Nursing research
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What is nursing research used for?
To validate and refine existing knowledge and also generate new
knowledge that directly and indirectly influences nursing practice.
Generate knowledge that may support current practice or lead to
refinement of practice.
So the purpose of nursing research is to what?
Historically, nurses did not question many activities that were
taken for granted
Examples of Nursing research
-Schedules for changing IV sites or wound dressings
-End of shift report procedures
-Hand washing procedures
-More recently, nurses have started to question these kinds of
activities through research that leads to evidence-based practice
changes that benefit nurses and patients
Qualitative research
Guided by research questions and data are collected from a small
number of subjects allowing an in depth study of phenomenon
Quantitative research
-Describes phenomena seeks to test hypothesis/ answer research
questions using statistical methods
-Formal, objective, rigorous, systematic process for generating
information
-Designs vary in degree of control
Research by education level
Graduate Nurse (BSN)
Masters Nurse (MSN)
PhD in Nursing
DNP
BSN
Read, interpret, and evaluate research studies for practice.
Understand evidence based practice.
Identify nursing problems for study.
Collaborate in research teams
Share findings from own reading with colleagues
MSN
Active members in research on the research team
Clinical expert
Collaborate for proposal development, data, collection, analysis
and interpretation
Evaluate research findings
Develop and implement evidence based guidelines
Analyze practice and system problems to determine solutions
May involve application of existing knowledge or conducting original research
Facilitate clinical investigations
Assist others to apply scientific knowledge to nursing practice
PhD in nursing
Conduct independent research
Launch independent programs of research
DNP
Translate knowledge into tailored interventions for individuals,
families, and communities
Facilitate translation into practice and collaborate regarding health
policy.
Focus in evaluation and utilization
Mixed method studies
Include a variety of study designs such as Qualitative research
and Quasi-experimental, correlational, and/or descriptive studies
Meta analysis
A synthesis of a number of qualitative articles on a focused topic
using specific qualitative methodology.
Conducted to combine or pool the results from previous Quantitative Studies into a single statistical analysis that provides one
of the highest levels of evidence about an intervention's effectiveness
Meta synthesis
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Summarizes a number of studies focused on a topic using a
specific statistical methodology to synthesis the findings in order
to draw conclusions about the area of focus
Why is evidence based practice important?
The process of systematically finding, appraising, and using research as the basis for clinical practice.
Put all the studies together to makes a decision about the care of
individual patients
Ex. Heparinized saline for flushing peripheral intravenous
catheters
Nursing research provides
Identification and description
Explanation
Prediction
Control
Identifying and understanding the nature of nursing phenomena
and the relationships among the phenomena to:
-Describe what exists in nursing practice
-Discover new information
-Promote understanding of situations
-Classify information for use in the discipline
Prediction
Estimating and anticipating the outcomes in a particular situation
Control
Manipulating a situation so as to achieve a particular outcome
Which of the following characterizes naturalistic research methods?
A. fixed design
B. Deductive processes
C. Qualitative information
D. Seeking of generalizations
C. Qualitative information
NINR Key Themes
-Symptom Science: Promoting personalized health strategies
-Wellness: Promoting health and preventing illness
-Self-management: Improving quality of life for those with chronic
disease
-End of life and palliative care: The science of compassion
What 4 pieces make up evidence-based practice?
1. Evidence from research, evidence-based theories, clinical experts, and opinion leaders
2. Evidence from assessment of patient's history and physical and
available health care resources
3. Clinical expertise
4. Information about patient preferences and values
Steps of EBP
-Selecting a topic and formulating a clinical question
-Forming a team
-Tracking down the best possible evidence
-Appraising the evidence critically
Two types of questions
Background questions
Foreground questions
Background questions
-Need to be answered as a foundation for asking the searchable
question
-Scientific background necessary
Foreground question
-Can be answered from scientific evidence about diagnosing,
treating, or understanding patients health problems
-Practice focus
P in PICO
Population (age, gender, disease process, ethnicity, staff position,
level of student)
I in PICO
Intervention/Issue (medication, procedure, instructional approach,
diagnostic test)
C in PICO
Comparison (different medication, instructional procedure)
O in PICO
Outcome (change in status, mortality, patient or student behavior)
T in PICOT
Timing
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Preappraised evidence
-Systematic reviews
-Clinical practice guidelines and care bundles
-Clinical decision support tools
What is Quantitative research used for?
-Describes new situations, events, or concepts
-Examines relationships among variables
-Determines the effectiveness of treatments
Quantitative studies include the following features
-Focus on "why" question
-Production of generalizable knowledge
-Precise use of data collection instruments
-Formalized and strict protocols for collecting data
-Investigation of a very specific and narrow area of inquiry
-Often use large sample size
-Used to determine new situations, events or concepts, examines
relationships among variables and to determine the effectiveness
of treatments
-Control is important in research so we have something to compare with
Categories of Quantitative studies
Experimental
-Quasi-experimental
Non-Experimental
-Descriptive
-Correlational
Retrospective vs. prospective
Retrospective goes backwards
Prospective goes forward in time (what happens as you progress
through your 5 terms at goldfarb)
Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal
Cross-sectional- all results taken at any one point of time
Longitudinal- follows people over time
Experimental research
-Looks at cause-and-effect relationships
-Highly controlled, objective, systematic studies
-Involves the measurement of independent and dependent variables
Experimental research has a high level of control, objective, and
systematic studies (Test question)
Main characteristics of experimental research
-Controlled manipulation
-Experimental and control groups
-Random assignment
Randomized clinical trails (RCT)
-Most rigorous
-Prospective study comparing the effect of an intervention against
a control
-Strongest level of evidence of clinical research studies; provides
findings that have "maximum control" free of bias
Quasi-experimental
Lacks one of the components of experimental design, i.e., randomization, control group, or manipulation of one or more variables
Nonexperimental designs
-Does not involve manipulation of independent variable or randomization
-Allow for exploration of problems that do not lend themselves to
experimentation
-Driven by clear, concise problem statement
-Do not establish causality (cause and effect) between variables
Descriptive reseach
-Exploration and description of phenomena in real-life situations
-New meaning is discovered and the description of concepts is
accomplished
-Helps to identify relationships
-The purpose of the study was to describe the effects that long
term care given at home for a disabled relative have on the
physical and mental health of patients
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Correlational research
-Looks at the relationship between/among two or more variables
-Determines the strength and type of relationships
-Correlation does not equal cause and effect
-The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship of
fatigue, depression, and sense of powerlessness in women with
fibromyalgia
Descriptive correlation
-Describes the nature and magnitude of relationships without
explaining underlying causes
-The purpose of the study was to describe sleep pattern disturbances in adults receiving chronic pain services and determine
the relationship between chronic pain intensity and sleep disturbances
Purpose of literature review
-Intent: Gain what is known on the topic
-Clarifies research topic/problem
-Verifies significance of problem
-Demonstrates the need for the study to be undertaken
Independent variable
The presumed cause (of a dependent variable)
-A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable
Dependent variable
The presumed effect (of the independent variable)
-Often referred to as the outcome variable or outcome
-A variable that is presumed to be influenced by one or more
independent variable
Secondary analysis
Involves asking new questions on data collected previously
The data may have been generated from previous formal research
or may have been gathered through an previous systematic collection or data
Triangulation
Use of various research methods or data collection techniques in
the same study
Pilot studies
Small-scale studies referred to as feasibility studies
Purpose is to identify strengths and limitations of a larger planned
study
Internal validity
Whether the independent variable actually made a difference.
-Did the intervention lead to the result or were the results a
response to extraneous variables?
External validity
Extends to which the results can be generated form the study
sample to the larger population.
-The generalizability of the observed relationships across samples, settings, or time
Research question
-Questions the researcher seeks to answer through the use of
scientific approach
-Are more specific than problem statements
-Help to identify type of data to be collected
-Cannot address moral and/or ethical issues
Hypotheses
-Declarative statement that identifies relationships between two or
more variables
-Predicts outcome
-Not all research studies contain hypotheses
Population
The aggregate of cases of interest of the researcher
Target population
Population for which study was intended
Sample
Subset of the population
Sampling
Process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the
entire population so that inferences about the population can be
made
Number of variables and sample size
As the number of variables increases, the sample size should
increase
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Which of the following would be done first when designing and
planning a quantitative study?
A. develop intervention protocols
B. Identify the population
C. Design the sampling plan
D. Formulate a research design
D. Formulate a research design
A researcher's expectations about the outcomes of a quantitive
study are generally expressed in the form of a:
A. Hypothesis
B. Theory
C. Dependent variable
D. Research question
A. hypothesis
A study is internally valid if:
A. Extraneous variables are included as part of the the design
B. An experimental design was used
C. Findings can be applied to nursing practice
D. A causal relationship is comfirmed
D. A causal relationship is confirmed
If a researcher were interested in studying the prevalence of
health-promoting and health risk behaviors among college students, he/she would be most likely to utilize:
A Evaluation
B. Survey
C. Interviews with 15 current students
D. Follow-up study
B. survey
Survey
Used to collect large amounts of information with little expenditure
of time and money
Needs assessment
Determines what is most beneficial to an aggregate group
Methodologic
Focuses on development and testing instruments to improve their
reliability and validity
Case study
Provides an in-depth analysis of a single subject, institution, or
social unit
Sample size in quantitative research
-largest sample makes it more representative
-Most researchers use statistical programs to conduct a power
analysis
Sample size in qualitative research
-Size is determined by information needed
-Data saturation: goal no new information is learned and redundancy is noted
-Data quality is essential for small sample sizes
Control group
Subjects in an experiment who do not receive the experimental
treatment and whose performance provides a baseline against
which the effects of the treatment can be measured.
When a true experimental design is not used, this group is usually
called a comparison group
Qualitative research
Qualitative research is formal, systematic approach for exploring
and describing persons' experience and the meanings attached
to those experiences
Characteristics of qualitative research
-Focus on "how" questions
-Enhances in-depth understanding of specific situation or context
-Data collection open to modification during the study
-Exploration of unknown or little known areas
-Often uses small sample
-Flexible, holistic, intense researcher involvement
-Emergent: ongoing analysis guiding design decisions
-Bricolage: merging various data collection strategies
Major steps in a Qualitative study
1. Selecting and defining a problem
2. Selecting a research design
3. Methods: Data collection
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4. Data Analysis
5. Utilizing research
Qualitative nursing research purposes
-Identification
-Description
-Exploration
-Explanation
Quantitative research purpose
-Description
-Exploration
-Prediction and control
-Explanation
Bracketing
Identifying and holding in check preconceived beliefs/opinions
about the phenomenon
Establish trustworthiness
1. Credibility- Believability of the findings
2. Dependability- Consistency in the findings over time
3. Confirmability- Objectiveness and maintenance of audit trails to
document the research process
Transferability
Can findings from one study be transferred to a similar context to
establish trustworthiness
Authenticity
The extent to which researchers fairly and faithfully show a range
of different realities and convey the feeling/tone of participants'
lives as they are lived
Which qualitative research tradition would be used to establish a
theoretical understanding of self-managing diabetes as a person
with limited vision?
A. Ethnography
B. Evidence based practice
C. Grounded theory
D. Phenomenology
C. Grounded theory
Which of the following would be an appropriate research question
for a qualitative study?
A. How do parents decide when to take their child to a physician?
B. How many visits do physicians' offices received on Mondays as
opposed to Wednesdays?
A. How do parents decide when to take their child to a physician?
C. Should parents take their child to the physician for routine
visits?
D. What is the most common reason parents call a physician's
office?
What study design would most likely be used to answer the
following research question? "What is the adjustment process for
those with a diagnosis of end stage renal disease?"
A. Qualitative design
B. Quantitative design
C. An evidence based practice initiative
D. Outcomes research design
A. Qualitative design
All of the following are concerns that a qualitative researcher
attends to in planning a study except:
A. Selecting a site for data collection
B. Determining how best to gain entree in key settings
C. Determining the maximum amount of time for data collection
D. Developing a survey for data collection
D. Developing a survey for data collection
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Empirical research
research based on actual knowledge instead not theories
Applied research
research designed to produce knowledge useful in altering a
real-world condition
Normative knowledge
knowledge that is evaluative, value laden, and concerned with
prescribing what ought to be
Theory
a statement or series of related statements that organize, explain,
and predict phenomena
Critical Theory
the philosophical stance that disciplines such as political science
should assess society critically and seek to improve it, not simply
study it objectively
independent variable
the manipulated variable that can cause a change in the dependent variable
Dependent variable
the variable that is effected by the manipulated variable
Unit of Analysis
the type of actor (individual, group, institution, nation) specified in
a researcher's hypothesis
intervening variable
a variable coming between an antecedent variable and a dependent variable in an explanatory scheme
antecedent variable
an independent variable that precedes other independent variables in time
nominal levels of measurement
lowest level of measurement; difference in kind
ordinal levels of measurement
categories in a rank order
interval levels of measurement
categories in a rank order with distinct distances between each
other
ratio levels of measurement
highest level of measurement; all other attributes along with an
absolute zero present
Hypothesis
a tentative statement to be verified
characteristics of a strong hypothesis
general, empirical, possible, specific variables, consistent with
data, test-ability
null hypothesis
hypothesis stating there is no change, no relationship
negative/inverse relationship
relationship in which high values of one variable are associated
with low values of another variable
literature review
an examination and interpretation of the literature for purpose of
informing further work on a topic
scholarly sources
published work in journals and novels by scholars
ecological fallacy
the fallacy of deducing a false relationship between behavior of
individuals based on observing that relationship for the individual's
groups
validity
Determines whether the research truly measures that which it was
intended to measure or how truthful the research results are
face validity
When the measurement instrument appears to measure the concept it is supposed to measure
content validity
involves determining the full domain or meaning of a particular
concept then making sure that measures all portions of this domain are included in the measurement technique
test-retest
Is estimated by performing the same survey with the same respondents at different moments of time. The closer the results the
greater the test-retest reliability of the survey instrument
discriminant
Involves two measures that theoretically are expected not to be
related; thus the correlation between them is expected to be low
or weak
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split halves
A measure of consistency where a test is split in two and the
scores for each half of the test is compared with one another. If
the test is consistent it leads the experimenter to believe that it is
most likely measuring the same thing
reliability
The consistency or repeat-ability of a measure
empirical knowledge
knowledge based on actual objective observation of phenomena
variation
key to data analysis
causality
change in the state of one thing bringing about change in another
ecological analysis
a method for scientists to look at large scale impacts of time
specific intervention on population health
inferential analysis
used to generalized the results obtained from a random sample
back to the population from which the sample was taken
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Research Methods - Creswell Chapter 3
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variable
refers to a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be measured or observed and that varies among
the people or organization being studied. A variable typically will
vary in two or more categories or on a continuum of scores, and
it can be measured. (also known as construct)
independent variable
are those that (probably) cause, influence, or affect outcomes.
They are also called treatment, manipulated, antecedent, or predictor variables.
dependent variable
are those that depend on the independent variables; they are the
outcomes or results of the influence of the independent variables.
Otherwise known as criterion, outcome, and effect variables.
intervening or mediating variables
stand between the independent and dependent variables, and
they mediate the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, if students do well on a research
methods test (dependent variable), that result may be due to
(a) their study preparation (independent variable) and/or (b) their
organization of study ideas into a framework (intervening variable)
that influenced their performance on the test. The mediating variable, the organization of study, stands between the independent
and dependent variables.
moderating variables
are new variables constructed by a researcher by taking one
variable and multiplying it by another to determine the joint impact
of both (e.g. age X attitudes towards quality of life.) These variables
are typically found in experiments.
control variables
play an active role in quantitative studies. These are a special type
of independent variable that researchers measure because they
potentially influence the dependent variable. Researchers use
statistical procedures (e.g. analysis of covariance) to control for
these variables. They may be demographic or personal variables
(e.g. age or gender) that need to be "controlled" so that the true
influence of the independent variable on the dependent can be
determined.
confounding variables
is not actually measured or observed in a study. It exists, but its
influence cannot be directly detected. Researchers comment on
the influence of confounding variables after the study has been
completed, because these variables may have operated to explain
the relationship between the independent variable and dependent
variable, but they were not or could not be easily assessed (e.g.
discriminatory attitudes).
hypotheses
prediction
theory
in quantitative research - is the use of an interrelated set of
constructs (or variables) formed into propositions, or hypotheses,
that specify the relationship among variables (typically in terms of
magnitude or direction) and predicts the outcomes of a study. It
might appear in a research study as an argument, a discussion,
or a rationale, and it helps to explain (or predict) phenomena that
occurs in the world.
theoretical rationale
specifying how and why the variables and relational statements
are interrelated
a section of a proposal that discusses the theory (the theory would
theory base, the theoretical rationale, the theoretical perspective provide the explanation or prediction for why an independent
variable, x, influences or affects a dependent variable, y?)
theoretical lens/perspective in qualitative research
provides an overall orienting lens that is used to study questions of
gender, class, and race (or other issues of marginalized groups).
This lens becomes an advocacy perspective that shapes the types
of questions asked, informs how data are collected and analyzed,
and provides a call for action or change.
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theory use in mixed methods
studies may include theory deductively in quantitative theory testing and verification or inductively, as in an emerging qualitative
theory or pattern.
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Types of Hypotheses
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Associative Hypothesis
Proposes relationships among variables that occur or exist together in the real world, so that when one variable changes, the
other changes.
Relationship between variables - they are "associated".
A prediction about a cause-effect relationship between two or
more variables.
Causal Hypothesis
Cause-and-effect relationship between variables.
Predicts the existence of a relationship, not its direction.
Nondirectional Hypothesis
Relationship exists between variables, but hypothesis does not
predict nature (or direction, positive or negative) of relationship.
A hypothesis that makes a specific prediction about the direction
of the relationship between two variables.
Directional Hypothesis
Nature/direction (positive or negative) of interaction between two
or more variables is stated at the start of the study.
Null Hypothesis
A prediction that there is no difference between groups or conditions, or a statement or an idea that can be falsified, or proved
wrong.
States there is no difference or relationship between variables;
also called statistical hypothesis.
Research Hypothesis
The hypothesis that the variables under investigation are related
in the population - that the observed effect based on sample data
is true in the population.
States what researcher thinks is true; there is a relationship between two or more variables.
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Ch. 8 - Hypotheses
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• lend objectivity to investigations
• test theoretical propositions
• advance scientific knowledge
• guide research design
• dictate the type of statistical analysis used
• state the expectations about the study
Determine The Purposes Of Hypotheses In Research Studies
1) Theories
• Framework as a source
• Theoretical or conceptual
• Most important source
• Propositional statement isolated, tested
2) Personal experience
• Induction
- Observation
- Empirical generalization
- Hypothesis
• Literature review
Identify Sources Or Rationale For Study Hypotheses
3) Previous research studies
• Test assumptions
• Test hypothesis based on findings
Hypotheses may be classified as:
• simple
• complex
Hypotheses may be classified as:
• research hypotheses
• null hypotheses
Research hypotheses may be:
• directional
• nondirectional
Describe Classifications Of Hypotheses
Simple Hypothesis
• Bivariate
• Relationship between one independent and one dependent variable
• Independent variable: cause, first chronologically
• Dependent variable: effect
Distinguish Between Simple And Complex Hypotheses
Complex Hypothesis
• Multivariate
• Relationship between
Two or more independent variables
Two or more dependent variables
Both
Null Hypothesis
• Ho
• Predicts no relationship between variables
• Statistically analyzed
Research Hypothesis
• H1
• Alternative, scientific, substantive, theoretical
• States expected relationship between variables
• Can be directional or nondirectional
Preference for Research Hypothesis:
• Clarify study's framework
• Demonstrate researcher's critical thinking
• Based on theoretical framework
Compare Null Hypotheses And Research Hypotheses
Both Null and Research Hypothesis:
• Researcher expects no correlations between variables.
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• Researcher expects no difference between groups being compared
Differentiate Nondirectional And Directional Research Hypotheses
Nondirectional Research Hypotheses
• Predicts relationship between variables
• Does not predict direction of relationship
Example: There Is a Relationship Between Serotonin Levels and
SIDS
• Reasons to Use Nondirectional Research Hypotheses:
No theory to base prediction on
Previous research findings contradictory
Directional Research Hypotheses
• Predicts the direction of the relationship
Example: People Who Smoke Are More Likely to Develop Lung
Cancer Than Those Who Do Not
• Advantages:
Researcher's expectations clear
More precise testing of theoretical propositions
One-tailed statistical tests
• Be written in a declarative sentence
• Be written in the present tense
• Contain the population
List The Criteria To Be Considered When Formulating A Hypoth• Contain the variables
esis
• Reflect the problem statement, purpose statement, and research
question
• Be empirically testable
Discuss The Format For Writing Hypotheses
• A correlational statement
• A comparative statement
• Statistical analysis
Recognize The Use Of Hypotheses In The Testing Of Theories
• Test proposition, not entire theory
• Cannot be proved or disproved
Determine The Types Of Studies For Which Hypotheses Are Not
Needed
• Qualitative studies
• Single-variable descriptive studies
• Methodological studies
• Does the study contain a hypothesis or hypotheses?
• Is each hypothesis clearly worded and concise?
• Is it written in a declarative sentence?
• Is each hypothesis directly tied to the study problem?
• Is the study framework clearly defined with each hypothesis
Critique Study Hypotheses And Research Questions In Research derived from it?
Reports
• Does each hypothesis contain the population and at least two
variables?
• Is each hypothesis stated as a directional research hypothesis?
If not, is a rationale given for the type employed?
• Is it apparent that each hypothesis can be empirically tested?
• Does each hypothesis contain only one prediction?
Null Hypotheses, Research Hypotheses, and Theories
• Null hypothesis rejected ’ research hypothesis supported
• Research hypothesis supported ’ theory supported
• Research hypothesis not supported ’ theory not supported
Research Questions
• In place of hypotheses in some studies
• In addition to hypotheses related to other areas of interest
concerning topic
simple hypothesis
concerns the relationship between one independent and one dependent variable
complex hypothesis
concerns a relationship where two or more independent variables,
or two or more dependent variables, or both, are being examined
interaction effect
concerns the action of two variables in conjunction with each other
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null hypothesis
(Ho) predicts that no relationship exists between variables, and it
is subjected to statistical analysis
research hypothesis
or alternative hypothesis (H1); states the expected relationship
between variables
other names for the research hypothesis are scientific, substantive, and theoretical
nondirectional hypothesis
the researcher merely predicts that a relationship exists; the direction of the relationship is not presented
directional hypothesis
the researcher predicts the type of relationship that is expected;
they have several advantages- they make the expectations clear,
allow more precise testing of theoretical propositions, and allow
the use of one-tailed statistical tests
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Ch 5 Examining Research Problems, Purposes, and Hypotheses
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ANS: C
1. The most important initial step when developing a research
study is to
a. develop the problem statement.
b. explore the background for the research problem.
c. identify the research problem.
d. state the research purpose.
The problem provides the basis for developing the research purpose and identifies gaps in knowledge needed for nursing practice. The problem statement is written after the research problem
has been identified. The background for the research problem
is written to identify what is known about the research problem.
The research purpose derives from the research problem and
identifies specific goals for the study.
ANS: B
2. A nursing researcher determines that there is little information
about the use of complementary practices in treating obesity. This The problem provides the basis for developing the research purrepresents the research
pose and identifies gaps in knowledge needed for nursing practice.
The research design is the type of study that will be conducted to
a. design.
study the research problem. The research purpose derives from
b. problem.
the research problem and identifies specific goals for the study.
c. purpose.
The problem statement is written after the research problem has
d. significance.
been identified. The significance for the research identifies how
important the knowledge is to the discipline.
ANS: C
3. When writing a proposal for a research study, the researcher
includes a problem statement that serves to
a. define the specific focus of a study.
b. describe what is known about the research problem.
c. identify a gap in knowledge needed for practice.
d. indicate the importance of the problem to nursing.
The problem provides the basis for developing the research purpose and identifies gaps in knowledge needed for nursing practice.
The research purpose derives from the research problem and
identifies specific goals for the study. The problem background
identifies what is already known about the topic. The problem
statement is written after the research problem has been identified. The significance for the research identifies how important the
knowledge is to the discipline.
ANS: D
4. In a research proposal, the researcher states that the proposed
study will explore children's feelings about chemotherapy side
The research purpose derives from the research problem and
effects. This statement describes the
identifies specific goals for the study. The problem background
identifies what is already known about the topic. The problem
a. problem background.
statement is written after the research problem has been identib. problem significance.
fied. The significance of the research identifies how important the
c. research problem.
knowledge is to the discipline. The problem provides the basis for
d. research purpose.
developing the research purpose and identifies gaps in knowledge
needed for nursing practice.
ANS: D
5. Which is included in a statement of a research study purpose? The research purpose derives from the research problem and
identifies specific goals for the study. The problem provides the
a. A description of gaps in knowledge about the research problem basis for developing the research purpose and identifies gaps in
b. A discussion of the significance of the research problem
knowledge needed for nursing practice. The significance for the
c. A review of what is known about the research problem
research identifies how important the knowledge is to the discid. A statement about how the research problem will be studied
pline. The problem background identifies what is already known
about the topic. The problem statement is written after the research problem has been identified.
ANS: B
6. The statement in the introduction of a research study report—"while children who have higher asthma control scores tend
The significance for the research identifies how important the
to have fewer emergency department visits for asthma exacerknowledge is to the discipline and to health care and the health of
bations, it is unclear how nursing interventions can impact these
individuals and families. The problem background identifies what
scores"—represents the
is already known about the topic. The problem statement is written
after the research problem has been identified. The problem proa. problem background.
vides the basis for developing the research purpose and identifies
b. problem significance.
gaps in knowledge needed for nursing practice. The research
c. research problem.
purpose derives from the research problem and identifies specific
d. research purpose.
goals for the study.
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ANS: A
7. The statements in the introductory paragraphs of a research reThe problem background identifies what is already known about
port that cite results of previous studies about a research problem
the topic. The problem statement is written after the research
represent the
problem has been identified. The significance for the research
identifies how important the knowledge is to the discipline and
a. problem background.
to health care and the health of individuals and families. The
b. problem significance.
problem provides the basis for developing the research purpose
c. problem statement.
and identifies gaps in knowledge needed for nursing practice.
d. research purpose.
The research purpose derives from the research problem and
identifies specific goals for the study.
8. Which statement is a research purpose for a correlational
study?
ANS: D
a. "This study will compare the effects of an oral antidiabetic
medication to effects of a placebo on glucose control in groups
of randomly assigned subjects."
b. "This study will examine whether pre-appointment telephone
reminders increase show rate among patients in an ambulatory
well-patient clinic."
c. "This study will use direct observation to identify methods
parents use to discipline children in public places."
d. "This study will use questionnaires and school transcripts
to examine the relationship of dietary habits to grades among
school-age children."
Correlational research is conducted to examine whether there
is a positive or negative relationship among variables without
attributing cause and effect. A study looking at the effects of an
experimental intervention on randomly assigned subjects to affect
a specific outcome is an experimental study. A study to look at the
effects of an intervention on an outcome is a quasi-experimental
study. A study to observe and describe behaviors without examining relationships among variables and without manipulation of the
variables by researchers is a descriptive study.
9. The nurse researcher states that a research purpose is to
measure the effects of bar code medication administration on
medication errors. This is a study purpose for which type of research?
ANS: C
Outcomes studies are conducted to examine the end results of
care. Correlational research is conducted to determine whether
there are relationships among variables. Grounded theory research is designed to determine how theory explains phenomena
being studied. Quasi-experimental research requires some manipulation of variables and comparison of groups.
a. Correlational
b. Grounded theory
c. Outcomes
d. Quasi-experimental
10. Which statement in a study about preoperative education and
ANS: C
postoperative recovery times represents a research question?
a. "What are the types of preoperative education materials that
may be used?"
b. "What are the constructs that facilitate adult learning among
patients?"
c. "What preoperative teaching will shorten postoperative recovery time?"
d. "What is already known about preoperative teaching and postoperative recovery?"
11. Hypotheses to be tested in a research study are frequently
found in
a. both quantitative and qualitative research studies.
b. qualitative research studies.
c. neither qualitative nor quantitative research studies.
d. quantitative research studies.
A research question focuses on description of variables or concepts, examination of relationships among variables, and determination of differences between two or more groups regarding
selected variables. The characteristic of a variable is given in the
operational definition. The theoretical framework identifies constructs and theories about the research study. The background
about what is already known about the topic for conducting is
described in the literature review.
ANS: D
A hypothesis is the formal statement of the expected relationship(s) between two or more variables in a specified population
in a quantitative research study. A qualitative research study often
includes problems, purposes, and research questions or aims to
direct the research study.
ANS: A
12. What type of hypothesis is the following? "Children with cystic
A complex hypothesis predicts the relationship among three or
fibrosis who use a cough assist device will experience less anxiety
more variables. In this example, the variables are cough asabout their disease and have fewer inpatient hospital admissions
sist devices (independent), hospital admissions (dependent), and
per year."
anxiety (dependent). A directional hypothesis states the nature of
the interaction between two or more variables. In this example, the
a. Complex, directional
direction is indicated by the prediction "experience less anxiety."
A complex hypothesis is correct, but the null hypothesis predicts
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b. Complex, null
c. Simple, associative
d. Simple, nondirectional
no difference. This study has more than two variables (not simple)
and indicates a direction and not just an association. A simple
hypothesis has only two variables (this study has more than two),
and there is a direction predicted (experiencing less anxiety and
having fewer inpatient hospital admissions).
ANS: A
13. A statement about the significance of a study describes the
a. influence of results on nursing practice.
b. relationship among study variables.
c. study design and methods.
d. validity of the study measurement tools.
The statement about the significance of the study identifies its
importance to the body of knowledge and to nursing practice. The
research purpose and research question identify proposed relationships among study variables. The study design and methods
describe the type of study, sampling techniques, and tools used
to evaluate data. The validity of measurement tools is determined
by whether the tools measure what they claim to measure.
ANS: B
14. A reviewer assesses a potential researcher's credentials and
experience, the availability of funding and resources, and ethical
The feasibility of a study is determined by examining the reconsiderations of a potential study. This represents evaluation of
searcher's qualifications, the funding and resources available
a study's
to conduct the study, the availability of subjects, facilities, and
equipment, and ethical considerations. Expertise refers to the
a. expertise.
researcher's qualifications, credentials, and experience. The study
b. feasibility.
purpose identifies the focus and goals of the study. The sigc. purpose.
nificance identifies the importance of the study to the body of
d. significance.
knowledge and to practice.
ANS: D
15. Identify the independent variable in the following hypothesis:
An independent variable is a stimulus or activity that is manipulat"Mothers of infants born with spina bifida who participate in suped or varied by the researcher to create an effect on the dependent
port groups report higher levels of confidence when caring for their
variable. In this example, use of support groups is the "treatment"
infants than do mothers who do not participate in support groups."
that is being used to manipulate levels of confidence in caring for
their infants. Infants with spina bifida are part of the criteria for
a. Confidence in caring for their infants
inclusion in the study. The level of confidence in caring for their
b. Infants with spina bifida
infants is the dependent variable. It is measured as a response
c. Mothers of infants with spina bifida
to whether or not the mothers received the "treatment" of using a
d. Support group participation
support group. The mothers of infants with spina bifida are criteria
for inclusion as subjects in the study and are not variables.
ANS: A
16. In a research proposal, the author describes what is already
known about the research topic. This would be included in the
The background section describes research about the problem
discussion of the study's
performed to date. In the section about a study's feasibility, the
researcher's expertise, funding resources, availability of subjects
a. background.
and settings, and ethical considerations are examined. The reb. feasibility.
search purpose identifies specific goals and the focus of the study.
c. purpose.
The study's significance discusses the importance of the study to
d. significance.
the discipline.
ANS: A
17. Which component of a research study is exemplified in the
statement, "This study identifies various themes associated with
A research objective or aim is a clear, concise, declarative stateparenting children who have chronic disease?"
ment that is expressed in the present tense and which focuses on
one or two variables, indicating whether they are to be identified
a. Aim or objective
or described. The hypothesis is a formal statement about an exb. Hypothesis
pected relationship between two or more variables. The research
c. Research methodology
methodology identifies sampling and measurement techniques.
d. Research problem
The research problem identifies gaps in knowledge.
ANS: D
18. The statement, "Do patients who receive care in a Patient-Centered Medical Home have fewer emergency department A research question is a concise interrogative statement that is
visits than those who do not?" is an example of a research
worded in the present tense, includes one or more variables,
and guides the implementation of studies by asking whether or
not there is a relationship between the variables. The research
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a. aim.
b. hypothesis.
c. method.
d. question.
objective or aim is a clear, concise, declarative statement that is
expressed in the present tense and which focuses on one or two
variables, indicating whether they are to be identified or described.
The hypothesis is a formal statement about an expected relationship between two or more variables. The research methodology
identifies sampling and measurement techniques.
ANS: A
The methodology is not described in the research hypothesis
19. All of the following aspects of a research proposal are part of statement. The hypothesis is a formal statement about an expectthe research hypothesis except
ed relationship between two or more variables. It will mention the
expected outcomes, the population being studied, and the specific
a. methodology.
variables. The hypothesis is a formal statement about an expected
b. outcomes.
relationship between two or more variables. It will mention the
c. population.
expected outcomes, the population being studied, and the specific
d. variables.
variables. The hypothesis is a formal statement about an expected
relationship between two or more variables. It will mention the
expected outcomes, the population being studied, and the specific
variables.
20. In a study comparing the effects of complementary therapies
on pain scores and narcotic analgesic use in homeless women ANS: B
and women who own homes, which of the following is a demographic variable?
Demographic variables are characteristics or attributes of subjects that are collected to describe the sample. Complementary
a. Complementary therapies
therapy is the independent variable. Narcotic analgesic use and
b. Homeless women
pain scores are dependent variables. Pain scores are a dependent
c. Narcotic analgesic use
variable.
d. Pain scores
ANS: A
21. A researcher's expectations about the outcomes of a study are A hypothesis is a formal statement of the expected relationship(s)
generally expressed in the form of a(n)
between two or more variables in a specified population. Theory is
an abstract generalization that presents a systematic explanation
a. hypothesis.
about relationships among phenomena. A research question is a
b. theory.
clear, concise interrogative statement that is worded in the present
c. research question.
tense, includes one or more variables, and is expressed to guide
d. research problem.
the implementation of studies. A research problem is an area of
concern in which there is a gap in the knowledge needed for
nursing practice.
ANS: C
An operational definition is derived from a set of procedures or
progressive acts that a researcher performs to receive sensory
impressions that indicate the existence or degree of existence of
22. The statement, "In this study, elevated blood glucose is a value
a variable. An operational definition is developed so that a variable
greater than 110 mg/dL," is an example of a(n)
can be measured or manipulated in a concrete situation. In this
example, pain is the sensory impression being measured on a
a. associative hypothesis.
numerical scale. A hypothesis indicates the researcher's educated
b. conceptual definition.
guess at what the outcome of the research will be. An associative
c. operational definition.
hypothesis describes a predicted relationship that the researcher
d. problem statement
develops between the established variables being studied. This
statement is an operational definition, not a hypothesis. A conceptual definition is the theoretical meaning of a variable. The problem
statement indicates the gap in knowledge needed for practice and
provides a basis for the study.
23. Which is true about a causal hypothesis?
ANS: A
a. It describes the effects of independent variables on dependent
A causal hypothesis proposes a cause and effect interaction bevariables.
tween two or more variables. An associative hypothesis states that
b. It predicts a negative or positive interaction between variables.
a relationship exists among variables. A correlational hypothesis
c. It proposes positive or negative relationships among variables.
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d. It states that a relationship exists between variables without
indicating direction.
proposes negative or positive interactions between variables. A
causal hypothesis indicates direction.
ANS: D
This hypothesis statement is not worded clearly or correctly. A
24. The hypothesis "A person's mental status is not affected by a clearly stated study hypothesis includes the independent varirelocation to a nursing home" is
ables to be manipulated or measured, indicates the proposed
outcomes or dependent variables to be measured, and identifies
a. null.
the population to be studied. The null hypothesis, also referred to
b. directional.
as a statistical hypothesis, is used for statistical testing and for
c. nondirectional.
interpreting statistical outcomes. A directional hypothesis states
d. not correctly worded.
the nature (positive or negative) of the interaction between two or
more variables. A nondirectional hypothesis states that a relationship exists but does not predict the nature (positive or negative) of
the relationship.
25. Which is an example of a directional, correlational hypothesis?
a. "Increasing hours spent in study groups is associated with an
increase in GPA among nursing students."
b. "Increased use of study groups will result in an increase in GPA
among nursing students."
c. "Nursing students who use study groups are among groups of
students who have higher GPAs."
d. "Studying in study groups is related to GPA levels in nursing
students."
ANS: A
A directional hypothesis states whether a positive or negative
interaction will occur between variables. A correlational hypothesis
indicates an association without attributing cause. Stating that
increased use of study groups will result in increased GPA makes
this statement a cause and effect hypothesis. The third and fourth
statements are nondirectional because they do not state whether
or not there is a positive or negative interaction.
ANS: D
26. The statistical (null) hypothesis in a research study states that The null hypothesis is the converse of the research hypothesis
there is
and states that there is no relationship among variables. Any
hypothesis stating a statistically significant relationship, an ima. a causal relationship between variables.
plied relationship, or a causal relationship among variables is a
b. a statistically significant relationship between variables.
research hypothesis. Any hypothesis stating a statistically signific. an implied relationship between variables.
cant relationship, an implied relationship, or a causal relationship
d. no relationship between variables.
among variables is a research hypothesis. Any hypothesis stating
a statistically significant relationship, an implied relationship, or a
causal relationship among variables is a research hypothesis.
27. Which is an important feature of a testable hypothesis?
ANS: D
a. It may differ from the variables and population identified in the
research purpose.
b. Methods of sampling, measurement, and data analysis are
included in the hypothesis statement.
c. Relationships among the study variables must be causative.
d. Variables in a testable hypothesis are measurable or able to be
manipulated.
A testable hypothesis is one that clearly predicts the relationships among variables and contains variables that are measurable or able to be manipulated in a study. Variables stated in a
research hypothesis are those identified in the research purpose.
The testable hypothesis does not identify methodological points to
avoid limiting the hypothesis to those methods. Relationships in a
testable hypothesis may be associative or correlational.
28. Which statement differentiates research variables from research concepts?
ANS: A
a. Concepts are more abstract than variables.
b. Concepts are usually studied in quantitative research.
c. Variables are less subject to manipulation and measurement.
d. Variables cannot be concisely defined or clearly described.
Concepts are more abstract than variables and are usually studied
in qualitative research. Variables are qualities, properties, or characteristics of persons, things, or situations that can be manipulated and measured. They can change or vary and can be concisely
defined and described.
29. A researcher wishes to study the effects of a low-fat diet on ANS: A
self-esteem, weight, and energy levels among obese women over
age 40. Which is the independent variable in this study?
The independent variable in a study is the variable that can be
manipulated to determine whether a specific outcome or result is
a. Low-fat diet
achieved. Obesity and women over 40 are demographic variables.
b. Obesity
Self-esteem, weight, and energy levels are dependent variables,
c. Self-esteem, weight, and energy levels
based on the presence or absence of the independent variable.
d. Women over 40
Obesity and women over 40 are demographic variables.
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30. Which is true about a dependent variable in a research study? ANS: D
It is
The dependent variable is the outcome that the researcher wishes
a. manipulated by the researcher to test the research hypothesis. to predict or explain. Changes in the dependent variable are preb. the cause of changes in other variables in a research study.
sumed to be caused by the independent variables. The indepenc. the experimental variable in a research study.
dent variable is manipulated by the researcher and is presumed
d. the outcome the researcher wishes to predict.
to cause changes in the dep
ANS: A
31. In the following research clinical question, what is the intervention? "Does taking antidepressants affect the risk of suicide
for cognitively impaired adolescents?"
The independent variable is frequently used to identify an intervention that is manipulated or varied by the researcher to create
an effect on the dependent variable. The dependent variable is
the outcome that the researcher wishes to predict or explain.
Research variables are the qualities, properties, or characteristics
identified in the research purpose and objectives or questions that
are measured in a study
a. Antidepressant use
b. Suicide
c. Cognitive impairment
d. Adolescence
ANS: C
32. Which type of variable is used in a descriptive study?
Research variables are the qualities, properties, or characteristics
identified in a descriptive or correlational study. The dependent
variable is the outcome that the researcher wishes to predict or explain. The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher
and is presumed to cause changes in the dependent variable. The
independent variable is sometimes called the treatment variable.
a. Dependent variable
b. Independent variable
c. Research variable
d. Treatment variable
ANS: A
33. During a study to measure the effects of violent video games
on aggressive behavior, the researchers learned that a portion of
A confounding variable is an extraneous variable that is not recogthe subjects lived in homes with one or more alcoholic parents. In
nized until the study is in process or is recognized before beginthis study, the presence of an alcoholic parent is a(n)
ning the study, but cannot be controlled. The dependent variable
is the outcome that the researcher wishes to predict or explain.
a. confounding variable.
The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher and
b. dependent variable.
is presumed to cause changes in the dependent variable. An
c. independent variable.
unrecognized variable is a type of extraneous variable that is not
d. unrecognized variable.
noted during the study, but may or may not influence the outcome.
ANS: C
34. In the following research clinical question, what is the outcome? "What is the effect of relaxation therapy versus biofeed- The dependent variable, functional ability is the outcome that the
back on the functional ability of clients with rheumatoid arthritis?" researcher wishes to predict or explain. Relaxation therapy and
biofeedback are both independent variables that are manipulata. Relaxation therapy
ed by the researcher and presumed to cause changes in the
b. Biofeedback
dependent variable. Rheumatoid arthritis describes the clients.
c. Functional ability
Research variables are the qualities, properties, or characteristics
d. Rheumatoid arthritis
identified in the research purpose and objectives or questions that
are measured in a study.
ANS: C
35. To reduce or eliminate the influence of environmental variables Environmental variables are a type of extraneous variable preon study results, the researcher may
sent in the setting in which the study is conducted. To control
for environment, the researcher will use a laboratory setting or a
a. completely describe all environmental settings encountered in research unit in a hospital. Describing the environmental variables
the study.
or discussing them in the study results does not eliminate the
b. discuss these variables in the study results.
influence of the environment on the study outcomes. Describing
c. use a research unit in a hospital or laboratory.
the environmental variables or discussing them in the study results
d. use a qualitative study design to conduct the study.
does not eliminate the influence of the environment on the study
outcomes. Using a qualitative study design does not eliminate the
influence of the environment on study outcomes.
36. Which is an example of a conceptual definition of a dependent
variable in a study evaluating the effects of home nursing on
coping among patients with chronic illness?
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a. "Coping is a set of actions and strategies used by individuals
to reduce the stressors associated with chronic disease management."
b. "Coping skills were measured using a five-point Likert scale with
higher scores indicating higher coping skills."
c. "Home nursing can include registered nurse and nursing assistant management of treatments provided at home."
d. "Home nursing was measured in the number of hours per week
and the number of hours per day of in-home care."
37. Which is true about an operational variable in quantitative
research?
A conceptual definition provides the theoretical meaning of a variable. The dependent variable in this study is "coping." Operational
definitions describe the actions the researcher will take to identify
the characteristics of the variable. "Home nursing" is the independent variable in this study. "Home nursing" is the independent
variable in this study
ANS: A
An operational definition is derived from a set of procedures or
progressive acts that a researcher performs to receive sensory
impressions that indicate the existence or degree of existence of
a variable. The conceptual definition is derived from the theoretical
definition of a related concept. Operational definitions need to
be independent of time and setting. The conceptual definition
provides theoretical meaning for a variable.
a. It is developed so that the degree of its existence can be
measured.
b. It is often derived from a theoretical definition of a related
concept.
c. It is specific to the time and setting of the research study.
d. It provides the theoretical meaning of a variable.
38. In a qualitative study, which is true about the definition of
research concepts?
ANS: B
In many qualitative studies, the focus of the study is to define or
describe the concept. Unlike variables in a quantitative study, they
usually are not easily measured. They are developed as the study
unfolds and do not have to be clearly described in order to proceed
with the study. They are developed as the study unfolds and do not
have to be clearly described in order to proceed with the study.
a. They are measurable variables that help illustrate theoretical
concepts.
b. They are often defined or described as a result of the study.
c. They are written to provide a concise measure of theoretical
concepts.
d. They must be clearly described to proceed with the study.
39. Which type of variable is used in a summary of sample characteristics?
a. Demographic variables
b. Dependent variables
c. Independent variables
d. Research variables
ANS: A
Demographic variables are attributes of subjects that are collected
to describe the sample. Dependent variables are variables that
change as a result of manipulation of the independent variable. Independent variables are variables that are manipulated to observe
effects on dependent variables. Research variables are variables
used in qualitative studies.
ANS: D
40. Which is true about a statement of the research purpose?
The research purpose is a concise, clear statement of the specific
goal of focus of the study. The review of the literature provides
background for the subject of a research study. The study's significance is a part of the overall purpose of the study. The research
problem statement is a separate statement and includes a discussion of the study's significance.
a. It describes the background for the subject of the research
study.
b. It includes a discussion of the significance of the study.
c. It includes the research problem statement.
d. It provides a concise description of the study's focus.
ANS: A
41. An examination of the researcher's plan for using measurement tools to examine relationships among variables helps de- The research hypothesis is determined through the research
termine the
question and is a statement about the relationship among the
research variables. The research objectives are identified in the
a. research hypothesis.
research purpose. The study feasibility is determined by the reb. research objectives.
searcher's expertise, the available funding, measurement tools
c. study feasibility.
and sample population availability, and ethical considerations. The
d. study purpose.
study purpose is a statement identifying what will be measured in
a study.
42. Which is true about a research hypothesis?
ANS: D
a. It defines the various research variables and describes how they
will be measured.
b. It explains the relationship of the research purpose to theory
development.
c. It includes the research problem, purpose, and research ques-
The research hypothesis is the formal statement of the expected
relationship between two or more variables in a specified population. The problem statement can link the research purpose
to theory development. The introduction contains the research
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tions.
problem, purpose, and research questions. The research purpose
d. It links the research problem statement to the study design and
links the problem statement to the study design and data analysis.
data analysis.
ANS: C
43. In a research proposal, a statement about expected relation- The research hypothesis is the formal statement of the expected
ships among variables is the
relationship between two or more variables in a specified population. The conceptual definition is derived from the theoretical
a. conceptual definition.
definition of a related concept and provides theoretical meaning
b. operational definition.
for a variable. An operational definition is derived from a set of
c. research hypothesis.
procedures or progressive acts that a researcher performs to
d. research problem.
receive sensory impressions that indicate the existence or degree
of existence of a variable. The research problem identifies gaps in
knowledge.
ANS: C
44. Which type of variable is manipulated by the researcher?
The independent, or experimental variable, is manipulated by the
researcher to observe possible effects on the dependent variable.
Demographic variables are attributes of members of a sample
population. The dependent variable is the outcome variable and
is the variable researchers wish to predict based on manipulation
of the independent variable. A research variable is used in quantitative studies.
a. Demographic
b. Dependent
c. Independent
d. Research
45. In a study of adolescent children using a group of high school
football players and junior-high school cyclists, researchers compared the length of recovery from concussion between those
wearing brand X helmets and those wearing brand Y helmets. In
this study "high school football players" represent which type of
variable?
a. Demographic
b. Dependent
c. Independent
d. Research
ANS: A
Demographic variables are attributes of members of a sample
population. The dependent variable is the outcome variable and
is the variable researchers wish to predict based on manipulation
of the independent variable. The independent, or experimental
variable, is manipulated by the researcher to observe possible
effects on the dependent variable. A research variable is used in
quantitative studies.
MULTIPLE RESPONSE
1. Which of the following are true statements about research
problems? Select all that apply.
ANS: A, B
a. The research problem in a study indicates the significance of
the problem.
b. The research problem in a study provides a background for the
problem.
c. A research problem is an area of concern where there is no gap
in the knowledge needed for nursing practice.
d. All published studies include a clearly expressed problem, and
the problem can be found in the first page of the report.
e. The research problem is a clear, concise statement of the
specific goal or focus of a study.
f. In a research report, the problem is usually identified and often
follows the purpose statement.
The research problem in a study indicates the significance of the
problem, provides a background for the problem, and includes a
problem statement. The research problem is an area of concern
in which there is a gap in the knowledge base needed for nursing
practice. Not all published studies include a clearly expressed
problem, but the problem usually can be identified in the first page
of the report. The research purpose is a clear, concise statement
of the specific goal or focus of a study. In a research report,
the purpose is usually identified and often follows the problem
statement.
ANS: C, D
2. Which of the following are accurate statements about study
variables and research concepts? Select all that apply.
Variables are classified into a variety of types to explain their
use in research. Some variables are manipulated; others are
a. Variables are qualities, properties, or characteristics of persons, controlled. Some variables are identified but not measured; others
things, or situations that do not change or vary.
are measured with refined measurement devices. A dependent
b. Research concepts are usually studied in quantitative research, variable is the outcome that the researcher wants to predict or
are at lower levels of abstraction than variables, and are not
explain. Variables are qualities, properties, or characteristics of
measured or manipulated.
persons, things, or situations that change or vary. Research concepts are usually studied in qualitative research, are at higher
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c. Some variables are manipulated; others are controlled.
d. A dependent variable is the outcome that the researcher wants
to predict or explain.
e. Operational definitions provide the theoretical meaning of a
variable and are derived from a theorist's definition of a related
concept.
levels of abstraction than variables, and are not measured or
manipulated. Research concepts include the ideas, experiences,
situations, events, or behaviors that are investigated in qualitative
research. A conceptual definition provides the theoretical meaning
of a variable; operational definitions indicate how a treatment or
independent variable will be implemented and how the dependent
or outcome variable will be measured
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Betty Neuman
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Gestalt Psychology
What Neuman based her theory off of. In Gestalt, the environment
has a huge impact on the organism and both are constantly
changing
Neuman Systems Model
Client is an open system that responds to stressors in the environment. Client variables are physiological, psychological, sociocultural, developmental, and spiritual
Person
A human being who is an open system that interacts with the internal and external environment and stressors. Constantly changing.
Environment
All factors that affect and are affected by the open system (person), both internal and external
Health
Condition or degree of system stability and is viewed as a continuum from wellness to illness. Is based on choices
Nursing
Appropriate action in situations that are stress-related or in relation
to possible reaction of the client or client system to stressors
Intervening to help people
Primary Nursing
True prevention
Secondary Nursing
Screening
Tertiary Nursing
Treatment
Open System
Continuous flow of input and processes, as well as output and
feedback. Organized complexity where all elements interact with
each other.
Normal Line of Defense
Level of health developed over time and considered normal for a
particular individual client
Flexible Line of Defense
Protective mechanism that surrounds and protects the normal line
of defense
Lines of Resistance
Protection factors activated when stressors have penetrated the
normal line of defense
Stressors
Any phenomenon that might penetrate both flexible and normal
lines of defense.
Assumptions
Client as a system is in dynamic, constant energy exchange with
the environment
Each client system is unique, a composite of factors and characteristics within a given range of responses
Many known, unknown, and universal stressors exist
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Exam 1: Betty Neuman's Theory
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What are the two main themes (concepts) of Neuman's Theory?
-Stress
-Reaction to Stress
What are the 4 components of Neuman's Theory?
1. Client and 5 Variables
2. Health
3. Nursing and Levels of Intervention
4. Environment and Stressors
What is a Client?
A system comprised of 5 interacting variables
What are the 5 variables that make up a client?
1. Physiological
2. Psychological
3. Spiritual
4. Sociocultural
5. Developmental
Physiological
body structure and function
Psychological
mental processes and relationships
Spiritual
spiritual beliefs/ influences, essence of life
Sociocultural
combined social and cultural functions
Developmental
life age related processes and activities
What are the basic structural components of a client for survival?
1. Normal Temp. Range
2. Genetic Structure
3. Response Pattern
4. Organ Strength
5. Weakness
6. Ego Structure
7. Knows or Commonalities
What is Health?
Optimal system stability or state of wellness at a given time.
(Dynamic and on a continuum.
System needs are fully met when there's...
~wellness
~stability
~negentrophy
System needs are not fully met when there's...
~illness/ death
~instability
~entrophy
What is Nursing?
The major concern is to help patient to attain, maintain and retain
system stability
What are the levels of prevention?
-Primary
-Secondary
-Tertiary
Primary Prevention
(Retain)
-Risk Prevention
-Occurs before system reacts to the stressor
~Focus on strengthening the flexible line of defense
~Includes health promotion and maintenance of wellness
Secondary Prevention
(Attain)
-Facilitate return to wellness
-Occurs after system reacts to stressor
-Focus on strengthening the internal line of defense
-Includes all activities to help a person reconstitute
Tertiary Prevention
(Maintain)
-Regain or return to wellness state
-Occur after the system has been reconstituted
-Focus on maintaining wellness or protect client by supporting
existing strength (lines of resistance/defense)
-Includes rehab and health promotion
What is environment?
All internal and external factors or influences that surround the
client or client system
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Exam 1: Betty Neuman's Theory
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Effects of stressors depends on what?
-Strength
-#
-Clients ability to protect against it
Internal Environment Stressors
(one type)
Intrapersonal: Events within the client that threaten the system
stability.
External Environment Stressors
(two types)
What are the Lines of Resistance?
Interpersonal: Events that are outside the client but in close proximity that threatens the system stability.
Extrapersonal: Events that are outside the clients but at a distance
that threatens the system stability.
-Processes which become activated when the normal lines of
defense are invaded by environmental stressors. Help maintain
stable state in system. Death may occur if ineffective.
Normal Lines of Defense
-processes and structures that maintain system stability
-activated when a stressor invades the flexible line of defense.
What are the Lines of Defense?
(two types)
Flexible Lines of Defense
-processes and structures that are first in line to protect the client
system
-used to help maintain normal state and improve state of wellness
-dynamic and may be altered by inadequate nutrition, lack of
sleep, hormones and degree of comfort
-Thought of as buffer or cushion
-Accordion like
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BETTY NEUMAN
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SYSTEM THEORY (BETTY NEUMAN)
"Health is a condition in which all parts and subparts are in
harmony with the whole of the client."
1924, a farm near Lowell, Ohio
Betty Neuman was born in ____ on ____________________
1947, People's Hospital School of Nursing (Akron, Ohio)
In ____ , Betty Neuman received RN Diploma from
_____________
hospital staff, head nurse, school nurse, industrial nurse, clinical
instructor in medicalsurgical, critical care, and communicable disease nursing
Neuman moved California and gained experience as a
____________________________
1972
the year when Neuman's model was first published in Nursing
Research as a "Model for teaching the total person approach to
patient problems"
Systems Model (Betty Neuman)
the model developed by Dr. Neuman as a way to teach an introductory nursing course to nursing students
Systems Model (Betty Neuman)
Model for teaching the total person approach to patient problems
Systems Model (Betty Neuman)
Model based on philosophical views, Gestalt theory, Han's Selye's
stress theory & General Systems theory
Systems Model (Betty Neuman)
focuses on the person as a complete system, the subparts of
which are interrelated physiological, psychological, sociocultural,
spiritual, and developmental factors
Systems Model (Betty Neuman)
deals with stress & stress reduction & is primarily concerned with
the effects of stress on health
person (Betty Neuman)
viewed as a whole multidimensional, dynamic system
person (Betty Neuman)
Can be an individual, family or group, or community
person (Betty Neuman)
She sees a person as an open system that works together with
other parts of its body as it interacts with the environment
person (Betty Neuman)
Is composed of basic core (genetic features, and the strengths
and weaknesses of the system parts) as well as physiological,
sociocultural, developmental, and & spiritual variables
Open System (Betty Neuman)
characterized by the presence of an exchange of information &
reaction with other factors surrounding a person
Health (Betty Neuman)
equated with wellness
Health (Betty Neuman)
the condition in which all parts and subparts (variables) are in
harmony with the whole of the client
Health (Betty Neuman)
continuum of wellness to illness that is dynamic in nature & constantly subject to change
Betty Neuman
Views health as a continuum of wellness to illness that is dynamic
in nature & constantly subject to change
Health (Betty Neuman)
"Optimal wellness or stability indicates that total system needs are
being met"
Health (Betty Neuman)
The client is in a dynamic state of either wellness or illness in
varying degrees at any given point in time
Environment (Betty Neuman)
Includes stressors, described as environmental forces that interact
with & potentially alter system stability
Environment (Betty Neuman)
Defined as being all the internal & external factors that surround
or interact with a person & client
Internal environment (Betty Neuman)
environment that exists within the client system.
External environment (Betty Neuman)
environment that exists outside the client system.
Nursing (Betty Neuman)
concerned with the whole person (holistic approach), an approach
that considers all factors affecting a client's health status
Nursing (Betty Neuman)
a unique profession that is concerned with all of the variables
affecting an individual's response to stress
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BETTY NEUMAN
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Nursing (Betty Neuman)
primary aim is the stability of the patient/client system, through
nursing interventions to reduce stressors
SYSTEMS MODEL IN NURSING PRACTICE (Betty Neuman)
Client Variables, Lined of Resistance, Normal Line of Defense,
Flexible Line of Defense, Stressors, Reaction, Degree of Reaction,
Prevention, Reconstitution
Clients Variables (Betty Neuman)
Ëhysiological Ë Sociocultural Ë Psychological Ë Spiritual Ë DevelopP
mental
Clients Variables (Betty Neuman)
function to achieve stability in relation to the environmental stressors experienced by the client
Lines of Resistance (Betty Neuman)
Represent the internal factors of a person that help defend against
a stressor (e.g. body's immune response system)
Lines of Resistance (Betty Neuman)
acts to facilitate coping to overcome the stressors that are present
within the individual.
Normal Line of Defense (Betty Neuman)
Represents a stability state for the individual or system
Normal Line of Defense (Betty Neuman)
It is maintained overtime & serves as a standard to assess deviations from the client's usual wellness
Normal Line of Defense (Betty Neuman)
includes system variables & behaviors such as the individual's
usual coping patterns, lifestyles, and developmental stage
Flexible Line of Defense (Betty Neuman)
Acts as a protective barrier to prevent stressors from breaking
through the normal line of defense
Flexible Line of Defense (Betty Neuman)
dynamic and can change rapidly over a short time
Flexible Line of Defense (Betty Neuman)
Can be affected by variables such as loss of sleep that reduce a
client's ability to use a flexible line of defense against stressors
Stressors (Betty Neuman)
Are forces that produce tensions, alterations or potential problems
causing instability within the client's system
Intrapersonal stressors (Betty Neuman)
are those stimuli that occur within the individual (e.g. emotions and
feelings)
Interpersonal stressors (Betty Neuman)
are those stimuli that occur between individuals (e.g. pressures
related to role expectation)
Extrapersonal stressors (Betty Neuman)
are those stimuli that occur outside the person (e.g. job or financial
pressures)
Reaction (Betty Neuman)
Are the outcomes or produced results of certain stressors & actions of the lines of resistance of a client
Reaction (Betty Neuman)
Can be positive or negative depending on the degree of reaction
the client produces to adjust & adapt with the situation
Negentropy (Betty Neuman)
is set towards stability or wellness
Egentropy (Betty Neuman)
is set towards disorganization of the system producing illness
Degree of Reaction (Betty Neuman)
e amount of energy required for the client to adjust to the stressors
Prevention (Betty Neuman)
Interventions are purposeful actions to help the client retain, attain
& or maintain system stability
Prevention (Betty Neuman)
Used to attain balance within the continuum of health
Prevention (Betty Neuman)
These are the actions that generate good results or are aimed
towards hindering negative outcomes
PRIMARY PREVENTION (Betty Neuman)
Refers to intervention before a reaction occurs
PRIMARY PREVENTION (Betty Neuman)
Is carried out when a stressor is suspected or identified
PRIMARY PREVENTION (Betty Neuman)
It also aims to strengthen the capacity of a person to maintain
an optimum level of functioning while being interactive with the
environment, like health promotion & disease prevention
SECONDARY PREVENTION (Betty Neuman)
Refers to intervention after a reaction occurs
SECONDARY PREVENTION (Betty Neuman)
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BETTY NEUMAN
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Focuses on helping alleviate the actual existing effects of an action
that altered that balance of health of a person
SECONDARY PREVENTION (Betty Neuman)
It aims to reduce environmental influences that lead to the decline
of the level of functioning of a person & strengthen or restore a
person's resistance after the illness exposure
SECONDARY PREVENTION (Betty Neuman)
Examples: early detection of disease & prompt treatment
TERTIARY PREVENTION (Betty Neuman)
Refers to intervention that occurs after the system has been
treated through secondary
TERTIARY PREVENTION (Betty Neuman)
Focuses on actual treatments or adjustments to facilitate the
strengthening of a person after being exposed to a certain or
illness
TERTIARY PREVENTION (Betty Neuman)
It aims to prevent the recurrence of the illness in the manner of
rehabilitation, as in the case of disability avoidance & physical
therapy
Reconstitution (Betty Neuman)
Is the adjustment state from the degree of reaction
Reconstitution (Betty Neuman)
It is a state of going back to the actual state of health before the
illness occurred.
stressors (Betty Neuman)
Are forces that produce tensions, alterations or potential problems
causing instability within the client's system
reaction (Betty Neuman)
Are the outcomes or produced results of certain stressors & actions of the lines of resistance of a client
reaction (Betty Neuman)
Can be positive or negative depending on the degree of reaction
the client produces to adjust & adapt with the situation
degree of reaction (Betty Neuman)
amount of energy required for the client to adjust to the stressors
prevention (Neuman)
Interventions are purposeful actions to help the client retain, attain
& or maintain system stability
Reconstitution (Neuman)
Is the adjustment state from the degree of reaction
Reconstitution (Neuman)
It is a state of going back to the actual state of health before the
illness occurred.
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Betty Neuman
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In the Betty Neuman Model, what is the purpose of nursing?
to facilitate optimal client system stability
Normal range of responses through which a person deals with
stressors to maintain equilibrium of the system
Lines of Defense
Protection from stressors
Lines of Resistance
Neiman's Model is organized around what?
stress reaction
how stress and the reactions to stress affect the development and
maintenance of health
Open system interacting with the environment
Person
The _____ is a composite of physiologic, psychological, sociocultural, developmental and spiritual variables viewed as whole.
Person
What does the environment include?
all internal and external factors or influences surrounding the
identified client or client system
T or F: a person is constantly effected by stressors from the
internal or external environment
T
______ are tension producing stimuli that have the potential to
disturb a person's equilibrium or normal line of defense.
Stressors
Stressors may be of 3 types, what are they?
intrapersonal
interpersonal
extrapersonal
forces arising from within the person
intrapersonal
forces arising between persons
interpersonal
forces arising outside the person
extrapersonal
T or F: if the flexible line of defense is no longer able to protect the
person against the stressor, the stressor breaks through, disturbs
the persons equilibrium and triggers a reaction
T
Nursing intervention is accomplished through:
primary, secondary or tertiary prevention
Is appropriate before the person comes in contact with a stressor
Primary prevention
Is appropriate after the stressor has penetrated the normal line of
defense
Secondary Prevention
Accompanies restoration of balance, moving in a circular manner
toward primary prevention
Tertiary prevention
Open system seeking balance and harmony; a composite of
physiologic, psychological, sociocultural, and developmental variables viewed as a whole
Person
A dynamic equilibrium of the normal line of defense
Health
Reaction of stressors with lines of resistance
Illness
Internal and external stressors and resistance factors
Environment
Reduction of stressors through primary, secondary or tertiary
prevention
Nursing
_____ strategies are used to maintain the state of wellness, by
strengthening the FLD of the client system, through stress prevention and reduction of risk factors.
Primary Prevention
____ strategies are used after stressors have invaded the NLD
and there are signs of illness.
Secondary Prevention
_____ strategies are instituted through support and education
so that the client can readapt and resume the road to health
functioning.
Tertiary Prevention
T or F: Stressors disrupt client systems, sometimes causing physical illness or emotional and social crisis
T
Pre-marriage counseling?
Primary Prevention
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Betty Neuman
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Marriage Counseling?
Secondary Prevention
Reeducation and Readapation to establish new guidelines for
their life together
Tertiary Prevention
Patient teaching, iron and vitamin supplements, immunizations
needed, high protein diet, electrolyte and hydration maintenance,
intrepid meds to maintain CO
Primary Prevention
Ventilatory control, admin of blood products and clotting factors,
monitoring and replacing chest tube output, potassium infusions,
transfusions
Secondary Prevention
Rehab, physical therapy, client-system stability, and wellness assessment
Tertiary Prevention
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Betty Neuman Systems Model
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Holistic Approach
Client as a system may be defined as a person, family, group,
community or social issue.
Pt. viewed as wholes whose parts are in a dynamic interaction.
Open System
It's elements are continuously exchanging information and energy
within its complex organization.
Basic components of open system
Stress and reaction to stress.
Newman's Model considers these variables simultaneously?
Physiological
Psychological
Sociological
Developmental
Spiritual
Function or Process
Client as a system exchanges energy, information & matter with
the environment as it uses available energy resources to move
toward stability and wholeness.
Input or Output
matter, energy and information that are exchanged between client
& environment.
Feedback
System output in the form of matter, energy & information serves
as feedback for future input for corrective action to change, enhance or stabilize the system.
Negentropy
A process of energy conservation utilization that assists system
progression toward stability or wellness.
Entropy
A process of energy depletion and disorganization that moves the
system toward illness or possible death.
Stability
A desired state of balance in which the system copes with stressors to maintain an optimal level of health and integrity.
Environment
Internal and external forces surrounding and affecting the client at
any time compromise the environment.
Created
Environment
Developed unconsciously by the client to express system wholeness symbolically. It's purpose is to provide a safe arena for the
client system functioning and to insulate the client from stressors.
5 Client System
Variables
1) physiological - refers to body structures & function
2) psychological - mental processes in interaction with the environment
3) sociocultural - effects & influences of social & cultural conditions.
4) developmental - age related processes & activities.
5) spiritual - spiritual beliefs & influences.
Basic Client Structure
The client as a system is composed of a central core surrounded
by concentric rings.
What does the inner circle of the basic client structure represent?
The basic survival factors or energy resources of the client to all
members of the species such as innate or genetic factors.
Lines of Resistance
Broken rings that surround the basic core structure represent
resource factors that help the client defend against the stressors.
When effective the system can reconstitute. If ineffective- death
can occur.
Normal Line of Defense
Outer Solid Circle - represents stability state for the individual or
system.
~Maintained over time.
~Serves as a standard to assess deviations from clients normal
wellness.
What system variables and behaviors does Normal Lines of Defense include?
1) individuals coping patterns
2) lifestyle
3) developmental stage
Flexible Line of Defense
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Betty Neuman Systems Model
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-Outer Broken Ring
It is dynamic and can be altered rapidly over short time.
Perceived to be a protective buffer.
Wellness
Stable condition when the parts of the client system interact in
harmony with the whole system.
Illness
Occurs when the needs are not satisfied resulting in a state of
instability and energy depletion.
Stressors
Tension producing stimuli that have the potential to disrupt the
system stability.
Stressor types?
Intra-personal: conditioned responses
Inter-personal: role expectations
Extra-personal: financial circumstances
Degree of Reaction
Amount of energy required to adjust to stressors.
Reconstitution
Occurs following treatment of stressor reactions and represents
the return of the system to stability which may be a higher or lower
level of wellness than prior to stressor invasion.
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BETTY NEUMAN: Systems Model in Nursing Practice
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Betty Neuman was born in
Lowell, Ohio
Neuman's initial nursing education was completed with double
honors at People's Hospital School of Nursing (now General Hospital), Akron, Ohio in
1947
It requires a holistic approach, an approach that considers all
factors affecting a client's health.
Nursing
The concept of a person as an individual, family, community or the
society. She sees a person s an open system that works together
with other parts of its body as it interact with the environment
Person
It's a dynamic in nature. A person's health depends upon which
states of the health continuum they are in the line with, the person
maybe in the line with the state of wellness or illness
Health
It can be a internal, external and created force that interacts with
a person's state of health. Intrapersonal occurs within self while,
Interpersonal occurs between one or more individual
Environment
body structure and function
Physiologica
mental processes in interaction with the environment
Psychologica
effects and influences of social nd cultural conditions
Sociocultural
age-related processes and activities
Developmental
beliefs and influences
Spiritual
referred to as the central core which is made up the basic survival
factors common to human beings
Basic Structure
acts when the Normal Line of Defense is invaded by too much
stressors.
Lines of Resistance
it is important to achieve the stability o the system, NLD must act
in coordination with the normal wellness state.
Normal Line of Defense
serves as the boundary for the NLD to adjust to situations that
threaten the imbalance within the client's ability.
Flexible Line of Defense
all system subparts interact in harmony
Wellness
the opposite end of the continuum from wellness
Illness
occurs within the client's system.
Intrapersonal forces
occurs between one or more individuals.
Interpersonal forces
occurs outside the individual.
Extrapersonal force
continuum of wellness to illness that is dynamic in nature.
Health
produce tension, alterations or potential problems causing instability within the client's system
Stressors
outcomes or produced results of certain stressors.
Degree of Reaction
used to attain balance.
Prevention as Intervention
is set towards stability or wellness
Negentropy
is set towards disorganization.
Egentropy
(before) foreseeing the result of an act or situation and preventing
its unnecessary effects as possible
Primary prevention
(during) helping alleviate the actual existing effects of an action
that altered that balance of health of a person.
Secondary prevention
(after) actual treatments or adjustments to facilitate the strengthening of a person after being exposed to a certain disease or
illness
Tertiary prevention
state of going back to the actual state of health before the illness
occurred
Reconstitution
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BETTY NEUMAN: Systems Model in Nursing Practice
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The model's holistic approach can be specifically applicable to
clients' health conditions facing complex stressors.
Practice
The theory has been applicable in the academe because of its
holistic approach, as it has been widely used both by nursing
students and educators
Education
Testing the efficacy and usefulness of the model in different areas
and scope of the nursing practice.
Research -
Is a dynamic, open, systems approach to client care originally developed to provide a unifying focus for defining nursing problems
Wholistic Approach
There is a continuous flow of input and processes, output, and
feedback
Open System
Client as a system exchanges energy, information, and matter with
the environment
Function or Process
The matter, energy and information that are exchanged between
the client and the environment
Input and Output
System output in the form of matter, energy and information
serves as feedback for future input for corrective action to change,
enhance or stabilize the system
Feedback
Dynamic and desirable state of balance in which energy exchanges can take place without disruption of the character of the
system
Stability
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Unit 4 - Betty Neuman Systems Model
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General System Theory
- A living organism is an open system
- All elements in a complex organization are in interaction with one
another
2 Key Assumptions of General System Theory
1) Energy is needed is to maintain a high organizational state
2) Dysfunction in one system will affect other systems
Gestalt Theory
Emphasizes homeostasis - the process by which an organism
maintains equilibrium (and consequently its health) under varying
conditions
Marxist and de Chardin's Philosophy
The properties of parts are determined partly by the larger wholes
within a dynamically organized system --> 'wholeness of life'
Hans Selye's Definition of Stress
The nonspecific response of the body to any demand made on it
"Stressors" - Hans Selye
The tension-producing stimuli that results in stress (may be positive or negative)
Leavell & Clark - Levels of Prevention
Primary Prevention, Secondary Prevention, Tertiary Prevention
Primary Prevention
(a) Focuses on individuals not currently experiencing any health
problems
(b) Activities geared towards assisting clients in maintaining and
improving their health, meeting basic needs, preventing future
illness
Secondary Prevention
(a) Focuses on individuals experiencing a health problem or illness
- eg. nursing care delivered in a hospital or institution
(b) Educating clients and providing emotional support
Tertiary Prevention
(a) Focuses on individuals with short-term or long-term disabilities
(b) Help clients adapt as fully as possible to limitations caused by
illness
(c) Prevent further disability or complication
Betty Neuman: Holistic Client Approach
(a) The client is an open system - defined as a person, family,
group, community or society
(b) The client is viewed as a whole whose parts are in dynamic
interaction
Betty Neuman: Open System
- Elements of an organism are exchanging information within its
complex organization
-Stress and reactions to stress are basic components of an open
system
Neuman Systems Model: The Core
(a) The inner circle of the diagram
(b) Basic survival factors common to the species - such as innate
or genetic factors - eg. normal temp range, genetic structure,
response pattern, organ strength/weakness, ego structure, etc.
(c) The energy resources of the client
(d) Involves 5 variables - interacting
Neuman Systems Model: 5 Variables Simultaneously Affecting the
Client
(1) Physiological
(2) Psychological
(3) Socio-Cultural
(4) Developmental
(5) Spiritual
Physiological Variable
Refers to the structure and functions of the body
Psychological Variable
Refers to mental, cognitive, and emotional processes
Social Variable
Refers to social and cultural influences
Developmental Variable
Refers to age-related developmental processes and activities over
the lifespan
Spiritual Variable
Spiritual beliefs about the meaning of life - may or may not include
religious beliefs
Neuman Systems Model: The Environment
Comprises of internal and external forces affecting and being
affected by the client at any time
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Unit 4 - Betty Neuman Systems Model
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Neuman Systems Model: Created Environment
(a) The client's unconscious mobilization of all system variables
toward integration, stability and integrity
(b) A protective coping shield
(c) Eg. Use of Denial
Neuman Systems Model: Stressors
- A stimuli that produces tension and may cause instability (may
be positive or negative)
-Any environmental force that alters the systems' stability
-Can be positive or negative
-Can vary in impact or reaction
-May be present as situational or maturational
3 types of stressors
(1) Intrapersonal Stressors
(2) Interpersonal Stressors
(3) Extrapersonal Stressors
Intrapersonal Stressors
Internal environment that occurs within the boundary of the client
system (occur within the individual)
Interpersonal Stressors
External environmental forces that occur outside the boundaries
of the client system at the proximal range
(person to person)
Extrapersonal Stressors
External environmental interaction forces that occur outside the
boundaries of the client system at the distal range (financial,
government)
Input & Output Stressors
Matter, energy and information that are exchanged between the
client system and the environment
Feedback
(1) System output in the form of matter, energy, and information
(2) Is feedback for future input for corrective action to change,
enhance, or stabilize the system
Stability
Coping or adapting to stressors - is able to maintain an adequate
level of health
Homeostatic Body System
Is constantly in a dynamic process of input, output, feedback, and
compensation which leads to a state of balance
The Flexible Line of Defense
Outer Line of the Neuman Model - The initial response of protection
Normal Line of Defense
Middle Line of the Neuman Model
Lines of Resistance
The 3 Inner lines of the Neuman Model
Reconstitution
(a) The state of adaptation to stressors in the internal and external
environment
(b) The return and maintenance of system stability, following treatment for stressor reaction, which may result in a higher or lower
level of wellness
Wellness
(a) Existence of Harmony in Client System
(b) System Needs are Met
Illness
(a)Disharmony among the parts of the system, which is the result
of unmet needs in varying degrees
(b) State of insufficiency
The Metaparadigm: Person
The client or client system: an individual, family, group, or community
The Client System
A dynamic composite of interrelationships among physiological,
psychological, socio-cultural, developmental and spiritual factors
The Metaparadigm: System
Open system that interacts with both internal and external environmental forces or stressors
The Metaparadigm: The Environment
(a) All the internal or external factors that surround or interact with
a person
(b) Stressors are described as environmental forces that interact
with and potentially alter system stability
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Unit 4 - Betty Neuman Systems Model
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Three Relevant Environments
(1) Internal
(2) External
(3) Created
The Metaparadigm: Nursing
A unique profession in that it is concerned with all of the variables
affecting an individual's response to stress
Actions which assist individuals, families or groups to maintain a
maximum level of wellness
The primary aim is stability of the patient/client system, through
nursing interventions, to reduce stressors
Neiman Systems Model: The Nursing Process
(1) Assessment - obtain client database on existing state of wellness
(2) Diagnosis - based on thorough assessment + 5 stressors + 3
environments
(3) Planning - guide client to conserve energy and use energy as
a force to move beyond the current situation
(4) Implementation - in relation to 5 variables, achieved through
primary, secondary, and tertiary intervention
(5) Evaluation - the anticipated or actual change - if change is not
the goals are reformed
Key Term: Client/Client System
Individual, Family, Group, Community
3 Environments
(1) Internal Environment - interpersonal in nature
(2) External Environment - interpersonal in nature
(3) Created Environment - inter, intra, and extra personal in nature
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JEAN WATSON
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Welch, West Virginia
Where Jean Watson was born
Boulder, Colorado
Where does Jean Watson lives?
University of Colorado
Where did watson continued her nursing education after moving
to Colorado
educational psychology and counseling in 1973
Doctorate of Jean Watson
University of Colorado Health Sciences Center
Joined school of nursing faculty at
Center for Human Caring at the University of Colorado
In 1980, Watson and her colleagues established the
Watson Caring Science Institute (WCSI)
was established from groundwork laid by Center for Human Caring
Watson Caring Science Institute (WCSI)
nonprofit organization devoted to advancing caring science in
Global World Caring Science programs and projects.
Watson Caring Science Center
established at University of Colorado, is an interdisciplinary center
for Nurses and HCPs
University of Colorado school of nursing
Watson was dean at this university
Jean Watson
Developed post-baccalaureate nursing curriculum in human caring, health and healing
Distinguished Nurse scholar
by New York University
Jean watson was recognized in 1998 as the
Fetzer Institute's National
Norman Cousins Award
In 1999, Jean Watson received the
Helene Hildebrand Center of
Compassionate Care in Medicine Award
In 2015, Jean Watson received the
Academy of Integrative Healing Medicine
In 2015 received an award from the
The Philosophy and Science of Caring (1979)
First book of Jean Watson
Human Science and Human Care— A Theory of Nursing (1985)
Second book of Jean Watson
Postmodern Nursing and Beyond (1999)
Third book of Jean Watson
1997
In this year, Jean Watson lost her left eye due to accidental injury
1998
In this year, Jean Watson's husband died
Jean Watson
attempted to integrate her wounds into her
life and work
privilege of experiencing and receiving her own theory through the
care from her husband and loving nurse friends and colleagues
One of the gifts through her suffering was the ____
Caring Science as Sacred Science (2005)
5th book of Jean Watson
caring science, spiritual practice, concept and practice of care,
and caring-healing work
Watson described her journey to enhance understanding about
both caring science and healing through forgiveness, gratitude
and surrende
Jean Watson exmpahsized attention to:
Theory (Watson)
an imaginative grouping of knowledge, ideas, and experience
that are represented symbolically and seek to illuminate a given
phenomenon"
Watson
acknowledges phenomenological, existensial, and spiritual orientation from the sciences and humanities as well as philosophical
and intellectual guidance
Nursing (Watson)
The word nurse is both noun and verb
Nursing (Watson)
consists of "knowledge, thought, values, philosophy, commitment,
and action, with some degree of passion
Nurses (Watson)
are interested in understanding health, illness, and the human
experience; promoting and restoring health; and preventing illness
Watson's theory
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JEAN WATSON
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calls nurses to go beyond procedures, tasks, and techniques used
in practice settings, coined as the trim of nursing, in contrast to the
core of nursing
Curing (Watson)
as a medical term that refers to the elimination of disease
Personhood (watson)
uses interchangeably the terms human being, person life, personhood, and self
Personhood (watson)
a unity of mind/body/spirit/nature
Personhood (watson)
personhood is tied to notions that one's soul possess a body that
is not confined by objective time and space
Health (watson)
"The positive state of physical, mental, and social well-being with
the inclusion of three elements
(1) A high level of overall physical, mental, and social functioning
(2) A general adaptive-maintenance level of daily functioning
(3) The absence of illness (or the presence of efforts that lead to
its absence)
Three elements of inclusion according to watson
Health (watson)
unity and harmony within the mind, body, and soul"; associated
with the "degree of congruence between the self as perceived and
the self as experience"
Health (watson)
illness is not necessarily disease; [instead it is a] subjective turmoil
or disharmony within a person's inner self or soul at some level of
disharmony within the spheres of the person"
Environment (watson)
attending to supportive, protective, and/or corrective mental,
physical societal, and spiritual environments
Environment (watson)
the caring science is not only for sustaining humanity, but also for
sustaining the planet"
Caring (watson)
delineate nursing from medicine and classify the body of nursing
knowledge as a separate science
Jean Watson's works
remind us of the spirit filled dimension of caring work and caring
knowledge
Philosophy and Theory of Transpersonal Caring
Theory of Jean Watson
Attention
Caring in nursing conveys physical acts, but embraces the
mind-body-spirit as it reclaims the embodied spirit as its focus of
_____
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Nola Pender
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Nola Pender
Health Promotion Model
Personal Factors
categorized as biological, psychological and socio-cultural. These
factors are predictive of a given behavior and shaped by the nature
of the target behavior being considered.
Personal biological factors
Include variable such as age gender body mass index pubertal
status, aerobic capacity, strength, agility, or balance.
b. Personal psychological factors
Include variables such as self esteem self motivation personal
competence perceived health status and definition of health.
c. Personal socio-cultural factors
Include variables such as race ethnicity, acculturation, education
and socioeconomic status.
Perceived Benefits of Action
Anticipated positive outcomes that will occur from health behavior.
Perceived Barriers to Action
Anticipated, imagined or real blocks and personal costs of understanding a given behavior.
Perceived Self Efficacy
Judgment of personal capability to organize and execute a
health-promoting behavior. Perceived self efficacy influences perceived barriers to action so higher efficacy result in lowered perceptions of barriers to the performance of the behavior.
Activity Related Affect
Subjective positive or negative feeling that occur before, during
and following behavior based on the stimulus properties of the
behavior itself.
Interpersonal Influences
Cognition concerning behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes of the others.
Situational Influences
Personal perceptions and cognitions of any given situation or context that can facilitate or impede behavior. Include perceptions of
options available, demand characteristics and aesthetic features
of the environment in which given health promoting is proposed
to take place. Situational influences may have direct or indirect
influences on health behavior.
Commitment to Plan Of Action
The concept of intention and identification of a planned strategy
leads to implementation of health behavior
Immediate Competing Demands and Preferences
alternative behaviors over which individuals have low control because there are environmental contingencies such as work or
family care responsibilities.
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NOLA PENDER: Health Promotion Model
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Her publications include
8 textbooks and 50 scholarly writings
They named her as
Living Legend of the American Academy of Nursing
a considerable influence on the formation of healthy behaviors.
Nursing
related to personal factors and prior behavior. It contains sociocultural, physical, biological and economic component
Person -
level of personal physical and psychological illness or wellness
Health
external and internal factors have a significant influence on the
health condition and decisions, which have either a positive or
negative effect on personal health.
Environment
"complementary counterpart to models of health protection." It
develops to incorporate behaviors for improving health and applies across the life span. Defines health as "a positive dynamic
state not merely the absence of disease.
HEALTH PROMOTION MODEL
Prior related behavior and personal factors
Individual characteristics and experiences
Perceived benefits of actions, perceived barriers to action, perceived self-efficacy
Behavior-specific Cognition affect
Commitment to a plan of action, immediate competing demand
and preferences, ad health promoting-behavior
Behavioral Outcomes
Is defined as behavior motivated by the desire to increase well-being and actualize human health potential.
Health Promotion
Is described as behavior motivated desire to actively avoid illness,
detect it early, or maintain functioning within the constraints of
illness.
Health Protection
Categorized as biological, psychological and socio-cultural.
Personal Factors
Include variables such as age gender body mass index pubertal
status, aerobic capacity, strength, agility, or balance
Personal biological factor
Include variables such as self-esteem, self-motivation, personal
competence, perceived health status, and definition of health.
Personal psychological factor
Include variables such as race, ethnicity, acculturation, education,
and socioeconomic status
Personal socio-cultural factors
Is anticipated positive outcomes that will occur from health behavior
Perceived Benefits of Action
Is anticipated, imagined or real blocks and personal costs of
understanding a given behavior
Perceived Barriers to Action
Is Judgment of personal capability to organize and execute a
health-promoting behavior.
Perceived Self-Efficacy
Is subjective positive or negative feeling that occurs before, during
and following behavior based on the stimulus properties of the
behavior itself.
Active-Related Affect
Are cognition concerning behaviors, beliefs or attitudes. Include
norms, social support and modeling
Interpersonal Influence
Are personal perceptions and cognitions of any given situation or
context that can facilitate or impede behavior
Situational Influences
Are concept of intention and Identification of a planned strategy
leads to the implementation of health behavior
Commitment to Plan of Action
Are those alternative behaviors over which individuals have low
control competing preferences
Immediate Competing Demands
Are alternative behaviors over which individuals exert relatively
high control
Competing Preferences
Is an endpoint or action outcome that is directed toward attaining
positive health outcomes such as optimal well being, personal
fulfillment, and productive living.
Health-promoting behavior
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Frequency of the same or similar behavior in the past. Direct and
indirect
Prior Related Behavior
Proven to be a primary resource in addition, of Health Promotion
to the practice of nursing.
Practice
A tool for research retested the empirical precision of the model
Research
Use widely among undergraduate and postgraduate. Likewise, in
clinical education.
Education
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Sources of Knowledge
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Intuition
Understanding of a phenomenon or believing in an idea based on
a gut instinct
Common Sense
Opinions that are widely held because they seem to be obviously
correct
Tradition
Knowledge and understanding that is believed to be true because
it has been widely accepted from one generation to the next
Experience
Information or understanding derived from encountering something firsthand
Authority
Knowledge gained (unquestionably) through relying on the expertise or authority of others
Logic
The application of thought and rational reasoning to come to a
conclusion
Deductive reasoning
A thinking process in which one proceeds from the general to
specific knowledge through logical argument
Inductive reasoning
A thinking process that derives conclusion to the general from
observed examples
Perfect Induction
Reaching of a conclusion through the observation every example
of a phenomenon
Imperfect Induction
The inference of the characteristics of the observed examples to
the entire group
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Chapter 6- Formulating Hypothesis and Research Questions
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complex hypothesis
A statement explaining and/or predicting relationships between
two or more independent and dependent variables.
-complex hypothesis
-simple hypothesis
-nondirectional hypothesis
-directional hypothesis
dependent variable
A variable that is observed for changes or to assess the possible
effect of a treatment or manipulation; may be the effect or outcome
of an experimental procedure; also referred to as a criterion or
outcome variable. Usually symbolized by the letter Y.
directional hypothesis
A hypothesis that makes a specific prediction about the relationship between two variables.
-complex hypothesis
-simple hypothesis
-nondirectional hypothesis
-directional hypothesis
extraneous variable
A variable that is not controlled for in a study, threatening the
internal validity of the study.
hypothesis
A statement about the relationship between the variables that are
being investigated
hypothesis genetrating study
A study that is done and the outcome allows the researcher to
bring data togeher to form a hypothesis for future studies
independent variable
A variable that is manipulated and controlled by the researcher;
also called a predictor variable. Usually symbolized by the letter
X.
nondirectional hypothesis
A hypothesis that does not stipulate in advance the direction and
nature of the relationship between two variables.
null hypothesis
A hypothesis stating that no relationship or difference exists between two variables. Also called statistical hypothesis.
research hypothesis (H' or Ha)
A hypothesis stating a relationship or difference between two
variables. Also called an alternative, declarative, or scientific hypothesis.
research question
A concise, interrogative statement written in the present tense
including one or more variables.
simple hypothesis
A statement explaining and/or predicting a relationship between
one independent and one dependent variable.
variable
A measurable characteristic that varies among the subjects being
studied.
prediction about the outcome of the study
The hypothesis is the researcher's..
direction for the researcher's efforts and determine the research
method and type of data to be collected.
What do hypothesis prodive for the researcher?
hypothesis
A good _______ will state clearly and concisely the expected
relationship or difference b/t two or more variables in measurable
terms
1. simple vs. complex
2. nondirectional vs. directional
3. statisitical vs. research
3 classifications of hypothesis
clear, concise, interrogative statement; present; one or more vari- A research question is a _________ that is stated in the ______
able
tense and includes ______
when prior knowledge of the phenomenon is limited and the
research seeks to identify or describe a phenomenon (exploratory
or descriptive studies), or both.
When are researched questioned used?
variable
A measurable characteristic that varies in a population.
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independent (experimental/ treatment) variable
Type of variable that is used to explain or predict a result or
outcome
dependent (outcome) variables
Type of variable that reflects the effects of or response to independent variables
after the review of literature has been completed
When are hypothesis and research questions forumalted?
literature review
This identifies prior findings and provides a basis for understanding how the proposed study relates to previous knowledge
- study design
- sampling technique
- plans for data collection
What does Hypotheses and research questions influence?
state variables that are pertinent to the study
Stating hypotheses and research questions requires the researcher to do what?
hypothesis
A statement that explains or predicts the relationship or differences between TWO OR MORE variables in terms of expected
results or outcomes of a study.
so that it can be tested
Why must a hypothesis contain 2 or more variables?
collect data that either support or refute the hypothesis
The researcher sets to (prove/ collect data) on the hypothesis
false (can be supported, accepted, rejected, or not supported)
T/F Hypothesis can be proven
true (cant be proven but the more times you suport it the grater
the belife for the oustcome will be)
T/F Repeated support often leads to acceptance of truth
existing
A hypothesis is bulit on (new/existing) knowledge
data must support the hypotheses for a study to be successful;
Some of the most important findings have come from research in
which the data did not support the hypotheses
A common misconception about research studies
reevaluate the hypothesis
What does a lack of support in research data force the researcher
to do?
1. guide scientific injury to advance knowledge
2. provide direction for the research design and the collection,
analysis, and interpretation of data
3. provide a way to reporting the conclusions of a study
The purposes for a hypothesis
for research that is classified as descriptive
When are hypothesis not need?
descriptive research
Type of research that does not need a hypothesis and is important
for laying the foundation for further study
state clearly and concisely the expected relationship (or difference) between two or more variables
What do good hypothesis do?
variables being studied; population being studied; predicted out- The hypothesis statement includes ___________, ___________,
comes
and _________
Subjects who receive X are more likely to have Y than subjects
who do not receive X.
A general model for stating hypotheses
independent
(Dependent/Independent) variable is the treatment or the variable
that is manipulated its usually represented by X
dependent
(Dependent/Independent) variable is the observed outcome and
is usually represented by Y
"greater than," "less than," "positively," "negatively," and "difference"
Words that denote the direction of the proposed hypotheses
What are the subjects, dependent, and independent variables in
this senario?
Subjects = Children aged 5 to 10 years X = Provided with prior
information Y = Less postoperative anxiety
Children aged 5 to 10 years who are provided with prior information about their tonsillectomy will experience less postoperative
anxiety than will children of the same age who do not receive
information.
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What are the subjects, dependent, and independent variables in
this senario?
Subjects = Nursing home residents X = 10 minutes of calming
music Y = Less agitation
Nursing home residents exposed to 10 minutes of calming music
expe- rience less agitation than will those who receive no such
intervention.
What are the subjects, dependent, and independent variables in
this senario?
Subjects = Children
X = Sense of humor (high versus low) Y = Better adjustment to
cancer
Children with a high sense of humor adjust better to having cancer
than do those children with a low sense of humor.
What are the subjects, dependent, and independent variables in
this senario?
Subjects = Patients
X = Internal mammary artery grafting following coronary artery
bypass surgery
Y = Greater chest pain or discomfort
Patients who have had internal mammary artery grafting following
coronary artery bypass surgery will experience greater chest pain
or discomfort than will patients who have had saphenous vein
grafting.
conceptually; operationally
All nouns in hypotheses or research questions should be defined
first ______ and then ______
so that you can make a judgment about the applicability of the
findings t to a particular population n
Why is it important to know how subjects are defined?
operationally
Variables identified in hypotheses must be (conceptually/ operationally) defined
So that the reader can specifying how the variables will be meaThe meaning behind having varaible being operationally defined
sured in terms of the instruments, scales, or both
their relationship to the problem.
Concepts and variables need to be logically defined according to...
an expected relationship between two variables
What must the hypothesis state with regards to the two or more
varaibles used in a research study?
What is missing in this hypothesis?
a relationship to test
"If adults with chronic nonmalignant pain (CNP) differ from one
another, they will differ from one another in quality of life (QOL),"
more difficult (Limiting hypotheses to a single relationship between two variables adds clarity)
A hypothesis that states several relationships among variables can
be (more difficult/ easier) to decipher.
testable; proven
A well-stated hypothesis must be ______ but can never be
_______.
true (only supported or not supported based on collection and
analysis of data)
T/F Hypotheses are never proved right or wrong through hypothesis testing
true
T/F Hypothesis are supported or not supported based on collection and analysis of data
by confirming or not confirming relationships
How do hypotheses advance scientific knowlege?
Simple hypothesis
A type of hypothesis that states the relationship between TWO
variables ONLY by using a simple but clearly stated format
makes it easier for readers to understand and formulate conclusions following data analysis.
What does a simple hypothesis do for the reader?
1 IV; 1 DV (2 variables)
How many IV and DVs are there in a simple hypothesis?
Simple; nursing research involves human beings, who are complex.
Are simple or complex hypothesis easier to test, measure, and
analyze?Why?
complex hypothesis
Type of hypothesis that states the relationship between two or
more independent variables and two or more dependent variables
What type of hypothesis is best for your study?
Is the study you are planning feasible?
Most important questions for deciding weather to use a simple or
complex hypothesis
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What type of hypothesis is this? What is the Iv(s) and DV(s)?
simple
IV: type of injection used
DV: discomfort level
Subjects will have less discomfort following administration of the
two- track intramuscular injection compared with administration by
standard injection.
What type of hypothesis is this? What is the Iv(s) and DV(s)?
simple
IV: knowlege level
DV: compliance to adherace
Patients with greater knowledge of diabetes will have significantly
higher rates of adherence to the treatment regimen than will
patients who have
less knowledge about diabetes.
What type of hypothesis is this? What is the Iv(s) and DV(s)?
simple
IV: water tempature
DV: systolic blood pressure
Healthy young adults who consume 720 mL of ice water within 10
minutes will have a significant increase in systolic blood pressure
as compared with healthy young adults who consume 720 mL of
room- temperature water within 10 minutes.
What type of hypothesis is this? What is the Iv(s) and DV(s)?
complex
IV: time of feedings
DV: time of stool, level of bilirubin, jaundice, weigth loss
Newborns fed at 1, 2, and 3 hours of life (HOL) produce stool
earlier, have lower serum indirect bilirubin levels, less observed
jaundice at 48 HOL, and a lower percentage of weight loss than
do infants initially fed at 4 HOL.
What type of hypothesis is this? What is the Iv(s) and DV(s)?
complex
IV: time of teaching
DV: request for pain meds, preception of pain level
Abdominal surgery patients who received preoperative teaching
will have
a decreased perception of pain and request fewer analgesics than
patients undergoing abdominal surgery who receive structured
postoperative teaching.
What type of hypothesis is this? What is the Iv(s) and DV(s)?
complex:
IV: type of model used
DV: Patient satifaction, absenteeism, perception of work environment
Nurses who deliver nursing care using a primary nursing model
will
have an increase in patient satisfaction with nursing care, a decrease in absenteeism, and an improvement in their perception
of the work environment as compared with nurses who deliver
nursing care by the conventional method of team nursing.
false (A hypothesis should involve at least two variables and
possibly more)
T/F A hypothesis must contain either one or two variables.
nondirectional hypothesis
Type of hypothesis that states a relationship between variables,
but it has no specific direction
used when past research provides conflicting results or when the
direction of the relationship is unknown
When is nondirectional hypothesis used?
directional hypothesis
Type of hypothesis that states the direction of the relationship
between variables.
conceptual models or findings from previous research
What are directional hypothesis usaully from?
Directional; nondirectional
(Directional/nondirectional) hypotheses are clearer and more logical than (Directional/nondirectional) hypotheses
Is this directional or nondirectional?
nondirectional (says there is a relationship but doesn't have a
direction to take the study)
There is a relationship between amount of carmel color ingested
and C-Reactive protein levels among adult Asian women
Is this directional or nondirectional?
directional (has a relatinship and a direction to take the study)
Women who receive the Sister to Sister intervention will have a
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Chapter 6- Formulating Hypothesis and Research Questions
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higher 6 month continuous smoking abstinence than women who
do not receive the intervention
null/ statistical hypothesis
Type of hypothesis that states that no relationship (or difference)
exists between two variables.
used because they suit the statistical techniques that determine
whether an observed relationship is probably a chance relationship or probably a true relationship.
Why are null/ statistical hypothesis usuallly used?
false
T/F Null/ statistical hypothesis reflect the researchers true expectations of the study
two hypotheses are often stated
Because null hypotheses do not reflect the researcher's true expectations of a study's results, what often happens?
1. A declarative research hypothesis may be used to communicate
The two hypothesis that are normally done when a Null hypothesis
the researcher's true expectations
is involved
2. Nullhypothesis to permit statistical testing.
statistical strategy
Stragiety that is used with null hypothesis that is when a research
hypothesis is made, data is analyzed assuming the null hypothesis, and make inferences based on the target population
few studies are really designed to verify a non existing relastionship
Why are null hypotheses often not stated in journal articles?
research hypothesis (or scientific or alternative)
Type of hypothesis that states that a relationship or difference
exists between variables.
TRUE (indicate what the researcher expects to find as a result of T/F Research hypothesis reflect the researchers true expectations
conducting a study)
of the study
(Null/Research) hypotheses can be simple or complex, directional
or nondirectional
research (scientific)
Null or Research hypothesis?
research
Elderly adults who regularly perform crossword puzzles are less
likely to develop Alzheimer's disease than elderly adults who do
not regularly perform crossword puzzles
Null or research?
null
Performing crossword puzzles has no effect on the development
of Alzheimer's disease among elderly adults
inductive reasoning hypothesis
Type of reasoning that could bring a hypothesis about that moved
from specific observations to those that are general
- specific detail/ observation is noted to be related
- related lit is reviewed
- formal hypothesis is conducted
What is the process of inductive reasoning?
Deductive hypotheses
Type of reasoning that could bring a hypothesis that are derived
from theory and contribute to the science of nursing by providing
evidence that supports, expands, or contradicts a given theory
deductive
If a hypothesis is based on a the comprehensive theoretical framework is is (inductive/deductive)
research; directional
Most hypotheses are ________ hypotheses and _______ because they PREDICT the DIRECTION of the outcome
true
T/F Not all studies have both research questions and hypotheses.
- sample
- measuring instruments
- design
- procedure collecting data
Things that need to be decided before a hypothesis can be tested
one that contains variables that are measurable, with a relationship that can be either supported or not supported based on the
data collected.
What is makes a hypothesis testable?
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deductive; inductive
________ reasoning is the pattern of "figuring out what's there,"
whereas ______ reasoning begins with a structure that guides
one's search for "what's there"
by statistical analysis
How are hypothesis evaluated?
Correlational analyses
Type of statistical analysis that evaluates hypothesis that is conducted to determine the existence, type, and strength of the relationship between the variables being studied.
Inferential statistics
Type of statistical analysis that is used to evaluate hypotheses that
examine differences between and among categories or levels of
variables.
t-test, analysis of variance
Methods that will be utilized with inferential statistics
When a study is completed and a significant relationship exists
between two variables or there is a difference between groups
What does "rejecting the null hypothesis" mean?
acceptance of the research hypothesis.
Rejection of the null or statistical hypothesis is similar to ...
there is insufficient evidence to support the idea of a real difference.
Failure to reject the null or statistical hypothesis implies what?
- describing varaibles
- examining relationships among variables
- determining differences between two or more groups regarding
the selected variable(s).
What does a research question focus on?
when prior knowledge of the topic is limited and research seeks
to identify or desricbe the phenomena
When are Research questions utlized?
1. How is X described? (describing variables)
2. What is the perception of X? (describing variables)
3. Is X related to Y? (examining relationships)
4. What is the relationship between X and Y? (examining
relationships)
5. Is there a difference between groups 1 and 2 with respect to Y?
(determining differences)
General model for a reserach question
interrogative statements
Research questions are written as ________ that seeks an answer.
research questions are more precise and specific.
How do interrogative statements in a research question compare
to the problem statement?
naturally from the purpose statment narrowing focus of study
Research questions should flow from what?
Include research variables and the population to be studied
Research quetsions should inculde what?
independent
An ________ variable is a variable that is observed, introduced,
or manipulated to determine the effect it has on another variable.
experimental; treatment; intervention; predictor
Terms that can be used to describe independent varaibles
dependent
The ________ variable, is the variable that is observed for change
or reaction after the treatment is applied.
dependent; independent
The variable that is underinvestigaton is _______; the one that is
mainpuated is _____
false (can only manipulate conditions that affect the variability in
the DV)
T/F Researchers can manipuatle the dependenet varaible
Extraneous
A variable not under investigation but may, or may not, be relevant
to the study
true
T/F Extraneous variables exist in all studies
QUANtitative research.
When are extraneous variables of primary concern?
internal validity of the study
What does extraneous variables threaten?
they can confuse the interpretation of the results and confound the
If you dont take externous varaibled into account what can occur?
effects of the independent variable
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Quasi-experimental and experimental
Research designs have been developed to control the influence of
extraneous variables
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Independent and Dependent variables: Examples
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Susan believes that drinking alcohol increases the likelihood of
child abuse within the home. What is the dependent variable?
Likelihood of child abuse
Hadley's research claims that Hispanic people are more likely to
be arrested for being an illegal alien than any other race. What is
the independent variable?
Race
Susan believes that drinking alcohol increases the likelihood of
child abuse within the home. What is the independent variable?
Alcohol consumption
Hadley's research claims that Hispanic people are more likely to
be arrested for being an illegal alien than any other race. What is
the dependent variable?
Likelihood of being arrested
For males, the age of onset of alcohol use increases the risk of
becoming an alcoholic. What is the independent variable?
Age of onset of alcohol use
Hudson is conducting a research project that examines whether
a child's study habits impacts the child's grades. What is the
independent variable?
Study habits
For males, the age of onset of alcohol use increases the risk of
becoming an alcoholic. What is the dependent variable?
risk for becoming alcoholic
Hudson is conducting a research project that examines whether
a child's study habits impacts the child's grades. He predicts that
studying more contributes to better grades. What is the dependent
variable?
Child's grades
Bentley is interested in studying how the country's recession leads
to loss of jobs. Which variable is the independent variable?
Recession
Taylor is studying the crime rate on New Year's Eve in the United
States. What is the dependent variable?
Crime rate
Bentley is interested in studying how the country's recession leads
to loss of jobs. Which variable is the dependent variable?
Loss of jobs
Taylor is studying the crime rate on New Year's Eve in the United
States. What is the independent variable?
New Year's Eve
Rebecca believes that being a single mother will make it harder
to get a high paying job. What is the dependent variable?
The pay she will receive
Rebecca believes that being a single mother will make it harder
to get a high paying job. What is the independent variable?
Being a single mother
Heath predicts that working a job over 20 hours a week during
nursing school will lower the student's GPA by 33%. What is the
dependent variable?
Student's GPA
Heath predicts that working a job over 20 hours a week during
nursing school will lower the student's GPA by 33%. What is the
independent variable?
Amount of hours worked per week
Harold believes that working out before a test helps a student
perform better on their test. What is the dependent variable?
Performance on their test
Harold believes that working out before a test helps a student
perform better on their test. What is the independent variable?
Working out
Dr. Phil believes how a child is talked to by their parents influences
how the child expresses his or her self. What is the independent
variable?
How the child is talked to by their parents
Dr. Phil believes how a child is talked to by their parents influences
how the child expresses his or her self. What is the dependent
variable?
How the child expresses his or her self
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Independent and Dependent Variables
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Independent Variable
The one thing you change.Limit to only in an experiment. (cause)
Dependent Variable
The change that happens because of the independent variable.
(effect)
Controlled Variable
Everything you want to remain constant and unchanging.
Independent Variable
The liquid used to water each plant.
Dependent Variable
The height or health of the plant.
Controlled Variable
Type of plant used, pot size, amount of liquid, soil type, etc.
Independent Variable
Incentive
Dependent Variable
The grade on the test
Experimental group
The amount of people in the crowd
Independent Variable
Having somebody look up
Dependent Variable
Counting people that look up
Independent Variable
Audio
Dependent Variable
The score
Independent Variable
Mentoring program
Dependent Variable
Graduation rate
Independent Variable
Attitude and ability
Dependent Variable
Commitment
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Identifying independent and dependent variables
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IDENTIFY THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
Rate of grass growth
Fertilizer will increase the rate of grass growth
IDENTIFY THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
test scores
Drinking extra water before a test will improve test scores
IDENTIFY THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
rate of hair growth
Hair will grow faster if a special cream is applied
IDENTIFY THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
strength of the steel alloy
A steel alloy will be stronger if the amount of chromium is increased
IDENTIFY THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
rate at which the wood burns
Wood will burn slower if a special retardant is applied.
IDENTIFY THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
number of cavities
If fluoride is added to the city drinking water, the number of cavities
will be reduced.
IDENTIFY THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
how long the solar cells last
Applying a special coating to solar cells will make them last longer.
IDENTIFY THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
If "Factory X" stops polluting Big Creek, then the trout population
will grow.
population size of the trout (I would accept "rate of population
growth")
IDENTIFY THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
number of cases of malaria
There will be a decrease in the number of cases of Malaria in
Village A if they are provided with, and use, mosquito netting.
IDENTIFY THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
Fertilizer or no fertilizer
Fertilizer will increase the rate of grass growth
IDENTIFY THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
Extra water or no extra water
Drinking extra water before a test will improve test scores
IDENTIFY THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
Special cream or no special cream
Hair will grow faster if a special cream is applied
IDENTIFY THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
The amount of chromium increased or not increased
A steel alloy will be stronger if the amount of chromium is increased
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Identifying independent and dependent variables
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_2g2zuh
IDENTIFY THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
Retardant or no retardant
Wood will burn slower if a special retardant is applied.
IDENTIFY THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
Fluoride or no fluoride
If fluoride is added to the city drinking water, the number of cavities
will be reduced.
IDENTIFY THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
Special coating or no special coating
Applying a special coating to solar cells will make them last longer.
IDENTIFY THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
Polluting or not polluting Big Creek
If "Factory X" stops polluting Big Creek, then the trout population
will grow.
IDENTIFY THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE HYPOTHESIS:
Use, or no use, of mosquito netting
There will be a decrease in the rate of Malaria in Village A if they
are provided with, and use, mosquito netting.
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Research Types of Hypothesis
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Hypothesis
is a tentative, testable assertion or explanation regarding the
occurrence of certain behaviors, phenomena, or events
Null hypothesis
is the term used to describe any hypothesis set up primarily to see
whether it can be rejected or nullified
Null hypothesis
(Ho)
Null hypothesis
It is a statement that any difference between the obtained sample
statistics and specified population parameters is due to sampling
error, or chance.
Hypothesis
a clear statement of what is intended to be investigated. It should
be specified before research is conducted and openly stated in
reporting the results
Alternative hypothesis
is the term used to affirm about the existence of difference or
relationship between variables
Alternative hypothesis
(Ha)
Alternative hypothesis
the hypothesis used in hypothesis testing that is contrary to the
null hypothesis which is usually taken to be that the observations
are the result of the real effect of the experimental variable
Non-directional hypothesis
does not make specific prediction about the direction of the outcome of the study will take
Non-directional hypothesis
It states that two groups will be different but does not specify the
particular distinction or direction
Non-directional hypothesis
a two-tailed test is used
Directional Hypothesis
this kind of alternative hypothesis specifies the direction (such as
lower, higher, more or less) that the researcher expects to emerge
in the relationship
Directional Hypothesis
uses a one-tailed test
Type I error
the null hypothesis which is true is rejected.
Type II error
the null hypothesis which is false is accepted.
Level of Significance
refers to the probability to commit type I error
Level of Significance
(±)
Level of Significance
often expressed as the p-value and is associated with the critical
region of the test distribution
Critical values
are the values that separate two regions of the test distribution
Computed values
are the values obtained from measurements or calculations
Hypothesis Testing
is the procedure whereby a researcher decides whether to accept
or reject a hypothesis
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