Champion Briefs
March 2023
Public Forum Brief
Resolved: The Republic of
India should sign the Artemis
Accords.
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The Evidence Standard
March 2023
The Evidence Standard
Speech and Debate provides a meaningful and educational experience to all who are involved.
We, as educators in the community, believe that it is our responsibility to provide resources
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These seven statements, while simple, represent the complex notion of what it means to
advance students’ understanding of the world around them, as is the purpose of educators.
Champion Briefs
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Letter from the Editor
March 2023
Letter from the Editor
The March Public Forum topic, “Resolved, the Republic of India should sign the Artemis
Accords,” has me extremely excited. I elaborate on this a bit more in my topic analysis, but
space exploration and research has always been one of my favorite topics to debate, and one of
my personal favorite topics (October of 2011) was on space exploration as well. This resolution
promises to be a fun one for debaters to research, not only because of the subject matter, but
also because it intersects with tons of other possible impacts, ranging from economic to social
to geopolitical. Overall, the Artemis Accords did not grab the headlines back in 2020, but they
represented a huge shift in international cooperation in outer space, and India signing the
accords would be a similarly big step forward or backward, depending on your interpretation.
The broad categories of argumentation that I can see on this topic can be broken down
like this: first, there are the general benefits of space exploration and research. Each team will
try to argue that the Artemis Accords either help or hurt India’s pursuit of knowledge in space,
partly because the impacts are so large. Second, there are the geopolitical concerns that come
with any sort of international agreement, but especially an agreement India is signing against
the wishes of the superpowers in its metaphorical backyard. There are obviously other types of
arguments that can be made on this topic, but I’d recommend all students who are competing
on this topic prepare themselves for those two in particular.
Overall, I’m jealous of those of you who are able to compete on this topic, because it’s a
unique resolution on a subject that is under-addressed in Public Forum Debate. Writing this
brief made me reminisce on some of my favorite memories preparing for tournaments in
October of my senior year, and I’m sure those of you reading this will make some of those
memories yourselves in the coming weeks. Best of luck and happy researching!
Michael Norton
Editor-in-Chief
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Table of Contents
March 2023
Table of Contents
The Evidence Standard ....................................................................................... 5
Letter from the Editor ........................................................................................ 6
Table of Contents ............................................................................................... 7
Topic Analyses ................................................................................................. 10
Topic Analysis by Jakob Urda ......................................................................................................................... 11
Topic Analysis by Michael Norton ................................................................................................................ 18
Topic Analysis by Nathan Johnston .............................................................................................................. 24
General Information ......................................................................................... 30
Pro Arguments ................................................................................................. 39
PRO: Ratification Pushes back on India-Russia ties ................................................................................ 40
PRO: Ratification Pushes back on India-China ties.................................................................................. 47
PRO: Ratification bolsters the Indian Space Research Organization ................................................ 54
PRO: Ratification strengthens international law ..................................................................................... 59
PRO: The Artemis Accords solves orbital debris ...................................................................................... 65
PRO: Signing strengthens US-India relations. ........................................................................................... 69
PRO: Signing increases space innovation. .................................................................................................. 74
PRO: Signing improves India’s economy. ................................................................................................... 79
PRO: Signing helps solve climate change. .................................................................................................. 84
PRO: Signing creates quad-cooperation between India, United States, Australia, and Japan. 91
PRO: Space Exploration Promotes Economic Growth ........................................................................... 97
PRO: Space exploration creates innovation ............................................................................................ 100
PRO: India can exercise international leadership .................................................................................. 104
PRO: Space Exploration Leads to National Security Benefits ............................................................ 108
PRO: Space exploration unifies national identity .................................................................................. 112
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Pro Responses to Con Arguments ................................................................... 116
A/2: Ratifying the Artemis Accords prevents future, better space agreements ........................ 117
A/2: Space exploration causes climate change, which threatens India severely ....................... 121
A/2: The Artemis Accords are a reversion of US policy towards Cold War era policy .............. 125
A/2: India’s ratification of the non-binding Accords will only send mixed signals to other
countries .............................................................................................................................................................. 129
A/2: Ratifying the Artemis Accords weakens existing agreements ................................................. 133
A/2: Ratification decks India’s soft power ............................................................................................... 138
A/2: Participation bolsters American commercial interests at India’s expense ......................... 143
A/2: Indian Space Exploration is best achieved without the Artemis Accords ........................... 147
A/2: Ratification poses a security risk ....................................................................................................... 151
A/2: Ratification worsens Sino-Indian relations .................................................................................... 156
A/2: The Artemis Accords are too polarizing .......................................................................................... 160
A/2: Space exploration is a waste of money ........................................................................................... 163
A/2: International Agreements Lack Enforcement ............................................................................... 166
A/2: The Artemis Accords are ineffective ................................................................................................ 169
A/2: Ratification is Unnecessary.................................................................................................................. 172
Con Arguments .............................................................................................. 175
CON: Ratifying the Artemis Accords prevents future, better space agreements....................... 176
CON: Space exploration causes climate change, which threatens India severely ..................... 181
CON: The Artemis Accords are a reversion of US policy towards Cold War era policy ............ 186
CON: India’s ratification of the non-binding Accords will only send mixed signals to other
countries .............................................................................................................................................................. 191
CON: Ratifying the Artemis Accords weakens existing agreements ............................................... 196
CON: Ratification decks India’s soft power ............................................................................................. 201
CON: Participation bolsters American commercial interests at India’s expense ....................... 208
CON Indian Space Exploration is best achieved without the Artemis Accords ........................... 214
CON: Ratification poses a security risk...................................................................................................... 221
CON: Ratification worsens Sino-Indian relations................................................................................... 227
CON: The Artemis Accords are too polarizing ........................................................................................ 233
CON: Space exploration is a waste of money ......................................................................................... 237
CON: International Agreements Lack Enforcement ............................................................................. 241
CON: The Artemis Accords are ineffective .............................................................................................. 245
CON: Ratification is Unnecessary ................................................................................................................ 249
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Con Responses to Pro Arguments ................................................................... 252
A/2: Ratification Pushes back on India-Russia ties ............................................................................... 253
A/2: Ratification Pushes back on India-China ties ................................................................................. 256
A/2: Ratification bolsters the Indian Space Research Organization................................................ 260
A/2: Ratification strengthens international law .................................................................................... 264
A/2: The Artemis Accords solves lunar debris ........................................................................................ 268
A/2: Signing strengthens US-India relations. .......................................................................................... 272
A/2: Signing increases space innovation. ................................................................................................. 275
A/2: Signing improves India’s economy. .................................................................................................. 278
A/2: Signing helps solve climate change. ................................................................................................. 280
A/2: Signing creates quad-cooperation between India, United States, Australia, and
Japan…….. ............................................................................................................................................................ 283
A/2: Space Exploration Promotes Economic Growth .......................................................................... 287
A/2: Space exploration creates innovation ............................................................................................. 290
A/2: India can exercise international leadership ................................................................................... 293
A/2: Space Exploration Leads to National Security Benefits ............................................................. 296
A/2: Space exploration unifies national identity ................................................................................... 299
A/2: Right-to-work decreases training programs ...................................................................242
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Champion Briefs
March 2023
Public Forum Brief
Topic Analyses
Topic Analysis by Jakob Urda
March 2023
Topic Analysis by Jakob Urda
Resolved: The Republic of India should sign the Artemis Accords.
Introduction
The March topic implicates science, economics and international cooperation. The
Artemis Accords represent an important attempt at the regularization of peaceful space
exploration. Like many fields of international cooperation and competition, space exploration
lacks important common understandings and frameworks that allow for the predictability. The
Artemis Accords govern important aspects of space exploration such as escalation management
and resource extraction.
India, as the world’s largest democracy, will play a crucial role in the development of
space exploration. India has grown at a breakneck pace and is an important player in many
international arenas like military competition and global supply chains. India is one of the
fastest-growing space programs in the world and has substantially increased its number of
successful launches in recent years. It is also seen as a global leader on issues such as human
rights and equitable economic development.
The topic can be reasonably interpreted as asking about whether ratification is in the
best interest of India, or whether India’s ratification is in the best interest of the world. As such,
debaters will need to unpack various modes of analysis to understand whether the debate from
both an India-centric perspective as well as a broader global standpoint. Factors to consider
include economics, geopolitics and identity. The question of whether ratification is best for
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Topic Analysis by Jakob Urda
March 2023
India and the world will require a detailed analysis of the Artemis Accords and the history of
spaceflight. This topic will reward debaters who are adept at storytelling and crafting
narratives.
Background
The Artemis Accords are a set of principles meant to establish cooperation for the use of
outer space. They were signed by the United States and eight other countries in October 2020,
a number that has grown to 23, with the goal of establishing a framework for responsible
behavior in space and promoting peace and stability in the space environment. The signatories
are participants in the Artemis Program, an international effort to return humans to the Moon.
The Artemis Accords build upon the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, which established many
basic principles for the exploration of outer space. The Artemis Accords address new challenges
in space exploration, such as the commercial exploitation of space resources and the increasing
militarization of space.
India’s space program was established in 1962, and has advanced at breakneck speed.
The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has reached mars, pioneered satellite
communication, and launched many orbital capabilities. India is growing its capabilities, and has
made moves to develop manned spaceflight operations, reusable launch vehicles, and other
advanced technologies.
India has not signed the Artemis accords. Although the ISRO has considered signing the
Artemis Accords, there have been no official actions taken to that effect. Several scholars have
attributed India’s reticense to sign the Accords to India’s historical unwillingness to align itself
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Topic Analysis by Jakob Urda
March 2023
to any of the world’s major powers. The Artemis Accords are seen as the flagship space
exploration compact for nations led by the United States, while Russia and China have their
own International Lunar Research Station program.
Strategy Considerations
Although this topic is about space exploration, the best teams will have a wide view of
how space impacts life on earth. India’s considerations in ratifying the Artemis Accords are
driven not only be the impact that ratification would have on successful space travel, but also
about international relations, economic considerations, legal and regulatory issues, and
domestic politics. The strongest debaters will realize that the debate about space exploration is
inseparable from these terrestrial considerations.
First, debaters need to think about how ratification would impact India’s relationship
with other space-faring nations. The Artemis Accords are led by the United States, so
ratification would bring India into the US-led sphere of space exploration. This has benefits,
such as working with advanced space capabilities among US-aligned countries, but it also has
drawbacks. India practices a type of international relations called non-alignment. Nonalignment is a foreign policy stance of avoiding formal affiliation with major power centers and
preserving India’s independence and cooperative spirit. For example, during the Cold War, India
avoided being drawn into either the Western or the Soviet Camp.
Proponents of nonalignment believe that India should focus on international
cooperation and use their diplomatic power to build bridges between the two major powers to
promote peace and equitable development. Many in India also believe that nonalignment is the
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Topic Analysis by Jakob Urda
March 2023
best way to preserve Indian sovereignty from the corrosive influence of great power
competition.
Opponents of nonalignment believe that nonalignment is an antiquated strategy that
hurts India’s long-term interests. Nonalignment results in limited influence because India may
lack the ability to combine its strength with a major power bloc to achieve national objectives.
This may mean that in times of crisis, nonalignment leaves India without assistance from other
countries because it is not bound by formal alliances. Critics also contend that nonalignment
can be ineffective because India’s foreign police is seen as confused or indecisive, with one foot
in the US-led camp and one foot in the non-US-led camp.
Debaters should consider how the Artemis Accords fit into India’s traditional framework
for international relations. The Artemis Accords are led by the United States and offer a viable
alternative to the space programs of rival countries like Russia and China. Outside the purely
space-flight benefits or harms of the Artemis Accords, Indian policymakers will consider how
ratification would impact India’s traditional foreign police approach of nonalignment.
Second, debaters should consider tradeoffs. If India ratifies the Artemis Accords, what
does it lose in the process? If India spends more money on space exploration, it may spend less
money on other economic priorities. For example, by committing to the Accords, India may be
sacrificing other investment opportunities or diverting resources away from other economic or
social priorities. Furthermore, by participating in the Accords, India may become dependent on
other nations for access to technology or expertise in space exploration, which could
compromise its independence and sovereignty in the long term. There is no such thing as a free
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Topic Analysis by Jakob Urda
March 2023
lunch, and large public policy investments require a delicate analysis of the trade-offs involved
with any action.
Affirmative Argumentation
Affirmative teams should start by considering the arguments about the benefits of space
travel and exploration. India, by joining the largest and most successful space-faring nations,
will stand to reap a greater share of the benefits in terms of economic growth, technological
innovation and international cooperation.
Affirmative teams can argue that joining the Artemis Accords will provide India with
access to new technology and innovation. This could happen because India can directly import
advanced space technology from other countries, such as navigation and rocketry technology.
India also stands to gain from human-capital transfers that occur when astronauts from
different countries work together and learn from one another. Debaters could point to previous
eras of space exploration to show that India would benefit just like America benefitted from the
technology it learned about during the space race during the Cold War. This could help to spur
innovation, create jobs, and drive economic growth in India.
India would gain greater understanding and trust with other countries because of
increased collaboration in space exploration. This could raise India’s diplomatic profile and
allow it to be a greater force for stability. India is trying to court more investment from the
United States in Europe and is a strategic rival to China. Participating in the Artemis Accords
could signal that India is a responsible and strategic partner, which could unlock more
investment and improve relationships with other major powers. India would be working closely
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Topic Analysis by Jakob Urda
March 2023
with other major countries, which would demonstrate the usefulness of deeper economic
collaboration and integrated supply chains.
Negative Argumentation
The main Negative arguments will likely touch on how ratifying the Artemis Accords will
limit India’s independence and sovereignty.
Negative teams will say that by ratifying the Artemis Accords, India will be bound to
follow the guidelines on space exploration set by other nations. Negative teams will say that
this will constrain India’s ability to pursue its self-interest and deal with problems innovatively
as they arise. They will point to India’s history with nonalignment to illustrate the benefits of
not signing on to great-power initiatives.
Second, negative teams will argue that India could spend the money better in other
places. Instead of allocating resources to participate in the accords and becoming a space-faring
nation, India should work on building infrastructure and economic development at home. The
investment required to participate in the Accords may be significant and India may need to
allocate significant resources to space exploration and technology development, which could
divert resources away from other economic and social priorities. There is no guarantee that the
benefits of ratifying the Accords, such as access to new technology and innovations, will
actually materialize, and India may not have the technical capabilities or infrastructure required
to fully participate and effectively utilize these benefits. To effectively make this argument,
debaters can use evidence about political instability in India, the need to develop new urban
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Topic Analysis by Jakob Urda
March 2023
infrastructure to accommodate a booming population, and the dangers of rampant income
inequality that is rising in India today.
Overall this topic will reward debaters who can engage in erudite policy analysis and
keep a wide-angle view of the issue. Good luck!
About Jakob Urda
Jakob grew up in Brooklyn, New York. He graduated from the University of Chicago with
a BA in Political Science and is currently seeking a Juris Doctorate from the Georgetown
University Law Center. Jakob debated for Stuyvesant High School where he won Blake, GMU,
Ridge, Scarsdale, Columbia, the NCFL national championship, and amassed 11 bids. He coached
the winners of the NCFL national tournament, Harvard, and Blake.
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Topic Analysis by Michael Norton
March 2023
Topic Analysis by Michael Norton
Resolved: The Republic of India should sign the Artemis Accords.
Introduction
In October of 2011, the NSDA released one of my personal favorite Public Forum
resolutions, which was: “Resolved: Private sector investment in human space exploration is
preferable to public sector investment.” In a sea of international-relations and U.S. domestic
policy topics, it was nice to address space exploration through a debate topic, because it
provided debaters with an opportunity to flex a different set of research muscles. 12 years
later, the NSDA has released another space-related topic, and I’m elated for students to have
the same opportunity to debate space exploration and space policy that I had.
India has not always been a leader in space exploration or development, but their rapid
growth, economically and in population has made them a key player in the future of outer
space. Today, India’s space program is extremely successful, with multiple successful launches
in recent years, proving that their role in space will dramatically increase as time goes by.
Despite this, India has not yet signed onto the Artemis Accords, despite pressure from the
United States in recent years.
With India’s ascent in the space industry in mind, the March resolution asks an
interesting question that is based in diplomacy, but extends into the economic and military
impacts of broader space exploration and investment. The general purpose of the Artemis
Accords was to promote peaceful research and investment in outer space, but India and others
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Topic Analysis by Michael Norton
March 2023
are left wondering whether the Accords have actually achieved their goal. Overall, this topic has
a wide range of angles to consider, and I’m excited to see how debaters approach the
resolution.
Background
The Artemis Accords are designed to be a framework for cooperation in space between
its cosignatories, which is grounded in the principles that were previously laid out in the Outer
Space Treaty of 1967. The Outer Space Treaty established several general laws of outer space,
including the prohibition of weapons in space, and the prevention of private property
ownership in space as well. Over 100 countries signed the Outer Space Treaty, including India,
which provides a historical basis for India to collaborate with the U.S. and other nations on
space exploration.
Unlike the Outer Space Treaty however, the Artemis Accords have not been as widely
accepted. While over 100 countries signed onto the Outer Space Treaty, a mere 23 countries
have signed the current version of the Artemis Accords. This is largely for two reasons: the first
reason being diplomacy. The Artemis Accords were signed by many U.S. allies, including Japan,
Canada, France, the U.K, among others. However, the Accords were not popular among
countries that have any sort of tension with the United States. This was in part because the
Artemis Accords encouraged participation in the Artemis Program, which is primarily a U.S.-led
effort to return to the moon, and the Accords were largely seen as advancing U.S. interests.
The second reason many countries haven’t signed would be the policies put forward by
the Accords. The Outer Space Treaty attempted to preempt any sort of commercial exploitation
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Topic Analysis by Michael Norton
March 2023
of space resources by outlawing private property ownership in space, which was widely seen as
a huge success of the agreement. However, the Artemis Accords walk those protections back,
allowing for greater commercial involvement in outer space, which was one of the Trump
Administration’s goals in drafting the initial document. For that reason, Russia and China have
worked together to draft their own version of the Accords, presenting a competing proposal for
India to consider.
Strategy
The first consideration that immediately comes to mind when approaching this topic
would be the stakeholders. India, as a representative democracy, should generally do what is
best for its own citizens, as its obligation to its citizens supersedes any international obligations.
However, when asking what India *should* do, that also calls into question the broader impacts
on space exploration as a whole, the success of the Artemis accords, and international politics
in general. Thus, it’s difficult to limit the debate purely to impacts that directly affect the people
of India, because there are globalized impacts to consider as well.
The second consideration that immediately comes to mind would be the alternatives.
One of my favorite strategies as a debater was to attempt to prove that a particular policy
would “trade-off” with a different more effective policy. In order to win using these sorts of
arguments, you need to demonstrate that whatever alternative you provide (be it a different
country’s space treaty, or a different policy altogether) is mutually exclusive with the Artemis
Accords. Smart debaters will try to argue that India can sign the Artemis Accords and move
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Topic Analysis by Michael Norton
March 2023
forward with alternatives, so demonstrating that they cannot do both will make your argument
a lot stronger in the eyes of your judges.
Affirmative Arguments
The first major argument that almost every team should consider would be the
argument that signing the Artemis Accords would increase investment and research in space,
which would have economic, political, and scientific benefits for all parties involved. Space
research and exploration has historically been associated with enormous leaps in technology –
key examples of breakthroughs that resulted from space investment range from fun
discoveries, like Tang and Velcro, to life-saving innovations like kidney dialysis machines. India,
as well as the countries currently involved with the Artemis Program, will all benefit from future
collaboration that would happen if India signed the Artemis Accords.
The second big argument that comes to mind when considering if India should sign the
Accords would be the diplomatic aspect. India and the United States are already allies in a
broad sense, but closer collaboration on a project like this could greatly strengthen their
alliance. Furthermore, the Artemis Accords represent a key tipping point in the relations
between India and the United States, because the United States’ greatest rivals in Russia and
China are also courting India in order to collaborate with them instead of the U.S. Exploration
and research in space does not seem like the most diplomatically important measure, but India
deciding to work with the U.S. in lieu of China and Russia would be a significant global decision.
The final big argument I would consider on the affirmative would be the ability to
resolve the externalities of space research and exploration. Collaboration in space is one of the
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Topic Analysis by Michael Norton
March 2023
only methods to ensure alignment among nations, which will ensure that no country is uniquely
able to exploit the resources of the Moon, Mars, or beyond. Today, countries are growing
concerned about the increasing amount of space debris that orbits our planet, and without
collaboration, there is virtually no means of fixing the problem. Issues like space debris are
simply too complex and costly for one nation to take on independently, which is why projects
like the Artemis Program are so important moving forward.
Negative Arguments
On the Negative, the first argument I would consider would be the effectiveness of the
Artemis Accords. As was previously mentioned, the Trump Administration pushed for a new
treaty in outer space specifically because Trump was hoping to make it easier for the U.S. to
mine the resources on the moon and within asteroids in the future. While collaboration in
space is good in theory, the Artemis Accords themselves were written from a U.S.-centric
perspective which does little to benefit India in the short or long term. Given India’s space
program is already relatively successful on its own, there is no reason for India to hamper its
own success by agreeing to another country’s limiting treaty.
The second major argument I would look into as a debater approaching the Con would
be the geopolitical argument. Signing the Artemis Accords would be seen as a significant push
towards the United States for India, which would be seen as a slap in the face to the
superpowers of India’s region, Russia and China. Choosing to collaborate with the United States
instead of Russia and China would push India further away from its neighbors, and would
escalate existing tensions between the countries.
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Topic Analysis by Michael Norton
March 2023
The final argument I would consider as a Con debater would be the argument that this
prevents future treaties that would be more effective. The Outer Space Treaty has already been
ratified by over 100 countries, and serves as the backbone of international space law in the
status quo. Tacking an additional treaty onto the Outer Space Treaty only serves to cloud the
existing precedent, and it will make it more difficult for future agreements to move forward.
This is problematic because the Artemis Accords simply do not go far enough with regards to
demilitarizing space, and ensuring that profiteers don’t strip outer space of all of its bountiful
resources. The Artemis Accords may be a smart policy in the short-term, but it can’t be signed if
it prevents a future treaty that meaningfully addresses these concerns.
Good luck!
“What's Expected If I'm Paying Union Dues?” The Complete Payroll Blog, 10 Jan. 2023,
https://blog.completepayroll.com/whats-expected-if-im-paying-union-dues.
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Topic Analysis by Nathan Johnston
March 2023
Topic Analysis by Nathan Johnston
Resolved: The Republic of India should sign the Artemis Accords.
Introduction
There was a lot to like about the September/October PF topic. The resolution was
exceptionally straightforward. It clearly defined the action of the affirmative which helped
delineate ground for the negative. Most importantly, the resolution was narrow enough that
rounds could predictable and coherent rather than exceptionally large with varying problems of
definition or scope (like November/December and January). When that topic came out, I noted
that it would be a great start to the year as it was quite novice friendly for the above reasons
with the bonus of the literature based being quite accessible. My only concern by the end of
that topic was that while all the above things are true, an unfortunate tradeoff is that those
qualities also made it hard for the High-Speed Rail resolution to sustain a two-month topic.
Luckily, the March topic embraces a lot of the positives about the HSR topic while being
a single month. The March resolution asks debaters to engage a simple question: should India
sign the Artemis Accords? In a month where many debaters may only be attending one or two
tournaments, often their state tournaments or national qualifying tournaments, having a
straightforward, small in scope resolution is ideal. This resolution is just that. There is a wealth
of information about the Outer Space Treaty, potential discussion about the Kepler Effect,
conversations about mining extraterrestrial bodies or colonization, as well as questions about
the political or legal implications on Earth of signing such a deal. Contextualizing all of this in the
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Topic Analysis by Nathan Johnston
March 2023
context of India, a country that has taken particular interest in space in recent decades, engages
a country we don’t discuss often in debate, in an arena that they are actively expanding in, and
on a question that they are actively considering. In short, this topic area is rich, interesting, and
approachable.
Background Information
Proposed in 2020, the Artemis Accords outline a basic framework for cooperation,
exploration, and use of the Moon, Mars, and various other extraterrestrial bodies. This
framework relies heavily on the Outer Space Treaty, a legally binding treaty signed through the
United Nations in 1967 which established the majority of existing space law. So far twentythree countries have signed the Accords, and they remain open for any other countries to join
should they so wish.
Resolution Analysis
I am a big fan of short resolutions. March coming in at just nine words really helps
narrow focus the debate. There are three important components of this resolution.
First, “The Republic of India.” This part is pretty straightforward. What should India
relative to the Artemis Accords. This is a debate that’s been going on for the last year or so and
is really starting to pick up steam. You will certainly be able to find plenty of literature on India,
their space program, and the relative implications of the Artemis Accords for them.
Second, “sign.” Notice that the resolution was changed from “ratify,” which are legally
binding documents, to “sign,” which are non-legally binding documents. For this resolution the
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Topic Analysis by Nathan Johnston
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affirmative has to generate their impacts from signing the document, and then presumably
acting on the framework/utilizing it to advance their interests. The affirmative can also argue
that simply signing creates some type of perceptual benefit for them in terms of international
affairs. Either way, the verb in the resolution is “sign” so the debate should center on what
being a signatory accomplishes.
Third, “Artemis Accords.” This has been introduced in the background portion of this
topic analysis. But yes, the debate is centered around India signing the Artemis Accords. I think
the negative needs to be quite careful to make sure that they don’t fall into the counterplan
trap on this resolution. Simply talking about potential alternatives to the Artemis Accords is not
sufficient to negate. Instead, they need to assert how signing the Accords would preclude those
alternatives. Regardless, at least the object of the resolution is clear.
Affirmative Argumentation
There are quite a few affirmative arguments worth contemplation on this topic. First,
discussions of how the Artemis Accords can help India progress their goals in space. India is
particularly reliant on the private space program currently. The Artemis Accords are quite
friendly toward this type of space exploration and could help India legitimize their private
sector. Additionally, the Indian government is increasingly increasing spending on their space
program. Joining a framework of other countries who are doing the same can help increase
cooperation and effectiveness for all involved parties.
The impact stories related to space are abundance. For exploration alone the affirmative
can argue that space exploration creates economic growth, increases innovation, and helps
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international relations. In outer space itself, the affirmative can argue that this type of
agreement can’t solve issues related space colonization, resource extraction, cleaning up space
debris, and providing a safety valve for concerns related to global warming. In order to win any
of these arguments, however, the affirmative must prove that being a signatory to the Artemis
Accords is the precondition or at least a catalyst for the actualization of these impacts.
The affirmative also has access to arguments about increasing international cooperation
on Earth. At a base level the affirmative can argue that signing the Accords improves US-India
relations as the US is the founder of the accords. The affirmative, of course, must prove to what
end that improvement manifests in meaningful impacts, but it is certainly worth exploring.
Moreover, India could take an increased leadership role in the QUAD by asserting itself as a
leader on questions related to extraterrestrial exploration. In short, if the affirmative can
generate impact stories about increased cooperation on Earth by way of the Accords then have
a potentially compelling argument without engaging the space question at all.
Negative Argumentation
Russia and China openly oppose the Artemis Accords. Their main concern is that the
Accords, while signed by twenty-three countries, are blatant attempts to advance the United
States’ interest in space. As a result, the negative can make a compelling backlash argument
that has nothing to do with space but rather the impact that signing would have on their
relationship with their neighbors here on Earth. Proving that signing the Accords creates
tension in India’s relationship with Russia or China can be solid negative ground. Particularly if
they can prove that Russia and China escalate these tensions at home or in outer space.
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Another meaningful argument the negative has access to is to ponder whether the
Artemis Accords violate international law. Some critics of the Accords argue that rather than
creating a non-binding agreement, the United States should work through the UN to codify this
framework. The biggest point of contestation is that the Accords are particularly
accommodating of private space exploration as well as allowing countries the ability to stake
claim to land and/or resources on extraterrestrial bodies. The Outer Space Treaty, our current
treaty on space law, is much less accommodating of both activities. If the negative can prove
that there are significant impacts to violating international law and that the Accords do in fact
violate those laws, they can have a good contention in the making.
Finally, because the Artemis Accords are not legally binding, the negative can make
arguments about the affirmative having a solvency deficit. What if India signs but doesn’t follow
through with the agreed framework? Of course, the negative must prove instances in which
India is likely to violate the agreement with some type of evidence indicating that they have
shown an inclination to do so already in order to beat back arguments about political backlash
or asking why they should sign it in the first place if they intend to break it. Finding something
that India particularly doesn’t like about the Accords could be very valuable. I think this opens a
nice line of argumentation for the negative. If the Accords aren’t binding, why does India need
to sign to follow the framework? An apt comparison is from September/October of 2018 when
Public Forum debated about whether the United States should ratify the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). One major negative argument on this topic was
that the US largely already followed UNCLOS but by not signing they had flexibility to avoid
parts of the treaty that were unsavory without drawing ire for violating the agreement. The
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same can be said for India and the Artemis Accords. If India can just follow the Accords without
aggravating Russia and China by signaling a move to the US or angering the Accords’ signatories
should they violate part of the agreement, they can have a bit of the best of both worlds.
About Nathan Johnston
Nathan Johnston is the Co-Director of Speech and Debate at Lake Highland Preparatory
School where he also teaches AP Human Geography. Nathan is a one-diamond NSDA coach who
has earned two distinguished service plaques through the NSDA. He is the Region 2 Coordinator
for the Florida Forensics League, the former chair of the Florida Panther NSDA district, and the
Chair of the NSDA Public Forum Debate Topic Wording Committee. He holds master’s degrees
in both history and educational leadership and is currently working on his doctorate in
education. Nathan has coached students to late elimination rounds in PF, LD, Congress, and all
speech events at tournaments such as Yale, Bronx, Blue Key, Minneapple, Glenbrooks, Emory,
Harvard, TOC, CFL Grand Nationals, and NSDA Nationals.
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Public Forum Brief
General
Information
General Information
March 2023
General Information
Resolved: The Republic of India should sign the Artemis Accords.
Foreword: We at Champion Briefs feel that having deep knowledge about a topic is just as
valuable as formulating the right arguments. Having general background knowledge about the
topic area helps debaters form more coherent arguments from their breadth of knowledge. As
such, we have compiled general information on the key concepts and general areas that we feel
will best suit you for in- and out-of-round use. Any strong strategy or argument must be built
from a strong foundation of information; we hope that you will utilize this section to help build
that foundation.
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General Information
March 2023
What are the Artemis Accords
The purpose of these Accords is to establish a common vision via a practical set of principles,
guidelines, and best practices to enhance the governance of the civil exploration and use of
outer space with the intention of advancing the Artemis Program. Adherence to a practical set
of principles, guidelines, and best practices in carrying out activities in outer space is intended
to increase the safety of operations, reduce uncertainty, and promote the sustainable and
beneficial use of space for all humankind. The Accords represent a political commitment to the
principles described herein, many of which provide for operational implementation of
important obligations contained in the Outer Space Treaty and other instruments. The
principles set out in these Accords are intended to apply to civil space activities conducted by
the civil space agencies of each Signatory. These activities may take place on the Moon, Mars,
comets, and asteroids, including their surfaces and subsurfaces, as well as in orbit of the Moon
or Mars, in the Lagrangian points for the Earth-Moon system, and in transit between these
celestial bodies and locations. The Signatories intend to implement the principles set out in
these Accords through their own activities by taking, as appropriate, measures such as mission
planning and contractual mechanisms with entities acting on their behalf
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General Information
March 2023
The history of India’s space program
When India began its space program in the 1960s, it was a developing country with limited
resources, and it focused on using space to push its social and economic development agenda.
But the space program has expanded over the past decade, with two important changes: an
ambitious space exploration program and an increased use of space for national security
purposes. Intensifying security concerns regarding China, including Beijing’s growing counterspace capabilities, likely will be a major driver of New Delhi’s space goals in the coming years.
This is likely to result in greater attention to national security aspects of India’s space program,
as well as to developing new space security partnerships.
India’s aspirations are reflected in its missions to the Moon and Mars. The Indian Space
Research Organization is also working on Gaganyaan, the country’s first human space mission
scheduled for 2023. Though many have questioned these ventures on the grounds that India
still faces enormous developmental challenges, there are several reasons to continue these
ventures.
First, space exploration is the logical next step as India’s space program matures and gains
sophistication. Indian space capabilities have grown slowly but steadily, with larger boosters
and more complex space operations. Further space exploration to gain greater technological
competencies would be the next logical step.
Second, while these missions may not have a direct developmental or social benefit, they
increase the visibility and profile of the Indian space program and make it a more attractive
partner for collaboration. These missions also demonstrate New Delhi’s ability to undertake
complex projects despite tiny budgets. This enhances the attractiveness of India’s space launch
facilities, which indirectly benefits the program’s revenue stream and soft power value.
Third, undertaking these missions has resulted in spin-off technological breakthroughs. For
instance, India’s deep space communication capabilities are believed to have benefited because
of these missions. India’s first Moon mission as well as the Mangalyaan mission for deep space
communication functions were assisted by NASA. Together, these missions and developments
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are seen as important credentials for India to gain a louder voice on global governance of outer
space.
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General Information
March 2023
India and the geopolitics of space.
China and India are historical space nations having invested in space since the 1960s. Both
countries have viewed investments in space as part of their national development goals, and a
mechanism to establish autarky, help develop and sustain regime legitimacy, augment internal
national pride and garner external prestige. China and India have developed, foremost of all,
independent space launch capacities and satellites that help gather weather data, broadcast
satellite television, and provide tele-education and telecommunications.
The concept of space during the Cold War was determined by the systemic influence of super
power rivalry between the United States and the erstwhile Soviet Union and this had a trickledown effect on China and India. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the subsequent first Gulf
War of 1991 changed the idea of space from ideological superpower rivalry to emphasising its
economic and national security benefits.
The strategic dimension of space for China was brought to bear during the first Gulf War as
China watched US space-based support coordinate its forces beyond line-of-sight, target and
track integrated air defence systems (IADS) and use its global positioning system (GPS) for
precision strikes and to anticipate incoming missiles. This by itself was a strategic shock for
China, who until then had developed a defence system vis-à-vis the United States, primarily
based on surface-to-air missile systems. The 1996 Taiwan Strait crisis was another wakeup call,
when China lost sight of two of its missiles over the Strait, allegedly due to the United States
cutting off the GPS signal over the Pacific. Consequently, China developed its own version of the
GPS – the BeiDou satellite navigation system. Since 1991, China has taken strategic decisions
to develop space capabilities to deny GPS signals, overhead sensing, long-term over-the-horizon
communication and missile warning.
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March 2023
Collective action problems in space
Space debris encompasses both natural meteoroid and artificial (human-made) orbital debris.
Meteoroids are in orbit about the sun, while most artificial debris is in orbit about the Earth
(hence the term “orbital” debris).
Orbital debris is any human-made object in orbit about the Earth that no longer serves a useful
function. Such debris includes nonfunctional spacecraft, abandoned launch vehicle stages,
mission-related debris, and fragmentation debris.
There are approximately 23,000 pieces of debris larger than a softball orbiting the Earth. They
travel at speeds up to 17,500 mph, fast enough for a relatively small piece of orbital debris to
damage a satellite or a spacecraft. There are half a million pieces of debris the size of a marble
or larger (up to 0.4 inches, or 1 centimeter) or larger, and approximately 100 million pieces of
debris about .04 inches (or one millimeter) and larger. There is even more smaller micrometersized (0.000039 of an inch in diameter) debris.
Even tiny paint flecks can damage a spacecraft when traveling at these velocities. A number of
space shuttle windows were replaced because of damage caused by material that was analyzed
and shown to be paint flecks. In fact, millimeter-sized orbital debris represents the highest
mission-ending risk to most robotic spacecraft operating in low Earth orbit.
In 1996, a French satellite was hit and damaged by debris from a French rocket that had
exploded a decade earlier.
On Feb. 10, 2009, a defunct Russian spacecraft collided with and destroyed a functioning U.S.
Iridium commercial spacecraft. The collision added more than 2,300 pieces of large, trackable
debris and many more smaller debris to the inventory of space junk.
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China's 2007 anti-satellite test, which used a missile to destroy an old weather satellite, added
more than 3,500 pieces of large, trackable debris and many more smaller debris to the debris
problem.
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Works Cited
Buchholz, Katharina. “It’s getting crowded up in Space.” Statista. 6/1/21.
https://www.statista.com/chart/24980/space-debris-in-orbit/
Goswami, Namrata. “Asia’s space race: China leads India on strategy.” The Interpreter. 3/9/22.
https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/asia-s-space-race-china-leads-indiastrategy
“ISRO sends record 20 satellites into space.” Times of India. 6/22/16.
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/isro-sends-record-20-satellites-intospace/infographicshow/52831303.cms?from=mdr
McNamara, Audrey. “Artemis1 moon launch is delayed AGAIN: NASA now aims for Saturday
departure – but claims that temperature and pressure problems in one of the rocket’s
four engines have been fixed.” Daily Mail. 8/30/22.
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-11162529/Artemis1-moon-launch-nothappen-SATURDAY-NASA-pushes-date-second-time.html
Rajagopalan, Rajeswari. “India’s space priorities shifting toward national security.” Carnegie
Endowment for Peace. 9/1/22. https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/09/01/india-sspace-priorities-are-shifting-toward-national-security-pub-87809
Rajagopalan, Rajeswari. “India’s strategy in space is changing. Here’s why.” World Economic
Forum. 8/14/19. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/08/indias-strategy-in-spaceis-changing-heres-why/
“Space Debris and Human Spacecraft.” NASA. 5/26/21.
https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/orbital_debris.html
“The Artemis Accords”. Nasa. 10/13/20. https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemisaccords/img/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf
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Public Forum Brief
Pro Arguments
Pro Arguments
March 2023
PRO: Ratification Pushes back on India-Russia ties
Argument: India’s ratification of the Artemis Accords would prevent cooperation with Russia
Warrant: The War in Ukraine is straining international science relations with Russia
Bhandari, Konark. “The War in Ukraine and Its Implications on India's Space Program.”
Carnegie India, 30 Mar. 2022, https://carnegieindia.org/2022/03/30/war-inukraine-and-its-implications-on-india-s-space-program-pub-86760.
While the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) did clarify that
“new export control measures will continue to allow U.S.-Russia civil space
cooperation,” Biden’s earlier remarks clearly struck a chord with Dmitry Rogozin, the
head of Russia’s space agency, Roscosmos. Rogozin took to Twitter and implied that any
sanctions on Russia might lead it to pull out of the ISS and possibly cause the space
station to de-orbit and come crashing down somewhere in India, China, or the EU. It is
important to note that the United States and Russia perform different upkeep functions
for the ISS. While the United States is entrusted with the task of providing electricity for
space station operations, Russia has the responsibility to provide periodic boosts to
maintain the altitude of the ISS. These boosts are also used to maneuver the ISS around
orbital debris. While it does appear that Russia has not withdrawn from the ISS, it is
accurate to say that its bilateral cooperation with various other space agencies has
indeed become a casualty of this war. For instance, the sanctions have led to
Roscosmos withdrawing its engineers from the Guiana Space Center, the site of the
European Space Agency’s (ESA) operations to launch its Copernicus and Galileo global
navigation satellite systems. While the European Commission claimed that this would
have no consequences on the “continuity” of its navigation services, it is undeniable
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that the withdrawal will impact their launch schedule, which was dependent on
Russian Soyuz rockets.
Warrant: The War in Ukraine has harmed Indian Space Research Organization facilities
Bhandari, Konark. “The War in Ukraine and Its Implications on India's Space Program.”
Carnegie India, 30 Mar. 2022, https://carnegieindia.org/2022/03/30/war-inukraine-and-its-implications-on-india-s-space-program-pub-86760
However, sanctions are just one piece of the puzzle for India. The second issue is the
physical damage inflicted on production facilities in Ukraine that were storing certain
hardware equipment belonging to ISRO. India has a framework agreement with Ukraine
for cooperation in space that led ISRO to decide in 2019 to test its semi-cryogenic
engine (SCE-200) in Ukraine. The SCE-200 was expected to be a huge technological leap
for India as it would have raised the carrying capacity of ISRO’s GSLV MkIII rocket from
4 tons to 7.5 tons. However, there are reports that the facility for testing the SCE-200
may have been damaged during the conflict. This may have a cascading effect on India’s
human spaceflight program, Gaganyaan, which was to be launched using the GSLV
MkIII. Incidentally, the astronauts selected for the Gaganyaan mission were trained in
Russia as well, with India only recently operationalizing a “basic” or “ad hoc” astronaut
training facility near Bangalore. However, even that ad hoc facility can only be used by
astronauts who have first completed basic training at Russia’s Gagarin Research and
Test Cosmonaut Training Center. Therefore, it appears that sanctions and damage to
critical space infrastructure may significantly delay the timelines for ISRO’s missions.
Could this be the wake-up call needed for India to chart out a long-term course for its
domestic space industry? Much of the testing of space equipment in the United States is
done by leading private enterprises. India’s domestic private space industry is still at a
very formative stage and cannot possibly be expected to do all the testing and
manufacturing required by ISRO, although that is showing encouraging signs of change.
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Pro Arguments
March 2023
Warrant: Joining the Artemis Accords avoids future issues with China and Russia
Ramanathan, Aditya. “India and the Artemis Accords.” The Takshashila Institution, 2022
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/623060e18
f0ff4552955f271/1647337698479/India-and-the-Artemis-Accords.pdf. Accessed 4
Feb. 2023.
Despite this progress, technological and budget hurdles will keep India’s lunar
programme modest unless it collaborates with other spacefaring states. India will also
have to come to terms with the prospect of the moon becoming a significant locus of
activity, thus requiring some widely accepted norms and rules. India’s options can be
broadly placed in three categories: 1. Joining the Artemis programme and signing the
Artemis Accords. 2. Joining the ILRS and signing the associated document. 3. Joining
neither programmes, pursue a new framework via the UN In theory, neither of these
options may be mutually exclusive, which means India can pursue one or more at the
same time. Therefore, India could join both the rival programmes and could potentially
pursue a UN framework simultaneously. It could also choose to join either one
programme and exercise the option of pursuing a UN framework. The Venn diagram
below illustrates these choices. It is increasingly clear that China and Russia are growing
sceptical about the utility of cooperation with the US in both space governance and
space exploration.
Warrant: Indian-Russian relations are struggling now and are likely to continue to erode
Menon, Rajan, and Eugene Rumer. “Russia and India: A New Chapter.” Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace, 20 Sept. 2022,
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/09/20/russia-and-india-new-chapter-pub87958.
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Pro Arguments
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The rebalancing of Russian-Indian relations cannot be said to have reached a new
status quo, and they will likely undergo significant changes in the years to come. These
likely will result from the erosion of the pillars on which the relationship has rested for
decades—arms trade, economic ties, and congruent geopolitical interests. Russia, long
the preeminent supplier of arms to India’s military, is already facing competition in this
marketplace, not least because of India’s commitment to diversifying its sources of
supply and other exporters’ hunger for lucrative arms deals. Russian arms
manufacturers will have to compete with technologically more advanced suppliers such
as France, Israel, and the United States as well as with India’s own defense industry—
all the while remaining under tough Western sanctions. Despite the increase in India’s
purchases of Russian oil since the invasion of Ukraine and the imposition of Western
sanctions on Russia, the commercial relationship between the two countries, already a
small fraction of their overall foreign trade, is still marginal to both and virtually certain to
remain so. The geopolitical pillar of Russian-Indian relations is also poised to be
weakened by forces beyond Moscow’s control. The breakdown in relations with the
United States has propelled Russia to seek ever-closer ties with China at the same time
as the rivalry between India and China has intensified.
Warrant: The US and India are engaging in new space cooperation and filling key gaps
Foust, Jeff. “United States and India Expand Civil Space Cooperation.” SpaceNews, 4 Feb.
2023, https://spacenews.com/united-states-and-india-expand-civil-spacecooperation/.
U.S. and Indian officials agreed this week to expand civil space cooperation, including
training Indian astronauts and flying payloads on commercial lunar landers. In meetings
this week in Washington, held with little public fanfare, the United States and India
agreed to expanded cooperation in civil space and laid the groundwork for potential
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Pro Arguments
March 2023
new efforts. In a White House statement Jan. 31, the countries announced they would
arrange for training of an Indian astronaut at NASA’s Johnson Space Center. They did
not disclose when the training would take place or what the “advanced training” would
entail. India has relied on Russia for astronaut training, sending several Indian Air Force
pilots to the Star City cosmonaut training center for training in 2020. That training was
part of India’s Gaganyaan human spaceflight program that includes development by the
Indian space agency ISRO of a crewed spacecraft that would launch on a version of its
GSLV Mark 3 rocket. In 2018, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced that the
Gaganyaan program would place Indian astronauts into orbit by August 2022, the 75th
anniversary of the country’s independence. However, that first crewed launch has slipped
to at least 2024 as ISRO gears up for a series of abort tests and uncrewed orbital test
flights starting in the coming months.
Impact: Russia’s focus in space is increasingly militaristic
Novelly, Thomas. “Space Force on Notice as Russia Warns Commercial Satellites May Be a
'Legitimate Target'.” Military.com, 28 Oct. 2022, https://www.military.com/dailynews/2022/10/27/space-force-notice-russia-warns-commercial-satellites-may-belegitimate-target.html.
Russia is warning it could target commercial satellites assisting U.S. military operations
as its invasion of Ukraine drags on -- a threat that could prompt the Space Force and
U.S. Space Command to see action if Moscow follows through. Commercial satellites
have been used to take aerial images that show deployments, damage and destruction
of Russia's faltering, unprovoked campaign against its neighbor. Additionally, SpaceX
CEO Elon Musk's Starlink satellites have provided internet access to the people of
Ukraine, and he lauded the technology as a "major battlefield advantage" in a tweet
earlier this month. "Ironically, GPS doesn't work on battlefields, as the signal is easy to
jam, but Starlink does," Musk tweeted Oct. 15. Konstantin Vorontsov, deputy director of
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the Russian Foreign Ministry's non-proliferation and arms control department, said
Wednesday in remarks to the United Nations that some commercial satellites pose an
"extremely dangerous trend that goes beyond the harmless use of outer space
technologies and has become apparent during the latest developments in Ukraine."
"Apparently, these states do not realize that such actions in fact constitute indirect
participation in military conflicts," Vorontsov added. "Quasi-civilian infrastructure may
become a legitimate target for retaliation."
Impact: China and Russia’s space bloc is rivalling the US in power
Gould, Joe. “China Aims to Weaponize Space, Says Intel Community Report.” Defense
News, Defense News, 19 Aug. 2022,
https://www.defensenews.com/congress/2021/04/14/china-aims-to-weaponizespace-says-intel-community-report/.
China’s and Russia’s operational satellite fleets have grown by leaps and bounds over the
past two years—by some 70 percent, according to a new Defense Intelligence Agency
(DIA) report, in a sign that both U.S. adversaries have designs on the final frontier for
wars of the future. And the United States may have some catching up to do. “Slowly but
surely, we are heading toward [militarization of space],” said Dmitry Rogozin, the head of
Russia’s state-owned space corporation. “Roscosmos has no illusions about this.
Everyone is working on it.” And the work is starting to speed up. Beijing and Moscow are
close to achieving parity with the United States on several fronts, according to the DIA
report. China has 262 intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) satellites in
space—nearly as many as the rest of the world combined, including the United States—
and similar advantages in science and technology satellites. And beyond China’s orbital
landers that have gone to the far side of the moon and to Mars, both countries appear
to have designs on using space for military means. The U.S. Defense Department
believes that China has launched several missiles that could destroy satellites—Russia
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Pro Arguments
March 2023
has similar counter-space technology—and both nations want to deploy jammers in
space that could threaten U.S. communications, render the U.S. military’s command
and control helpless, or stop the flow of satellite imagery, which has proved a real-time
thorn in the side of the Kremlin during its ongoing war in Ukraine. Russia launched an
anti-satellite missile as recently as November and views space as a place where it can
begin to degrade U.S. precision strike capability, which the Pentagon has held over the
Kremlin since the 1991 Gulf War. China, which successfully tested an anti-satellite
missile in 2007, probably intends to pursue more anti-satellite weapons and has had
success in concealing its space program with domestic companies that are working in
cahoots with the People’s Liberation Army, a phenomenon the Pentagon refers to as
“civil-military fusion,” hiding foreign technology and expertise. And it is working quickly
to enhance its ISR capabilities in the sky and deploy advanced satellites that can transmit
more data back to Earth. And there’s also the threat of a sky-high nuclear detonation
causing electromagnetic damage, or space-based kinetic weapons becoming the soup du
jour of nuclear conflict, as China showed last summer with a round-the-world hypersonic
launch. The new DIA report provided a concerning look at China’s fractional orbital
launch of an intercontinental ballistic missile with a hypersonic glide vehicle, the first of
its kind. The July 2021 launch “demonstrated the greatest distance flown (~40,000
kilometers) and longest flight time (~100+ minutes) of any Chinese land attack weapons
system to date,” the report stated.
Analysis: This is a good argument because it’s timely and speaks to an issue the judge will have
a sense of urgency about. It states that joining the Artemis Accords will push back on possible
Russian attempts to encroach on the safety of space cooperation.
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Pro Arguments
March 2023
PRO: Ratification Pushes back on India-China ties
Argument: India’s ratification of the Artemis Accords prevents any kind of cooperation with the
Russia-China military bloc
Warrant: China and Russia are collaborating for outer space research through at least 2027
TASS. “Russia, China Ink Space Cooperation Deal to 2027.” TASS, 29 Dec. 2022,
https://tass.com/science/1557333.
Russia’s space agency Roscosmos and China National Space Administration (CNSA) inked
a deal in November this year stipulating bilateral space cooperation in 2023-2027,
Roscosmos said in a statement on Thursday. This year, Russia and China continued closer
interaction in the space sphere, Roscosmos stressed. "On November 25, Roscosmos and
China National Space Administration signed a program of space cooperation for 20232027," the statement reads. According to Roscosmos, on the same day the
governments of Russia and China signed an agreement on cooperation in creating an
international scientific lunar station, as announced earlier by Roscosmos Chief Yury
Borisov. Russia and China also inked a cooperation deal on mutually supplementing the
Glonass and BeiDou global satellite navigation systems. "In September, contracts were
signed on mutually accommodating Glonass and BeiDou ground stations, for which
three Russian measuring stations will be built in the Chinese cities of Changchun,
Urumqi and Shanghai and three Chinese stations in the Russian cities of Obninsk,
Irkutsk and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky," Roscosmos said.
Warrant: National security concerns over China are driving India’s space research
Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai. “India's Space Priorities Are Shifting toward National
Security.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1 Sept. 2022,
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Pro Arguments
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https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/09/01/india-s-space-priorities-are-shiftingtoward-national-security-pub-87809.
Broader global space security trends and specific developments in the Indo-Pacific have
pushed India to invest in military space capabilities. China’s anti-satellite (ASAT) test in
January 2007 was a wake-up call about the potential threats India faces, and it
prompted a new debate within India about how it should protect its space assets. From
this debate emerged a unanimous view across the political, military, and scientific
bureaucracy that India needed to develop an appropriate response in order to deter
any attacks on its own space assets. Even though the Manmohan Singh government
approved research on an ASAT capability, it did not order an ASAT test until March 2019
under Prime Minister Narendra Modi. This decision was a recognition that India’s longheld belief in strengthening global governance of outer space was either not going to
bear fruit or would be insufficient to protect its interests. Explaining the rationale for the
2019 test, the Ministry of External Affairs claimed that the new capability “provides
credible deterrence against threats to our growing space-based assets from long range
missiles.”
Warrant: India is already building partnerships to counter China and has no alternative to the
Artemis Accords
Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai. “India's Space Priorities Are Shifting toward National
Security.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1 Sept. 2022,
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/09/01/india-s-space-priorities-are-shiftingtoward-national-security-pub-87809.
India also is building partnerships with other states to counter China’s prowess. New
Delhi has established or strengthened space security partnerships not only with the
Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (the Quad, which also includes the United States,
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Japan, Australia), but also with France and others. While its bilateral partnerships with
Japan, France, and the United States have involved both civil and security
developments, the Quad as a group has also emphasized consultations on norms of
responsible behavior and regulations, with an eye clearly on China. This is especially
important from an Indian perspective, as the move marks a departure from the
country’s traditional partnership with nonaligned G21 countries, which have generally
insisted on legally binding, verifiable mechanisms on space global governance rather
than just norms. This was India’s position too, but the growing fear of China has forced
it to shed some of its hesitancies and work with the Quad on developing space norms
and regulations. Going forward, India should deepen its engagement with like-minded
partners. In particular, it should push the Quad to double down on its efforts on space
security and governance. Space security threats have the potential to rapidly reduce the
usable space orbits, a common concern for all the Quad countries. The lack of consensus
in multilateral space security discussions and arms control debates suggest that the Quad
has an opportunity to play an essential role in consolidating views among key states. The
Quad should eventually bring in the UK, Canada, France, and others to develop a
coordinated platform in multilateral negotiations.
Warrant: Tension between India and China makes cooperation difficult
Koshy, Jacob. “India-China Dispute Casts Gloom over Space Project.” The Hindu, 25 Aug.
2022, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-china-dispute-casts-gloomover-space-project/article65802105.ece.
Tension between India and China since May 2020 is worrying Indian astrophysicists
involved in an ambitious project to install an India-made spectroscope aboard the
developing Chinese space station, Tiangong. Scientists at the Indian Institute of
Astrophysics (IIA), Bengaluru, were among nine groups selected from 42 applicants in
2019 as part of a United Nations-led initiative that invites research teams from all over
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the world to compete for an opportunity to design payloads that will be shuttled to
Tiangong aboard rockets of the Chinese Manned Space Agency. The project, called
Spectrographic Investigation of Nebular Gas (SING), also involves collaboration with the
Institute of Astronomy, Russian Academy of Sciences, and has been designed and
developed by research students at the IIA. The plan is to have it ready by the year end so
that it can be launched in the summer of 2023. Though the plan is on schedule, scientists
at the IIA are now consulting with the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) as
well as the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) on whether they are in the clear to go
ahead with the project. Chinese and Indian troops have been engaged in a prolonged
stand-off in eastern Ladakh. The two sides have so far held 16 rounds of Corps
Commander-level talks to resolve the stand-off, which erupted on May 5, 2020,
following a violent clash in the Pangong lake area. “At the moment [the India-China]
relationship is going through an extremely difficult phase after what China did at the
border,” External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar said in Bangkok last week.
Warrant: The US and India are engaging in new space cooperation and filling key gaps
Foust, Jeff. “United States and India Expand Civil Space Cooperation.” SpaceNews, 4 Feb.
2023, https://spacenews.com/united-states-and-india-expand-civil-spacecooperation/.
U.S. and Indian officials agreed this week to expand civil space cooperation, including
training Indian astronauts and flying payloads on commercial lunar landers. In meetings
this week in Washington, held with little public fanfare, the United States and India
agreed to expanded cooperation in civil space and laid the groundwork for potential
new efforts. In a White House statement Jan. 31, the countries announced they would
arrange for training of an Indian astronaut at NASA’s Johnson Space Center. They did
not disclose when the training would take place or what the “advanced training” would
entail. India has relied on Russia for astronaut training, sending several Indian Air Force
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pilots to the Star City cosmonaut training center for training in 2020. That training was
part of India’s Gaganyaan human spaceflight program that includes development by the
Indian space agency ISRO of a crewed spacecraft that would launch on a version of its
GSLV Mark 3 rocket. In 2018, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced that the
Gaganyaan program would place Indian astronauts into orbit by August 2022, the 75th
anniversary of the country’s independence. However, that first crewed launch has slipped
to at least 2024 as ISRO gears up for a series of abort tests and uncrewed orbital test
flights starting in the coming months.
Impact: China explicitly aims to militarize space
Gould, Joe. “China Aims to Weaponize Space, Says Intel Community Report.” Defense
News, Defense News, 19 Aug. 2022,
https://www.defensenews.com/congress/2021/04/14/china-aims-to-weaponizespace-says-intel-community-report/.
China is working to weaponize space with an array of capabilities intended to target
U.S. and allied satellites as part of its ambitious plans to displace the U.S. in space, the
U.S. intelligence community warned in its new Global Risk Assessment report. The
Office of the Director of National Intelligence’s report says that China’s military, the
People’s Liberation Army, plans to “match or exceed U.S. capabilities in space to gain
the military, economic, and prestige benefits that Washington has accrued from space
leadership.” Those counter-space operations will be “integral to potential military
campaigns by the PLA.” The broad-based report also highlights Russia’s space
capabilities and overall calls China “the top threat” to U.S. technological
competitiveness. Asked about China’s nascent constellation of 138 commercial Earth
observation satellites at a Senate Intelligence Committee hearing Wednesday, ODNI
Director Avril Haines affirmed they were part of China’s challenge to American
dominance. She declined to publicly discuss U.S. capabilities. “I think there’s just no
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question, as a general matter, that China is focused on achieving leadership in space, in
fact, as compared to the United States and has been working hard on a variety of
different efforts in this area to try to contest what has been presumed our leadership,”
Haines said. Haines told lawmakers the administration is working to help the policy
community understand it supports the new Space Force’s work to maintain American
leadership in space and space’s benefits economically, in communications, intelligence
and national security.
Impact: China and Russia’s space bloc is rivalling the US in power
Gould, Joe. “China Aims to Weaponize Space, Says Intel Community Report.” Defense
News, Defense News, 19 Aug. 2022,
https://www.defensenews.com/congress/2021/04/14/china-aims-to-weaponizespace-says-intel-community-report/.
China’s and Russia’s operational satellite fleets have grown by leaps and bounds over the
past two years—by some 70 percent, according to a new Defense Intelligence Agency
(DIA) report, in a sign that both U.S. adversaries have designs on the final frontier for
wars of the future. And the United States may have some catching up to do. “Slowly but
surely, we are heading toward [militarization of space],” said Dmitry Rogozin, the head of
Russia’s state-owned space corporation. “Roscosmos has no illusions about this.
Everyone is working on it.” And the work is starting to speed up. Beijing and Moscow are
close to achieving parity with the United States on several fronts, according to the DIA
report. China has 262 intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) satellites in
space—nearly as many as the rest of the world combined, including the United States—
and similar advantages in science and technology satellites. And beyond China’s orbital
landers that have gone to the far side of the moon and to Mars, both countries appear
to have designs on using space for military means. The U.S. Defense Department
believes that China has launched several missiles that could destroy satellites—Russia
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has similar counter-space technology—and both nations want to deploy jammers in
space that could threaten U.S. communications, render the U.S. military’s command
and control helpless, or stop the flow of satellite imagery, which has proved a real-time
thorn in the side of the Kremlin during its ongoing war in Ukraine. Russia launched an
anti-satellite missile as recently as November and views space as a place where it can
begin to degrade U.S. precision strike capability, which the Pentagon has held over the
Kremlin since the 1991 Gulf War. China, which successfully tested an anti-satellite
missile in 2007, probably intends to pursue more anti-satellite weapons and has had
success in concealing its space program with domestic companies that are working in
cahoots with the People’s Liberation Army, a phenomenon the Pentagon refers to as
“civil-military fusion,” hiding foreign technology and expertise. And it is working quickly
to enhance its ISR capabilities in the sky and deploy advanced satellites that can transmit
more data back to Earth. And there’s also the threat of a sky-high nuclear detonation
causing electromagnetic damage, or space-based kinetic weapons becoming the soup du
jour of nuclear conflict, as China showed last summer with a round-the-world hypersonic
launch. The new DIA report provided a concerning look at China’s fractional orbital
launch of an intercontinental ballistic missile with a hypersonic glide vehicle, the first of
its kind. The July 2021 launch “demonstrated the greatest distance flown (~40,000
kilometers) and longest flight time (~100+ minutes) of any Chinese land attack weapons
system to date,” the report stated.
Analysis: This argument states that India and China are unable to engage in long-term
cooperation due to their military and border disputes, that India is already looking towards the
US as a key partner, and that China’s eye in space is primarily military-focused.
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PRO: Ratification bolsters the Indian Space Research Organization
Argument: Ratifying the Artemis Accords would grant India access to much more space
research and technology than they have in the status quo
Warrant: The Artemis Accords require transparency and information sharing
Onwudiwe, Memme, and Kwame Newton. “Africa and the Artemis Accords: A Review of
Space Regulations and Strategy for African Capacity Building in the New Space
Economy.” New Space, vol. 9, no. 1, 2021, pp. 38–48.,
https://doi.org/10.1089/space.2020.0043.
Transparency is required by the Artemis Accords among partner nations. Broadly,
transparency in the accords are aligned with the obligations of the OST where states
agree to “inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations as well as the public and
the international scientific community, to the greatest extent feasible and practicable,
of the nature, conduct, locations and results of such activities.” This means that nations
must be open about potential hazards in human spaceflight, nations should be able to
view each other's launches, and an acknowledgment in Article X that cooperation
between nations is dependent on transparency and is ultimately necessary should
claims for damage or responsibility arise. Transparency, coupled with confidence
building mechanisms, has long been critical components of space security, allowing
rival countries to prevent misapprehensions between them. Surely transparency would
be beneficial for African nations who wish to engage in the space economy. However,
what is yet to be outlined is how much of this transparency will result in meaningful
technology transfer. African countries should push not only for their scientists to be able
to observe the launches of space agencies, they should also fight for private to private
collaboration where African companies can learn best practices from more experienced
players in downstream space activities and down the line even build capacity for
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performing some upstream tasks. NASA is encouraging countries participating in Artemis
to share policies and plans in a transparent way and create interoperability between
systems. However, this is mainly so information can easily be exchanged and shared
between nations, not with the goal of opening up this technology to states that do not
yet have access. There is no specific requirement of interoperability in modern
international space law, as states are free to explore space on their own, and thus do not
require standardization or the permission of the international community. This also is not
anything new as there have been similar bilateral ISS agreements, as well as joint space
missions, and even a joint American/Russian space station.
Warrant: The Indian Space Research Organization is becoming reliant on private development
Gill, Prabhjote. “ISRO Will Transform in 2021 as India Pumps Big Money to Draw in
Startups for the 'Second Space Age'.” Business Insider, 4 Feb. 2021,
https://www.businessinsider.in/science/space/news/isro-will-transform-in-2021as-india-pumps-big-money-to-draw-in-startups-for-the-second-spaceage/articleshow/80683054.cms.
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is on the road to transforming itself
from an end-to-service provider for India’s space programme into a facilitator. The
latest budget allocation is a signal that the Indian government is serious about giving
private players a serious role in the ‘second space age’. Despite the cash crunch caused
by the COVID-19 pandemic, India did not cut back on the money for the space
programme. In fact, the outlay increased by 3.5%. More importantly, bulk of the funds
will be routed to a new entity, New Space India Limited (NSIL). NSIL, the commercial
arm ISRO saw a 138 times jump in allocation. The money that earlier went from the
Department of Space (DoS) to ISRO, will now be routed to NSIL, which will then
authorise the participation of private players. “That means that the government is super
serious about commercialising whatever IP (intellectual property) it has under its kitty
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and just monetising that. It’s a departure from the mindset of yesteryears where ISRO
was only there to cater to the government’s requirements,” Chaitanya Giri, space policy
expert and fellow with think tank Gateway House, told Business Insider.
Warrant: Public space exploration is better than private space exploration
Ben-Itzhak, Svetla. “Companies Are Commercializing Outer Space. Do Government
Programs Still Matter?” The Washington Post, WP Company, 11 Jan. 2022,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/01/11/companies-arecommercializing-outer-space-do-government-programs-still-matter/.
Three factors help explain why the role of national space initiatives will continue. First,
countries dictate the rules in space. The 1967 Outer Space Treaty, which provides the
basic legal framework of international space law, gives countries full responsibility
(Article 6), liability (Article 7) and ownership (Article 8) of any commercial entity and
object in space. Governments have written and signed into effect current space laws, and
this means governments will continue to have primacy in space affairs. While companies
may operate in space, the current system remains centered around national
governments. Second, national governments continue to play a major role in
commercial space activities, often by providing substantial funding. Under NASA’s 2008
Commercial Resupply Services, for example, the U.S. agency awarded $5.9 billion in the
first round of commercial resupply contracts, and up to $14 billion in the second. And
under its 2011 Commercial Crew Program, NASA invested billions of dollars in a number
of companies, with the goal of developing a safe and reliable U.S. commercial crew
space transportation capability. NASA also funds a wide range of other commercial
space initiatives, but there is little public information detailing exactly how much
commercial partners invest in these joint ventures. In 2012, NASA Associate
Administrator Bill Gerstenmaier acknowledged that “80-90 percent of the funding for
‘commercial’ crew is from the government, not the companies.” More recent reports
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suggest that the government’s investment share in commercial launches has changed
little, at 77.6 percent.
Quantification: The Indian Space Research Organization is investing billions in private
companies
Pundir, Pallavi. “Bigger, Better, Cheaper: How India Is Building a Private Empire in Space.”
VICE, 12 Oct. 2022, https://www.vice.com/en/article/wxn4bz/india-privatizingspace-isro.
But given the geopolitical shifts in recent years, experts are optimistic about the Indian
program. For one, India sets the bar really high in exhibiting and supplying competitive
space technology and manufacturing at a fraction of global costs. India’s first Mars
mission in 2014, for example, cost the country $74 million. NASA’s Mars mission launched
the same week cost 9 times more. “Space is unforgiving, with zero margin for error. So
while ISRO has been able to build technology and systems that are affordable, they are
also reliable systems of good quality,” said Kumar, the journalist. And there’s no dearth of
manpower either. A new report by the Indian Space Association and Ernst & Young
predicted that India’s space economy is expected to be worth $13 billion in 2025. While
its satellite manufacturing sector is expected to be worth $3.2 billion in 2025 – a huge
jump from half a billion in 2020 – the “downstream” sector, which includes ground
services, is expected to be worth $4 billion the same year.
Impact: Information sharing is key to space exploration
Dailey, Nate, et al. “Decentralized Space Information Sharing as a Key Enabler of Trust
and the Preservation of Space.” AMOS Tech, Jan. 2021,
https://amostech.com/TechnicalPapers/2021/Poster/Reed.pdf.
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Space preservation can be strengthened by empowering individual space actors to
share trusted and symmetric space information via a web of affinity ecosystems. At
least one affinity ecosystem exists that includes all space actors (critical space safety),
while other affinity ecosystems are specialized (GEO decommissioning and SNARE).
Affinity ecosystems can start as a Minimum Viable Ecosystem and evolve from that
point. Within each affinity ecosystem, decentralized information-sharing tools can
assure all participants can share space information in a trusted and symmetric manner.
Existing bilateral and multilateral information-sharing agreements are a natural starting
point to build MVEs. The fact that the space community has organically moved to a
polycentric governance model through the proliferation of bilateral arrangements
indicates that a decentralized approach is appropriate and building an MVE for critical
space safety information is the first step. Space preservation is rooted in independent
space actor decision making, and the affinity ecosystems will assure that each space actor
has the most trusted and complete information on which to base their decisions.
Analysis: This argument deals with the idea that information sharing between countries is key
to space exploration, especially public space exploration. Teams should make reference to
ongoing information sharing campaigns and compare the Artemis Accords to Russia-China
collaboration.
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PRO: Ratification strengthens international law
Argument: Ratification of the Artemis Accords helps cement and strengthen international law
Warrant: The Artemis Accords can be used as customary international law
Smith, Walker A. “Using the Artemis Accords to Build Customary International Law: A
Vision for a U.S.- Centric Good Governance Regime in Outer Space.” Journal of Air
Law and Commerce, vol. 86, no. 4, 2021, https://scholar.smu.edu/jalc/vol86/iss4/5.
Accessed 4 Feb. 2023.
One area where the U.S. should seek to use the Accords to establish legally binding
customs is scientific data disclosure. While the Outer Space Treaty does not explicitly
mention this, NASA has emphasized that it is “very much in the spirit of the treaty.”
Disclosure of scientific data is something that NASA has always done, and incentivizing
countries—including China and Russia—to disclose scientific data related to their
activities in outer space would not only spur innovation and promote the sharing of
ideas, but it would also lead to more transparency, accountability, safety, and stability
in outer space. These are values that the U.S. should seek to promote. However,
because the Outer Space Treaty is silent on this principle, the U.S. and its partners will
have to argue that the penumbra requires disclosure of scientific data of the Outer
Space Treaty. It remains to be seen how effective this will be in establishing opinio
juris. Still, extensive state practice surrounding scientific data disclosure will lay the
foundation for that principle to become legally binding. It can generate enormous peer
pressure to coerce states into compliance. Another area where the U.S. should seek to
build customary international law is resource extraction. As discussed in the previous
Section, the jury is still out internationally on whether the Outer Space Treaty permits the
extraction and use of space resources. The U.S. is not waiting for an international
consensus to form but rather is forming that consensus itself. On the one hand, this
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reflects a sort of common-sense realization that to establish a sustainable long-term
presence on the Moon, astronauts will need to live off the land. The south pole of the
Moon contains vast quantities of water ice that will need to be harvested and utilized to
sustain human operations. It was not that long ago that scientists thought the Moon was
bone-dry; there are undoubtedly many more mysteries that the Moon will reveal as we
begin to explore it more thoroughly, and we must be able to take advantage of those
potential opportunities.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords provide an implementation process for the Outer Space Treaty
Deplano, Rossana. “The Artemis Accords: Evolution or Revolution in International Space
Law?” International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 2021, pp. 1–21.,
https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020589321000142.
The Artemis Accords are an international framework for cooperation in the sustainable
human exploration of outer space designed to be compliant with the obligations of the
Outer Space Treaty. Although not binding, they provide a principled approach for
conducting space resource activities. A characteristic of the Artemis Accords is that they
encourage and facilitate the implementation of the Outer Space Treaty’s obligations
even in the absence of an international instrument regulating the exploitation of outer
space resources. Specifically, by replacing the concept of anticipatory regulation with
the principle of adaptive governance as the basis of international cooperation in this
field, the Artemis Accords present themselves as a starting point for further discussion
of an international framework on space resource activities. Indeed, several provisions
of the Artemis Accords call for further elaboration in a multilateral context. Given the
current stage of development of space technology, the feasibility of the commercial
exploitation of the natural resources of the Moon and other celestial bodies appears
imminent. As a result, breaking the impasse created by the adoption of the Moon
Agreement in 1979 appears both necessary and advisable. The Artemis Accords provide a
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concrete step in that direction. Overall, it appears that the Artemis Accords are highly
innovative. By operating within the remit of the multilateral treaties on outer space, they
advance the development of international space law without revolutionising it.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are a step towards international cooperation
Ortega, Almudena Azcárate. “Artemis Accords: A Step toward International Cooperation
or Further Competition?” Lawfare, 18 Dec. 2020,
https://www.lawfareblog.com/artemis-accords-step-toward-internationalcooperation-or-further-competition.
The Artemis Accords, which were first announced by NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine
on May 15, aim to be a set of “vital principles that will create a safe, peaceful, and
prosperous future in space for all of humanity to enjoy.” Christopher Johnson—space law
adviser at the Secure World Foundation and adjunct professor of law at Georgetown
University Law Center, where he teaches space law—pointed out during my interview
with him that “the drafters have taken great care to take the applicable international law
into consideration, and reflect this in the Accords, particularly with regard to the Outer
Space Treaty, the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Liability Convention, and
the Registration Convention. NASA has aimed to make the Accords a set of general
principles that all members of the international community can participate in.” For
NASA, the accords’ objective has always been to encourage international cooperation.
According to Mike Gold, NASA’s acting associate administrator for international and
interagency relations, “the Artemis Accords will help to avoid conflict in space and on
Earth by strengthening mutual understanding and reducing misperceptions. ... [T]hese
are principles that will preserve peace.” Every state that has signed the Artemis Accords
so far is a natural ally of the United States that is eager to widen the reach of its own
space program and industry: Luxembourg enacted a law in 2017 that allows for space
mining; Japan has been seeking to collaborate with the U.S. on lunar exploration matters
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for some time; the U.K., Italy and Canada are all hoping that the Artemis Program will
boost their economies through the development of their space manufacturing industries;
the United Arab Emirates and Australia, whose space agencies are relatively young,
founded in 2014 and 2018, respectively, are seeking to strengthen their international ties
and see Artemis as an opportunity to gain relevance as space-faring powers; and Ukraine
likely sees the opportunity to participate in the accords as a way to align itself with the
U.S. against Russia.
Quantification: The Outer Space Treaty is currently unenforceable
Ishola, Feyisola Ruth, et al. “Legal Enforceability of International Space Laws: An Appraisal
of 1967 Outer Space Treaty.” New Space, vol. 9, no. 1, 2021, pp. 33–37.,
https://doi.org/10.1089/space.2020.0038.
The Outer Space Treaty can be said to have achieved significant success as 109 countries
are signatories to the treaty at present since it came into effect in 1967. A major problem
of the treaty, however, is its lack of an enforcement mechanism and no defined
threshold for what constitutes as violation that sometimes give way to infringements.
Ratifying the 1967 Outer Space Treaty has not prevented advanced industrialized
countries such as China, Russia, France, and the United States during the arms race
from embarking on atmospheric nuclear tests. For instance, the United States and
Russia have both carried out atmospheric nuclear tests and tested weapons such as R36 missile developed by Russia in 1967. The drafters of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty
had a particular focus on controlling the activities of states in the outer space. As such,
states were considered primary actors in the exploration of the outer space. However,
private entities have increasingly become involved in carrying out activities in outer
space. Despite the increasing activities of private actors in the outer space, “the public
interest in regulating security, safety, liability issues, and the use of outer space for
peaceful purposes remain valid also in the context of privately conducted activities.”
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However, international space law has not sufficiently made provisions on how to deal
with the peculiarities of private participation, thus the privatization of space presents
challenges to space governance. The reason for this is not far-fetched; according to Von
der Dunk, (2005), the current international rules governing space activities are essentially
directed at states, and will continue to be developed primarily at the public level for
some time to come that has not entirely come to apply to private actors. Another major
development in international space law is the recommendation for a national
enforcement framework as against the international system of monitoring compliance to
the international space treaties. Owing to arising complexities in international space
governance and loopholes in treaties currently in force, states have become more
inclined to develop national space legislation for the purpose of monitoring and
controlling both public and private activities within their jurisdiction in the outer space.
According to Von der Dunk,4(pp. 28–29) this certainly is the best way to take into due
account the public–private paradigm in international space law, ensuring that the public
rules of international space law, intended to preserve the public interests in space.
Impact: Strong international law is necessary to solve global problems
Hathaway, Oona A. “Why We Need International Law.” The Nation, 29 June 2015,
https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/why-we-need-international-law/.
But international law does more than establish the ground rules or level the playing
field of international commerce. It also can help us solve many of the thorniest
problems we face. Put simply, global problems require global solutions. There are many
problems we cannot solve ourselves, no matter how powerful our nation or how
committed our leaders. The most obvious example is global warming. Every country
emits greenhouse gases, and every country will ultimately feel the effects of global
warming. Yet no country can combat the problem alone. Even if the United States,
which is one of the two biggest greenhouse-gas emitters, were to cut its emissions in half
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tomorrow, global warming would continue. That’s because the United States is only part
of the problem–and hence can produce only part of the solution on its own. A less
obvious example is terrorism. No state can effectively fight terrorism in isolation.
Terrorist organizations evade national control by sending their money, people and
weapons across state borders. Only by working together can states effectively combat
this transnational threat. There are budding efforts to do just that at the United Nations–
spearheaded by the United States. In the weeks immediately following 9/11, the Security
Council adopted Resolution 1373 requiring states to take measures to prevent and
suppress the financing of terrorists by criminalizing terrorist funding, freezing terrorist
assets, suppressing recruitment of terrorist agents and prosecuting accused terrorists.
Resolution 1373 and follow-up resolutions have proven to be some of our most effective
tools in combating terrorism.
Analysis: This argument states that the Artemis Accords represent a step forward for
international space law because they create legal customs, which can be enforced in
international courts even against non-member states if they proliferate widely enough. Teams
might bring up other examples of customary international law to strengthen this argument.
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PRO: The Artemis Accords solves orbital debris
Argument: Ratifying the Artemis Accords helps solve the orbital debris crisis
Warrant: The Artemis Accords require parties to take reasonable action to solve orbital debris
Sewlikar, Akshay. “The Artemis Accords: A New Frontier for Space Law and Arbitration?”
Linklaters, 6 July 2020, https://www.linklaters.com/enus/insights/blogs/arbitrationlinks/2020/july/the-artemis-accords-a-new-frontierfor-space-law-and-arbitration.
(viii) Space resources: The Artemis Accords attempt to reinforce that space resource
extraction and utilisation would be conducted under the auspices of the Outer Space
Treaty 1967 (“OST”). (ix) Deconfliction of activities: The Artemis Accords envisage the
setting up of “Safety Zones” and also coordination between states to respect such safety
zones. (x) Orbital debris and spacecraft disposal: The Artemis Accords envisage parties
acting in accordance with the principles reflected in the Space Debris Mitigation
Guidelines of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. The
Artemis Accords also envisage states to agree to plan for the mitigation of orbital
debris, including a mechanism for disposal of spacecraft at the end of missions.
Warrant: India is struggling to handle space debris in the status quo
“India Has 217 Space Objects Orbiting Earth; Working towards Reducing Space Debris:
Report.” The Economic Times, 10 Apr. 2022,
https://m.economictimes.com/news/science/india-has-217-space-objects-orbitingearth-working-towards-reducing-space-debris-report/articleshow/90762001.cms.
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India has 103 active or defunct spacecraft and 114 objects categorized as ‘space debris’
in orbit and it has embarked on a research to reduce such fragments from outer space.
“Presently, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has taken up research
activites to study the feasibility and technologies required to undertake active debris
removal (ADR),” Minister of State in PMO Jitendra Singh told parliament. According to
Orbital Debris Quarterly News issued in March by NASA, India had 103 spacecraft,
including active and defunct satellites, and 114 space debris objects, including spent
rocket bodies orbiting the earth. So the country has a total of 217 space objects orbiting
the earth. Singh said Active Debris Removal (ADR) was one of the active methods
suggested by the Space Debris Research Community to contain the growth of space
debris objects. “ADR is a very complex technology and involves policy and legal issues.
Technology demonstration studies have been taken up by many countries, including
India. Developmental studies have been taken up by many countries, including India.
Developmental studies for finalizing necessary technologies are initiated to demonstrate
ADR,” he said.
Warrant: International cooperation is key to solving the orbital debris problem
Berger, Eric. “Earth's Orbital Debris Problem Is Worsening, and Policy Solutions Are
Difficult.” Ars Technica, 25 May 2022,
https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/05/earths-orbital-debris-problem-isworsening-and-policy-solutions-are-difficult/.
"It's not just the technical obstacles of removing debris," said Dave Hebert, vice president
of global marketing communications at Astroscale. "There are policy and economic
challenges as well. Who's responsible? Who pays? How much do they pay? How are we
going to hold people accountable?" Nominally, the regulation of space debris falls under
the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. But because this is
a consensus-based organization, if Russia, China, or the United States does not agree,
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nothing happens. All that exists now are non-binding guidelines focused on long-term
sustainability, Jones said. She applauded the Biden administration for taking a stand on
anti-satellite tests and called on the US government to take other steps. "I think the
work really has to be done by the US government on bilateral and multilateral basis, on
the coordination and management piece, with like-minded countries to get anywhere,"
she said. "And once we start getting other countries to sign up, then it becomes a
normal behavior in space that then Russia and China are implicitly bound to, even if
they don't sign off. So I think that's where we need to go."
Warrant: Increasing access to technology leads to innovation and new technologies
Bernat, Paweł. “Orbital Satellite Constellations and the Growing Threat of Kessler
Syndrome in the Lower Earth Orbit.” Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa Obiektów
Antropogenicznych, no. 4, 2020, https://doi.org/10.37105/iboa.94.
Since then, the participation of the private sector in the space industry has skyrocketed,
especially in the United States. Today, SpaceX is the only entity that provides reusable
rockets (first stage and fairings) that is capable of vertical launch and landing. Their
current flagship rocket – Falcon 9 has carried out 23 successful missions in 2020 (SpaceX,
2020) and another four are planned for December of that year (Weitering, 2020).
Moreover, thanks to Crew Dragon spaceship developed by the company, Americans have
regained this year the capacity of sending astronauts from their own soil after nine years
of buying the seats on Russian Soyuz capsule. SpaceX is now in the process of building a
communication satellites constellation that will be addressed and analyzed in the paper.
Nowadays, in the space industry, we witness a very productive cybernetic feedback
look between the development of space technologies, the democratization of those
technologies, and a substantial reduction of prices. The latter is even more significant if
we compare the cost of launching cargo into orbit now and 20 years ago – Falcon 9 is
over ten times cheaper than Space Shuttle (Jones, 2018). This, of course, directly
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translates into the mass and number of objects that we are able to put in the orbit
viably. Once the constellations consisting of thousands of satellites were unthinkable,
but in the current environment, they become a reality.
Impact: Orbital debris leads to an arms race
Shah, Sachin. “The International Legal Regulation of Space Debris.” Cornell
Undergraduate Law and Society Review, 30 Aug. 2019,
https://www.culsr.org/articles/the-international-legal-regulation-of-space-debris.
An excessive clustering of space debris is a problem for a few reasons. It may result in a
phenomenon known as the Kessler Syndrome, in which there is a “cascade created
when debris hits a space object, creating new debris and setting off a chain reaction of
collisions that eventually closes off entire orbits.” This endangerment of Earth’s future
ability to explore extraterrestrial planets and life must be avoided at all costs.
Furthermore, space debris in orbit around Earth limits the amount of available space
for satellites to orbit, which may result in the Tragedy of the Commons: multiple actors
will aggressively vie, in an arms race, for their right to space as it is a limited resource.
Space debris is thus a potentially pressing issue in our increasingly technological world. In
this essay, I will analyze the existing regulation of space debris as outlined in the Outer
Space Treaty, point out the issues with these regulations of space debris and discuss
potential solutions, and, finally, discuss legal considerations for private enterprises as
well.
Analysis: This argument states that orbital debris is a growing problem and that international
treaties like the Artemis Accords can help solve it. Teams could either point to ISRO successes
or failures in dealing with the problem to lend more support to the argument.
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PRO: Signing strengthens US-India relations.
Argument: The Republic of India should sign the Artemis Accords in order to strengthen USIndia diplomatic relations.
India and the US have cooperated on some space missions in the past, the Accords are the next
step in strengthening their relationship.
Mohandas, Pradeep. “Should India Sign the Artemis Accords?” The Wire, 29 May 2021,
https://science.thewire.in/aerospace/should-india-sign-the-artemis-accords/.
India has traditionally been wary of cooperation with the US on outer space, although
their working together on the Chandrayaan 1 and NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar
(NISAR) missions have helped to build and restore some confidence in each other.
These could be the stepping stones for India to sign the accords themselves.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords strengthen international norms and governance.
Countries that sign the Artemis Accords will have a stake in setting global space norms.
Fidler, David P. “The Artemis Accords and the Next Generation of Outer Space
Governance”, Council on Foreign Relations, 2 June 2020,
https://www.cfr.org/blog/artemis-accords-and-next-generation-outer-spacegovernance.
Many countries have plans to launch missions to the Moon, and the Artemis Accords do
not apply to foreign space activities conducted outside the Artemis Program. Lunar
operations by, for example, China do not have to abide by the Artemis Accords if
conducted without NASA participation. However, the accords provide an important
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diplomatic, legal, and normative reference point for lunar missions that other countries
undertake and, thus, have significance for space governance beyond any bilateral
agreements NASA concludes.
Warrant: Joining the Artemis Accords would strengthen US-India ties through further space
cooperation.
The Takshashila Institution. “Takshashila Issue Brief - India & Artemis Programme: Next
Step for Space Cooperation?” The Takshashila Institution, 2021,
https://takshashila.org.in/research/india-amp-artemis-programme-next-step-forspace-cooperation.
As India-US ties have strengthened, their cooperation in the space sector has grown
steadily. While India’s Chandrayan-I mission to the Moon carried two NASA payloads,
NASA and ISRO are also jointly working on a synthetic aperture radar project called the
NISAR. Earlier, in April this year, India and the United States reached an agreement for
sharing space situational awareness data. They also plan to launch a defence space
exchange between the U.S. Space Command and India’s Defense Space Agency later
this year.
In this backdrop of increasing cooperation between the two countries, our Takshashila
Issue Paper - India and the Artemis Accords examined the benefits and disadvantages for
India if it opts to sign the Artemis Accords and join the Artemis programme in the future.
The participating countries in the Artemis Programme, which today includes the United
Kingdom, France, and Canada, apart from the United States, offer an opportunity to India
to boost its lunar exploration capacity through collaboration. Joining the Artemis
Programme could also benefit India in terms of opportunities for co-financing lunar and
other space projects, and gaining access to critical space technologies.
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Since India has also opened up its space sector to private enterprises, Artemis can pave
the way for cross-border commercial opportunities. It opens up the possibility of
creating supply chains and technology transfers between India and other participating
countries.
Warrant: Joining the Artemis Accords would strengthen US-India ties rather than India-Russia
or India-China ties.
Ramanathan, Aditya, et.al. “India and the Artemis Accords”, The Takshashila Institution,
2021,
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/623060e18
f0ff4552955f271/1647337698479/India-and-the-Artemis-Accords.pdf.
The Artemis programme also has a rival in the form of the International Lunar Research
Station led by Russia and China. As these two spacefaring states prepare to release their
own set of norms by the end of 2021, India is faced with an imperfect choice: joining
either or both programmes will aid its own ambitions, but rival blocs could scuttle any
chances of creating a widely accepted multilateral framework for space governance in
this century.
This document concludes that India would benefit from signing the Artemis Accords and
joining the Artemis programme. However, it should keep its options open, seeking space
cooperation with Russia bilaterally or via the ILRS, while also pushing for an overarching
multilateral set of norms or a new treaty.
Impact: US-India diplomacy is essential to a multitude of impacts.
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Carmack, Dustin, et.al. “India-U.S. Relations: Priorities in the Next Decade”, The Heritage
Foundation, 30 June 2021, https://www.heritage.org/asia/commentary/india-usrelations-priorities-the-next-decade.
The India–United States (US) partnership—pivotal in maintaining international security
and order—could yet be the defining one for this century. The US is India’s most
comprehensive strategic partner, and cooperation between the two extends across
multiple areas such as trade, defence, multilateralism, intelligence, cyberspace, civil
nuclear energy, education, and healthcare. As the two nations venture into a new
decade, they must articulate a new agenda for cooperation in the Indo-Pacific region
which they are both committed to keeping “free and open”.
Impact: US-India diplomacy is essential to saving lives in the Indo-Pacific.
US-India partnership is important to prevent Chinese hegemony in the Indo-Pacific region.
Chellaney, Brahma. “India-U.S. Relations: Priorities in the Next Decade”, Project
Syndicate, 11 Oct. 2022, https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/india-usstrategic-partnership-growing-discord-by-brahma-chellaney-202210?barrier=accesspaylog.
NEW DELHI – The strategic partnership between the United States and India is pivotal
to maintaining the balance of power in the vast Indo-Pacific region and
counterbalancing China’s hegemonic ambitions. The US is India’s second-largest trading
partner, and deepening the ties between the two countries is one of the rare bipartisan
foreign policies that exists in Washington today.
China’s militaristic actions in the Indo-Pacific have security concerns for the millions who live
there.
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Dev, Amit. “China’s Rise and the Implications for the Indo-Pacific”, Observer Research
Foundation, 27 Apr. 2022, https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/chinas-riseand-the-implications-for-the-indo-pacific/.
The Indo-Pacific is home to 65 percent of the world’s population, accounts for 63
percent of the world’s gross domestic product (GDP), and more than 60 percent of the
world’s maritime trade flows through the region. The economic interests and future
growth of many nations, in the region and beyond, are intricately linked to the freedom
of navigation and free flow of trade through the Indo-Pacific.
China’s rise as an economic, technological, military, and political powerhouse has
resulted in a tectonic shift in the power balance. The tremors are now evident, and
their ripples are being felt across the globe. Consequently, it is being argued that
managing the rise of a tactfully belligerent China will be critical for the safety, security,
and stability of the Indo-Pacific region. A more aggressive China has resulted in the
revival of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue and the announcement of a trilateral
security pact (AUKUS). India, Japan, and Australia are emerging power centres and are
being viewed as balancing powers in the region.
Analysis: This argument is strong because it has some very important impacts. Overall, India
can choose to side with the US or Russia/China. However, India should prefer the US in order to
prevent war from occurring in the Indo-Pacific region and preserve the many benefits that
come from a strong US-India relationship. You should make it clear to the judge that
diplomatically aligning with the US is the safer, more strategic choice for India and the region as
a whole.
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PRO: Signing increases space innovation.
Argument: The Republic of India should sign the Artemis Accords in order to spur space
innovation and accomplish beneficial space missions.
Warrant: The US has the capabilities and resources to help India accomplish its goals in space
innovation.
Giri, Chaitanya. “Artemis Accords propel India’s space ambitions”, Gateway House, 12
May 2020, https://www.gatewayhouse.in/indias-artemis-moon/.
This is of immediate importance to India that has space ambitions but has been unable
to leverage them with an appropriate, updated, global positioning. The U.S.’s
confidence in its human spaceflight, space resource utilization, and space exploration
capabilities is higher than ever before. With the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011,
the U.S. lost a human-rated, space-proven, heavy-lift, launch vehicle for an entire decade.
It was forced to rely on Russian launchers especially for logistics and astronaut transport
to the International Space Station. But the U.S. has recovered and has several heavy-lift
launch vehicles in various stages of development and preparedness. The NASA Space
Launch System[4], the SpaceX’ Falcon Heavy[5], Blue Origin’ New Glenn[6] and the United
Launch Alliance’ (Lockheed Martin and Boeing’s joint venture) Vulcan launch vehicles[7]
are a strong force of heavy-lift launch vehicle contingencies. Not restricting the private
sector from the space industry, the U.S. has meticulously nurtured private sector
companies to build spacecrafts, space stations, payloads, and components, and operate
them as space contractors to the government with a business-to-business model.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords can help strengthen existing space programs, Rwanda and
Nigeria prove.
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Whittington, Mark R. “Why did Nigeria and Rwanda sign NASA’s Artemis Accords?” The
Hill, 25 Dec. 2022, https://thehill.com/opinion/international/3786847-why-didnigeria-and-rwanda-sign-nasas-artemis-accords/.
By joining the Artemis Accords, Nigeria and Rwanda have made themselves more
attractive to international investment in their space sectors. The two African countries
have joined the same space alliance as the United States, France, Japan and 20 or so
other countries. They have shown themselves to be serious about using space to develop
their countries’ economies and eventually, directly participate in exploration of the
moon, Mars and beyond.
Nigeria and Rwanda can participate directly in the Artemis program with the
development of CubeSats, suitcase-sized satellites that contain instruments for specific
missions. The recent Artemis I mission carried several CubeSats as a rideshare, some of
which failed, but all providing small organizations such as universities opportunities for
hands-on experience in high-risk, high-rewards space missions. A CubeSat mission
would not be beyond the ability of NASRDA or the Rwanda Space Agency, with the
participation of local university students, to construct and fly, perhaps as early as
Artemis II, currently scheduled for 2024 or 2025.
Warrant: So far, the Artemis Accords have fostered international innovation and cooperation.
Howell, Elizabeth. “Artemis Accords: Why the international moon exploration framework
matters”, Space, 25 Aug. 2022, https://www.space.com/artemis-accords-moonspace-exploration-importance.
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As the world counts down to the planned Aug. 29 liftoff of the Artemis 1 mission, which
will use a Space Launch System (SLS) megarocket to send an uncrewed Orion spacecraft
around the moon, NASA and its international partners are already planning for the
future.
More than 20 nations have signed on to the NASA-led Artemis Accords, a set of
agreements that lay out a framework for responsible exploration of the moon.
And Artemis will have an international flavor going forward. For example, Canada will
get a seat on Artemis 2 thanks to its contribution of Canadarm3robotics to the planned
Gateway moon-orbiting station. And Japan will fly an astronaut on a future Artemis
moon mission as well.
But over the longer term, NASA plans to use the accords as a set of norms to establish how
countries should conduct space exploration more generally, and to govern how they can
work together for missions to Earth orbit, the moon or even Mars.
Warrant: India’s own space goals have been relatively unsuccessful, the Artemis Accords could
help them achieve their goals.
Mohandas, Pradeep. “Should India Sign the Artemis Accords?” The Wire, 29 May 2021,
https://science.thewire.in/aerospace/should-india-sign-the-artemis-accords/.
India’s own space programme has different priorities. While continuing to launch and
maintain its fleet of Earth-observation and communication satellites, it is presently
pushing towards human spaceflight missions.
India is seeking to let private sector companies participate in building and launching
Earth-observation and communication satellites. It is presently in the process of drafting
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a space law and has been publishing several draft guidelines towards opening up the
space sector to private players.
It is also evident that the priority for interplanetary missions has been slipping. There is
almost a decade-long gap between interplanetary missions to the Moon and Mars. This
trend is likely to continue towards the second Mars mission. Chandrayaan 3 may break
this decadal jinx.
India is sharpening the Indian Space Research Organisation’s focus on R&D and
advanced missions. Given this, it’s essential that India be an early participant in the
Artemis Accords, so that it can gain lessons and expertise from other countries that are
members of the accords. This could be things like robotics from Canada, sample return
and avionics from Japan, and ground station and deep space network expertise from
the US and Australia.
Impact: Space innovation will boost India’s economy.
Pandey, Shubhang. “How Indian Economy Can Be Expanded Through Space Privatisation”,
Swarajya, 30 Mar. 2022, https://science.thewire.in/aerospace/should-india-signthe-artemis-accords/.
Despite the success of its comparatively nascent and relatively cheap missions to space,
India manages to occupy only 2 per cent, or $7 billion, of the global space economy. The
small share isn’t solely based on technology and resources but on policy too.
The space economy market is said to grow by over $1 trillion by 2040, in line with the
government’s aim of making India a $5 trillion economy by 2024. The Indian space
sector then would need to grow to $50 billion by 2024 and contribute 1 percent to the
GDP (gross domestic product).
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Space innovation boosts the economy and brings benefits to a variety of other sectors.
Pandey, Shubhang. “How Indian Economy Can Be Expanded Through Space Privatisation”,
Swarajya, 30 Mar. 2022, https://swarajyamag.com/science/how-indian-economycan-be-expanded-through-space-privatisation.
The Space Foundation’s The Space Report 2022 estimates that the space economy was
worth $469 billion in 2021 – a 9% increase from a year earlier. And over 1,000
spacecraft were put into orbit in the first six months of this year, the report says – more
than were launched in the first 52 years of space exploration (1957-2009).
But the space sector is not only a growth sector in itself – it’s also proving a key enabler
of growth and efficiency in other sectors. The European Space Agency says the
deployment of new space infrastructure has brought benefits to industries including
meteorology, energy, telecommunications, insurance, transport, maritime, aviation and
urban development.
Analysis: This argument is very clean-cut and easy to explain. It explains why the Artemis
Accords are a benefit to India, and the warrants provide answers to why the Artemis Accords in
particular are necessary. It is important to stress that India wants to do more space travel in the
status quo, and joining the Artemis Accords is an effective way to achieve these goals.
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PRO: Signing improves India’s economy.
Argument: India’s signing of the Artemis Accords would increase space travel which is
beneficial for the economy.
Warrant: Signing the Artemis Accords would allow India to cooperate with other signatories
and allow India’s space companies to compete globally.
Mohandas, Pradeep. “Should India Sign the Artemis Accords?” The Wire, 29 May 2021,
https://science.thewire.in/aerospace/should-india-sign-the-artemis-accords/.
The accords form a natural extension of the Quad’s Critical and Emerging Technologies
Working Group. The US, Japan and Australia are already signatories of the accords.
India’s addition to the accords would provide a framework for space cooperation
among these Quad countries, and could also be extended to other critical and emerging
technologies. India has a lot to offer and a lot to gain from strengthening this
connection. Signing the accords would make it easier to collaborate with other
signatories.
By being a part of the accords, India’s space companies could become part of a global
supply chain, along with Indian SMEs and NewSpace startups. This would also help
attract investment capital towards Indian space startups and lead to flow of capital into
India.
Warrant: Space innovation will bring millions of new jobs to India’s economy.
C. S., Shaijumon. “Indian Space Economy: A Key Component for the future growth of
Indian Economy”, Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, Feb. 2022,
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359310917_Indian_Space_Economy_A
_Key_Component_for_the_future_growth_of_Indian_Economy.
The space economy of India includes many commercial activities, derived over the years
from the space sector’s research and development (R&D) missions. Several mature
downstream activities have reached mass markets. Mapping the entire space economy of
India remains a complex process. Estimates vary widely, and many involve some degree
of double counting of activities. Telecommunications still represent the main commercial
space market through the growing television broadcasting and various telecom services.
The overall growth of space applications has impacted the rest of the value chain the
economy. Space capabilities have transformed to become a very important economic
pillar in modern society. Right from agricultural applications, weather predictions,
fishing, DTH, communications etc to stock exchange operations and navigation, space
technology and its assets are contributing economic value to all walks of life of people.
The sector is generating millions of high-tech jobs in India, and it is driving innovation
and modernization of India technological leadership, while making a positive
contribution to the nation’s balance of trade. The space sector of India has significant
role in modernization and economic growth of the country if we have right policies,
regulation, funding, and entrepreneurship eco system. India’s emerging space economy
has every potential to become the key driver of national economic growth.
Warrant: Space travel is an up-and-coming industry with lots of economic opportunities.
Dr. Annapoorna. “The economics of space tourism”, Times of India, 8 Apr. 2022,
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/edulite/the-economics-of-spacetourism-42412/.
Celebrities including Elon Musk, Tom Hanks, Angelina Jolie, Lady Gaga, and Leonardo Di
Caprio are believed to have paid a deposit to reserve their place. Branson, Bezos, and
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their companions were not the first space tourists in history, but they were the most
recent. Dennis Tito, the first space tourist, paid $20 million in 2001 to go to the
International Space Station (ISS).
Aside from space tourism, there are a slew of additional business opportunities in
space. Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC), based in Sparks, Nevada, launched Sierra Space,
a new commercial space firm, in 2021. SNC’s Dream Chaser is a “space utility vehicle”
that can transport freight and crew to low-earth orbit (LEO) and land safely on runways,
which is important for sensitive cargo like science experiments. It plans to fly to the
International Space Station for the first time in 2022.
Warrant: India can help manufacture highly profitable space technology.
Satellite manufacturing in particular would be highly profitable for India.
Pandey, Shubhang. “How Indian Economy Can Be Expanded Through Space Privatisation”,
Swarajya, 30 Mar. 2022, https://swarajyamag.com/science/how-indian-economycan-be-expanded-through-space-privatisation.
It is estimated that around 10,000 satellites will be launched into low-earth orbit by
2026. In this case, lighter satellites have a cost advantage, though 60 per cent of the
cost is levied on the launch. Needless to say, the market has grown exponentially and
the demand for remote sensing and telecommunication satellites has risen.
Here, India can leverage its diverse pool of talent in the private, and information
technology (IT), sector and encourage startups to make satellites that are lighter and
cheaper to launch.
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Launchers, too, have increased demand, and a projection of 17,000 satellite launches
by 2030 makes this a lucrative field to open up to market players. Further, the
projected growth of small and miniature satellites has increased three times, growing
from $12.6 billion to $42.8 billion, which provides ample opportunities for small and
medium enterprises to either follow a business-to-government or even a space-to-space
model where things are made in space for space.
Satellite communication is the target market in the upstream sector. Here, Indian
startups and hardware manufacturers can build several key elements, from higher
bandwidth transponders to satellites for the next generation of telephony.
Another growth area is the servicing of these satellites, which are projected to grow by
$4.5 billion.
Impact: Space travel will massively boost India’s economy.
Livemint. “India's space economy to be reach $13 bn by 2025: Report”, Mint, 10 Oct.
2022, https://www.livemint.com/news/india/indias-space-economy-to-be-reach13-bn-by-2025-report-11665393929628.html.
India’s space economy is likely to be worth nearly $13 billion by 2025, with the satellite
launch services segment set to witness the fastest growth due to increasing private
participation, according to a report released on Monday.
The growing demand for smaller satellites is set to boost satellite manufacturing in the
country. It will attract global start-ups in the sector to help incubate space tech
companies here, said the report released by the Indian Space Association (ISpA) and Ernst
and Young.
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Impact: Space innovations are already bringing in billions.
Ramesh, Sandhya. “More satellites, startups & revenue by 2025: Report sees big growth
in Indian space industry”, The Print, 12 Oct. 2022,
https://theprint.in/economy/more-satellites-startups-revenue-by-2025-reportsees-big-growth-in-indian-space-industry/1163355/.
Bengaluru: Thanks to India’s well-developed space programme, the satellite
manufacturing sector is likely to grow to $3.2 billion in market value in 2025 from $2.1
billion in 2020, while launch services will surge to $1 billion in 2025 from $567.4 million
in 2020, a new report by the Indian Space Association (ISpA) and Ernst & Young (EY) has
projected.
In the downstream segments, ground services are expected to grow to $4 billion in 2025
from $3.1 billion in 2020, while satellite services are projected to grow to $4.6 billion by
2025 from $3.8 billion in 2020. With the four segments together, India’s space economy
will garner close to $13 billion in revenue in 2025, compared to around $9.6 billion in
2020.
Analysis: This argument is easy to quantity, and has three independent warrants. Responses
might be that this is non-unique since India is already experiencing so much economic growth,
but the answer should be that more space investment equals even more growth and jobs. You
can also use probability and magnitude weighing to sway your judge’s ballot.
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PRO: Signing helps solve climate change.
Argument: India space innovation will be bolstered through the Artemis Accords which will help
find new solutions to the climate crisis.
Warrant: India could boost space innovation by working with other members of the Artemis
Accords and gaining knowledge from other countries.
Mohandas, Pradeep. “Should India Sign the Artemis Accords?” The Wire, 29 May 2021,
https://science.thewire.in/aerospace/should-india-sign-the-artemis-accords/.
India is sharpening the Indian Space Research Organisation’s focus on R&D and advanced
missions. Given this, it’s essential that India be an early participant in the Artemis Accords, so
that it can gain lessons and expertise from other countries that are members of the accords.
This could be things like robotics from Canada, sample return and avionics from Japan, and
ground station and deep space network expertise from the US and Australia.
Warrant: Satellite technology can help monitor effects of climate change.
Marchant, Natalie. “5 ways space tech can help protect the planet”, World Economic
Forum, 23 Mar. 2021, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/03/spacetechnology-tackle-climate-change/.
Satellites and other space technologies could be used to help mitigate the effects of
climate change, as well as protect both animals and communities.
Satellite technology has long been used to predict the weather, with meteorological
forecasts able to act as early warning systems for extreme weather events.
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The technology is also key for documenting environmental changes and informing
decision making by measuring sea levels, atmospheric gases and the planet’s changing
temperature, among other factors.
There are currently more than 160 satellites measuring different global warming
indicators, with more than half of essential climate variables only measurable from space,
according to the World Economic Forum.
Warrant: Historical precedent proves: the US and India have collaborated on environmental
satellites before.
Marchant, Natalie. “5 ways space tech can help protect the planet”, World Economic
Forum, 23 Mar. 2021, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/03/spacetechnology-tackle-climate-change/.
It’s nearly time for the scientific heart of NISAR – short for NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture
Radar – an Earth science satellite being jointly built by NASA and the Indian Space
Research Organisation, to ship out to its last stop before launching into orbit: southern
India. Before its departure, members of the media got a chance to see NISAR’s advanced
radar instruments up close on Feb. 3 in a clean room at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(JPL) in Southern California. Journalists spoke with ISRO Chairman S. Somanath, JPL
Director Laurie Leshin, dignitaries from NASA headquarters and India, and members of
the mission team.
“This marks an important milestone in our shared journey to better understand planet
Earth and our changing climate,” Leshin said. “NISAR will provide critical information on
Earth’s crust, ice sheets, and ecosystems. By delivering measurements at unprecedented
precision, NISAR’s promise is new understanding and positive impact in communities. Our
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collaboration with ISRO exemplifies what’s possible when we tackle complex challenges
together.”
Warrant: Space technology provides new and innovative ways to tackle climate change.
DeCicco, Mike. “NASA Technologies Spin off to Fight Climate Change”, NASA, 21 Apr.
2021, https://climate.nasa.gov/ask-nasa-climate/3075/nasa-technologies-spin-offto-fight-climate-change/.
Trapping Greenhouse Gases
Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is the most prominent driver of climate change on
Earth. On Mars, however, where most of the atmosphere is CO2, the gas could come in
handy. Under NASA contracts, one engineer helped develop technology to capture
Martian carbon dioxide and break it into carbon and oxygen for other uses, from life
support to fuel for a journey home.
Although it never flew, Perseverance will test out a similar idea, using an experimental
system called MOXIE (Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment). Meanwhile,
the earlier technology led to a system that now captures natural gases at oil wells,
instead of wastefully burning them off and dumping the resulting CO2 into the
atmosphere.
And another version of the system helps beer breweries go “greener” by capturing
carbon dioxide from the brewing process, rather than venting it, and using it for
carbonation instead of buying more.
Conserving Energy
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Conserving energy is a crucial consideration for space travel, and many innovations
NASA has come up with in that arena are now widespread in improving energy
efficiency on Earth.
For example, NASA helped create a type of reflective insulation to efficiently maintain a
comfortable temperature within spacecraft and spacesuits. In the decades since, this
insulation has been adapted and used in homes and buildings around the world.
Another material pioneered to insulate cryogenic rocket fuel against the balmy weather
around the launch pad at Cape Canaveral, Florida, now saves energy by preserving
temperatures at industrial facilities. And a coating invented to protect spacecraft during
the extreme heat of atmospheric entry improves the efficiency of incinerators, boilers,
and refractories, ovens, and more.
Warrant: India has been especially impacted by climate change, and its government wants to
help find innovative solutions.
Climate Reality Project. “HOW THE CLIMATE CRISIS IS IMPACTING INDIA”, CRP, 21 Nov.
2022, https://www.climaterealityproject.org/blog/how-climate-crisis-impactingindia.
In India (and all over the world), you can see the effects of rising temperatures
everywhere you look as the climate crisis disrupts our daily lives – and critical sectors
like our energy, agriculture, and transportation systems. This spring, India sweltered
through its hottest March on record.
A heat wave lasting for weeks caused temperatures to soar above 110 degrees, with
some areas hitting 115 degrees. Researchers found that between 2000-2004 and 20172021, India saw a 55% increase in deaths due to extreme heat. March’s heat wave killed
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at least 90 people across India and Pakistan, contributed to forest fires, and devastated
farms and India’s wheat yield.
Before its agriculture industry was impacted, India was going to step in and help provide
food relief to countries in need after the Russia-Ukraine crisis disrupted the global food
system. But after the heat wave, India had to ban wheat exports to ensure its own people
had enough to eat. One study found that climate change made the heat wave 30 times
more likely.
Warrant: India has announced goals to decrease emissions.
Subramaniam, Tara. “The world needs India to avert climate catastrophe. Can Modi
deliver?” CNN, 8 Nov. 2022, https://www.cnn.com/2022/11/07/india/indiaclimate-change-efforts-cop27-intl-hnk/index.html.
India has had “a sustained increase in renewable energy installation,” Nandini Das, an
energy research and policy analyst at the research institute Climate Analytics, told CNN.
“Even during Covid it hasn’t stopped.”
At COP26, Modi outlined a series of targets for India’s efforts to combat climate
change. He pledged that by 2030, India would have increased its non-fossil fuel energy
capacity to 500 gigawatts – from 156.83 in 2021 – and would be using renewable
energy sources to meet 50% of its energy needs.
Experts say India is on track to meet Modi’s non-fossil fuel target by increasing nuclear
energy and hydropower, but the country’s shorter-term goals – such as having 175
gigawatts of renewable energy installed by the end of 2022, enough to power up to 131
million homes – hang in the balance.
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Warrant: India is already doing climate R&D in other sectors.
Jha, Abhas K. “A Greener Cooling Pathway Can Create a $1.6 Trillion Investment
Opportunity in India, says World Bank Report”, The World Bank, 30 Nov. 2022,
https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/11/30/a-greenercooling-pathway-can-create-a-1-6-trillion-investment-opportunity-in-india-saysworld-bank-report.
Recognizing this challenge, India is already deploying new strategies to help people
adapt to rising temperatures. In 2019, it launched the India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP)
to provide sustainable cooling measures across various sectors, including indoor cooling
in buildings and cold chain and refrigeration in the agriculture and pharmaceuticals
sector and air-conditioning in passenger transport. Its aim is to reduce the demand for
cooling by up to 25 percent by 2037-38.
Warrant: Climate disruptions in India and beyond will cost millions of lives.
Leiserowitz, Anthony, et. al. “Climate Change in the Indian Mind, 2022”, Yale, 19 Oct.
2022, https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/publications/climate-change-in-theindian-mind-2022/toc/3/.
India is among the countries most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.
Climate change has already begun to alter growing seasons in India (Mani et al., 2018),
and with almost 50% of Indians working in agriculture and other climate sensitive
sectors (Chand & Singh, 2022), the damage to productivity and health is significant
(Mani et al., 2018). From 1901–2018, India’s average temperature rose 0.7°C. During the
summer monsoon season, India is experiencing both more frequent dry spells and
more intense wet spells (Krishnan et al., 2020). Across all of Asia, including India,
climate change will cause water shortages, which could affect more than a billion
people by the 2050s (Krishnan et al., 2020).
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India’s population is also vulnerable to sea level rise, with up to 310 million people
inhabiting low elevation coastal zones. About 30% of India’s population,
approximately 363 million people, are poor, and 1.77 million people are homeless
(Government of India, 2016). Many Indians live in “hotspots,” where changes in
climate negatively affect living standards. These hotspots are growing as climate
change worsens, and it is projected that by 2050, 148.3 million people in India will be
living in severe hotspots (Mani et al., 2018). Additionally, more than 80 percent of
India’s population lives in districts highly vulnerable to extreme weather events
(Mohanty & Wadhawan, 2021).
Analysis: This argument is relevant for two reasons. One, India is especially impacted by climate
change, and two, there has already been some cooperation between India and the US for
climate satellites. Signing of the Artemis Accords would only strengthen these efforts, and the
impact of saving millions of lives can be easily weighed on magnitude.
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PRO: Signing creates quad-cooperation between India, United States,
Australia, and Japan.
Argument: India should sign the Artemis Accords in order to maintain strong cooperation
between the Quad alliance of India, the US, Australia, and Japan.
Warrant: India’s signing of the Artemis Accords is essential to creating space norms agreement
among the Quad members and internationally.
Silverstein, Benjamin. “The Quad Needs More Than Bilateral Agreements to Achieve Its
Space Goals” Carnegie Endowment, 20 May 2022,
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/05/20/quad-needs-more-than-bilateralagreements-to-achieve-its-space-goals-pub-87145.
Last year, the Quad—consisting of the United States, Japan, India, and Australia—
committed to convene a working group on space issues to foster efficient satellite data
exchanges and manage space-related risks. The working group was also charged to
“consult on norms, guidelines, principles, and rules for ensuring the long-term
sustainability of the outer space environment.” Bilateral agreements between Quad
members demonstrate that they are beginning to live up to their pledge, but the Quad
must do more to achieve its lofty goals. These partnerships build trust and confidence
among participants but do not go far enough in characterizing principles or
demonstrating norms that safeguard the long-term sustainability of space.
A harmonized set of behaviors demonstrated by all Quad members would set a more
powerful example than a collection of loosely related bilateral commitments. The Quad
need not reinvent the wheel in this endeavor: the U.S.-developed Artemis Accords can
serve as a readymade starting point. A collection of principles based on the 1967 Outer
Space Treaty, the accords outline behaviors that support peaceful, transparent, and
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cooperative space activities. While the United States, Japan, and Australia are Artemis
partners, it does not appear that India is ripe to sign. India has ambitions to accomplish
its own lunar missions and may not want to be beholden to another state’s rules on these
activities. To reach consensus, the Quad working group must pare back some Artemis
principles to reconcile the proposal with India’s aspirations.
Warrant: Quad members can work together to promote peaceful space cooperation.
Silverstein, Benjamin. “The Quad Needs More Than Bilateral Agreements to Achieve Its
Space Goals” Carnegie Endowment, 20 May 2022,
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/05/20/quad-needs-more-than-bilateralagreements-to-achieve-its-space-goals-pub-87145.
Several of the principles are readily adoptable, including those on transparency and
emergency assistance. Additional concrete commitments might include an intra-Quad
process to establish rules of the road to guide satellite operators conducting collision
avoidance maneuvers. Additionally, members should agree to a stringent schedule for
safely disposing spacecraft used in joint Quad missions. All members possess the
technical means to carry out these activities, and adherence would demonstrate
commitments to sustainable uses of space.
The Artemis Accords represent more than just a lunar goal—the fundamental mission of
the partnerships is to reduce the chance that space activities incite conflict. This goal is
congruent with the Quad’s space priorities. Stepping back from long-term lunar goals
can preempt objections within the Quad and help the group ensure the long-term
sustainability of space. Separating the general principles from those inextricably linked to
NASA’s lunar plans might facilitate agreement among the Quad, unencumbered by excess
lunar baggage. Coalescing around a handful of progressive behavioral expectations is the
strongest way to advance the Quad’s immediate space interests.
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Warrant: India’s signing would help set international norms for space exploration.
The time is now, discussions about space exploration norms are happening in the status quo.
India’s input is needed.
Bhandari, Konark. “India, the Quad, and the Future of Outer Space” Carnegie India, 21
Oct. 2021, https://carnegieindia.org/2021/10/21/india-quad-and-future-of-outerspace-pub-85610.
While orbital spaces are finite, the number of players venturing into commercial space
activities is not. What is now needed is a road map for the possible exploitation of outer
space resources. Without clear guidance, regulatory arbitrage in the form of ad hoc
processes adopted by each country may lead to more orbital congestion and,
consequently, more debris in outer space. Considering the Quad’s commitment to a
larger international rules-based order, the time may be ripe to have a discussion on the
need for such a framework. India would do well to participate in forging a consensus.
India needs partners in this domain. Considering the long-term gestation period of most
space-related projects, India would do well to partner with reliable spacefaring
countries that have a dependable track record cultivating strong private players in
space. The Artemis Accords would be a good starting point, considering the large
number of signatories with capabilities in the space economy.
Warrant: Quad cooperation is needed to compete against China and Russia.
Shinde, Ved. “QUAD and Space Cooperation: The India Way”, Modern Diplomacy, 9 Sep.
2022, https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2022/09/09/quad-and-space-cooperation-theindia-way/.
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Two emerging astropolitical coalitions are: Signatories to the US led Artemis Accords
and others with alternate plans for an International Lunar Research Station (ILRS), i.e.,
China and Russia. India, despite its recent expanding space cooperation with the US and
dwindling cooperation with Russia, is the only remaining significant space faring nation
that hasn’t become a signatory to the Artemis Accords or the ILRS.
Given this backdrop, space cooperation in the QUAD assumes significance. India feels
comfortable in the QUAD framework. It routinely stresses QUAD’s flexibility, its
multifaceted objectives and non-alliance structure. QUAD, in Sept 2021, resolved to
ensure uninterrupted access to space through framing consensual outer space
governance rules and norms. A part of this initiative is ideal debris management
practices for fostering outer space sustainability.
However, the larger idea is framing rules to restrain irresponsible acts by space powers,
prevent space conflicts and limit exploitation of orbital resources.
A potential arena of cooperation for the QUAD could be the development of a “resilient
space architecture”to match Chinese advances in Belt and Road Space Information
Corridor14. China aims to create a “four in one” space information service that integrates
sensing, transmission and use of geospatial information.
If a similar project is developed by the QUAD, it can foster policy coordination, service
cooperation and also create a model for like-minded space faring nations in the IndoPacific. Such a model also complements QUAD’s vision for creating outer space
governance rules and norms.
Impact: Strong international space norms are key to keeping space safe by preventing space
debris.
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Erwin, Sandra. “International talks on space norms to continue but U.S. will not engage
directly with Russia”, Space News, 17 Mar. 2022,
https://spacenews.com/international-talks-on-space-norms-will-continue-but-u-swill-not-engage-directly-with-russia/.
Much of the discussion about rules of behavior in space will be aimed at preventing
destructive events like China’s and Russia’s anti-satellite missile tests in 2007 and 2021,
respectively, that generated thousands of pieces of debris that could endanger satellites
and human spaceflight for years or decades.
Warrant: One of the key goals of the Artemis Accords is to register space debris.
Cowing, Keith. “What Are The Artemis Accords And Why Do We Need Them?” SpaceRef,
17 May 2020, https://spaceref.com/science-and-exploration/what-are-the-artemisaccords-and-why-do-we-need-them/.
“Registration of Space Objects – Registration is at the very core of creating a safe and
sustainable environment in space to conduct public and private activities. Without
proper registration, coordination to avoid harmful interference cannot take place. The
Artemis Accords reinforces the critical nature of registration and urges any partner which
isn’t already a member of the Registration Convention to join as soon as possible.”
The issue of space traffic management in Earth orbit is now a great concern – even
more so as space debris and massive communications constellations are being
launched. Allotment of frequency spectrum slots is also an issue due to potential
interference with existing communications systems and services such as weather
satellites. The Moon is a blank slate to a great extent. But with an expanded presence the
issue of space debris, satellites (large and small) and landing activities will become an
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important concern. For example, if one party wants to conduct activities that could alter
the Moon’s tenuous atmosphere while another party wants to study the atmosphere as it
exists naturally there is going to be a conflict. Mechanisms need to be enabled to
prevent conflicts that are predictable and deal with those that arise unexpectedly.
Impact: Space debris accidents could cost lives.
Emspak, Jesse. “What goes up must come down: Study looks at risk of orbital debris
casualties”, Space, 18 July 2022, https://www.space.com/space-junk-rocket-debrisreentry-risk.
The toll taken by space debris so far includes an Indonesian livestock pen's fence
crushed by a stray fuel tank, a house in the Ivory Coast damaged by a chunk of a first
stage, and a woman in Tulsa, Oklahoma, walking in the park who felt a piece of rocket
tap her on the shoulder.
The next piece of space debris that falls all the way to Earth's surface could cause very
real casualties, and the odds are greater than people think, according to a new study.
The research, led by Michael Byers, a political scientist at the University of British
Columbia in Canada, measures the risk that a piece of space debris will fall to Earth in a
populated area over the next given decade. Byers and his team calculated chances as
high as one in 10 that a chunk of spacecraft big enough to injure someone or cause
property damage will survive the trip through Earth's atmosphere in the next 10 years.
Analysis: The way to frame this argument is by saying that India is the last piece of the puzzle to
strengthen the Artemis Accords and Quad cooperation. Since Japan, Australia, and the US have
already signed it, India could further legitimize the Accords and promote international norms
for space travel and exploration.
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PRO: Space Exploration Promotes Economic Growth
Argument: Space exploration leads to a variety of pro-growth policies and discoveries that
would benefit India.
Warrant: There is substantial economic potential in space
Brukardt, Ryan. “How will the space economy change the world?” Nov 2022. McKinsey.
https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/aerospace-and-defense/our-insights/howwill-the-space-economy-change-the-world
“Some hints of the coming changes are apparent, including the frequent headlines
about SpaceX, Blue Origin, and other private companies launching their own rockets
and deploying satellite constellations. These activities, once primarily the domain of
government agencies, are now possible in the private sector because recent
technological advances in manufacturing, propulsion, and launch have made it much
easier and less expensive to venture into space and conduct missions. Lower costs have
opened the door to new start-ups and encouraged established aerospace companies
to explore novel opportunities that once seemed too expensive or difficult. The
technological improvements have also intrigued investors, resulting in a surge of space
funding over the past five years. The potential for innovative space applications is
immense, especially if established aerospace companies form partnerships with
businesses that traditionally haven’t ventured into orbit. Pharmaceutical companies
might establish a lab on a space station to study cell growth, for instance, or
semiconductor companies might manufacture chips in extraterrestrial factories to
determine whether any aspects of the space environment, such as the lack of gravity,
improve the process. Such possibilities, which might have seemed like the stuff of
science fiction a few years ago, could become an essential part of a business across
multiple industries in the near future.”
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Warrant: Space exploration will contribute to important aspects of economic growth
Brukardt, Ryan. “How will the space economy change the world?” Nov 2022. McKinsey.
https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/aerospace-and-defense/our-insights/howwill-the-space-economy-change-the-world
“According to the not-for-profit Space Foundation, the space economy was valued at
$469 billion in 2021, up 9 percent from 2020, the highest recorded growth since
2014.2 Although the space economy now generates most value by enabling or
enhancing activities on Earth, significant future value could arise from functions that
occur entirely in orbit, such as in-orbit servicing, research and development, and
manufacturing. That said, the satellite services available today will remain important
and could be critical to some emerging use cases. Researchers and other space
enthusiasts have long discussed the potential for business activity in orbit, or even the
development of space cities. But now, with lower costs and greater technological
capabilities, the space economy may finally be at a tipping point, where businesses can
conduct large-scale activities in space. As costs continue to drop, even more companies
may contemplate space ventures; and for the first time, they might even be able to
profit from forays into space. The costs for heavy launches in low-Earth orbit (LEO)
have fallen from $65,000 per kilogram to $1,500 per kilogram (in 2021 dollars)—a
greater than 95 percent decrease.
Warrant: India’s space economy is growing
Staff. “India’s Space Economy to be 13Bn by 2025.” October 2022. Livemint.
https://www.livemint.com/news/india/indias-space-economy-to-be-reach-13-bnby-2025-report-11665393929628.html
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“India's space economy is likely to be worth nearly $13 billion by 2025, with the
satellite launch services segment set to witness the fastest growth due to increasing
private participation, according to a report released on Monday. The growing demand
for smaller satellites is set to boost satellite manufacturing in the country. It will
attract global start-ups in the sector to help incubate space tech companies here, said
the report released by the Indian Space Association (ISpA) and Ernst and Young. India's
space economy was pegged at $9.6 billion in 2020 and is expected to touch $12.8
billion by 2025, according to the report titled 'Developing the Space Ecosystem in
India: Focusing on Inclusive Growth'.”
Warrant: India’s space economy will support future growth
Staff. “India’s Space Economy to be 13Bn by 2025.” October 2022. Livemint.
https://www.livemint.com/news/india/indias-space-economy-to-be-reach-13-bnby-2025-report-11665393929628.html
“"Indian space launch is expected to get a boost due to the government's positive step
towards the inclusion of private players in the Indian space ecosystem," the report
said. The launch services segment was pegged at $600 million in 2020 and is projected
to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 13 per cent to reach $1 billion by 2025,
the report said. "The availability of low-cost satellite launch vehicles coupled with mass
production will lead to demand from customers around the world. Indian private
companies are looking to exploit the space industry by using innovative technologies," it
said. "It will be key to attracting global start-ups working in the space sector and help to
incubate space tech companies in India," the report added.”
Analysis: This argument is strategic because it can appeal to the judges' sense of practicality
and realism. By emphasizing the tangible benefits of space exploration, such as job creation and
technological development, the argument becomes more persuasive and convincing,
particularly to judges who may be more concerned with practical outcomes and the benefits to
society.
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PRO: Space exploration creates innovation
Argument: Space exploration leads to innovation because countries are required to develop
new technologies to venture out and exploit space.
Warrant: There is substantial economic potential in space
Raghavan, Seetha. “The Impact of Innovation in the New Era of Space Exploration”
August 2021. UCF Today. https://www.ucf.edu/news/the-impact-of-innovation-inthe-new-era-of-space-exploration/
“The surge of innovation that comes with this will create new opportunities and
inspire the next generation of doers. When this happens, boundaries between scientific
and social impact are blurred. Innovation leading to scientific discovery can benefit
society in the same way that social innovation can diversify and support scientific
innovators, who can contribute to global progress. To ride this wave of progress, we
must all participate and innovate in the new era of space exploration. The intersection
of space exploration, innovation and impact isn’t a new phenomenon. In the past,
technology developments and spin-offs from space research have consistently found
their way into communities worldwide sometimes with lifesaving benefits. The
International Space Station supports experiments that have led to discoveries and
inventions in communication, water purification, and remote guidance for health
procedures and robotic surgeries. Satellite-enabled Earth observation capabilities that
monitor natural disasters, climate and crops often support early warnings for threats
and mitigation strategies. Space exploration has always been relevant to everyone no
matter the discipline or interest.”
Warrant: The current wave of space exploration is beneficial for innovation
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Raghavan, Seetha. “The Impact of Innovation in the New Era of Space Exploration”
August 2021. UCF Today. https://www.ucf.edu/news/the-impact-of-innovation-inthe-new-era-of-space-exploration/
“Commercialization of space has been key in many ways to the current boost in
“firsts” over the last few years. It has spurred innovation in launch vehicles and
related technologies that led to firsts in vertical-takeoff-vertical landing rocket
technology, reusability of rocket boosters and privately developed crewed missions to
orbit. Concurrently, NASA has continued to captivate our imagination with the first
flight of a helicopter in another world, a mission to return an asteroid sample to Earth
and sending a probe to make the closest ever approach to the sun. While we celebrate
the scientific progress, there is a vastly important question that we all need to focus on:
How can we drive the surge in innovation offered by increased access to space, to
benefit humankind? Access to low-Earth orbit, and eventually human exploration of
space, is a portal to achieve many impactful outcomes. The numbers and completion
rate of microgravity experiments conducted by scientists will be greatly increased as a
range of offerings in suborbital flights provide more opportunities to advance critical
research in health, agriculture, energy, and more. Lunar, planetary, and even asteroid
exploration may lead to discoveries of new materials — busting the limitations now
imposed on capabilities for energy, transportation, and infrastructure or creating new
sensors and devices that enhance safety on Earth. Space tourism —one can hope —
has the power to potentially create an awareness of our oneness that may lead to
social change.”
Warrant: Space travel accelerates innovation
Taylor, Dylan. “How space exploration accelerates innovation.” April 2022. Voyager
Space. https://voyagerspace.com/insight/how-space-exploration-acceleratesinnovation/
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“Today, that love spurs futuristic inventions and breakthrough solutions for the planet’s
most pressing issues. The work of contemporary space organizations has also
generated myriad spin-off technologies—commercial products created from or
inspired by efforts to journey past Earth’s atmosphere. Still, there are some who
wonder if these spin-offs could be arrived at directly, rather than through space
engineering. Astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson answers this concern in his book
Space Chronicles: Facing the Ultimate Frontier: “Let’s say you’re a thermodynamicist,
the world’s expert on heat, and I ask you to build me a better oven. You might invent
a convection oven, or an oven that’s more insulated or that permits easier access to its
contents. But no matter how much money I give you, you will not invent a microwave
oven. Because that came from another place. It came from investments in
communications, in radar. The microwave oven is traceable to the war effort, not to a
thermodynamic.”
Warrant: Space exploration can lead to healthcare innovation
Taylor, Dylan. “How space exploration accelerates innovation.” April 2022. Voyager
Space. https://voyagerspace.com/insight/how-space-exploration-acceleratesinnovation/
"Innovative devices developed by space agencies in the past can now be seen in most
hospitals. The technology powering CT scans and MRI machines is influenced by the
digital image processing used by NASA to generate images of the moon during the
Apollo missions. Anyone who uses an insulin pump can trace a similar path to space
tech. The need to monitor astronauts’ vital signs led the agency to support the
development of an early version of implantable pumps in the 1970s. Additionally,
prosthetic limbs derive their durability and function from the artificial arms, robotic
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sensors, foam, and diamond-joint coatings found in space vehicles and the International
Space Station.”
Analysis: This argument appeals to the judges' sense of progress because space exploration is
often seen as a symbol of technological and scientific advancement. By emphasizing the
potential for innovation, this argument becomes more persuasive and can help to counter
arguments that focus solely on the costs and risks of space exploration. Use rhetoric to appeal
to the judge’s understanding of the importance of space travel in world history.
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PRO: India can exercise international leadership
Argument: India is already a leader in international diplomacy. By ratifying the Artemis Accords
it can solidify its position as a broker among nations.
Warrant: Artemis Accords are important for international cooperation
Ortega, Almudena. “Artemis Accords: A Step Toward International Cooperation or
Further Competition?” Lawfare. Dec 2020. https://www.lawfareblog.com/artemisaccords-step-toward-international-cooperation-or-further-competition
“The Artemis Accords, which were first announced by NASA Administrator Jim
Bridenstine on May 15, aim to be a set of “vital principles that will create a safe,
peaceful, and prosperous future in space for all of humanity to enjoy.” Christopher
Johnson—space law adviser at the Secure World Foundation and adjunct professor of
law at Georgetown University Law Center, where he teaches space law—pointed out
during my interview with him that “the drafters have taken great care to take the
applicable international law into consideration, and reflect this in the Accords,
particularly with regard to the Outer Space Treaty, the Agreement on the Rescue of
Astronauts, the Liability Convention, and the Registration Convention. NASA has
aimed to make the Accords a set of general principles that all members of the
international community can participate in.” For NASA, the accords’ objective has
always been to encourage international cooperation. According to Mike Gold, NASA’s
acting associate administrator for international and interagency relations, “the Artemis
Accords will help to avoid conflict in space and on Earth by strengthening mutual
understanding and reducing misperceptions. ... [T]hese are principles that will preserve
peace.” Every state that has signed the Artemis Accords so far is a natural ally of the
United States that is eager to widen the reach of its own space program and industry:”
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Warrant: Many countries have signed the Artemis Accords
Ortega, Almudena. “Artemis Accords: A Step Toward International Cooperation or
Further Competition?” Lawfare. Dec 2020. https://www.lawfareblog.com/artemisaccords-step-toward-international-cooperation-or-further-competition
“On Oct. 13, the Artemis Accords Principles for a Safe, Peaceful, and Prosperous Future,
commonly referred to as the Artemis Accords, were signed by their eight founding
member states: Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the United Arab
Emirates, the United Kingdom and the United States. More recently, on Nov. 13,
Ukraine joined as the ninth signatory. The unveiling of the accords—a series of
agreements that provide a framework to maintain peace in outer space and govern
behavior on the moon—has caused much excitement in the international community.
But while they were drafted to serve as a tool for international cooperation, in the eyes
of some space law and policy experts the accords could have the opposite effect,
contributing to the escalation of competition and rivalry in space between the United
States and its partners and allies, on the one hand, and Russia and China, on the other.
What Are the Artemis Accords? The Artemis Accords are a set of nonbinding principles
that seek to guide the conduct of states involved in the exploration of outer space in the
context of—and with the intention of advancing—NASA’s Artemis Program to place the
first woman and next man on the moon. The Artemis Program seeks to return
humankind to the moon by 2024 to explore the lunar surface to a greater extent than
ever before.”
Warrant: India seeks international leadership
Ganguly, Meenakshi. “How space exploration accelerates innovation.” OpenDemocracy.
April 2012. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/openglobalrights-openpage/canindia-be-international-human-rights-leader/
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“Many Indians believe that as an emerging power, their country has a growing role in
world affairs. The government seeks a global profile, partnering with other nations
through a dizzying array of international organizations and associations that look as
though they have been picked up in a Scrabble game: BRICS, CHOGM, ASEAN, IBSA,
SAARC, NAM, IOCARC, to name just a few. India’s foreign policy establishment also
believes that India deserves a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.
New Delhi has become an important stop for almost every significant world leader
and they are usually accompanied by businesses looking for opportunities to tap into
India’s vast market potential. Almost all of them also claim to support a permanent seat
for India on the Security Council.”
Warrant: Participation in Western initiatives is essential for leadership
Ganguly, Meenakshi. “How space exploration accelerates innovation.” OpenDemocracy.
April 2012. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/openglobalrights-openpage/canindia-be-international-human-rights-leader/
"As perhaps the most established democracy in the developing world, India has the
potential to develop a powerful role on the international stage as a promoter of
democracy and rights, thereby making common cause with the world’s oppressed and
marginalized people. While India wants to defend the sovereignty of nations, it should
speak for the rights of citizens, not the actions of governments. Yet, in recent years, it
has not taken significant steps in this direction. Despite its growing economic power
and leverage as an international donor, India only appears to have a clear vision of
what it does not want to do. It abstains from western-led initiatives it considers
aggressive. It also resists actions it views as conflicting with its strategic agenda towards
China. With its growing international influence, New Delhi seems to have adopted
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China’s selective policy of promoting non-interference in the “internal affairs” of other
states. Its foreign policy highlights bilateral engagements and “quiet diplomacy.””
Analysis: This argument appeals to the judges' sense of national pride and ambition, as they
may be more likely to support a vision of India as a leader and innovator on the world stage. By
emphasizing India's potential for leadership, this argument becomes more persuasive and can
help to counter arguments that focus solely on the costs and risks of space exploration.
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PRO: Space Exploration Leads to National Security Benefits
Argument: India and the rest of the world can benefit from new national security technology
that comes from space exploration
Warrant: Space is key to national security competition
Steer, Cassandra. “Why Outer Space Matters for National and International Security”
University of Pennsylvania. Dec 2020.
https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/10053-why-outer-space-matters-fornational-and
“Today’s context is vastly different from what it was in 1969 at the time of the first
moon landing. Today’s space “race” is no longer a competition between two
superpowers. Today there are 13 spacefaring nations with independent launch
capacity, and nearly every country is dependent in some way on space-enabled
capabilities, many of which are supplied not by States but by commercial entities.
Moreover, recent events have rekindled public attention regarding the question of
militarization and weaponization of outer space. In March 2019, India launched
“Mission Shakti,” a successful anti-satellite (ASAT) weapon test, destroying one of its
own satellites in low earth orbit (LEO) with a direct ascent missile and publicly
declaring that it had thereby joined the “elite club” of space superpowers that have
demonstrated this capability in the past, namely China, Russia, and the United
States.5 In July 2019, President Emmanuel Macron announced that France will create
a Space Force Command within its Air Force to “reinforce our knowledge of the
situation in space, [and] better protect our satellites, including in an active manner.”6
Japan has also joined the ranks of those nations pouring more of their defense budget
and resources into space”
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Warrant: States rely on space for national security
Steer, Cassandra. “Why Outer Space Matters for National and International Security”
University of Pennsylvania. Dec 2020.
https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/10053-why-outer-space-matters-fornational-and
“Despite the fact that outer space may only be used for peaceful purposes under the
1965 Outer Space Treaty, most technologically advanced States today have a high
military dependence on space. In other words, space is “militarized,” but not yet
“weaponized.” Space plays a role in States’ intelligence; surveillance and
reconnaissance; disaster response; troop movement tracking on land, at sea, and in
the air; classified and unclassified telecommunications; refugee movement tracking;
identification of evidence of war crimes, genocide, or other mass human rights
violations; drone operations; GPS-guided weapons; and, of course, the recent
phenomenon of cyber-warfare, which is inherently caught up in satellite
technologies.8 The first Gulf war in the 1990s is often referred to as the first “space
war” because it was the first time that there was significant reliance on satellite
imaging and telecommunications as an integral part of “Operation Desert Storm.”9
Since then, naval, air, and army units have relied heavily on multiple forms of space
technology. Space is, therefore, already permeating armed conflict on Earth. If one
wants to cripple an adversary State’s ability to observe, communicate, navigate, and
utilize various weapon systems, it makes sense to target the space-based systems that
are integral to these capabilities. ”
Warrant: Artemis Accords are key to space cooperation
Taichman, Elya. “The Artemis Accords: Employing Space Diplomacy to De-Escalate a
National Security Threat and Promote Space Commercialization a National Security
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Threat and Promote Space Commercialization.” American University. April 2021.
https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/openglobalrights-openpage/can-india-beinternational-human-rights-leader/
“The Artemis Accords serve as the blueprint for this law. However, the Trump
Administration engaged neither China nor Russia as it developed a modus operandi in
space. To date, the United States has no plans to engage either country. 14 This is a
mistake. Without a strong and enforceable international regime, spacefaring nations
are likely to repeat the mistakes of prior eras of exploration – imperialism, arms races,
and total war. Currently, the United States has the upper hand in space technology
and investment over China and Russia. 15 Before either catch up, the United States
should initiate diplomacy to bring them into an Artemis Accords coalition.
Simultaneously, the State Department and NASA should pursue bilateral Artemis
Accords agreements with as many nations as possible. The resulting coalition will
increase pressure on Russia and China to join.”
Warrant: Artemis Accords foster productive interactions
Taichman, Elya. “The Artemis Accords: Employing Space Diplomacy to De-Escalate a
National Security Threat and Promote Space Commercialization a National Security
Threat and Promote Space Commercialization.” American University. April 2021.
https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/openglobalrights-openpage/can-india-beinternational-human-rights-leader/
" Although America remains the most powerful and advanced spacefaring nation, it 184
ought to lead from the front and develop lasting norms and laws for outer space that
ensure peaceful competition. The Artemis Accords are an important first step in
overcoming the obstacles and ambiguities of the OST. However, the Trump
Administration’s failure to engage and bring Russia and China into this system
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threatens national security interests. China is aiming to create its own system with
itself at the top. 185 Russia is ready to partner with them. If left unchecked, this could
yield two unique and contradictory systems.”
Analysis: By highlighting the potential security threats posed by rival countries in space, a
debater can make the case that participating in the Artemis Accords is a necessary step for India
to protect itself and its interests. This argument emphasizes the need for cooperation with
other countries to develop and maintain effective space security measures and to prevent
potential conflicts in space.
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PRO: Space exploration unifies national identity
Argument: Space exploration is important because it helps countries build national identify and
unity.
Warrant: Space is a powerful unifying idea
Staff. “Nationalism, Ideology, and the Cold War Space Race” University of Alberta. Dec
2019.
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/constellations/index.php/constellations/article/
download/29377/21376/77789
“Two of the most enduring legacies of the early decades of the Cold War recognized
today are the rivalries of the United States of America and Soviet Union, as well as the
eventual space race between them, in which each side tried to outdo the other in
spaceflight achievements. Many new technologies and feats saw their births in this
early Cold War period: satellites and the refining of rockets to launch them, as well as
the challenges that came with both sending a man into orbit and to the moon.
However, the question as to why and how these achievements came about is perhaps
more complex; was spaceflight technology driven by a scientific desire for more
knowledge, military capabilities, or as a matter of national prestige? This paper aims
to make a case for the latter. In a time where both the United States and the Soviet
Union were pushing their own agendas onto the world -the United States trying to
shape western Europe to be sympathetic to American freedom and capitalism, and
the Soviets creating their sphere of influence in the East- matters of spaceflight and
technology became mostly about trying to outdo their competitor. In this paper I will
argue that nationalism and ideology, along with the propaganda that came from them,
were the primary motivating factors in the development of spaceflight technology
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during the early few decades of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet
Union.”
Warrant: States weave national narratives out of spaceflight
Staff. “Nationalism, Ideology, and the Cold War Space Race” University of Alberta. Dec
2019.
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/constellations/index.php/constellations/article/
download/29377/21376/77789
“In relation to these spaceflight achievements, with the focus on national prestige and
the resulting rivalry this entailed, these technological accomplishments were taking on
more of a national importance rather than the individual importance of a scientist or
particular scientific field. A good, if perhaps slightly dated, example to explain what I
mean can be seen by looking at individuals like the Englishman Isaac Newton (16421727). Often considered one of or the greatest scientist (natural philosopher) who
ever lived, Newton was a pioneer in mathematics, physics, and optics, wrote
numerous books (his 1689 Principia being especially important), was considered far
more influential than many of his peers, including Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke,
and had a dedicated following of admirers and disciples even long after he died.64 The
difference here is that, while Newton’s work was immeasurably important to many
scientific fields, Newton was not, to my knowledge, consumed by the English
government; they did not take his achievements and declare them to be great English
national achievements, all the while losing who Newton was as a person. Newton
retained his importance to science as an individual, and we recognize this fact to this
day.”
Warrant: National unity is important to India
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Taichman, Elya. “The Artemis Accords: Employing Space Diplomacy to De-Escalate a
National Security Threat and Promote Space Commercialization a National Security
Threat and Promote Space Commercialization.” American University. April 2021.
https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/openglobalrights-openpage/can-india-beinternational-human-rights-leader/
“National integration implies the spirit of one nation despite diversity of castes,
creeds, religions, languages and regions. The feeling of unity and harmony among
societies and communities is essential for the strength and progress of any country. It
deepens mutual relations among all the people of living in a country. In fact, national
integration strengthens the identity of a nation. National integration is very important
for a vast and diverse country like India. To make people aware about the importance of
national unity, National integration Week or Qaumi Ekta Week is celebrated every year
from November 19 to November 25. Moreover, November 19 which is also the birthday
of India’s first woman Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, is also celebrated as National
Integration Day.”
Warrant: India seeks to improve unity and integration
Taichman, Elya. “The Artemis Accords: Employing Space Diplomacy to De-Escalate a
National Security Threat and Promote Space Commercialization a National Security
Threat and Promote Space Commercialization.” American University. April 2021.
https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/openglobalrights-openpage/can-india-beinternational-human-rights-leader/
" India is a country where people of different religions, cultures, traditions, and creeds
live together. So because of these variations, differences among the people over some
issues are likely to emerge. National integration works as a thread which ties the
people in oneness despite all such differences. It the beauty of this country that a
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festival related to any religion is celebrated together with all the communities
participating in it. The people visit each other’s places to meet, greet and congratulate
them on religious occasions. This is why India is known as a country with unity in
diversity. India is a country of immense diversity comprising various languages,
religions and castes, etc. Groups of people in India differ from each other on the basis
of all these features. Moreover, castes are further divided into sub-castes and the
languages are divided into dialects and most importantly religions are also divided into
sub-religions. Thus, it is natural that India presents an endless variety of cultural
patterns because it’s a vast country with a large population. But at the same time, it is
also true that unity amidst diversity is also visible in India.”
Analysis: This argument highlights the idea that space exploration can be a source of inspiration
and motivation for the citizens of India, and can help to create a sense of common purpose and
shared values. Additionally, this argument emphasizes the importance of investing in scientific
and technological progress, which can help to build a stronger and more resilient nation.
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Public Forum Brief
Pro Responses to
Con Arguments
Pro Responses to Con Arguments
March 2023
A/2: Ratifying the Artemis Accords prevents future, better space
agreements
Argument: The Artemis Accords do not conflict with potential future agreements.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are based on the principles in the Outer Space Treaty and are
non-binding
“Research Guides: Outer Space Law: Artemis Accords.” Artemis Accords - Outer Space
Law –Research Guides at University of Connecticut School of Law,
https://libguides.law.uconn.edu/c.php?g=1047257&p=8099421.
“The Artemis Accords establish a set of principles to guide space exploration and
cooperation in the 21st century. The Accords are grounded in the Outer Space Treaty
and was signed by eight founding countries - including the United States - on October
13, 2020. The Accords are non-binding on signatory countries.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords have many signatories and as more countries sign, the more it
strengthens shared common values
Howell, Elizabeth. “Artemis Accords: Why the International Moon Exploration
Framework Matters.” Space.com, Space, 25 Aug. 2022,
https://www.space.com/artemis-accords-moon-space-exploration-importance.
“NASA frames the accords as reinforcing the 1967 Outer Space Treaty that underlies
international space exploration legal norms. The impending launch of Artemis 1, the
spokesperson added, is a turning point during which the agency hopes to establish more
detailed guidelines, while Artemis is still young. "By bringing as many signatories
onboard as early as possible, our hope is to develop a body of knowledge, informed by
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collective operational experiences, that will advance broader goals through
established bodies such as the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
Outer Space [COPUOS]," the spokesperson said. "Even if some countries cannot make
near-term contributions to lunar activities directly, their support of the Artemis
Accords principles will strengthen the need for common values for space exploration
and utilization among the international community." Space lawyer Michael Gold said
he agrees that the accords are meant to foster an environment in space "conducive to
international collaboration, and conducive to growth" with clear rules and
expectations to allow space agencies and companies to conduct business.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords reaffirm the principles of collaboration and cooperation from
the Outer Space Treaty and take it further
Office of the Spokesperson. “Artemis Accords Foster Peaceful Space Cooperation United States Department of State.” U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department
of State, 11 May 2022, https://www.state.gov/artemis-accords-fosterpeaceful-space-cooperation/.
The Artemis Accords bring together nations through a common set of principles to
guide civil space exploration, setting the stage for peaceful, responsible, and
productive cooperation in space affairs. Through robust space diplomacy from the
Department of State and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
and the leadership of Vice President Kamala Harris, the Accords have grown to 19
national signatories from nearly every region of the world. As of May 10, 2022,
signatories include Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Israel, Italy, Japan, the
Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, Singapore,
Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States. By
signing the Artemis Accords, these nations affirm their commitment to key principles,
grounded in the Outer-Space Treaty of 1967: peaceful purposes, transparency,
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interoperability, emergency assistance, registration of space objects, release of
scientific data, protection of space heritage, safe and sustainable use of space
resources, deconfliction of activities, and mitigation of orbital debris, including
disposal of spacecraft. Artemis Accords signatories hope to facilitate further peaceful
collaboration in space, including through NASA’s Artemis program which seeks to put
the first woman and first person of color on the Moon and build the foundation for
human missions to Mars. The Artemis program will be the broadest and most diverse
international human space exploration coalition in history.
Warrant: Bilateral agreements like the ones the Artemis Accords lay out are important for the
Quad as a starting point
Silverstein, Benjamin. “The Quad Needs More than Bilateral Agreements to Achieve Its
Space Goals.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 20 May 2022,
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/05/20/quad-needs-more-thanbilateral-agreements-to-achieve-its-space-goals-pub-87145.
A harmonized set of behaviors demonstrated by all Quad members would set a more
powerful example than a collection of loosely related bilateral commitments. The
Quad need not reinvent the wheel in this endeavor: the U.S.-developed Artemis
Accords can serve as a readymade starting point. A collection of principles based on the
1967 Outer Space Treaty, the accords outline behaviors that support peaceful,
transparent, and cooperative space activities. While the United States, Japan, and
Australia are Artemis partners, it does not appear that India is ripe to sign. India has
ambitions to accomplish its own lunar missions and may not want to be beholden to
another state’s rules on these activities. To reach consensus, the Quad working group
must pare back some Artemis principles to reconcile the proposal with India’s
aspirations.
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Impact: The Artemis Accords reduce the risk of conflict in space
Silverstein, Benjamin. “The Quad Needs More than Bilateral Agreements to Achieve Its
Space Goals.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 20 May 2022,
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/05/20/quad-needs-more-thanbilateral-agreements-to-achieve-its-space-goals-pub-87145.
“The Artemis Accords represent more than just a lunar goal—the fundamental mission
of the partnerships is to reduce the chance that space activities incite conflict. This
goal is congruent with the Quad’s space priorities. Stepping back from long-term lunar
goals can preempt objections within the Quad and help the group ensure the longterm sustainability of space. Separating the general principles from those inextricably
linked to NASA’s lunar plans might facilitate agreement among the Quad,
unencumbered by excess lunar baggage. Coalescing around a handful of progressive
behavioral expectations is the strongest way to advance the Quad’s immediate space
interests.”
Analysis: The Artemis Accords were developed as a way for the United States to reaffirm past
agreements and add an important starting point for the future of agreements in space.
Importantly, the Artemis Accords might be important for preventing conflict in the future. They
are also important as a form of cooperation among the countries that are part of the Quad. As
such, India signing to the Artemis Accords would also act as a way for India to agree with Quad
goals.
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A/2: Space exploration causes climate change, which threatens India
severely
Answer: Space Exploration may reduce climate threats
Warrant: India has space ambitions
Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai. “India's Space Priorities Are Shifting toward National
Security.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1 Sept. 2022,
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/09/01/india-s-space-priorities-areshifting-toward-national-security-pub87809#:~:text=Growing%20Space%20Ambitions,space%20mission%20scheduled
%20for%202023.
“India’s aspirations are reflected in its missions to the Moon and Mars. The Indian
Space Research Organization is also working on Gaganyaan, the country’s first human
space mission scheduled for 2023. Though many have questioned these ventures on
the grounds that India still faces enormous developmental challenges, there are several
reasons to continue these ventures. First, space exploration is the logical next step as
India’s space program matures and gains sophistication. Indian space capabilities have
grown slowly but steadily, with larger boosters and more complex space operations.
Further space exploration to gain greater technological competencies would be the
next logical step.”
Warrant: Resources in space are plentiful
“Resources in Space.” Space Resources - Luxembourg Space Agency, 17 June 2020,
https://space-agency.public.lu/en/space-resources/ressources-in-space.html.
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”The Moon, other planets and asteroids contain a rich diversity of minerals, gases and
water that could be used to provide raw materials, energy and sustenance to sustain
human life and enable exploration deeper into space. The Moon is the closest nearEarth object at a distance of around 385,000 kilometers, bound by the Earth’s gravity.
Analysis of the Moon and the 400 kilos of lunar rock and regolith surface material
already brought back to Earth indicate that it is rich in important and useful elements.
Other NEOs include asteroids that can be rich in carbon (C-type), metals (M-type) or
silica (S-type). The number of near-Earth asteroids already identified now exceeds
20,000 and it continues to rise; more than 1,800 were discovered in 2018 alone.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords create cooperation between countries in space
Office of the Spokesperson. “Artemis Accords Foster Peaceful Space Cooperation United States Department of State.” U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department
of State, 11 May 2022, https://www.state.gov/artemis-accords-fosterpeaceful-space-cooperation/.
The Artemis Accords bring together nations through a common set of principles to
guide civil space exploration, setting the stage for peaceful, responsible, and
productive cooperation in space affairs. Through robust space diplomacy from the
Department of State and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
and the leadership of Vice President Kamala Harris, the Accords have grown to 19
national signatories from nearly every region of the world. As of May 10, 2022,
signatories include Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Israel, Italy, Japan, the
Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, Singapore,
Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States. By
signing the Artemis Accords, these nations affirm their commitment to key principles,
grounded in the Outer-Space Treaty of 1967: peaceful purposes, transparency,
interoperability, emergency assistance, registration of space objects, release of
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scientific data, protection of space heritage, safe and sustainable use of space
resources, deconfliction of activities, and mitigation of orbital debris, including
disposal of spacecraft. Artemis Accords signatories hope to facilitate further peaceful
collaboration in space, including through NASA’s Artemis program which seeks to put
the first woman and first person of color on the Moon and build the foundation for
human missions to Mars. The Artemis program will be the broadest and most diverse
international human space exploration coalition in history.
Warrant: Space resources reduce the effects of climate change
Derr, Emma. “Space Is Crucial to Understanding Climate Change.” Nuclear Energy
Institute, 17 Sept. 2021, https://www.nei.org/news/2021/space-is-crucial-tounderstanding-climate-change.
“Space developments in the last two decades have greatly contributed to our
understanding of our planet’s climate. Satellite imaging, space exploration, and new
technologies give us an idea of the big picture and how we can adapt to address
climate change. For example, satellites in space have played a critical role in our
understanding of the causes of global warming by providing us with a large body of data
to examine the variations in the Earth’s orbit. Data from these capabilities were
essential inputs into the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) recent
report that focused on how the physical science of climate change informs likely impacts
under five different emissions scenarios. The report also found that climate change is
happening quicker than we thought, making the need to reduce emissions imminent.
To address this, space infrastructure such as positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT)
can help identify efficient transportation routes and sources of emissions, ultimately
aiding mitigation efforts.”
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Impact: Space resources would help reverse climate change
Delay, Michael Shilo, and Anastasia Bendebury. “Is Space Mining the Eco-Friendly
Choice?” Astronomy.com, 11 Nov. 2020,
https://astronomy.com/news/2020/11/is-space-mining-the-eco-friendly-choice.
“The lunar surface, in his eyes, is an incredibly efficient place for industrial processes.
Wingo calculates that “the best vacuum you can get on the Earth is about 10-5 Torr.”
(That’s about one one-hundred-millionth the standard pressure at sea level.) “But on
the lunar surface, you have infinite quantities of 10-12 Torr.” Under those conditions,
it’s possible to efficiently process raw lunar regolith — the pulverized rock that covers
the Moon’s surface — into valuable materials. As you “heat regolith to over 2,000
degrees Celsius [3,632 degrees Fahrenheit], the metal oxides it contains dissociate into
metal and oxygen,” says Wingo. “That waste oxygen can be compressed and stored or
used for breathing.” This creates a self-sustaining system that doesn’t entirely avoid
waste products, but still keeps the caustic remnants of mining far from the life-giving
ecosystems upon which we depend for survival. The way Wingo sees it, the Moon
could be a testing grounds for new extraction techniques, power-plants, and assembly
protocols. Proven operations could then radiate outward from Earth and the Moon
into the asteroid belt, where the mineral wealth of the solar system has been
estimated to run into the quintillions of dollars. Though the upfront costs of
establishing extraterrestrial industry is extremely high, the eventual returns could be
beyond the greatest riches the world has ever seen.”
Analysis: Here, the argument is that the Artemis Accords opens the doors for cooperation in
space. And this is important because the resources that are available in space may help reduce
the catastrophic effects of climate change. Space is rich with resources. It might be time for
countries to take advantage of the availability of such resources for the betterment of Earth.
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A/2: The Artemis Accords are a reversion of US policy towards Cold
War era policy
Warrant: The Artemis Accords promote cooperation among signatories
Office of the Spokesperson. “Artemis Accords Foster Peaceful Space Cooperation United States Department of State.” U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department
of State, 11 May 2022, https://www.state.gov/artemis-accords-fosterpeaceful-space-cooperation/.
The Artemis Accords bring together nations through a common set of principles to
guide civil space exploration, setting the stage for peaceful, responsible, and
productive cooperation in space affairs. Through robust space diplomacy from the
Department of State and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
and the leadership of Vice President Kamala Harris, the Accords have grown to 19
national signatories from nearly every region of the world. As of May 10, 2022,
signatories include Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Israel, Italy, Japan, the
Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, Singapore,
Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States. By
signing the Artemis Accords, these nations affirm their commitment to key principles,
grounded in the Outer-Space Treaty of 1967: peaceful purposes, transparency,
interoperability, emergency assistance, registration of space objects, release of
scientific data, protection of space heritage, safe and sustainable use of space
resources, deconfliction of activities, and mitigation of orbital debris, including
disposal of spacecraft. Artemis Accords signatories hope to facilitate further peaceful
collaboration in space, including through NASA’s Artemis program which seeks to put
the first woman and first person of color on the Moon and build the foundation for
human missions to Mars. The Artemis program will be the broadest and most diverse
international human space exploration coalition in history.
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Warrant: Russia and China already diverge from the Artemis Accords
Salter, Alexander William. “The Artemis Accords: A Giant Leap for Space Commerce.”
National Review, National Review, 6 Nov. 2020,
https://www.nationalreview.com/2020/11/the-artemis-accords-a-giant-leap-forspace-commerce/.
“Furthermore, the signatories commit to developing a set of practices for “the
extraction and utilization of space resources,” including cooperation with the United
Nations’ Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. This is the best of both
worlds: a predictable and fair system for deciding who gets to use what in space, which
avoids what could have been a destructive scramble to appropriate celestial real estate.
The Accords were previously criticized by Russia and China as an instrument for de
facto U.S. hegemony in space. Now that the U.S. has respected international partners in
its coalition, these charges carry significantly less weight. Furthermore, Australia’s
signing of the Accords strikes a decisive blow against the claim that the U.S. is looking to
appropriate space by other means. Australia also signed the 1979 Moon Agreement,
which comes down hard against the permissibility of space property rights. Australia
evidently sees no conflict between treating space as the “common heritage of mankind”
while also encouraging celestial resource use. That’s a great sign for profitable activities
in space.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are open for all to sign
Kluger, Jeffrey. “The Artemis Accords Aim to Keep the Moon Peaceful.” Time, Time, 14
Oct 2020, https://time.com/5899880/artemis-accords-moon-peace/.
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“Now that old law has a new follow-up. On Oct. 13, NASA announced the completion of
what it has called the Artemis Accords, an agreement among eight partner nations to
cooperate and collaborate in future explorations of the moon and Mars, especially via
participation in NASA’s Artemis program, which aims to land the first woman and the
next man on the moon before the end of 2024. The seven other signatories to the pact
include the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Japan, Luxembourg, the United Arab
Emirates and Italy. But the accords are, in a sense, open source, with other countries
invited to join if they both agree with the pact’s provisions and contribute to the joint
enterprise in some way.”
Warrant: Having a policy of openness is opposite to the Cold War idea of isolating
Smith, Marcia. “Two African Countries Join Artemis Accords Bringing Total to 23.” News,
13 Dec. 2022, https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/two-african-countries-joinartemis-accords-bringing-total-to-23/.
“The Accords are open to any nation to sign and are not legally binding. When thenNASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine started the ball rolling, the idea was that any
country that wanted to participate in NASA’s Artemis camapign would be required to
sign the Accords. Over the past two years, however, that connection has become more
tenuous. Asked if the U.S. was proactively approaching more countries to convince
them to sign, Melroy replied that while U.S. leadership is important, “this is not about
the U.S. telling everybody what to do.” Rather she hopes all signatories will reach out
to others especially in their regions of the world.”
Impact: The Artemis Accords reduce the risk of conflict in space
Silverstein, Benjamin. “The Quad Needs More than Bilateral Agreements to Achieve Its
Space Goals.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 20 May 2022,
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https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/05/20/quad-needs-more-thanbilateral-agreements-to-achieve-its-space-goals-pub-87145.
“The Artemis Accords represent more than just a lunar goal—the fundamental mission
of the partnerships is to reduce the chance that space activities incite conflict. This
goal is congruent with the Quad’s space priorities. Stepping back from long-term lunar
goals can preempt objections within the Quad and help the group ensure the longterm sustainability of space. Separating the general principles from those inextricably
linked to NASA’s lunar plans might facilitate agreement among the Quad,
unencumbered by excess lunar baggage. Coalescing around a handful of progressive
behavioral expectations is the strongest way to advance the Quad’s immediate space
interests.”
Analysis: The Cold War found alliances pitted against one another – two separate poles. The
Artemis Accords are not a reversion, but a path forward. The Artemis Accords are open for any
country to sign (albeit not China because of other laws in the United States) and allowing others
to freely sign can help create the groundwork for cooperation in space, and thus, a reduction in
conflict.
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A/2: India’s ratification of the non-binding Accords will only send
mixed signals to other countries
Warrant: The Artemis Accords promote cooperation among signatories
Office of the Spokesperson. “Artemis Accords Foster Peaceful Space Cooperation United States Department of State.” U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department
of State, 11 May 2022, https://www.state.gov/artemis-accords-fosterpeaceful-space-cooperation/.
The Artemis Accords bring together nations through a common set of principles to
guide civil space exploration, setting the stage for peaceful, responsible, and
productive cooperation in space affairs. Through robust space diplomacy from the
Department of State and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
and the leadership of Vice President Kamala Harris, the Accords have grown to 19
national signatories from nearly every region of the world. As of May 10, 2022,
signatories include Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Israel, Italy, Japan, the
Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, Singapore,
Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States. By
signing the Artemis Accords, these nations affirm their commitment to key principles,
grounded in the Outer-Space Treaty of 1967: peaceful purposes, transparency,
interoperability, emergency assistance, registration of space objects, release of
scientific data, protection of space heritage, safe and sustainable use of space
resources, deconfliction of activities, and mitigation of orbital debris, including
disposal of spacecraft. Artemis Accords signatories hope to facilitate further peaceful
collaboration in space, including through NASA’s Artemis program which seeks to put
the first woman and first person of color on the Moon and build the foundation for
human missions to Mars. The Artemis program will be the broadest and most diverse
international human space exploration coalition in history.
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Warrant: The Artemis Accords are open for all to sign
Kluger, Jeffrey. “The Artemis Accords Aim to Keep the Moon Peaceful.” Time, Time, 14
Oct. 2020, https://time.com/5899880/artemis-accords-moon-peace/.
“Now that old law has a new follow-up. On Oct. 13, NASA announced the completion of
what it has called the Artemis Accords, an agreement among eight partner nations to
cooperate and collaborate in future explorations of the moon and Mars, especially via
participation in NASA’s Artemis program, which aims to land the first woman and the
next man on the moon before the end of 2024. The seven other signatories to the pact
include the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Japan, Luxembourg, the United Arab
Emirates and Italy. But the accords are, in a sense, open source, with other countries
invited to join if they both agree with the pact’s provisions and contribute to the joint
enterprise in some way.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are non-binding and the message of cooperation in space is clear
Smith, Marcia. “Two African Countries Join Artemis Accords Bringing Total to 23.” News,
13 Dec. 2022, https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/two-african-countries-joinartemis-accords-bringing-total-to-23/.
“The Accords are open to any nation to sign and are not legally binding. When thenNASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine started the ball rolling, the idea was that any
country that wanted to participate in NASA’s Artemis camapign would be required to
sign the Accords. Over the past two years, however, that connection has become more
tenuous. Asked if the U.S. was proactively approaching more countries to convince
them to sign, Melroy replied that while U.S. leadership is important, “this is not about
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the U.S. telling everybody what to do.” Rather she hopes all signatories will reach out
to others especially in their regions of the world.”
Warrant: India is actively seeking partnerships outside of China
Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai. “India's Space Priorities Are Shifting toward National
Security.”
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1 Sept. 2022,
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/09/01/india-s-space-priorities-areshifting-toward-national-security-pub87809#:~:text=Growing%20Space%20Ambitions,space%20mission%20scheduled
%20for%202023.
“India also is building partnerships with other states to counter China’s prowess. New
Delhi has established or strengthened space security partnerships not only with the
Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (the Quad, which also includes the United States, Japan,
Australia), but also with France and others. While its bilateral partnerships with Japan,
France, and the United States have involved both civil and security developments, the
Quad as a group has also emphasized consultations on norms of responsible behavior
and regulations, with an eye clearly on China. This is especially important from an
Indian perspective, as the move marks a departure from the country’s traditional
partnership with nonaligned G21 countries, which have generally insisted on legally
binding, verifiable mechanisms on space global governance rather than just norms. This
was India’s position too, but the growing fear of China has forced it to shed some of its
hesitancies and work with the Quad on developing space norms and regulations.”
Impact: The Artemis Accords reduce the risk of conflict in space
Silverstein, Benjamin. “The Quad Needs More than Bilateral Agreements to Achieve Its
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Space Goals.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 20 May 2022,
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/05/20/quad-needs-more-thanbilateral-agreements-to-achieve-its-space-goals-pub-87145.
“The Artemis Accords represent more than just a lunar goal—the fundamental mission
of the partnerships is to reduce the chance that space activities incite conflict. This
goal is congruent with the Quad’s space priorities. Stepping back from long-term lunar
goals can preempt objections within the Quad and help the group ensure the longterm sustainability of space. Separating the general principles from those inextricably
linked to NASA’s lunar plans might facilitate agreement among the Quad,
unencumbered by excess lunar baggage. Coalescing around a handful of progressive
behavioral expectations is the strongest way to advance the Quad’s immediate space
interests.”
Analysis: The Artemis Accords are clear with their intent. The Accords reaffirm past policies
that protect space and are a way for the Quad to cooperate with one another. Moreover,
signing the Accords would send a clear signal to countries around the world that India wants to
cooperate in space and wants to counter China.
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A/2: Ratifying the Artemis Accords weakens existing agreements
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are based on the principles in the Outer Space Treaty
“Research Guides: Outer Space Law: Artemis Accords.” Artemis Accords - Outer Space
Law – Research Guides at University of Connecticut School of Law,
https://libguides.law.uconn.edu/c.php?g=1047257&p=8099421.
“The Artemis Accords establish a set of principles to guide space exploration and
cooperation in the 21st century. The Accords are grounded in the Outer Space Treaty
and was signed by eight founding countries - including the United States - on October
13, 2020. The Accords are non-binding on signatory countries.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords have many signatories and as more countries sign, the more it
strengthens shared common values
Howell, Elizabeth. “Artemis Accords: Why the International Moon Exploration
Framework
Matters.” Space.com, Space, 25 Aug. 2022, https://www.space.com/artemisaccords-moon-space-exploration-importance.
“NASA frames the accords as reinforcing the 1967 Outer Space Treaty that underlies
international space exploration legal norms. The impending launch of Artemis 1, the
spokesperson added, is a turning point during which the agency hopes to establish more
detailed guidelines, while Artemis is still young. "By bringing as many signatories
onboard as early as possible, our hope is to develop a body of knowledge, informed by
collective operational experiences, that will advance broader goals through
established bodies such as the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
Outer Space [COPUOS]," the spokesperson said. "Even if some countries cannot make
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near-term contributions to lunar activities directly, their support of the Artemis
Accords principles will strengthen the need for common values for space exploration
and utilization among the international community." Space lawyer Michael Gold said
he agrees that the accords are meant to foster an environment in space "conducive to
international collaboration, and conducive to growth" with clear rules and
expectations to allow space agencies and companies to conduct business.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords reinforce old rules and promote the creation of new ones
Coldewey, Devin. “NASA's 'Artemis Accords' Set Forth New and Old Rules for Outer
Space Cooperation.” TechCrunch, 15 May 2020,
https://techcrunch.com/2020/05/15/nasas-artemis-accords-set-forth-newand-old-rules-for-outer-space-cooperation/.
The Artemis Accords both reiterate the importance of those old rules and conventions
and introduce a handful of new ones. They are only described in general today, as the
specifics will likely need to be hashed out in shared talks over months or years. The
NASA statement describing the rules and the reasoning behind each is short and
obviously meant to be understood by a lay audience, so you can read through it here.
But I’ve condensed the main points into bullets below for more streamlined
consumption. First, the rules that could be considered new. NASA and partner nations
agree to: Publicly describe policies and plans in a transparent manner. Publicly provide
location and general nature of operations to create “Safety Zones” and avoid conflicts.
Use international open standards, develop new such standards if necessary and
support interoperability as far as is practical. Release scientific data publicly in a full
and timely manner. Protect sites and artifacts with historic value. (For example, Apollo
program landing sites, which have no real lawful protection.) Plan for the mitigation of
orbital debris, including safe and timely disposal of end-of-life spacecraft. As you can
imagine, each of these opens a new can of worms — what constitutes transparent?
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What operations must be disclosed, and under what timeline? Who determines what
has “historic value”? Anything arguable will be argued over for a long time, but setting
some baseline expectations like “don’t be secretive,” or “don’t steal the Apollo 13
lander” is a great place to start the conversation. It’s a new dawn for space exploration!
Today I’m honored to announce the #Artemis Accords agreements — establishing a
shared vision and set of principles for all international partners that join in humanity’s
return to the Moon. We go, together: https://t.co/MnnskOqSbU
pic.twitter.com/aA3jJbzXv2 — Jim Bridenstine (@JimBridenstine) May 15, 2020
Meanwhile, the Accords also reaffirm NASA’s commitment to existing treaties and
guidelines. It and partners will: Conduct all activities only for peaceful purposes, per
the Outer Space Treaty. Take all reasonable steps to render assistance to astronauts in
distress, per the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts and other agreements.
Register objects sent into space, per the Registration Convention. Perform space
resource extraction and utilization according to the Outer Space Treaty Articles II, VI
and XI. Inform partner nations regarding “safety zones” and coordinate according to
Outer Space Treaty Article IX. Mitigate debris per guidelines set by U.N Committee on
the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords create a private commercial code for space, which is important
Salter, Alexander William. “The Artemis Accords: A Giant Leap for Space Commerce.”
National Review, National Review, 6 Nov. 2020,
https://www.nationalreview.com/2020/11/the-artemis-accords-a-giant-leap-forspace-commerce/.
“History has seen many institutions for defining and enforcing property rights that do
not rely on governments. Perhaps the most famous is the ancient “law merchant,” a
private and self-enforcing commercial code that flourished during the High Middle Ages
to facilitate international trade. The rules governing commerce between nations,
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themselves derived from the law merchant, are a perfect example of non-governmental
law. By definition, no one government has clear jurisdiction. Even today, international
trade is largely governed and arbitrated privately. A private commercial code for space
is a promising option for supporting nascent space economies without violating the
non-appropriation requirement in the Outer Space Treaty. In fact, such a code would
be a welcome complement to ongoing efforts at international cooperation and
agreements, as represented by the Accords.”
Impact: Private companies are important for the development of the space economy
Ellerbeck, Stefan. “The Space Economy Is Booming. What Benefits Can It Bring to
Earth?” World Economic Forum, 19 Oct. 2022,
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/10/space-economy-industrybenefits/.
“The term “space economy” covers the “goods and services produced in space for use
in space, such as mining the moon or asteroids for material”, according to the Harvard
Business Review. The OECD defines it as any activity that involves “exploring,
researching, understanding, managing, and utilizing space”. The Space Foundation’s The
Space Report 2022 estimates that the space economy was worth $469 billion in 2021 –
a 9% increase from a year earlier. And over 1,000 spacecraft were put into orbit in the
first six months of this year, the report says – more than were launched in the first 52
years of space exploration (1957-2009). But the space sector is not only a growth
sector in itself – it’s also proving a key enabler of growth and efficiency in other
sectors. The European Space Agency says the deployment of new space infrastructure
has brought benefits to industries including meteorology, energy,
telecommunications, insurance, transport, maritime, aviation and urban
development. Most of this money came from the private sector rather than the public
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sector, the report says, estimating that more than $224 billion was generated from
products and services delivered by space companies.”
Analysis: The Artemis Accords opens the door for private companies to become involved in
space. This is really important for the future of space because private companies have been the
ones that have helped develop the infrastructure and space technology that has created the
new, growing space economy. The rules created in the past have helped lay important
foundations, but the Artemis Accords take it further and strengthen the old rules.
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A/2: Ratification decks India’s soft power
Answer: Indian Soft power is enhanced by the Artemis Accords
Warrant: 21 states have signed all with the intent to cooperate with each other in space
US Department of State. “First Meeting of Artemis Accords Signatories.” US Department
of State, 19 Sept. 2022, https://www.state.gov/first-meeting-of-artemis-accordssignatories/.
The Artemis Accords, which are grounded in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, establish a
common framework to guide responsible space exploration. The Accords’ principles
reflect the signatories’ mutual dedication to the responsible and sustainable
exploration and utilization of space. The Department of State, which co-leads the
Artemis Accords for the United States together with NASA, was represented by Principal
Deputy Assistant Secretary (PDAS) of State for Oceans and International Environmental
and Scientific Affairs Jennifer R. Littlejohn. PDAS Littlejohn highlighted the diversity of
signatories in their space capabilities and interests and encouraged all spacefaring
nations to sign the Accords. Noting NASA’s objective to land the first female and the
first person of color on the Moon, she emphasized that both our space missions and our
space diplomacy efforts must fully represent the people of the United States. Diversity is
essential for U.S. space objectives as outlined in the United States Space Priorities
Framework and the Interagency Roadmap to Support Space-Related STEM Education
and Workforce. Launched by eight nations on October 13, 2020, 21 countries have now
signed the Accords: Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, France, Israel, Italy,
Japan, the Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Romania,
Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and
the United States. Together, we are working to increase the predictability,
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transparency, safety, and sustainability of human space exploration, and to ensure
space exploration is carried out for the benefit of all countries and of all humankind.
Warrant: Scientific cooperation massively bolsters soft power.
Bettine, Marco, Lia Picoli, and Adriana Bin. "Gaining soft power by fostering science,
technology, and innovation: dilemmas in international relations." Sociol Int J 6.2
(2022): 67-72. http://nopr.niscpr.res.in/bitstream/123456789/59019/1/SD-57.pdf
Literature on the roles of STI as sources of Soft Power has gained increasing attention in
recent years. The primary dimension of this discussion is based on science diplomacy,
which comprehends international cooperation through the scientific and technological
exchange. The idea is that this kind of cooperation builds trust and transparency
outside the realms of politics and can contribute when diplomatic relations are
threatened.12–14 In a similar vein15,16 argue about the importance of international
research institutions (such as the European Organization for Nuclear Research, CERN, or
the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, ACIAR, just to bring two
examples of the authors) in strengthening scientific ties and providing know-how (and
occasionally associated policies). Quevedo15claims that these organizations must adapt
to the geopolitical and developmental realities and learn to operate in a politically
neutral management model, having a crucial role in uniting countries and cultures.
Nevertheless, science diplomacy and its influence on gaining Soft Power go beyond
scientific cooperation itself. 17brings the complementary concept of engineering
diplomacy, which comprehends partnerships among countries to implement
engineering and technology-related projects, bridging the gaps between countries. 2
identified six patterns by which advances in science and technology influence
international relations. The author considers science as knowledge based on
experiments and theories and the communication and working processes of the
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scientific community. In turn, technology is defined as applying technical knowledge
for a practical purpose, encompassing both simple and advanced technologies.
Warrant: Space diplomacy is key in bolstering India’s soft power by creating international
cooperation in key space sectors
Mohandas, Pradeep. “Should India Sign the Artemis Accords?” The Wire Science, 29
May 2021, https://science.thewire.in/aerospace/should-india-sign-the-artemisaccords/.
India is sharpening the Indian Space Research Organisation’s focus on R&D and
advanced missions. Given this, it’s essential that India be an early participant in the
Artemis Accords, so that it can gain lessons and expertise from other countries that
are members of the accords. This could be things like robotics from Canada, sample
return and avionics from Japan, and ground station and deep space network expertise
from the US and Australia. The accords form a natural extension of the Quad’s Critical
and Emerging Technologies Working Group. The US, Japan and Australia are already
signatories of the accords. India’s addition to the accords would provide a framework
for space cooperation among these Quad countries, and could also be extended to
other critical and emerging technologies. India has a lot to offer and a lot to gain from
strengthening this connection. Signing the accords would make it easier to collaborate
with other signatories. By being a part of the accords, India’s space companies could
become part of a global supply chain, along with Indian SMEs and NewSpace startups.
This would also help attract investment capital towards Indian space startups and lead
to flow of capital into India.
Impact: Soft power driven by the Artemis Accords bolsters India’s space related education
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Adhikari, Anasuya, and Birbal Saha. "Projecting Soft Power: The Case of India." Asian
Journal of Education and Social Studies 38.4 (2023): 1-6.
http://sciencerepository.uk/id/eprint/1810/1/829-Article%20Text-1385-1-1020230125.pdf
Indian Universities and Think-Tanks play a very vital role in India’s foreign policy
promoting soft power- while one provides formal education, the other plays a keen
role in informing and influencing policy making. Human resource power finds its
interchangeability with Education. Power of knowledge is speedily taking over the
battlefield and is engrossing itself as a global power. Hence the power of a nation is
built up and determined by the ability of its human resources. Culture, social values and
spiritualism has posed themselves as explicit element of magnetism for the world. Its
prior planning, strategic and chalked out presentation of various perspectives can
mold and create an ecosystem of cooperation and friendship, at the same time
promoting India’s soft power influence. The first Prime Minister, Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru, had a vital role to play here in terms of his understanding of international
relation scholarship in India, “such was the effect of Nehru’s aura, expertise and
knowledge about international affairs, that domestic academia remained trapped in a
virtual intellectual vacuum sustained by the belief that they could not engage as equals
given his understanding of foreign policy, nor offer critiques” [8]. Thereafter, it becomes
essential for us to acknowledge Nehru’s expertise not only as a policy maker but as an
institution builder paving way to India’s soft power strategy in international platform.
Under the patronage of Nehru, Indian Council for World Affairs (ICWA) was founded
under Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru in 1943. ICWA has played a critical role in setting up the
International School of International Studies (ISIS) in 1955 as a part of the University of
Delhi (presently under Jawaharlal Nehru University as School of International Studies).
The Center for Policy Research (CPR) has also reinforced its presence among the thinktanks which constitute a healthy mix of academics and experienced policy makers
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Analysis: Pro should argue that ratification of the Artemis Accords actually bolsters soft power,
rather than reduce it. This is driven by cooperating with the 21 other states who actively
participate in the accords. This allows the pro to take all of the impacts that con read for
themselves, as it is through ratification that soft power increases.
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A/2: Participation bolsters American commercial interests at India’s
expense
Answer: India’s economy will grow from ratification of the Artemis Accords
Warrant: India will receive more technological advancements from other states like the US
based on the structure of the Accords
O'Brien, Dennis. “The Artemis Accords: Repeating the Mistakes of the Age of
Exploration.” The Space Review: The Artemis Accords: Repeating the Mistakes of
the Age of Exploration, 29 June 2020,
https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1.
Share technology as part of sharing the benefits of outer space with less
technologically advanced countries (4.1-4.2) The full Model Agreement is available
here. Most of these obligations are already established in other widely adopted
treaties, i.e., the Outer Space Treaty, the Rescue Agreement, the Registration
Convention, and the Liability Convention. Even the Artemis Accords acknowledge many
of them. But there are some that are not acknowledged, such as sharing the discovery
of resources, protecting the natural environment, and sharing technology. The Accords
are also silent as to whether its obligations will apply to private parties. Sharing
technology is not specified in the Moon Treaty, but some view it as included in Article 4:
“The exploration and use of the moon shall be the province of all mankind and shall be
carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their
degree of economic or scientific development.” The “Building Blocks” of The Hague
Spaces Resources International Working Group call for sharing technology on a
“mutually-accepted basis”.[15] The Working Group members were “stakeholders of
space resource activities and represent consortium partners, industry, States,
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international organizations, academia and NGOs.”[16] It is significant that stakeholders
from the private sector are willing to consider the sharing of technology.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords lower the cost to develop in outer space, benefitting India
Memme Onwudiwe and Kwame Newton. “Africa and the Artemis Accords: A Review of
Space Regulations and Strategy for African Capacity Building in the New Space
Economy.” New Space.Mar 2021.38-48. http://doi.org/10.1089/space.2020.0043
The Artemis Accords are to be agreed upon bilaterally with NASA partners; it is unclear
how many, if any, AfSAs are part of ongoing negotiations. Despite the potential lack of
input from AfSAs, the Accords represent a shift in the development of a global space
economy. On one hand, the Accords can be seen as an amazing opportunity for African
Nations to be more engaged in the global space economy as it, among numerous other
things, lowers the barrier cost of entry for space faring nations by creating an
environment that fosters security and economic growth. These benefits could be
crucial as even domestically on earth, African nations have struggled to create robust
environments for economic growth, and therefore, the shared ground rules and
regulated economic zones offered to Artemis member states make the Accords an
attractive opportunity.
Warrant: The goal of the Artemis Accords is to foster multilateral cooperation in outer space,
not prioritizing any one member’s interests
Medina, Monica. “Where No One Has Gone before: The Final Frontier for Diplomacy United States Department of State.” U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department
of State, 2 Feb. 2023, https://www.state.gov/final_frontier_diplomacy.
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A centerpiece of the United States’ civil space diplomacy is the Artemis Accords, a
multilateral, non-binding declaration of principles and proposed practices grounded in
the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. Jointly led by the State Department and NASA, the
Accords set the stage for safe and transparent lunar exploration and promote peaceful
cooperation in space exploration and scientific endeavors. The 23 Artemis Accords
signatories represent a diverse set of nations with a wide range of space capabilities
and interests. Most recently, Nigeria and Rwanda became the first two African nations
to sign the Artemis Accords last December. This year is shaping up to be another
important one for space diplomacy, where we will build on the progress and
momentum of the past several years through such major initiatives as:
Warrant: India needs to work with other nations by engaging in programs like the Artemis
Accords to achieve its own space goals
Ramanathan, Aditya, et al. “India and the Artemis Accords” . July 2021,
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/623060e
18f0ff4552955f271/1647337698479/India-and-the-Artemis-Accords.pdf.
India’s own ambitions in space go well beyond launching satellites to lunar and
interplanetary travel. Its Chandrayaan-2 probe to the Moon’s South Pole ended in a
crash landing but ISRO remains committed to lunar exploration. It’s next mission to the
moon is Chandrayaan3, which is scheduled to launch in the first half of 2022. The
project will consist of a stationary lander and a lunar rover and will use the existing
orbiter from Chandrayaan-2. Despite this progress, technological and budget hurdles
will keep India’s lunar programme modest unless it collaborates with other
spacefaring states. India will also have to come to terms with the prospect of the
moon becoming a significant locus of activity, thus requiring some widely accepted
norms and rules. India’s options can be broadly placed in three categories
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Impact: The Artemis Accords bolster India space development
Upadhyaya, Shrikrishna. “Takshashila Issue Brief - India & Artemis Programme:
Next Step For Space Cooperation?” The Takshashila Institution, The Takshashila
Institution, 7 Feb. 2023, https://takshashila.org.in/research/india-amp-artemisprogramme-next-step-for-space-cooperation.
The participating countries in the Artemis Programme, which today includes the United
Kingdom, France, and Canada, apart from the United States, offer an opportunity to
India to boost its lunar exploration capacity through collaboration. Joining the Artemis
Programme could also benefit India in terms of opportunities for co-financing lunar
and other space projects, and gaining access to critical space technologies. Since India
has also opened up its space sector to private enterprises, Artemis can pave the way for
cross-border commercial opportunities. It opens up the possibility of creating supply
chains and technology transfers between India and other participating countries.
Analysis: The pro should demonstrate that the Artemis Accords can be lead by the US without
having US-centric goals. This is demonstrated through mechanisms within the Accords
themselves, as well as stated policy goals for the future. India can greatly benefit from
participation, and in fact will not achieve their goals without it. Even if the US gets more out of
it than India does, it still provides one of the only ways for India to meet their goals.
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A/2: Indian Space Exploration is best achieved without the Artemis
Accords
Answer: India needs access to the international community to pursue further space interests.
Warrant: India is lagging behind space development now
Kumar, Chetan. “India Space Spend Improves Marginally, Still Lags China, US.” The Times
of India, TOI, 29 Jan. 2021, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/indiaspace-spend-improves-marginally-still-lags-china-us/articleshow/80588437.cms.
India’s space expenditure improved marginally in 2019 to touch 1.8 billion compared to
1.5 billion in 2018, but the country still lags behind three big space faring nations, the
US, China, and Russia, the Economic Survey 2020-21 released Friday shows. The US
spent 10 times more than India, while China’s expenditure was six times more.
Comparatively the countries had spend 11 and seven times more than India as per the
previous survey released in January 2020. The Chinese government has been
aggressively pushing its space programme for both creating newer technologies and
for diplomacy in the last few years, while the US programme has been consistently
growing
Warrant: Artemis accords foster international space cooperation
Potter, Sean. “NASA, International Partners Advance Cooperation with Artemis
Accords.” NASA, NASA, 13 Oct. 2020, , https://www.nasa.gov/pressrelease/nasa-international-partners-advance-cooperation-with-first-signings-ofartemis-accords/.
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International cooperation on and around the Moon as part of the Artemis program is
taking a step forward today with the signing of the Artemis Accords between NASA
and several partner countries. The Artemis Accords establish a practical set of
principles to guide space exploration cooperation among nations participating in the
agency’s 21st century lunar exploration plans. “Artemis will be the broadest and most
diverse international human space exploration program in history, and the Artemis
Accords are the vehicle that will establish this singular global coalition,” said NASA
Administrator Jim Bridenstine. “With today’s signing, we are uniting with our partners
to explore the Moon and are establishing vital principles that will create a safe,
peaceful, and prosperous future in space for all of humanity to enjoy.” While NASA is
leading the Artemis program, which includes sending the first woman and next man to
the surface of the Moon in 2024, international partnerships will play a key role in
achieving a sustainable and robust presence on the Moon later this decade while
preparing to conduct a historic human mission to Mars.
Warrant: Artemis accords enhance space development and assistance among member nations
NASA. “Fact Sheet Artemis Accords: United for Peaceful Exploration of Deep Space.” US
Embassy & Consulate in Brazil, No Date https://br.usembassy.gov/wpcontent/uploads/sites/32/artemis-eng-1.pdf.
INTEROPERABILITY: Interoperability of systems is critical to ensure safe and robust
space exploration. The Principle of Interoperability calls for the U.S. and partner
nations to utilize existing international standards, develop new standards when
necessary, and strive to support interoperability. • EMERGENCY ASSISTANCE: Providing
emergency assistance to those in need is a cornerstone of any responsible civil space
program. Therefore, the Artemis Accords reinforce each partner’s commitment to the
Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of
Objects Launched into Outer Space
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Warrant: Artemis Accords bolster India space development
Upadhyaya, Shrikrishna. “Takshashila Issue Brief - India & Artemis Programme:
Next Step For Space Cooperation?” The Takshashila Institution, The Takshashila
Institution, 7 Feb. 2023, https://takshashila.org.in/research/india-amp-artemisprogramme-next-step-for-space-cooperation.
The participating countries in the Artemis Programme, which today includes the United
Kingdom, France, and Canada, apart from the United States, offer an opportunity to
India to boost its lunar exploration capacity through collaboration. Joining the Artemis
Programme could also benefit India in terms of opportunities for co-financing lunar
and other space projects, and gaining access to critical space technologies. Since India
has also opened up its space sector to private enterprises, Artemis can pave the way for
cross-border commercial opportunities. It opens up the possibility of creating supply
chains and technology transfers between India and other participating countries.
Impact: Indian space development creates massive technological benefits
Rajagopalan, Rajeswari. “India's Space Strategy: Geopolitics Is the Driver.” ISPI, 9 Dec.
2022, https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/indias-space-strategygeopolitics-driver-28607.
A second important benefit is the spin-off technological benefits from such exploratory
missions. For instance, India’s deep space communication capabilities are so much
more significant today that it does not have to possibly rely on space agencies of other
countries for this purpose. India’s space programme has also been conditioned by the
changing security environment. Given the larger trends in global space as well as in
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India’s neighbourhood, India had begun developing certain military space capabilities
from early 2010s. India launched its first dedicated military satellite, GSAT-7, for the
Indian Navy in August 2013. The satellite was launched for enhancing space-based
maritime communications and has been important in augmenting India’s maritime
security capabilities, especially given the security developments in the Indian Ocean
Region (IOR). The GSAT-7 launch removes the Indian Navy’s dependency on Inmarsat, a
company that provides communication services to its ships. In August 2015, India
launched another dedicated military satellite, the GSAT-6, capable of providing secure
and quality communication for the Indian Armed Forces. Continuing the series of
geosynchronous communications satellites for strategic purposes, ISRO launched
GSAT-7A satellite in December 2018, catering to the communications requirement of
the Indian Air Force and the Indian Army. While the satellite will be primarily operated
by the Air Force and will cater to the needs of the Air Force, 30 percent of its capacity
will be given to the Indian Army. Further, in April 2019, the ISRO launched EMISAT
(Electro-Magnetic Intelligence Satellite) for the Indian Armed Forces. The satellite was
jointly developed by ISRO and the Defence Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO) in an effort to strengthen the military’s ability to intercept enemy radars by
detecting the electromagnetic rays they emit.
Analysis: The pro should argue that in order for India to catch up in the space sector,
cooperation through the Artemis Accords is key. Because the Accords create international
cooperation, India gets unique benefits from membership. These can range from any space
development-based impacts.
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A/2: Ratification poses a security risk
Answer: Ratification does not pose a security risk.
Warrant: All shared knowledge is done on a good-faith basis. This means that there is not a
legal requirement to share information
NASA. “Artemis Accords.” NASA, NASA, 13 Oct. 2020,
https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html.
The Signatories are committed to transparency in the broad dissemination of
information regarding their national space policies and space exploration plans in
accordance with their national rules and regulations. The Signatories plan to share
scientific information resulting from their activities pursuant to these Accords with the
public and the international scientific community on a good-faith basis, and consistent
with Article XI of the Outer Space Treaty.
Warrant: India is ramping up cybersecurity efforts on a global scale
Gargeyas, Arjun, and Sameer Patil. “India's Cybersecurity Priorities for G20 Presidency.”
ORF, 10 Jan. 2023, https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/indiascybersecurity-priorities-for-g20-presidency/.
Defending against cybercrimes: Speaking at the 90th General Assembly of Interpol in
October 2022, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi stressed upon the necessity of a
global effort to fight against criminal activities. India now has the opportunity to
spearhead a global partnership to build a safe cyberspace for economic activities and
advance the digital economy. As part of this, New Delhi must examine the threat
implications of ransomware and distributed denial-of-service attacks on critical
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infrastructure and digital public platforms and convene a cybersecurity dialogue
focusing on thwarting cybercrimes and ransomware threats. Another potential focus
can be on cyber forensic capacity building to investigate darknet activities and
cryptocurrency transactions, which abet cybercrimes. Such an initiative will build on
the G20 member states’ expertise in cyber forensics and specifically on India’s recently
expanding domestic capacity in this field. Augmentation of cybersecurity skills: A
significant vulnerability that currently exists is the wide skilling gap among regular users
and professionals vis-à-vis cyber threats. In addition, with diverse actors like financial
entities, government agencies and law enforcement agencies storing their data on the
cloud, there is a need for improved cybersecurity measures to safeguard sensitive
information. This requires adequate cybersecurity experts and those who can contribute
towards building capacity or expertise in this area. As part of its G20 presidency, India
can introduce a roadmap to impart or teach cybersecurity skills to different segments
of society. While it is hard to curate a single cybersecurity skilling programme for people
of all age groups and backgrounds, G20 can envision different strategies to introduce
cyber skilling programmes across the member states and their societies. The collective
responsibility of the G20 states would be to equip their citizens with the necessary skill
sets to recognise, report and prevent potential cyber threats and avoid data breaches.
Warrant: India needs to collaborate in order to pursue its space goals
Ramanathan, Aditya, et al. India and the Artemis Accords . July 2021,
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/618a55c4cb03246776b68559/t/623060e
18f0ff4552955f271/1647337698479/India-and-the-Artemis-Accords.pdf.
India’s own ambitions in space go well beyond launching satellites to lunar and
interplanetary travel. Its Chandrayaan-2 probe to the Moon’s South Pole ended in a
crash landing but ISRO remains committed to lunar exploration. It’s next mission to the
moon is Chandrayaan3, which is scheduled to launch in the first half of 2022. The
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project will consist of a stationary lander and a lunar rover and will use the existing
orbiter from Chandrayaan-2. Despite this progress, technological and budget hurdles
will keep India’s lunar programme modest unless it collaborates with other
spacefaring states. India will also have to come to terms with the prospect of the
moon becoming a significant locus of activity, thus requiring some widely accepted
norms and rules. India’s options can be broadly placed in three categories
Warrant: The Artemis Accord will make decisions with national security in mind
Howell, Elizabeth. “Artemis Accords: Why the International Moon Exploration
Framework Matters.” Space.com, Space, 25 Aug. 2022,
https://space.com/artemis-accords-moon-space-exploration-importance.
"All of these are important precedents," Gold said of the accords. Bringing in other
countries aims to assure stability of Artemis, since international programs tend to have
more financial and technological resources, he added. But further stability, Gold said,
would come if national security programs and commercial space programs could also
align on global norms of behavior. "So much of our conflict on Earth is caused by
misperception and miscommunications, and if we're going to get into a conflict, at the
very least let's have it be intentional," Gold said. For example, he said that national
security norms should govern issues such as how close is too close with regard to
satellites approaching each other in Earth orbit. Such encounters are more frequent
now than ever due to growing broadband constellations like SpaceX's Starlink and
periodic space debris events, like a much-criticized Russian anti-satellite test in
November 2021. "I believe if we're explicit, if we're public about these things, that will
give us the best chance that we have of avoiding conflict, particularly via mistakes and
misperceptions," Gold said. He called for UN's COPUOS to open up seats for private
sector companies to allow for "government and commercial [entities] to work
together."
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Impact: The Artemis Accords create the best chance for peaceful global space development
Office of the Spokesperson. “Artemis Accords Foster Peaceful Space Cooperation United States Department of State.” U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department
of State, 27 Oct. 2022, https://www.state.gov/artemis-accords-foster-peacefulspace-cooperation/.
The Artemis Accords bring together nations through a common set of principles to
guide civil space exploration, setting the stage for peaceful, responsible, and
productive cooperation in space affairs. Through robust space diplomacy from the
Department of State and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
and the leadership of Vice President Kamala Harris, the Accords have grown to 19
national signatories from nearly every region of the world. As of May 10, 2022,
signatories include Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Israel, Italy, Japan, the
Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, Singapore,
Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States. By
signing the Artemis Accords, these nations affirm their commitment to key principles,
grounded in the Outer-Space Treaty of 1967: peaceful purposes, transparency,
interoperability, emergency assistance, registration of space objects, release of scientific
data, protection of space heritage, safe and sustainable use of space resources,
deconfliction of activities, and mitigation of orbital debris, including disposal of
spacecraft. Artemis Accords signatories hope to facilitate further peaceful
collaboration in space, including through NASA’s Artemis program which seeks to put
the first woman and first person of color on the Moon and build the foundation for
human missions to Mars. The Artemis program will be the broadest and most diverse
international human space exploration coalition in history. The principles of the Artemis
Accords play a significant role in our civil space cooperation and diplomacy efforts,
and cooperation between Accords signatories is not limited to the Artemis program.
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Such collaboration between signatories ranges from space and Earth science to
aeronautics research. The United States will continue encouraging more nations to
sign the Artemis Accords, and in doing so, build a more peaceful, cooperative space
future.
Analysis: These responses provide a few ways of delinking from the security risk argument
posed by con. Truly sensitive information does not have to be shared by India, cybersecurity
measures are increasing substantially, and the Accords are prioritizing national security. That
allows for a much more peaceful approach to outer space.
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A/2: Ratification worsens Sino-Indian relations
Answer: Sino-Indian relations will not lead to conflict
Warrant: The India-China border is stable now. Only disturbing those borders can disrupt
relations, not ratifying the Artemis Accords.
Economic Times “China-India border situation stable at the moment: Chinese Vice FM
Sun Weidong,” January 26, 2023,
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/china-india-bordersituation-stable-at-the-moment-chinese-vice-fm-sunweidong/articleshow/97337540.cms
Calling the China-India border situation "stable at the moment", Chinese Vice Foreign
Minister Sun Weidong told Indian Ambassador to China Pradeep Kumar Rawat that the
two sides should stand high and look far, and view bilateral relations from a
comprehensive and long-term perspective. Sun said that as the situation at the border
is currently stable, both India and China should implement the important consensus
between the leaders of the two nations, and also strengthen communication, the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China said in an official statement. "The China-India
border situation is generally stable at the moment, and is switching from emergency
response to normalized management and control," Weidong said. Sun Weidong, took
the position of deputy foreign minister of China in November after completing his
tenure in India as China's Ambassador for three years. Sun met Indian Ambassador to
China Pradeep Kumar Rawat on January 18 and briefed him on the great significance of
the 20th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC). During his meeting
with Rawat, Sun also called for properly manage differences, and jointly promote the
stable and sound development of China-India relations, the official statement read. "The
two sides should stand high and look far, view bilateral relations from a comprehensive
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and long-term perspective, implement the important consensus between the two
countries' leaders, strengthen communication and coordination, properly manage
differences, and jointly promote the stable and sound development of China-India
relations," Sun said according to the release. Meanwhile, Rawat congratulated Sun
Weidong on the success of the 20th CPC National Congress. He said that India is glad to
see China realizing national rejuvenation and is ready to develop sound relations with
China. "The international situation is turbulent at the moment, and enhancing
coordination between India and China is beneficial to the two sides, and both sides
should view bilateral relations in the long run,"
Warrant: India can join both the Artemis Accords and China’s space program
Upadhyaya, Shrikrishna. “Takshashila Issue Brief - India & Artemis Programme:
Next Step For Space Cooperation?” The Takshashila Institution, The Takshashila
Institution, 7 Feb. 2023, https://takshashila.org.in/research/india-amp-artemisprogramme-next-step-for-space-cooperation.
The Artemis programme also has a rival in the form of the International Lunar
Research Station led by Russia and China. As these two spacefaring states prepare to
release their own set of norms by the end of 2021, India is faced with an imperfect
choice: joining either or both programmes will aid its own ambitions, but rival blocs
could scuttle any chances of creating a widely accepted multilateral framework for
space governance in this century. • This document concludes that India would benefit
from signing the Artemis Accords and joining the Artemis programme. However, it
should keep its options open, seeking space cooperation with Russia bilaterally or via
the ILRS, while also pushing for an overarching multilateral set of norms or a new
treaty
Warrant: No war between China and India, they deter each other
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French, Erik. “Unraveling the Sino-Indian Conflict Risk: GRI.” Global Risk Insights, 24 Feb.
2016. , https://globalriskinsights.com/2016/02/unraveling-the-china-indiaconflict-risk/
China fears that the US and Japan may be drawing India into a counterbalancing
coalition designed to contain Chinese growth. Finally, although commercial ties
between the two countries have deepened significantly, India’s trade deficit with
Beijing is broadening. Many Indians therefore see the economic relationship as lopsided
and are wary of growing dependence on China. This will likely to contribute to bilateral
tensions and could fuel protectionist sentiment in Indian politics. Outlook warrants
cautious optimism All of these factors make it likely that India and China will continue
to perceive one another as rivals for the foreseeable future. But this does not mean
that conflict risk between the two will rise unabated or that a repeat of the 1962 SinoIndian War is likely. Mutual deterrence between the two nuclear powers is a powerful
force for bilateral stability. Despite the trade imbalance and the animosity and
protectionism it may fuel, in general growing economic ties will also reduce the
likelihood that either state will risk open conflict.
Warrant: No China attack, US-India ties protect India
Montague ‘Zach Montague, “U.S.-India Defense Ties Grow Closer as Shared Concerns in
Asia Loom,” November 20, 2019,
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/20/world/asia/india-military-exercisestrump.html
The United States and India on Thursday will conclude the first land, sea and air
exercise in their history of military exchanges, a step forward in White House efforts
to deepen defense cooperation between the countries. The exercise, Tiger Triumph,
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brought together 500 American Marines and sailors, and about 1,200 Indian soldiers,
sailors and air force personnel to train side-by-side for nine days. While the official focus
was to prepare for rescue operations and disaster response, it also included search-andseizure training and live-fire drills. The staging of the joint training completes one of
the goals of a defense pact the two countries signed last year. In addition to the
exercise, the agreement allows for the transfer of advanced weaponry and
communications systems to India. The only other country with which India has held
similar exercises involving three branches of its armed forces is Russia. During the Cold
War, India was closer to the Soviet Union than to the United States, and much of the
Indian arsenal still harkens back to that era. “You hear officials say now that the U.S.
exercises more with India than any other non-NATO partner,” said Alyssa Ayres, a
senior fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations. “You would never have imagined that
20 years ago.” The drills ending this week followed the 15th cycle of a separate training
mission, the Yudh Abhyas exercise, an annual peacekeeping practice between the two
countries’ armies that was held this year in September at Joint Base Lewis-McChord in
Washington State.
Analysis: This argument looks to prove that relations between India and China will not be
affected by the Artemis program. Because their tensions primarily revolve around China-India
border, this will not spill over into any conflict. Additionally, their economic dependence on
each other also prevents war from breaking out.
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A/2: The Artemis Accords are too polarizing
Turn: The Artemis Accords are unifying
Warrant: The Artemis Accords emphasize cooperation and interoperability
Moon, Mariella. “NASA's Artemis Accords lay out some rules for joint space
exploration.” Engadget. May 2020. https://www.engadget.com/nasa-artemisaccords-202748982.html
“The agency shared an outline of the Accords on its website, starting with the
requirement for participants to conduct activities meant for peaceful purposes only.
Artemis partners will also have to be transparent with their policies, have to utilize
open international standards or develop new ones for the sake of interoperability and
have to plan for the mitigation of orbital debris. Partner nations also have to commit
to providing assistance to astronauts in distress and to releasing the science data they
collect to the public. They have to promise to collect resources from the Moon, Mars
and asteroids under the auspices of the Outer Space Treaty, as well. The Accords
emphasize a few of the Treaty’s Articles in particular, including one that says that the
Moon and other celestial bodies are “not subject to national appropriation by claim of
sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.””
Warrant: The Artemis Accords will help support private companies
Moon, Mariella. “NASA's Artemis Accords lay out some rules for joint space
exploration.” Engadget. May 2020. https://www.engadget.com/nasa-artemisaccords-202748982.html
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“Brindenstine said during the briefing: “I want to see private companies going to the
moon. I want to see international partners joining with us on the Artemis program. I
want to see private companies and NASA going to Mars. And, in order to achieve that,
we have to reconsider the very, very stringent kind of requirements that are placed on
going to these other planetary bodies.””
De-link: Space is popular in India
Warrant: Many Indians want to work in Space
Staff. “More Indians want to work in space sector globally.” Disruptive Asia. July 2022.
https://disruptive.asia/more-indians-want-work-space-sector-globally-inmarsat/
“Around 24% of Indians want to work in the space sector compared to 14% globally
and more than double the levels in the US, UK, South Korea and Australia, a global
space study by British satellite operator Inmarsat revealed. Two-fifths (41% ) of India’s
residents are concerned about space junk and collisions in space, whereas 38% fear
space activity damaging the Earth’s atmosphere and 46% fear we may end up polluting
space. 37% of Indian residents versus 32% globally are hopeful about the possibilities of
space.”
Warrant: India is embracing private sector space industry
Staff. “More Indians want to work in space sector globally.” Disruptive Asia. July 2022.
https://disruptive.asia/more-indians-want-work-space-sector-globally-inmarsat/
“India is also awaiting commercial services by Bharti Group-backed OneWeb and
Reliance Jio, which will compete with Elon Musk’s Starlink and Amazon. These
companies are currently awaiting regulatory approvals to launch much-awaited space
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internet services in India. The country’s 75% of rural parts don’t have access to
broadband, which will offer opportunities to these satcom companies. In its report
“What on Earth is the value of space”, Inmarsat said that the world is largely unaware of
key activities in space, with Gen-Z twice as likely to associate space with aliens, Star
Wars and billionaires like Elon Musk and Jeff Bezos than older generations. The report
found that those aged 65 and above, who were teenagers when humans first walked on
the Moon, are more optimistic than Gen-Z. They are more likely to associate space with
research and exploration, rockets, and satellites – with their understanding of space
more rooted in science than science-fiction.”
Analysis: Is space exploration is popular in India, there is no reason that ratifying the Artemis
Accords will burn political capital. This delinks the negative argument that retifying the Artemis
Accords is politically toxic.
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A/2: Space exploration is a waste of money
Turn: Space exploration is important for the economy
Warrant: Space exploration is cheap
Staff. “Why space exploration is always worthwhile.” The Planetary Society. February
2019. https://www.planetary.org/articles/space-exploration-is-alwaysworthwhile
“Many countries around the world invest in space science and exploration as a
balanced part of their total federal budget. Public opinion research has shown that
people estimate NASA to take up as much as a quarter of the U.S. federal budget, but
in fact, NASA’s budget only represents about 0.5% of the total federal budget and the
proportion is even smaller for other spacefaring nations. The correct information may
go a long way to reassuring critics that space spending isn’t eating up as many public
resources as they think.”
Warrant: Space exploration enhance growth on earth
Staff. “Why space exploration is always worthwhile.” The Planetary Society. February
2019. https://www.planetary.org/articles/space-exploration-is-alwaysworthwhile
“If someone is arguing that public funds should be spent on solving the world’s
problems, they should know that money spent on NASA positively impacts the U.S.
economy. We get the same kind of payoff for space spending in other countries.
Spending on space supports highly skilled jobs, fuels technology advancements with
practical applications, and creates business opportunities that feed back into the
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economy. This in turn grows the pool of public money that can be spent on solving the
world’s most pressing problems. Space research directly impacts Earthly problems.
When people apply themselves to the challenges of exploring space, they make
discoveries that can help the world in other ways too. Studying how we might grow
food in orbit or on Mars yields insights into growing food in extreme conditions on
Earth, generating knowledge that can help mitigate the impacts of climate change.
Medical research conducted on the International Space Station helps us understand the
human body in new ways, helping save lives and improve quality of life.”
De-link: Space exploration is important for the human psyche
Warrant: Space exploration evokes wonder
Gregory, Gene. “Is the space effort a waste of money?” UNESCI. N.d.
https://en.unesco.org/courier/marzo-1970/space-effort-waste-money
“"But others contend that there is money enough for the moon and tasks on earth,
too. And some go further to point out that the conquest of space has done much,
through the development of new ideas, new attitudes, new techniques and new
structures for the management of large-scale undertakings, to prepare man for a
major offensive against the unsolved social and material problems at home. If you look
at the thousands of years of civilization," Sir Bernard Lovell, director of Britain's Jodrell
Bank Observatory reminds us, "you will find that only those communities that have
been prepared to struggle with the nearly insoluble problems at the limits of their
technical capacities those are the only communities, the only times, that civilization
has advanced.”
Warrant: Modest amounts of money redirected away from space travel could save lives
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March 2023
Gregory, Gene. “Is the space effort a waste of money?” UNESCI. N.d.
https://en.unesco.org/courier/marzo-1970/space-effort-waste-money
“Somehow, the casting of the Apollo 11 and 12 voyages on millions of television sets
around the world gave it the character of a sports event. Focus was on the astronauts,
champions of a new interplanetary Olympiad, and on the faultless performance of the
spacecraft. In the process, the real significance of space exploration became obscure.
If the experience of the past three or four thousand years has any value, it tells us that
in freeing himself from the millennial confinement of the earth's gravitation and its
atmosphere, man has added a vast new dimension to his environment and to his
character. In broadening his horizons, he has in a qualitative sense altered his very
being and completely changed his relationship to the rest of nature, and this in turn
presages sweeping changes in every field of human activity. Colossal strides in
civilization in the past have followed each major advance in man's observation of the
skies. Astronomical discoveries, time after time, have influenced and, in some cases,
shifted the very course of history.”
Analysis: Space exploration is important because it gives us something to struggle for and unite
in common cause.
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March 2023
A/2: International Agreements Lack Enforcement
Turn: International agreements are enforceable
Warrant: Self-compliance is the norm
Kirgis, Frederic. “Enforcing International Law.” American Society of International Law.
Jnauary 1996. https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/1/issue/1/enforcinginternational-law
“Legal institutions function best when vital interests are not at stake. Again, this is so
whether the legal institutions are domestic or international. One thinks on the
domestic scene of the myriad legal rules and processes that affect daily life-rules
having to do with the creation and performance of contracts, the existence of
property rights, the Uniform Commercial Code, and so forth. Most of the time they
take care of themselves, without the need for intervention by courts, sheriffs or other
governmental agencies. That is true as well when international rules and processes
relate to ordinary relationships. One thinks on the international scene of the creation
and performance of ordinary treaties-tax or commercial treaties, for example-or
compliance with "rules of the road" set by the International Maritime Organization or
International Civil Aviation Organization for safe navigation at sea or in the airspace
above the high seas. Rules of this sort tend to be self-enforcing, simply because all the
actors recognize that it is in their self-interest to comply if they want other actors to
comply-the same reason why most of the relatively mundane domestic rules are selfenforcing.”
Warrant: International relationships are often maintained out of comity
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March 2023
Kirgis, Frederic. “Enforcing International Law.” American Society of International Law.
Jnauary 1996. https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/1/issue/1/enforcinginternational-law
“Many international organizations have a club-like atmosphere for the national
representatives to them. If their governments behave in such a way as to hinder the
attainment of the organizations goals, other members can make club membership
uncomfortable for them in various ways. The most extreme would be suspension or
expulsion from membership, as could occur in the United Nations under certain
circumstances set forth in Articles 5 and 6 of the Charter. But much more common is the
subtle or not-so-subtle expression of disapproval. That can affect a member state's
conduct, especially if maintained over a period of time.”
De-link: The Artemis Accords will enhance space cooperation
Warrant: The Artemis Accords do not require a heavy lift
Gregory, Gene. “Is the space effort a waste of money?” UNESCI. N.d.
https://en.unesco.org/courier/marzo-1970/space-effort-waste-money
“"In the Artemis Accords, the United States is using existing governance regimes to
advance space activities rather than pursue revision of the Outer Space Treaty or
negotiate a new agreement. This approach contrasts with the Trump administration’s
decisions in other areas to reject multilateral treaties, such as the Paris Climate
Agreement, and weaken international institutions, such as the World Trade
Organization, in order to remove perceived constraints on American interests and
power. The Artemis Accords also end debates active after the Trump administration
took office about whether the Outer Space Treaty is antiquated and unduly restricts U.S.
space activities..”
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March 2023
Warrant: Compliance is in everyone’s best interests
Gregory, Gene. “Is the space effort a waste of money?” UNESCI. N.d.
https://en.unesco.org/courier/marzo-1970/space-effort-waste-money
“In addition, the accords include principles that, when integrated in agreements
between NASA and other space agencies, will develop international space law. For
example, the commitment to deconflict lunar activities through safety zones applies
to a specific context the Outer Space Treaty’s principles of avoiding harmful
interference with the space activities of other countries through having due regard for
the interests of those countries. Such operational application of general principles can
generate state practice and create precedents that give international space law more
focus and clarity.”
Analysis: Even if there is no external compliance mechanism, the Artemis Accords can be
successful because they encourage compliance on their own.
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March 2023
A/2: The Artemis Accords are ineffective
Turn: The Artemis Accords are picking up steam
Warrant: France has signed the Artemis Accords
Grush, Loren. “Why France signing NASA’s lunar exploration pact is the most important
signature yet.” The Verge. June 2022.
https://www.theverge.com/2022/6/10/23159558/nasa-artemis-accords-francesigning-moon-exploration-significance
“On Tuesday evening, France officially signed onto NASA’s Artemis Accords — the
space agency’s set of guidelines and principles for how the US and other countries
should explore the Moon in the future. France’s addition, long considered a big get for
the Artemis Accords, brings the total number of signatory countries to 20,
strengthening the international agreement ahead of NASA’s planned return to the
lunar surface this decade. When the finalized Artemis Accords were presented during
the Trump administration in October 2020, NASA announced that eight countries had
signed onto the document — including the United States. But there were some notable
absences from that list. Two of the world’s largest space superpowers — China and
Russia — have not signed, and Russia’s space chief has made it clear that the country is
uninterested in partnering with NASA on its lunar exploration efforts. Two of Europe’s
biggest space nations, France and Germany, weren’t on board either.”
Warrant: France’s ratification is a major turning point
Grush, Loren. “Why France signing NASA’s lunar exploration pact is the most important
signature yet.” The Verge. June 2022.
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March 2023
https://www.theverge.com/2022/6/10/23159558/nasa-artemis-accords-francesigning-moon-exploration-significance
“Now, after two years, France has finally come to the table, and the country is
considered the most significant signatory yet for the Accords. “It was critical to get
France on the same page as us for our lunar exploration and other plans, because
they’re the dominant player in Europe along with Germany,” Gabriel Swiney, a senior
policy advisor at NASA and one of the original authors of the Accords, tells The Verge.
France is the largest contributor to the budget of the European Space Agency. The US
also has a long-standing partnership with France’s space agency, CNES, and the country
plays a pivotal role in operating the launch site and rockets for Europe’s primary launch
provider, Arianespace.”
De-link: The Artemis Accords are meant to enhance long term cooperation
Warrant: The Artemis Accords lay the seeds for future cooperation
Howell, Elizabeth. “Artemis Accords: Why the international moon exploration
framework matters” Space News. August 2022.
https://www.space.com/artemis-accords-moon-space-exploration-importance
“"By bringing as many signatories onboard as early as possible, our hope is to develop a
body of knowledge, informed by collective operational experiences, that will advance
broader goals through established bodies such as the United Nations Committee on the
Peaceful Uses of Outer Space [COPUOS]," the spokesperson said. "Even if some
countries cannot make near-term contributions to lunar activities directly, their
support of the Artemis Accords principles will strengthen the need for common values
for space exploration and utilization among the international community."”
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March 2023
Warrant: The Accords are important for private enterprise
Howell, Elizabeth. “Artemis Accords: Why the international moon exploration
framework matters” Space News. August 2022.
https://www.space.com/artemis-accords-moon-space-exploration-importance
“Space lawyer Michael Gold said he agrees that the accords are meant to foster an
environment in space "conducive to international collaboration, and conducive to
growth" with clear rules and expectations to allow space agencies and companies to
conduct business. Gold helped lead and draft the implementation of the Artemis
Accords under the previous NASA administrator, Jim Bridenstine, while Gold was acting
associate administrator for the agency's office of international and interagency
relations. (Today Gold is executive vice president for civil space and external affairs at
aerospace company Redwire Space.) The accords, he said, are meant to cover civil
activities so that companies landing on the moon on behalf of NASA are covered
under the agreement. This is especially crucial given that NASA's Commercial Lunar
Payload Services missions encourage private companies to deliver science, hardware
and other essential items to the moon to support the Artemis program.”
Analysis: Even if not every country agrees with the Artemis Accords, they serve valuable
functions to other parties and so should be affirmed on alternative grounds.
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March 2023
A/2: Ratification is Unnecessary
Turn: The Artemis Accords are key to space exploration
Warrant: The Artemis Accords unlock the value of space
Grush, Loren. “Why France signing NASA’s lunar exploration pact is the most important
signature yet.” The Verge. June 2022.
https://www.theverge.com/2022/6/10/23159558/nasa-artemis-accords-francesigning-moon-exploration-significance
“The most important development for the commercialization of space, however, does
not involve direct financial sponsorship at all. Rather, it is the October 13, 2020
signing of the Artemis Accords (the “Accords”) by eight nations and the resultant
recognition of private extraction rights in space. In doing so, the Accords should be
lauded for breaking the gridlock that has paralyzed the international space
community, and should be seen as a blueprint for future agreements. Building upon
the Outer Space Treaty of 1967—the most widely adopted space law treaty to date—
the Accords seek to establish a framework for future cooperation in exploring and
utilizing space. The long-anticipated ratification of the Accords prompted a flurry of
articles expressing both support for and skepticism of their effects and objectives. It is
no surprise that the Accords have been heavily analyzed: with the exception of the 1998
ISS Agreement, the Accords are the first major international agreement on space since
1979, when no more than a handful of countries—and none of the United States, the
Soviet Union, or the Peoples’ Republic of China—ratified the Moon Treaty.”
Warrant: The benefits of the Artemis Accords are massive
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Pro Responses to Con Arguments
March 2023
Grush, Loren. “Why France signing NASA’s lunar exploration pact is the most important
signature yet.” The Verge. June 2022.
https://www.theverge.com/2022/6/10/23159558/nasa-artemis-accords-francesigning-moon-exploration-significance
“The Accords recognize the reality of space’s growing commercial influence. Morgan
Stanley predicts the size of the space market to nearly triple by 2040, rising from a
current $350 billion valuation to over $1 trillion, even before breakthroughs in fields
such as asteroid mining (which is predicted to be a multi-trillion dollar industry and to
create the world’s first trillionaire). Beyond economics, asteroid mining would also
carry environmental benefits and the capacity for humanity to produce fuel in space,
more than compensating for the cost of launching asteroid missions from earth.”
De-link: The Artemis Accords are gaining traction
Warrant: Nigeria and Rwanda have joined the Artemis Accords
Staff. “NASA Welcomes Nigeria, Rwanda as Newest Artemis Accords Signatories.” NASA.
December 2022. https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-welcomes-nigeriarwanda-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatories
“During the U.S.-Africa Leaders Summit in Washington Tuesday, NASA Administrator
Bill Nelson joined Assistant Secretary of State for Oceans and International
Environmental and Scientific Affairs Monica Medina, U.S. National Space Council
Executive Secretary Chirag Parikh, as well as representatives from Nigeria and Rwanda
as those nations signed the Artemis Accords. With the addition of these two
signatories, 23 nations have affirmed their commitment to transparent, safe, and
sustainable space exploration. Through the accords, the signatories are guided by a set
of principles that promote the beneficial use of space for all of humanity.”
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Pro Responses to Con Arguments
March 2023
Warrant: The Accords are important for private enterprise
Staff. “NASA Welcomes Nigeria, Rwanda as Newest Artemis Accords Signatories.” NASA.
December 2022. https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-welcomes-nigeriarwanda-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatories
“NASA and the State Department announced the establishment of the Artemis Accords
in 2020. The Artemis Accords are a set of principles to guide the next phase in space
exploration, reinforcing and providing for important operational implementation of key
obligations in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. The Accords also reinforce the commitment
by the United States and signatory nations to the Registration Convention, the Rescue
and Return Agreement, as well as guidelines and best practices NASA and its partners
have supported, including the public release of scientific data. More countries are
anticipated to sign the Artemis Accords in the months and years ahead, as the United
States continues to work with international partners for a safe, peaceful, and
prosperous future in space. Working with both new and existing partners will add new
energy and capabilities to help ensure the entire world can benefit from our journey
of exploration and discovery.”
Analysis: Countries are signing the Artemis Accords and will continue to do so. As such, it is
likely that the effectiveness of the Artemis Accords increases.
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Public Forum Brief
Con Arguments
Con Arguments
March 2023
CON: Ratifying the Artemis Accords prevents future, better space
agreements
Argument: The Artemis Accords stop better policy.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are a political attempt to create American-centric principles in
space
Newman, Christopher. “Artemis Accords: Why Many Countries Are Refusing to Sign
Moon Exploration Agreement.” The Conversation, 13 Sept. 2022,
https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-arerefusing-to-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134.
“Previous attempts to govern space have been through painstakingly negotiated
international treaties. The Outer Space Treaty 1967 laid down the foundational
principles for human space exploration – it should be peaceful and benefit all mankind,
not just one country. But the treaty has little in the way of detail. The Moon Agreement
of 1979 attempted to prevent commercial exploitation of outer-space resources, but
only a small number of states have ratified it – the US, China and Russia haven’t. Now
that the US is pursuing the Artemis Program, the question of how states will behave in
exploring the Moon and using its resources has come to a head. The signing of the
accords represents a significant political attempt to codify key principles of space law
and apply them to the programme.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are being used as a condition for involvement in space
Newman, Christopher. “Artemis Accords: Why Many Countries Are Refusing to Sign
Moon Exploration Agreement.” The Conversation, 13 Sept. 2022,
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https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-arerefusing-to-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134.
Ultimately, the Artemis Accords are revolutionary in the field of space exploration.
Using bilateral agreements that dictate norms of behaviour as a condition of
involvement in a programme is a significant change in space governance. With Russia
and China opposing them, the accords are sure to meet diplomatic resistance and their
very existence may provoke antagonism in traditional UN forums. Questions also remain
about the impact that the looming US election and the COVID-19 pandemic will have on
the programme. We already know that President Trump is keen to see astronauts on
the Moon by 2024. The approach of his Democratic rival, Joe Biden, is a lot less clear. He
may well be less wedded to the 2024 deadline and instead aim for broader diplomatic
consensus on behaviour through engagement at the UN. While broader international
acceptance may be desirable, the US believes that the lure of the opportunities
afforded by the Artemis Program will bring other partners on board soon enough.
Space-active states now face a stark choice: miss out on being the first to use the
resources of the Moon, or accept the price of doing business and sign up to the
Artemis Accords.
Warrant: The Outer Space Treaty is threatened by the prospect of commercializing space
Green, Jessica F. “The Final Frontier Soon May No Longer Belong to All of Us.” The New
York Times, The New York Times, 28 July 2022,
https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/28/opinion/russia-us-outer-space.html.
A number of U.N. treaties regulate outer space, and strong legal norms bolster those
global rules. The foundational agreement is the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, which lays
out the principles that govern outer space, the moon and other celestial bodies.
Signed in the middle of the Cold War, the treaty was a symbol of the triumph of science
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Con Arguments
March 2023
over politics: States could cooperate in space, even as the prospect of mutual
destruction loomed on Earth. Currently, more than 100 countries — including the
United States and Russia — are parties to the treaty, which establishes outer space as
a peaceful zone, prohibits the use or installation of weapons of mass destruction and
designates space as “the province of all mankind.” States cannot make claims of
sovereignty or appropriate territory. The treaty also calls for scientific cooperation
among states, with the belief that such cooperation will promote “friendly relations”
among countries and their peoples. In short, the treaty intends that all nations benefit
from any activities conducted in space. The symbolic value of the treaty is obvious:
Nationality recedes into the background when astronauts are floating in space. But
beyond that, it has created standards and practices to prevent environmental
contamination of the moon and other celestial bodies. It promotes data sharing,
including about the many objects, like satellites and spacecraft, launched into space,
which helps to avoid collisions. And its codified norms of the common heritage of
mankind, peaceful use and scientific cooperation help preserve multilateralism in the
face of states’ derogations. But the looming prospect of the commercialization of space
has begun to test the limits of international space law. In 2020, NASA, alone, created
the Artemis Accords, which challenge the foundational multilateral principles of prior
space agreements. These are rules primarily drafted by the United States that other
countries are now adopting. This is not collaborative multilateral rule making but
rather the export of U.S. laws abroad to a coalition of the willing.
Impact: The Accords prevent multilateral efforts in space from coming to fruition
Nelson, Jack Wright. “The Artemis Accords and the Future of International Space Law.”
ASIL, 10 Dec. 2020,
https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/24/issue/31/artemis-accords-andfuture-international-space-law.
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Con Arguments
March 2023
“The Accords represent an inflection point for international space law in the 2020s. On
the one hand, the Accords may invigorate the field by drawing attention to the pressing
legal issues that will accompany future lunar missions. On the other, the Accords may
mark the end of multilateralism in space lawmaking. No treaty has emerged from
COPUOS since the Moon Agreement in 1979. But slow development was not always the
case. International space law rapidly developed between 1967 and 1975. This period
saw the conclusion of the Outer Space Treaty, the Rescue Agreement, the Liability
Convention, and the Registration Convention.[22] The five permanent members of the
UN Security Council and the vast majority of space-capable states have ratified these
four treaties.”
Impact: The result of lacking multilateralism would fragment the moon, stop international
goodwill efforts and create uncertainties
Nelson, Jack Wright. “The Artemis Accords and the Future of International Space Law.”
ASIL, 10 Dec. 2020,
https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/24/issue/31/artemis-accords-andfuture-international-space-law.
“Are these three factors present today? Arguably, no. The need for additional rules is
clear—the Accords themselves evidence this. But the Accords have not yet been signed
by key U.S. allies and space partners, such as Germany and France. This may indicate an
unfavorable political climate—or it may suggest that other political priorities are
prevailing over space policy (particularly during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic). Either
way, there does not appear to be a propitious political climate. And the third factor—
the deference to space-capable states—may be challenged by the increasingly diverse
interests involved in space. Simply put, there are more space-capable (and spaceinterested) states than ever before: COPUOS' membership has more than doubled since
1975,[25] and commercial space activities are rapidly expanding. Obtaining consensus is
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Con Arguments
March 2023
now very difficult, and deference without consensus is impossible. In this environment,
states may choose to negotiate agreements with like-minded allies rather than
compromise via COPUOS. Such an outcome would forego the coordinating role of
multilateral treaties. The ultimate result could be a 'fracturing' of the Moon along
legal lines, with different states operating under different rules. This would adversely
impact the safety of space operations. It would sacrifice the international goodwill
and understanding that joint space programs foster. And it would not reduce the
uncertainty that pervades much of international space law.”
Analysis: The argument to make here is that space agreements work better when they are truly
multilateral. The Artemis Accords create bilateral agreements, where the United States is the
creator of the norms and rules in space. Further, the Artemis Accords conflict with the Outer
Space Treaty. Because the Artemis Accords opens the way to commercialization and goes
against the cooperation in space, future agreements that are cooperative in space are less
likely.
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Con Arguments
March 2023
CON: Space exploration causes climate change, which threatens India
severely
Warrant: The number of space launches is increasing in the status quo and further increases as
space opens its doors to commercialization
Twiss, Shannon. “The Environmental Impacts of the New Space Race.” The
Environmental Impacts of the New Space Race | Georgetown Environmental Law
Review | Georgetown Law, 7 Apr. 2022,
https://www.law.georgetown.edu/environmental-law-review/blog/theenvironmental-impacts-of-the-new-space-race/.
“Today, however, the space industry looks very different. Significantly, the number of
launches per year has skyrocketed. According to the space launch report, there were
104 successful launches in 2020 and 133 successful launches in 2021.[3] Furthermore,
the ultimate goals of the private space industry far exceed these numbers. For
example, SpaceX’s CEO stated that the ultimate design goal for Starship is to launch up
to three times a day, equivalent to approximately 1000 flights a year[4], with the hopes
of reaching the goal of at least one flight every two weeks in the next year.[5] Similarly,
Virgin Galactic’s CEO stated goal is to offer 400 flights per year per launch site.[6] In
addition to a rise in the number of launches, the industry itself is changing. Georgetown
Law Professor Hope Babcock describes this change, stating: “Private investment in
space, not foreseen when the international framework regulating activities in space was
put into place, has grown, while government investment in space has ‘shrunk'”.[7] An
industry once focused on exploration and security has now expanded into new realms
of tourism and commercialization.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords opens the doors to commercialization of space
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Con Arguments
March 2023
Green, Jessica F. “The Final Frontier Soon May No Longer Belong to All of Us.” The New
York Times, The New York Times, 28 July 2022,
https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/28/opinion/russia-us-outer-space.html.
A number of U.N. treaties regulate outer space, and strong legal norms bolster those
global rules. The foundational agreement is the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, which lays
out the principles that govern outer space, the moon and other celestial bodies.
Signed in the middle of the Cold War, the treaty was a symbol of the triumph of science
over politics: States could cooperate in space, even as the prospect of mutual
destruction loomed on Earth. Currently, more than 100 countries — including the
United States and Russia — are parties to the treaty, which establishes outer space as
a peaceful zone, prohibits the use or installation of weapons of mass destruction and
designates space as “the province of all mankind.” States cannot make claims of
sovereignty or appropriate territory. The treaty also calls for scientific cooperation
among states, with the belief that such cooperation will promote “friendly relations”
among countries and their peoples. In short, the treaty intends that all nations benefit
from any activities conducted in space. The symbolic value of the treaty is obvious:
Nationality recedes into the background when astronauts are floating in space. But
beyond that, it has created standards and practices to prevent environmental
contamination of the moon and other celestial bodies. It promotes data sharing,
including about the many objects, like satellites and spacecraft, launched into space,
which helps to avoid collisions. And its codified norms of the common heritage of
mankind, peaceful use and scientific cooperation help preserve multilateralism in the
face of states’ derogations. But the looming prospect of the commercialization of space
has begun to test the limits of international space law. In 2020, NASA, alone, created
the Artemis Accords, which challenge the foundational multilateral principles of prior
space agreements. These are rules primarily drafted by the United States that other
countries are now adopting. This is not collaborative multilateral rule making but
rather the export of U.S. laws abroad to a coalition of the willing.
Champion Briefs
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Con Arguments
March 2023
Warrant: Rocket launches releases black carbon, which is harmful to the atmosphere
Twiss, Shannon. “The Environmental Impacts of the New Space Race.” The
Environmental Impacts of the New Space Race | Georgetown Environmental Law
Review | Georgetown Law, 7 Apr. 2022,
https://www.law.georgetown.edu/environmental-law-review/blog/theenvironmental-impacts-of-the-new-space-race/.
One impact of increased rocket launches is from launch exhaust. Exhaust can contain
greenhouse gasses such as CO2 and H2O, as well as particles of alumina and black
carbon.[13] These types of emissions trap heat, absorbing sunlight, and contribute to
climate change and warming.[14] Black carbon is particularly concerning. Black carbon
is defined by the EPA as “a major component of soot” with a “complex light absorbing
mixture that also contains organic carbon” and is “a solid form of mostly pure carbon
that absorbs solar radiation (light) at all wavelengths”.[15] According to scientists,
some rockets can emit approximately 10,000 times more black carbon particles than
modern turbine engines found in airplanes and jets.[16] Put into perspective, scientists
also predicted that in 2018, the amount of black carbon emitted by rockets into the
stratosphere was comparable to that emitted by the entire aviation industry.[17] In
addition to black carbon, alumina and water vapor particles are also of potential
concern; however, this effect is more nuanced. The effect of alumina particles and
water vapor (H2O) has proven difficult for scientists to predict as both can cause
simultaneous heating and cooling effects which still impact climate change but in a less
clear manner.[18], [19] Overall, scientists have estimated that rocket emissions
contributing to the warming of the stratosphere were caused 70% by black carbon and
28% by alumina, attributing only 2% to H2O, and ≈0% for CO2.
Warrant: Climate change severely impacts India
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Hayes, Michael. “How Climate Change Is Hitting India.” The YEARS Project, 1 Feb. 2022,
https://theyearsproject.com/latest/how-climate-change-is-hitting-india.
“Prime Minister Narendra Modi, despite his unflattering record on environmental
issues, says he understands the immense threat climate change poses—even if he
accepts almost no blame for the problem. “Climate change is not of our making,” Modi
said at the United Nations’ 2015 climate change talks in Paris. “It is the result of global
warming that came from the prosperity and progress of an industrial age powered by
fossil fuel. But we in India face its consequences today. We see it in the risks of our
farmers, the changes in weather patterns, and the intensity of natural disasters.” Modi
ratified the Paris agreement on Oct. 2—chosen to coincide with Gandhi’s birthday. The
pact seeks to limit the Earth’s warming to below 2 degrees Celsius (3.6 degrees
Fahrenheit). Unlike other developing nations, India did not agree to cap emissions.
Instead Modi pledged to bulk up on renewable power and reduce emissions relative to
GDP by roughly a third from 2005’s emissions by 2030. India accounts for 4.5 percent of
the world’s greenhouse gases, so it plays a crucial role in combating climate change.
And, because of the risks of flooding and high temperatures, perhaps no country has a
greater incentive to slow global warming.”
Impact: Greenhouse gases causes substantial economic losses
Hirsch, David. “Study Shows Economic Impacts of Greenhouse Gas Emissions.”
Dartmouth, 12 July 2022, https://home.dartmouth.edu/news/2022/07/studyshows-economic-impacts-greenhouse-gas-emissions.
“The study is the first to assess the economic impacts that individual countries have
caused to other countries through their contributions to global warming. The research
draws direct connections between cumulative emissions per nation of heat-trapping
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gases to losses and gains in gross domestic product in 143 countries for which data are
available. The study, published in the journal Climatic Change, provides an essential
basis for nations to make legal claims for economic losses tied to emissions and
warming, according to the researchers. “Greenhouse gases emitted in one country
cause warming in another, and that warming can depress economic growth,” says
Justin Mankin, an assistant professor of geography and senior researcher of the study.
“This research provides legally valuable estimates of the financial damages individual
nations have suffered due to other countries’ climate-changing activities. Among the
data, the research found that five national emitters of greenhouse gases caused $6
trillion in global economic losses through warming from 1990 to 2014. According to the
study, emissions from the U.S. and China, the world’s two leading emitters, are
responsible for global income losses of over $1.8 trillion each in the 25-year period from
1990. Economic losses caused by Russia, India, and Brazil individually exceed $500
billion each for the same years. The $6 trillion in cumulative losses attributable to the
five countries equals about 11% of annual global GDP within the study period.”
Analysis: The argument to make here is that India is one of the countries that suffers most from
climate change and it is so drastic that it should be a policy priority. Further projects that
encourage space tourism run counter to the idea that climate change is important to address in
India. As such, India should not be signing an agreement that would allow it to launch more
rockets into space.
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CON: The Artemis Accords are a reversion of US policy towards Cold
War era policy
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are a political attempt to create American-centric principles in
space
Newman, Christopher. “Artemis Accords: Why Many Countries Are Refusing to Sign
Moon Exploration Agreement.” The Conversation, 13 Sept. 2022,
https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-arerefusing-to-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134.
“Previous attempts to govern space have been through painstakingly negotiated
international treaties. The Outer Space Treaty 1967 laid down the foundational
principles for human space exploration – it should be peaceful and benefit all mankind,
not just one country. But the treaty has little in the way of detail. The Moon Agreement
of 1979 attempted to prevent commercial exploitation of outer-space resources, but
only a small number of states have ratified it – the US, China and Russia haven’t. Now
that the US is pursuing the Artemis Program, the question of how states will behave in
exploring the Moon and using its resources has come to a head. The signing of the
accords represents a significant political attempt to codify key principles of space law
and apply them to the programme.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are being used as a way to take advantage of resources on the
Moon and Russia opposes them
Newman, Christopher. “Artemis Accords: Why Many Countries Are Refusing to Sign
Moon Exploration Agreement.” The Conversation, 13 Sept. 2022,
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https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-arerefusing-to-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134.
Ultimately, the Artemis Accords are revolutionary in the field of space exploration.
Using bilateral agreements that dictate norms of behaviour as a condition of
involvement in a programme is a significant change in space governance. With Russia
and China opposing them, the accords are sure to meet diplomatic resistance and their
very existence may provoke antagonism in traditional UN forums. Questions also
remain about the impact that the looming US election and the COVID-19 pandemic will
have on the programme. We already know that President Trump is keen to see
astronauts on the Moon by 2024. The approach of his Democratic rival, Joe Biden, is a
lot less clear. He may well be less wedded to the 2024 deadline and instead aim for
broader diplomatic consensus on behaviour through engagement at the UN. While
broader international acceptance may be desirable, the US believes that the lure of the
opportunities afforded by the Artemis Program will bring other partners on board
soon enough. Space-active states now face a stark choice: miss out on being the first
to use the resources of the Moon, or accept the price of doing business and sign up to
the Artemis Accords.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are being used as a way to take advantage of resources on the
Moon and Russia opposes them
Green, Jessica F. “The Final Frontier Soon May No Longer Belong to All of Us.” The New
York Times, The New York Times, 28 July 2022,
https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/28/opinion/russia-us-outer-space.html.
Russia’s announcement sounds ominous — particularly given its invasion of Ukraine —
but this move, part of a broader trend away from multilateralism in international space
law, is but one recent signal of the fraying of international space cooperation. Another
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was the Artemis Accords, a legal framework designed to potentially regulate future
commercial activities in outer space, which was created under the Trump
administration and upheld by the Biden administration. Such actions threaten
multilateralism beyond Earth and portend a future where space may no longer belong,
equally, to all people. A number of U.N. treaties regulate outer space, and strong legal
norms bolster those global rules. The foundational agreement is the Outer Space
Treaty of 1967, which lays out the principles that govern outer space, the moon and
other celestial bodies. Signed in the middle of the Cold War, the treaty was a symbol
of the triumph of science over politics: States could cooperate in space, even as the
prospect of mutual destruction loomed on Earth.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are a shift away from the Outer Space Treaty
Stirn, Alexander. “Do NASA's Lunar Exploration Rules Violate Space Law?” Scientific
American, Scientific American, 12 Nov. 2020,
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-nasas-lunar-exploration-rulesviolate-space-law/.
Anyone who examines the Artemis Accords carefully might come away with a different
impression. Its 13 sections seem to show that the rules are about the use and
exploitation of the moon in order to maintain American dominance, possibly
undermining international law. “The Artemis Accords are an attempt by the Americans
to walk softly to legitimize their deviation from the Outer Space Treaty,” says Stephan
Hobe, director of the Institute of Air Law, Space Law and Cyber Law at the University
of Cologne in Germany. That treaty—which has been ratified by 110 countries via the
United Nations and entered into force in 1967—has up to now provided the legal basis
for the exploration and utilization of space. Among other requirements, it specifies that
member states must have “free access to all areas of celestial bodies.” In addition,
“the moon and other celestial bodies [are] not subject to national appropriation by
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claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.” The
Artemis Accords document seems to take a different approach, as evinced in Section
11, which is by far the lengthiest section. Under the innocuous-sounding title
“Deconfliction of Space Activities,” it states that the countries subject to the
agreements will support the development of safety zones, for example around a moon
base or where mining activities occur. This is meant to ensure that states do not come
into conflict with one another. At the IAC, Bridenstine maintained “that we can, in fact,
extract and utilize space resources. Countries and companies should be able to enjoy
the fruits of their labor.” But this is where the problems begin. “Safety zones are
specific areas,” Hobe says, “and it is precisely the acquisition of such areas that is, in
fact, banned by the Outer Space Treaty.” Speaking at the IAC, Frans von der Dunk, a
professor of space law at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, made it clear that
although states may plant their flag on the moon, per the Outer Space Treaty, they
may not annex regions nor reserve them for future settlement. So are the accords a
clear violation of international law? Not necessarily. Their stated purpose “is to establish
a common vision via a practical set of principles, guidelines, and best practices.” That is,
they do not claim to form the basis for new law and thus, strictly speaking, cannot
violate existing international law. “We already have internationally binding law,” Hobe
says. “But there are a few countries that are not satisfied with the interpretation of
this law. So they create guidelines with the hope that eventually they will develop into
customary law that will weaken the existing space law. That’s a really clever
maneuver.”
Impact: The Artemis Accords are responsible for the creation of space blocs, which makes the
possibility of cooperation lesser and conflict more likely
Ben-Itzhak, Svetla. “The Future of International Cooperation in Space Is Splitting along
Lines of Power on Earth.” Fast Company, 22 Apr. 2022,
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https://www.fastcompany.com/90744646/the-future-of-internationalcooperation-in-space-is-splitting-along-lines-of-power-on-earth.
I believe that going forward, state formations, such as space blocs, will serve as the
major means through which states further their national interests in space and on the
ground. There are many benefits when nations come together and form space blocs.
Space is hard, so pooling resources, manpower, and know-how makes sense.
However, such a system also comes with inherent dangers. History offers many
examples showing that the more rigid alliances become, the more likely conflict is to
ensue. The growing rigidity of two alliances—the Triple Entente and the Triple
Alliance—at the end of the 19th century is often cited as the key trigger of World War I.
A major lesson therein, is that as long as existing space blocs remain flexible and open to
all, cooperation will flourish and the world may yet avoid an open conflict in space.
Maintaining the focus on scientific goals and exchanges between and within space
blocs—while keeping political rivalries at bay—will help to ensure the future of
international cooperation in space.
Analysis: The creation of sides as a result of the Artemis Accords is similar to when blocs were
created during the Cold War era. This is important because such differences between blocs can
reduce the possibility of cooperation that has been important in space and increase the
possibility of conflict between sides. With countries such as Russia and China (some of the
United States’s most important competitors) not signing on to the Artemis Accords, blocs seem
like they are being created and India getting involved might give the impression of picking sides.
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CON: India’s ratification of the non-binding Accords will only send
mixed signals to other countries
Warrant: The Accords are non-binding but send important signals
Stirn, Alexander. “Do NASA's Lunar Exploration Rules Violate Space Law?” Scientific
American, Scientific American, 12 Nov. 2020,
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-nasas-lunar-exploration-rulesviolate-space-law/.
The Artemis Accords document seems to take a different approach, as evinced in
Section 11, which is by far the lengthiest section. Under the innocuous-sounding title
“Deconfliction of Space Activities,” it states that the countries subject to the
agreements will support the development of safety zones, for example around a moon
base or where mining activities occur. This is meant to ensure that states do not come
into conflict with one another. At the IAC, Bridenstine maintained “that we can, in fact,
extract and utilize space resources. Countries and companies should be able to enjoy
the fruits of their labor.” But this is where the problems begin. “Safety zones are specific
areas,” Hobe says, “and it is precisely the acquisition of such areas that is, in fact,
banned by the Outer Space Treaty.” Speaking at the IAC, Frans von der Dunk, a
professor of space law at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, made it clear that
although states may plant their flag on the moon, per the Outer Space Treaty, they may
not annex regions nor reserve them for future settlement. So are the accords a clear
violation of international law? Not necessarily. Their stated purpose “is to establish a
common vision via a practical set of principles, guidelines, and best practices.” That is,
they do not claim to form the basis for new law and thus, strictly speaking, cannot
violate existing international law. “We already have internationally binding law,” Hobe
says. “But there are a few countries that are not satisfied with the interpretation of this
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law. So they create guidelines with the hope that eventually they will develop into
customary law that will weaken the existing space law. That’s a really clever maneuver.”
Warrant: China is just as important to India’s relationship as the United States
Madan, Tanvi. “The U.S.-India Relationship and China.” Brookings, Brookings, 11 July
2017,
https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-u-s-india-relationship-and-china/.
Today, both India and the U.S. have relationships with China that have elements of
cooperation, competition and, potentially, conflict—though in different degrees. Each
country has a blended approach of engaging China, while preparing for a turn for the
worse in Chinese behavior. Each sees a role for the other in its China strategy. Each
thinks a good relationship with the other sends a signal to China, but neither wants to
provoke Beijing or be forced to choose between the other and China. Each also
recognizes that China—especially uncertainty about its behavior—is partly what is
driving the India-U.S. partnership. Arguably, there have been three imperatives in the
U.S. for a more robust relationship with India and for supporting its rise: strategic
interest, especially in the context of the rise of China; economic interest; and shared
democratic values. Indian policymakers recognize that American concerns about the
nature of China’s rise are responsible for some of the interest in India. New Delhi’s own
China strategy involves strengthening India both security-wise and economically
(internal balancing) and building a range of partnerships (external balancing)—and it
envisions a key role for the U.S. in both. Some Indian policymakers highlight another
benefit of the U.S. relationship: Beijing takes Delhi more seriously because
Washington does.
Warrant: China and Russia have not signed the Artemis Accords and oppose them
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Newman, Christopher. “Artemis Accords: Why Many Countries Are Refusing to Sign
Moon Exploration Agreement.” The Conversation, 13 Sept. 2022,
https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-arerefusing-to-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134.
Ultimately, the Artemis Accords are revolutionary in the field of space exploration.
Using bilateral agreements that dictate norms of behaviour as a condition of
involvement in a programme is a significant change in space governance. With Russia
and China opposing them, the accords are sure to meet diplomatic resistance and
their very existence may provoke antagonism in traditional UN forums. Questions also
remain about the impact that the looming US election and the COVID-19 pandemic will
have on the programme. We already know that President Trump is keen to see
astronauts on the Moon by 2024. The approach of his Democratic rival, Joe Biden, is a
lot less clear. He may well be less wedded to the 2024 deadline and instead aim for
broader diplomatic consensus on behaviour through engagement at the UN. While
broader international acceptance may be desirable, the US believes that the lure of the
opportunities afforded by the Artemis Program will bring other partners on board soon
enough. Space-active states now face a stark choice: miss out on being the first to use
the resources of the Moon, or accept the price of doing business and sign up to the
Artemis Accords.
Warrant: India would benefit from being involved in Russia and China’s joint Lunar Research
Station
Lele, Ajey. “Should India Join China and Russia's Lunar Research Station?” The Space
Review:
Should India Join China and Russia's Lunar Research Station?, 1 June 2021,
https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4185/1.
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Hence, there is a need for “sensible” space powers to arbitrate directly or indirectly. For
example, as part of an effective engagement strategy, states like India could join the
Russian-Chinese proposal for a Lunar Research Station. For many years, Russia and
India have been collaborating in the space arena, so Russia should have no objection
to India joining this project. It is a reality that India and China are geopolitical
adversaries. However, in the domain of space they do have some collaborative efforts
in place. There are “framework agreements” signed betweer these nations in the
initial years of the 21st century, however this agreement lies dormant for many years.
In September 2014, a memorandum of understanding was signed between India and
China, enabling them to encourage exchange and cooperation in the exploration and
use of outer space for research and development of remote sensing, communications,
and scientific experiment satellites. Now the Lunar Research Station project offers an
opportunity for both nations to bring such paper promises in reality. Actually, it could
be in the interest of China to invite India to join their lunar project.
Impact: India becoming a part of the Lunar Research Station would help reconcile differences
between China and India and promote multilateralism
Lele, Ajey. “Should India Join China and Russia's Lunar Research Station?” The Space
Review: Should India Join China and Russia's Lunar Research Station?, 1 June
2021, https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4185/1.
First, such collaboration could itself help somewhat harmonize the differences
between them: maybe not on the ground, but at least in the domain of outer space. It
would be naive think that both these ASAT powers would suddenly become space
buddies, but such collaboration could help build confidence. Second, China and Russia
have long been pushing for their draft treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of
Weapons in Outer Space. However, there are no takers even for discussing their draft.
India, though, is open for negotiating this treaty as a legally binding instrument in the
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Conference on Disarmament. Third, India is a part of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China,
and South Africa) multilateral mechanism of emerging economies. This multilateral
mechanism has arrangements for satellite data sharing. Now, there is an opportunity
for India, Brazil, and South Africa to join the Lunar Research Station. However, there is
a possibility that Brazil could join the Artemis Accords in near future. Here, China and
India need to be more proactive diplomatically and ensure that space remains as an
important agenda item for BRICS. Lastly, it is no secret that the US is keen to use (or
using) India to counterbalance Chinese influence on Asia. The Lunar Research Program
provides an excellent opportunity for China-India engagement.
Analysis: China and Russia are opposed to the Artemis Accords, and India is stuck in a
crossroads, where they are faced with the option of joining China and Russia in its Lunar
Research Station, signing the Artemis Accords, or doing nothing. Signing the Artemis Accords
will change the rules to space exploration, while joining Russia and China will promote
multilateralism as opposed to sticking to bilateral, non-binding agreements. It might be better
for India’s interests to collaborate.
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CON: Ratifying the Artemis Accords weakens existing agreements
Argument: Signing a new agreement has an unavoidable effect on other agreements of this
type.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are a political attempt to create American-centric principles in
space
Newman, Christopher. “Artemis Accords: Why Many Countries Are Refusing to Sign
Moon Exploration Agreement.” The Conversation, 13 Sept. 2022,
https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-are-refusingto-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134.
“Previous attempts to govern space have been through painstakingly negotiated
international treaties. The Outer Space Treaty 1967 laid down the foundational
principles for human space exploration – it should be peaceful and benefit all mankind,
not just one country. But the treaty has little in the way of detail. The Moon Agreement
of 1979 attempted to prevent commercial exploitation of outer-space resources, but
only a small number of states have ratified it – the US, China and Russia haven’t. Now
that the US is pursuing the Artemis Program, the question of how states will behave in
exploring the Moon and using its resources has come to a head. The signing of the
accords represents a significant political attempt to codify key principles of space law
and apply them to the programme.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are a shift away from the Outer Space Treaty
Green, Jessica F. “The Final Frontier Soon May No Longer Belong to All of Us.” The New
York Times, The New York Times, 28 July 2022,
https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/28/opinion/russia-us-outer-space.html.
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A number of U.N. treaties regulate outer space, and strong legal norms bolster those
global rules. The foundational agreement is the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, which lays
out the principles that govern outer space, the moon and other celestial bodies.
Signed in the middle of the Cold War, the treaty was a symbol of the triumph of science
over politics: States could cooperate in space, even as the prospect of mutual
destruction loomed on Earth. Currently, more than 100 countries — including the
United States and Russia — are parties to the treaty, which establishes outer space as
a peaceful zone, prohibits the use or installation of weapons of mass destruction and
designates space as “the province of all mankind.” States cannot make claims of
sovereignty or appropriate territory. The treaty also calls for scientific cooperation
among states, with the belief that such cooperation will promote “friendly relations”
among countries and their peoples. In short, the treaty intends that all nations benefit
from any activities conducted in space. The symbolic value of the treaty is obvious:
Nationality recedes into the background when astronauts are floating in space. But
beyond that, it has created standards and practices to prevent environmental
contamination of the moon and other celestial bodies. It promotes data sharing,
including about the many objects, like satellites and spacecraft, launched into space,
which helps to avoid collisions. And its codified norms of the common heritage of
mankind, peaceful use and scientific cooperation help preserve multilateralism in the
face of states’ derogations. But the looming prospect of the commercialization of space
has begun to test the limits of international space law. In 2020, NASA, alone, created
the Artemis Accords, which challenge the foundational multilateral principles of prior
space agreements. These are rules primarily drafted by the United States that other
countries are now adopting. This is not collaborative multilateral rule making but
rather the export of U.S. laws abroad to a coalition of the willing.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords sidestep the Moon Agreement, which is important
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Larsen, Paul B. “Is There A Legal Path To Commercial Mining On The
Moon?” University Of Pittsburgh Law Review, 2021,
https://lawreview.law.pitt.edu/ojs/lawreview/article/download/821/509/175
3.
“The Moon Agreement (MA), to which the United States is not a party,111 is in effect
in the eighteen countries that have ratified it.112 They have agreed that “the Moon
and its natural resources are the common heritage of mankind.”113 MA Article 11(3)
provides, “neither the surface nor the subsurface of the Moon, nor any part thereof or
natural resources in place, shall become property of any State or non- governmental
organization.”114 The MA holds States responsible for the activities of their nongovernmental entities on the Moon115 and institutes terms for lunar mining, which
include equitable sharing of mining benefits (profits).116 The MA has not yet
established an international body to assign mining sites117 but will do so by treaty in a
diplomatic conference sometime in the future.118 The countries participating in such a
diplomatic conference would be free to establish different terms for lunar mining than
those presently provided in the MA because of the independent sovereignty of a
diplomatic conference.119 Neither Russia nor China is a party to the MA, but the MA
parties represent a decision-making block in the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
Outer Space (COPUOS), which operates by consensus of all States.120 The MA parties
are thus able to block the consensus of countries on new treaty terms that differ from
the MA.121 The MA parties are a powerful force that could block oppositional
activities by non-members.”
Warrant: India has a preference for the Moon Agreement
Newman, Christopher. “Artemis Accords: Why Many Countries Are Refusing to Sign
Moon Exploration Agreement.” The Conversation, 13 Sept. 2022,
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https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-arerefusing-to-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134.
Intriguingly Germany, France and India are also absent. These are countries with well
developed space programmes that would surely have benefited from being involved in
Project Artemis. Their opposition may be down to a preference for the Moon
Agreement and a desire to see a properly negotiated treaty governing lunar
exploration. The European Space Agency (ESA) as an organisation has not signed on to
the accords either, but a number of ESA member states have. This is unsurprising. The
ambitious US deadline for the project will clash with the lengthy consultation of the 17
member states required for the ESA to sign on as a whole. Ultimately, the Artemis
Accords are revolutionary in the field of space exploration. Using bilateral agreements
that dictate norms of behaviour as a condition of involvement in a programme is a
significant change in space governance. With Russia and China opposing them, the
accords are sure to meet diplomatic resistance and their very existence may provoke
antagonism in traditional UN forums.
Impact: International space law and multilateralism is better space cooperation and the
Artemis objectives are unlikely
Aganaba, Timiebi. “Innovative Instruments for Space Governance.” Centre for
International Governance Innovation, 8 Feb. 2021,
https://www.cigionline.org/articles/innovative-instruments-space-governance/.
“With a new administration as of on January 20, 2021, it seems very unlikely that the
2024 politically motivated goal set for the Artemis Moon landing will be reached, so
moving at the speed of light is no longer necessary. As much as it may chafe the spirit
of innovation, time must be taken so that diverging views are heard and stakeholders
are consulted to determine a multilateral approach, while still ensuring that the
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momentum gathered from the preceding five years of action is not wasted. To take
action is also a security imperative. Leigh Foster and Namrata Goswami warn that state
behaviour in other areas beyond national jurisdiction is a cause for concern and shows
us what could happen if states continue with a first-come, first-served “scramble for the
skies” mentality rather than see space as a global commons for humanity. Prioritizing
international space law making in the appropriate fora and taking an executive
approach could lead us to a proliferation of national regimes that are in the common
interest of humankind. As stakeholders in the evolving global space governance
regime, we have two tasks. First, we must protect outer space from claims of
sovereignty and unequitable exploitation by individual states and their nationals.
Second, we need to protect the interests of future generations in these resources. To
be successful in either task, we must first create a sensible working relationship
between international and national laws.”
Analysis: A series of agreements on space have been created over the years. The Artemis
Accords seemingly reaffirm the United States’ commitment to these agreements but also
sidestep them in important ways. Such sly moves can be important for the actual enforcement
of agreements that have been made in the past, and are particularly important for why India
does not want to sign the Artemis Accords. The Artemis Accords are seen as a shift away from
these past agreements in a way, and that may be bad for multilateral efforts to cooperate in
space that have been the basis of such cooperation in the past.
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CON: Ratification decks India’s soft power
Argument: The Artemis Accords fragment current multilateral approaches to outer space by
creating a conflicting international legal framework.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are used to create a new multilateral framework for outer space
development, which stands in opposition to current approaches to outer space.
ud Din, Athar “The Artemis Accords: The End of Multilateralism in the Management of
Outer Space?” Astropolitics, 20:2-3, 135-150, Nov 11, 2022
https://doi.org/10.1080/14777622.2022.2144241
The Artemis Accords, an initiative by the United States, establishes guiding principles
relating to the exploration and use of the Moon and other celestial bodies. By using
the example of interpretational issues pertaining to property and possessory rights in
outer space, this paper demonstrates that the Artemis Accords have effectively put in
place an alternate framework relating to the law of outer space. The development
does not bode well for the prospects of a multilateral approach towards addressing
global issues, especially for a global commons like outer space. Further, important
spacefaring states have expressed concerns regarding the Artemis Accords, which risk
establishing a fragmented approach toward exploration and use of outer space.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are perceived as a means for the US to exert their control over
outer space
Ferreira-Snyman, Anél. “Challenges to the Prohibition on Sovereignty in Outer Space - a
New Frontier for Space Governance.” Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal, 7
Nov. 2022, https://www.ajol.info/index.php/pelj/article/view/235683.
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The urgency of the need to clarify and develop legal rules relating to the exploitation
of outer space, including the establishment of property rights, is vividly illustrated by
the USA's recent unilateral release of the Artemis Accords. The Accords – named after
NASA's Artemis programme, which aims to send the first women and the next man to
the moon by 2024 - is a set of standards for the exploration of the moon and is intended
to create a framework agreed on by the United States and its partners in the Artemis
programme by clarifying some of the lacunae in the Outer Space Treaty. The idea is to
create an agreement without utilising the often cumbersome and long treaty-making
process in the United Nations. Instead, the USA aims to reach agreement with "likeminded" nations since, according to American officials, working with non-space faring
states would be unproductive. The unilateral creation of the Artemis Accords, however,
has already been sharply criticised by Russia as an attempt by the United States to
side-line the United Nations and to invade the moon in a manner similar to that in
which it invaded Iraq and Afghanistan. It is also to be expected that China will not react
favourably to the Accords, which are perceived by some academic commentators as
expressing an "ambition for space hegemony" by the United States. In addition, the
deliberate exclusion of non-space-faring states from the creation of the legal
framework is another clear confirmation of the United States' stance that outer space
is not a global commons.
Warrant: India is currently working towards creating regional integration and cooperation
when it comes to space.
Kumar, Vikash. "Can India’s Space Diplomacy Help Greater Regional Cooperation in
South Asia?." The Myanmar Journal 2020
https://meral.edu.mm/record/8703/files/The%20Myanmar%20Journal%20Vol.7,
%20No.1.pdf#page=26
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The paper examines the need and possibility of space diplomacy as a means to achieve
regional cooperation and greater integration in the South Asian region. This objective
can be understood in terms of India’s global power ambitions. As part of India’s
neighbourhood first foreign policy agenda, Indian government has prioritized its
interests and relations in South Asia. Presently, a key objective of India’s foreign policy
in the region is to overcome obstacles to regional integration and to broaden the
scope for cooperation without appearing hegemonic. In this regard, India’s launch of
the ‘South Asia Satellite’ in May 2017 sends a positive signal to the neighbourhood. By
launching the GSAT-9 ‘South Asia Satellite’ India has reaffirmed the Indian Space
Research Organisation’s scientific prowess, but the messaging is perhaps more
geopolitical in this region. This project arguably is the first opportunity for India to
harness its activities in outer space for distinct foreign policy goals. The South Asia
Satellite is meant to facilitate regional cooperation by supplementing existing
mechanisms, such as the SAARC. India’s decision to make the satellite’s technological
services widely accessible to its neighbours is expected to not only generate
diplomatic goodwill toward India in the region but also to help spur economic growth.
The South Asia Satellite aims to enhance bilateral and multilateral engagement and
cooperation. It would, however, be nothing short of hyperbole to assert that the
satellite will automatically usher in amity between India and its South Asian neighbours
in the near future. Presently, other South Asian states sometimes perceive India to be
an overbearing power. On the other hand, China’s One Belt and One Road Initiative is
an infrastructure network that every SAARC nation other than India has signed on to.
Further, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have launched satellite with assistance from China.
Given this back group and developments, the paper will assess India’s potential and
limitation in space diplomacy.
Warrant: Ratification of the accords is a realignment of India’s interests by endorsing currently
banned concepts of ‘safety zones’ in space
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Stirn, Alexander. “Do NASA's Lunar Exploration Rules Violate Space Law?” Scientific
American, Scientific American, 12 Nov. 2020,
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-nasas-lunar-exploration-rulesviolate-space-law/.
ONE ACCORD TO RULE THEM ALL? Anyone who examines the Artemis Accords carefully
might come away with a different impression. Its 13 sections seem to show that the
rules are about the use and exploitation of the moon in order to maintain American
dominance, possibly undermining international law. “The Artemis Accords are an
attempt by the Americans to walk softly to legitimize their deviation from the Outer
Space Treaty,” says Stephan Hobe, director of the Institute of Air Law, Space Law and
Cyber Law at the University of Cologne in Germany. That treaty—which has been
ratified by 110 countries via the United Nations and entered into force in 1967—has up
to now provided the legal basis for the exploration and utilization of space. Among
other requirements, it specifies that member states must have “free access to all areas
of celestial bodies.” In addition, “the moon and other celestial bodies [are] not subject
to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by
any other means.” The Artemis Accords document seems to take a different approach,
as evinced in Section 11, which is by far the lengthiest section. Under the innocuoussounding title “Deconfliction of Space Activities,” it states that the countries subject to
the agreements will support the development of safety zones, for example around a
moon base or where mining activities occur. This is meant to ensure that states do not
come into conflict with one another. At the IAC, Bridenstine maintained “that we can, in
fact, extract and utilize space resources. Countries and companies should be able to
enjoy the fruits of their labor.” But this is where the problems begin. “Safety zones are
specific areas,” Hobe says, “and it is precisely the acquisition of such areas that is, in
fact, banned by the Outer Space Treaty.” Speaking at the IAC, Frans von der Dunk, a
professor of space law at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, made it clear that
although states may plant their flag on the moon, per the Outer Space Treaty, they may
not annex regions nor reserve them for future settlement.
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Warrant: This hurts India’s soft power by undermining their position as a champion for
developing nations.
Memme Onwudiwe and Kwame Newton. “Africa and the Artemis Accords: A Review of
Space Regulations and Strategy for African Capacity Building in the New Space
Economy.” New Space.Mar 2021.38-48. http://doi.org/10.1089/space.2020.0043
The Artemis Accords state that space resource extraction and utilization can and will
be done, and will be conducted under the auspices of the OST. However, the OST does
not do much to regulate action here, as it mainly ignores private industries other than
taking their respective state space agencies to direct and regulate them in accordance
with the treaty. NASA's stance on space resource extraction aligns with Trump's recent
executive order, which states that “it shall be the policy of the United States to
encourage international support for the public and private recovery and use of
resources in outer space, consistent with applicable law.” This article should be most
worrisome for African nations and others in the developing world. This is because
mining in space is an industry that could be worth billions if not trillions of dollars, and
this framework makes no mention of distributing these resources across member
states, instead it seems that this critical piece of the space economy will mirror its
Earth counterpart. Africans have endured centuries of foreign exploitation of natural
resources with profits being shipped abroad, and it seems not much will change in this
respect in the interstellar context. By signing up to Artemis, a state is agreeing that
states have the right to access and utilize space resources, but there is no commitment
to using those resources to benefit all member states or that any member is entitled
to any resources outside of what is extracted by the industry partners.
Impact: India’s soft power is key to countering global authoritarianism
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Paint, Harsh V. “India's Soft-Power Strategy.” Outlook India, 4 Feb. 2022,
https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/indias-soft-powerstrategy/295206.
In diplomatic engagements around the world, the Modi government consistently
underscores India's democratic credentials. At a time when economic turmoil in the
West is generating apprehensions about the value of democracy, India continues to
signal the virtues of a democratic political order. The Modi government is unlike its
predecessors, ambivalent about focusing on democracy, and instead the prime minister
emphasizes shared political values to strengthen ties with the West and democracies
in Asia. Even when he visited Mongolia, Modi praised the nation as the "new bright light
of democracy" in the world, thereby marking a distinction between the democratic
values of India and Mongolia and those of authoritarian China. The Modi government
is striving to not only revive national pride in the country's ancient values, but also
enhance India's hard power by using its soft-power advantages. Sustained effort is
needed by New Delhi to succeed as global soft power. India today is more confident
about projecting its past heritage as well as its contemporary values on to the global
stage, and this can only be good news for the global order in dire need of positive
exemplars. An economically successful pluralistic democracy is the best antidote to
authoritarianism and extremism rampant around the world.
Impact: Soft power is key to make India competitive on an international scale.
Adhikari, Anasuya, and Birbal Saha. "Projecting Soft Power: The Case of India." Asian
Journal of Education and Social Studies 38.4 (2023): 1-6.
http://sciencerepository.uk/id/eprint/1810/1/829-Article%20Text-1385-1-1020230125.pdf
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There is an urgent need for a strategic transformation, if India feels one day it has to
become a genuine power. There has been systematic implementation of projects
which intended to stimulate the development on utilizing soft power. What Sashi
Tharoor speaks holds a place of utter importance that India must determine where its
real strength lies. Thus, for India, it is not only promoting cooperation and nonviolence, but to support, give attention, respect culture and promote ah healthy
society, which would persuade others to look up to and respect India. This also means
to deal with the complex and diverse nature of the country and turn it into an ultimate
resource. Every great civilization incorporates a culture of its own and feels proud when
appreciated by others. Soft power is nothing but displaying, integrating and promoting
these unique traits and resources which can turn into mutual benefit for not only the
giver but the receiver too. There have been remarkable forces shaping the diverse
Indian minds. The ancient Hindu tradition, its myth and scriptures, at the same time, the
impact of Islam and Christianity; asserted a grave impact on us. The centuries rule of the
British also produced a unique result on the Indian minds. Presently India has been
following steady measures in terms of education, religion, tourism, trade etc. which
asserts it to be called a true genius manifesting soft power keeping in view the nature of
the pluralistic state. In this age of information, the side which has developed the better
story wins. To be a true genius India must retain a position which tells the better story,
with creative energies to encourage and express themselves in a gamut of appealing
ways. India’s celebrated resources give it an extraordinary ability to narrate stories
which are more persuasive than its competitors in the global world.
Analysis: The Artemis Accords function as an extension of US supremacy and power. Indian
ratification means that their own ability to make political and economic changes are hampered
significantly. The Republic of India is therefore best served by pursuing space interests
independently.
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CON: Participation bolsters American commercial interests at India’s
expense
Argument: The Artemis Accords disproportionately benefit the US at the expense of signatory
states
Warrant: The Artemis Accords prioritize American commercial interest above all else
Wall, Mike. “US Policy Could Thwart Sustainable Space Development, Researchers Say.”
Space.com, Space, 8 Oct. 2020, https://www.space.com/us-space-policy-miningartemis-accords
Boley and Byers take special aim at the planned bilateral agreements, known as the
Artemis Accords. In promoting them, the U.S. "is overlooking best practice with regard
to the sustainable development of space," the researchers write. "Instead of pressing
ahead unilaterally and bilaterally, the United States should support negotiations on
space mining within the UN [United Nations] Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer
Space, the same multilateral body that drafted the five major space treaties of the
1960s and '70s," they write in the Science piece. (The most important of the five is the
1967 Outer Space Treaty, which forms the basis of international space law.)
"Meanwhile, NASA’s actions must be seen for what they are — a concerted, strategic
effort to redirect international space cooperation in favor of short-term U.S.
commercial interests, with little regard for the risks involved," Boley and Byers add.
The researchers worry that the U.S. is setting an unfortunate precedent for other
countries to follow, and that space mining and other exploration activities may
therefore proceed in a somewhat careless and chaotic fashion in the not-too-distant
future.
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Warrant: The Artemis Accords grants rights to extract and utilize resources from the moon and
other celestial bodies
Wang, Guoyu. “NASA's Artemis Accords: The Path to a United Space Law or a Divided
One?” The Space Review: NASA's Artemis Accords: the Path to a United Space
Law or a Divided One?, 24 Aug. 2020,
https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4009/1.
The Artemis Accords reinforce that space resource extraction and utilization can and
will be conducted under the auspices of the Outer Space Treaty. This principle can be
regarded as a “voting certificate” for all states willing to join in such programs. It means
that the common recognition of the legality of space resources exploitation and
recovery is a sort of legal precondition to participate the program. In line with the
Executive Order signed by President Donald Trump in April, this principle is also
committed to promote the international community to reach consensus on the legality
of exploitation and recovery of space resources.
Warrant: The US intends to use the Artemis Accords to claim property rights in space.
Jones, Paul Whitfield. “One Small Step for Property Rights in Outer Space?: Perspectives
& Events: Mayer Brown.” Perspectives & Events | Mayer Brown, 21
May 2020, https://www.mayerbrown.com/en/perspectivesevents/publications/2020/05/one-small-step-for-property-rights-in-outer-space.
Although the Artemis Accords are not explicit about property rights, what the US
officials said to Reuters is consistent with US policy on this point, which was recently
expressed in EO 13914. EO 13914 refers to President Trump's Space Policy Directive 1,
which amends former President Obama's National Space Policy to include "the return of
humans to the Moon for long-term exploration and utilization", which importantly
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will involve commercial as well as international partners. The EO itself reiterates the
importance of the role of commercial partners in recovering and using outer space
resources in service of long-term exploration and scientific discovery. In so doing, it
further reinforces the policy conveyed by the US Space Resource Exploration and
Utilization Act of 2015 (Title V of the US Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act
of 2015). This requires the President to facilitate the commercial recovery of space
resources by US citizens and affirms that US citizens are entitled to any space resources
they obtain through commercial recovery. This is important from the US perspective
because of the uncertainty around this issue in international law – which the EO says
has discouraged some commercial entities from becoming involved in commercial
recovery of space resources.
Warrant: Property rights and claiming territory for resource gathering perpetuates existing
inequalities
Reinstein, Ezra J. “Owning Outer Space.” Site, Northwestern Journal of International Law
and Business, 1999,.
https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&ht
tpsredir=1&article=1500&context=njilb
The rights of less-developed nations create a concern that is both political and moral in
character. As a matter of political reality, the less developed nations wield considerable
power, due in no small part to majority voting systems in the major international regulatory
bodies. Some feel, and developing nations argue, that it is morally imperative to take the
interests of the non-space-capable nations into account when designing a system of space
property law. A regime based on the "right of grab," the first-come, first-served theory of
property acquisition, should be feared. By the time space-incapable nations develop the
technological prowess and capital reserves to fund meaningful development of outer
space, the earlier space-faring nations, left unchecked, might already have locked up the
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most accessible and valuable resources. Present inequities of global wealth distribution
thus would be carried forward into the space age. 38
Warrant: The Accords are likely to cement any deal-making in favor of the US, at the expense of
other countries like India
Memme Onwudiwe and Kwame Newton. Africa and the Artemis Accords: A Review of
Space Regulations and Strategy for African Capacity Building in the New Space
Economy. New Space.Mar 2021.38-48. http://doi.org/10.1089/space.2020.0043
On the other hand, the bilateral nature of the Accords could lead to African nations
getting a bad deal and cementing their downstream provider status in the space economy
as individual African states have little bargaining power when negotiating with NASA. It may
be important for African states to negotiate at the continental AU level when entering
unions such as the Artemis Accords to make sure that they are not only members of the
Accords but also have a decision-making power/influence on policy, technology transfer
and development, and a financial stake in future projects exploiting resources mined
extraterrestrially. If these are not ensured, African nations risk falling further behind in
the commercial space race.
Impact: India will not gain anything from joining the Accords
Lele, Ajey. “India needs to avoid Moon Trap.” The Financial Express, 11 Oct. 2021,
https://www.financialexpress.com/lifestyle/science/india-needs-to-moontrap/2347744/.
Moon is in the news. Right now, there are two major projects under discussion, which
are expected to drive the global Moon agenda for coming decades. One such project is
NASA’s Artemis Accords and the other is the China-Russia proposal to build a Lunar
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Research Station. Both these projects have some commonalities and some differences.
Both these projects are seeking global participation. It appears that NASA has already
taken a lead and there are twelve states who have become a part of this project. They
are: Australia, Brazil, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, New Zealand, the Republic of
Korea, Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the United States.
The International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) by China and Russia have no takers yet.
The US and China are far ahead of India in the domain of Moon excavation. It is a
reality that India cannot match them. It has been observed for all these years that
countries like the US believe more in the ‘sale’ of technology than the ‘transfer’ of
technology. Hence, from a technology point of view India is unlikely to gain much by
joining any US Moon projects. More importantly a state like India, which has major
space accomplishments should join such programmes from the position of strength.
Unfortunately, India’s Moon programme has not made satisfactory progress. It started
with a bang by discovering water on the Moon during 2008, however subsequent
advancement has been very slow. India needs to first consolidate its own Moon
agenda. Presently, there is no dying need for India to join any multilateral mega
project like Artemis Accords. First, there is a necessity to have clarity on issues like
ownership of Space Resources, before India joins any global Moon bandwagon. Today,
many of India’s own space projects have been delayed owing Covid-19 crisis and there is
a need to complete them first. It is important to keep focus on priorities rather than
unnecessarily getting into any Moon Trap.
Impact: The Artemis Accords will permanently entrench economic inequality
Weeks, Edythe. “Outer space development, international relations and space law: A
method for elucidating seeds.” Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013.
https://www.cambridgescholars.com/product/978-1-4438-3965-5
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The global community is experiencing economic recession, natural disasters, lack of
opportunity, employment anxiety, failing K-12 programs, widening inequality gaps,
uprisings, revolutions, revolts, unmet educational goals, and a general failure to uplift,
inspire, and provide meaningful opportunities for significant portions of our population.
In the United States of America, the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan failed to jumpstart the
economy; the Dow Jones failed; Wall Street failed; millions of working people lost their
houses to foreclosure; tent communities and homeless populations are on the increase;
many people are experiencing depression, anxiety, career anxiety; we see alarming
rates of people dropping out of high school and college; and there is a general lack of
opportunities, along with high rates of job loss. People need something that will allow
them to focus anew their talents, energies, abilities, and gifts, and use this bleak climate
as an opportunity for positive change. Outer space development is emerging as an
answer to this state of crisis. The question is: To whom will the benefits accrue? Many
strategic decisions have already been taken regarding space development of which the
global general public is unaware. Once legal rights to space resources are granted, only
those with the capital to take advantage of new laws and policies will be in a position
to profit from the new space industries. Only those who are in a position to know
about outer space development will be in position to take advantage of the
opportunities. It is important to remember that the global general public has for several
decades being paying the start-up costs for space exploration research, science, and
technology. It‘s not too late to factor in equality before an infrastructure of inequality
is forever with us as we venture to establish the final frontier.
Analysis: The core thesis of the argument is that the Artemis Accords are not a utopic approach
to international space cooperation. Rather, it is an extension of American commercial interests.
As such, India’s participation only reinforces economic inequality all while enriching the US.
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CON Indian Space Exploration is best achieved without the Artemis
Accords
Argument: India’s approach to space exploration works best unilaterally.
Warrant: Indian space program is bouncing back now
Foust, Jeff. “India's Space Program Looks to Bounce Back.” SpaceNews, 23 Jan. 2023,.
https://spacenews.com/indias-space-program-looks-to-bounce-back/
Sivan said testing of engines, crew escape systems and parachutes are all in progress,
along with training of astronaut candidates in India. “There is a directive to launch the
first unmanned mission before the 75th anniversary of India’s independence and all
the stake-holders are putting their best effort to meet the schedule,” he wrote. “I am
sure that we will be able to meet this target.” Sivan also appeared to rule out a launch
in 2022 of Chandrayaan-3, India’s second lunar lander. That spacecraft, incorporating
design changes after the failed landing of the Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft in 2019, had
been expected in 2022. Sivan said there had been “huge progress” in development of
the spacecraft, but added that the mission “could be launched by [the] middle of next
year.” One area where there had been significant progress in the last year was
regulatory reform intended to support the growth of India’s commercial space sector.
“The impact of space sector reforms is already becoming visible,” Sivan wrote, citing
progress by NewSpace India Ltd., a government-chartered company working on launch
vehicle and satellite manufacturing. One reason for the lack of activity at ISRO in 2021
was the pandemic, which led to extensive lockdowns in the country. Sivan hinted more
such lockdowns may come because of the newest variant of the virus, omicron, that is
now sweeping the globe. “The last few months were a lull period for ISRO, due to
Corona. However, all indicators point towards the next imminent wave,” he wrote. “I
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am sure that with the cooperation from all of you, we will be ready for facing any
eventuality.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are a means for nations like the US to direct efforts over the
usage of outer space.
Gross, Matthew. “The Artemis Accords: International Cooperation in the Era of Space
Exploration.” Harvard International Review, Harvard International Review, 27
Jan. 2023, https://hir.harvard.edu/the-artemis-accords/.
Visions of future space travel usually focus on the utopian facets associated with
breaking through the final frontier and exploring the great beyond, but what might
happen when the international dynamics on Earth extend beyond the stratosphere?
That is the question that the Artemis Accords aims to answer: they are a series of
bilateral agreements signed in 2020. The agreements attempt to establish cooperation
on a US-led endeavor to bring humans back to the moon by 2025 with the eventual goal
of interplanetary exploration. The Artemis Accords are based on several principles
including peace, transparency, interoperability, emergency assistance, and minimizing
resource conflict. The Artemis Accords currently have 21 party nations, including the
United States, who initially drafted the agreements. The most notable nations
“involved”, however, are actually two non-parties to the agreement: China and Russia.
Although one would hope that the technological progressions associated with space
exploration would automatically ameliorate fraught international relationships, the
reality is that they might exacerbate existing tensions.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords prioritize American interests
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Wall, Mike. “US Policy Could Thwart Sustainable Space Development, Researchers Say.”
Space.com, Space, 8 Oct. 2020, https://www.space.com/us-space-policy-miningartemis-accords.
Boley and Byers take special aim at the planned bilateral agreements, known as the
Artemis Accords. In promoting them, the U.S. "is overlooking best practice with regard
to the sustainable development of space," the researchers write. "Instead of pressing
ahead unilaterally and bilaterally, the United States should support negotiations on
space mining within the UN [United Nations] Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer
Space, the same multilateral body that drafted the five major space treaties of the
1960s and '70s," they write in the Science piece. (The most important of the five is the
1967 Outer Space Treaty, which forms the basis of international space law.)
"Meanwhile, NASA’s actions must be seen for what they are — a concerted, strategic
effort to redirect international space cooperation in favor of short-term U.S.
commercial interests, with little regard for the risks involved," Boley and Byers add.
The researchers worry that the U.S. is setting an unfortunate precedent for other
countries to follow, and that space mining and other exploration activities may
therefore proceed in a somewhat careless and chaotic fashion in the not-too-distant
future.
Warrant: Sharing technology is a key component of the Artemis Accords
O'Brien, Dennis. “The Artemis Accords: Repeating the Mistakes of the Age of
Exploration.” Space Treaty, The Space Review, 2020,
http://spacetreaty.org/repeatingmistakes.pdf.
Sharing technology is not specified in the Moon Treaty, but some view it as included in
Article 4: “The exploration and use of the moon shall be the province of all mankind
and shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries,
irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development.” The “Building
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Blocks” of The Hague Spaces Resources International Working Group call for sharing
technology on a “mutually-accepted basis”.15 According to the Group’s facilitator,
Leiden University, the Working Group members are “stakeholders of space resource
activities and represent consortium partners, industry, States, international
organizations, academia and NGOs.” 16 It is significant that stakeholders from the
private sector are willing to consider the sharing of technology. The Model Agreement
would require the licensing of technology at fair market value if a “mutually-accepted
basis” for sharing cannot otherwise be found.
Warrant: India is well positioned to continue space missions independent of the Artemis
Accords.
Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai. “India's Space Priorities Are Shifting toward National
Security.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1 Sept. 2022,.
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/09/01/india-s-space-priorities-areshifting-toward-national-security-pub-87809
India’s aspirations are reflected in its missions to the Moon and Mars. The Indian
Space Research Organization is also working on Gaganyaan, the country’s first human
space mission scheduled for 2023. Though many have questioned these ventures on the
grounds that India still faces enormous developmental challenges, there are several
reasons to continue these ventures. First, space exploration is the logical next step as
India’s space program matures and gains sophistication. Indian space capabilities have
grown slowly but steadily, with larger boosters and more complex space operations.
Further space exploration to gain greater technological competencies would be the next
logical step. Second, while these missions may not have a direct developmental or social
benefit, they increase the visibility and profile of the Indian space program and make it
a more attractive partner for collaboration. These missions also demonstrate New
Delhi’s ability to undertake complex projects despite tiny budgets. This enhances the
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attractiveness of India’s space launch facilities, which indirectly benefits the program’s
revenue stream and soft power value. Third, undertaking these missions has resulted in
spin-off technological breakthroughs. For instance, India’s deep space communication
capabilities are believed to have benefited because of these missions. India’s first
Moon mission as well as the Mangalyaan mission for deep space communication
functions were assisted by NASA. Together, these missions and developments are seen
as important credentials for India to gain a louder voice on global governance of outer
space.
Impact: The space economy will grow significantly, allowing India to enhance their own
economy
Higginbotham, Brian. “The Space Economy: An Industry Takes Off.” U.S. Chamber of
Commerce, U.S. Chamber of Commerce, 19 May 2022,
https://www.uschamber.com/technology/the-space-economy-industry-takes.
A number of private sector forecasters predict the space economy will continue to
grow dramatically. Goldman Sachs analysts predicted the sector would grow to about
$1 trillion by 2040, consistent with a forecast by Morgan Stanley. On the high end,
analysts at Bank of America Merrill Lynch predict the sector will surpass $3 trillion over
the same period. In our estimation, this sector will increase from approximately $385
billion today to at least $1.5 trillion by 2040. That would amount to roughly 5% of U.S.
GDP at that time, though the revenues would not all accrue to the U.S. This estimate is
based on a growth rate of 6% per year, which is consistent with the pace of growth
over the past 10 years. Can this rate of growth be sustained over such a long horizon?
Impact: Space exploration creates a surge of innovation with far-reaching global effects
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Raghavan, Seetha. “The Impact of Innovation in the New Era of Space Exploration.”
University of Central Florida News | UCF Today, 7 Feb. 2022,
https://www.ucf.edu/news/the-impact-of-innovation-in-the-new-era-of-spaceexploration/.
Every once in a while, a confluence of discoveries, events and initiatives results in a
breakthrough so significant that it propels the entire world to a higher level, redefining
what is possible in so many different fields. This breakthrough is taking centerstage
now, as the new era of space exploration — catalyzed by increasing launch access —
dawns upon us. The surge of innovation that comes with this will create new
opportunities and inspire the next generation of doers. When this happens, boundaries
between scientific and social impact are blurred. Innovation leading to scientific
discovery can benefit society in the same way that social innovation can diversify and
support scientific innovators, who can contribute to global progress. To ride this wave
of progress, we must all participate and innovate in the new era of space exploration.
The intersection of space exploration, innovation and impact isn’t a new phenomenon.
In the past, technology developments and spin-offs from space research have
consistently found their way into communities worldwide sometimes with lifesaving
benefits. The International Space Station supports experiments that have led to
discoveries and inventions in communication, water purification, and remote guidance
for health procedures and robotic surgeries. Satellite-enabled Earth observation
capabilities that monitor natural disasters, climate and crops often support early
warnings for threats and mitigation strategies. Space exploration has always been
relevant to everyone no matter the discipline or interest. Commercialization of space
has been key in many ways to the current boost in “firsts” over the last few years. It
has spurred innovation in launch vehicles and related technologies that led to firsts in
vertical-takeoff-vertical landing rocket technology, reusability of rocket boosters and
privately developed crewed missions to orbit
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Analysis: This position asserts that the Artemis Accords are only good to advance American
interests. Similarly, con would argue that India functions far better when their own priorities
are at the forefront of space exploration and development. The effects of this can be seen
through enhancing India’s economy and countless untold scientific innovations. Ultimately, it
allows con to access any space innovation impacts proposed by pro through saying that
independent development functions better.
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CON: Ratification poses a security risk
Argument: Key information is shared among member states, that poses a potential risk of
information being stolen or misused.
Warrant: Sharing technology is a key component of the Artemis Accords
O'Brien, Dennis. “The Artemis Accords: Repeating the Mistakes of the Age of
Exploration.” Space Treaty, The Space Review, 2020,
http://spacetreaty.org/repeatingmistakes.pdf.
Sharing technology is not specified in the Moon Treaty, but some view it as included in
Article 4: “The exploration and use of the moon shall be the province of all mankind
and shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries,
irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development.” The “Building
Blocks” of The Hague Spaces Resources International Working Group call for sharing
technology on a “mutually-accepted basis”.15 According to the Group’s facilitator,
Leiden University, the Working Group members are “stakeholders of space resource
activities and represent consortium partners, industry, States, international
organizations, academia and NGOs.” 16 It is significant that stakeholders from the
private sector are willing to consider the sharing of technology. The Model Agreement
would require the licensing of technology at fair market value if a “mutually-accepted
basis” for sharing cannot otherwise be found.
Warrant: Sharing sensitive information can compromise the security of any shared
technologies.
OECD. “Enhancing Access to and Sharing of Data : Reconciling Risks and Benefits for
Data Re-Use across Societies.” OECD, 26 Nov. 2019, https://www.oecd-
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ilibrary.org/sites/15c62f9cen/index.html?itemId=%2Fcontent%2Fcomponent%2F15c62f9c-en.
As described in Chapter 3, enhancing access to and sharing of data (EASD) can provide
social and economic benefits and support good public governance. However, data
access and sharing also comes with several risks to individuals and organisations.
These include the risks of confidentiality and privacy breaches and the violation of other
legitimate private interests, such as commercial interests. The pursuit of the benefits of
EASD therefore needs to be balanced against the costs and the legitimate national,
public and private interests, in particular the rights and interests of the stakeholders
involved (the protection of their privacy, IPRs, and national security). This is especially
the case where sensitive data are involved. Privacy and IPRs and other legitimate
commercial and non-commercial interests need to be protected, otherwise incentives
to contribute data and to invest in data-driven innovation may be undermined, in
addition to the risks of direct and indirect harm to right holders, including data subjects.
Evidence confirms that risks of confidentiality breach, for instance, have led users to be
more reluctant to share their data, including providing personal data, and in some cases
to use digital services at all.1 Where multiple right holders may be affected
simultaneously, as in the case of large-scale personal data breaches, the scale and scope
of the potential impact can become a systemic risk with detrimental effects for
society.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords do not have many specific mechanisms in place to secure
information, and the agreements themselves are not legally binding.
Gross, Matthew. “The Artemis Accords: International Cooperation in the Era of Space
Exploration.” Harvard International Review, Harvard International Review, 27
Jan. 2023, https://hir.harvard.edu/the-artemis-accords/.
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That is the question that the Artemis Accords aims to answer: they are a series of
bilateral agreements signed in 2020. The agreements attempt to establish cooperation
on a US-led endeavor to bring humans back to the moon by 2025 with the eventual goal
of interplanetary exploration. The Artemis Accords are based on several principles
including peace, transparency, interoperability, emergency assistance, and minimizing
resource conflict. The Artemis Accords currently have 21 party nations, including the
United States, who initially drafted the agreements. The most notable nations
“involved”, however, are actually two non-parties to the agreement: China and Russia.
Although one would hope that the technological progressions associated with space
exploration would automatically ameliorate fraught international relationships, the
reality is that they might exacerbate existing tensions. One potential area of conflict
could be the international battle over resource extraction on the moon. The Artemis
Accords establish that when nations engage in mining activities on the moon, they do
not obtain property rights over the extracted materials. These Accords, however, are
not legally binding and are merely a formalized understanding between the parties of
the agreement. The Accords attempt to counter this issue through the creation of
“safety zones” where nations cannot interfere with other nations’ resource extraction
activities. While safety zones might be able to resolve international tensions, they also
could be the source of a new issue. The Accords lack a clear mechanism to designate
which nations get what territory. The distribution of equitable territories with ample
resources does not seem to be a process that naturally lends itself to a neutral outcome.
Warrant: India’s current space industry has boomed with several developments far ahead of
more advanced-space faring nations
Raghavan, P. S. “Harnessing India's Space Technology Potential.” Www.euractiv.com,
EURACTIV, 8 Sept. 2022, https://www.euractiv.com/section/euindia/opinion/harnessing-indias-space-technology-potential/.
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India’s space industry has recorded remarkable successes over the past decades, in the
face of a hostile external environment (sanctions, export controls, technology denials)
for much of the period of its development. ISRO has developed end-to-end
technologies for space-based services and applications in various sectors. It has
indigenously developed sophisticated technologies of strategic importance. It designs,
builds and launches satellites for high throughput communications, geo-imaging and
high-resolution earth observation, and operates an independent Indian stand-alone
navigation satellite system (NavIC). In scientific and developmental applications, the
Indian space programme is, in some respects, ahead of that of some of the more
advanced space-faring nations.
Warrant: India has become a target of increasing cyberattacks due to poor security
Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai. “The AIIMS Cyberattack Reflects India's Critical
Vulnerabilities.” ORF, 3 Dec. 2022, https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/theaiims-cyberattack-reflects-indias-critical-vulnerabilities/.
The frequency and targets of cyberattacks on India are becoming increasingly serious.
Earlier in the month of November, Central Depository Services (India) Limited (CDSL)
detected a malware in some of its internal machines though the CSDL claimed that
“there is no reason to believe that confidential information or investor data has been
compromised.” In the latest such attack, just a week ago, one of India’s top medical
institutions—the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) Delhi—came under
cyberattack. Though India has been paying greater attention to cyber security, the rising
number of attacks on India should be very worrying to Indian security managers.
According to the media reports, the AIIMS management stated that a ransomware had
“affected outpatient and inpatient digital hospital services, including smart lab, billing,
report generation, appointment scheduling”. The attack is believed to be a possible
ransomware attack where the criminals who hacked into the system are reportedly
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asking for a ransom payment, though this has been denied by Delhi Police. Ransomware
is essentially a kind of malicious software where the perpetrator is able to gain illegal
access to the victim’s data and ask for a ransom to restore access to the data for the
victim. The Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-IN) in its India
Ransomware Report 2022 stated that there is a 51-percent increase in the number of
ransomware attacks across multiple sectors including critical infrastructure.
Impact: A data breach would have massive ramifications for the entirety of India’s national
security
Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai. “India's Space Priorities Are Shifting toward National
Security.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1 Sept. 2022,
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/09/01/india-s-space-priorities-areshifting-toward-national-security-pub-87809.
Military and security imperatives have also gained greater prominence in Indian
thinking about space utilization. Although New Delhi does not have a declared space
policy document, the growing military orientation can be gleaned from official
statements in the Indian Parliament and from organizations such as the United Nations.
India’s approach to space is now driven by a sense of pragmatism and by national
security concerns, as opposed to the morality- and sovereignty-related considerations
that shaped the program until the 1990s. Given this new motivation as well as the
changing space security conditions, India’s space program has developed credible
launch capabilities and a mix of intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance, and
Earth observation satellites for military purposes. These growing capabilities should
significantly increase the Indian military’s situational awareness, especially of the areas
around the country’s borders. Some of India’s earliest military satellites, such as the
RISAT series, were specifically meant to do this. Though initially developed in the
context of terrorist threats after the 2008 Mumbai attack, these systems have broader
utility for all the country’s military services. India has also deployed communication
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satellites that allow each branch to better coordinate operations. This is particularly
important for the Navy, given its far-flung operational theaters. Finally, India’s
investment in its own navigation satellite constellation will help all Indian forces, in all
types of operations, to situate themselves without the vulnerability of depending on
foreign navigational satellites. Along with the capability developments, India has also
undertaken institutional changes to improve how its armed forces utilize space.
Impact: Data breach can expose personal information about everyone involved in the Artemis
Accords. NASA breach proves
The Week Staff. “NASA Data Breach: What Happened and Who Is Affected?” The Week
UK, The Week, 20 Dec. 2018, https://www.theweek.co.uk/cybercrime/98644/nasa-data-breach-what-happened-and-who-is-affected.
Staff employed by Nasa between July 2006 and October 2018 may have had their data
exposed by the attack, though the company has not been able to narrow down whether
hackers stole any personal information. Along with Social Security numbers being
exposed, the agency claims that personally identifiable information (PII), a broad term
that could include anything from a person’s date of birth to their passport number,
may also have been “exfiltrated”. Nasa has urged workers to “take the necessary
precautions to prevent possible identity theft”, says Gizmodo. Why Nasa waited two
months to go public on the hack has not been revealed. However, tech news site ZDNet
says it is “common” for authorities in the US to asked hacked organisations to “delay
notifying affected victims while they investigate an incident”.
Analysis: Ratification of the Artemis Accords essentially ensures that space-related technologies
and development will be shared. India in particular has several unique technologies that have
helped them advance beyond other space-faring states. However, given a lack of legal
requirements, the risk of a data breach is particularly high. The effects will be particularly
dangerous to India’s national security.
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CON: Ratification worsens Sino-Indian relations
Argument: Relations between China and India will be strained by India ratifying the Artemis
Accords
Warrant: China opposes the Artemis Accords
Ji, Elliot. “What Does China Think about NASA's Artemis Accords?” The Diplomat, The
Diplomat, 18 Sept. 2020, https://thediplomat.com/2020/09/what-does-chinathink-about-nasas-artemis-accords/.
However, the purportedly noble goals of the Accords have not evaded skepticism
among some spacefaring nations, particularly the People’s Republic of China. Although
the announcement of the Artemis Accords did not make major headlines in China, the
Accords elicited a decisively negative response in Chinese news media. Characterizing
the Accords as a disingenuous attempt to stymie Chinese space ambitions, many
commentators pointed to the arrival of the announcement shortly after China’s
successful test of the Long March 5B, a critical milestone for China’s manned spaceflight
programs. Song Zhongping, a Chinese military and aerospace commentator, likened
the Accords to the enclosure movement in 18th-century Great Britain, during which
common land was privatized to the benefit of the wealthy. “The U.S. is developing a
new space version of an ‘Enclosure Movement,’ in pursuit of colonization and claiming
sovereignty over the moon,” Song told the Global Times, criticizing the “Cold War”
mentality of the United States as it sought to outcompete China and Russia in outer
space. Chinese central state television echoed Song’s concerns, stating that the
Accords are a step toward the enclosure of outer space by a self-interested United
States.
Warrant: Space is reflecting geopolitical trends on Earth
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Hartsoe, Steve. “Keeping the Peace as Geopolitical Competition Rises in Space.” Duke
Today, 8 Dec. 2022, https://today.duke.edu/2022/12/keeping-peacegeopolitical-competition-rises-space.
“Geopolitical trends on Earth are now regularly impacting space activities in low-earth
orbit and deeper space,” said Giovanni Zanalda, lab co-chair, director of the Rethinking
Diplomacy Program, and a Duke professor of the practice in economics, history with the
Social Science Research Institute. Schmitt reinforced Zanalda’s claims, noting the
extent that the commercial space sector has been involved in various aspects of
Ukraine’s struggle against the Russian invasion this year. Stickings said interest in space
is on the rise in the UK, noting the publication of its first national space strategy in
September 2021 and a first national defense space strategy in February of this year.
Warrant: China is actively expanding its own space efforts
Skibba, Ramin. “China Is Now a Major Space Power.” Wired, Conde Nast, 4 Nov. 2022,
https://www.wired.com/story/china-is-now-a-major-space-power-tiangongspace-station/.
THE SIZE OF the neighborhood in low Earth orbit has now officially doubled. On October
31, China launched the final piece of its new Tiangong space station, completing its
construction. The 18-meter lab module, named Mengtian (meaning “dreaming of the
heavens”), enables a range of scientific experiments and now allows the station to
accommodate up to six people at a time. It currently hosts commander Chen Dong and
two other astronauts. It’s a significant accomplishment for China’s rapidly growing
space program, which plans to build a base on the moon, deploy a lunar rover, and
send new landers and orbiters to Mars. It’s also the first long-term neighbor the
International Space Station has had since Russia’s Mir station was deorbited in 2001.
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(China flew two Tiangong experimental prototypes between 2011 and 2019, but they
are no longer orbiting.) “This is important for the Chinese space program. The
International Space Station won’t run for much longer. You may well end up with only
one orbiting space station—the Chinese one,” says Fabio Tronchetti, a space law
professor at Beihang University in Beijing and the University of Mississippi.
Warrant: Tensions between India and China are at an all-time high
Lalwani, Sameer. “Another Clash on the India-China Border Underscores Risks of
Militarization.” United States Institute of Peace, 4 Jan. 2023,
https://www.usip.org/publications/2022/12/another-clash-india-china-borderunderscores-risks-militarization.
So, while the two sides used their mechanisms to de-escalate and reaffirm agreements,
Sino-India relations reached a new low after Galwan and have yet to recover. And
even with tactical de-escalation, the strategic escalation of tensions between India and
China continues with substantial upgrades of military infrastructure and the
permanent deployments of additional troops to the area. Meanwhile, India restricted
Chinese investment into its technology and infrastructure sectors and outright banned
Chinese apps like TikTok. And across the Indo-Pacific, common views about Chinese
assertiveness have led to closer military and technology cooperation between India
and other countries in the region — such as the Quad (Australia, India, Japan and the
United States) — who seek to compete with China for influence and deter Chinese
aggression in the region. For decades, China and India believed they would not see
border clashes result in the loss of life. That changed unexpectedly in Galwan. With
the border more militarized than ever and trust at a historic low, risks of escalation
cannot be dismissed.
Warrant: Ratification would put India in opposition to Chinese interests
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Lele, Ajey. “Should India Join China and Russia's Lunar Research Station?” The Space
Review, 1 June 2021, https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4185/1.
China and Russia have yet to spell out the details about their specific proposal to build a
Lunar Research Station. Possibly, this is the time for other nations to join this project
and ensure that the project develops in a manner that ensures that the planetary
system continued to be the common heritage of humanity. It is unlikely that China and
Russia would allow other partners to dilute their agenda, but that should not stop other
agencies from trying. Today in the space domain there are two competing blocs. One
consists of the US and it allies, and the other is Russia and China. They oppose almost
each other’s every idea in regards to space security. They are just not open to any of
ideas from the other side. This is harming any possible creation of rule-based
mechanisms for conduct of activities in space.
Impact: Escalation of tensions leads to conventional war
Mizokami, Kyle. “A War between India and China: It Could Go Nuclear and Billions
Would Die.” The National Interest, The Center for the National Interest, 18 Nov.
2019, https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/war-between-india-and-china-itcould-go-nuclear-and-billions-would-die-84501.
A hypothetical war between India and China would be one of the largest and most
destructive conflicts in Asia. A war between the two powers would rock the IndoPacific region, cause thousands of casualties on both sides and take a significant toll
on the global economy. Geography and demographics would play a unique role, limiting
the war’s scope and ultimately the conditions of victory. India and China border one
another in two locations, northern India/western China and eastern India/southern
China, with territorial disputes in both areas. China attacked both theaters in October
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1962, starting a monthlong war that resulted in minor Chinese gains on the ground.
Both countries’ “No First Use” policies regarding nuclear weapons make the outbreak of
nuclear war very unlikely. Both countries have such large populations, each over 1.3
billion, that they are essentially unconquerable. Like all modern wars, a war between
India and China would be fought over land, sea, and air; geography would limit the
scope of the land conflict, while it would be the air conflict, fought with both aircraft
and missiles, that would do the most damage to both countries. The trump card,
however, may be India’s unique position to dominate a sea conflict, with dire
consequences for the Chinese economy. A war between the two countries would,
unlike the 1962 war, involve major air action on both sides. Both countries maintain
large tactical air forces capable of flying missions over the area. People’s Liberation
Army Air Force units in the Lanzhou Military Region would fly against Punjab, Himchal
Pradesh and Uttarakhand and from the expansive Chengdu Military region against
India’s Arunachal Pradesh.
Impact: Conflict devastates the global economy. Look at Ukraine-Russia War
Kammer, Alfred, et al. "How war in Ukraine is reverberating across world’s regions."
Washington: IMF, March 15 (2022): 2022. .
https://joserobertoafonso.com.br/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/How-War-inUkraine-Is-Reverberating-Across-Worlds-Regions-%E2%80%93-IMF-Blog.pdf
Beyond the suffering and humanitarian crisis from Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, the
entire global economy will feel the effects of slower growth and faster inflation.
Impacts will flow through three main channels. One, higher prices for commodities like
food and energy will push up inflation further, in turn eroding the value of incomes and
weighing on demand. Two, neighboring economies in particular will grapple with
disrupted trade, supply chains, and remittances as well as an historic surge in refugee
flows. And three, reduced business confidence and higher investor uncertainty will
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weigh on asset prices, tightening financial conditions and potentially spurring capital
outflows from emerging markets
Analysis: China and India have had historically bad relations. A recent border skirmish has put
their relationship on the brink of collapse. The con should argue that joining the Artemis
Accords, an organization that stands in opposition to China’s space alternative, will push
relations over the edge. That leads to conventional warfare between the two states.
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CON: The Artemis Accords are too polarizing
Argument: The Artemis Accords are highly controversial. As such, India would have to use too
much political capital to ratify them.
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are met with too much international resistance
Gratton, Gabriele. “Political Capital.” The Harris School. August 2019.
https://harris.uchicago.edu/files/political_capital_august_30_2019-gratton.pdf
“An organization must make a binary choice in each of two periods. The optimal
choice depends on an unknown state of nature. The leader of the organization has a
stock of political capital and observes a private signal of the state. The leader faces an
intertemporal choice problem. She may choose to spend (some of) her political capital
to increase the probability that the choice is not the one that would otherwise be
made. Her political capital increases if the decision is correct ex post. We characterize
the optimal use of political capital by the leader and how it evolves over time. We
identify different leadership styles that depend on the initial stock of capital of the
leader, the precision of her information, and the importance of the issue to her. We
study how differing leadership styles determine the evolution of power within the
organization. Finally, we consider issues of optimal organizational design that structure
the allocation of power to a leader. Most organizations—in politics, business, and
academia—feature leaders who can sway collective decisions. In business, a CEO may
persuade her firm’s board to approve a project the board is initially skeptical about. She
may do so by appealing to personal friendships with members of the board, or even by
threatening to resign. In politics, U.S. presidents may coax Congress into passing
legislation that does not have the initial support of the majority of members.”
Warrant: Using political capital unwisely diminishes influence
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Gratton, Gabriele. “Political Capital.” The Harris School. August 2019.
https://harris.uchicago.edu/files/political_capital_august_30_2019-gratton.pdf
“That leaders have the power to influence decisions is not controversial. Yet, power to
influence is not an easy concept to define, as it includes both formal and informal
components, such as the leader’s network of friends and allies within the
organization, the organization’s informal system of favor exchanges, and even the
organization’s culture (March, 1981, pp. 216–219). All these elements contribute to
the leader’s power to sway collective decisions1 and determine whether and when
the leader may choose to exercise this power. In fact, forcing the hand of others on
one issue today may have consequences for the leader’s future influence. For
example, the leader may lose future influence because she makes enemies among
those who are strongly opposed to the alternative she advocates, or because she loses
the support of those who feel they owed her just one more favor. But the leader may
also increase her future influence if the alternative she advocated turns out to benefit
many in the organization. Just as she may be held 1In this sense, power captures the
effectiveness of a leader’s “influence activities” (Milgrom and Roberts, 1988).
1accountable for supporting the wrong alternative, so may she be rewarded
foradvocating the right one. The extent of these effects may depend on a “culture of
reward” or “culture of blame” within the organization.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are controversial
Davies, Chris. “NASA's Artemis Accords are controversial new rules of space” Gear Slash
News. April 2020. https://www.slashgear.com/nasa-artemis-accords-moonmars-rules-of-exploration-mining-safety-zones-15620772
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“"The Artemis Accords reinforce that space resource extraction and utilization can and
will be conducted under the auspices of the Outer Space Treaty, with specific
emphasis on Articles II, VI, and XI," NASA outlines. The treaty, formulated in 1966 and
effective from the following year, mainly focuses on non-armament factors like not
putting weapons of mass destruction in space, rather than newer concepts such as
mining operations beyond Earth. Likely to be equally divisive is the Artemis Accord
around "deconfliction of activities," in which NASA says it and other nations "will
provide public information regarding the location and general nature of operations
which will inform the scale and scope of 'Safety Zones'." "Notification and coordination
between partner nations to respect such safety zones will prevent harmful
interference," NASA explains, "implementing Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty and
reinforcing the principle of due regard."”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are seen as highly political
Davies, Chris. “NASA's Artemis Accords are controversial new rules of space” Gear Slash
News. April 2020. https://www.slashgear.com/nasa-artemis-accords-moonmars-rules-of-exploration-mining-safety-zones-15620772
" It comes shortly after President Trump signed the "Executive Order on Encouraging
International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources" in April 2020, a
document outlining the US' intentions to mine on the Moon and further afield, and
countering suggestions that space is "a global commons." That sets NASA and the
Administration at odds with the 1979 Moon Agreement, a proposal by the United
Nations that celestial bodies like the Moon be used "exclusively for peaceful
purposes" and that "their environments should not be disrupted." The US did not sign
that Agreement, and indeed Trump's EO states that "it shall be the policy of the United
States to encourage international support for the public and private recovery and use of
resources in outer space, consistent with applicable law." The use of "safety zones"
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around mining sites could well be seen as a preemptive defense of those public and
private resource claims. The Outer Space Treaty – and Article IX in particular – does
outline a process by which parties to the treaty can "request consultation concerning
the activity or experiment" that has prompted concern, but does not establish
anything more restrictive beyond that.”
Analysis: Every political action comes with costs. Use this argument to make the case that India
should focus on less difficult-to-pass priorities.
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CON: Space exploration is a waste of money
Argument: Instead of signing agreements that further the cause of space exploration, countries
show focus their efforts on poverty reduction close to home
Warrant: Money can be better spent on saving lives at home
Kaku, Michio. “The Cost Of Space Exploration” Forbes. July 2009.
https://www.forbes.com/2009/07/16/apollo-moon-landing-anniversaryopinions-contributors-cost-money.html?sh=60aa73b81d04
“But after 1969, the Soviets dropped out of the race to the moon and, like a cancer, the
land war in Asia began to devour the budget. The wind gradually came out of the sails of
the space program; the Nielsen ratings for each moon landing began to fall. The last
manned mission to the moon was Apollo 17, in 1972. As Isaac Asimov once commented,
we scored a touchdown, then took our football and went home. After all is said and
done about what went wrong, the bottom line is simple: money. It's about $10,000 to
put a pound of anything into a near-earth orbit. (Imagine John Glenn, the first
American to orbit the earth, made of solid gold, and you can appreciate the enormous
cost of space travel.) It costs $500 to $700 million every time the shuttle flies.
Billionaire space tourists have flown to the space station at a reputed price of $20
million per head. And to put a pound of anything on the moon costs about 10 times as
much. (To reach Mars, imagine your body made of diamonds.) We are 50 years into
the space age, and yet space travel is just as expensive as it always was. We can
debate endlessly over what went wrong; there is probably no one correct answer. But a
few observations can be made. The space shuttle, the workhorse of the space program,
proved to be somewhat of a disappointment, with large cost overruns and long delays.
It was bloated and probably did not need to have seven astronauts on board. (The
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Soviet copy of the space shuttle, a near-clone called the Buran, actually flew into outer
space fully automated, without any astronauts whatsoever.)”
Warrant: The space program is very expensive
Kaku, Michio. “The Cost Of Space Exploration” Forbes. July 2009.
https://www.forbes.com/2009/07/16/apollo-moon-landing-anniversaryopinions-contributors-cost-money.html?sh=60aa73b81d04
“The space station costs upward of $100 billion, yet its critics call it a "station to
nowhere." It has no clearly defined scientific purpose. Once, President George H.W.
Bush's science adviser was asked about the benefits of doing experiments in
weightlessness and microgravity. His response was, "Microgravity is of
microimportance." Its supporters have justified the space station as a terminal for the
space shuttle. But the space shuttle has been justified as a vehicle to reach the space
station, which is a completely circular and illogical argument. Now, NASA is painfully
reconstructing the infrastructure that it dismantled back in the 1970s as it prepares to
send astronauts to the moon via the Orion crew vehicle and the Ares launch rocket in
2020. This time, though, there could be a traffic jam on the moon, since China, India and
Japan have all publicly announced that by then they too will have sent astronauts to the
moon. (Please see story, "A Traffic Jam On The Moon?"). Let's hope someone will map
out a methodical plan for space exploration, like the one Eisenhower drew up, instead
of wasting time and money with more fits-and-starts. Then, at the next milestone
anniversary, we won't have to ask ourselves, "What if?"”
Warrant: The world should concentrate on ending poverty
Gorius, Lea. “HOW MUCH DOES IT COST TO END POVERTY?.” The Borgen Project. April
2021. https://borgenproject.org/how-much-does-it-cost-to-end-poverty/
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“Today the world produces enough food for everyone on the planet. So why are more
than a billion people still dying of hunger? Why is life itself tenuous for so many
families while the eight richest people in the world have as much wealth as the
poorest 50 percent of people in the world? The answer is poverty. But poverty can be
stopped, and this raises the question, “how much does it cost to end poverty?”
Poverty can be categorized as moderate, relative or extreme. Here we will try to
define the cost needed to end extreme poverty. But first, what is extreme poverty? It
refers to the state of the poorest people in the world. They are barely able to meet their
minimal needs for survival, as they live on less than $1.90 per day, according to the
World Bank. But poverty is more than just very low incomes. It is hunger, high mortality
rates, conflicts, a lack of education or health services and a lack of a future for hundreds
of thousands of women, men and children. Broadly, poverty affects most of the people
in the world. In 2005, 71 percent of the world’s population lived on an income below
$10 a day. To eradicate poverty is possible, but at what cost?”
Warrant: It would not cost much money to eliminate poverty
Gorius, Lea. “HOW MUCH DOES IT COST TO END POVERTY?.” The Borgen Project. April
2021. https://borgenproject.org/how-much-does-it-cost-to-end-poverty/
" In his book End of Poverty, Jeffrey Sachs, director of the Earth Institute at Columbia
University, provides one answer to the question “how much does it cost to end
poverty?” He argues that poverty could be eliminated by the year 2025 thanks to “wellplaced development aids”. Investment in local farms to boost capital and productivity,
education for both children and adults, enhancing access to health services and
leveraging renewable energy resources are the best ways to end poverty. So, how
much does it cost to end poverty? Jeffrey Sachs, as one of the world’s leading experts
on economic development and the fight against poverty, stated that the cost to end
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poverty is $175 billion per year for 20 years. This yearly amount is less than 1 percent
of the combined income of the richest countries in the world, and only four times the
United States’ military budget for one year. Ending poverty is possible and at a low
cost. Now we just need ordinary citizens as well as multinational corporations to start
meeting their responsibilities to help the poor and the left behind..”
Analysis: Use this argument to show the judge that there are more pressing concerns than
space exploration.
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CON: International Agreements Lack Enforcement
Argument: International agreements are hard to enforce because there is no enforcement
mechanism for them.
Warrant: Treaties generally fail
Hoffman, Steven.. “International treaties have mostly failed to produce their intended
effects” PNAS. July 2022. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2122854119
“There are over 250,000 international treaties that aim to foster global cooperation. But
are treaties actually helpful for addressing global challenges? This systematic field-wide
evidence synthesis of 224 primary studies and meta-analysis of the higher-quality 82
studies finds treaties have mostly failed to produce their intended effects. The only
exceptions are treaties governing international trade and finance, which consistently
produced intended effects. We also found evidence that impactful treaties achieve
their effects through socialization and normative processes rather than longer-term
legal processes and that enforcement mechanisms are the only modifiable treaty
design choice with the potential to improve the effectiveness of treaties governing
environmental, human rights, humanitarian, maritime, and security policy domains.
This evidence synthesis raises doubts about the value of international treaties that
neither regulate trade or finance nor contain enforcement mechanisms. International
treaties are often used by countries to address concerns that transcend national
boundaries, including the environment, human rights, humanitarian crises, maritime
issues, security, and trade (1–18). Today there are at least 250,000 treaties (19) yet
relatively few have been evaluated for impact (20–22), which means we do not know
whether these legally binding instruments are effectively serving their intended purpose
(23, 24). And yet, leaders from government, academia, business, and civil society
routinely call for new treaties to address global challenges (25, 26.”
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Warrant: Treaties that cover a wide range of subjects fail
Hoffman, Steven.. “International treaties have mostly failed to produce their intended
effects” PNAS. July 2022. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2122854119
“While the 224 studies analyzed in this evidence synthesis constitute a substantial
body of scientific literature on the impact of international treaties, the quality and
breadth of this evidence must improve. More research should focus on disentangling
the contexts and circumstances in which treaty design choices like accountability
mechanisms can be effectively deployed to maximize intended impacts. If the power of
treaties’ negotiating process is confirmed, then additional research on how to
effectively design, navigate, and leverage this political process for catalyzing change
would be very productive. Unless different evidence emerges, calls for new
international treaties to address global challenges beyond trade and finance should be
received with caution. Although the meta-analysis relies on the current state of
published evidence, our findings that treaties governing environmental, human rights,
humanitarian, maritime, and security policy domains have not demonstrated impacts
either point to the failure of these treaties to achieve impacts or the failure of
researchers to generate evidence of impacts. If pursued, enforcement mechanisms
appear to be the only treaty design choice that holds promise of maximizing the chances
of achieving intended effects. Future treaties beyond trade and finance that do not have
enforcement mechanisms are unlikely to be worth their considerable effort and may
have unintended consequences. These findings are immediately relevant for treaties
that are currently being negotiated or that are being considered for negotiation.”
Warrant: Countries do not keep their promises
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Kennedy, John. “Do governments keep their promises? An analysis of speeches from the
throne.” Wiley Online Library. April 2020.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gove.12548
“Political parties regularly make promises to the public about what they hope to
accomplish if and when they are elected to office. Once in office, the winning party,
usually via the executive branch, announces its agenda by delivering a “speech from
the throne” or a “state of the union/nation” address in the legislature. To what extent
are governments able to fulfill the promises they make in these speeches? To answer
this question, we investigate the impact of three structural constraints on promise
fulfillment over time—procedural (e.g., majority vs. minority configurations);
informational (e.g., new vs. incumbent governments); and economic (economic
recession)—using an original dataset drawn from Canadian speeches from the throne
between 1962 and 2013. Our findings, which both challenge and confirm the findings
of existing literature on promise fulfillment, suggest that only procedural and
economic constraints matter.”
Warrant: Countries just follow their self interest
Kennedy, John. “Do governments keep their promises? An analysis of speeches from the
throne.” Wiley Online Library. April 2020.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gove.12548
"Our results suggest that only two structural constraints (e.g., procedural and
economic) matter in terms of the ability of governments to fulfill their promises. In
terms of procedural constraints, majority configurations produce higher rates of
promise fulfillment relative to minority configurations especially over time. These
findings are in contrast to Thomson et al. (2017) who found that what really matters
for pledge fulfillment is single party control. Our research, however, suggests that
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what really matters is how many seats the governing party controls, given that all
federal governments in Canada have been of the single-party variety (Roy & Alcantara,
2020). The effects of procedural constraints, it seems, may depend on the country and
whether single or multiparty governments are the norm. In terms of economic
constraints, we found that governments operating in times of economic recession are
less likely to fulfill promises over time, which is consistent with the existing literature.
Finally, in terms of informational constraints, we found that incumbency seemed to
have no effect on promise fulfillment, contrary to what Thomson et al. (2017, p. 39) and
Petry and Duval (2018, p. 922) found in their analysis of party manifesto promises.”
Analysis: Use this argument to say that India should not commit to the Artemis Accords
because they are unlikely to be upheld when they materially conflict with national interests.
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CON: The Artemis Accords are ineffective
Argument: A variety of structural and practical considerations will limit the effectiveness of the
Artemis Accords in fostering a predictable forum for international relations in space,
Warrant: The Artemis Accords do not have consensus
David Fidler. “The Artemis Accords and the Next Generation of Outer Space
Governance” Council on Foreign Relations. July 2022.
https://www.cfr.org/blog/artemis-accords-and-next-generation-outer-spacegovernance
“Many countries have plans to launch missions to the Moon, and the Artemis Accords
do not apply to foreign space activities conducted outside the Artemis Program. Lunar
operations by, for example, China do not have to abide by the Artemis Accords if
conducted without NASA participation. However, the accords provide an important
diplomatic, legal, and normative reference point for lunar missions that other
countries undertake and, thus, have significance for space governance beyond any
bilateral agreements NASA concludes. The Artemis Accords will be intergovernmental
and will not apply to commercial enterprises interested in pursuing lunar activities.
NASA will negotiate contracts with any space companies working through the Artemis
Program, as it typically does in projects involving the private sector. For the Artemis
Accords to retain legitimacy, the onus will be on NASA to have these contracts reflect,
where relevant, the Artemis principles. Where U.S. private-sector activities are
undertaken without NASA participation, the U.S. government will need to ensure that
they too comply, as necessary and appropriate, with the principles in the accords. The
most controversial aspect of the Artemis Accords involves the issue of space resources.
The accords reinforce the long-standing U.S. position that the Outer Space Treaty
permits countries to use resources, such as minerals and ice on the Moon and Mars, in
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space activities. In April, President Trump issued an executive order re-confirming the
U.S. view that space is not a “global commons” and that U.S. policy encourages
“international support for the public and private recovery and use of resources in outer
space, consistent with applicable law.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords have garnered tremendous criticism
David Fidler. “The Artemis Accords and the Next Generation of Outer Space
Governance” Council on Foreign Relations. July 2022.
https://www.cfr.org/blog/artemis-accords-and-next-generation-outer-spacegovernance
“The U.S. position is not universally shared, and the executive order generated
criticism. Roscosmos, the Russian space agency, compared the U.S. stance to
colonialism, in claiming for the United States the right to seize territories and
resources in space. Similarly, Russian officials expressed unease about the Artemis
Accords and their compatibility with international law, with the Roscosmos director
asserting that “the principle of invasion is the same, whether it be the Moon or Iraq.”
This reaction suggests that Russia and like-minded countries might oppose the accords
in the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space or create a rival governance
initiative on lunar activities. Any such efforts will not deter the United States. As the
world’s leading spacefaring power, it has tremendous leverage in setting the conditions
under which other countries participate in the Artemis Program. The Artemis Accords
embrace rules and principles developed through multilateralism rather than a scofflaw
version of American unilateralism. The agreements that NASA concludes with other
space agencies will serve as evidence of international support for the U.S. position on
the use of space resources. Here, the United States uses American power and influence
to advance its interests through international agreements that implement principles
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anchored in multilateral regimes for space activities. As it should be.”
Warrant: China is highly opposed to the Artemis Accords
Ji, Eliot. “What Does China Think About NASA’s Artemis Accords?” The Diplomat. April
2020. https://thediplomat.com/2020/09/what-does-china-think-about-nasasartemis-accords/
“Although the announcement of the Artemis Accords did not make major headlines in
China, the Accords elicited a decisively negative response in Chinese news media.
Characterizing the Accords as a disingenuous attempt to stymie Chinese space
ambitions, many commentators pointed to the arrival of the announcement shortly
after China’s successful test of the Long March 5B, a critical milestone for China’s
manned spaceflight programs. Song Zhongping, a Chinese military and aerospace
commentator, likened the Accords to the enclosure movement in 18th-century Great
Britain, during which common land was privatized to the benefit of the wealthy. “The
U.S. is developing a new space version of an ‘Enclosure Movement,’ in pursuit of
colonization and claiming sovereignty over the moon,” Song told the Global Times,
criticizing the “Cold War” mentality of the United States as it sought to outcompete
China and Russia in outer space. Chinese central state television echoed Song’s
concerns, stating that the Accords are a step toward the enclosure of outer space by a
self-interested United States.”
Warrant: China sees the Artemis Accords as self-centered
Ji, Eliot. “What Does China Think About NASA’s Artemis Accords?” The Diplomat. April
2020. https://thediplomat.com/2020/09/what-does-china-think-about-nasasartemis-accords/
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" Ma Zhanyuan, a professor from the Chinese University of Law and Political Science,
acknowledged the need for an international framework governing extraction of space
resources, such as on the moon. Speaking with two reporters from Beijing News, Ma
explained that there “is currently a vacuum in international space law regarding lunar
resource extraction.” However, Ma emphasized that such a framework and activities
must benefit all of mankind, and that attempts by the U.S. to “formulate its own laws
to allow the extraction of space resources… will harm the interests of other
countries.”
Analysis: Use this argument to say that India should not commit to the Artemis Accords
because other countries are unlikely to join, rendering the framework practically useless.
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CON: Ratification is Unnecessary
Argument: The Artemis Accords to not substantively change the landscape of space
exploration, so ratification is unnecessary and unlike to change anything
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are met with too much international resistance
Newman, Christopher. “Artemis Accords: why many countries are refusing to sign Moon
exploration agreement.” The Conversation. October 2020.
https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-are-refusingto-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134
“Russia has already stated that the Artemis Program is too “US-centric” to sign it in its
present form. China’s absence is explained by the US congressional prohibition on
collaboration with the country. Concerns that this is a power grab by the US and its
allies are fuelled by the lack of any African or South American countries amongst the
founding partner states. Intriguingly Germany, France and India are also absent. These
are countries with well developed space programmes that would surely have benefited
from being involved in Project Artemis. Their opposition may be down to a preference
for the Moon Agreement and a desire to see a properly negotiated treaty governing
lunar exploration. The European Space Agency (ESA) as an organisation has not signed
on to the accords either, but a number of ESA member states have. This is unsurprising.
The ambitious US deadline for the project will clash with the lengthy consultation of the
17 member states required for the ESA to sign on as a whole.”
Warrant: The United States is advancing its self interest and playing hardball
Newman, Christopher. “Artemis Accords: why many countries are refusing to sign Moon
exploration agreement.” The Conversation. October 2020.
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https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-are-refusingto-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134
“Ultimately, the Artemis Accords are revolutionary in the field of space exploration.
Using bilateral agreements that dictate norms of behaviour as a condition of
involvement in a programme is a significant change in space governance. With Russia
and China opposing them, the accords are sure to meet diplomatic resistance and
their very existence may provoke antagonism in traditional UN forums. Questions also
remain about the impact that the looming US election and the COVID-19 pandemic will
have on the programme. We already know that President Trump is keen to see
astronauts on the Moon by 2024. The approach of his Democratic rival, Joe Biden, is a
lot less clear. He may well be less wedded to the 2024 deadline and instead aim for
broader diplomatic consensus on behaviour through engagement at the UN. While
broader international acceptance may be desirable, the US believes that the lure of
the opportunities afforded by the Artemis Program will bring other partners on board
soon enough. Space-active states now face a stark choice: miss out on being the first
to use the resources of the Moon, or accept the price of doing business and sign up to
the Artemis Accords.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are not likely to succeed
Hickman, John. “The Unimpressive Nature of the Artemis Accords” E-International
Relations. April 2020. e-ir.info/2020/10/19/opinion-the-unimpressive-nature-ofthe-artemis-accords/
“Law often involves fiction, especially when it is deemed useful for facilitating
commerce. The assumption that large business corporations and individual
consumers are equally competent to negotiate the terms of contracts with one
another is an example. So long as almost everyone plays along, such fictions may be
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reasonably functional. The problem with the Artemis Accords is that few countries
appear willing to suspend disbelief. Absent signatures from space agency directors of
China, Russia and the most of the Global South, the document is exposed as the first
step in the annexation of territory or appropriation of resources on the Moon via
condominium – the USA plus a small circle of its friends – in violation of the explicit
prohibition in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty.”
Warrant: The Artemis Accords will not succeed unless changes are made
Hickman, John. “The Unimpressive Nature of the Artemis Accords” E-International
Relations. April 2020. e-ir.info/2020/10/19/opinion-the-unimpressive-nature-ofthe-artemis-accords/
" So the Artemis Accords are likely to be transient lunar phenomenon, of the political
sort. The USA can get away with them only so long as it absorbs some of the business
risk of the sketchy international legality extraterrestrial mining projects and crucially
neither China nor Russia decide to renounce the 1967 Outer Space Treaty by annexing
their own slices of lunar territory. That both Beijing and Moscow view territorial
annexations rather differently than Washington is evident in the former’s claim over the
South China Sea and the latter’s annexation of Crimea. Indeed, they might be tempted
to poke holes in the fiction simply to take the USA down a notch. Ironically, over the
long term, the only way to save the Artemis Accords from that fate would be to engage
in the sharing of lunar resources with the Global South so vigorously opposed in the
1979 Moon Treaty. ”
Analysis: Use this argument to show judges that ratification will not change anything. The
Artemis Accords are unlikely to succeed and do not seriously alter the space exploration game.
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Public Forum Brief
Con Responses to
Pro Arguments
Con Responses to Pro Arguments
March 2023
A/2: Ratification Pushes back on India-Russia ties
Answer: Ratification will have no effect on India-Russia ties
Warrant: India’s relationship with Russia is going well despite the war in Ukraine
Pasricha, Anjana. “India Remains Steadfast in Partnership with Russia.” Voice of America,
20 Dec. 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/india-remains-steadfast-inpartnership-with-russia/6883794.html.
“If your soldiers are facing the Chinese, you can’t really take on the one country that is
supplying you weapons. That defense relationship India shares with Russia made India
choose a more pragmatic engagement,” said Harsh Pant, Vice President for Studies and
Foreign policy at the Observer Research Foundation in New Delhi. Rebuffing calls by
Western leaders to not buy Russian crude, India increased its purchases of oil, coal and
fertilizers from Moscow. From less than one percent before the war began, Russia
became a top supplier to New Delhi of oil by the year’s end. Indian officials said that
buying oil from Moscow was to the country’s advantage and it would continue to do so.
India also sent a contingent to participate in Russia’s large-scale Vostok military exercises
alongside China and several other countries in August. “There are transactional sides to
the India-Russia relationship that are important for both, such as their energy and
defense relationship, and India will take decisions in its national interests,” said Sreeram
Chaulia, Dean of the Jindal School of International Affairs.
Warrant: The United States is issuing a sanctions waiver for India to purchase technology from
Russia
“U.S. President Biden Will Expedite India-Specific CAATSA Sanctions Waiver Because He
Has the Political Mileage: Ro Khanna.” The Hindu, 10 Aug. 2022,
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https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/us-president-biden-will-expediteindia-specific-caatsa-sanctions-waiver-because-he-has-the-political-mileagekhanna/article65753378.ece.
The recent India-specific CAATSA sanctions waiver by the U.S. House of Representatives is
the most consequential vote since the civilian nuclear deal, an influential Indian-American
Democratic Congressman has said, asserting that U.S. President Joe Biden will expedite
the waiver because he has the “political mileage” and the backing of 300 members of the
Congress. In July, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a legislative amendment
that approves an India-specific waiver for punitive CAATSA sanctions for its purchase of
the S-400 missile defence system from Russia. Authored and introduced by IndianAmerican Congressman Ro Khanna, the amendment urges the Biden administration to
use the authority to provide India with a Countering America’s Adversaries Through
Sanctions Act (CAATSA) waiver to help deter aggressors like China. “The U.S.-India
relationship has never been more critical. When you see an expansionist China at an
expansionist Russia, I believe this is going to be a defining relationship of the 21st
century. And we needed to send a clear message to India that America values this
relationship as very important,” Mr. Khanna told PTI in an interview. The legislative
amendment was passed last month by voice vote as part of an en bloc (all together as a
single unit) amendment during floor consideration of the National Defence Authorisation
Act (NDAA).
Warrant: India and Russia have an agreement to strengthen their space collaboration
PTI. “India, Russia sign pact to deepen space cooperation.” The Economic Times, 6 Dec.
2021, https://m.economictimes.com/news/science/india-russia-sign-pact-todeepen-space-cooperation/articleshow/88130854.cms. Accessed 5 Feb. 2023
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India and Russia on Monday vowed to deepen collaboration in the space sector,
including in the human spaceflight programme, and signed an agreement for
cooperation in the building as well as operation of launch vehicles. The pact was signed
during the India-Russia summit held between Prime Minister Narendra Modi and
Russian President Vladimir Putin. A joint statement issued after the summit said the
two countries welcomed the enhanced cooperation between the Russian State Space
Corporation ‘Roscosmos’ and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) including
in the human spaceflight programmes and satellite navigation. They agreed to study the
prospects of the development of mutually beneficial cooperation in the development of
lauch vehicles and the use of outer space for peaceful purposes, including planetary
exploration. The two sides welcomed the active work carried out within the framework of
the Memorandum of Understanding between Roscosmos and ISRO on joint activites in
the human spaceflight programme and noted with satisfaction the training of four Indian
astronaut candidates from the Yu.A.Gagarin Research and Test Cosmonaut Training
Center.
Analysis: This is a good response because it shows that not only are India and Russia on
relatively good terms, they are actively working together on space exploration and research.
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A/2: Ratification Pushes back on India-China ties
Answer: There’s no risk of India-China collaboration
Warrant: China and India regularly engage in serious border disputes
Miller, Manjari Chatterjee, and Clare Harris. “China Routinely Underestimates India's
Concerns about Its Border.” Council on Foreign Relations, Council on Foreign
Relations, 11 Jan. 2023, https://www.cfr.org/blog/china-routinely-underestimatesindias-concerns-about-its-border.
The Chinese media response to the December clash is not surprising when seen in the
larger context of how China views India. While the 1962 war was seminal for India,
prompting it to pour money into military modernization, China never saw it as a gamechanging moment. Moreover, China’s laser-like focus on the United States means that it
often erroneously views India through the frame of U.S.-China relations. For example, a
recent op-ed by Tsinghua professor Li Xiguang made the astonishing claim that
Himalayan countries (read India) view the Himalayan border and corridor through the
eyes of Western analysts and “lack original knowledge production” (quefa zizhu de
zhishi shengchan) on Himalayan issues. Professor Li’s prescription was for China to
generously offer to rectify this lack and unify the region with its own expansive thinking
along with the help of other scholars from the region. These attempts by China to
downplay not just December’s incident but the border dispute as a whole indicate a
precarious misreading of the situation and the depth of India’s mistrust of China. In just
the past few days, India has inaugurated several infrastructure projects along its border
with China, aiming to develop the area for enhanced defense preparedness. These
projects include the new Siyom bridge in Arunachal Pradesh, which will facilitate the
delivery of rations and military equipment, and the recent purchase of three hundred
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March 2023
rough terrain vehicles that can be used for the transportation of loads and casualty
evacuations in high altitude areas.
Warrant: Disagreements with China are intensifying India’s own space research
Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai. “India's Space Priorities Are Shifting toward National
Security.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1 Sept. 2022,
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/09/01/india-s-space-priorities-are-shiftingtoward-national-security-pub-87809.
India also is building partnerships with other states to counter China’s prowess. New
Delhi has established or strengthened space security partnerships not only with the
Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (the Quad, which also includes the United States, Japan,
Australia), but also with France and others. While its bilateral partnerships with Japan,
France, and the United States have involved both civil and security developments, the
Quad as a group has also emphasized consultations on norms of responsible behavior
and regulations, with an eye clearly on China. This is especially important from an
Indian perspective, as the move marks a departure from the country’s traditional
partnership with nonaligned G21 countries, which have generally insisted on legally
binding, verifiable mechanisms on space global governance rather than just norms. This
was India’s position too, but the growing fear of China has forced it to shed some of its
hesitancies and work with the Quad on developing space norms and regulations.
Non-unique: The United States and India are working together without the Accords
Si-soo, Park. “US, India Agree to Cooperate on Space Situational Awareness.” SpaceNews,
12 Apr. 2022, https://spacenews.com/us-india-agree-to-cooperate-on-spacesituational-awareness/.
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The United States and India have agreed to cooperate on space situational awareness,
a deal that the U.S. Department of Defense said would “lay the groundwork for more
advanced cooperation in space.” The agreement was reached April 11 by officials of the
two countries on the sidelines of the U.S.-India 2+2 ministerial dialogue in Washington,
co-hosted by U.S. Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin and the Secretary of State Tony Blinken.
The Indian delegation was led by Defense Minister Rajnath Singh and Minister of External
Affairs Dr. S. Jaishankar. “The four leaders committed to deepening cooperation in new
defense domains, such as space and cyberspace, as the U.S. and Indian militaries jointly
meet the challenges of this century,” the U.S. Department of Defense said in an April 11
statement. “The United States and India signed a Space Situational Awareness
arrangement, which lays the groundwork for more advanced cooperation in space.”
Non-unique: Private companies in India are already countering China
Joshi, Yogesh. “India-China Space Race: The Role of the Private Sector.” ThinkChina, 19
Jan. 2022, https://www.thinkchina.sg/india-china-space-race-role-private-sector.
Indian space-related start-ups have also shown a penchant for such tie-ups. Hightechnology products and services offering low-cost solutions make the Indian private
space ecosystem attractive for space-related firms worldwide. The Hyderabad-based
Skyroot Aerospace Pvt Ltd recently signed an agreement with Italy’s D-Orbit for a joint
pilot mission. Another prominent Indian space start-up — AgniKul Cosmos Pvt Ltd, has
tie-ups in Europe and Japan with players involved in space applications ranging from
using satellites for planet imagery to providing data storage in space. Similarly,
Digantara, has signed Memoranda of Understanding with a Taiwanese space start-up,
Tensor Tech Ltd, to develop high-quality satellites and a Germany-based company
named OKAPI Orbits GmbH to work on a sustainable space environment, among
others. If India’s space programme is to come close to matching the Chinese, its startups will need to bag the best of opportunities for international collaborations. The
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Indian government’s latest policies regarding the opening up of its space sector may
result in an environment more conducive to such global collaborations.
Analysis: This response argues that China and India are incapable of collaborating on anything,
let alone space issues, and says that regardless of the Accords, India is capable of going toe-totoe with China on these issues.
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A/2: Ratification bolsters the Indian Space Research Organization
Answer: Not ratifying the Artemis Accords does more for technological development than
ratification would.
Warrant: Restricting access to some space-based information leads to better international
development
Borowitz, Mariel. “An Interoperable Information Umbrella: Sharing Space Information
Technology.” Strategic Studies Quarterly, 2021,
https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/SSQ/documents/Volume-15_Issue1/Borowitz.pdf.
From Nye and Owens’s perspective, this approach may be viewed as a strategic failure on
the part of the United States. However, the development of independent allied systems
has ultimately benefited the US. As US reliance on space assets has increased, their
vulnerability has become a growing concern. The 2018 National Defense Strategy
recognized that new threats to military and civil use of space were emerging and called
for investments to prioritize efforts to assure space capabilities. One of the widely
agreed-upon methods for overcoming or deterring attacks on these assets is the
development of redundant, resilient systems. For example, given sufficient
interoperability between the systems, if an adversary were to damage or disrupt GPS, the
United States could switch to the Galileo signal. An attack on GPS would potentially have
other ramifications, such as nuclear denotation detection, that would need to be dealt
with in other ways. However, if the goal was to disable GPS, the ability to use Galileo
should still be a deterrent. Knowing this, the adversary may determine that it is not worth
attacking GPS in the first place. The same is true for redundant space reconnaissance and
SSA systems.
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Turn: Private development in space is better than public development
Follett, Andrew. “Private Firms Are the Key to Space Exploration.” National Review,
National Review, 21 Aug. 2021, https://www.nationalreview.com/2021/08/privatefirms-are-the-key-to-space-exploration/.
It is hard to imagine a better example of the private sector’s amazing ability to
outcompete government bureaucracy and mismanagement than NASA’s planned Shuttle
replacement, the Space Launch System. It is estimated to cost more than $2 billion per
flight. That’s on top of the $20 billion and nine years the agency has already spent
developing the vehicle. Contrast that with the comparatively inexpensive $300 million
spent by SpaceX to develop the Falcon 9 in a little over four years, and the fact that each
Falcon 9 costs around $62 million. One SLS launch could pay for over 32 SpaceX launches.
Private ventures such as SpaceX are more efficient because they have a lot more
incentive to avoid excessive costs and focus on solutions: Their own money is at stake,
and people spend their own money more carefully than they spend taxpayer dollars
collected from others. Multiple private American space firms are currently pursuing
accomplishments beyond those of NASA, and they are more advanced and ambitious
than the entire government space programs of China and the European Union
combined. So one possible solution to NASA’s woes would be to greatly increase its
reliance on commercial launch providers. And one way to do that would be to return to
the system that made civil aviation great: prizes to reward private-sector innovation.
Delink: The ISRO has enough money, it just doesn’t spend it
Ferster, Warren. “Figures Show Indian Space Spending Flat in Recent Years.” SpaceNews,
19 Jan. 2023, https://spacenews.com/figures-show-indian-space-spending-flat-inrecent-years/.
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In unveiling federal budget blueprints for upcoming fiscal years, Indian government
officials have been trumpeting what appear to be huge increases for space activity. But
a quick analysis of actual space spending tells a different story. For example, India has
allocated 67.81 billion rupees ($1.25 billion) for space programs for the 2013-2014
fiscal year that starts April 1. That sum, if spent in its entirety, would be an increase of
39 percent from the previous fiscal year. However, the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) typically spends significantly less money during a given year than
is allocated at the outset. If actual funding outlays are compared, ISRO spending has
remained essentially flat during the last three years. For the 2010-2011 fiscal year,
Indian government officials hailed the 58 billion rupee space budget allocation as a 38
percent increase from the prior year. But ISRO’s actual spending for 2010-2011 was 48.5
billion rupees, a more modest increase of 15 percent, according to SpaceNews
calculations based on ISRO budget allocations and advertised percentage increases year
over year.
Turn: International treaties scare private investment away, preventing economic development
Martin del Campo, Jose A. “Finders Keepers: Who Has Say Over Private Property in
Space.” Texas A&M Journal of Property Law, vol. 7, no. 2, 2021, pp. 199–229.,
https://doi.org/10.37419/jpl.v7.i2.3.
If a private entity’s property rights are to be protected in outer space, the current
regime of space law requires a significant restructuring, if not a rebirth. The Outer
Space Treaty and its relevant influences are too ambiguous regarding property.
Current multilateral agreements contain too many restrictions or do not adequately
provide a sufficient base to model the new space regime. While the law of the sea is an
enticing starting point, the common heritage principle found within the UNCLOS III
agreement removes the law of the sea from the running as a viable foundation for a
new regime. The Antarctica Treaty is also disqualified because it lacks a strong
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authoritative body to resolve disputes. A new space regime seems like the most
appropriate course of action due to the development of space technology since the
launch of Sputnik. With a new multinational organization to oversee and monitor space
activities, private entities would receive the recognition and assurance in property rights
that they desire. Along with the new organization, a form of dispute resolution is
required to resolve claims originating in space because no nation has jurisdiction above
the atmosphere. With current needs that cannot be solved here on Earth, the
exploitation of an almost infinite resource should not be denied
Analysis: This response is two-pronged. It states that not sharing information can lead to the
creation of independent systems, which are better for safety, and it states that private
development like is being seen in India is better than public development.
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A/2: Ratification strengthens international law
Answer: The Artemis Accords cannot be enforced
Warrant: The Artemis Accords lack an enforcement mechanism
Gross, Matthew. “The Artemis Accords: International Cooperation in the Era of Space
Exploration.” Harvard International Review, Harvard International Review, 27 Jan.
2023, https://hir.harvard.edu/the-artemis-accords/.
One potential area of conflict could be the international battle over resource extraction
on the moon. The Artemis Accords establish that when nations engage in mining
activities on the moon, they do not obtain property rights over the extracted materials.
These Accords, however, are not legally binding and are merely a formalized
understanding between the parties of the agreement. The Accords attempt to counter
this issue through the creation of “safety zones” where nations cannot interfere with
other nations’ resource extraction activities. While safety zones might be able to
resolve international tensions, they also could be the source of a new issue. The
Accords lack a clear mechanism to designate which nations get what territory. The
distribution of equitable territories with ample resources does not seem to be a
process that naturally lends itself to a neutral outcome. Additionally, some criticize the
Artemis Accords for being too US-centric and possibly leading to unideal outcomes for
other nations—with some of the most ardent opposition coming from China and Russia.
As such, the battle for territory on the moon could resemble conflicts in the South China
Sea and in Ukraine as foreign powers skirmish with each other for additional land and
resources.
Warrant: International treaties without enforcement mechanism generally fail to get results
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Hoffman, Steven J., et al. “International Treaties Have Mostly Failed to Produce Their
Intended Effects.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 119, no.
32, 1 Aug. 2022, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2122854119.
This systematic field-wide evidence synthesis finds that international treaties have
mostly failed to produce their intended effects. Trade and finance is the only policy
domain with considerable and consistent evidence of intended effects to support the
negotiation of new treaties. The numerous treaties governing other policy domains
have either not worked or have been insufficiently studied with rigorous methods to
demonstrate positive impacts. These divergent results are reinforced by similarly strong
evidence of treaties producing intended impacts when evaluating economic outcomes,
changes in products, and when treaties were negotiated through economic cooperation
forums. Although these results may be partly attributable to more easily measured
quantitative outcomes, trade and finance treaties seem to be consistently effective no
matter how they are designed or evaluated. For treaties governing environmental,
human rights, humanitarian, maritime, and security policy domains, the only modifiable
treaty design choice with the potential to improve effectiveness appears to be the
inclusion of enforcement mechanisms. The importance of enforcement mechanisms such
as prescribing financial sanctions on countries or expelling countries from treaty bodies
and trade blocs is supported by research on compliance with international law.
Delink: The Artemis Accords will deepen rivalries and increase competition, not cooperation
Hoffman, Steven J., et al. “International Treaties Have Mostly Failed to Produce Their
Intended Effects.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 119, no.
32, 1 Aug. 2022, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2122854119.
While the Artemis Accords may have been drafted to serve as a tool for cooperation in
the pursuit of knowledge about outer space, some of the issues tackled in the text are
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contentious. The accords represent an opposition to Russian and Chinese interests in
space, perhaps mostly because the agreement is a U.S. initiative that serves to further
assert the U.S.’s dominance of the space domain. As a result, and in an effort to reach
that dominant position themselves, Russia and China will seek to push back, which
will inevitably cause tensions to heighten and rivalries between the U.S. and its allies
on one side and China and Russia on the other to deepen. But perhaps that is the price
that the United States has to pay for paving the way to the next era of space exploration
in a manner that advances its interests and aligns with its values and principles.
Nonunique: The Outer Space Treaty is de facto enforceable because it has never been violated
Grush, Loren. “How an International Treaty Signed 50 Years Ago Became the Backbone
for Space Law.” The Verge, 27 Jan. 2017,
https://www.theverge.com/2017/1/27/14398492/outer-space-treaty-50anniversary-exploration-guidelines.
In 1967, when the Outer Space Treaty was signed, the Cold War was in full swing. Both
the US and the Soviet Union wanted to prevent the expansion of the nuclear arms race
into a completely new territory. And as space technologies became more advanced,
there was a concern that Earth orbit and beyond provided a whole new area from which
weapons of mass destruction could be launched. That’s why an article in the treaty
prohibits countries from putting nuclear weapons in orbit or on other planetary bodies.
Space, however, hasn’t been completely free of weaponization. Earth orbit has become
an important foothold for militaries across the globe when it comes to communications,
surveillance, and the control of weapons here on Earth. But the part of the treaty
forbidding nuclear weapons — which made the deal a non-armament measure — has
never been violated and has enabled space to be a peaceful region of exploration.
“That benefit is often maybe overlooked,” says Johnson. “All the things we do in space
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— they are allowed to happen because we have a treaty in place that prevents conflict
from even being staged. That’s the real payoff.”
Analysis: This response is good because it establishes that the Artemis Accords are
unenforceable, regardless of how many countries join. Teams should be careful to not read
evidence criticizing the concept of international law alongside evidence saying current
international law is effective.
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A/2: The Artemis Accords solves lunar debris
Answer: Orbital debris is a non-issue
Warrant: Our targets to reduce orbital debris are low
Kurt, Joseph. “Triumph of the Space Commons: Addressing the Impending Space Debris
Crisis Without an International Treaty.” William and Mary Environmental Law and
Policy Review, vol. 40, no. 1, Nov. 2015, p. 318.,
https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmelpr/vol40/iss1/9. Accessed 5 Feb. 2023.
Fortunately, the targets for ADR that scientists believe will allow us to forestall an
irreversible cascade of collisions are relatively modest. The most common estimate is
that removing five to ten large pieces of debris per year is enough to keep the Kessler
Syndrome at bay. And even more encouraging is that a broad array of national and
private actors are exploring a plethora of ADR methods. For example, the Japanese
hope to deploy, by 2019, a magnetic net that will draw pieces of space debris down to
the Earth’s atmosphere, where they will burn up. Such use of the atmosphere to
incinerate debris is a common element of many ADR strategies, whether they employ
nets, harpoons, tentacles, or ion thrusters to impact the debris. Meanwhile, a German
Space Agency program is developing the means to robotically capture satellites. Other
solutions include using enormous puffs of air, static electricity, or lasers to throw objects
out of orbit.
Non-unique: India is reducing their space debris in the status quo
Sinha, Amitabh. “India's Space Debris Back to Levels before 2019 Anti-Satellite Test,
Lowest among Major Space-Faring Nations.” The Indian Express, 10 Apr. 2022,
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https://indianexpress.com/article/india/indias-space-debris-2019-anti-satellitetest-7862796/.
The debris created by India’s anti-satellite test in March 2019 seems to have all decayed
or disintegrated, and India’s contribution to space debris has fallen to the lowest levels
in the last four years, latest data shows. There are thousands of big and small unwanted
objects floating in the space — out-of-operation satellites and its fragments, the remains
of rocket and its parts, and other kinds of junk – that are collectively referred to as space
debris. The pieces, moving at very high speeds just like every other object in space, are
considered threat to functional satellites and other space assets. A collision with even a
milimeter-sized space debris can destroy satellites or render them useless. According to
the latest issue of Orbital Debris Quarterly News, published by NASA’s Orbital Debris
Program Office, there are 25,182 pieces of space debris, of sizes larger than 10 cm, in the
lower earth orbits which are within 2,000 km of earth’s surface. Of these, the debris from
Indian space assets is only 114, the lowest among major space-faring nations, and
around the same level as in 2018. In addition, India has 103 active and defunct
spacecraft that are also in orbit. The United States, China and countries of the former
Soviet Union have the largest number of active or defunct satellites, as well as space
debris, each contributing several thousands.
Delink: Other countries aren’t the space debris problem – The United States is
Erwin, Sandra. “Space Debris Expert Warns U.S. 'Woefully behind' in Efforts to Clean up
Junk in Orbit.” SpaceNews, 6 Jan. 2022, https://spacenews.com/space-debrisexpert-warns-u-s-woefully-behind-in-efforts-to-clean-up-junk-in-orbit/.
“I love the fact that that Space Force said ‘yes, we’re concerned about picking up debris.’
But I will tell you the U.S. is woefully behind the rest of the world in this area,” McKnight
said on a webcast hosted by the University of Washington Space Policy and Research
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Center. Unlike other countries, the United States is tackling the debris issue as a longterm problem that is decades away, he said. In reality, the risk of satellites colliding
with debris objects — and debris-on-debris collisions that create even more space junk
— is increasing rapidly and could soon begin to impact the industry’s ability to operate
satellites reliably. “It’s embarrassing to me hearing people talk about the need for
active debris removal and the need for debris mediation as if it’s something that’s going
to be decades out,” said McKnight. “The European Space Agency and Japan’s space
agency are way ahead on those sorts of things.”
Delink: The Artemis Accords are unenforceable
Gross, Matthew. “The Artemis Accords: International Cooperation in the Era of Space
Exploration.” Harvard International Review, Harvard International Review, 27 Jan.
2023, https://hir.harvard.edu/the-artemis-accords/.
One potential area of conflict could be the international battle over resource extraction
on the moon. The Artemis Accords establish that when nations engage in mining
activities on the moon, they do not obtain property rights over the extracted materials.
These Accords, however, are not legally binding and are merely a formalized
understanding between the parties of the agreement. The Accords attempt to counter
this issue through the creation of “safety zones” where nations cannot interfere with
other nations’ resource extraction activities. While safety zones might be able to
resolve international tensions, they also could be the source of a new issue. The
Accords lack a clear mechanism to designate which nations get what territory. The
distribution of equitable territories with ample resources does not seem to be a process
that naturally lends itself to a neutral outcome. Additionally, some criticize the Artemis
Accords for being too US-centric and possibly leading to unideal outcomes for other
nations—with some of the most ardent opposition coming from China and Russia. As
such, the battle for territory on the moon could resemble conflicts in the South China Sea
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and in Ukraine as foreign powers skirmish with each other for additional land and
resources.
Analysis: This response is good because it is three-pronged. First, it establishes that there are
already ongoing efforts to solve debris. Second, it says that the United States is the entity
causing orbital debris. Third, it says that the Artemis Accords are unenforceable.
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A/2: Signing strengthens US-India relations.
Answer: It would be in India’s best interest to join China and Russia’s Lunar Research Station
rather than the US’s Artemis Accords.
Lele, Ajey. “Should India join China and Russia’s Lunar Research Station?” Space Review, 1
June 2021, https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4185/1.
Hence, there is a need for “sensible” space powers to arbitrate directly or indirectly. For
example, as part of an effective engagement strategy, states like India could join the
Russian-Chinese proposal for a Lunar Research Station. For many years, Russia and India
have been collaborating in the space arena, so Russia should have no objection to India
joining this project. It is a reality that India and China are geopolitical adversaries.
However, in the domain of space they do have some collaborative efforts in place. There
are “framework agreements” signed between these nations in the initial years of the 21st
century, however this agreement lies dormant for many years. In September 2014, a
memorandum of understanding was signed between India and China, enabling them to
encourage exchange and cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space for
research and development of remote sensing, communications, and scientific
experiment satellites. Now the Lunar Research Station project offers an opportunity for
both nations to bring such paper promises in reality. Actually, it could be in the interest
of China to invite India to join their lunar project.
First, such collaboration could itself help somewhat harmonize the differences between
them: maybe not on the ground, but at least in the domain of outer space. It would be
naive think that both these ASAT powers would suddenly become space buddies, but
such collaboration could help build confidence. Second, China and Russia have long been
pushing for their draft treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer
Space. However, there are no takers even for discussing their draft. India, though, is open
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for negotiating this treaty as a legally binding instrument in the Conference on
Disarmament.
Third, India is a part of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) multilateral
mechanism of emerging economies. This multilateral mechanism has arrangements for
satellite data sharing. Now, there is an opportunity for India, Brazil, and South Africa to
join the Lunar Research Station. However, there is a possibility that Brazil could join the
Artemis Accords in near future. Here, China and India need to be more proactive
diplomatically and ensure that space remains as an important agenda item for BRICS.
Lastly, it is no secret that the US is keen to use (or using) India to counterbalance
Chinese influence on Asia. The Lunar Research Program provides an excellent
opportunity for China-India engagement.
Answer: The Artemis Accords might not be as benevolent as they seem; they could be a ploy
for the US to achieve space hegemony while pushing smaller players aside.
Chugh, Subha. “Legally Reaching For The Moon: Artemis Accords And Should India Sign
It”, LawBeat, 18 June 2021, https://lawbeat.in/articles/legally-reaching-moonartemis-accords-and-should-india-sign-it.
The Artemis Accords have generally been lauded for being an agreement that will inspire
uniform standards of cooperation and exploration. Further, with this agreement, the US
has used existing governance regimes rather than pursuing a revision of old treaties or
negotiating new agreements, though the fact that they were drafted primarily by NASA in
collaboration with the U.S. Department of State and the newly re-established National
Space Council and that they are for a US led mission does speak to US hegemony over the
whole matter and space laws at large. If history is any evidence, US’ dominance, as
benevolently hidden as it might be, finds its way out eventually, often at the cost of
other ‘expendable’ nations. Concern has been expressed over the fact that the treaty
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makes the US a licensing nation for commercial space companies and in turn a
‘gatekeeper’ to the moon and other celestial bodies. Russia has already called the
accords “Too US- centric” and eventually went on to participate in the Chinese
Programme. (China has proposed its own version of a permanent lunar base.)
While the Outer Space Treaty establishes that no one can lay claim to the other worlds,
NASA has made it clear that countries and companies can own and use resources that
are derived from the Moon. This has incited objections against the motives behind the
accord and their potential consequences.
Non-unique: India-US space cooperation is occurring even without India’s signing of the
Artemis Accords.
Office of the Spokesperson. “U.S.-India Civil Space Joint Working Group Advances
Bilateral Space Collaboration”, USDoS, 31 Jan. 2023, https://www.state.gov/u-sindia-civil-space-joint-working-group-advances-bilateral-space-collaboration/.
The United States and India have strong bilateral cooperation in space. The NASA-ISRO
Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) mission, planned to launch in 2024, is expected to
systematically map Earth, using two different radar frequencies to monitor resources
such as water, forests and agriculture. The mission will provide important Earth science
data related to ecosystems, Earth’s surface, natural hazards, sea level rise and the
cryosphere.
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A/2: Signing increases space innovation.
Non-unique: India is already innovating new space technology, no reason it needs to join the
Artemis Accords.
Singhal, Prashant. “The dawn of the space economy in India”, EY, 4 Nov. 2022,
https://www.ey.com/en_in/aerospace-defense/the-dawn-of-the-space-economyin-india.
For satellite manufacturing, “Make in India” initiative may spur growth owing to
increased demand for small satellites. By 2025, the satellite manufacturing segment will
be the 2nd fastest growing in the Indian space economy. Setting-up space parks across
the country is likely to give a fillip to companies operating across the space value chain,
especially manufacturing. It will be key to attracting global startups working in the space
sector and help to incubate spacetech companies in India.
Several companies are utilizing cutting-edge technologies to develop innovative launch
solutions in India. They have built considerable expertise around the launch of Low Earth
Orbit (LEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) and Geosynchronous Equatorial Orbit (GEO)
satellites and orbit management solutions. The launch segment is fast becoming a key
focus area for startups and small and medium businesses (SMEs) in India to drive the
innovation agenda and to make use of new revenue opportunities.
Number of spacetech startups in India is on the rise
Currently, India boasts of over 100 spacetech startups. The year 2021 was a watershed
year for spacetech startups, with investments reaching US$68m, a y-o-y increase of
196%. There were a total of 47 new spacetech startups established in India in 2021. Key
drivers for investment in the Indian space segment are:
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Answer: The Artemis Accords are flawed and could decrease state sovereignty and ability to
garner economic gains from space travel.
O’Brien, Dennis. “The Artemis Accords: Repeating the Mistakes of the Age of
Exploration”, Modern Diplomacy, 10 June 2020,
https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2020/06/10/the-artemis-accords-repeating-themistakes-of-the-age-of-exploration/.
But if the Moon Treaty is the key to peaceful cooperation in outer space, why haven’t
more nations adopted it? The reason appears to be that the Treaty is incomplete, and
thus flawed. Article 11 requires an implementation agreement to create the legal
framework for private activity. Without that agreement in place, some states fear the
worst, that they will lose their sovereignty if they adopt the Treaty, especially since it
refers to outer space as the “common heritage of mankind”. Private mining interests
are afraid that their profits will be taxed for redistribution to less-developed countries.
As one space law scholar put it:
“Some would say the biggest challenge for the implementation of the Moon Agreement
are four little words found in Article 11 . . . the “common heritage of [hu]mankind”. . . . At
first glance, it appears that to implement the concept of common heritage of humankind,
an international body must be created to redistribute wealth and technology among
nations.”12
Delink: The Artemis Accords are a non-binding treaty; they can’t increase innovation.
Schrogl, Kai-Uwe. “#SpaceWatchGL Interviews – Kai-Uwe Schrogl: ‘We must not overrate
the Artemis Accords’”, Space Watch, 3 Nov. 2020,
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We should not dramatize what is currently happening. We have to understand what
the US is proposing. The Artemis Accords are, according to the many communications
we see, a non-binding policy document. The US has selected a few European countries,
with which they have specific bilateral cooperation, so it was particularly easy to find
followers for the promotion of its policy. We also have to understand that it is not about
changing the Artemis Accords. They are a position expressed. It will be crucial to find
common ground on the governance for the exploration of the Moon and other celestial
bodies based on international law. Neither ESA nor the EU nor any European State is
pressed to formally join and sign the Artemis Accords. This is, why we will have good
opportunities to coordinate in Europe, for which an adapted IGA-CC, complemented with
the States who now participate in the European contribution to Artemis/Gateway, is the
appropriate forum, since it comprises the governments of these States.
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A/2: Signing improves India’s economy.
Non-unique: Space investment is helping India’s economy even without signing the Artemis
Accords.
Ramesh, Sandhya. “More satellites, startups & revenue by 2025: Report sees big growth
in Indian space industry”, The Print, 12 Oct. 2022,
https://theprint.in/economy/more-satellites-startups-revenue-by-2025-reportsees-big-growth-in-indian-space-industry/1163355/.
Bengaluru: Thanks to India’s well-developed space programme, the satellite
manufacturing sector is likely to grow to $3.2 billion in market value in 2025 from $2.1
billion in 2020, while launch services will surge to $1 billion in 2025 from $567.4 million
in 2020, a new report by the Indian Space Association (ISpA) and Ernst & Young (EY) has
projected.
In the downstream segments, ground services are expected to grow to $4 billion in 2025
from $3.1 billion in 2020, while satellite services are projected to grow to $4.6 billion by
2025 from $3.8 billion in 2020. With the four segments together, India’s space economy
will garner close to $13 billion in revenue in 2025, compared to around $9.6 billion in
2020.
De-link: Other countries will not reap benefits from the Artemis Accords because the US will
have too much unilateral power.
O’Brien, Dennis. “The Artemis Accords: Repeating the Mistakes of the Age of
Exploration”, Modern Diplomacy, 10 June 2020,
https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2020/06/10/the-artemis-accords-repeating-themistakes-of-the-age-of-exploration/.
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The newly announced Artemis Accords go even further. Although the actual Accords have
not been released pending consultation with possible partners, the summary provided by
NASA[8] indicates that the United States will unilaterally interpret the Outer Space
Treaty to allow “space resource extraction,” despite the prohibition against
appropriation in Article II of the Treaty. There will also be “safety zones” to avoid
“harmful interference” with such operations. The effect is to establish exclusive
economic zones, especially if “harmful interference” is defined to include economic
harm, not just safety. Will the new Space Force be used to protect such economic
interests? Will other nations be excluded if they support the Moon Treaty?[9] Will
private actors be required to follow the same rules as states, as recommended in the
recently drafted Moon Village Principles?[10] This is the slippery slope of using
unilateral action to establish economic rights rather than an international agreement.
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A/2: Signing helps solve climate change.
Turn: Space tourism will cause significant damage to the environment.
McKenna, Phil. “Space Tourism Poses a Significant ‘Risk to the Climate’”, Inside Climate
News, 29 June 2022, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/29062022/spacetourism-climate/.
The burgeoning space tourism industry could soon fuel significant global warming while
also depleting the protective ozone layer that is crucial for sustaining life on Earth, a new
study concludes. The findings, published Saturday in Earth’s Future, raise additional
concerns about the “billionaire space race” fueled by some of the world’s richest men.
A key focus of the study was emissions of black carbon, or soot, from the combustion of
rocket fuel. Black carbon, which comes from burning fossil fuels or biomass, absorbs
light from the sun and releases thermal energy, making it a powerful climate warming
agent. At lower altitudes black carbon quickly falls from the sky, remaining in the
atmosphere for only a matter of days or weeks.
However, as rockets blast into space, they emit black carbon into the stratosphere
where it remains, absorbing sunlight and radiating heat, for up to four years before
falling back down to Earth. Black carbon emitted in the stratosphere is nearly 500 times
worse for the climate than similar emission on or near the surface of the earth, the
study found. Black carbon emissions from all space flights are currently relatively low but
could quickly increase if projections for the growth of space tourism prove correct.
Turn: Satellites create space debris that harm the environment.
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Suri, Rajeev. “What's the environmental impact of space debris and how can we solve it?”
World Economic Forum, 13 July 2022,
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/07/environmental-impact-space-debrishow-to-solve-it/.
The present pace of growth is unsustainable. Over the past six decades, about 11,000
satellites have been launched, of which 7,000 remain in space. But that number could
swell to the hundreds of thousands by the end of this decade as private companies like
Elon Musk’s Starlink and Amazon join China and other nation states in building megaconstellations in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
Some of these new constellations will boast tens of thousands of satellites. Each one will
have an expected life of between five and 10 years, creating vast amounts of space
debris that will clutter their own orbit and endanger anything passing through it.
The environmental dangers of such space debris are myriad, including light pollution
that would hinder future scientific discovery. Just as worrying are satellite re-entries
from the mega-constellations, which could deposit hazardous levels of alumina into the
upper atmosphere. The resulting solar radiation would have pernicious consequences
for the environment. The planned mega-constellations could throttle competition and
innovation too, if one country or company comes to dominate a particular orbit.
Delink: Space travel alone cannot solve climate change, mitigates their impact.
Andrews, Robin George. “Can Spaceflight Save the Planet?” Scientific American, 6 Sep.
2019, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-spaceflight-save-theplanet/.
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Then again, we already know how we are jeopardizing the planet and what needs to be
done about it. “We have almost all of the tools we need to live sustainably right here,
right now,” says Kate Marvel, a climate scientist at Columbia University and NASA. “Our
failure to address climate change is not just because we’re interested in space.”
Similarly, spaceflight alone cannot save Earth, but that does not mean it solely aids and
abets naive dreams of leaving our planet behind.
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A/2: Signing creates quad-cooperation between India, United States,
Australia, and Japan.
Turn: The Artemis Accords undermine international space norms by violating international law.
Stirn, Alexander. “Do NASA’s Lunar Exploration Rules Violate Space Law?” Scientific
American, 12 Nov. 2020, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-nasaslunar-exploration-rules-violate-space-law/.
Anyone who examines the Artemis Accords carefully might come away with a different
impression. Its 13 sections seem to show that the rules are about the use and
exploitation of the moon in order to maintain American dominance, possibly
undermining international law.
“The Artemis Accords are an attempt by the Americans to walk softly to legitimize their
deviation from the Outer Space Treaty,” says Stephan Hobe, director of the Institute of
Air Law, Space Law and Cyber Law at the University of Cologne in Germany. That treaty—
which has been ratified by 110 countries via the United Nations and entered into force in
1967—has up to now provided the legal basis for the exploration and utilization of space.
Among other requirements, it specifies that member states must have “free access to all
areas of celestial bodies.” In addition, “the moon and other celestial bodies [are] not
subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation,
or by any other means.”
The Artemis Accords document seems to take a different approach, as evinced in Section
11, which is by far the lengthiest section. Under the innocuous-sounding title
“Deconfliction of Space Activities,” it states that the countries subject to the
agreements will support the development of safety zones, for example around a moon
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base or where mining activities occur. This is meant to ensure that states do not come
into conflict with one another.
At the IAC, Bridenstine maintained “that we can, in fact, extract and utilize space
resources. Countries and companies should be able to enjoy the fruits of their labor.” But
this is where the problems begin. “Safety zones are specific areas,” Hobe says, “and it is
precisely the acquisition of such areas that is, in fact, banned by the Outer Space
Treaty.” Speaking at the IAC, Frans von der Dunk, a professor of space law at the
University of Nebraska–Lincoln, made it clear that although states may plant their flag on
the moon, per the Outer Space Treaty, they may not annex regions nor reserve them for
future settlement.
Answer: It would be in India’s best interest to join China and Russia’s Lunar Research Station
rather than the US’s Artemis Accords.
Lele, Ajey. “Should India join China and Russia’s Lunar Research Station?” Space Review, 1
June 2021, https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4185/1.
Hence, there is a need for “sensible” space powers to arbitrate directly or indirectly. For
example, as part of an effective engagement strategy, states like India could join the
Russian-Chinese proposal for a Lunar Research Station. For many years, Russia and India
have been collaborating in the space arena, so Russia should have no objection to India
joining this project. It is a reality that India and China are geopolitical adversaries.
However, in the domain of space they do have some collaborative efforts in place. There
are “framework agreements” signed between these nations in the initial years of the 21st
century, however this agreement lies dormant for many years. In September 2014, a
memorandum of understanding was signed between India and China, enabling them to
encourage exchange and cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space for
research and development of remote sensing, communications, and scientific
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experiment satellites. Now the Lunar Research Station project offers an opportunity for
both nations to bring such paper promises in reality. Actually, it could be in the interest
of China to invite India to join their lunar project.
First, such collaboration could itself help somewhat harmonize the differences between
them: maybe not on the ground, but at least in the domain of outer space. It would be
naive think that both these ASAT powers would suddenly become space buddies, but
such collaboration could help build confidence. Second, China and Russia have long been
pushing for their draft treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer
Space. However, there are no takers even for discussing their draft. India, though, is open
for negotiating this treaty as a legally binding instrument in the Conference on
Disarmament.
Third, India is a part of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) multilateral
mechanism of emerging economies. This multilateral mechanism has arrangements for
satellite data sharing. Now, there is an opportunity for India, Brazil, and South Africa to
join the Lunar Research Station. However, there is a possibility that Brazil could join the
Artemis Accords in near future. Here, China and India need to be more proactive
diplomatically and ensure that space remains as an important agenda item for BRICS.
Lastly, it is no secret that the US is keen to use (or using) India to counterbalance
Chinese influence on Asia. The Lunar Research Program provides an excellent
opportunity for China-India engagement.
Answer: The Quad alliance is not in India’s best interest, and it may not be effective in
combating China.
Joshi, Manoj. “Why India Should Be Wary of the Quad”, The Wire, 13 Nov. 2017,
https://thewire.in/diplomacy/india-us-japan-australia-quadrilateral-alliance.
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In many ways, India and Japan are the frontline where China is concerned, but would a
Quad mean that they would support each other militarily were their respective
disputes to heat up? Actually, it is difficult to see Japan removing its eye from the issues
in the East China Sea and the Sea of Japan.
And what about the US? For all its talk of the “Indo-Pacific”, it refuses to associate with
India on issues relating to the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf, two of the most
important external areas for India. Shorn of the rhetoric, Indo-Pacific merely means an
Indian military commitment to the US-led alliances in the Pacific Ocean. There is no
reciprocal US commitment to issues of Indian concern relating to Pakistan and the
dangers arising out of the highly volatile environment in the Persian Gulf area which
the US has helped create.
There is a broader issue here as well. Where the US seems to have lost its vision in the
mindlessness of “America First”, China has categorically laid out its ambitions for the next
30 years. By 2035, it aims to become a global innovation leader and remove poverty
totally from the country, and by 2050, an overall global leader and “a great modern
socialist country.” For this, China has laid out a grand plan that it is pursuing and is
offering its model of a single-party authoritarian state as against the multi-party liberal
democratic model which, to go by the experiences of the UK and US, is clearly faltering.
The only power that can effectively balance China is the US and the world can’t be sure
where it’s headed. Even with its great endowments and abilities, the current situation
in the US does not generate much confidence. Unlike the seemingly united and
aggressive posture that China is taking, there is an intense and almost violent conflict of
ideas within the US about who and what America is all about. In such circumstances, it
would be hazardous to depend on the US for an effective leadership of the coalition
needed to balance China.
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A/2: Space Exploration Promotes Economic Growth
Turn: Space exploration is bad for the economy
Warrant: Space money is diverted from terrestrial money
Onder, Harun. “On Space Barons and Global Poverty”. Brookings Institution. September
2021. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2021/09/09/onspace-barons-and-global-poverty/
“The public reception of the emerging elite space travelers club is mixed. Space
enthusiasts celebrate the renewed interest in space travel, which could spark future
technologies that, one day, help bring life to other planets. Critics suggest that the
money used would be better spent for fighting global hunger and poverty. There is
more to both sides of this argument than meets the eye, and further inquiry is
warranted. For starters, I shall rule out an otherwise interesting, but notoriously
complex, dimension that gave economists a headache for decades. That is the
problem of interpersonal comparison of utility. In this case, can we really compare the
utility gained by Bezos from his $5.5 billion trip with that of 37 million people had the
money been used to end their hunger? The question may seem rhetorical, but it is not.
The problem remains an interesting one even after Bezos, and thus the need to
compare his well-being with that of others, is taken out of the picture. Let us look
exclusively from the viewpoint of potential beneficiaries in the developing world.”
Warrant: Space exploration does not produce benefits unless we do something new
Sherk, James “Right to Work Laws: Myth vs. Fact”. Heritage Foundation. February 2014.
https://www.heritage.org/jobs-and-labor/report/right-work-laws-myth-vs-fact
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“So far, blasting billionaires off to the edge of space has not exactly been earthshattering, technically. Mankind had previously stepped onto the moon on six
separate occasions; astronauts and cosmonauts have visited space routinely, often
without such commotion; and Mars is already inhabited by robots. The NASA Voyager,
built half a century ago, has become the first man-made object to exit our solar
system—currently drifting at 14.2 billion miles away from us—that is about 21 hours of
light-travel time from Earth (solar light reaches us in about eight minutes).”
De-link: Artemis Accords are bad for space exploration
Warrant: The Artemis Accords reward unilateralism
O’Brien, Dennis. “The Artemis Accords: repeating the mistakes of the Age of Exploration.”
The Space Review. March 2020. https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1
“The newly announced Artemis Accords go even further. Although the actual Accords
have not been released pending consultation with possible partners, the summary
provided by NASA indicates that the United States will unilaterally interpret the Outer
Space Treaty to allow “space resource extraction,” despite the prohibition against
appropriation in Article II of the Treaty. There will also be “safety zones” to avoid
“harmful interference” with such operations. The effect is to establish exclusive
economic zones, especially if “harmful interference” is defined to include economic
harm, not just safety. Will the new Space Force be used to protect such economic
interests? Will other nations be excluded if they support the Moon Treaty? Will
private actors be required to follow the same rules as states, as recommended in the
recently drafted Moon Village Principles? This is the slippery slope of using unilateral
action to establish economic rights rather than an international agreement.”
Warrant: A focus on unilateralism is bad for exploration
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O’Brien, Dennis. “The Artemis Accords: repeating the mistakes of the Age of Exploration.”
The Space Review. March 2020.
https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3975/1https://www.cato.org/sites/cato.
org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/2016/2/cato-journal-v36n1-8.pdf
“But its unilateral authorization of space mining is a continuation of the Trump
Administration’s underlying foreign policy strategy: unilateral dominance over
international cooperation. The United States has withdrawn from the Paris Accords, the
Iranian nuclear deal, and, in the middle of a pandemic, the World Health Organization.
Dominance has even become the theme of the administration’s domestic policy, with
President Trump recently telling governors, “If you don't dominate, you're wasting your
time… You have to dominate.”[11] That core philosophy is now being applied to outer
space, as Vice President Mike Pence proudly announced in 2018. Despite the lessons
of history, the United States is going full speed ahead with the “dominance” model of
space development rather than working with the nations of the world to develop a
“cooperation” model. Outer space, which so far has been preserved for peace and
cooperation, is about to be spoiled, perhaps forever.”
Analysis: Use this argument to show the judge that even if space exploration is good for
development in the abstract, the Artemis Accords are the wrong framework for space
exploration and will negate many of the essential benefits associated with it.
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A/2: Space exploration creates innovation
Turn: Space exploration is a waste of money
Warrant: Space exploration is too expensive
Adams, Ella. “Spending on Space is Wasteful”. The Appalachian Online. February 2021.
https://theappalachianonline.com/opinion-spending-on-space-is-wasteful/
“Since the founding of NASA in 1958 by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, federal dollars
have been going toward researching and exploring space. Space exploration is
incredible, but we have to remember that NASA’s funding comes from the pockets of
everyday Americans. The U.S. is the richest country in the world, but that’s not to say
it doesn’t have problems. In 2020, more than 50 million Americans experienced food
insecurity, which increased due to COVID-19. Closer to home, Watauga County
experienced a food insecurity rate of 16.8% last year. The pandemic has been hard on
Americans and food insecurity is just one example of how people are struggling.”
Warrant: Even NASA’s small budget could help alleviate poverty
Adams, Ella. “Spending on Space is Wasteful”. The Appalachian Online. February 2021.
https://theappalachianonline.com/opinion-spending-on-space-is-wasteful/
“With people struggling to eat in the richest country in the world, is exploring space how
our tax dollars should be spent? About 5.9% of the federal budget is spent on Medicare
and healthcare, 5.7% is spent on housing and community and 6.3% on education.
Spending for these programs is in the single digits so where is all our money going? The
military which receives over half of all discretionary spending. Of course, America’s
outrageous military spending is a whole different issue. Only 0.5% of the federal budget
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goes to NASA but 0.5% of a $4.5 trillion budget is a lot of money, $23.3 billion this year
to be exact. $23.3 billion is a lot of money for NASA, which has little to no direct
impact on everyday Americans’ lives. Sure, space is cool to learn about and the
advancement of science and technology is very important, but parents who can’t feed
their children probably don’t care about some rocks on Mars.”
De-link: Artemis Accords are bad for space exploration
Warrant: The Artemis Accords are too US Centric
Newman, Chistopher. “Artemis Accords: why many countries are refusing to sign Moon
exploration agreement” The Conversation. October 2020.
https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-are-refusingto-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134
“Russia has already stated that the Artemis Program is too “US-centric” to sign it in its
present form. China’s absence is explained by the US congressional prohibition on
collaboration with the country. Concerns that this is a power grab by the US and its
allies are fueled by the lack of any African or South American countries amongst the
founding partner states. Intriguingly Germany, France and India are also absent. These
are countries with well developed space programmes that would surely have
benefited from being involved in Project Artemis. Their opposition may be down to a
preference for the Moon Agreement and a desire to see a properly negotiated treaty
governing lunar exploration.”
Warrant: Lack of general agreement will make the Artemis Accords ineffective
Newman, Chistopher. “Artemis Accords: why many countries are refusing to sign Moon
exploration agreement” The Conversation. October 2020.
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https://theconversation.com/artemis-accords-why-many-countries-are-refusingto-sign-moon-exploration-agreement-148134
“The European Space Agency (ESA) as an organisation has not signed on to the accords
either, but a number of ESA member states have. This is unsurprising. The ambitious
US deadline for the project will clash with the lengthy consultation of the 17 member
states required for the ESA to sign on as a whole. Ultimately, the Artemis Accords are
revolutionary in the field of space exploration. Using bilateral agreements that dictate
norms of behaviour as a condition of involvement in a programme is a significant change
in space governance. With Russia and China opposing them, the accords are sure to
meet diplomatic resistance and their very existence may provoke antagonism in
traditional UN forums.”
Analysis: Deploy this argument to demonstrate the Artemis Accords do not have much promise
for setting an international framework for the development of space.
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A/2: India can exercise international leadership
Turn: The Artemis Accords are bad for global leadership
Warrant: Artemis Accords are too Western-aligned
Wall, Mike. “US policy could thwart sustainable space development, researchers say.”
Space News. February 2020. https://www.space.com/us-space-policy-miningartemis-accords
“Boley and Byers take special aim at the planned bilateral agreements, known as the
Artemis Accords. In promoting them, the U.S. "is overlooking best practice with regard
to the sustainable development of space," the researchers write. "Instead of pressing
ahead unilaterally and bilaterally, the United States should support negotiations on
space mining within the UN [United Nations] Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
Outer Space, the same multilateral body that drafted the five major space treaties of
the 1960s and '70s," they write in the Science piece. (The most important of the five is
the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, which forms the basis of international space law.)”
Warrant: The United States is self-interested
Wall, Mike. “US policy could thwart sustainable space development, researchers say.”
Space News. February 2020. https://www.space.com/us-space-policy-miningartemis-accords
“Meanwhile, NASA’s actions must be seen for what they are — a concerted, strategic
effort to redirect international space cooperation in favor of short-term U.S.
commercial interests, with little regard for the risks involved," Boley and Byers add.
The researchers worry that the U.S. is setting an unfortunate precedent for other
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countries to follow, and that space mining and other exploration activities may
therefore proceed in a somewhat careless and chaotic fashion in the not-too-distant
future.”
De-link: India is acting as a leader already
Warrant: India is acting like a leader
Vickery, Raymond. “2023 Should Be India’s Year.” The Diplomat. Jan 2023.
https://thediplomat.com/2023/01/2023-should-be-indias-year/
“All these factors put together, make 2023 an opportune year for India to position
itself as a global leader. However, India will need to maintain its economic stride, and
promote global peace and security to make the most of this opportunity. India is
concentrating on economic and developmental issues in both the G-20 and the SCO to
the exclusion of security issues. It has already hosted a meeting of the G-20
Development Working Group in Mumbai and plans to hold over 200 meetings in over
50 cities in India this year. Similarly at the SCO, India is emphasizing three “pillars of
cooperation” – Startups & Innovation, Science & Technology, and Traditional Medicine.
The high-level engagement and frequency of meetings underlines the seriousness with
which India has taken up the mantle of its leadership.”
Warrant: India has positioned itself at the center of global issues
Vickery, Raymond. “2023 Should Be India’s Year.” The Diplomat. Jan 2023.
https://thediplomat.com/2023/01/2023-should-be-indias-year/
“India is the president of the Group of 20 (G-20) and will host its summit in
September. It holds the rotating presidency of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization
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(SCO) and will host the meeting of the SCO Heads of State, probably in August.
Additionally, India has convened a virtual meeting of the 75 nations of the Global
South and will host the Quad Foreign Ministers Meeting. India has positioned itself
between NATO and Russia over Ukraine and has leverage with both that can be used
for good. The Indian economy appears better prepared to withstand the headwinds
facing the world than other major economies.”
Analysis: Deploy this argument to show that India does not need to ratify the Artemis Accords
to assume the mantle of global leadership
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A/2: Space Exploration Leads to National Security Benefits
Turn: India should not focus on space based national security
Warrant: India has threats closer to home
Pant, Harsh. “US policy could thwart sustainable space development, researchers say.”
Observer Research Foundation. February 2019. https://www.orfonline.org/expertspeak/indias-national-security-challenge-52695/
“Along its land frontiers, India faces disputed boundaries and competing territorial
claims with both Pakistan and China. The Line of Control (LoC), a de facto boundary
with Pakistan, and the Line of Actual Control (LAC), an unmarked boundary with
China, have remained contentious for decades. Beijing has also forged partnerships
with other states in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), if not of the same depth and
breadth as its relationship with Pakistan. The Yunnan province of China borders
Myanmar (Burma), which in turn serves as a bridgehead into the Indian Ocean. Thus,
Beijing is able to pursue a more potentially offensive strategy in the IOR with both
Pakistan and Myanmar offering dependable means of execution. Beijing’s military
deployments have been facilitated by improved hardware across the three service arms,
a progressive shift in objectives, and organizational changes in the form of five
integrated theatre commands introduced by the Xi regime in 2015.”
Warrant: India has to make reforms to deal with threats from China and Pakistan
Pant, Harsh. “US policy could thwart sustainable space development, researchers say.”
Observer Research Foundation. February 2019. https://www.orfonline.org/expertspeak/indias-national-security-challenge-52695/
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“The twin military challenges posed by China and Pakistan thus reflect critical shifts in
these two countries’ military capabilities and operational postures. They demand, in
turn, different command structures, involving tri-service cooperation and capabilities,
for the Indian armed services. Most of the sub-conventional threat confronting the
Indian state stems from Pakistan, although insurgencies in north-east India also impose
a military burden. In addition to conventional and sub-conventional threats, India faces
a significant nuclear threat from Pakistan and China, between whom a deep connection
has historically existed in the nuclear technology and missile delivery domains.”
De-link: India can develop military space capabilities on its own
Warrant: India is reorienting towards military space applications
Rajagopalan, Rajeswari. “India’s Space Priorities Are Shifting Toward National Security.”
Carnagie Endowment. Jan 2023.
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/09/01/india-s-space-priorities-are-shiftingtoward-national-security-pub-87809
“Military and security imperatives have also gained greater prominence in Indian
thinking about space utilization. Although New Delhi does not have a declared space
policy document, the growing military orientation can be gleaned from official
statements in the Indian Parliament and from organizations such as the United
Nations. India’s approach to space is now driven by a sense of pragmatism and by
national security concerns, as opposed to the morality- and sovereignty-related
considerations that shaped the program until the 1990s. Given this new motivation as
well as the changing space security conditions, India’s space program has developed
credible launch capabilities and a mix of intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance,
and Earth observation satellites for military purposes.”
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Warrant: India is developing new capabilities
Rajagopalan, Rajeswari. “India’s Space Priorities Are Shifting Toward National Security.”
Carnagie Endowment. Jan 2023.
https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/09/01/india-s-space-priorities-are-shiftingtoward-national-security-pub-87809
“Broader global space security trends and specific developments in the Indo-Pacific
have pushed India to invest in military space capabilities. China’s anti-satellite (ASAT)
test in January 2007 was a wake-up call about the potential threats India faces, and it
prompted a new debate within India about how it should protect its space assets.
From this debate emerged a unanimous view across the political, military, and scientific
bureaucracy that India needed to develop an appropriate response in order to deter any
attacks on its own space assets. Even though the Manmohan Singh government
approved research on an ASAT capability, it did not order an ASAT test until March 2019
under Prime Minister Narendra Modi. This decision was a recognition that India’s longheld belief in strengthening global governance of outer space was either not going to
bear fruit or would be insufficient to protect its interests. Explaining the rationale for
the 2019 test, the Ministry of External Affairs claimed that the new capability
“provides credible deterrence against threats to our growing space-based assets from
long range missiles.””
Analysis: Deploy this argument to show that India does not need to ratify the Artemis Accords
to become a military leader in outer space.
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A/2: Space exploration unifies national identity
Turn: Space exploration creates conflict
Warrant: India has threats closer to home
Duke, Joshua. “Conflict and Controversy in the Space Domain: Legalities, Lethalities, and
Celestial Security.” Air Univeristy. February 2019.
https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Wild-Blue-Yonder/ArticleDisplay/Article/2362296/conflict-and-controversy-in-the-space-domain-legalitieslethalities-and-celesti/
“Space is becoming the next frontier for human conflict. The Russian Federation (RF),
People’s Republic of China (PRC), and United States are the three most powerful
nations on Earth, and each is deeply invested in a new kind of space race to gain and
maintain control over space. Each of these nations has plans for lunar bases and the
colonization of Mars. Each is also developing a variety of space-based weapon systems
and spacecraft capable of maneuvering in zero gravity, the combination of which can
and will be used to control space and potentially the future of mankind. Existing
international laws and treaties, notably the 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the
Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and
Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space Treaty), lack sufficient legally binding language
when applied to today’s space-based technologies and concepts for developments.
There are few international recourses available to prevent a nation from developing a
variety of space weaponry or exploiting space resources.”
Warrant: Space materials will set the stage for more conflict in the future
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Con Responses to Pro Arguments
March 2023
Duke, Joshua. “Conflict and Controversy in the Space Domain: Legalities, Lethalities, and
Celestial Security.” Air Univeristy. February 2019.
https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Wild-Blue-Yonder/ArticleDisplay/Article/2362296/conflict-and-controversy-in-the-space-domain-legalitieslethalities-and-celesti/
“Rare earth metals and other minerals are quickly becoming scarce in the United
States to the point where the international space race to claim the Moon and Mars
has become a top priority, not just for control over them but for the resources
available for exploitation. Uranium has even entered the economic radar as a good
idea for boosting the American economy instead of remaining too dangerous to mine
due to the associated health risks and environmental hazards. This resource is in
abundance on the Moon.10 Estimates suggest there may be up to five million tons of
Helium-3 (3He) contained within the lunar regolith.11 This has the potential to meet all
of mankind's power needs for thousands of years when used with fusion power.12 On
top of the resources potentially available, the Moon provides a unique launching
position for future missions to Mars with a faster, more direct, and more efficient path
to the Red Planet.13 Control over the Moon is an inherent factor in the future of the
human race.”
De-link: The space race sow division
Warrant: Space exploration trades off with helping people on earth
Reimann, Nicholas. “Leaving A Planet In Crisis: Here’s Why Many Say The Billionaire Space
Race Is A Terrible Idea.” Forbes. Jan 2023.
https://www.forbes.com/sites/nicholasreimann/2021/07/12/leaving-a-planet-incrisis-heres-why-many-say-the-billionaire-space-race-is-a-terribleidea/?sh=68a5e4d877c9
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Con Responses to Pro Arguments
March 2023
“Elon Musk hasn’t announced plans on shooting himself away from Earth (yet), but his
company—SpaceX—is widely considered the leader in the private space industry, and
Musk has made it known his top priority is to make humans an “interplanetary species.”
Critics point out the big-money focus on space is coming at an especially vulnerable
point on Earth—where the Covid pandemic is still causing widespread death while
historic heat waves prompt concerns global warming has reached a dangerous new
level. The United Nations has also repeatedly warned widespread famines could come
to poor nations as a result of the pandemic, and the UN released a report on Monday
finding 811 million were undernourished during 2020.”
Warrant: Modest amounts of money redirected away from space travel could save lives
Reimann, Nicholas. “Leaving A Planet In Crisis: Here’s Why Many Say The Billionaire Space
Race Is A Terrible Idea.” Forbes. Jan 2023.
https://www.forbes.com/sites/nicholasreimann/2021/07/12/leaving-a-planet-incrisis-heres-why-many-say-the-billionaire-space-race-is-a-terribleidea/?sh=68a5e4d877c9
“There’s also already been talk of luxury space hotels. Orbital Assembly Corp.
announced plans earlier this year for a 280-guest hotel called Voyager Station, which it
said will open in 2027. The company hopes to work with SpaceX as a partner on the
project. $6 billion. That’s how much money it would take to save 41 million people set
to die of hunger this year worldwide, according to UN World Food Program Executive
Director David Beasley. Beasley sent a tweet late last month urging Musk, Branson
and Bezos to team up to fight hunger, saying, “We can solve this quickly!””
Analysis: Use this argument to show the judge that India can put its money towards more
useful, unifying projects, such as solving poverty and food insecurity.
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