‘Rhetoric’ is the final point of the learning journey. It is the summarisation,
the communication, and the giving back. In very simple terms:
• Grammar = Knowing stuff
• Dialectic = Thinking about that stuff
• Rhetoric = Reaching conclusions, and presenting your thoughts
on that stuff
Though ancient in origin, the Trivium aligns with modern curriculum
models like UbD (rhetoric can be likened to UbD’s emphasis on
performance) and Cognitive Load Theory (knowledge (grammar),
chunked and automated in long-term memory, forms the basis of
higher-order problem-solving and reasoning (dialectic) and expert
performance (rhetoric)). It’s comforting to know that these modern
approaches are rooted in ancient wisdom.149
148. The core knowledge foundation is doing fantastic work in this area: https://www.coreknowledge.
org/.
149. For more on the Trivium framework, see Martin Robinson’s book, Trivium 21C: Preparing
young people for the future with lessons from the past (Bancyfelin: Independent Thinking
Press: Crown House Publishing, 2013); and ERRR #048 (Martin Robinson on the Trivium
(curriculum)).
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Coherence – How can we ensure a cohesive curriculum narrative for students?
As with any good story, the curriculum narrative that we take our
students through must have coherence. Coherence is the connectedness
that exists when different elements within a curriculum are aligned
and mutually reinforcing. As Mary Myatt writes, ‘Thinking hard about
coherence matters, because if we don’t, then what is offered to children is
bitty. Bitty means that there are lots of fragments of knowledge floating
around without being placed in a bigger basket.’150
In Chapter 1 (Explicit Instruction), we saw that coherence can be
established at the micro-level by making explicit the knowledge structures
that we’re trying to convey to students. Curriculum coherence is this
same idea, but on a much larger scale.
Coherence can be usefully thought of in three dimensions, what I will
call vertical, horizontal, and temporal coherence.
Vertical coherence is an agreement between curriculum requirements and
classroom practice. This is often a governmental requirement – we need
to teach the mandated curriculum.
Horizontal coherence is coherence between the curriculum and school
experience that students have within their different classes at any one
time. How can we help students to see connections between what they’re
learning in science, history, mathematics, art, and other subjects at the
same time?
Finally, temporal coherence is the continuity of curriculum narrative that
students experience as they move through their schooling experience.
Themes are revised, revisited, built upon, and deepened as students age.
This is also a form of long-term spacing of learning, explored more below.
Coherence across all three of these dimensions helps students to form a
cohesive and integrated picture of the world, helps the knowledge to stick,
and avoids a ‘bitty’ experience of schooling.
150. Myatt, M. (2018). The Curriculum: Gallimaufry to coherence. Woodbridge: John Catt
Educational, p. 20.
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Spacing – Have we included sufficient, spaced exposures for these ideas and
skills to stick?
It’s an established fact that students, and humans more generally,
often need multiple exposures to knowledge, and multiple attempts at
developing skills, in order for knowledge and skills to ‘stick’. Graham
Nuthall’s research adds to this. Nuthall found, through rigorous and
extended classroom observations, that he could predict with 80%
accuracy what students had and hadn’t learnt, based primarily on whether
they had had three exposures to the content, and whether they were
focussing during these exposures.151 This tells us that we should plan
for students to experience each concept several times during our initial
presentation of content, and in different contexts, in order to increase the
chances of them apprehending that concept.
Building on this, the pioneering work of the German scientist Hermann
Ebbinghaus (also mentioned in Chapter 1152) has established that our
memories degrade over time. Sensibly, more recent research has found
that revisiting ideas in a systematic way over time can help to overcome
the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve.153 This systematic revisiting is often
referred to as ‘spaced practice’ and, importantly, it advises that the
revisiting of concepts should occur over longer and longer time periods
as a student’s memory of a concept strengthens.
The ideas of multiple exposures and spaced practice, when taken together,
suggest that when designing our curricula, it is imperative that we not
only provide students with multiple opportunities to work with a given
concept, but that they experience these opportunities over increasing
time intervals. This tells us why students frequently seem to remember
little from prior years. Without systematic revisiting of ideas, they are
bound to forget. This is simply how the human brain works.
151. Nuthall, G. (2007). The Hidden Lives of Learners. Wellington: Nzcer Press.
152. Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Über das Gedächtnis: Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie.
Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot.
153. Carpenter, S. K., Cepeda, N. J., Rohrer, D., Kang, S. H. K., and Pashler, H. (2012). Using
Spacing to Enhance Diverse Forms of Learning: Review of recent research and implications
for instruction. Educational Psychology Review, 24(3), 369–378. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10648­
012-9205-z.
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Forwards-thinking schools around the world154 are including spaced
practice as a key component of their curriculum planning, and it’s one
of the most powerful things that can be done to increase the chances of
our students retaining what we would like them to retain.
Richness – How will our students’ experiences at our school enrich their lives?
Most people would agree that we want our students to leave school ‘ready
to take on the world’, with some idea of a pathway or career that they’d
like to pursue, and the skills and knowledge required to be successful in
that pursuit. The challenge is that students can’t hope and dream towards
something if they don’t know that it exists.
To this end, and especially for those students from lower socio-economic
backgrounds, schools play a crucial role in exposing students to ‘what’s
out there’, and providing them with a richness and diversity of experiences
that they may otherwise not have the chance to experience. This means
guest speakers, excursions, projects, internships, plays and performances,
music, camps, documentaries, community engagement, sports, visits to
retirement homes, inter-school competitions, and more.
These experiences are about finding out ‘what’s out there’, but they’re
equally about finding out ‘what’s inside here’, giving students the
opportunity to find out how they react and respond to different situations,
develop new interests, and explore contexts in which they feel more at
home, or more out of place.
The purpose of a rich curriculum isn’t just to help students find out what
they want to do ‘in the real world’ after school, it’s also to enrich their
experience whilst at school and help them to feel excited and empowered
during the 20% or so155 of their waking hours that students spend at
154. David Morkunas – Spaced Interleaved and Retrieval Practice: The key to long term knowledge
retention. Youtube.com. (2020). Retrieved 20 December 2021, from https://youtu.be/bC6­
RQziKNU?t=456.
155. 6 out of 16 waking hours a day, 5 out of 7 days a week, 40 out of 52 weeks per year is 20.6% of a
student’s waking hours between the ages of 5 and 18, and that doesn’t account for time spent
doing homework (or how much time teenagers spend sleeping in)!
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school per year. As Martin Haberman eloquently puts it, ‘[s]chooling is
living, it is not a preparation for living.’156
Richness also relates to the idea of equity. Rachel Macfarlane, past
principal of Isaac Newton Academy, a school that generated phenomenal
results for underprivileged students, has the following to say on richness:157
If we want to support young people to feel strong about themselves,
worthy of having exposure to really exciting opportunities that
often, sadly, are only open to the most privileged, and if we want
them not to feel imposter syndrome when they attend the opera or
go to a cricket match or have the opportunity to do work experience
at Goldman Sachs, then we need to be developing all sorts of
opportunities to widen the horizons and open the eyes of young
people to experiences that are maybe not naturally within the
realm of experience, or would be open to them by their friends and
family and their social environment in which they currently live.
To explicitly address richness, Rachel pioneered a ‘cultural passport’,
which targeted each key stage and age range within the school. Here are
some of the kinds of things on this cultural passport. Students should
have the opportunity to:
• experience a range of film genres
• travel into London to have seen a performance which could be a
ballet or a musical, or a show or festival
• have a poem published or the opportunity to read it aloud to a group
of people
• plan a trip to a local park or museum or gallery
Rachel adds:
[W]e just wanted our children to be challenged and inspired
and provoked by all of the rich cultural opportunities that come
156. Haberman, M. (2010). The pedagogy of poverty versus good teaching. Phi Delta Kappan, 92(2),
81–87, as cited in Kidd, D. (2020). A Curriculum of Hope: As rich in humanity as in knowledge.
Carmarthen: Independent Thinking Press.
157. ERRR#055, Rachel Macfarlane on Knowledge, Learning Power, and Character (1:21:04).
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so naturally, as just sort of the privilege and the domain of the
advantaged in society. The sort of things that just, you know,
ooze out of a [private] school education, for example, or an upper
middle class family life experience.
Schooling is living. Thus, when we diversify and deepen our students’
educational experiences, we enrich their lives.
SUMMARY
Curriculum is the first opportunity that we have to ensure that our
beliefs about the purpose of schooling translate into the experiences of
our students.
In designing a curriculum, we must avoid the three traps of activity focus,
content coverage, and an unbalanced focus on test prep, and instead use
the process of backwards planning to work back from the outcomes that
we desire to the curriculum required to get our students there.
One useful model of curriculum planning is Understanding by Design.
UbD tells us that we can focus upon enduring understandings (the big
ideas from our disciplines) and essential questions (the questions that
led to those big ideas) to identify our desired results (Stage 1). Following,
this, we can design authentic performance tasks that require transfer to
determine assessment evidence (Stage 2). After that, we’ll be ready to plan
learning experiences and instruction (Stage 3).
A second curriculum model explored was from Kieran Egan, who
proposed that humans find different things engaging and intriguing
at different stages of life, depending upon whether their thinking is
dominated by a somatic, mythic, romantic, philosophic, or ironic kind
of understanding at that time. We can use these kinds of understanding
to tailor our learning activities to engage with our students more readily.
To help students to move from one kind of understanding to the next,
we can focus on instructing for cognitive tools, which are the mental
models, crucial concepts, and often enduring understandings of different
domains and societies.
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We then considered five important considerations for curriculum design,
several of which were commonalities amongst these three curriculum
models. When designing curricula, we should ask ourselves: ‘What
would it look like for our students to demonstrate success in authentic
contexts?’ (performance), ‘What do our students need to know in order to
be successful?’ (knowledge), ‘How can we ensure a cohesive curriculum
narrative for students?’ (coherence), ‘Have we included sufficient, spaced
exposures for these ideas and skills to stick?’ (spacing), and finally, ‘How
will our students’ experiences at our school enrich their lives?’ (richness).
If you’re starting from scratch…
The above is what the curriculum of a well-established school or
department should look like after several iterations. If you find yourself in
a situation in which you’re trying to design a curriculum from scratch and
alone, don’t feel that you need to do all of the above the first time around.
Unfortunately, this isn’t an uncommon occurrence, and often happens to
first year teachers. In fact, I was faced with this myself. In teaching my
first classes, I asked what curriculum materials and documentation there
was and was told that the teacher before me had had their laptop stolen,
so there was nothing.
So, if you have limited time, you’re starting from scratch, working alone,
and wondering what’s the most important thing for you to work on at
the outset, consider the sage advice from experienced educator Tom
Sherrington:158 focus on the knowledge.
Focus on the knowledge that your students need in order to be successful,
and make sure you’re across that knowledge yourself. There will be plenty
of time to add authentic performance tasks and other rich experiences as
you go on. But knowledge is the core of your subject, and without it, there
will be nothing to perform, nothing amongst which to establish coherence,
nothing to space, and very little upon which richness can be built.
You may also find it possible to plan some spacing, and this will save
your planning time too. You will likely find that reusing an activity or
worksheet, or revisiting some core content a few days or weeks after
158. ERRR #045. Tom Sherrington on ‘The Most Important Thing’.
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initial use, is completely appropriate and actually very beneficial to your
students’ learning. So, in more challenging circumstances, focus on the
content, and try to periodically revisit and space it too.
…
In the next chapter we consider Leadership, the set of skills and approaches
that enable us to turn plans, like our written curriculum, into a reality.
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Activity orientation
Three common curriculum
mistakes
Content coverage
Test prep
Performance – What would it look like for our students
to demonstrate success in authentic contexts?
Knowledge – What do our students need to know in
order to be successful?
Five curriculum design
principles
Coherence – How can we ensure a cohesive curriculum
narrative for students?
Spacing – Have we included sufficient, spaced exposures
for these ideas and skills to stick?
Curriculum
Richness – How will our students’ experiences at our
school enrich their lives?
One Big idea: Backwards
Planning
Understanding By Design
Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe
Somatic
Two curriculum models
Mythic
Kinds of Understanding
Kieran Egan
Romantic
Philosophic
Ironic
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Stage 1: Identify desired
results
Stage 2: Determine
assessment evidence
Which include Enduring
Understandings
And arise from Essential
Questions
Stage 3: Plan learning
experiences and instruction
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CHAPTER 7
LEADERSHIP
Mission
Leadership
Mindset
Management
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
The more time I’ve spent in education, the more it has become clear
to me that leadership plays an absolutely critical role in schools. Poor
leadership can make even the best and most passionate teacher feel
dejected, overwhelmed, and unvalued. Conversely, excellent leadership
can nurture and develop those who would struggle in other environments.
In this chapter, drawn from inspiring leaders both past and present, lies
a collection of ideas that offer insight into how to establish, maintain, or
recognise effective school leadership. I have distilled these ideas from
school and department leaders on the ERRR podcast, as well as my own
personal experience of teaching and leading in schools, into a memorable
three-part framework, the three M’s of leadership. The three M’s include
the importance of a well-articulated mission, the right leadership
mindset, and appropriate management skills and techniques to enable a
leader, and a school, to flourish.
Many of these lessons are relevant for department leads too, not just
whole school leaders. If you are a department lead, simply replace ‘school’
with ‘department’ in much of the following to consider how these ideas
might apply to your context.
MISSION, MINDSET, AND MANAGEMENT –
THREE PIECES OF THE LEADERSHIP PUZZLE
Before we get too deep into mission, mindset, or management, it’s
valuable for us to consider, at a higher level, what function each of these
leadership ingredients serves within a school.
A well-crafted and communicated mission sets the course for your school.
The leader’s mindset ensures that you’re putting the most important
things first, and you’re approaching your leadership in a way that will
bring people along with you.
Management is the collection of day-to-day tasks that a leader does and
oversees that keep the wheels of a school turning. It is also the protocols
established to manage change, from teaching and learning, to staffing.
The following table highlights what happens when any of these single
leadership ingredients is absent:
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Mission
Mindset
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
Management
Outcome
✔
Without mission, a school will lack direction and cohesion. It will
be hard to make structural decisions, like hiring staff, establishing
curriculum plans and documentation, and establishing policies and
procedures, because there will be no overarching narrative to act
as a guide and backbone to these decisions.
✔
Mission and management without mindset lead to a breakdown
of relationships, and personal burnout. The leader has a strong
vision, they establish good process, but the way that they go
about driving change, both at the personal and the organisational
level, is likely to get staff offside and lead to ultimate failure of
implementation.
Without effective management, momentum will be lost. A leader
can paint an inspiring vision, they get the team onside, and
early gains will be made, but those early gains, and that early
enthusiasm, won’t be baked into the culture of the school. As
initial enthusiasm wanes, standards will progressively drop and
cracks will begin to emerge.
✔
When all three ingredients are present, all members of the
school will know where they’re going, they’ll all feel involved
in the journey, and policies, processes, and portfolios will be
established that form a solid foundation for long-term success.
Let’s now consider mission, mindset, and management in more detail.
MISSION
A well-crafted and communicated mission sets the course for your school.
Set a clear mission and represent it in a vision statement
All good schools are mission-driven. There is a clear reason why the school
exists, and that reason is clear to students, staff, and the community at
all times. For a mission to permeate a school, it is helpful for it to be
encapsulated within a vision statement. Here is an example of a vision
statement, this one from Rachel Macfarlane’s Isaac Newton Academy:
To equip every student with the knowledge, learning power and
character necessary for success at university and beyond.
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A mission and a vision statement are like a promise. They say, ‘This is the
mark we’re trying to make on the world.’ I see mission as having two key
functions, selection for alignment and promotion of culture.
Selection for alignment means bringing staff and families into your
school community who fundamentally buy into the school that you’re
trying to create. There are many ways that schools can be successful, there
are many models of education, and many things can work. But any model
will be undermined if those involved haven’t bought into that particular
vision for schooling.
If a teacher believes that schools and lessons should be highly structured,
but they find themselves in a democratic school like Sudbury Valley,
where learning is fundamentally driven by students, they aren’t going
to be happy. Similarly, if a teacher believes that students are the best
determiners of their own learning, but end up with a job in a highexpectations, no-excuses school with silent corridors, they aren’t going
to be happy, or effective, either.
For a mission to aid in the selection of teachers and pupils, it must be lived
and prominent within the school. It needs to be in position description
advertisements, and ideally embedded within the questions asked at job
interviews too. By putting the promise that a school makes on the front
of the box, you can ensure that the box ends up full of people who want
to support, manifest, and strengthen that mission.
Promotion of culture is what sustains a school. As the famous quote
attributed to Peter Drucker goes, ‘Culture eats strategy for breakfast.’
Whilst his saying comes from the business world, it is no less relevant in
schools. In Chapters 3 and 4 on behaviour, regulation, and relationships,
we talked about norms. Culture can be thought of as the norms of a
school. Done right, culture describes the way that people naturally work,
learn, and operate both when there’s an audience and when nobody’s
looking.
Truly successful schools have a culture that is deeply entwined with their
mission. In all examples of effective schools I have come across, this
culture includes high and unwavering expectations about what children
can achieve (more on this later in the chapter), and clear expectations
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around how people treat each other within the organisation – for example,
with compassion.
Through a clear mission, encapsulated within a vision statement, a school
can get the right people ‘on the bus’ (selection for alignment), and ensure
that that bus continues to head in the right direction through rain, hail,
or shine, and even changes in the driver (promotion of culture).
Have a clear teaching and learning policy
Many would argue that the fundamental purpose of school is teaching
and learning. Further, most of a student’s schooling experience consists
of what happens in lessons. Whilst we should definitely aim for inspiring
assemblies, excellent field trips and outdoor education, and fantastic
sport and service opportunities, in most schools a student’s experience
will primarily be five hours a day in classrooms. This is why a focus on
teaching and learning is crucial.
I see a teaching and learning policy as a more detailed version of the
school’s vision statement. It describes how that mission statement is
manifested, day to day, in the core business of the school. There should
be a clear connection between the vision statement and the teaching and
learning policy.
There are many ways to teach a lesson, and when new teachers arrive at
your school, they will be looking for signals regarding ‘how things are
done around here’. This time of transition for teachers, even experienced
teachers, represents a crucial window for establishing new habits and
methods of instructing and/or supporting students. If ‘the way we do
things’ is clear and prominent to them, they are likely to do their best
to teach in line with the school’s approach right from the outset. If this
window for habit change is missed, teachers are likely to fall back into old
habits (if experienced teachers), or establish teaching habits that aren’t as
aligned or conducive to learning as they could be (if beginning teachers).
When teachers join a new school, they are often either inundated by
new information or absolutely left to their own devices. There is one
document that should be placed in the teacher’s hands, ideally in printed
and attractive format, well before their first day of teaching at your school.
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This is the teaching and learning (T&L) policy. As with all learners,
multiple exposures are crucial to learning for teachers too, so schedule in
several times throughout the first year to discuss and explore this policy
for these new teachers, with the support of more experienced staff.
Teachers will determine what is and isn’t important in a school by how
often those things are referred to and revisited. Ensure that your T&L
policy is one of these frequently referred to things.
Examples of excellent T&L policies can be found under Links/Resources
at https://www.ollielovell.com/errr/sammykempner/ and https://www.
ollielovell.com/errr/rachelmacfarlane/.
MINDSET
Having a leader’s mindset ensures that you’re putting the most important
things first, and you’re approaching your leadership in a way that will
bring people along with you.
Student expectations – the elephant in the room
The most insidious barrier to students achieving, within any school, is
the beliefs held about what students can achieve. In Rachel Macfarlane’s
terminology, the elephant in the room is about addressing the deficit
models that we take to our teaching and learning.159
One practical way to ensure a productive mindset when it comes to the
potential of our students is to be conscious about the language that we use
to describe and talk about them. In concrete terms, and as mentioned in
our chapter on Regulation and Relationships, by rejecting talking about
students in terms of their ‘ability’, and referring instead to ‘achievement’
levels, we consistently convey that a student’s current level of achievement
isn’t inherently fixed, but rather is just a waypoint on their learning
journey to success (achievement).
159. This idea of the elephant in the room and deficit theorising was outlined in more detail in
Chapter 4. See p. 141.
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Rachel hired for this core belief by referencing the work of Carol Dweck160
and Matthew Syed161 within job descriptions, and by laying out clearly the
aspirational vision of the academy. She would then ask specific questions
in interview, such as:
• When you hear someone talking about a student who has low ability,
how does that make you feel?
• To a prospective English head: What percentage of the foundation
grade do you think would come through with you with a strong
pass grade?
• If they didn’t say 100%, that was a worry!
• To a prospective receptionist: You’ve read our vision. You know that
we hold dear the importance of building students’ self-esteem and
belief in all learners’ ability to succeed. As a member of the front
office reception team, how will you contribute to the establishment
of a school culture with these core beliefs at the centre?
Rachel also used every opportunity available to consistently reiterate the
potential of students, whether in newsletters, assemblies, parent–teacher
evenings, or engagements with the media.
When we start from a foundational belief that all children can achieve, we
shift our energy from justifying students’ poor achievement to interrogating
and inquiring into what we can do to scaffold student success.162
Ensure a sustainable vision of leadership
Seeing student achievement as directly tied, not to inherent ability, but
to what teachers and leaders within your school do, is a double-edged
sword. It opens the doors to phenomenal student achievement, but it
simultaneously opens the doors to teacher and leader self-blame. When
we begin to take seriously the weight of our role in leading student
learning, it can be very easy to drive ourselves to work at unsustainable
160. Dweck, C. (2017). Mindset: Changing the way you think to fulfil your potential (updated
version). London: Robinson.
161. Syed, M., and Clamp, J. (2010). Bounce. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
162. For a deeper dive into this deficit theorising, see ERRR #013 with Russell Bishop, and
‘Establish strong relationships with students by rejecting deficit theorising’ within Chapter 4
on Regulation and Relationships in this book.
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levels to try to help students to achieve. Whilst the achievement of every
student is what we should be driving towards, our goals must be balanced
with our own needs.
To be an effective leader, you must remain a leader long enough to have
an effect, and this means avoiding burnout.
This tendency towards burnout is compounded by the beliefs many
leaders hold about the necessity of being responsive to parents, staff, and
administrators. In her book, Reduce Change to Increase Improvement,
ERRR guest Viviane Robinson contrasts beliefs that principals hold that
lead to burnout with beliefs that support sustainable leadership:163
Beliefs that lead to burnout
Beliefs that support sustainable leadership
• If I don’t respond immediately to parent emails
and calls, I will lose goodwill.
• To meet the expectations others have of me,
quick responses to administrative requests are
required.
• I will be evaluated negatively by my superiors if
I’m seen as slow to respond to their requests.
• Leading teaching and learning comes after the
immediate administration is completed.
• It is selfish to talk about my own needs and
stress.
• An important part of a principal’s job is to
develop the leadership capability of others.
• Leading collaborative improvement in teaching
and learning is the core work of the principal.
• A strategic principal is proactive rather than
reactive.
• Principals’ health and wellbeing must be a high
priority, as principals can’t lead effectively if
they are unhealthy.
• Principals are in charge of their own health and
wellbeing.
From her research, Robinson shares that these beliefs that lead to burnout
also draw principals’ attention away from the core business of teaching
and learning. The principals that she researched who held these burnout
beliefs reported spending 30% of their time on administrative tasks
(compliance, OH&S,164 etc.), 30% of their time dealing with parents,
phone calls, and staff issues (including resolving conflict), and 20% on
student behaviour issues. This leaves very little time for leading teaching
and learning. Further, these principals said things like, ‘I feel like I’m in
handcuffs’, that they were overwhelmed and going around in circles, and
that they had poor sleep.
163. Table contents adapted from Viviane Robinson’s Reduce Change to Increase Improvement
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage), as discussed in ERRR #028.
164. Occupational Health and Safety.
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In contrast, principals with sustainable beliefs around their roles were
freed up through effective and efficient delegation and capacity-building
with staff. This allowed them the time to ensure that all of the elements of
their school were moving forward in unison, iteratively pushing towards
the overall school’s mission and vision.
The role of a leader is to not do everything themselves – it’s to coordinate
a team to achieve the mission of the school.
Understand that staff wellbeing comes first
As a leader, you are the person who oversees a school, but you are not the
person who runs the school. That is the teachers and the middle leaders.
They’re the ones who keep things ticking over, day in, and day out. If
these people aren’t functioning well – thriving, enjoying life, feeling
supported – everything else doesn’t work. Thus, to achieve your vision as
a school leader, you must have processes that create that team of people
who can deliver.
A process that Tom Sherrington has found useful to this end is that of
bottom-up empowerment. For example, departments can be given the
autonomy to develop their own processes, such as assessment processes,
that match the needs and characteristics of their own subjects.
It’s also important to remember that talking about staff wellbeing is all
fluff if we don’t seriously consider workload. Each additional thing that
teachers are asked to do adds to their workload, and often their stress
too. In line with this, one of the key roles of a leader is to identify and
give teachers and middle leaders permission to stop doing things. Dylan
Wiliam spoke on this point:
[T]he biggest problem in education is that just about everything
that teachers do is beneficial to kids. So the idea of cutting waste,
which works in the business sector, just doesn’t work in education,
because there’s no waste. So the secret of effective leadership, the
essence of effective leadership, in education, is stopping people
doing good things, to give [teachers] time to do even better
things. The most important concept in school improvement is
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opportunity cost. Every time teachers are working on one thing,
they’re not working on something else.165
Think carefully about what is currently on teachers’ plates. Does
something need to be taken off so that they can do something else even
more valuable?166
Understand that sustainable change only comes through engaging with
theories of action
Every person, whether teacher, middle leader, or student, acts in a
rational way. The way they act is rational because it is based upon
their understanding of how the world works, their role within it, their
capacities, and their given context. Viviane Robinson calls these beliefs
about how the world works ‘theories of action’.
Through the lens of theories of action, there are two main ways that
we can try to drive change within a school. One approach, the engage
approach, recognises that these theories of action must be engaged with
and changed for sustainable change to be established. The other approach,
bypass, ignores these theories of action and expects teachers to simply
comply with the new mandate. The bypass approach is fundamentally
unsustainable.
Imagine a teacher who has been teaching reading for many years using
a whole language approach to literacy instruction. Many students have
learnt to read through the lessons that they’ve run, and the teacher
has read some books on the importance and value of whole language
instruction, attended professional development on it, and knows that it
has worked for many of the students (but not all) in their own classroom.
A leader then comes along and says, ‘You’re not allowed to use whole
language anymore. We’re going to start using this new phonics-based
program because that’s what the science says works.’ What should this
educator do?
165. ERRR #023. Dylan Wiliam on Leadership for Teacher Learning (from 1:56:15).
166. For a list of things that it might be worth stopping doing, see this fantastic blog by Tom
Sherrington: https://teacherhead.com/2017/12/01/10-low-impact-activities-to-do-less-of-or­
stop-altogether/.
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At present, this educator’s theory of action is that a whole language approach
to instruction helps students to read, and this phonics thing is unknown
to them. They really care about young people and helping them to read,
so, based upon their current beliefs, there’s actually a moral imperative for
them to continue to use what they know works for their students. Given
the current state of this passionate teacher’s knowledge, it would actually
be unethical for them to stop using a whole language approach in exchange
for a program that seems, to them, relatively unknown.
Thus, if a leader takes a bypass approach and just mandates that this
new phonics-based approach has to be used, without engaging with the
current theories of action of their teachers, sustainable change can’t be
expected. Instead, this leader must provide experiences and knowledge for
these teachers that guide them towards a new and deeper understanding.
Towards the end of the next section on management, we will explore some
ways to do this. But there is one final point to make when it comes to
mindset and engaging with theories of action. In order to change others,
we must be open to change ourselves. An engage approach is called engage
because it engages both the beliefs of those being led and the beliefs of
the leader. As Viviane Robinson says:
The people that struggle the most [with leadership and taking an
‘engage’ approach] are the people who really think they know it
all167 and who cannot position themselves as learners. They’re the
people who struggle the most, because they are in that mindset.
They’re in a performance mindset, instead of a learning mindset.
They’re the ones that find this hard.168
The importance of background work (especially when you feel there isn’t time
to engage)
There is an obvious barrier to using the engage approach within schools…
time. Whilst faculty time for planning and collaboration should be
prioritised (it should be one of the ‘stones’ mentioned in the next section),
167. Dylan Wiliam captures this idea well when he says that ‘[s]ome heads think that their school
would be great if they could only clone themselves’.
168. ERRR #028. Viviane Robinson on Reducing Change to Increase Improvement (1:18:07).
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sometimes faculty leaders are only given as little as a meeting per month,
or less, to try to get their teams onside. Similarly, a principal may also
have limited meeting time with their team and can feel constrained by
rules and regulations surrounding how many meetings are possible, as
well as their maximum duration. How can a leader authentically use an
engage approach in such situations?
The truth is, the engage approach rarely takes place in meetings. Within
each department or school, there will usually be a few key teachers who
have cultural capital, and who are naturally followed by the rest of the
staff. If these key players are onside, other teachers will tend to follow.
These key teachers are also often respected in this way because they have
significant experience in the school, contextual knowledge of students
and the community, and often teaching expertise too. Thus, they’re a
great wealth of knowledge and perfect people to engage with in an openminded way.
There are two key ways to engage with these people. One is to check in,
and one is to prime.
Checking in simply means making time to see them after or before a key
meeting or announcement to see how they’re feeling. This does not need
to be done in a formal, ‘Let’s arrange a meeting’ kind of way. In fact, it’s
often better if it’s an incidental meeting, such as when they’re on yard duty
(where the opportunity cost of their time is lower; they may feel like you’re
bothering or cornering them if you approach them when they’re trying to
plan lessons at their desk). All you need to do to begin the conversation is
to first start with some pleasantries, then ask something like the following
(let’s assumes the change initiative is instructional coaching):
In the next few weeks I’m keen to chat to staff a little bit about some
ways that we might be able to improve our students’ academic
outcomes169 in the school. I’ve been doing a bunch of research
around different ways to do this and it seems like instructional
169. Note that here we haven’t said that the goal of instructional coaching is to ‘improve teaching’;
the focus is on improving ‘student outcomes’. This is a key difference, and important because
suggesting teaching needs to be improved can be met with ‘The teachers are already great. Are
you suggesting they’re not?’ Further, it’s much less likely that teachers are going to say, ‘No, we
shouldn’t improve student outcomes.’
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coaching could be a really powerful tool to approach it. I know
you’ve got a lot of knowledge about things that have happened in
the school previously, and that you’re a really respected teacher
amongst all staff. I was wondering if you personally have any
initial impressions about instructional coaching and what your
sense of the team’s interest in it might be?
Approached in a way in which their expertise and experience are
honoured, and their opinion is genuinely sought, most teachers will really
open up and share some key insights that can then be used to tailor your
message to the other staff, or to modify your suggestion or the potential
program to better fit your situation. The real golden nugget is hearing
about potential worries that may be top of mind when teachers hear your
proposal. For example, if you hear that there have been some negative
classroom observations in the past, your introduction to staff could
include something like:
[After your first mention of instructional coaching]. Now, let me
be very clear. This is not about people coming into classrooms
with clipboards. In fact, there’s no external, scary ‘people’ to
speak of, because the idea of instructional coaching that we’re
most keen to explore is a teacher-owned approach in which
participation is entirely optional.
Or,
I know that many of you are already very busy and may not
feel like you have time to go through some of the reflection and
planning cycles that instructional coaching entails. That’s why
[talk about how you’re to account for this].
Such an approach can significantly alleviate any immediate fears that
staff may have about the proposed initiative, and get you off on the right
foot with the change. It also saves meeting time, because when people ask
questions that relate to this pre-identified worry, you as the leader will
much more quickly recognise the deeper concern that their questions or
comments relate to, rather than needing to spend time back and forth in
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the diagnosis of their worry, which is often harder in the higher-pressure
scenario of a meeting.
Priming means giving a colleague a ‘heads up’ that you’d like for them to
contribute to an upcoming meeting or presentation. Involving other team
members, especially when you introduce an initiative, is a fantastic way to
make it seem like it’s not just coming from you. At the lower commitment
end of the spectrum, you could simply tell them (prime them about) one
of the questions that you will be asking in the session, to which you know
they have a good answer. For example:
Tom. In our next department meeting I’m keen to talk to the team
a bit about worked examples, as I’d love for this to be a theme
of focus for us this term. I remember you telling me a month or
so back about some of the worked examples you’d been using
recently, which looked really effective. During the meeting, I’m
going to ask people if they have any resources around worked
examples, and I’ll also ask this in the email beforehand. Would
you be keen to bring along your samples to share with the team?
By priming a team member like this, you’re saying to them, ‘I value
what you’re doing and I think it’s worth sharing.’ This can mean a lot to
people and position them as co-leaders of the initiative. This is also a very
strengths-based approach, whereby you’re honestly building upon good
things that are already happening in the school or department. When
people feel like they’re co-leading the change rather than having it done
to them, you’re already off to a great start.
Much of effective leadership is done in these small, targeted, and
thoughtful interactions that occur outside of standard meetings and
presentations. Just as much of the teacher’s relationship building is done
outside of class, on yard duty and in the halls, so must leaders see this
background work as a crucial part of their ‘research’ and planning for
change.
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MANAGEMENT
Management is the collection of day-to-day tasks that a leader does and
oversees that keep the wheels of a school turning. It is also the protocols
established to manage change, from teaching and learning, to staffing.
Use appropriate data to gain a clear picture of reality
This phrase, ‘Gain a clear picture of reality’, comes originally from the
instructional coaching work of Jim Knight.170 Both Tom Sherrington and
Rachel Macfarlane emphasise the importance of beginning your tenure
as leader by gaining a clear picture of the current reality in your school
or department, then consciously building from that current state of play.
This can be done in a number of ways including student surveys, staff
surveys, observations, and data metrics.
The most crucial thing to keep in mind at this early stage is what kind
of data you’d like to collect. In the famous words of Peter Drucker, ‘We
manage what we measure’, so consciously selecting a set of measures and
metrics that represents what is most important to you and your school is
crucial. At this point, it’s valuable to consider your school mission. What
metrics could you track, over time, to indicate the extent to which you
and your organisation are achieving your mission?
Data review must also be embedded into a routine. Just as much of
teaching is about setting up effective routines that keep learning on
track over the long term, so management is in large part about setting up
routines that keep the organisation on track. Establish regular meetings
to revisit your key metrics, track your progress, and establish next steps.
In addition to determining key metrics to track, and revisiting them
regularly, this is also a great opportunity to have staff, and even students,
involved in the process. Involving multiple stakeholders in the project of
identifying how to best track what matters is another powerful way to
reinforce the school’s mission and vision. The extent to which people feel
involved in the change process is a huge determining factor in the success
of the initiative. As Jaycox and colleagues have written:
170. ERRR #052. Jim Knight on Instructional Coaching.
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Whether a particular program ‘works’ in a specific population
may rest on whether sufficient background work has been done
in that population and whether the population itself is invested
in the implementation of the intervention.171
Finally, the data that you choose should be a mix of both lagging and
leading indicators.
Lagging indicators are metrics that help you to see what has been
achieved. For example, final year graduation results, such as A levels,
SATs, or ATAR scores are a common lagging indicator. They are generally
important to students, teachers, parents, and university or further
education entrance, and have a measurable impact on students’ career
options. However, the fact that they come at the very end of schooling
means that they ‘lag’ behind any opportunity for us to improve them. By
the time we get this data, it’s too late for that cohort.
Leading indicators tell us how things are likely to play out in future.
They hint at whether we’re on track or not. Dylan Wiliam suggests that
a leading indicator for professional development is whether teachers
actually attend professional development. Similarly, a leading indicator
for student achievement would be student attendance. To design a set of
leading indicators, consider the final outcomes that you’d like to see, then
work backwards to determine what would need to happen beforehand.
These ‘beforehand’ events can often be great leading indicators. (Leading
indicators can also be thought of as the initial steps in the causal chain
of a mechanism. More on mechanisms and causal chains in the next and
final chapter.)
Using data that is aligned to your mission, which balances leading and
lagging indicators and is regularly reviewed on a set schedule, is crucial
to keeping your school on track.
171. Jaycox, L., McCaffrey, D., Ocampo, B., Shelley, G., Blake, S., Peterson, D., ... and Cuby, J.
(2006). Challenges in the evaluation and implementation of school-based prevention and
intervention programs on sensitive topics. American Journal of Evaluation, 27(3), 338.
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Use repetition to stay on course and speak your vision into existence
This point can’t be emphasised enough: for an idea to be embedded
within your school, repetition is key. Again, this is a point highlighted by
both Tom Sherrington and Rachel Macfarlane.
Rachel emphasised the importance of leaders practising their ‘elevator
pitch’, and taking every opportunity possible (corridors, assemblies,
newsletters, etc.) to talk about the importance of the initiative or idea.
Tom also mentioned the importance of head teachers/principals being
out there, visible and repeating important messages on a consistent basis.
As a leader, a large part of your role is to speak your vision into existence.
Someone who has done this particularly well is James Handscombe,
foundational principal of Harris Westminster Sixth Form. In our podcast
discussion,172 James took us through how he uses his speeches within
school assemblies to repeat important messages that he wants to become
part of the shared vocabulary of the school.
If you’re interested in learning more about the role of assemblies in
shaping the culture of a school, you may like to read Handscombe’s book,
A School Built on Ethos, as discussed in ERRR Episode 053. On the next
page are some of the key things to take into consideration when planning
a Handscombe-style assembly speech.173
172. ERRR #053. James Handscombe on Assemblies and Ethos.
173. To read more from James on what makes a good assembly, see this article: https://
www.teachwire.net/news/school-assemblies-how-to-make-yours-powerful-and-leave-an­
impression.
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Ollie’s deconstruction of James’s
assembly format
James’s additions to Ollie’s deconstruction
• Begin with some allusion to what
you’re going to talk about (a
theme), then
• Establish some sort of narrative,
setting, or symbol
• Introduce tension
• Model an openness to uncertainty
(a key learning disposition) and/or
a link to the school’s ideals, values,
or mission
• Share some resolution, if one
exists
• End with a call to action for
students.
• The assembly cannot be all about the speaker, but it must have
some of them in there. In fact, it should have enough of them
in there that it would hurt if someone were to rip the assembly
apart.
• Often it’s good to balance some heavier (emotionally) ideas
with lighter ones. Sometimes it may be necessary to have fully
heavy assemblies.
• Balance an internal and external focus to give students a
glimpse at the wider world, but also relate that back to the dayto-day of the school, and the culture that exists and is being
built.
• Finally, the assembly should hint at something bigger, the
transcendental (whether that be into literary, ethical,
geographic, or other realms). It should dangle threads in front
of students and invite them to pull on them.
• Finish with an invitation to ponder.
Ensure that the most important things are given priority by locking them into
the school calendar.
There is a metaphor that I have always found useful when planning what
to do when: the stones and sand metaphor.
Imagine that you have a cup of sand and a handful of large stones, and
you’d like to fit them all in a jar. One way to try to do this would be to
pour the sand in first, then put the stones on top. Unfortunately, when
you do this, you find that the sand half-fills the jar, then the stones stack
atop each other and overflow from the jar.
The ‘sand first’ approach
From this you could conclude that there simply isn’t enough space to fit
both the stones and the sand in the jar. However, this would be wrong.
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If instead you begin by putting the stones in, and then you pour the sand
in around them, the sand will fill in the gaps between the stones, and
both sand and stones can fit.
The ‘stones first’ approach
In this example, our stones represent the top priorities for a school, such
as running professional development for teachers. We ensure that our
‘stones’ are locked in by putting them into the school calendar at the very
start of the year. When we do this, we give precedence to these crucial
elements of school improvement and ensure that the most important
things aren’t missed. When we fail to do this, we can find that PD is
pushed out by other, less important but time-consuming things, like
report writing.174
At the start of every year, and every term, consider what the highest
leverage actions you can take are, and lock them into the school calendar.
Manage change by engaging theories of action
In the mindset section above, I suggested that sustainable change only
comes through engaging with theories of action. Without teachers
changing the beliefs that drive their current behaviours, any behaviour
change established will only ever be a result of short-term compliance.
This idea, introduced through the work of Viviane Robinson, is a powerful
approach to change management. But how exactly can it be done?
I see three key steps within an engage approach to change management:
agree on the problem to be solved, identify theories of action, and agree
upon standards of evidence.
174. For some ideas about better ways to do school reports, and to save time for teachers to do more
important things, see: https://www.ollielovell.com/on-education/a-better-way-to-do-school­
reports/.
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Agree on the problem to be solved
One of the first mistakes that’s made in change management is that people
start disagreeing about proposed solutions before they’ve even defined
the problem. If I’m arguing for an inquiry approach to learning, and
you’re arguing for explicit instruction, we can’t reasonably be expected
to reach a resolution. This is because we may actually both be correct,
but we just have a different problem in mind that we’re trying to solve!
Here’s an illustrative scenario, and a role-played conversation, from my
podcast discussion with Viviane Robinson.
Scenario – Question from an Assistant Principal:
When building and implementing our instructional model last
year, we were focussing on the use of a starter activity. Basically,
Doug Lemov’s ‘Do Now’. The focus was on using the first five
minutes of class really productively for recap or priming of
new content. We introduced the idea to teachers in weekly
PD [professional development], exploring the benefits, then
supported its implementation with our coaching framework.
Despite this, several teachers refused to start the lesson with a
Do Now. I now need to talk to these staff to try to get them to do
the Do Now. How would you start such a conversation in this
scenario?
Role play – Viviane is the leader; Ollie is the teacher not doing the Do
Now:
VR: Okay, Oliver. It seems like you’ve got some real doubts about using
this Do Now strategy. Am I right in that perception?
OL: Yes, that’s correct.
VR: Okay, what I want you to do, Oliver, is talk to me about what it is
about the Do Now that you have difficulty with.
OL: You know, there are other ways I like to start my class, and I think
that starting with a Do Now, which is quite a rigid approach, ruins the
relaxed start to my lessons.
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VR: What do you mean by a ‘relaxed’ start? ← This type of clarifying
question is really important.
OL: Oh, you know, the students come in, I usually have a chat with
them about how the weekend went. And that kind of thing. But if we
do a Do Now when they come in, they have to be silent. They have to,
you know, answer a question straight away. So I don’t get a lot of that
interaction that I’d like to usually get.
VR: Okay. So you want to have that social interaction, if I can call it
that, and have a relaxed start? How long does that go on for?
OL: Usually the first few minutes as students kind of trickle in?
VR: So everyone’s settled in in about 10 minutes or so?
OL: Hopefully quicker than that. Hopefully, within, you know, three,
four, or five minutes. Yeah.
VR: But you’re not quite sure?
OL: Yeah, it’s something around that.
VR: Okay. Because one of the things that I am concerned about is that
students’ learning time is precious. And the more that time is eroded,
the fewer opportunities they have to learn the important stuff that
you’re trying to teach them. Your relationship with the students is also
precious. No question. So what I want us to talk about is how you
can do both without losing up to 10 minutes of the class. Is that worth
investigating?
OL: Yeah, that makes sense.
In this vignette, Vivian perfectly demonstrated how the transition can be
made from disagreeing about solutions, the Do Now, to agreeing on the
problem to be solved, which included two parts:
1. Ensure that precious learning time is allocated to learning.
2. Provide opportunities for relationship building with students.
When the problem is agreed upon, the process of finding a solution can
be a shared project.
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Agree on the design criteria for the solution
Once you know what the problem looks like, agreement must be made
on what are the non-negotiable characteristics of the solution. From the
above discussion, there was a problem identified, and a design criterion
was also established. These were:
Problem: Learning time is being lost at the start of lessons
Design criterion: Time must be preserved for important relationship
building between students and students, and students and teacher
The teacher’s current theory of action, mapped out below, addressed the
design criterion, but it didn’t address the problem that the leader was
emphasising:
Strong relationships support student learning + chatting at the start
of class leads to stronger relationships → classes should start with
‘relaxed’ chatting between students and the teacher
What we need to do in this situation is to acknowledge and preserve the
elements of an individual’s theory of action that are accurate, but separate
them out from the theory of action as a whole by turning them into a
design criterion. In the role play, we hear Viviane acknowledge that key
active ingredient when she said, ‘Your relationship with the students is
also precious. No question.’ This acknowledgement helps the teacher to
feel heard, but also leverages the teacher’s expertise to establish a design
criterion for the eventual solution.
But how can we determine these design criteria? Often people’s theories
of action are hidden within the adjectives they use. In the above, I said
that I wanted to have a ‘relaxed’ start to class. It was Viviane’s follow-up
question, ‘What do you mean by a “relaxed” start?’ that opened up the
conversation to reveal the need hidden within that somewhat vague word.
To me (within the roleplay), ‘relaxed’ start actually meant an opportunity
to connect with students. Developing a sensitivity to adjectives like ‘easy’,
‘relaxed’, ‘effective’, ‘efficient’ and following these up with a question in
the format of, ‘What do you mean by…[easy/relaxed/efficient...etc]’ can
often lead to a clearer identification of good design criteria.
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But it’s also valuable to emphasise that understanding someone’s theory
of action is really just about truly understanding what they think about
a situation. As such, we must seek to truly understand, avoid making
assumptions, and start from the belief that staff have good reasons for
doing what they’re doing (some of which you’re likely to not have thought
of!). We should strive to be open, and listen.
In following work together, your hope could be to shift this teacher’s
current theory of action, and introduce a new one, to address both the
problem and the design criteria, within your solution. As an example:
Shifted current theory of action: Strong relationships support student
learning + relationships can be built by discussions at recess → Ensure
that lunch and recess duty roster places this teacher near where some
of their key students hang out in the playground.
Introduced theory of action: Class time is precious for student
learning + Do Now ensures that the first five minutes of class are spent
learning rather than socialising → Start each lesson with a Do Now.
Agree upon standards of evidence
Once the problem is clearly defined and theories of action have been
identified (with the core components acknowledged), we can begin to
seek a solution. However, we can still trip up at this point because of
disagreements about standards of evidence.
Establishing standards of evidence at the individual level really comes
down to one key question, ‘How will we know if we’ve been successful?’
Extending our scenario (but with new characters, as Viviane and I didn’t
continue the role-play), the discusion could continue:
Leader: In terms of our two goals, ensuring strong relationships with
students, and ensuring that the first 10 minutes of class are used
effectively. How will we know if we’ve been successful?
Teacher: Well, for the strong relationships, I think I’d feel like this was
a success if I just had a general sense of having a strong relationship
with students. But I don’t know about the start of class.
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L: Yeah, the relationship area could be based upon a feeling. That’s good.
How about a feeling of the students too? If you were to ask students a
question to determine relationship strength, what would it be?
T: Hmm. I guess, something like, ‘Does Mr Smith care about you and
your learning?’
L: Yeah, and if we wanted to quantify that, we could ask, ‘On a scale
from 1 to 10, with 1 being “not at all”, and “10” being “as much as
possible”, How much does Mr Smith cares about you and your learning?’
T: Yeah, that works.
L: Ok, so we could ask your class to answer this question now, collect
the data, then compare that with their responses in a month or so. Do
you think that would give us a fair indication and something concrete
to reflect on?
T: Yeah, that sounds good.
L: Great. Now, what about the first 10 mins of class? How will we know
if that’s been successful?
T: Hmmm. Like I said, not really sure there.
L: No problem. May I share something that I’ve seen a few other
teachers trying out?
T: Sure.
L: Excellent. Well, something that I’ve seen some other teachers do, to
track how the first 10 minutes of class are used, is simply to record how
long it takes before all students are settled and working on the first task.
Does that sound to you like a valuable thing to look at?
T: Yeah, that makes sense.
L: Great. So we could get a baseline now, then we could again measure
and review in a month or so. And if you’d like, I could collect that data
with a classroom visit, or you could collect it yourself, or we could do
it with a video, or recording, or whatever you feel comfortable with.
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There are several things that the leader did here to great effect.
Firstly, they used the core question for establishing agreed-upon standards
of evidence, ‘How will we know if we’ve been successful?’ Notice too with
this question that it uses collective language: ‘we’ rather than ‘you’.
Secondly, the leader helped to guide the relationship-based metric
towards something that wasn’t based on a subjective teacher judgement.
With the teacher’s first suggestion, ‘I think I’d feel like this was a success
if I just had a general sense of having a strong relationship with students’,
this is subject to the mood of the teacher. If they don’t like doing the Do
Now for whatever reason, when it comes to time to review, they could
easily just say, ‘I don’t feel like my relationships are as strong.’ By picking
something that isn’t up to the teacher, that is, student reports, this makes
it more objective.
A third thing of note that this leader did is the way they introduced and
suggested tracking the first 10 minutes of class. Firstly, they asked if they
could suggest something, which helped the teacher feel like they were
in the driver’s seat. Secondly, they made it normal (see Chapter 3 on
Motivation) by saying, ‘May I share something that I’ve seen a few other
teachers trying out?’ By emphasising that this is a practice that other
teachers do, we normalise the suggestion that we’re about to make.
Fourth, they checked in with the teacher again, following their suggestion
with, ‘Does that sound like a valuable thing to look at to you?’ and still
left space for the teacher to have some autonomy to decide what the target
percentage of focussed students should be before the timer is stopped to
record that students are settled.
Once you’ve agreed upon the problem, identified theories of action, and
agreed upon standards of evidence, you’re in a fantastic position to move
forwards with some collaborative problem-solving together. The next
question to discuss with this teacher would be, ‘What can we do to work
together to improve these two outcomes?’
Also of note. At the end of a meeting like this, it’s often a good idea to
let the teacher lead the co-construction of a set of minutes (a written
record) for the meeting to ensure that you’re both leaving with a common
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
understanding. As captured in the wise words often attributed to George
Bernard Shaw, ‘[t]he single biggest problem in communication is the
illusion that it has taken place.’
To recap, change is only sustainable when it engages theories of action.
Without engaging with theories of action, we can only expect short-term
behaviour shifts based upon compliance rather than commitment. To
engage with theories of action, resist moving a discussion straight to
solutions, but first agree on the problem to be solved, then agree on the
design constraints, and then agree upon standards of evidence.
Managing change at the whole school level
The above section on managing change by engaging with theories of
action provides a way to approach conversations at single teacher level.
But what if we want to commence a whole department, or whole school
change initiative?
A valuable bit of groundwork to do before any whole school initiative is to
spend the time exploring the value of different standards of evidence at
the whole school level. This is because, unfortunately, people often have
different views regarding what constitutes compelling evidence.
For example, the below graph, generated from a survey of over 10,500
primary and secondary teachers in the UK,175 demonstrates that teachers
hold a wide variety of beliefs of what is meant by ‘evidence-based teaching’.
175. Nelson, J., Mehta, P., Sharples, J., and Davey, C. (2017). Measuring teachers’ research
engagement: Findings from a pilot study. London: Education Endowment Foundation, 16.
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LEAdERSHIp
What does the term ‘evidence-based teaching’ mean to you?
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(Teachers could select more than one option, hence bars summing to more that 100%)
(Adapted from the Education Endowment Foundation)
Different forms of evidence may point to different solutions. This is why
a discussion about what counts as ‘evidence’ in your context is likely a
valuable one to have (more on evaluating research evidence in our final
chapter). Teacher experience and contextual factors should definitely be
acknowledged, but the importance of robust education research should
also be emphasised.
Establishing agreement around which standards of evidence should be
used to make decisions at the whole school level is very important and
builds a strong foundation for all subsequent decision-making, and can
be referred back to again and again whenever pursuing a new initiative.
But even if standards of evidence have been discussed at the whole school
level, it’s likely that an engage approach will need to be used for each
individual change initiative, and especially those addressing issues that
are often contentious within education. Within our discussion, Viviane
Robinson provided some excellent suggestions for taking an engage
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
approach in situations where it’s unrealistic to have a one-on-one theory
of action conversation with each staff member.
Here is that interview excerpt:
OL: How do you propose a school principal or department head consults
with all their staff when they have lots of people to consult with?
VR: Well, there’s lots of different ways of doing it. And clearly
interviewing and talking individually with everyone is a silly idea. I
think one of the things to do is to think very carefully about the design of
meetings, and especially large staff meetings. You disclose the problem
that you perceive. You quickly check around the room, ‘Do people
agree that it’s a problem?’ Stick to phase one [agree on the problem
to be solved]. We’re not into discussions here about the cause of the
problem. We’re just getting agreement as to whether or not folks think
this is a problem. You can do that in five minutes, even with 60 people
in the room, you know: ‘Show of hands, how many people think this
is a problem?’… That’s establishing agreement that there’s a problem
in five minutes.
... You might then use the next 10 to 15 minutes of the staff meeting
to design a process for revealing the theory of action and the problem.
‘Okay, this problem involves which actors?’ It may involve teachers and
students if it’s a bullying problem. So how are we going to find out what
the types of bullying are, and why it’s happening? So who do we need
to talk to? Who can do that talking? Who’s in the best position to do
that talking? How long will it take and what sort of questions should we
be asking? How are we going to find a representative group of student
learners and a group of teachers and then produce a quick report back
on that to the next staff meeting in three weeks?
OL: Okay, so stick to the first phases (identify the problem). What about
a bit later on [when you’re trying to identify solutions after agreeing
upon the problem]?
VR: Well, [in the next meeting] let’s say we’ve got our report on why
there is so much bullying happening in the school at the moment. We
understand [what] we want to improve. So we have a one-page theory
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LEAdERSHIp
of action, okay, [that describes what is currently happening]. Or maybe
if there are two very different causal things going on, two very different
patterns, we might have two theories of action. And that’s presented
and discussed at the staff meeting. Then you’re into phase three, then
what you’re doing is you’re listing the evaluation criteria. ‘Okay, folks,
if we’re going to get a good solution here, what criteria does it need to
meet? What are our success criteria?’ [The responses could include]
‘Well, it needs to be something that the learners themselves have come
up with. It needs to be compatible with our digital technology and
digital use policies. And it needs to get the agreement of the parents.’…
Then we get creative about trying to find a set of strategies, usually not
just one, that roughly or as far as possible meets those criteria.
OL: Okay. And also, I’m drilling down on this, because it’s something
that I think is particularly tricky to do. But… if you had got that report
back and you’ve developed the theory of action?… Is that something you
would send out prior to the meeting to give people time to think about
it? Or do you think it doesn’t really matter and they can just consider
it during the meeting?
VR: I think you’re quite right. This requires excellent meeting leadership
from all members. And so you need to think carefully about who’s got
the meeting leadership skills. So if a principal doesn’t have those meeting
leadership skills, then the principal is authorising another member of the
senior leadership team to lead these meetings. And these meetings might
be happening at different levels of the scope. So whether or not I would
release the report depends on how well it’s written. If it’s subject to a lot
of misinterpretation, misunderstanding, gossip, or rumour mongering,
then I wouldn’t release it, I would have someone clearly speak to a report,
and then preferably revise it after the discussion and release it in a form
that’s better. However, if people understand the process beforehand,
and the report is clearly written, illustrating that process, then I would
release it. But you’ve got to think about how, often, releasing things in
advance that are badly written, or that people don’t have sufficient prior
understanding of, will just take you back.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Whether you’re solving problems or initiating change at the individual
teacher or the whole school level, it’s crucial that you spend time agreeing
upon the problem to be solved, co-develop the success criteria for the
solution, agree on standards of evidence where relevant, and only then
move into a space of problem-solving.
SUMMARY
Successful leadership is supported by mission, mindset, and management.
A well-crafted and communicated mission sets the course for your
school, and helps everyone to sing from the same hymn sheet. Set a
clear mission and represent it in a mission statement. This helps you to
select for alignment, and to promote a culture that forms the foundation
of cohesion within your school. A layer down, a strong teaching and
learning policy describes what should happen in classrooms, every day,
to incrementally move towards your school’s mission.
Having a leader’s mindset ensures that you’re putting the most important
things first, and you’re approaching your leadership in a way that will
bring people along with you. Begin with the unwavering belief that all
students can succeed, hire for this, and communicate it regularly. Ensure
that your own vision of leadership is a sustainable one that ensures that
you can stay in the role long enough to make a positive difference, and
also preference staff wellbeing, and recognise that you and your staff may
need to stop doing good things to free up space to do even better things.
Crucially, understand that sustainable change only comes with shifting
people’s mindsets, through engaging their theories of action and core
beliefs. For commitment, engage. For compliance, bypass. And remember,
true engagement also entertains the possibility of you changing your
mind too. This ‘engage’ mindset is supported by an ‘engage’ management
approach too.
Management is the collection of day-to-day tasks that a leader does and
oversees that keep the wheels of a school turning. It is also the protocols
established to manage change, from teaching and learning, to staffing.
Begin management by gaining a clear picture of reality, and collecting
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LEAdERSHIp
data, both leading and lagging indicators, and revisit them regularly to
ensure that your school is on track.
Speak your vision into existence by using every possible opportunity
to repeat key messaging, and affirm and acknowledge actions and
behaviours that positively contribute to your school’s culture. Put the
most important things first and lock crucial priorities, like professional
development, into your school’s calendar.
Manage change by engaging with theories of action and do this through
a protocol of agreeing on the problem to be solved, the design criteria
for the solution, and standards of evidence. When the problem is agreed
upon, the process of finding a solution can be a shared project.
…
When the groundwork has been laid, you will be well placed to scour
the research and explore a wider range of options, both creative and
evidence-informed, to pursue your goals. This is the topic of our final
chapter, Reading and Evaluating Education Research.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Mission
Leadership
Mindset
Management
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LEAdERSHIp
Set a clear mission and represent it in a vision statement
Have a clear teaching and learning policy
Student expectations – The elephant in the room
Ensure a sustainable vision of leadership
Understand that staff wellbeing comes first
Understand that sustainable change only comes
through engaging with theories of action
The importance of background work
(especially when you feel there isn’t time to engage)
Use appropriate data to gain a clear picture of reality
Use repetition to stay on course and speak your
vision into existence
Ensure that the most important things are given priority
by locking them into the school calendar
Agree on the problem to be solved
Manage change by engaging theories of action
Agree on the design criteria for the solution
Agree upon standards of evidence
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LEARN
3
CHAPTER 8
READING AND EVALUATING
EDUCATION RESEARCH
Maintain Perspective
Reading and Evaluating
Education Research
Read for Detail
Read with an Open Mind
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Perhaps my favourite quote about education research comes from E. D.
Hirsch:
The enormous problem faced in basing policy on research is that
it is almost impossible to make educational policy that is not
based on research. Almost every educational practice that has
ever been pursued has been supported with data by somebody.
I don’t know a single failed policy, ranging from the naturalistic
teaching of reading, to the open classroom, to the teaching of
abstract set-theory in third-grade math that hasn’t been researchbased. Experts have advocated almost every conceivable practice
short of inflicting permanent bodily harm.176
Against this backdrop, there’s little wonder that educators often get
confused about what education research says. It’s not uncommon to see
people arguing on Twitter or other public forums about ‘what works’, each
side often even citing papers to support their argument. How can this be?
Isn’t the scientific approach supposed to help us converge upon the truth?
There are many reasons why education research doesn’t portray a
consistent message: low barriers for the creation of ‘academic’ journals,
frequent use of poorly defined labels for instructional practices, low
fidelity of implementation, and lack of statistical understanding and
rigour. Whatever the source, the fact is that mixed messaging emanating
from education research isn’t likely to go away any time soon.
So, we have to learn to sort through the mess ourselves!
One of the greatest gifts I’ve received as host of the ERRR podcast is an
increased understanding of just how to navigate the labyrinth that is
education research. I’ve still got a long way to go, but there are a set of ideas
that I’ve gained from guests and readings that have helped me to maintain
perspective, look for tell-tale details, and keep an open mind, in a way that
helps me to better engage with education research (many of these ideas are
applicable for testing the claims made in books and podcasts too!).
176. Hirsch, E. D., Jr. (1997, April 10). Address to the California State Board of Education. Available
online at http://www.coreknowledge.org/mimik/mimik_uploads/documents/5/AddCASTB.
As cited in Willingham, D. T. (2012) When Can You Trust the Experts? How to tell good science
from bad in education (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass), p. 219.
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This chapter aims to help you to do three key things whilst reading
education research: maintain perspective, look for specific details, and
keep an open mind.
MAINTAIN PERSPECTIVE
In a sport like soccer, the player with the ball must focus on and manage
the ball at their feet, at the same time as scanning the field to assess and
reassess their changing context, threats, and opportunities, and to decide
their next move. This continual and simultaneous awareness of context
and environment is what is meant by ‘maintain perspective’. In addition
to being important on the soccer field, it’s also crucial in evaluating
research.
When we have perspective, we see how a particular paper meets our
needs, relates to our context, and relates to the literature at large. When
we lose perspective, we end up overly focussing on only what is in front
of us and tend to miss things like alternative approaches, opportunity
costs, and biases. The following are three considerations for maintaining
perspective.
We can only suggest ‘what works’ once we specify ‘for what purpose?’
Imagine you go to a car dealership and ask the salesperson, ‘What’s the
best car?’ What response would you expect? No salesperson worth their
salt would give you an answer straight away; they should always inquire
into your circumstances, and what purposes you need the car for. Are
you looking for fuel efficiency, something to transport your family of
seven, something to tow your boat, a first vehicle to start your gardening
business, or perhaps something flashy in an attempt to resolve your
mid-life crisis?
In the context of car shopping, asking ‘What’s best?’ without providing
additional context is clearly an absurd question. Yet people seem to often
ask the educational equivalent – ‘What works?’ – without batting an
eyelid. And others often seem all too ready to offer an answer without
inquiring into the questioner’s context.
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Just as we need to be clear on our intended purpose when we embark
upon any educational pursuit (see Chapter 5), so do we need to consider
purpose when it comes to education research. This is because what works
depends upon the purpose.
Without doing so, we run the risk of misinterpreting research, or having
arguments with people based on conflicting starting assumptions. Both
explicit instruction and inquiry-based learning can ‘work’, it just depends
upon the answer to the question ‘What for?’177
So, we need to be clear on our own purpose when we search out education
research. Similarly, it’s valuable to consider the intended purpose of the
researchers who carried out the research in the first place, as their beliefs
likely influenced their work and writing too.
Search for mechanisms – the ‘why’ and ‘how’ – behind an outcome
Once we have established what we’re trying to achieve, the next key
question is, ‘How do we best get there?’ But there are two main ways to
approach an answer: recipes and mechanisms.
If there were one main learning from the last five years of running the
ERRR podcast, it would be this: ‘Understanding mechanisms is the key
to improving teaching and learning!’
But what do we mean by ‘mechanisms’? A mechanism is the ‘how’ of
something, understanding the ‘active ingredients’ in an educational
intervention, and the specific role that each ingredient plays in producing
the final outcome.
An understanding of mechanisms is key because it allows us to deploy
the different components of an initiative at an appropriate time, to save
on resources and time by cutting out anything that isn’t absolutely core,
and to adapt instruction without leading to ‘lethal mutations’ (alterations
that result in the ineffectiveness of your approach).
The opposite of understanding mechanisms is the blind application
of recipes. The following excerpt from Adam Grubb and Annie Raser
Rowland’s excellent book on Frugal Hedonism provides a great vignette
177. In addition to considering for whom, under what circumstances, and compared with what!
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of the way that an understanding of mechanisms allows a chef to adapt
in the kitchen:178
No breadcrumbs to help you bind your meatballs? Grind some
oats in a blender and use those instead. No apple cider vinegar,
but plenty of lemons? Lemon juice plus a pinch of sugar will
probably be just fine. Most deliciousness is a push and pull
between sweet, sour, and salty elements, with a tasty fat to carry
the flavour (and to help you absorb the nutrients). Also consider
including something with bitter notes to cut richness, or an
umami component to give robust savouriness, and things will
usually turn out scrumptiously.
Building on the above example, when an expert chef sees ‘butter’ in a
recipe, they don’t just see ‘butter’, they see, ‘a tasty fat to carry the flavour
(and to help you absorb the nutrients)’. The below table contrasts a recipebased with a mechanism-based understanding for several common
instructional practices:
Instructional practice
Recipe-based understanding
Mechanism-based understanding
Cold call
Don’t call on students with hands up;
call on students without them first
knowing who will be called on.
Use a method of questioning that
ensures that all students think about
the question prior to the answer
being revealed.
Retrieval practice
Ask students questions about
content that was previously covered
in class.
Retrieving information from memory,
when successful, strengthens
that memory more so than being
reminded of it from an external
prompt.
Check for understanding
Use mini-whiteboards and get all
students to hold up their answers at
exactly the same time.
Ensure that you are basing decisions
about your next instructional move
on a sufficiently large sample of
student responses.
Hopefully the table above demonstrates how an understanding based upon
mechanisms is much deeper and richer than recipe-based knowledge.
178. Raser-Rowland, A., and Grubb, A. (2016). The Art of Frugal Hedonism: A guide to spending less
while enjoying everything more, p. 48.
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Below, we see three adaptations that a teacher may make to the
instructional practice of cold call. A mechanism-based understanding
tells us that one of the key reasons why cold call is effective is because it
ensures that all students think about the answer of a question prior to that
answer being publicly shared. You can keep this mechanism in mind as
you consider the modifications to the standard approach below:
Lethal Mutation
Lethal Mutation
Effective Adaptation
Modifications of
the instructional
practice of cold
call
Teacher asks a
question then
immediately pulls out
a pop-stick179 and asks
a student.
Teacher calls on a
student at random
and then poses their
question.
Teacher recognises that
students need time to think
through a response to a
checking question. So, they say,
‘In a minute, I’m going to call on
someone to share their answer
with the class. To prepare,
discuss your answer with your
table partner for one minute
and try to convince them!’
Why it’s an
effective or
ineffective
modification
This is a lethal
mutation because no
student (including the
student who has been
asked) has been given
time to think about
their response.
Remember, the
mechanism behind
cold call is that more
students consider
the question than if
hands-up were taken.
This approach could
actually reduce the
number of students
who think about the
question, because all
except one in the class
know that they won’t
be called upon!
Again, the mechanism of cold
call is that all students think
about the response. It isn’t
anything about ‘catching
students out’. Thus, inserting
a pair–share can be very
effective in a context of low
prior knowledge, and can be a
great supplement to cold call in
this context, as it targets this
mechanism, getting all students
thinking about the response.
When engaging with education research, remember to ask, ‘Why does
this work?’ (or not work?). This knowledge can only be gained by
understanding exactly what happened within a study, and trying to
determine what the active ingredients within that study were.
179. Pop-sticks are simple icy-pole sticks with students’ names on them. They can be used to select
students at random, which is helpful because it reduces the chances of teachers getting a false
sense of mastery from the whole class based upon the responses of a few confident volunteers.
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If we’re reading research, this means reading, in detail, the methods
section, to understand what occurred. Many people see the methods
as an intimidating section of a paper or report. Actually, it’s the most
interesting! Think of it like a blog in which the researchers have written
about what they did in their ‘classroom’; it literally takes you inside the
nitty-gritty of the teaching and learning of the study!
Whilst reading about or discussing instructional practices, we need to
search for the mechanism, the causal chain, that unlocks the power of a
particular approach. Causal chains can be represented with simple arrow
diagrams180 that show how an outcome logically follows a set of actions.
For example, I was recently speaking with a teacher from a school in
the UK that is getting phenomenal results from their students through a
combination of explicit instruction and project-based learning. I asked,
‘What’s the magic sauce that really helps students to achieve in your
school?’ She replied, ‘It’s the crews, the 45 minutes with your group of 13
kids every morning. A group of kids that you work with for the whole
duration of their time at our school.’
A recipe-based understanding that I could take from this would be:
45 mins of crews each morning → Better student outcomes
Instead, I enquired into mechanisms. I asked, ‘What is it about crews that
helps students to improve?’ She replied, ‘[E]nsuring that young people
always have an adult within the school who they can rely upon, and a
support network of friends who they really trust, means that kids don’t
fall through the gaps, and we are able to identify when students need
help, either pastoral or academic, much more quickly.’ From this, we can
develop a causal chain that includes the key mechanism as hypothesised
180. As emphasised by Adrian Simpson in his review of this chapter, such arrow diagrams are a
simplification, because mechanisms are almost always multi-factored, including things like
motivation, social context, and more. As George Box has said (Box, G. E. P. (1976). Science and
statistics. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 71(356), 791–799): ‘All models are
wrong’. However, some models are useful nonetheless. The arrow diagram aims to capture the
main factors in a causal chain in an actionable way. More complex diagrams, often referred
to as ‘directed acyclic graphs’, aim to capture more factors in causal chains, though these
too rarely capture the whole picture. The benefit of arrow diagrams is that they keep things
simple and focussed on main factors, which is often of most actionable use in the classroom,
with the opportunity for refinements to be made over time.
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by this teacher:
Crews that constantly focus on relationship building →
Each student has both adults and peers that they trust and
confide in → Pastoral and academic needs are identified
more quickly → Quicker response to student needs →
Better student outcomes
This more nuanced picture of a (hypothesised) causal chain gives us
a much better view of the wide range of potential factors that could
be leading to better student outcomes, and thereby puts us in a better
position to act in a way that will lead to our desired effect.
Adrian Simpson, whom we’ll hear from more in the following pages,
highlights one final important point on mechanisms. Contrary to
expectations, often insights into educational mechanisms do not stem
directly from education research, but from more diverse sources. For
example, the most important teaching and learning-related mechanism
that I’ve come to know about in recent years is the relationship between
our environment, our working memory, and our long-term memory.181
This model of human cognitive architecture, which sits at the heart of
Cognitive Load Theory, doesn’t come from education research, but rather
from cognitive psychology.
Further, the school is a social place, filled with complex and diverse
human beings, so the insights of sociologists, anthropologists, and
philosophers often bear much fruit too. In the search for mechanisms,
we shouldn’t make the mistake of assuming that they can only be found
strictly within education research.
Above all, search for mechanisms: the ‘why’ and ‘how’ behind an
outcome.182
181. See my book Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory in Action, which summarises my learnings in
this area.
182. For a humorous example of a broken causal chain, search for a video of ‘Underpants Gnomes,
South Park’. Thanks to ERRR guest Catherine Scott for linking me to this one! [language
warning]
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Ask, ‘Who did this research?’
In 2018 Sam Wineburg and colleagues183 convened a group of 20 Stanford
University undergraduate students, 10 PhD historians, and 10 expert fact
checkers for a study on evaluating digital information. One of the main
tasks set for these participants was to consider two different website
articles on bullying, one by the American Academy of Pediatrics (the
Academy), and the second by the American College of Pediatricians (the
College). Their job was to determine which was a more reliable source
of information.
Before you read on, I encourage you to have a go at this experiment
yourself! Take 10 minutes (the same amount of time given to the
participants in the study), read the articles at https://www.ollielovell.com/
academy-or-college, and decide which you would rate as the more reliable
source of information on bullying – you can also rate them as equally
reliable – before turning the page!
183. Wineburg, S. and McGrew, S. (2019). Lateral reading and the nature of expertise: Reading less
and learning more when evaluating digital information. Teachers College Record, 121(11).
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Seriously, actually do this!
Trust me, it’s fun!
Which one is more reliable?
Both articles are accessible at
https://www.ollielovell.com/academy-or-college
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LAST CHANCE!
Results overleaf
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Here are the results from the study:184
Which information source on bullying is more reliable?
Academy more reliable
College more reliable
Equally reliable
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
Students
Historians
Fact Checkers
As you can see, there was a HUGE difference in what the students,
historians, and fact checkers decided was most reliable. The overwhelming
majority of students (64%) thought the College was more reliable. Half
of the historians concluded that the Academy was more reliable, with
40% going for the College, and 10% for either. And a full 100% of the fact
checkers concluded that the Academy was more reliable!
So, which really was a more reputable source of bullying information?
Here’s how Wineburg describes each organisation:
184. Data taken from Wineburg and McGrew.
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The Academy:
Established in 1932, the Academy is the largest professional
organization of pediatricians in the world, with 66,000 members
and a paid staff of 450. The Academy publishes Pediatrics,
the field’s flagship journal, and offers continuing education
on everything from Sudden Infant Death Syndrome to the
importance of wearing bicycle helmets during adolescence.185
The College:
[T]he College is a splinter group that in 2002 broke from the
Academy over the issue of adoption by same-sex couples. It is
estimated to have between 200 [and] 500 members, one fulltime employee, and publishes no journal… The group has come
under withering criticism for its virulently anti-gay stance, its
advocacy of ‘reparative therapy’ (currently outlawed for minors
in thirteen U.S. states), and incendiary posts such as one that
advocates adding P for pedophile to the acronym LGBT, because
pedophilia, they claim, is ‘intrinsically woven into [the LGBT]
agenda’… The Southern Poverty Law Center has labelled the
College a hate group that is ‘deceptively named’ and acts to
‘vilify gay people’.186
All 10 expert fact checkers correctly chose the Academy compared with
only 50% of historians and a mere 20% of undergraduate students at the
prestigious Stanford University. Even more impressively, the fact checkers
completed this task much quicker than the other two groups, with some
recognising the anti-LGBTIQ goals of the College in less than 2 of the
available 10 minutes. So… how did they do it?
Put simply, the fact checkers started by ‘taking bearings’ and maintaining
perspective. That is, they realised how fraught the internet can be, and
how easy it is for anyone to put up a website and look official, and so
they tried to work out, ‘Who did this research?’ To do this, the average
fact checker left the main page after only 30 seconds, looked up the two
185. Wineburg and McGrew.
186. Wineburg and McGrew.
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organisations (their first stop was often Wikipedia), and quickly found
out that the College was a splinter group from the Academy with an
anti-LGBTIQ agenda.
Wineburg and colleagues term this approach to research literacy ‘lateral
reading’. Rather than reading ‘vertically’ within an article to try to work
out whether or not it’s reliable, lateral reading means asking, ‘Who
did this research?’ and doing a broad search of the organisations or
individuals behind the work, and how they are placed within the context
of the broader debate. Look at their histories, look at their incentives, and
consider why a particular author is likely to hold their particular view.
This isn’t to say that we should avoid reading things from people whom
we feel we disagree with, or that we should refuse to read things based
upon the organisation that has produced them. In fact, often actively
seeking out such points of view is what pushes our understanding to new
and higher levels (see the final section in this chapter).
Rather, the point is that understanding who did a certain piece of research
is an important piece of contextual information that provides additional
perspective when exploring educational research, and media elsewhere too.
For example, knowing that the college is actively against LGBTIQ people
helps us to understand that they’re arguing against programs that promote
greater awareness and destigmatisation of LGBTIQ people when they
vaguely write, ‘such programs may have the unintended consequence of
proselytizing temporarily-confused adolescents into adopting an atypical
lifestyle or tempt others to experiment with atypical behaviours.’
Further, if we’re going to expose ourselves to alternative points of view,
we want to make sure that we’re using our time wisely by exploring the
most reputable and well-regarded source of information representing ‘the
other side’. If I’m keen to spend an afternoon truly exploring arguments
that climate change doesn’t pose a serious threat to humanity, I don’t want
to just read any old thing on the topic, I want to find the best regarded
proponent of this position, even though I disagree with it at present.
Coupled with clarity around the outcomes that we hope to achieve, and
a detailed look at the mechanisms that underlie a proposed educational
approach, ‘lateral reading’ or asking ‘Who did this research?’ is a key tool
in our toolbox for reading and evaluating education research.
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READ FOR DETAIL
Even if we’re clear about our desired outcomes, search for mechanisms,
and do lateral reading, we may still miss some important nuances in our
education research. Reading for detail means keeping our eye out for
things that often occur in education research that may make the results
seem more impressive than they really are, or that cast doubt upon
whether it really was the intervention that led to the improved outcome.
In this section, we look at three such things to look out for: comparing
effect sizes across studies, hidden mechanisms, and irrelevant citations.
In most cases, comparing effect sizes doesn’t make sense
Before we talk about the danger of comparing effect sizes, it’s helpful
to begin with an exploration of their origins, and what came before.
Before effect sizes were invented, research mainly relied upon tests of
significance.
Tests of significance help us to determine how likely it is that an observed
effect occurred by chance. We can use tests of significance to make
statements like, ‘There’s a 10% chance that the outcome we observed
happened by chance.’ If the probability that something happened by
chance is sufficiently low, it’s fair for us to assume that something about
the treatment generated the effect, and it wasn’t just random variation.
Thus, tests of significance tell us how likely it is that the intervention
generated an effect, but they don’t tell us how big that effect was. It is
important to know how big an effect is, because it allows us to choose
between different options. If one study tells us that tutoring raises maths
scores, and another tells us that formative assessment raises maths scores,
this information alone doesn’t tell us anything about which one is more
likely to raise maths scores, in our context, and given our resources.
But the challenge with comparing across studies is that they usually occur
in different contexts. If I do tutoring in grade 6 maths, and there’s a 10%
increase in class-based test scores, and you do formative assessment
in year 7 maths, and students do 5 points better on the state test,
whose intervention was more effective? These two effects may both be
statistically significant, but there’s no way for us to directly compare them.
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Within this context, this vacuum of comparability, effect sizes were
invented. The effect size is a measure of the variation observed
throughout an intervention, compared with the amount of variation that
already existed in a sample.187 The more variation observed throughout
the intervention, and the less variation originally present in the sample,
the higher the effect size.188 The final effect size is then reported as a
number, such as 0.24, or 0.76.
Because effect sizes are always reported in the same way, as a single
number, it means that they can be compared across studies, and many
people have fallen into this trap. However, the fact that effect sizes
can be compared across studies doesn’t mean that they should be
compared across studies. Why not? Because there are lots of things that
influence how big an effect size is, and many of them are unrelated to
the intervention itself. We call these factors that influence effect sizes,
but aren’t a core part of the intervention, ‘moderators’. I outline below
the two moderators that I most commonly see in education research:
measurement design and participant age.
Measurement design
The idea of measurement design is quite a simple one. The test that you
give someone can meaningfully impact how they score upon it. Consider
the following two questions below, both of which could be used on a
German test:189
Question A: What is the word for ‘Slave’ in
German? Write your answer below.
Question B: What is the word for ‘Slave’ in
German? Choose from the options below.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Edelmann
Sklave
Meister
Bauer
187. By ‘variation’ we mean the range of results observed. For example, if the results of students in
Class A on a particular test range from 32% to 98%, and results in Class B range from 42% to
83%, there is more variation in Class A.
188. For a bit more information about effect sizes, with some equations, see Appendix 2.
189. Inspired by Adrian Simpson’s Hungarian example, ERRR 017. Adrian Simpson critiquing the
meta-analysis.
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If we gave question A to a randomly selected group of adults in an
English-speaking country, we’d be lucky to have even a few who can
answer it correctly (Sklave). Question B, on the other hand, would be
answered correctly by the vast majority of people (option b). These two
questions target similar knowledge, but the format makes one much
easier to answer. As such, measurement design has been a moderator,
by changing the test; even though we target the same knowledge, we’ve
moderated (changed) the results.
The most common way that measurement design influences effect sizes
within education research relates to the ‘proximity’ (closeness) of the
test,190 that is, how targeted the test is to the content that’s taught within
a specific intervention. If the test used in an experiment is designed by
the experimenters, it’s much more likely to ‘capture’ the effect of the
intervention more strongly, because it will be more closely aligned with
what they did.
For example, if I teach a class of students five words in German, then I
test them on those five words, this is a very well-matched test (a close or
‘proximal’ test), and we’d expect a very large effect size if compared with
a control group who received no instruction. In contrast, if I teach a class
five words in German, then get them to sit a standard Goethe Institute
beginner-level German language test (a remote or ‘distal’ test), it would
likely show that they still don’t know very much German at all, and would
produce a tiny effect size when compared with a control.
190. Ruiz-Primo, M. A., Shavelson, R. J., Hamilton, L., and Klein, S. (2002). On the evaluation of
systemic science education reform: Searching for instructional sensitivity. Journal of Research
in Science Teaching, 39(5), 369–393.
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Whenever such ‘distal’ (far away) measures are used, smaller effect sizes
can be expected. As such, if a study uses standardised test scores as its final
metric, and it still shows student growth, this is much more robust than
growth demonstrated on teacher-designed or experimenter-designed tests.
What this means is that a study that shows an effect size of 0.4 on
standardised tests is much more impressive than a test that demonstrates
an effect size of 0.4 in a test designed by those carrying out the experiment
(assuming all other factors are held equal). Because of this fact, comparing
two or more experiments that use different outcome measures is likely
to lead to unreliable conclusions. When reading education research,
make sure you consider how proximal (targeted) or distal (general) the
measurement design is.
Participant age
Young people make larger learning gains. This is because they are going
through more rapid developmental stages, but also because each new
thing that they learn is more significant in comparison with the little
academic knowledge that they possess already.
A study that clearly demonstrates this is from Carolyn Hill and colleagues
in 2008.191 In this study, the researchers showed that the average annual
gain in effect size from nationally normed tests (large scale national tests)
systematically decreases as students age. Here is a graph showing the
decrease in reading and maths growth from kindergarten to grade 12:
191. Hill, C. J., Bloom, H. S., Black, A. R., and Lipsey, M. W. (2008). Empirical benchmarks for
interpreting effect sizes in research. Child Development Perspectives, 2(3), 172–177.
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Average reading gain and average maths gain per year of schooling
Average reading gain
Average maths gain
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Year level of schooling (e.g. grade 8)
As can be seen, the impact of a year of schooling on students’ reading and
maths, as measured in standardised test-based effect sizes, decreases over
time. For example, from kindergarten to year 1, students demonstrated
an average growth in reading of effect size 1.52, and an average growth
in maths of 1.14. That decreases to 0.23 and 0.3 from grades 6 to 7, and
continues decreasing to 0.06 and 0.01 in year 12.
Because of this, if we design an intervention that generates ‘three
additional months of learning’ in primary school, that is going to look
like a very impressive growth in results. Three additional months of
learning at year 12, however, may barely move the needle.
Comparing effect sizes from studies that work with students of
significantly different ages is, as with different measurements, likely to
lead to unreliable conclusions.
…
Measurement design and participant age are just two of many moderators
that can influence the outcome of a study without being directly related
to the intervention that’s taken place. The presence of these moderators
has led researchers like Adrian Simpson (ERRR #017) to conclude that
comparing studies based upon effect sizes doesn’t make much sense.
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It’s like trying to judge how old a cat is by weighing it. Whilst this can
give you information about a cat’s age, it makes little sense unless you
know a lot of other things, like the breed of cat and its feeding regime.
And, even if you know these things, it won’t help you at all once the cat
is fully grown.
Dylan Wiliam goes a step further, saying:
[A] report that labels effect sizes as small, medium, or large based
solely on the magnitude of the effect size should be treated with
deep scepticism and provides at least a prima facie case that the
authors do not know what they are talking about.192
When we see lists of effect sizes, it’s very tempting to say, ‘That
intervention looks better than this one because its meta-analysis has a
higher effect size.’ Don’t fall into this trap. In most cases, comparing effect
sizes doesn’t make sense.
The mechanisms of the intervention often aren’t what they’re claimed to be
One of my favourite research articles in recent years comes from Sam Sims
and colleagues entitled What are the characteristics of effective teacher
professional development?193 This study was great for two key reasons. Firstly,
it was robust. Sims and his team reviewed 104 randomised controlled trials
of teacher professional development, and they only included studies that
demonstrated growth in student achievement based upon standardised test
scores. That is, they controlled for measurement design issues.
The second reason why I loved this study is that it focussed on mechanisms
(aka active ingredients) and, as we now know, understanding mechanisms
is the core of understanding education research. Sims and colleagues
uncovered 14 mechanisms that can contribute to the power of effective
192. Wiliam, D. (2016). Leadership for teacher learning: Creating a culture where all teachers
improve so that all students succeed. West Palm Beach, FL: Learning Sciences International,
p. 82.
193. Sims, S., Fletcher-Wood, H., O’Mara-Eves, A., Cottingham, S., Stansfield, C., Van Herwegen,
J., and Anders, J. (2021). What are the characteristics of effective teacher professional
development? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Education Endowment Foundation –
which I discussed with Sims in ERRR #058. Sam Sims on What Makes Effective Professional
Learning.
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professional learning, including things like revisiting prior learning, goal
setting, praise/reinforcement, modelling, and feedback (all of which they
specifically describe in their appendix).
One of their key findings was that it is less the form of the professional
learning that has an effect (e.g. instructional coaching, lesson study,
teacher learning communities), and more the combination of mechanisms
that leads to increases in student achievement.
This is a point that is often missed in education research, even by many
researchers.
I encountered this several times recently when doing a review of
the literature on self-regulated learning. As an example, one study
reported that using a particular instructional approach, process-based
instruction (PBI), led to students outperforming a control group in
reading, mathematics, and planning their learning. However, when
reading the methods section for detail, and searching for mechanisms, I
came across the following passage:
Consistency in the application of the model was monitored
during Terms 3 and 4 on a weekly basis by either the investigators
or a trained consultant. In all cases, the consultation focussed
upon ensuring that teachers were familiar with the development
and introduction of plans and that there was consistency in
the use of the PBI approach. These consultations permitted the
trainer to: observe lessons in which the teachers used plans and,
when asked, to respond to any teacher concerns about PBI; assist
teachers to prepare more effective PBI plans; or, discuss plan use
and adaptation.194
The study clearly demonstrated increased learning gains for pupils in the
intervention group, but was it really due to process-based instruction?
It could be possible, but I would argue that it’s more likely that it was
primarily the investigator and trained consultant support that led to
positive outcomes. This passage suggests that this support likely included
194. Ashman, A. F., and Conway, R. N. F. (1993). Teaching students to use process-based learning
and problem solving strategies in mainstream classes. Learning and Instruction, 3(2), 84–85.
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at least 7 of Sims and colleagues’ 14 active ingredients (aka mechanisms)
being present in this process-based learning study, as illustrated below:
Active ingredient, as listed in
Sims et al. (2021)
Evidence of this mechanism’s presence in the process-based
learning study
Revisit prior learning
‘Consistency in the application of the model was monitored during
Terms 3 and 4’
Practical social support
‘respond to any teacher concerns’
Modelling
‘consultation focused upon ensuring that teachers were familiar with
the development and introduction of plans’
Prompts/cues
‘Consistency in the application of the model was monitored during
Terms 3 and 4 on a weekly basis’
Action planning
‘assist teachers to prepare more effective PBI plans’
Context-specific repetition
(occurred in lessons where teachers implemented the plans and were
observed)
This is something that you will often see when you read for detail. Often it
is less about the content of the instructional program and more about the
support offered to teachers that may be generating the effect. This study
was entitled, ‘Teaching students to use process-based learning and problem
solving strategies in mainstream classes’. It could perhaps better be titled,
‘Providing teachers with weekly support through revisiting prior learning,
modelling, action planning, and context-specific repetition’.
As you read the methods of a study, check whether the control group had
a similar level of support. If they didn’t, then it may just be the support,
not the program, that led to the improved outcomes.
The mechanisms of the intervention often aren’t what they’re claimed
to be.
Check if the citation actually supports the argument
This final point on reading for detail often arises when exploring the
evidence for a particular program or instructional approach. The basic
idea is that people often make a claim about their program, and they
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provide robust research studies as evidence, but the robust studies
support the benefit of only part of their claim.
Let me illustrate this more clearly with an example taken from Daniel
Willingham’s When Can We Trust the Experts as discussed in ERRR #025.
The Dore program is a program designed to help people with autism. The
core claim of the Dore program is that targeted physical exercise supports
reading, writing, attention, and focus of children with autism. However,
this claim is based upon a chain of reasoning that goes something like
the following:
1. The cerebellum (‘little brain’ located at the back of the brain) plays
a role in autism
2. Thus, autism can be addressed by improving the function of the
cerebellum
3. The cerebellum plays a role in balance and skill acquisition
4. Thus, physical exercise will improve the functioning of the
cerebellum
5. Thus, targeted physical exercise supports reading, writing, attention,
and focus of children with autism ← Core claim
Willingham writes that supporters of the Dore program provide plenty
of evidence to support claims: 1 (the cerebellum plays a role in autism),
3. (the cerebellum plays a role in balance and skills acquisition), and
4. (physical exercise will improve cerebellum functioning), and that
it’s scientifically established that these claims are factual. However, no
studies are provided to support the conclusion that is drawn from these
facts, the core claim that targeted physical exercise supports reading,
writing, attention, and focus of children with autism.
If a particular program claims to be research-based, and cites a study, it can
often be telling to even just browse the titles of these studies. It should be
evident quite quickly whether these studies directly support the program,
or whether they just support something that’s tangentially related to the
program. It’s particularly helpful when an actual program has been evaluated
(by an independent evaluator), and across a large scale. A good example
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of this is the evaluation of Siobhán Leahy and Dylan Wiliam’s Embedded
Formative Assessment Professional Development Pack, which was evaluated
as a complete program by the Education Endowment Foundation.195
READ WITH AN OPEN MIND
In addition to maintaining perspective by looking for mechanisms,
working out who did a particular piece of research, as well as reading for
detail by interrogating measurement design and asking if the claimed
mechanisms behind an effect are the real ones, it’s also crucial that we
read with an open mind.
Reading with an open mind means reading for understanding, not for
justification, recognising that all education research is biased, and actively
seeking work that expands our own horizons.
Read for understanding, not for justification
Michael Pershan, who I spoke to in ERRR #051, puts this best. The
following excerpt comes from his excellent book, Teaching Math with
Examples:
I read a lot of research on education, at least for a classroom
teacher. I usually have a paper or two printed out in my
backpack that I’m looking forward to reading and thinking about.
Occasionally, a teacher friend who knows about this habit will
name some educational practice and ask me whether there’s
research for it. I never know exactly what to say. Often it turns
out they’re looking for research to help settle a disagreement with
parents or school administration. They want evidence that props
up their case – that’s a use of research I don’t really believe in.196
Pershan’s point here is clear. Searching for evidence to justify your point
isn’t a use of research that he supports. But why not? Surely this is a
natural thing to do?
195. https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.u k /projects-and-eva luation/projects/
embedding-formative-assessment.
196. Pershan, M. (2021). Teaching Math with Examples.
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To answer this question, we can remind ourselves of the E. D. Hirsch
quote with which we began this chapter, ‘It is almost impossible to make
educational policy that is not based on research’. If we do go in search of
it, it’s likely we’ll find something to at least partially support most things
that we’d want to argue for in education. And the problem with this is
that it decreases the chances of us getting to the truth.
The importance of reading for understanding, not for justification, was
really brought home to me when I learnt about myside bias. Myside bias is
the tendency of an individual to ‘evaluate, generate, and test evidence in a
manner which is biased towards [their] prior attitudes and opinions’.197 Said
another way, myside bias makes you less objective when evaluating evidence.
One study that illustrates this particularly powerfully is by Vladimíra
Čavojová and colleagues198 from the Centre of Social and Psychological
Sciences. Within it, the researchers provided participants with a series of
logical syllogisms – statements that were logically valid or invalid – and
asked them to evaluate them.
A famous example of a valid syllogism is as follows:
All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Conversely, this syllogism is invalid:
Socrates is a man.
Socrates is mortal.
Therefore, all men are mortal.
Čavojová and colleagues’ syllogisms were on the topic of abortion, and
participants were categorised into those who were ‘pro-choice’ and those
who were ‘pro-life’. What they found was that when a syllogism sounded
like it supported an individual’s prior beliefs, they were more likely to
classify it as logically valid, even when it wasn’t.
197. Čavojová, V., Šrol, J., and Adamus, M. (2018). My point is valid, yours is not: Myside bias in
reasoning about abortion. Journal of Cognitive Psychology 30(7), 656–669, p. 1.
198. Čavojová, V. et al.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
For example, pro-life participants were more likely to classify the
following pro-life sounding syllogism as valid, even though it is actually
invalid:
All foetuses are human beings.
Some human beings should be protected.
Therefore, some of those who should be protected are foetuses.
(This has nothing to do with the participants’ abilities to evaluate
syllogisms in general, as this was tested through bias-neutral syllogisms
about dogs.)
For me, there is one key point that comes out of Čavojová’s work. When
we approach a situation with strong beliefs in one direction or another,
we become worse at evaluating the logic and seeking the truth within an
argument. To give ourselves the best chance of reading and evaluating
education research with rigour, we must read for understanding. This is
essentially the same idea that we met in Chapter 5 on Purpose. We must
be knowledge-driven rather than belief-driven (p. 173). Čavojová and the
research on myside bias adds another level to this distinction. Having a
strongly held belief can actually make us objectively worse at evaluating
the logic of an argument.
All education research is biased
Earlier in the chapter, we explored the idea of measurement design, the
fact that the metrics we use to measure the outcome of an intervention
can substantially influence how impactful that intervention appears to be.
But the difference between teacher- or experimenter-designed tests and
standardised tests pales in comparison to another key measurement
design issue in education: for the most part, we only ever focus upon
academic outcomes. This means that we, as educators, only have limited
information about the full effects of the programs and practices that we
choose to implement in the classroom.
As an example, imagine a new school is starting and an incoming head
of mathematics is trying to determine which approach to mathematics
instruction her department should take. She may conclude from a review
of the evidence that a regime of highly structured instruction, such as that
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advocated for by Sammy Kempner in ERRR #056, is most likely to lead
to increased student outcomes.
This may very well be true, but it only paints part of the picture, because
it ignores ‘side effects’. The idea of side effects in education, popularised
by ERRR guest and author Yong Zhao, captures the idea that whenever
we take action in the world, we generate secondary effects that may not
have been anticipated or intended.
Towards the end of our interview, Sammy Kempner, an expert in highly
structured instruction, hinted at what some of the side effects of highly
structured instruction may be:
[If you can develop] independently motivated students, who teach
themselves… that’s it, you’ve succeeded, because it’s not just in
your lessons, it’s not just in your subject, but long-term in life,
they’re going to be independent… Arguably, a lot of the things
that we do in our school do the opposite [to creating learner
independence]. Maybe they make kids more reliant… maybe
by creating these amazing… resources that are so beautifully
engineered to match up with how we teach, maybe students never
learn what it means to have to figure things out for themselves
and [they instead] become reliant. And then when we’re not there
anymore, when they leave school, when they go to university,
when they get jobs or whatever, they end up drowning because
they, they’ve never had to figure it out.199
In sum, a side effect of teaching in highly structured ways could be that
learner independence is reduced.
I don’t include this quote to take away from the incredible work that
Sammy and his colleagues are doing to raise the achievement levels
of all pupils, and especially disadvantaged pupils, in their school.
Sammy’s teaching and their integrated approach to group work are truly
phenomenal and inspiring. Instead, I do it simply to point out that what
we measure in education simply doesn’t give us the information we need
199. ERR #056. Sammy Kempner on Teaching with Group Work, Accountability, and Chants
(2:15).
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
to make a fully informed decision about the instructional practices that
we use.
If it is true that highly structured instruction increases student reliance,
and if we had clear information regarding to what extent this is the
case, we could make an informed decision that accurately reflects this
trade-off. Instead, the vast majority of education research, and what we
report on at the class, school, national, and international level, is academic
achievement. We miss the side effects, and this systematically biases our
decision-making.
Part of this is because it’s much harder to measure non-academic outcomes.
How do we measure how happy students are? How do we determine how
confident they are, or whether they’re independent learners? Thus, we
default towards tracking things that are easier because, well, it’s easier!
Another key challenge is that often changes to non-academic outcomes,
such as dispositions and beliefs, occur over longer time scales. We can run
an experiment in an afternoon to check whether one way of structuring
information leads to higher performance than another, but this leaves us
blind to the impacts of that method of instruction on students’ beliefs and
dispositions over the longer term.
One area in which this type of research is particularly prevalent is the
subject of my first book, Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory (CLT). The
vast majority of CLT experiments are conducted with small groups of
students, over short time scales. Whilst utilising the recommendations of
Cognitive Load Theory clearly makes it easier for students to understand
instruction in the moment, what might be the longer-term impacts of
making instruction easier?
I reiterate, the point of this section isn’t to argue against highly structured
instruction. It’s simply to point out that education research is biased.
It doesn’t fully capture side effects, and this means that we don’t have
all the information required to make informed decisions. I would
love it if there was more research done into the impact of different
instructional approaches on these non-academic outcomes (relationships,
self-awareness, independence, confidence, optimism, critical thinking,
morality, etc.). We could then add this to what we already know about
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the power of explicit instruction and a knowledge-rich curriculum to
students’ long-term academic success and social participation. And this
would empower us to make better decisions.
Find smart people whom you disagree with and read their work
The final question usually asked of guests on the ERRR podcast is: ‘Is there
anything you’d like listeners to go away today and do?’ One of my favourite
answers to this question came from Harry Fletcher-Wood in ERRR #057,
‘Find smart people who you disagree with and read their work.’
To continue to learn, grow, and push ourselves within education, we need to
actively seek out contrasting opinions to help us to identify our own blind
spots and biases. There are many, many people in the world working on the
topics of teaching, learning, and education more broadly, many of whom
come from very different backgrounds, knowledge bases, and assumptions.
If we keep reading and researching in silos, there’s a very big risk that we’ll
miss a lot of fantastic opportunities for further development.
Dylan Wiliam put this another way. Test the measure of a researcher by
asking them, ‘What are two or more research results that you believe and
trust but that you do not like?’ To this, Dylan added:200
And in case you ask, my two are the importance of IQ for
educational achievement and, even more depressingly, it’s
heritability. And the second is Cognitive Load Theory. I wish
that problem-solving was the best way to teach problem-solving.201
If there isn’t a research finding that you believe and trust but do not like,
Harry Fletcher-Wood, Dylan Wiliam, and I all invite you to find some
smart people whom you disagree with and read their work, with a truly
open mind!
200.A question originally from the philosopher Ian Ayres.
201. ERRR #032. John Larmer on Project Based Learning (2:01:48).
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SUMMARY
As E. D. Hirsch tells us, it’s possible to find supporting education research
for almost any point of view in education. Thus, it can help for us to
maintain perspective, read for detail, and read with an open mind when
exploring education research.
To maintain perspective, we must first start with an understanding of
the purpose of our reading. We can’t answer ‘What works?’ without first
considering, ‘For what purpose?’ Next, true understanding of education
research means understanding mechanisms, understanding the ‘active
ingredients’ in an educational intervention, and understanding the
specific role that each ingredient plays in producing the final outcome.
Without understanding mechanisms, we’re likely to adapt education
findings in ways that lead to ‘lethal mutations’.
It’s also helpful to ask, ‘Who did this research?’ By lateral reading,
you may be able to quickly gain insight into the motives, beliefs, and
sometimes even the financial backers of a particular research ‘finding’.
This can be one of the most valuable forms of perspective you can have.
Reading for detail means looking a little more closely into the research
itself. We begin this process by realising that comparing effect sizes across
studies often doesn’t make sense. This is because there are ‘moderators’ that
have nothing to do with the intervention itself but which influence effect
sizes. Measurement design means that proximal (targeted) assessments,
like those designed by researchers, systematically show larger effect sizes.
On the other hand, distal (more general) assessments, like standardised
tests, lead to smaller effect sizes. Participant age is also a major factor, and
larger effect sizes are usually seen with younger students.
Further, the mechanisms of a study often aren’t what they’re claimed to be.
In particular, watch out for studies in which the intervention group was
given a higher level of support (modelling, check-ins, feedback, etc.) than
the control group. This alone can lead to increased educational outcomes.
Finally, read with an open mind. Given that research can be found
to support almost any argument, it’s important that we read for
understanding, not for justification. This is compounded by the fact
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that when we do read for justification, we become worse at evaluating
arguments (myside bias)!
Secondly, it’s important for us to recognise that all education research is
biased. We simply don’t have all the information that we need about side
effects from studies. This is because we tend to measure what’s easier to
measure, and what’s observable over shorter time scales, such as academic
outcomes, which leads to the neglect of longer-term but equally important
factors such as resilience, confidence, collaboration skills, and other
so-called ‘soft’ skills.
Finally, for us to continue to push our understanding, and our teacher
toolboxes, it’s crucial for us to search out the work of smart people whom
we disagree with, and read it! The greater the diversity of ideas and
practices that we expose ourselves to, the more tools we’ll have to draw on
to support our students, and further teaching and learning more broadly.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Maintain Perspective
Reading and Evaluating
Education Research
Read for Detail
Read with an Open Mind
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REAdIng And EvALuATIng EduCATIOn RESEARCH
We can only suggest ‘what works’ once we
specify ‘for what purpose?’
Search for mechanisms, the ‘why’ and ‘how’,
behind an outcome
Ask, ‘Who did this research?’
Effect sizes are influenced by
measurement design
In most cases, comparing effect sizes doesn’t make sense
And participant age
The mechanisms of the intervention often aren’t
what they’re claimed to be
And many more factors
Check if the citation actually supports the argument
Read for understanding, not for justification
All education research is biased
Find smart people who you disagree with and
read their work
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CLOSING WORDS
This book set out to share the key insights from the generous and expert
guests of the ERRR over its first five years on the air. It is my hope
that you’ve found it packed full of practical tools, actionable steps, and
stimulating ideas. Even more so, I hope you’re feeling more confident and
motivated to enter the classroom, achieve your goals, and support your
students than ever before!
It was a huge challenge to condense the more than 3 million words spoken
on the ERRR podcast over its first 5 years into less than 2% of that, at just
over 60,000 words, for this book. As a result, much was necessarily left
out that I would have loved to expand upon more.
From all the possible ideas and concepts that the podcast could have
warranted chapters on, I chose the final set of ideas contained within this
book for two main reasons: firstly, because they are ones that I thought
would be fantastically practical and actionable for practising teachers
in the classroom; secondly, because I have experimented with each of
them to a degree that I felt I was confident enough to do justice to their
summarisation, and communication.
There are many other ideas that I’ve encountered through guests of the
ERRR podcast that I think hold immense promise for both educators
and students, but that I don’t feel like I’ve quite ‘nailed’ at the level of
personal knowledge and practice as yet, and therefore will have to wait
until a follow-up version of this book, or another book, for explication! I’ll
outline some of these crucial ideas below, each of which you can explore
by returning to the original podcasts (a list of all episodes is included in
the next few pages).
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
I would have loved to have been able to dedicate a chapter or two to
literacy instruction, and the fantastic insights of Judy Hochman and
Natalie Wexler through their Writing Revolution model (ERRR #029),
Pamela Snow’s work on phonics (#005),202 and Margaret McKeown’s
ground-breaking work with Questioning the Author (#047).
In a subsequent book, I’d also like to widen the scope of the chapters
dedicated to instruction. Beyond explicit instruction, I’d like to further
detail how projects can form an integral part of students’ sensemaking, as exemplified through the work of Janet Kolodner (#033) and
others. Explicit instruction is only part of the diversity of instructional
approaches that we as teachers have at our disposal.
James Mannion and Kate McAllister on building a Learning Skills
Curriculum (#043 and #007) have been a massive inspiration to me, as
well as Guy Claxton’s writings on building Learning Power (#050), and
Neil Mercer on Interthinking (#030). It is my firm belief that, within
the current context of education and the world more broadly, building
learning skills, student independence, and self-regulated learners is the
most important topic to be pushing the boundaries of in education at
present. As a result, self-regulated learning is the central topic of my
current PhD, so I hope to have plenty to write on this topic in the near
future!
I thoroughly enjoyed my discussion with Andy Matuschak and George
Zonnios on Spaced Repetition Software (#035). Building on this, efficient
personal learning (especially of foreign languages) is an area that I’m
spending significant time exploring at present, and have written about in
some detail already.203 I would highly recommend that anyone interested
in accelerating their own personal learning explores the work of both
Andy and George further, and I’m actively working on supporting
students to learn some of these tools and techniques at present also.
Finally, I have found Peter Gray’s (#038) and Naomi Fisher’s (#059) work
on the importance of learner self-direction to be both incredibly inspiring
202.Also see The SOLAR (The Science of Language and Reading) Lab that Pamela and colleagues
have been pioneering.
203. See www.breakthrulanguages.com, at which I’m sharing my own learnings from my language
learning projects.
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CLOSIng wORdS
and challenging. I haven’t as yet worked out how to square all of their
ideas with those of other guests, or with my own personal experience
of education and schooling, but I feel like there is significant untapped
potential in our young people, and that both Peter and Naomi explain
this brilliantly and have done a fantastic job of challenging the status quo,
as well as sharing stories of practical alternatives, that warrant further
investigation.
The first five years of the ERRR have been a whirlwind. I’ve learnt more
than I could have ever imagined, and had much more fun than I’d
anticipated too. Surprisingly, and wonderfully, many of the podcast’s
guests have also since become friends, colleagues, and even a PhD
supervisor! I’m excited by the continuing opportunity to explore more
and more educational ideas into the future, and am constantly amazed
by the seemingly never-ending supply of incredible ideas ripe for inquiry
in education.
I thank you for your interest in the podcast and this book, and I hope
that both of these resources have made at least some small contribution
for your passion and interest in education, and practically added to your
teaching and learning toolbox.
Here’s to another five years and, until next time, keep learning!
281
APPENDIX 1
MICHAEL PERSHAN’S WORKED EXAMPLE ROUTINE
This is only a brief summary of Pershan’s worked example routine,
drawn from my discussion with him in ERRR #051. I really do suggest
you get Michael’s book, Teaching Math With Examples, which provides
much more background, and a much more thorough overview of his
approach. Further, this condensed summary will likely be hard to fully
understand without listening to the podcast episode, www.ollielovell.com/
errr/michaelpershan. For those who have enjoyed the episode, this aims
to be a concise and actionable summary.
When to use this routine?
• Especially at the start of a unit, when students are coming to grips
with the theory
The routine
• 1. Warm up questions
• Do
• Warm up is a question that activates relevant skills (e.g.,
squaring and square rooting if we’re doing pythag.)
• The idea here is notice and remember. Notice key
features of the worked example to come, and remember
processes that have been seen before.
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
• 2. Students see and read the I Do question (not the solution yet)
• Say (introduce)
• Recently we’ve been… today we’re going to learn how to…
• Say (optional but encouraged)
• ‘In your head, you may like to think whether or not you have
an approach to this problem.’
• ‘What’s your guess as to the answer? Is it more or less than
360 degrees?’
• 3. Students analyse the I Do solution independently (don’t include
self-explanation prompts yet)
• Design suggestions
• Include as few steps of working as possible (concise) whilst
still retaining enough that students can extract all of the
mathematics.
• Say
• ‘Explain each step of this solution to yourself as best you
can.’
• ‘Put your thumb up when you’re finished.’
• Look out for
• Students’ eyes. They should be firmly focussed on analysing
the question.
• Students’ thumbs, to move on to partner work.
• 4. Students analyze the I Do solution with a partner (don’t include
self-explanation prompts yet)
• Say
• “Turn to your partner and take turns explaining each step
of the solution until you both understand it all.”
• “Window to wall first, you have 40 seconds”, “Wall to
window now, 40 seconds.”
• 5. Students answer the self-explanation prompts with their partners
• Do
• Show up self-explanation prompts.
• Walk around and listen to student responses to decide whom
to call on in the next step.
• Hand out practice sheets to students whilst they are talking
(place face down so that they don’t distract students).
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AppEndIx 1
• Design suggestions/prompt examples
• Prompts should either direct students’ attention, or prompt
them towards a generalisation.
• See below for prompt guidance*
• Say
• ‘Now work together to answer these prompts in relation to
the question.’
• 6. Teacher calls on students to share answers
• Do
• Have students share answers to establish an understanding
of the example.
• 7. Independent practice
• Design suggestions
• Sheets include the original problem with prompts, plus a few
novel problems for practice.
• 8. Share answers
• Do
• As students work, post answers on the board, but do so
lagging the students a bit so they try each problem before its
answer appears.
*Prompt guidance: Prompts can usefully take the form of: 1. Question, 2.
Fill-in-the-blank, 3. Menu (Multi-choice).
• Michael:
• “What did [student name] do as his first step?”
• “Would it have been OK to write ____________? Why or why
not?”
• “Why did [student name] combine ______________ and
____________?”
• “Would [student name] have gotten the same answer if they
______________ first?”
• “Explain why ____________ would have been an unreasonable
answer.”
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
• Ollie:
• In the second line of working, the student did… What was the
point of that?
• How might this student known that they needed to...?
• What principle was used here?
• How are ... and ... similar?
• What is the difference between ... and ...?
• How does ... tie in with ... that we learned before?
• What will happen next?
• What would happen if...?
• Other options (from Michael)
• Provide fill-in-the-blank self-explanation prompts.
• Provide more than one explanation and ask students to discuss
which is better (this is good if you already know the likely
misconception!).
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APPENDIX 2
EFFECT SIZES
An effect size (D) is normally calculated as follows:
Effect Size =
intervention group average score - control group average score
pooled standard deviation
The intervention group average score is the result achieved by the
intervention group at the end of the intervention. The control group
average score is that same measure but the control group.
Standard deviation is just a measure of the ‘spread’, or ‘variation’, of data.
For example, if class 7A has students that range in height from 1.2 to 1.6
m, with students normally distributed between those two heights, whilst
class 7B has students from 1.3 to 1.5 m, the ‘spread’ and ‘variation’ of
student heights in 7A will be greater than in 7B, therefore the standard
deviation of student heights in 7A will also be greater than that of 7B.
The ‘pooled’ part refers to the fact that the standard deviation used in the
effect size formula is calculated by considering the spread of results within
both the control group, and the intervention group combined.
What this formula tells us is that there are two main ways to increase
an effect size. The first, most obvious way is to increase the difference
between the results obtained by the intervention group, and the results
obtained by the control group. If, for example, the intervention group’s
average score was 60%, and the control group’s was 40%, with a pooled
standard deviation of 50%, this would lead to an effect size of:
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
Effect Size =
0.6 – 0.4
= 0.4
0.5
If the intervention was more effective and the intervention group’s
average score was 80% instead of 60%, this would increase the difference
between both groups. the gap would grow from 60%-40% to 80%-40%,
and the effect size would also grow and now become,
Effect Size =
0.8 – 0.4
= 0.8
0.5
The difference between intervention and control could also be achieved
by, rather than particularly improving the results of the intervention
group, instead, somehow handicapping the results of the control group.
If the intervention group scored 60% on average, and the control group
only scored 20%, the effect size of 0.8 would also be achieved.
Effect Size =
0.6 – 0.2
= 0.8
0.5
The final way to increase the effect size of a study, in numerical terms, is
by reducing the variation of the data, the standard deviation. Yong Zhao
makes this point in his book What Works May Hurt, suggesting that if
an intervention manages to not only lift results, but to focus on a more
homogenous sample, this can boost the effect size.
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APPENDIX 3
THE ERRR PODCAST: LIST OF EPISODES FROM THE FIRST FIVE YEARS
ERRR #001. Jan Owen and The New Basics
ERRR #002. Stephen Dinham and The Worst of Both Worlds
ERRR #003. Tom Bennett and The School Research Lead
ERRR #004. Paul Weldon, Teacher Supply and Demand, and Out of Field
Teaching
ERRR #005. Pamela Snow, Phonics + How can we get the real story from
students?
ERRR #006. Jennifer Stephenson and Instructional Decision Making of
Teacher Education Students
ERRR #007. James Mannion and Learning to Learn
ERRR #008. Tom Brunzell, Trauma Informed Positive Education and
US/Aus Education
ERRR #009. Andrew Martin, Load Reduction Instruction, Motivation
and Engagement
ERRR #010. Catherine Scott on Meta-memory and More
ERRR #011. Sharon Chen on International Comparisons of Inquiry
Teaching
ERRR #012. Linda Graham and the Purpose of School
ERRR #013. Russell Bishop and the Centrality of Relationships
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
ERRR #014. Jennifer Gore on Quality Teaching Rounds and Quant vs
Qual Research
ERRR #015, Imaginative Education with Kieran Egan, Gillian Judson,
Christa Rawlings, and Clayton Stephens
ERRR #016. Josh Cuevas on learning styles, dual coding, and independent
silent reading
ERRR #017. Adrian Simpson critiquing the meta-analysis
ERRR #018. John Hattie defending the meta-analysis
ERRR #019. Yael Perry on Adolescent Anxiety and Depression
ERRR #020a. Craig Barton on Knowledge vs Skills, Explicit Instruction,
and Diagnostic Questions
ERRR #020b. Craig Barton on mistakes vs misconceptions, the testing
effect, and school change
ERRR #021. Jay McTighe on Understanding by Design
ERRR #022. Marnee Shay on Indigenous Education, Education Research,
and Flexischools
ERRR #023. Dylan Wiliam on Leadership for Teacher Learning
ERRR #024. Lorraine Hammond on Direct Instruction and Instructional
Coaching
ERRR #025. Daniel Willingham on When We Can Trust the Experts
ERRR #026. Janet Carlson on PCK and Core Practices
ERRR #027. Daisy Christodoulou on Getting Assessment Right and
Comparative Judgement
ERRR #028. Viviane Robinson on Reducing Change to Increase
Improvement
ERRR #029. Judith Hochman on How to Teach Students to Write
ERRR #030. Neil Mercer on Interthinking and Group Work
ERRR #031. Bill Rogers on Behaviour Management
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AppEndIx 3
ERRR #032. John Larmer on Project Based Learning
ERRR #033. Janet Kolodner on Project Based Inquiry Science
ERRR #034. Natalie Wexler on The Knowledge Gap
ERRR #035. Andy Matuschak and George Zonnios on Spaced Repetition
Software
ERRR #036. Yong Zhao on Side Effects in Education
ERRR #037. John Hollingsworth on Explicit Direct Instruction
ERRR #038. Peter Gray on the Freedom to Learn
ERRR #039. Laurel Downey on Teaching Children with Trauma
ERRR #040. Online Learning Special (Introduction to the 7 chapters)
ERRR #041. Aaron Peeters on Why students don’t ask for help when they
need it
ERRR #042. Oliver Caviglioli on Information Design
ERRR #043. James Mannion and Kate McAllister on the Learning Skills
Curriculum
ERRR #044. Alexander Renkl on Self-explanation
ERRR #045. Tom Sherrington on ‘The Most Important Thing’
ERRR #046. Tom Bennett on Behaviour Management
ERRR #047. Margaret McKeown on Questioning the Author (Reading
Comprehension)
ERRR #048. Martin Robinson on the Trivium (curriculum)
ERRR #049. Doug Lemov on Teaching Like a Champion
ERRR #050. Guy Claxton on the Learning Power Approach
ERRR #051. Michael Pershan on Worked Examples
ERRR #052. Jim Knight on The Impact Cycle (Instructional Coaching)
ERRR #053. James Handscombe on Assemblies and Ethos
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TOOLS FOR TEACHERS
ERRR #054. Peps McCrea on Motivating Students
ERRR #055. Rachel Macfarlane on Knowledge, Learning Power, and
Character
ERRR #056. Sammy Kempner on Teaching with Group Work,
Accountability, and Chants
ERRR #057. Harry Fletcher-Wood on Habits of Success
ERRR #058. Sam Sims on What Makes Effective Professional Learning
ERRR #059. Naomi Fisher on Self-directed Education
ERRR #060. Anita Archer on Explicit Instruction
292
APPENDIX 4
SUPPORTERS OF THE ERRR PODCAST
The following people and organisations have played an enormous role in
sustaining the ERRR podcast over its first five years. Knowing that there
are organisations and individuals who value the podcast enough to make
a monthly donation to keep the show going is a huge motivation for me. I
extend the warmest gratitude to the 6 organisations and 214 people listed
here, as well as those who still support the podcast but felt that they didn’t
need to be acknowledged in this book. Your contribution to sharing this
important knowledge around the world is enormous. Thank you.
These people support the podcast through Patreon at: www.patreon.com/errr
INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORTERS
Bentleigh West Primary School
Catholic Education Archdiocese of Canberra & Goulburn
Genazzano FCJ College
John Catt Educational
Northern Territory Department of Education
St Peter’s College, Adelaide
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INDIVIDUAL SUPPORTERS
@sipatrickbio
Abbi Browning
Abi Parsons
Adam Hand
Adele Maughan
Alessio Conte
Alex Powley
Amanda Williamson
Andrea Baumgartner
Andrew Fewster
Andrew Mercer
Andrew Self
Andy Corner
Angela Kotsiras
Anthony Chau
Anthony Kingma
Anthony Sibillin
Antonia
Fiksdalstrand
Ashlee deWetCowland
Ashley Keith Pratt
Aurora Frattali
Austin Otto
Austin Volz
Bec Doenau
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