Competence and
Responsibility
The Third European Conference of
The European Council for High Ability
held in Munich (Germany), October 11-14, 1992
Volume 2
Proceedings of the Conference
Edited by
Kurt A. Heller und Ernst A. Hany
Hogrefe & Huber Publishers
Seattle · Toronto · Göttingen · Bern
Foreword
V o l u m e 2 of "Competence and Responsibility" contains t h e Proceedings of t h e 3 r d European
Conference conducted by the European C o u n c i l for H i g h A b i l i t y ( E C H A ) , w h i c h was held i n
M u n i c h , G e r m a n y , i n October 1 9 9 2 . This conference was intended t o provide a state-of-the-art
overview of t h e E u r o p e a n research o n giftedness and creativity a n d of attempts t o provide
differential education t o the highly able. T h e organization of the symposia a n d workshops
allowed a substantial exchange of ideas and practical approaches f r o m b o t h sides of the former
" i r o n curtain", and encouraged discussions a n d mutual stimulation of E u r o p e a n scholars and
practitioners a n d individuals of other continents w h o shared t h e i r valuable experiences w i t h the
other participants of the conference.
A t the t i m e w h e n w e chose "Competence and Responsibility" for being the m o t t o of this
conference, w e w e r e n o t aware that the same w o r d s w e r e used by a c o m p a n y of chemical
industries i n their newspaper advertisments. T h i s is n o t t h e place t o discuss any subconscious
effects of advertisment campaigns; instead, w e w o u l d like t o p o i n t t o t h e fact that education,
politics, a n d industry are m o r e and m o r e t a k i n g a systems view o n global issues. If one speaks
of competence, this first assumes a set of tasks w h i c h requires the competence focused, and
second makes a c o m p a r i s o n between subjects of different levels of competence. T h e concept
of responsibility expands this perspective of interactive relationships b y referring t o global values
w h i c h are accepted by all partners w h o interact i n a system of competences and demands.
Based o n these premises, first the education of the gifted is conceptualized as a task every
society has t o fulfill i n order t o secure b o t h t h e individual's right of a p p r o p r i a t e education and
its o w n progress a n d second, this education has t o a i m at developing the gifted s attitude of
being responsible for their nurturing society's well-being, i . e. of being obliged t o a t t e m p t i n g t o
solve the urgent problems of their decade. T h e M u n i c h conference looked at this system of
mutual responsibility f r o m a psychological and educational perspective. T h e development of
y o u n g people's talents and adults' skills by means of education provided by family and school,
of psychological t r e a t m e n t , o r of the careful design of the w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d by means of
selecting individuals w h o fit best t o the learning and w o r k i n g settings available w e r e the topics
dealt w i t h i n most contributions.
M o r e t h a n 4 0 0 scholars and practitioners f r o m 3 1 different countries t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d
( 9 0 % f r o m Europe, 5 % f r o m N o r t h America/Canada, 5 % f r o m the Asia-Pacific area) participated i n this conference. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 5 % of the over 2 0 0 contributions are incorporated
i n t o this b o o k . T h e abstracts of all 2 0 0 contributions are included i n v o l u m e 1 w h i c h was edited
by E. A . H a n y a n d K. A . Heller i n 1 9 9 2 , a n d published by H o g r e f e & H u b e r , Seattle (ISBN
3-8017-0684-2/ISBN 0-88937-111-3).
Unfortunately, w e w e r e n o t able t o include here m a n y other interesting papers due t o lack of
space and for financial reasons. I n addition t o volume 2 , a G e r m a n r e p o r t o n the w o r k s h o p
"Behinderung u n d Begabungsentfaltung" (Handicap and D e v e l o p m e n t of Giftedness) has been
published under the same title by the "Stiftung zur Förderung körperbehinderter Hochbegabter",
Vaduz/Liechtenstein (1993) - I S B N 3 - 9 0 8 - 5 0 6 - 0 7 - 7 ; see t h e last c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the section
6 (Special Groups) i n this volume.
T h e m a i n criteria i n realizing the necessary selection for volume 2 w e r e a truly European and
international representation of recent research topics i n the field of gifted education a n d - of
course - the quality of the contributions. Finally, w e intended t o focus n o t only research problems
a n d outcomes but also their applicability t o practice and policy. T h e editors t h a n k all contributors
for their confidence i n us and for (generally) submitting the manuscripts o n t i m e .
T h e content ranges f r o m o p e n i n g speeches t o keynote addresses (including commentaries),
symposia, w o r k s h o p s , audiovisual and poster presentations. T h e selected papers are classified
i n t o t h e following categories or subject areas:
VI
(1)
Opening
Speeches,
c o m p r i s i n g of a n official declaration of the Federal G o v e r n m e n t of
G e r m a n y concerning t h e i r politics of nurturing the gifted, and of t h e introductory p o s i t i o n
paper of t h e c h a i r m a n of the conference.
(2) Ability and Achievement,
focusing m a i n l y o n intraindividual differences of talents a n d
skills w h i c h provide t h e basis of differential education.
(3)
Creativity
and Innovation,
w i t h contributions mostly issuing recent theoretical developments either of cognitive or of organizational processes w h i c h constitute creative innovation.
(4)
Development
of Giftedness
and Talent, particularly f r o m a life-long perspective, w i t h
contributions using methodological approaches as different as case studies and long-term
longitudinal studies o n representative samples.
(5)
Gender Issues,
emphasizing empirically p r o v e n relationships between attitudinal a n d
motivational sex differences and thematically corresponding differences i n achievement.
(6)
Special Groups, t h e contributions of w h i c h demonstrate the regrettable fact that m a n y
talents are wasted by internal or external handicapping conditions.
(7)
Identification
and Psychological
Measurement
Problems,
c o m p r i s i n g of contributions
w h i c h reach f r o m basic overviews t o recent developments of n e w tests and procedures f o r
identification.
(8)
Gifted Education
and Program Evaluation,
focusing primarily o n comprehensive reviews
of educational models o r o n special methodological procedures of evaluation.
(9)
Teachers of the Gifted, describing characteristics of m o r e versus less experienced teachers
w h i c h are of substantial influence t o the education of t h e gifted.
(10) Policy and Advocacy
in Gifted Education,
j o i n i n g b o t h contributions w h i c h represent
the o p i n i o n s held by political institutions of G e r m a n y and papers w h i c h add a broader
national o r international perspective o n efforts of systematically nurturing t h e gifted.
In order t o complete t h e proof-reading and because some papers f r o m contributors w h o are
not native English speakers had t o be rewritten, w e had t o cope w i t h standardizing the English
as well as w i t h t i m e and budgetary problems. H e n c e w e are n o w pleased t o present t h e
Proceedings of the 3 r d E C H A Conference, 1 9 9 2 , for a greater audience. W e w a n t t o express
our thanks t o all colleagues and co-workers w h o assisted us i n t h e editing w o r k . H e i d i Röder,
Edeltraud Schauer, and M o n i k a Wersing t y p e d several manuscripts, C a t r i n H e r t e r and K e r s t i n
Osterrieder checked the file transfers o n t h e computers. Colleen S. B r o w d e r assisted i n t h e
translation i n t o English, a n d Beate Karbaumer re-drew most of the figures and gave m o s t
manuscripts their final layout.
Finally, our thanks go t o T h e Federal Ministry of Education and Science i n B o n n , a n d t h e
D o n o r Association for the P r o m o t i o n of Science i n G e r m a n y (Stifterverband für die Deutsche
Wissenschaft) t h r o u g h " B i l d u n g u n d Begabung e. V . " (Private Association "Education a n d
Talent") i n B o n n for their grants. This s u p p o r t enabled us t o publish volume 1 (Abstracts) a n d
volume 2 (Proceedings). A n d w e are grateful that the H o g r e f e & H u b e r Publishers m a d e it
possible t o publish this b o o k i n the tried and tested way. O u r h o p e is that the Proceedings w i l l
contribute t o the progress of gifted education i n Europe and a r o u n d the w o r l d .
M u n i c h , January, 1 9 9 4
Kurt A.
Heller
Ernst
Hany
A.
Table of Contents
Foreword
V
I. O P E N I N G S P E E C H E S
Γ
Federal support p r o g r a m s for gifted and talented y o u n g people i n Germany:
C o n c e p t s a n d initiatives
Rainer
Responsibility i n research o n h i g h ability
Kurt
3
Ortleb
A.
7
Heller
II. A B I L I T Y A N D A C H I E V E M E N T
13
Individual differences i n talent
15
Hansgeorg
Bartenwerfer
C o m m e n t a r y o n "Individual differences i n talent"
Edward
25
Necka
Report f r o m t h e s y m p o s i u m "Structures and processes i n intellectual
achievement"
Andrzej
27
Sekowski
T h e role of preferences of cognitive styles and intelligence i n different
kinds of achievement
Andrzej
34
Sekowski
Intelligence - creativity relationship: A r e creative m o t i v a t i o n and need for
achievement influencing it?
Katya
Strategy use and m e t a m e m o r y i n gifted and average p r i m a r y school children
Christoph
Recent trends i n creativity research and theory
K.
Dentici
68
Trifonova
81
Andreani
Subject's semantic orientation and creative t h i n k i n g
Maria
55
Necka
Logical and creative t h i n k i n g i n adolescents
Ornella
53~
Urban
Gifted people and novel tasks
Edward
46
Perleth
III. C R E A T I V I T Y A N D I N N O V A T I O N
Klaus
40
Stoycheva
94
VIII
Personal a n d situational determinants of innovation
Lutz
von
101
Rosenstiel
I n n o v a t i o n processes i n self-organizing and self-reproducing social systems
Helmut
106
Kasper
C o m m u n i c a t i o n rather t h a n inspiration and perspiration?
Heinz
112
Schüler
IV. D E V E L O P M E N T O F G I F T E D N E S S A N D T A L E N T
ΪΪ7~
D e v e l o p m e n t of h i g h ability
119
Brigitte
Rollett
D e v e l o p m e n t of giftedness i n a life-span perspective
J . Monks
Franz
and Christiane
136
Spiel
Giftedness f r o m early childhood t o early adolescence: A pilot study
Christiane
Spiel
and Ulrike
141
Sirsch
A follow-up study about creative t h i n k i n g abilities of students
Aysenur
147
Yontar
F r o m the every-day w o r l d and the musical w a y of life of highly talented y o u n g
instrumentalists
Hans
Günther
153
Bastian
Early educative influences o n later outcomes: T h e T e r m a n data revisited
Herbert
Sares,
J . Walberg,
Winifred
Guoxiong
E. Stariha,
Zhang,
Trudy
Eileen
Wallace,
P. Haller,
and Susie
F.
Timothy
164
A.
Zeiser
V. G E N D E R ISSUES
179"
A n asset o r a liability?
181
Janice
A.
Voices of gifted w o m e n
Leroux
T I P studies of gender differences i n talented adolescents
David
Goldstein
and Vicki B.
190
Stocking
Gender differences a m o n g talented adolescents
Linda
E. Brody,
Linda
B. Barnett,
and Carol
204
J.
Mills
VI. S P E C I A L G R O U P S
2 U
Gifted differently cultured underachievers i n Israel
213
Nava
Butler-Por
U n d e r f u n c t i o n i n g : T h e problems of dyslexics and their remediation
Diane
T h e problems of highly able children w i t h a n unbalanced intelligence structure
Maria
224
Montgomery
Herskovits
237
IX
Disability a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of giftedness
Ernst
A.
247
Hany
VII. I D E N T I F I C A T I O N A N D P S Y C H O L O G I C A L
PROBLEMS
MEASUREMENT
Identification o f t h e gifted
Ivan
251
253
Koren
C o m m e n t a r y o n "Identification of the gifted"
Harald
270
Wagner
T h e w o r k s h o p "Identification of gifted students": Summarizing paper
Günter
Trost
and Ingemar
A multi-step selection process for the high-ability children
Nail $ahin
and Ekrem
274
Wedman
280
Duzen
Subskills o f spatial ability and their relationships t o success i n accelerated
m a t h e m a t i c s courses
Heinrich
286
Stumpf
T h e D A N T E Test
Hermann
298
Rüppell
Science Process Skills Tests and Logical T h i n k i n g Test for identifying t h e
scientifically gifted i n K o r e a
Seokee
302
Cho
Identification o f mathematically gifted students
Zuzana
310
Tomalkova
VIII. G I F T E D E D U C A T I O N A N D P R O G R A M E V A L U A T I O N
T h e p r o m o t i o n of h i g h ability and talent t h r o u g h education and instruction
Diane
317~
319
Montgomery
C o m m e n t a r y o n " T h e p r o m o t i o n of high ability and talent t h r o u g h education
and instruction"
Heinz
336
Neber
T h i n k i n g i n t h e head a n d i n the w o r l d
Joan
338
Freeman
Evaluating a n accelerated mathematics p r o g r a m : A centre of inquiry
approach
Michael
351
C. Pyryt
and Ron
Moroz
Evaluating p r o g r a m s for the gifted: Insights resulting f r o m a n international
workshop
Ernst
A.
355
Hany
χ
IX. T E A C H E R S O F T H E G I F T E D
360
C o m p a r i n g G T trained a n d G T untrained teachers
361
Jan
B. Hansen
and John
F.
Feldhusen
T h e "gifted c h i l d " stereotype a m o n g university students a n d elementary school
teachers
367
Nail $ahin
and Ekrem
Duzen
X . P O L I C Y A N D A D V O C A C Y IN G I F T E D E D U C A T I O N
377~
Education policy concept of t h e government of T h e Federal Republic of
G e r m a n y o n t h e p r o m o t i o n of giftedness
Ernst
August
T h e p r o m o t i o n of highly gifted pupils
Georg
A.
386
Pauly
Nurturance i n Bavaria
Eduard
389
Pütterich
S u p p o r t for gifted pupils i n Saxony
Hans
383
Knauss
Types of giftedness p r o m o t i o n i n Baden-Württemberg
Peter
379
Blanke
Wilhelm
392
Berenbruch
C o m m e n t a r y o n t h e s y m p o s i u m "Educational policy conceptions o n nurturing
h i g h giftedness"
A. Harry
Identification of gifted university students for scholarships i n G e r m a n y
Günter
407
Wilgosh
G r o w i n g u p gifted a n d talented i n T a i w a n
Wu-Tien
400
Trost
H i g h achievement a n d underachievement i n a cross-national context
Lorraine
397
Passow
412
Wu
I n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e T h i r d E C H A Conference
422
A u t h o r s ' addresses
423
I.
OPENING SPEECHES
Introduction
T h e T h i r d E u r o p e a n Conference of t h e European C o u n c i l for H i g h Ability was opened by a
triplet of lectures t w o of w h i c h are given o n t h e following pages. Rainer Ortleb, the G e r m a n
Federal Minister of Education and Science, t o o k t h e occasion of the conference for giving a n
official statement of t h e Federal G o v e r n m e n t ' s principles of support for gifted and talented
y o u n g people i n Germany. I n addition, he described current initiatives a n d p r o g r a m s of support
of t h e gifted w h i c h added t o the educational measures t a k e n b y the governments of the G e r m a n
federal states (Laender). Michael V o r b e c k f r o m t h e Council of Europe, Section of Educational
Research, illuminated t h e situation of the gifted by introducing a general E u r o p e a n perspective.
H e described measures t a k e n by t h e Council of Europe t o p r o m o t e research and education of
the gifted, and described his profile of the " h o m o europaeus" w h i c h should guide the educational
goals pursued by t h e schools of this continent. Vorbeck's contribution was n o t included i n this
volume as V o l u m e 1 of Competence a n d Responsibility contained a long draft of his speech.
K u r t Heller, c h a i r m a n of the E C H A conference, t h e n presented his observations of the
E u r o p e a n a n d international state of research o n giftedness, a n d described t h e major trends and
results of research and its practical applications. H e also p o i n t e d out that current efforts of
designing educational services for t h e gifted are i n need of further basic research and of
cross-cultural studies.
Federal support programs for gifted and talented
young people in Germany: Concepts and
initiatives
Rainer Ortleb
The Federal
Minister
of Education
and Science,
Bonn/Berlin,
Germany
M a d a m President, Ladies and Gentlemen,
I.
I a m delighted t o be able t o talk t o y o u , the participants i n the T h i r d European Conference
for H i g h A b i l i t y , here today. T h e a i m of the conference - that is t o say t o intensify and deepen
the discussion between giftedness researchers and experts o n education policy f r o m the
countries of Europe - is very close t o m y heart. I n this context, I also h o p e t o see a particularly
lively a n d fruitful exchange of ideas w i t h the numerous conference participants f r o m Eastern
Europe. A s the countries of Europe c o m e closer together, w e are going t o be faced by major
tasks - something that w e Germans are already very m u c h noticing i n our special situation.
Against a background of freedom, scientific c o m m u n i c a t i o n at the national and international
level w i l l increasingly contribute towards eliminating prejudices and obstacles, while providing
new food for t h o u g h t at the same t i m e .
Today, p r o m o t i o n of the gifted, p r o m o t i o n of t o p scientific achievements and t h e creation of
educational elites r a n k a m o n g the central questions i n the socio-political debate i n t h e Federal
Republic of G e r m a n y , and particularly i n the debate o n education policy.
Initiatives aimed at increased p r o m o t i o n of particularly gifted children, y o u n g people, trainees
and students are meeting w i t h g r o w i n g approval a m o n g politicians and the general public. T h e
Federal G o v e r n m e n t sees this as a n encouragement t o continue its c o m m i t m e n t t o the
p r o m o t i o n of special talents and gifts i n the non-school sector, i n vocational training and i n
higher education institutions.
II.
T h e policy of the Federal G o v e r n m e n t is geared t o greater differentiation between t h e forms
of education and the supplementary p r o m o t i o n measures available because it is convinced that
this is t h e only w a y of giving the necessary consideration t o t h e major differences i n talents and
inclinations and the wide variety of levels of performance. T h i s basic standpoint automatically
results i n a positive attitude towards p r o m o t i o n n o t only of t h e disadvantaged, but also of the
gifted. A differentiated range of education and training measures should be available, together
w i t h supplementary p r o m o t i o n schemes, so that every individual can develop his o r h e r range
of talents t o the full.
Particularly gifted people should primarily be p r o m o t e d for their o w n sake. T h e full developm e n t of their capabilities and performance potential is a prerequisite for development of their
personality as a w h o l e . I n addition, there is a g r o w i n g consensus of o p i n i o n that t h e Federal
Republic of Germany, like t h e other countries i n Europe, cannot afford only t o accept and
p r o m o t e special talents i n sports and individual artistic fields. W e need scientists and practicians
Rainer Ortleb
4
w h o develop n e w ideas, and managers w h o can successfully "sell" t h e m o n the w o r l d market.
T h e p r o m o t i o n of special gifts is necessary t o provide science, t h e e c o n o m y , political and
cultural life w i t h n e w stimuli resulting f r o m outstanding achievements of y o u n g talents.
III.
T h e Federal Republic of G e r m a n y is a federal state. Its constitution is geared t o preserving
and advancing t h e cultural independence and w e a l t h of traditions w h i c h have developed i n t h e
course of t h e centuries i n the G e r m a n Länder and t h e city states, such as Bavaria, Saxony and
H a m b u r g . W i t h this i n m i n d , dealing w i t h cultural affairs and t h e school system is t h e
responsibility a n d duty of t h e Länder.
W i t h i n t h e scope of its legislative powers, the Federal G o v e r n m e n t also has t o w o r k towards
the equality of t h e situation i n t h e education sector. I n this way, it contributes towards a h i g h
standard of education a n d training across t h e nation and safeguards occupational mobility. This
is particularly i m p o r t a n t w i t h a view t o t h e process of E u r o p e a n unification. T h e Federal
G o v e r n m e n t exercises these competences i n the field of higher education institutions, vocational
training, further education and individual fields of non-school p r o m o t i o n . T h e responsibility for
the p r o m o t i o n of gifted y o u n g people outside the school sector is derived f r o m its responsibility
for t h e p r o m o t i o n of junior scientists.
Even those w h o advocate t h e power-dividing function of o u r federal system a n d see our
opportunities as lying i n the variety of initiatives inherent i n this system, must p e r m i t the question
of h o w t h e responsibility of the Federal Government for the education policy of t h e n a t i o n as
a w h o l e can be strengthened and further consolidated.
I w o u l d particularly like t o stress this p o i n t against the background of t h e current debate o n
amending t h e Basic L a w . T h e restriction of the competences of t h e Federal G o v e r n m e n t i n the
education sector w o u l d lead t o a situation w h e r e it w o u l d n o longer be possible t o guarantee
the measure of quality and equality i n t h e education sector w h i c h all democratic parties have
demanded i n t h e past. T h e w a y i n w h i c h the p r o m o t i o n of t h e gifted has developed seems t o
m e t o be a particularly g o o d example.
IV.
T h e p r o m o t i o n of t h e gifted by the Federal G o v e r n m e n t covers all fields of education:
T h e r e can be n o doubt as t o t h e fact that it is t h e task of t h e school t o i m p a r t fundamental
qualifications. H o w e v e r , despite all their commendable efforts t o provide differentiated instruct i o n , t h e y are often n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o give especially gifted pupils t h e a t t e n t i o n t h e y need.
Moreover, school is n o t the only place w h e r e particularly gifted y o u n g persons can be p r o m o t e d .
O n l y a n a p p r o a c h towards p r o m o t i o n of the gifted w h i c h is geared t o every element of their
personality holds t h e promise of lasting success. I n recent times, m o r e and m o r e emphasis has
been placed o n this aspect by giftedness researchers, for instance by Professor H a r r y Passow,
the Nestor of education for t h e highly gifted f r o m t h e U S A .
T h e out-of-school p r o m o t i o n schemes of the Federal G o v e r n m e n t for gifted y o u n g people of
school age essentially consist of three elements:
1. I n numerous research schemes a n d pilot projects, w e are p r o m o t i n g basic research a n d
t h e development of theories for the identification of special gifts a n d talents, partly w i t h the
a i m of building u p a soundly-based advisory system for pupils parents and teachers. Research
o n giftedness has i n t h e m e a n t i m e become one of the principles of practical teaching,
educational advice, careers advice a n d , above all, identification. A n u m b e r of i m p o r t a n t projects
w h i c h w e r e c o m p l e t e d only recently will be discussed i n detail as contributions t o t h e Conference
i n the next few days.
G e r m a n federal support p r o g r a m s for gifted a n d talented
5
2 . A n o t h e r key field of t h e p r o m o t i o n a l measures of the Federal G o v e r n m e n t i n the non-school
sector is national competitions.
T h e y have proved particularly successful as a n instrument for
p r o m o t i n g t h e gifted. Special m e n t i o n should be made of the national competitions i n t h e fields
of mathematics, chemistry, physics, i n f o r m a t i o n technology, m o d e r n languages and history.
These c o m p e t i t i o n s place special demands o n analytical talent and creativity. T h e y are a n
invitation t o y o u n g , highly gifted people t o develop their special skills and t r y t h e m out i n fair
c o m p e t i t i o n . T h e r e has been a very satisfying response t o this offer a m o n g school pupils i n the
n e w Länder. T h e y o u n g people take p a r t i n almost all the competitions i n numbers correspondi n g t o their p r o p o r t i o n of their contemporaries. There has even been a n above-average
response t o some of the most i m p o r t a n t competitions, such as that i n mathematics o r the
' Y o u n g Researchers" (Jugend Forscht) c o m p e t i t i o n .
T h e national w i n n e r s are sent t o t h e International Scientific Olympics i n mathematics,
chemistry, physics, i n f o r m a t i o n technology a n d biology w h e r e , I a m pleased t o say, t h e G e r m a n
teams regularly achieve impressive successes. Cultural and artistic competitions supplement the
range of opportunities offered t o y o u n g people.
H o w e v e r , the goal of p r o m o t i n g special talents and gifts by w a y of competitions w o u l d n o t
be achieved if this p r o m o t i o n ended w i t h the award of the prizes.
3 . F o r this purpose, t h e Federal Ministry of Education and Science has, since 1 9 8 8 , tested
extracurricular S u m m e r courses i n the f o r m of a pupils'
academy
as another element of
p r o m o t i o n of the highly gifted. Selected o n t h e basis of very stringent criteria, y o u n g people
between t h e ages of 1 6 and 1 8 live together for several weeks i n selected, somewhat
out-of-the-way places, such as boarding schools, and are instructed - i n special fields chosen by
themselves - by university professors, recognised artists and leading economic experts. These
pilot projects have been very successful. Therefore, there are plans t o establish academies of
this k i n d for about 1,500 y o u n g people per year o n a p e r m a n e n t basis.
V.
W h i l e the p r o m o t i o n of special talents i n the higher education sector already has a long-standing t r a d i t i o n , and t h e p r o m o t i o n of gifted pupils i n and out of school has become increasingly
i m p o r t a n t i n recent years, t h e p r o m o t i o n of special gifts and talents i n vocational
training was
n o t a central element of education policy u p t o t h e early Nineties. T o d a y , some two-thirds of
all y o u n g people i n G e r m a n y are prepared for w o r k i n g life i n a system of vocational training
i n companies. U p t o n o w , they had n o access t o p r o m o t i o n schemes for the gifted. I considered
it a challenge t o change t h e situation.
W e have succeeded i n m a t c h i n g the p r o m o t i o n of the gifted i n schools and higher education
institutions w i t h a corresponding system of p r o m o t i o n i n vocational training because there, t o o ,
there are y o u n g people w h o are willing and able t o reach above-average achievements i n their
occupation.
A craftsman w h o does top-class w o r k i n his field belongs just as m u c h t o a small elite as a
university professor. A l t h o u g h particular gifts of y o u n g specialists i n companies, practices and
administrative authorities manifest themselves i n a different w a y t h a n i n scientific or artistic
w o r k , for example, this does n o t m e a n that they are any less deserving of p r o m o t i o n . T h a t is
w h y I launched the p r o g r a m m e entitled " P r o m o t i o n of the Gifted i n Vocational T r a i n i n g " i n the
S u m m e r of 1 9 9 1 . T h e opportunities for p r o m o t i o n w h i c h it provides are designed t o help
y o u n g people t o develop their practical, intellectual, social and creative capacities t o the full i n
their w o r k .
A t the same t i m e , the " P r o m o t i o n of t h e Gifted i n Vocational T r a i n i n g " is a n indication of the
Federal G o v e r n m e n t ' s will gradually t o p u t vocational training o n a n equal footing w i t h schooling
and higher education. Perhaps this will fulfil t h e h o p e that, m o r e t h a n has previously been the
Rainer Ortleb
6
case, a greater n u m b e r of gifted y o u n g people w i t h a w i l l t o w o r k will see vocational training
a n d staying i n their occupation as a w o r t h w h i l e alternative t o studying. Particularly against the
backdrop of E u r o p e a n unification a n d the efforts t o harmonise economic and social standards
i n t h e unified G e r m a n y , w e need a strong e c o n o m y i n b o t h the old and t h e new G e r m a n Länder.
In this context, w e are reliant n o t o n l y o n t h e abilities of entrepreneurs a n d managers, but also
and i n particular o n the performance of highly qualified specialists i n companies.
T h e participants i n t h e p r o g r a m m e " P r o m o t i o n of t h e Gifted i n Vocational T r a i n i n g " can
receive grants for u p t o four years t o finance further education activities r u n n i n g parallel t o their
w o r k . These grants can be used, for example, for learning foreign languages, for periods abroad
o r for t h e acquisition of knowledge and skills i n related fields of t r a i n i n g .
T h e scheme for p r o m o t i o n a l vocational t r a i n i n g w i l l be fully established by the end of 1 9 9 3 ,
after w h i c h t i m e some 9 , 0 0 0 y o u n g employees per year w i l l be able t o enjoy t h e benefits of
special p r o m o t i o n .
VI.
T h e situation i n the higher education
sector ist different t o that i n school education and
vocational t r a i n i n g . T h e r e , the p r o m o t i o n of the gifted is traditionally a task of t h e lecturers, i n
particular. T h e y can recognise special scientific talents at a n early stage and have the o p p o r t u n i t y
t o giving t h e m specific scientific p r o m o t i o n .
T h e p r o m o t i o n of the gifted i n higher education institutions is also a task laid d o w n i n the
statutes of various private foundations and associations. A t the m o m e n t , there are nine
independent foundations dedicated t o the p r o m o t i o n of t h e talented i n the higher education
sector. I n addition, t h e L a n d of Bavaria has its o w n scheme for p r o m o t i o n of the gifted, although
it is limited t o Bavaria, and there are also numerous other foundations. A l l t h e schemes and
foundations for t h e p r o m o t i o n of the gifted expect outstanding achievements i n studies and
scientific w o r k . A b o v e a n d beyond these intellectual requirements, these institutions lay varying
degrees of emphasis o n other aspects, such as development of personality, readiness t o accept
responsibility and c o m m i t m e n t t o the state and society, as well as artistic and practical skills.
T h e y offer intensive scientific a n d individual support, as well as material assistance i n the f o r m
of scholarships.
A m o n g t h e numerous forms of p r o m o t i o n opportunities after completing a course of higher
education, special m e n t i o n should be m a d e of t h e p r o m o t i o n of doctoral candidates by the
institutions for the p r o m o t i o n of the gifted and t h e p r o m o t i o n of graduates by t h e Länder, as
well as t h e post-graduate colleges w h i c h are currently being set u p .
VII.
Ladies a n d Gentlemen, the T h i r d E u r o p e a n Conference o n H i g h Ability i n M u n i c h will trigger
initiatives, continue the exchange of ideas and experience i n this field and constitute a n
i m p o r t a n t basis for w o r k i n the c o m i n g years. In addition, I h o p e that the intensive discussion
of ways of p r o m o t i n g special gifts and talents will meet w i t h a great response n o t only a m o n g
the y o u n g people involved, their parents a n d their teachers, but also i n the public and the media.
I w i s h your Conference every success.
Responsibility in research on high ability
Kurt A . Heller
Institute
of Educational
Psychology,
University
of Munich,
Munich,
Germany
T h e title of this keynote can be interpreted i n several ways. I c a n only emphasize a few here.
(1) Contributions
in the identification
from research on giftedness to the improvement
of practical
and nurturance
of gifted children and
adolescents.
requisites
F r o m a n educational psychological p o i n t o f view, the role of nurturance of t h e gifted is
p r i m a r i l y individual
development
support. This implies at least t h e following: a) "Giftedness"
as a multifactorial concept, b) personality development is a n interactive process, c) nurturance
of t h e gifted as a function of o p t i m i z i n g individual (personality) and social developmental aspects.
This is tangential t o the social a n d educational policy of equal o p p o r t u n i t y .
On a): Independent of w h e t h e r "giftedness" is considered psychometrically as a predisposition
t o w a r d outstanding achievements i n various areas or cognitively as m o r e o r less domain-specific
expertise, n e w theories favor multidimensional models of giftedness (cf. Gardner, 1 9 8 5 ; Heller,
1 9 8 6 ; H a n y & Heller, 1 9 9 1 ; M o n k s , 1 9 9 2 ) . Theory-guided diagnostic and nurturance concepts
thus call for differentiated approaches w h i c h are n o t represented by one-sided IQ-fixings or
so-called cut-off models (Monks & Heller, 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e practical identification of gifted children
and adolescents frequently limps behind the state of t h e art recognitions f r o m research o n the
gifted.
O n b j : Giftedness first manifests itself as a relatively non-specific individual achievement
potential w h o s e development interacts w i t h the social learning e n v i r o n m e n t f r o m t h e very
beginning. T h i s indicates interaction w i t h educational and socialization variables. T h i s interact i o n process should be viewed as a mutual influencing of children's behaviors a n d parental
u p b r i n g i n g practices. T h e hereditary background is t h e n i m p o r t a n t i n t h e development of
giftedness mostly for t h e individual selection and e m p l o y m e n t of t h e learning opportunities
presented by t h e social e n v i r o n m e n t (cf. Scarr & McCartney, 1 9 8 3 ; W e i n e r t , 1 9 9 2 ) . Early
indicators of giftedness even suggest that during the first few m o n t h a n d years of life particular
activities develop w h i c h are expressed i n curiosity and exploratory behaviors. These can be
interpreted as influencing the socialization agents. A t t e m p t s t o provoke socialization conditions
adequate for giftedness and thus t o actively influence the learning e n v i r o n m e n t t o satisfy basic
cognitive a n d social-emotional needs are apparently characteristic of t h e behavior of very gifted
children (cf. Friedrich & L e h w a l d , 1 9 9 2 ) . A n i m p o r t a n t educational task for parents and
teachers o r other relevant socialization agents stems f r o m this. T h e d e m a n d for early identification a n d nurturance of gifted children and adolescents is thus founded o n t h e responsibility
for p r o v i d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e learning environments.
O n c): T h e constitution of the Federal Republic of G e r m a n y and that of most t h e individual
states guarantees t h e individual's right t o equal o p p o r t u n i t y . This is frequently - k n o w i n g l y or
unintentionally - incorrectly interpreted and used as a n argument against educational programs
for t h e gifted by its critics.
" W i t h a view t o t h e d e m a n d for equality of educational o p p o r t u n i t y a ... dual nuancing of the
equality t e r m is necessary. O n the one h a n d , equality i n t h e sense of Article 3 of t h e constitution,
means that every y o u n g person must have all educational paths o p e n . T h e r e is n o objective
K u r t Α . Heller
8
reason (e. g. race, religion, social status, sex) for excepting someone f r o m a particular
educational p a t h . O n the o t h e r h a n d , t h e social state clause of the constitution (Art. 2 0 ,
p a r a g r a p h 1 i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h A r t . 2 , p a r a g r a p h 1 and A r t . 3) states that a dynamic c o m p o n e n t
is contained i n the t e r m of equality, such that each individual's o w n situation should be
considered" (cited according t o Gauger, 1 9 9 2 , p . 25).
T h e individual's right t o equal education opportunities thus stands face t o face w i t h t h e social
responsibility for offering a n adequate spectrum of specific programs. T h e degree t o w h i c h the
individual y o u t h takes advantage of these offerings cannot be determined by t h e state, but is
determined by individual interests, abilities, educational goals, etc. This is n o t t o say t h a t the
state should n o t insist o n a n obligatory basic education for everyone. Therefore, t h e decision
for m a k i n g use of educational opportunities lies w i t h the individual him-/herself. I n a d d i t i o n ,
there are m a n y instances w h e r e personality development is interfered w i t h t h r o u g h less
adequate socialization conditions, deficient learning environments o r individual handicaps. T h e
school's task here and possible educational psychological counseling is t o m a x i m i z e the
educational equality. T h i s obligation results f r o m the equality rights principle w h e r e b y t h e social
c o m p o n e n t s of equal o p p o r t u n i t y should be discussed. T h i s includes all y o u t h , t h e gifted and
n o t only those w i t h learning a n d physical disabilities.
T h e realization of t h e constitutional r i g h t t o equal o p p o r t u n i t y , i . e. the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of
needs i n t o educational activities, includes questions central t o applied research i n giftedness. In
addition t o learning a n d ability psychological aspects, gifted diagnostical, instructional psycho­
logical, educational and social psychological or support-didactical problems are relevant.
(2) Research on giftedness
necessitates
basis scientific
includes
research
not only technological
approaches.
or practical
questions,
but
also
Scientific history has often s h o w n the efficiency of applied research is greatly influenced by
basic theoretical and experimental research. T h i s basis rule also holds true for research o n
giftedness and for t h e practice of nurturing the gifted, including diagnosis, counseling, and
intervention. O n e could n a m e , for example, innovative approaches f r o m m o r e recent cognitive
psychology or expertise research i n t h e expert-novice paradigm (for current i n f o r m a t i o n , see
also Gruber & M a n d l , 1 9 9 2 ; Schneider, 1 9 9 2 , 1 9 9 3 ; Shore & Kanewski, 1 9 9 3 ; Perleth er
al., 1 9 9 3 o r contributions f r o m C h o , Freeman, and/or Sekowski, i n this volume). T h i s p r o d u c e d
i m p o r t a n t drives w i t h i n applied research o n p r o b l e m solving as w e l l as i n instructional questions,
such as w e find i n research o n learning a n d t h o u g h t processes specific t o the gifted, m e m o r y
strategies, metacognitive competencies, c o p i n g styles, etc.
A d d i t i o n a l topics, m o r e related to basic scientific questions are based o n longitudinal analyses
(e. g. description a n d explanation) of development processes i n the gifted. T h i s includes
social-cultural contexts w h i c h p r o m o t e or inhibit development (cf. M o n k s & Spiel, this volume).
In a d d i t i o n , (semi-)experimental studies w i t h the function of causal analyses, for e x a m p l e , for
explaining of sex differences i n various dimensions of giftedness (competence) a n d / o r achieve­
m e n t areas (performance), especially i n m a t h , sciences, and technology (cf. B r o d y a n d Goldstein
& Stocking, this volume). Scientific recognitions contribute n o t only to answering general or
differential psychological questions. T h e explanatory knowledge acquired leads t o t h e devel­
o p m e n t of the knowledge for changes necessary i n practical nurturance of the gifted, e. g. i n
counseling and intervention, i n education a n d instruction.
(3) important
advances in knowledge
about developmental
conditions
and adolescents
can also be expected from cross-cultural
socialization
thus far been somewhat
neglected
in the research of the gifted, despite
advantages.
of gifted
children
research. This has
its
methodological
T h e reason for relatively few cross-cultural studies that can be referred t o as m o r e t h a n
international cooperations but meet scientific methodology requirements is t h e e n o r m o u s cost
9
Responsibility i n research o n h i g h ability
but also specific methological problems w h i c h frequently confound t h e w o r k and financial load.
I w i l l r e p o r t m o r e o n this later. O n e expects cross-cultural
research approaches w i t h i n
giftedness t o b r i n g about a n increase i n knowledge with regard t o various cultural influences o n
individual developmental and educational processes (cf. Eckensberger & Krewer, 1 9 9 0 ) . This
goal should be m e t by a specific research strategy. This means that cross-cultural psychology
should be defined by research methods and n o t by the object research (Petzold, 1 9 9 2 ) . Three
types of c o m p a r i s o n are relevant: a) cross-national, b) cross-cultural, a n d c) cross-societal. In
the context of o u r research p r o b l e m , the second, cross-cultural studies are of interest; w i t h
regard t o t h e cross-national view cf. Wilgosh (this volume). Culturally caused behavioral
differences i n individual development should be indentified t h r o u g h t h e systematic c o m p a r i s o n
of psychology variables or results obtained in different cultural conditions. Equivalent or
non-cultural measurement instruments must be employed. This is a major p r o b l e m of cross-cultural research. O n the basis of such research designs, universality assumptions c a n be examined
i n relevant development, educational, learning or instructional areas. This is a function of
cross-cultural psychology w h i c h was already emphasized by W i l h e l m W u n d t i n his psychology
of different cultures at the t u r n of the century. Thus, the so-called etic (from phonetic) a p p r o a c h
starts w i t h a universality hypothesis of h u m a n behavior. In contrast, t h e so-called emic (from
phonemic) a p p r o a c h looks at cultural socialization influences w i t h i n certain cultures (culturalrelativity hypothesis). Accordingly cultural-specific and valid measurement w h i c h must also be
culture free instruments make it difficult t o actual make cultural comparisons. Therefore, newer
ecopsychological models (e. g. Berry, 1980) attempts t o integrate concepts f r o m "emic" and
"etic" (cf. Petzold, 1 9 9 2 , p. 3 1 I f . ) .
Cross-cultural studies can provide new recognitions about social-cultural development and
nurturance conditions of the gifted solely f r o m their change perspective. T h i s could lead t o
greater variety i n t h e support p r o g r a m ideas. Not only a practical use but also tolerance t o w a r d
foreign cultures is increased (cf. Butler-Por, this volume). T h e meeting of international ideas
a n d cultures can also be supported by international conferences such as this E C H A conference.
A l t h o u g h t h e exchange of i n f o r m a t i o n and ideas is central here, the i n f o r m a l contacts should
n o t be dismissed i n their peace m a k i n g role. If the participants of E C H A feel reached b y this
statement, t h e n a n i m p o r t a n t goal of E C H A has been achieved.
Before I g o o n t o a comparative overview of the contents of the p r o g r a m , one last research
policy responsibility should be mentioned.
(4) As long as research is supported
by state or private/public
foundations
and is directly
or indirectly
a public service, a mutual responsibility
grows between the society and the
research
community.
W i t h o u t w a n t i n g t o question the freedom of research - i . e . t h e responsible selection of topics
and methods by t h e researchers themselves - the simultaneous responsibility of the society
t o w a r d society by the direct or indirect funding of research must be emphasized. T h i s stipulation
also holds true for t h e research of giftedness, which otherwise is i n danger of isolation (and n o t
o n l y f r o m t h e mainstream of the scientific community). O n the other h a n d , qualified researchers
i n this field have t h e same rights as other sicentists, to demand a p p r o p r i a t e w o r k conditions
where one can consider scientifically desirable questions f r o m the field of basic research and
also f r o m t h e practice of giftedness nurturance. It can be taken as a positive sign that the
scientific a n d public o p i n i o n about the uses and rights of research o n giftedness is playing a n
increasing role - albeit small i n comparison w i t h other topics - i n t h e consciousness of those
responsible. Perhaps this international conference in Europe can increase t h e initiative here
a n d elsewhere - for t h e g o o d of the c o m i n g generation and t o i m p r o v e t h e future of all m a n k i n d .
(5) A content
analysis
with the previous
nine
of the topics here at the third ECHA
WCGT
world conference
proceedings
conference
in
and the most
comparison
important
10
Journals in the field of giftedness
research points to important
trends
research scene. This could be important
for the continual
development
gifted at the European
level.
K u r t Α . Heller
in the
international
of research on the
First, here are analysis results f r o m the conference proceedings of t h e previous nine w o r l d
conferences of t h e W o r l d Conference for Gifted and Talented C h i l d r e n (WCGT). A total of 4 0 8
conference presentations have been published f r o m 1 9 7 5 t o 1 9 9 2 . T h i s corresponds t o a
publication percentage of about 1 5 % . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 % w e r e f r o m practice, 2 0 % each i n
t h e areas of theoretical and empirical reports (on applied research), 1 5 % o n gifted programs
and s u p p o r t of the gifted. O n l y 5 % (in the last three years) discussed t h e t o p i c of basis research
(Heller & Menacher, 1 9 9 2 ) . T h i s picture reflects t h e analyses of relevant journals (Pyryt, 1 9 8 8 ;
Rogers, 1 9 8 9 ; Carter & Swanson, 1 9 9 0 ) . H e r e , t o o , t h e majority of the practice-oriented
applied research is e m p l o y i n g generally simple statistical methods. O n l y about 2 5 % of the
studies r e p o r t e d can be considered as hypothesis oriented. M o r e demanding statistical methods
such as p a t h analyses o r cluster analyses are rarely f o u n d here and are probably published i n
journals (cf. Pyryt, 1 9 8 8 ) .
T h e need t o catch u p i n theoretically guided experimental and quasi-experimental research
o n giftedness is emphasized indirectly i n the classification of psychological subdisciplines taking
part. T h e percentage of general psychologists t a k i n g part is negligible (median of about 5%),
whereas educational psychologists make u p about 7 0 % and clearly dominate.
A m o r e recent content analysis (Heller, 1 9 9 3 ) of (English-language) journals w i t h the majority
of publications o n t h e gifted f r o m t h e last 1 0 years (Gifted C h i l d Quarterly, Roeper Review,
J o u r n a l for the Education of the Gifted, and Gifted Education International) provided the
following picture: T h e topics "Gifted Education" and "Programs and N u r t u r i n g " are most strongly
represented i n all four journals analyzed w i t h percentages between 3 0 and 6 0 . T o p i c s such as
"Characteristics of t h e Gifted and Talented" are m o r e frequently found i n the J o u r n a l for the
Education of t h e Gifted (39%) and i n t h e Gifted C h i l d Quarterly (28%) versus the Roeper Review
(21.5%) a n d Gifted Education International (19%). "Social C o n t e x t " has its strongest repre­
sentation i n the Gifted C h i l d Quarterly w i t h 1 3 % , "Identification" w i t h 7 . 5 % each i n the Gifted
Child Quarterly and the J o u r n a l for the Education of the Gifted. T h e rates of " L e a r n i n g und
P e r c e p t i o n " and "Development" are astonishingly l o w i n all four journals. Solely the category
"Definitions a n d Concepts of Giftedness and Talent" had higher percentages i n t h e Gifted Child
Quarterly (27%) and the J o u r n a l for t h e Education of the Gifted (16%). These results generally
c o n f i r m those reported by Rogers ( 1 9 8 9 ) and Carter a n d Swanson ( 1 9 9 0 ) w h o , i n part, included
different journals.
W h a t picture is presented by the contributions t o the T h i r d E C H A conference? Ninety percent
of the 4 0 0 conference participants c o m e f r o m Europe and 1 0 % f r o m overseas. O f the
non-Europeans, 5 % are f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a and Canada and 5 % f r o m Asia. Africa, Australia
and N e w Zealand are n o t represented. T h e G e r m a n participants are, as expected, t h e leading
g r o u p w i t h 3 5 % . A considerable number of visitors c o m e f r o m the former c o m m u n i s t states of
Europe. T o g e t h e r t h e y make u p nearly a t h i r d . Following G e r m a n y (35%), H u n g a r y , Poland
and the CSFR are represented w i t h 9 % . T h e former states of the U S S R follow w i t h 7 % . W i t h
that t h e T h i r d E C H A Conference contributes significantly t o the European U n i f i c a t i o n . T h e
changes w h i c h w e r e already b e c o m i n g apparent t w o years ago at t h e Second E C H A C o n ­
ference ( 1 9 9 0 ) i n Budapest seem t o continue i n a positive m a n n e r despite current conflicts
w i t h i n Europe. C o n c e r n i n g this our conference has already passed the first hurdle. T h e m a i n
topics of this conference and those of the preceeding w o r l d congresses o n h i g h ability are
relatively similar. T h e question of identification, however, w i t h 1 4 % , ist dealt w i t h twice as
frequently as at the other nine w o r l d congresses (with a n average of 7%).
11
Responsibility i n research o n h i g h ability
T h e r e is a lack of support and practical experience concerning the education of the gifted
including i n f o r m a t i o n about giftedness i n f o r m e r c o m m u n i s t states of Europe. W i t h regard t o
definition problems and theoretical bases of support for t h e gifted there is a g r o w i n g interest.
In contrast t o this, i n Western Europe there is a d o m i n a n t tendency t o establish private and
political initiatives for support programs for the gifted. This m i g h t be a positive sign. O r does
a l o w percentage (2%) of future oriented topics at this conference m e a n that it is necessary t o
be sceptical concerning t h e p l a n n i n g concepts? I h o p e n o t . W i t h regard t o actual analysis results,
w e k n o w that scientific disciplines a n d subdisciplines of psychology a n d education are c o n f i r m e d . T h e vast area of research i n t o h i g h ability seems t o be d o m i n a t e d b y educational
psychology a n d related subjects. A s a n educational psychologist, I do n o t regret this although
a higher scale of interdisciplinary w o r k could exert a positive influence. T h i s demand also
concerns t h e relationship between practical and basis research. "Pragmatic nuture and educat i o n of t h e gifted o n a n unsure scientific basis" - t o e m p l o y Franz Weinert's sober description
(Waldmann & W e i n e r t , 1 9 9 0 , p . 184) - will provoke further discussions.
References
Berry, J . W. (1980). Ecological analyses for cross-cultural psychology. In N. Warren (Ed.), Studies in
Cross-Cultural
Psychology, Vol. 2 (pp. 157-189). New York: Academic Press.
Carter, K. R., & Swanson, H . L. (1990). A n Analysis of the Most Frequently Cited Gifted Journal Articles
Since the Marland Report: Implications for Researchers. Gifted Child Quarterly, 34, 116-123.
Eckensberger, L. H . , & Krewer, B. (1990). Kulturvergleich und Ökopsychologie. In L. Kruse, C. F.
Graurnarm, & E.-D. Lantermann (Eds.), Ökologische Psychologie (pp. 66-75). München: Psychologie Verlags Union.
Friedrich, G., & Lehwald, G. (1992). Frühindikatoren geistiger Emtwicklung i m sprachlichen Bereich.
In E. A. Hany & H . Nickel (Eds.), Begabung und Hochbegabung (pp. 77-93). Bern: Huber.
Gardner, H . (1985). Frames of mind. The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Gauger, J.-D. (Ed.). (1992). Vorträge und Beiträge der Politischen Akademie der KonradAdenauerStiftung, Heft 22. Bonn: Köllen.
Gruber, H . , & Mandl, H . (1992). Begabung und Expertise. In Ε. A. Hany & H . Nickel (Hrsg.), Begabung
und Hochbegabung
(pp. 59-73). Bern: Huber.
Hany, Ε. Α., & Heller, Κ. A. (1991). Gegenwärtiger Stand der Hochbegabungsforschung.
Zeitschrift
für Entwicklungspsychologie
und Pädagogische Psychologie, 28, 241-249.
Hany, Ε. Α., & Nickel, H . (1992). Positionen und Probleme der Begabungsforschung. In Ε. A. Hany &
H . Nickel (Eds.), Begabung und Hochbegabung (pp. 1-14). Bern: Huber.
Heller, Κ. A. (1986). Psychologische Probleme der Hochbegabungsforschung. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie
und Pädagogische Psychologie, 18, 3 3 5 - 3 6 1 .
Heiler, Κ. Α., & Menacher, P. (1992). State of the A r t of Research on Giftedness and Talent in the
Proceedings of the WCGT Conferences since 1975. In F. J . Monks & W. A. M. Peters (Eds.), Talent
for the Future: Social and Personality Development
of Gifted Children (pp. 138-148). Assen:
Van Gorcum.
Heller, K. A. (1993). International Trends and Issues of Research on Giftedness. In W. T. Wu, C. C.
Kuo, & J . Steeves (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second Asian Conference on Giftedness:
Growing
up gifted and talented (pp. 93-110). Taipai, Taiwan: NTNU.
Mönks, F. J . (1992). Ein interakrionales Modell der Hochbegabung. In Ε. A. Hany & Η. Nickel (Eds.),
Begabung und Hochbegabung
(pp. 17-22). Bern: Huber.
Mönks, F. J . , & Heller, Κ. A. (1994). Identification and Prc^ramming. In M. C. Wang (Ed.), Education
of Children with Special Needs. International Encyclopedia of Education, Vol. 5 (2nd ed., pp.
2725-2732). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Perleth, C., & Schauer, S. (1992). Content Analysis of the Papers of the 3rd ECHA Conference. ECHA
Conference Newsletter, no. 1, October 1 1 , 1992.
Perleth, C , Lehwald, G., & Browder, C. S. (1993). Indicators of high ability i n young children. In K.
A. Heller, F. J . Mönks, & A. H . Passow (Eds.), International
Handbook of Research
and
Development
of Giftedness and Talent (pp. 283-310). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
12
K u r t Α . Heller
Petzold, Μ. (1992). Kulturvergleichende Sozialisationsforschung. Psychologie in Erziehung und Un­
terricht, 39, 301-314.
Pyryt, M . C. (1986). The Gifted Child Quarterly As Database. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting
of the National Association for Gifted Children in Orlando, FL, Nov. 1988.
Rogers, Κ. B. (1989). A Content Analysis of the Literature o n Giftedness. Journal for the Education
of the Gifted, 13, 78-88.
Scarr, S., & McCartney, K. (1983). H o w people make their own environments: A theory of genotypeenvironment effect. Child Development,
54, 424-435.
Schneider, W. (1992). Erwerb von Expertise: Zur Relevanz kognitiver und nichtkognitiver Vorausset­
zungen. In Ε. A. Hany & H . Nickel (Eds.), Begabung und Hochbegabung (pp. 105-122). Bern:
Huber.
Schneider, W. (1993). Acquiring expertise: determinants of exceptional performance. In K. A. Heller,
F. J . Mönks, & A. H . Passow (Eds.), International Handbook of Research and Development
of
Giftedness and Talent (pp. 311-324). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Shore, B. M., & Kanevsky, L.S. (1993). Thinking processes: being and becoming gifted. In K. A. Heller,
F. J . Mönks, & A. H . Passow (Eds.), International Handbook of Research and Development
of
Giftedness and Talent (pp. 133-147). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Waldmann, Μ., & Weinert, F. Ε. (1980), Intelligenz und Denken. Perspektiven der Hochbegabungs­
forschung. Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Weinert, F. E. (1992). Wird man zum Hochbegabten geboren, entwickelt man sich dahin oder wird man
dazu gemacht? In Ε. A. Hany & H . Nickel (Eds.), Begabung und Hochbegabung (pp. 197-203).
Bern: Huber.
II.
ABILITY A N D ACHIEVEMENT
Introduction
I n contrast t o average or below average performances, exceptional performances at school
or w o r k are usually contributed t o interindividual (cognitive and motivational) differences. This
overlooks, however, a n i m p o r t a n t moderator function i n social learning conditions. Hansgeorg
Bartenwerfer first discusses i n m o r e detail such interindividual differences w h i c h have been
p r o v e n t o be individual
prerequisites for e m i n e n t performance i n m a n y studies. N o t taking
t h e m i n t o consideration, especially at school, causes great problems for the individuals
concerned, for example, b o r e d o m due t o lack of stimulation and social isolation f r o m non-gifted
peers. These are exemplified by a n u m b e r of case studies.
Finally, problems i n identifying interindividual talent differences as w e l l as related questions
of equality are discussed. I n his c o m m e n t a r y , Edward Necka supplements the interindividual
a p p r o a c h w i t h a n mfraindividual a p p r o a c h w h i c h is especially i m p o r t a n t f r o m the developmental p o i n t of view. F u r t h e r m o r e , the discussant emphasizes t h e necessity of n o t only taking
quantitative but also qualitative
differences i n t o consideration, p o i n t i n g out as one example
metacognitive factors (see also t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m C h r i s t o p h Perleth, below). Necka
r e c o m m e n d s using characteristics of t e m p e r a m e n t t o study "preconditions of talent", whereby
a "general energy" - apparently i n the sense of Russian research o n giftedness - is assumed.
I n the c o n t r i b u t i o n w h i c h follows b y Andrzej Sekowski, a review of the s y m p o s i u m "Structures
a n d processes i n intellectual achievements" is presented. T h i s deals n o t only w i t h cognitive skills
but also cognitive styles a n d strategies i n solving complex tasks i n various achievement settings
a n d w i t h various age groups. I n his second contribution, Sekowski reports about his o w n
empirical studies for predicting various achievement contents. A c c o r d i n g t o this, predictors vary
according t o domain-specific achievement criteria, e. g. i n m a t h or humanities. T h e n , studies
14
Introduction
are presented by Katya Stoycheva w h i c h are concerned w i t h the relationship between creativity
and intelligence. Based o n test theoretical data, influences of creative m o t i v a t i o n a n d the need
for achievement o n this relationship are analyzed using correlational methods. T h e results are
presented for discussion.
Finally, C h r i s t o p h Perleth reports about three studies w h i c h investigated central metacognitive
competencies, especially m e t a m e m o r y i n kindergarten a n d grade school children. Whereas the
first t w o studies provide m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n about the early development of metacognitive
competences, the m a i n result of the t h i r d (training) study is probably m o r e interesting f r o m a n
educational a n d nurturing p o i n t of view. Training effects could be s h o w n i n various talent levels
especially for near transfer tasks; the superiority of gifted students first became apparent w i t h
increasing transfer distance. In conclusion, some consequences for the classroom - for b o t h
n o r m a l children and the learning disabled - are discussed.
Individual differences in talent
Hansgeorg
German
Bartenwerfer
Institute
for International
Educational
Research,
Frankfurt/Main,
Germany
Definition
T h e t o p i c of this presentation is "Individual Differences i n Talent". First w e have t o take a l o o k
at t h e concept "talent". W h a t does it m e a n t o say " A is musically talented" o r " B is a talented
speaker", etc.? Such statements m e a n that someone possesses g o o d preconditions for perform i n g w e l l i n t h e corresponding area - e. g. i n music. These prerequisites for h i g h performances
are generally considered t o be connected w i t h one particular p e r s o n . W e w i l l n o t be speaking
about talents i n groups - e. g. for particular races - since the t o p i c here is individual differences
i n talent. W e c a n thus define "talent" i n the following way:
Talent is t h e s u m of all individual conditions w h i c h can enable one t o p e r f o r m outstandingly
i n m e n t a l , artistic or physical areas.
Such individual conditions are, for example: intelligence, creativity, social ability, knowledge,
interests a n d m o t i v a t i o n , perseverance, concentration, stress resistance, vitality, e m o t i o n a l
stability, physical and m e n t a l health, physical stature.
I w a n t t o add a definition f r o m Professor Rainer Ortleb, the present Federal Minister for
Education a n d Science, w h o stresses even m o r e the individuality of talent. Ortleb ( 1 9 9 2 , p . 6),
i n his preface t o K u r t A . Heller's b o o k "Giftedness i n C h i l d h o o d and Adolescence" (Hochbegab u n g i m Kindes- u n d Jugendalter), w r o t e that giftedness is a concept for t h e fact "that there are
individuals w h o are capable of unusual achievements i n intellectual, creative, p s y c h o m o t o r , or
social areas, t h a t others are incapable of, even w i t h better educational opportunities or greater
personal exertions".
T y p e s of talent
T h e n u m b e r of types of talents has probably never been counted: T h u s , one can say, there
are uncounted types of talents. Everything w e do i n life, w i t h i n and outside of our professions,
c a n be carried out i n a m o r e or less talented m a n n e r . I n our society, however, talent i n
professional lifes are h o n o r e d m o r e t h a n , for example, talents i n hobbies. Therefore, w e will
begin w i t h talent i n professions. Individuals w h o achieve outstandingly i n t h e i r field s o o n notice
it i n cash o r other n o n - m o n e t a r y rewards, such as recognition or prestige. A l m o s t everyone is
pleased t o receive prestige or lots of m o n e y , or b o t h .
Each day shows us that there really are different types of talent. T h e successful conductor
certainly needs other talents t h a n a great mathematician. T h e same holds true for a highly
ranked tennis player versus a n entrepreneur w h o makes a large profit b y p r o d u c i n g w o o d e n
matches. Different types of talent are needed, for example, by a famous portrait painter and a
chess c h a m p i o n , the successful politician c o m p a r e d w i t h a novelist.
T h o s e w h o t h i n k about various types of talent should n o t be misled i n t o t h i n k i n g there are
o n l y special types of talent. T h i s k i n d of assumption does n o t do justice t o some types of great
talent. Certainly there are very special talents such as those of excellent mathematicians w h o
are incapable of dealing w i t h other areas of life. B u t there are also talented individuals w h o
Hansgeorg
16
Bartenwerfer
excel i n m a n y areas. Classical examples of this are Leonardo da V i n c i o r Goethe. B u t this is
n o t only true of t h e past; t h e Studienstiftung
des deutschen
Volkes has demonstrated since
the twenties that there are n o t only special talents but also that the s u p p o r t and challenge of
broader talents is essential.
Figure
1:
Different types of giftedness (talent)
Causes of individual talent differences
In order t o understand various types of talent as well as special versus general talents, it is
useful t o view the causes of talents. W e k n o w today that m a n y causes have t o c o m e together
t o really be able t o speak about talents. T h e following figure m a y be useful for understanding
this: T h e most i m p o r t a n t factors are presented broadly w h e r e it is k n o w n that they are
meaningful for t h e development of particularly high achievements.
T h e meaning of various causes of talent
T h e boxes i n the t o p r o w of figure 2 and those o n the left are n o t of equal i m p o r t a n c e . O f
the three t o p boxes, the one o n the left is n o doubt of the greatest i m p o r t a n c e . M u c h of the
g r o u n d w o r k for later development is laid during the first years of life. A review by Christopher
Jencks et α/. ( 1 9 7 2 ) explained u p t o 5 0 % of the variance of educational achievement using
family background.
Individual differences i n talent
17
family
background
genetic
background
health
vitality
interests, motivation
perseverance
concentration
intelligence, creativity
learning speed
knowledge and
"fore-knowledge"
ζ
especially high performance
Figure
2:
Causes of h i g h m e n t a l performances
T h e second most i m p o r t a n t factor, according t o most researchers, is a child's genetic
background. W e do n o t k n o w m u c h yet about h o w genes influence m e n t a l abilities. This
probably takes place m o r e o r less indirectly. A n example: Verbal talent i n adults is often linked
t o the frequency w i t h w h i c h the mothers speak t o t h e young child. If t h e child speaks little for
genetic reasons, i.e. hardly opens its m o u t h , t h e n the mother will tend t o speak less t o the child.
W h e n there is a response, m e a n i n g it is pleasant and interesting t o speak w i t h t h e child, t h e
m o t h e r w i l l speak m o r e frequently w i t h it and thus nurture its later verbal abilities. I n this
example, t h e m o t h e r ' s behavior w i t h the child is partially determined b y t h e child's genes. A
direct genetic effect w o u l d be w h e n the number of nerve cells i n the central nervous system and
their interconnections w e r e genetically determined. T h u s , the genetic background effects a child
b o t h directly a n d indirectly.
Educators m a y find it dissatisfactory that the factor "school" plays less of a role t h a n the factor
family background. This does not m e a n , however, that school is of n o i m p o r t a n c e . T h e
i m p o r t a n c e of t h e school can be very great i n m a n y individual instances. T h e statement that
the genetic equipment has a greater effect o n talent development t h a n t h e school e n v i r o n m e n t
is only a statistical finding. This does n o t tell h o w the development of talent w i l l proceed i n a n
individual child.
I n order t o m a k e it clearer that a great deal of importance is t o be placed o n various causes
of talent development w i t h regard t o cognitive inequality, I quote Christopher Jencks and
colleagues ( 1 9 7 2 , p . 180), w h o i n m y o p i n i o n , carried out t h e largest and most neutral
international study (retranslation f r o m G e r m a n i n t o English):
"(1) If w e could make everybody have the same genes, then t h e inequality of test results w o u l d
probably d r o p by 3 3 t o 5 0 percent.
18
H a n s g e o r g Bartenwerfer
(2) If w e could provide everyone w i t h the same total e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e n t h e inequality of test
results w o u l d probably d r o p 2 5 t o 4 0 percent.
(3) If w e only equalized the e c o n o m i c status of every p e r s o n , t h e inequality of test results w o u l d
only d r o p by 6 percent o r less.
(4) If w e provided everyone w i t h the same a m o u n t of s c h o o l i n g , t h e cognitive inequality i n
adults could be decreased by 5 t o 1 5 % percent w h i c h is, h o w e v e r , a very generous estimate.
(5) If w e could equalize the quality of all grade schools, t h e cognitive inequality w o u l d be
reduced b y 3 percent or less.
(6) If w e could m a k e the quality of h i g h schools equal, t h e n t h e cognitive inequality w o u l d be
reduced by 1 percent or less."
Most of the differences i n the adults' test results are due t o factors w h i c h t h e s c h o o l does n o t
control. This does n o t m e a n that schools could n o t equalize t h e test scores i f t h e y a t t e m p t e d
t o do so. Probably they could. If w e w a n t e d everyone t o read at t h e present n a t i o n a l average,
t h e n w e could provide very gifted children w i t h only o n e o r t w o years of s c h o o l i n g , children
w h o are somewhat above average w i t h six years, those w h o are s o m e w h a t b e l o w average 1 2
years, a n d t h e very slow ones, 1 8 years or m o r e . "We assume t h a t such measures w i l l greatly
reduces the inequality of reading results. W e still do n o t vote for such solutions. 'Equal
o p p o r t u n i t y ' means t o us that every individual has a chance at as m u c h e d u c a t i o n as he/she
wants. (However) such a c o m p r e h e n s i o n of equal o p p o r t u n i t y guarantees unequal results."
(Jencks et al. 1 9 7 2 , p . 161f., retranslation f r o m German).
T h e degree of individual talent differences
Individual talent differences c a n be incredibly large. T h i s is suppressed o r i g n o r e d again a n d
again by teachers. L e t us examine some examples of particularly h i g h degrees of m e n t a l intellectual-cognitive ability. This ignores all cases of special musical o r s p o r t talents. T h e y
generally do n o t cause any difficulties, because particular musical o r s p o r t talents i n o u r society
are generally accepted - i n contrast t o outstanding mental-intellectual-cognitive talents. I n m a n y
places, early musical or sporting talents are scouted for i n order t o n u r t u r e t h e m f r o m a n early
age. I also neglect examples of famous personalities because t h e y are already w e l l k n o w n . I w i l l
only present a few examples of early observable talents t h a t have occurred i n o u r lifetimes a n d
could cross any of our paths.
I will first quote the news agency, Reuter f r o m December 1 9 8 1 , ' T h e best of 5 3 0 candidates
i n the entrance e x a m i n a t i o n for mathematics at t h e University of O x f o r d w a s ten-year-old R u t h
Lawrence. R u t h w i l l be able t o begin studying i n O c t o b e r 1 9 8 3 as a twelve-year-old." T h i s
means that this ten-year-old was better i n these exams t h a n applicants a p p r o x i m a t e l y twice h e r
age, and that i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h 5 3 0 of t h e m .
I n August 1 9 8 2 , one could read the following r e p o r t f r o m the Deutsche Presse A g e n t u r (dpa).
" A Soviet 12-year-old was given special permission f r o m h e a l t h authorities t o b e g i n studying
medicine. H e learned his A B C ' s i n a few days a n d c o m p l e t e d his s c h o o l i n g i n half t h e n o r m a l
t i m e - w i t h t o p grades." I n the Soviet U n i o n , one was n o r m a l l y n o t allowed t o study medicine
until at least t h e age of 1 8 . T h e application for special p e r m i s s i o n t o b e g i n earlier and t h e
considerations that had t o be made, brought this i t e m t o t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e press.
A n o t h e r dpa r e p o r t f r o m September 1 9 8 5 : " A thirteen-year-old b o y f r o m S i m f e r o p o l o n t h e
C r i m e a n sea has begun studying at the Moscow Physical-Technical University. A s t h e East
G e r m a n news service A D N reported o n Monday, t h e b o y learned t o read a n d w r i t e w h i l e still
at kindergarten. H e started school w i t h the t h i r d grade a n d finished 1 1 grades i n six years."
Individual differences i n talent
19
I n A u g u s t 1 9 8 5 , t h e r e w a s a n article by A x e l Hacke i n the Süddeutsche Zeitung. I quote f r o m
this article: " T h e Fu-Fable was n o t appreciated by Peter. This is a little strange because this
b o o k is greatly enjoyed b y H a m b u r g grade schoolers. F u is a friendly yellow being. H e teaches
t h e little ones t o read so t h a t t h e y are soon having n o p r o b l e m w i t h ' F u calls Fara'. Peter,
h o w e v e r , d i d have one p r o b l e m w i t h this, i n that, at the age w h e n all his classmates w e r e fighting
t h e i r w a y t h r o u g h F u sentences, Peter had already read all of Jules V e m e ' s books i n t h e adult
versions. T h i s usually t o o k place i n the following manner: I n the m o r n i n g he picked u p a novel
a n d i n t h e evening h e p u t i t d o w n completed. O n e year later, he could still retell the story w i t h
all t h e a c t i o n details." T h i s corresponds t o a n achievement that one usually expects f r o m h i g h
s c h o o l students.
W e a d d t o this a case f r o m t h e U S A , reported i n a weekly magazine f r o m the Spanish Ministry
f o r E d u c a t i o n a n d Science i n January 1 9 8 6 : "Stephen Baccus, 16-year-old A m e r i c a n teenager
is c o m p l e t i n g his bar exams at t h e Department of Jurisprudence at t h e University of M i a m i .
A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g school at 1 4 , he enrolled at the University of M i a m i w h e r e he completed his
degree i n r e c o r d t i m e (two years). Nevertheless, his lightning career w i l l n o t enable h i m t o
practice l a w before his 1 8 t h b i r t h d a y since the Florida State Laws state 1 8 as t h e m i n i m u m age
for p r a c t i c i n g a profession."
I n t h e Wiesbadener K u r i e r , November 1 9 8 4 , the following r e p o r t stems f r o m Peking: " A
five-year-old Chinese b o y has, according t o official reports, passed t h e entrance examinations
a n d w i l l be a d m i t t e d t o t h e Chinese University of Science and Technology". T h e government
press agency Z h o n g g u o X i n w e n s c h e reported that t h e boy, L i u X i a o b i n comes f r o m a state
collective G a n g b u i n t h e p r o v i n c e Jiangsu. H i s parents are b o t h grade school teachers. W h e n
h e w a s t w o , t h e y began t o t e a c h h i m and w i t h i n three m o n t h s he had learned 3 6 0 0 characters.
" N i n e m o n t h s later h e c o u l d read books", the report continued. N o w he has t h e educational
level o f a n adult. - T h e U n i v e r s i t y of A n h u i constructed a special instruction p r o g r a m f o r h i m .
I n t h e Frankfurter R u n d s c h a u , another A P report f r o m Peking i n February 1 9 8 5 was even
m o r e unusual. ' T h e University of W u h a u has admitted a four-year-old b o y w h o n o t only speaks
Chinese b u t also English, memorizes long poems and calculates w i t h o u t difficulty. T h i s was
r e p o r t e d i n t h e w e e k e n d e d i t i o n by the Peking news agency X i n h u a . A c c o r d i n g t o the r e p o r t ,
t h e little b o y , w h o s e n a m e is given as Jinjin, is participating i n a preparatory course for a
business-technical course o f study. As early as one-and-a-half years, Jinjin, according t o X i n h u a ,
u n d e r s t o o d English a n d Chinese. A t t w o he spoke b o t h languages, k n e w t h e one times table
a n d c o u l d recognize t w e n t y different characters and name t h e m . A t three-and-a-half, the
' W o n d e r C h i l d ' supposedly k n e w h o w t o add, subtract, multiply and divide, and was capable
of reading classic English a n d Chinese poetry. N o w the son of a w o r k e r a n d a genetic researcher
has m e m o r i z e d a n u m b e r o f Chinese poems and has the mathematical knowledge of a h i g h
school student."
A s a last e x a m p l e , I m e n t i o n a case out of m y o w n counseling practice. T h i s summer, a
fifteen-year-old boy finished his high school degree w i t h h o n o r s . H e is n o w beginning a
m a t h e m a t i c s degree at a university in Rhineland Palatinate (Rheinland Pfalz).
Results of not considering individual talent differences
O n e has t o assume large differences i n the w o r l d of schools. Unfortunately, this is frequently
o v e r l o o k e d . Perhaps it is t o o strenuous t o adapt t o various students. O n e also uses a hypothesis
t o avoid h a v i n g t o d o so. O n e says: "Highly talented children make their o w n way, even if y o u
d o n ' t d o a n y t h i n g f o r t h e m " . B u t this hypothesis w h i c h dates back t o H e i n r i c h R o t h only holds
t r u e f o r a b o u t half t o three-quarters of all highly talented children. T h e rest can have massive
difficulties.
20
Hansgeorg
Bartenwerfer
T h e things t h a t lead t o most of t h e difficulties can be subsumed under t w o ideas, lack of
challenge a n d isolation.
T h e lack of challenge results f r o m the quick recognition abilities and t h e quick learning of
intellectually highly talented children. W h e n material has t o be repeated for slow learners, t h e n
quick learners are n o t challenged. D e p e n d i n g o n their t e m p e r a m e n t , t h e children become
bored, start daydreaming or disturbing their classmates. W h a t is also negative is that t h e quick
learners do n o t need t o concentrate. T h e y never learn t o concentrate. T h e y also never learn
t o exert themselves because things came so naturally t o t h e m . Later they lack t h e basic i m p o r t a n t
skills of concentration a n d exertion. I n order t o avoid these deficits, the school needs t o provide
quick learners w i t h additional challenging tasks.
In a very different way, highly talented children become isolated. T h i s isolation frequently has
three components: (1) T h e parents are unable t o c o p e adequately w i t h their child w h o questions
t h e m t o "death". T h e y suppress their child literally, give inadequate or n o answers. T h e child
instinctively feels the wall between h i m / h e r a n d his/her parents. (2) T h e second c o m p o n e n t
exists w i t h regard t o the child's classmates. T h e y notice t h a t these children are different and
label t h e m as "brains" or "know-it-alls". (3) T h e t h i r d c o m p o n e n t i n t h e isolation exists i n the
teacher-student relationship. T h e highly talented child is frequently viewed as uncomfortable
and disturbing. T h e teacher wants t h e entire class t o m o v e o n as a w h o l e ; t h e child t h a t is very
advanced and always putting his/her h a n d u p is a disturbance. T h e child feels pushed aside
again and somewhat isolated f r o m its teacher.
A certain isolation f r o m his/her parents, classmates and teachers is difficult for any child t o
bear. A loss of a sense of security is often the cause of conduct disorders, sometimes neurotic
behavior. H e r e are a few examples.
T h e first t w o cases are taken f r o m a n essay by W o l f r a m Bortfeldt (1985): "Jörg began school
early, after a few m o n t h s he h a d lost interest i n learning. T h e answer t o his curious questions
was all t o o frequently 'Wait, that comes later!'. Jörg, a n introverted child soon stopped asking
question and just did n o t say a n y t h i n g m o r e at school."
"Patrick..., a 14-year-old H a m b u r g boy had such bad grades at gymnasium that he was i n
danger of failing i n several subjects: I n biology he had a D , i n L a t i n he was getting F's and i n
m a t h he was between a C and a D . B u t his m o t h e r did n o t w a n t t o believe that he was n o t
suited t o the college-preparatory track. A t t w o he had suddenly begun t o say entire sentences
after not speaking at all previously. A t three, he w a n t e d t o k n o w w h y water turns t o steam and
was fascinated by e x a m i n i n g of blood under a microscope. W h e n he was four, Patrick read his
first chemistry books and at eleven he played chess so well that he was almost unable t o find
any partners his o w n age. A t age 1 4 , he was able t o checkmate the chess computer. A n
intelligence test showed that Patrick had a n IQ of 1 4 0 and was mathematically gifted. H i s
problems i n school were apparently due t o the fact that he had a n easy t i m e of it in t h e early
grades and needed t o w o r k hard at gymnasium. H e had never learned t o study hard. In addition,
he never tried t o be called u p o n , was considered a daydreamer a n d a n outsider. A psychologist
advised h i m t o change schools. H e feels m o r e accepted at the new school. There's a gifted girl
w h o challenges h i m . N o w his grades have i m p r o v e d , except for i n L a t i n , a typical study subject,
where he needs t u t o r i n g n o w a n d t h e n . - Patrick becomes somewhat embarrassed w h e n his
m o t h e r explains that he does n o t like p o p music but likes t o listen t o classical music a n d read
challenging literature. Patrick w o u l d rather keep it t o himself t h a t he read Goethe's 'Iphigenia'
because he does not w a n t t o be considered something unusual. Ί d o n ' t w a n t t o be m a d e fun
of.'"
T h e third case comes f r o m m y o w n counseling practice. T h o m a s , at that t i m e 1 8 , achieved
such high scores o n an intelligence test that he can be considered highly gifted. After a g o o d
grade school career, he gradually w e n t d o w n h i l l . Finally i n t h e 9 t h grade at gymnasium, it was
Individual differences i n talent
21
all over after failing twice. A l t h o u g h he was highly intelligent, h e w a s barely able t o pass i n the
next l o w e r t y p e of school "Realschule". H e has almost completely lost m o t i v a t i o n , and describes
his situation as desolate. W i t h o u t exertion, w i t h o u t c o n c e n t r a t i o n , he was always able t o w o r k
o n things o n l y for short periods. H e sometimes w o r k e d for a few hours at a t i m e as a stockboy
"... so t h a t m y father doesn't t h r o w m e o u t . . . " . H e does n o t like t o read books because it is t o o
strenuous. T h e only television that can be considered are p r o g r a m s that d o n o t require h i m to
think. T h i s c o m m e n t stems f r o m someone w h o can t h i n k better t h a n most people. F r o m w h a t
w e w e r e able t o find out, his original curiosity was rejected. H i s parents, b o t h w i t h grade school
educations, s t o p p e d answering his questions during early c h i l d h o o d . H e never really made
friends w i t h classmates because of his differences, especially his individuality. T h e school's
r e p r o a c h t h a t he never pays a t t e n t i o n is justified, he says, because he has already learned
everything before it is taught, a n d is bored and daydreams i n class.
Hypotheses about the development of damages by not considering
individual talent differences
Based o n m y review of the literature and m y counseling experience, I have f o r m e d the
following hypotheses:
T h e greater the lack of challenge is and the longer it lasts, t h e worse t h e prognosis for the
healthy m e n t a l development of talented children will be. I n a d d i t i o n : T h e m o r e complete the
isolation ( f r o m parents, teachers, a n d classmates) is and t h e longer it lasts, the worse the
prognosis w i l l be for a healthy mental development i n talented c h i l d r e n .
T h u s , parents a n d teachers should make sure that talented c h i l d r e n do n o t lack of challenge
over longer periods and that t h e y do n o t r e m a i n isolated for longer periods of t i m e .
Recognition (diagnosis) of individual talent differences
O n e c a n conclude f r o m the preceding i n f o r m a t i o n that it is i m p o r t a n t t o recognize special
talents if p r o b l e m s i n the mental development of talented c h i l d r e n are t o be avoided.
Most of t h e recognitions about especially talented children s t e m f r o m parents a n d teachers.
Teachers are practiced i n passing judgements o n their students. W h e n t h e y are familiar w i t h
the t o p i c of giftedness, t h e n teachers are a n i m p o r t a n t source of i n f o r m a t i o n for identifying the
highly gifted. H o w e v e r , teachers can be mistaken. We k n o w of such mistakes i n t h e instances
of T h o m a s A l v a Edison, Albert Einstein, Justus Liebig, and T h o m a s M a n n .
Aids f o r parents and teachers for recognizing talent are so-called checklists containing typical
characteristics of talented children. A few examples f r o m a list by the Federal Ministry for
Education and Science, 1 9 8 5 (pp. 32-53) and 1 9 9 1 (p. 2 7 ) :
- T h e vocabulary of gifted individuals is unusual for t h e i r age.
- T h e y are able t o memorize facts quickly.
- T h e y read a lot o n their o w n and prefer books above t h e i r age level.
- T h e y are easily bored d o i n g routine tasks.
- T h e y are interested i n "adult" topics such as religion, p h i l o s o p h y , politics,... justice i n
the world...
- T h e y are very individualistic.
- T h e y t e n d t o quickly decide situations.
- T h e y can empathize w i t h others and are thus o p e n t o political and social problems.
W h e n indications for a special ability are found based o n checklists, a diagnosis should be
made b y a psychologist trained i n the field. A n aid i n this is t h e three-factor m o d e l b y Renzulli
i n the e x p a n d e d Mönks f o r m (1992), see figure 3. This m o d e l says that n o t only intelligence
Hansgeorg Bartenwerfer
22
should be included, but also variables such as creativity, task m o t i v a t i o n and e n v i r o n m e n t should
be considered. Figure 4 represents a presentation I w o r k e d out of t h e Renzulli/Mönks model.
Figure
3:
Renzulli's three-ring m o d e l as expanded by Mönks ( 1 9 9 2 )
Figure
4:
Diagnostic categories related t o the three-ring m o d e l
This figure can be read as follows: If h i g h degrees of all three areas are present, t h e n one
reaches t h e overlapping area i n t h e middle. T h e occurrence of special talents is probable here.
T h e psychologist t h e n views t h e e n v i r o n m e n t of the subject, that is t h e (outer round) family,
school and peers. T h i s e n v i r o n m e n t is of great i m p o r t a n c e for t h e development of talented
achievements, since t h e y are t h e p o i n t w h e r e nurturance o r blockage occurs.
Individual differences i n talent
23
Individual talent differences and equal opportunity
Certainly this is n o t the place t o discuss equal o p p o r t u n i t y a n d t h e inequality of educational
results i n detail. B u t t h e overview character of this article calls for a short review of t h e question.
T h e p o i n t of begin is t h e generally accepted postulate w h e r e b y all citizens have the same
social chances i n education, career and personal advance. I n t h e section ' T h e degree of
individual talent differences", w e said t h a t t h e degree of individual talent differences is enormous,
these differences can hardly be overestimated. O n the one h a n d , there are individuals w h o
never get beyond a meager existence because their talent is inadequate for having a j o b t h a t
lifts t h e m out of t h e welfare level. W h a t can equal o p p o r t u n i t y m e a n i n this case? N o t m u c h .
Equal o p p o r t u n i t y is only of i m p o r t a n c e for a n intermediate range of y o u n g people, w h o are
b o t h normally educable and do n o t g r o w u p i n such luxury t h a t degrees are of n o importance.
O n e possibility t o equalize o p p o r t u n i t y w o u l d be w h e n all citizens have t h e same income and
t h e same education independent of w h e t h e r they contribute a great deal o r very little t o society.
T h i s possibility has m e t w i t h so little enthusiasm that is does n o t need t o be discussed here. B u t
even if such a m o d e l w i t h equal i n c o m e for all parents w h o raise children and t h e same education
for all children could be realized, there w o u l d still be huge talent differences due solely t o genetic
inequality (which cannot be equalized).
B u t let us abandon such Utopian idealizations and l o o k for possibilities of achieving a relative
equality of mental-cognitive ability under genetic inequality. T h e r e are t w o possible paths here,
a radical a n d a moderate. T h e radical m e t h o d requires t h e children w i t h the less fortunate
genetic equipment t o be placed i n m o r e favorable environmental conditions. For example,
teachers w o u l d have t o help those students w h o have t h e most difficulties, and ignore t h e quicker
learners. T h e m o r e moderate m e t h o d is t o simply treat all students equally, w i t h everyone
receiving t h e same a m o u n t of attention.
I n t h e radical m e t h o d , there really is a tendency t o w a r d reduction i n talent differences even
if t h e y are n o t eliminated. I n t h e traditional m e t h o d , the talent differences r e m a i n clearly visible.
T h e reality of our schools shows us b o t h methods and these side by side. I n t h e radical m e t h o d ,
t h e weaker students are helped and the quick learners are (sometimes quite brutally) held back.
T h e n w e have the difficulties m e n t i o n e d o n pages 1 6 - 2 1 . T h e teachers w h o h o l d back the quick
learners, i g n o r i n g and rejecting t h e m , are frequently unaware of the problems i n their behavior.
A teacher w h o was requested t o allow a child, w h o was bored because it always finished its
w o r k ahead of t i m e , t o read a b o o k o n the subject being taught, stated she could n o t justify this
n u r t u r i n g of a n already privileged child. This w o u l d lead t o elitism. This teacher is n o t aware
that his or her rule is w o r k i n g against the principle of o p t i m a l talent nurturance w h e r e every
child is nurtured t o the m a x i m u m of its abilities (cf. Philip J . Idenburg, 1 9 6 7 ) .
It can be suspected t h a t a paper o n individual talent nurturance is likely t o land i n the middle
between t w o fronts. Such confrontations are very obvious currently as was seen at the 5 t h
W o r l d Conference o n Gifted and Talented Children i n H a m b u r g i n 1 9 8 5 .
T h e state constitutions and the state education laws based o n these still include a lot of
inequalities w i t h regard t o individual talent differences. T h e Baden-Württemberg constitution,
for example, states i n Article 1 1 t h a t "every y o u n g person has a right, independent of race or
e c o n o m i c situation, t o a n education suited t o his/her talents". I n the B r e m e n state constitution
i n Article 2 7 it says: "Every individual has a n equal right t o education according t o his/her
ability". - T h i s emphasizes the individual possibilities of each student. T h e school laws
correspond quite exactly t o t h e constitution. "... Instruction takes i n t o consideration ... the
interests a n d learning abilities of individual students t h r o u g h increasing differentiation ..."
A c c o r d i n g t o this, there can be n o doubt t h a t t h e individual students' teachers a n d his/her
talents (or interests, learning abilities) must be t a k e n i n t o consideration. I n contrast, however,
Hansgeorg Bartenwerfer
24
there is n o m e n t i o n of such individual rights t o be found i n t h e Hessen constitution. This is also
true of t h e Hessen school law. T h e question of considering individual talent differences is left
o p e n . A n d t h e c o m m e n t s o f H e s s e n s school teachers reflect this. T h e variety of c o m m e n t s
ranges f r o m a n understanding of quick learning children w h o could be less bored if they w e r e
given additional tasks or given t u t o r i n g jobs t o do. O n e also hears that internal differentiation
is impossible w i t h i n t h e classroom because that w o u l d create so m u c h p r e p a r a t o r y w o r k w h i c h
w o u l d be t o o m u c h t o ask of overworked teachers. O t h e r arguments against internal differentiation are that it destroys equal o p p o r t u n i t y , a n d the teachers w e r e n o t taught h o w t o d o so.
O n e also has t o ask oneself, w h y t h e quick learner should n o t l e a m t o accept that patience and
w a i t i n g are sometimes necessary. T h i s overlooks, however, t h e fact that patience a n d w a i t i n g
can become a habit a n d t h e n have dire consequences (see section "Results of n o t considering
individual talent differences").
Individual talent differences can thus bring u p a n u m b e r of problems i n a n era of equality.
This need n o t be this way. Education practices a n d the literature show m a n y ways of enabling
highly talented a n d less capable students t o g r o w u p and be educated w i t h t h e same dignity
next t o one another.
References
Bortfeldt, W. (1985). Köpfchen fürs nächste Jahrhundert. Stern, 32/85, 68-74.
Bundesministerium für Bildung und Wissenschaft (Ed.). (1985). Begabte Kinder finden und fördern.
Ein Ratgeber für Eltern und Lehrer. Bonn: B M B W Referat Öffentlichkeitsarbeit (Third Edition
1991).
Heller, Κ. A. (Ed.). (1992). Hochbegabung im Kindes- und Jugendalter. Göttingen: Hogrefe Verlag
für Psychologie.
Idenburg, P. J . (1967). Das Ideal der optimalen Entwicklung der Talente und die Struktur des
Schulwesens. In T h . Ballauf & H . Hettwer (Eds.), Begabungsförderung und Schule (pp. 160-184).
Darmstadt: Wiss. Buchgesellschaft.
Jencks, C , Smith, M., Acland, H . , Bane, Μ. J . , Cohen, D., Gintis, H . , Heyns, B., & Michelson, S.
(1973). Chancengleichheit.
Reinbek: Rowohlt. (Original published in 1972: Inequality - A reas­
sessment of the effect of family and schooling in America. New York: Basic Books.)
Monks, F. J . (1992). Ein interaktives Modell der Hochbegabung. In Ε. A. Hany & H . Nickel (Eds.),
Begabung und Hochbegabung. Theoretische Konzepte, empirische Befunde, praktische Konse­
quenzen (pp. 17-22). Bern: Hans Huber.
Ortleb, R. (1992). Vorwort. In Κ. A. Heller (Ed.), Hochbegabung im Kindes- und Jugendalter (pp. 5f.).
Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Renzulli, J . S. (1986). The Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness: A Developmental Model for Creative
Productivity. In R. J . Sternberg & J . E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of Giftedness (pp. 53-92).
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Roth, H . (1981). Statt Eliteschulen mehr Spaß am Lernen. Erziehung und Wissenschaft, 10, 6-12.
Commentary on "Individual differences in talent"
A commentary to Professor Bartenwerfer's keynote speech
E d w a r d N^cka
Institute
of Psychology,
Jagiellonian
University,
Cracow,
Poland
Individual differences constitute the p r i m a r y fact of nature, so they should n o t be neglected
particulary i n t h e field of gifted education. H o w e v e r , the topic is sometimes dealt w i t h i n a
stereotypical a n d one-sided way. I w o u l d like, therefore, to stress these points of Professor
Bartenwerfer's speech that seem t o go beyond these stereotypes.
T h e first p o i n t I w o u l d t o stress concerns the p r o b l e m of intra-individual differences. This
p r o b l e m is clearly underestimated b o t h i n research and education, since majority of research
a n d special p r o g r a m s refers t o inter-individual differences. In other w o r d s , t h e question of h o w
a n individual differs f r o m others is overestimated, whereas the p r o b l e m of h o w the same
individual differs f r o m him/herself is underestimated. Let us try a kind of m e n t a l experiment
a n d imagine w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n if people did not differ f r o m one a n o t h e r i n terms of their
abilities a n d "gifts". For m a n y of us such a situation w o u l d be horrible, a n d m a n y psychologists
a n d educators w o u l d feel useless. I a m n o t going t o discuss the question of w e t h e r such a situation
w o u l d be pleasant o r n o t (probably not), I a m only trying t o stress t h e i m p o r t a n c e of
intra-individual differences, that is, the differences w h i c h go beyond t h e well-established
differential p a r a d i g m based o n the Gauss curve.
T h e intra-individual perspective seems t o be particularly i m p o r t a n t f r o m t h e developmental
p o i n t of view. A s w e k n o w , the general mental ability, or fluid intelligence, slightly decreases
w i t h age, a l t h o u g h t h e crystallized one increases at the same t i m e . It is therefore n o t suitable
t o look at t h e age-related changes solely i n the pessimistic way. A p a r t f r o m crystallized
intelligence, there are other i m p o r t a n t aspects of the h u m a n intellect w h i c h changes positively
w i t h age. These aspects are associated w i t h the more and m o r e p o p u l a r n o t i o n of w i s d o m ,
defined as t h e level of competence i n solving complex and unclear real-life problems. It is
customary t o t h i n k that people get wiser and wiser as they age. B u t can w e be sure that w i s d o m
is a category that is n o t applicable t o young people, even young children? Perhaps w e do n o t
pay e n o u g h a t t e n t i o n t o this facet of intellectual giftedness, that is, w e do n o t expect gifted
children t o be wise, although w e do expect t h e m to be "bright", knowledgeable, and intelligent.
W e also probably do n o t pay enough attention to w i s d o m while organizing special enrichment
p r o g r a m s for gifted children, although w e pay a lot of attention to the process of learning, skill
acquisition, a n d p r o b l e m solving. Clearly, w i s d o m looks like a neglected category, as far as
gifted education is concerned, but the stress put o n intra-individual differences is likely t o
appreciate it.
A n o t h e r p r o b l e m w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g here is the question of qualitative aspects of intelligence,
as opposed t o quantitative ones. Clearly, gifted and talented individuals differ f r o m less able
ones n o t o n l y because they k n o w m o r e , they think quicker, and they obtain higher test scores.
T h e y also differ f r o m t h e average people because their knowledge is organized i n a specific, or
even unique, way, because they k n o w h o w t o solve problems w i t h o u t sheer speed of t h i n k i n g ,
a n d because they possess efficient strategies of p r o b l e m solving, w h i c h enable t h e m t o obtain
h i g h test scores i n a w a y that is not accessible t o other people. I n other w o r d s , highly talented
individuals, n o matter adult or n o t , differ qualitatively f r o m less talented ones.
26
Edward Necka
It is a n i m p o r t a n t task for researchers t o establish the comprehensive list of such qualitative
differences. A s far as w e k n o w at present, t h e so-called "metacognitive" factors play a n i m p o r t a n t
role i n this respect. These factors are connected w i t h p l a n n i n g and m o n i t o r i n g of every mental
activity. Talented individuals probably p l a n a n d m o n i t o r their activities m o r e t h o r o u g h l y , thus
being able t o avoid mistakes, traps, a n d false assumptions, or at least being able t o recover f r o m
such lapses due t o increased sensitivity t o external feedback. Better p l a n n i n g and m o n i t o r i n g
is hardly a quantitative aspect: even t h o u g h one c a n plan a n d m o n i t o r m o r e , it is i m p o r t a n t if
he/she can p l a n a n d m o n i t o r better, t h a t is, i n t h e w a y that is m o r e suitable t o t h e situation or
p r o b l e m at h a n d , or w h i c h is m o r e suitable i n general. For instance, m a n y basic experiments
o n p r o b l e m solving s h o w that giftedness is connected w i t h m o r e t i m e and attention paid t o the
preparatory stages of t h e p r o b l e m solving process, at the expense of the final executive stages.
It is typical of less able individuals t o c h o o s e t h e reverse strategy. A n y w a y , m a n y problems may
be solved, a n d m a n y goals m a y be achieved, i n qualitatively different ways, that is, w i t h the use
of various strategies. H o w e v e r , some o f these strategies are m o r e "intelligent" that others, n o t
only because t h e y are typical of highly intelligent people but also because they are m o r e efficient.
M y t h i r d r e m a r k a n d refers t o t h e p r o b l e m of the "preconditions" of talent. Professor
Bartenwerfer m e n t i o n e d such p r e c o n d i t i o n s , and noticed that they are probably related t o the
genetic e n d o w m e n t of a n individual. It is w o r t h realizing, I believe, w h i c h psychological traits
are mostly r o o t e d i n genetics. It seems t h a t t h e answer is: t e m p e r a m e n t . So w h a t is t h e relation
of t e m p e r a m e n t traits t o h i g h abilities? First, let m e stress the i m p o r t a n c e of the general energy
level. It is w e l l - k n o w n f r o m biographies of outstanding individuals that t h e y were (and are!) able
t o w o r k h a r d for t h e p r o l o n g e d periods of t i m e w i t h o u t any s y m p t o m s of fatigue. Does it m e a n
they w e r e n o t susceptible t o fatigue? O r perhaps t h e y k n e w h o w t o allocate efficiently their
energy resources? O r perhaps they w e r e able t o decide w h a t was i m p o r t a n t i n their w o r k and
w h a t was less i m p o r t a n t , so that t h e y w e r e able t o spend their resources w i t h o u t visible signs
of fatigue? Whatever t h e answer, t h e effect was all the same: the ability t o w o r k hard for the
l o n g periods of t i m e . It is therefore c u s t o m a r y to regard highly able individuals as s h o w i n g high
energy level; but this is a purely t e m p e r a m e n t a l trait, w i t h n o direct relation t o intellect.
A n o t h e r t e m p e r a m e n t a l trait w h i c h seems very i m p o r t a n t i n this respect is sensation seeking,
that is, t h e willing t o k n e w m o r e a n d m o r e , a n d t h e w i s h t o experience novel things. As far as
w e k n o w , this trait is biologically r o o t e d , a n d should be regarded as one of the basic h u m a n
personality traits. It is also t h e trait t y p i c a l l y found i n the case gifted individuals. W h y it is so?
Probably sensation seekers expose themselves t o t h e increased n u m b e r of n e w experiences,
and t h e y d o that f r o m their early c h i l d h o o d . Therefore, they have m o r e chances t o acquire new
knowledge a n d t o t r y out their newly acquired skills. I n other words, they are m o r e intellectual
stimulated - n o t necessarily because o f t h e i r parents' deliberate efforts but because of their o w n
(albeit inherited t o t h e great extent) t e m p e r a m e n t a l traits. Sensation seekers are also less afraid
of novelty, including t h e novelty c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m solving situations. T h e y are
therefore m o r e able t o solve problems s m o o t h l y , efficiently, and w i t h o u t tension.
As w e can see, t e m p e r a m e n t and c o g n i t i o n probably interact w i t h each other, thus increasing
t h e likelihood that the final " p r o d u c t " , t h a t is, a mature h u m a n being, will show exceptional
cognitive abilities. B u t this line of t h e o r i z i n g demonstrates that the p r o b l e m of preconditions of
the talent should n o t be reduced t o t h e classical nature/nurture question.
I introduced three remarks i n m y s h o r t speech, w i t h w h i c h I tried t o stress the i m p o r t a n c e of
intra-individual differences, t h e p r o b l e m of qualitative aspects of talent, a n d t h e question of the
intellect/temperament interaction. I t h i n k t h a t professor Bartenwerfer's in-depth analyses of
the nature of individual differences i n talent w e r e p r o p e r l y completed w i t h this short c o m m e n tary.
Report from the symposium "Structures and
processes in intellectual achievement"
Andrzej Sekowski
Department
of Psychology,
Catholic
University
of Lublin,
Lublin,
Poland
O n e of t h e central issues approached by specialists i n t h e psychology of giftedness, training
a n d education of gifted people is "achievements" as b o t h t h e predictor a n d criterion of
giftedness. It w o u l d seem that achievements should fall i n t o t h e sphere of interest of educators,
sociologists or even politicians; however, t h e y capture t h e a t t e n t i o n of psychologists, t o o . This
is because t h e level of achievements, b o t h outstanding a n d those lower t h a n expected, is often
surprising t o psychologists, teachers a n d parents.
T h e presentations at t h e s y m p o s i u m focused u p o n outstanding achievements of gifted people
but also u p o n t h e so called lowered achievements w h i c h did n o t c o m e u p t o t h e expectations
expressed b y psychologists, educators, or teachers.
T h e f o l l o w i n g six papers w e r e presented at t h e s y m p o s i u m :
- U n d h e i m , J . O . (Norway), " H i g h academic achievement i n a n egalitarian society",
- B e l t r a n U e r a and Gonzales R o m a n (Spain), " S t u d y o f cognitive skills i n university students",
- Sekowski, A . (Poland), ' T h e role of preferences of cognitive styles and intelligence i n different
kinds of achievements",
- Farkasova, E. (CSFR), "Special abilities at learning a f o r e i g n language by y o u n g pupils",
- D e T o m b e , D . J . (Netherlands), " A m e t h o d of d e f i n i n g c o m p l e x problems",
- Scheblanova, H . J . (Russia), " M o s c o w - M u n i c h longitudinal study of giftedness: Goals,
m e t h o d s , a n d results of a two-wave investigation".
Peter S p a n was debater at t h e s y m p o s i u m . H e rose t o speak after each presentation; he also
made a n a t t e m p t t o recapitulate t h e results presented i n all t h e papers.
I n his paper, J . O . U n d h e i m presented a n u m b e r of h i g h l y interesting results of research i n t o
h i g h achievement i n a n egalitarian society. T h e a u t h o r demonstrated t h e results of research
carried out i n N o r w a y . J . O . U n d h e i m summarised his p r e s e n t a t i o n i n the following way:
N o r w a y is, along w i t h t h e other Scandinavian countries, a very egalitarian country. T h e
N o r w e g i a n education for grades 1 t h r o u g h 9 (elementary a n d middle school) is characterized
by m a i n s t r e a m i n g , n o ability g r o u p i n g w i t h i n classes, very little acceleration of a n y k i n d , n o
held-backs of students w i t h learning difficulties, a n d n o course options regarding the m a i n
academic subjects. Also, there are almost n o private schools, students attending their local public
school.
T h i s means that t h e students of t h e same grade are all a b o u t t h e same age, have attended
school for a n equal n u m b e r of years, a n d have t o a large extent had access t o t h e same
knowledge. T h e egalitarian practice of t h e N o r w e g i a n educational system for students 7 t h r o u g h
1 5 years, provides a unique o p p o r t u n i t y for studying achievements as related t o sex and
socio-economic conditions since the biases i n h e r e n t i n t h e selection of schools, courses a n d
tracks w i t h i n classes are eliminated. T h u s , one should expect somewhat lower correlations
between indicators of socio-economic background a n d academic achievements at 1 5 years of
age i n this egalitarian system. A t about 1 6 , students start t o choose different educational tracks.
28
Andrzej Sekowski
Even so, t h e effect of socio-economic factors should be lessened b y t h e s u p p o r t system
characteristic of a social-democratic society. H o w e v e r , t h e educational resources of parents and
the c o n c o m i t a n t attitudes t o w a r d schooling, are undoubtedly still expected t o be p o w e r f u l
determinants of school achievement, apart f r o m any f o r m a l choices o r provisions. I n particular,
excellent academic performance m a y be strongly d e p e n d e n t o n parents b e i n g g o o d role models
and able t o s u p p o r t excellency t h r o u g h their o w n academic k n o w l e d g e a n d experience.
T h e e l i m i n a t i o n of possible bias i n t h e selection o f school, a n d i n h e r e n t i n a n y system of
tracking and ability g r o u p i n g , should lead one t o expect very small achievement differences
related t o sex. H o w e v e r , t h e egalitarian educational system does n o t e l i m i n a t e socialization
differences related t o sex-related stereotypes a n d preferences. Previous data o n average
achievement have s h o w n small sex differences i n N o r w a y t h r o u g h t h e age of 1 5 . H o w e v e r ,
considering the findings of m o r e frequent m a t h excellence i n U.S. boys, t h e present r e p o r t will
l o o k m o r e closely at h i g h achievement. A study of h i g h achievement i n N o r w e g i a n youngsters
m a y test one of the explanations for the Stanley a n d B e n b o w f i n d i n g , t h e effect of ability
g r o u p i n g w i t h i n classrooms. N a t i o n a l statistics o n level of education f o r parents a n d offspring
w e r e presented, as w e l l as graduate records for the t o t a l 1 9 8 9 c o h o r t of 9 t h grade students (15
year-olds) i n the city of T r o n d h e i m . T h o s e records represented m o r e t h a n 9 5 % of t h e youngsters
this age i n the c o u n t r y of T r o n d h e i m ( N = 1 7 5 0 ) . A subgroup of those students h a d been
identified as having h i g h ability at the age of 1 2 . T h i s high-ability g r o u p w a s studied m o r e
intensively at the age of 1 5 and later at 1 6 years (cognitive abilities, questionnaires, interviews).
T h e analyses indicated that t h e educational level of parents was strongly related t o children's
achievements. Also, sex differences w e r e found as i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l studies, i n c l u d i n g higher
frequency of m a t h exellence i n boys. T h e results w e r e discussed i n r e l a t i o n t o policies of
egalitarianism and ideas of meritocracy.
T h e paper by B e l t r a n Llera a n d Gonzales R o m a n focused o n t h e role of cognitive skills i n
university studies. T h e authors tried t o answer the question of the degree of influence of cognitive
skills u p o n students' academic achievements. T h e p u r p o s e of t h a t w o r k was t o d e t e r m i n e the
level of cognitive skills of university students. T h e p l a n n e d hypotheses tried t o s h o w if the
students used different strategies depending o n the subject of t h e i r careers. T h e w o r k w a s based
o n the Inventory of Cognitive Skill by Francis J . D i V e s t a a n d V i r g i n i a M o r e n o f r o m the
University of Pennsylvania. I n one session, 3 2 3 third-course students f r o m B i o l o g i c a l Science,
L a w , Education, Psychology a n d Philosophy, c o m p l e t e d t h e i n v e n t o r y . T h e analysis of the
results showed several factors that may be basic for t h e study of cognitive l e a r n i n g process i n
university students. W h a t seemed of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e p a p e r was t h e influence of
emotional-cognitive variables u p o n students' learning process. It was stressed b y t h e authors
that w h i l e e x a m i n i n g achievements it is impossible t o consider t h e influence of t h e cognitive
sphere and at the same t i m e disregard the e m o t i o n a l - m o t i v a t i o n a l one.
T h e paper by A . Sekowski, entitled ' T h e role of preferences of cognitive styles a n d intelligence
i n different kinds of achievements" included t h e results of e m p i r i c a l research c o n d u c t e d b y the
author. A t the same t i m e the paper was a n a t t e m p t at comprehensive expression of the
symposium's t o p i c , namely, "structures and processes i n intellectual achievements". O n e of the
fundamental issues approached by specialists i n t h e field of t h e psychology a n d pedagogics of
the gifted is the criteria w h i c h determine m e m b e r s h i p i n such a g r o u p . A psychological c r i t e r i o n
can, for example, be h i g h intelligence level, creativity, o r t h e c o n c u r r e n t s t r o n g m o t i v a t i o n ,
while a major pedagogical criterion is the level of achievements i n various fields of activity. I n
determining w h e t h e r a given person is exceptionally gifted o r capable of r e m a r k a b l e achievements, b o t h the psychological a n d the pedagogical criteria should be t a k e n i n t o account. Such
psychological criteria as h i g h intelligence, certain preferences c o n c e r n i n g cognitive styles, level
of self-esteem, the hierarchy of values or p s y c h o m o t o r abilities, are sometimes called achievem e n t predictors. T h e predictors discussed i n this article belong t o t h e g r o u p of personality
R e p o r t f r o m t h e s y m p o s i u m "Structures and processes i n intellectual achievement"
29
predictors w i t h i n w h i c h t w o spheres, dispositional and emotional-motivational, c a n be distinguished. T h e basic q u e s t i o n asked b y researchers i n this field is about t h e interdependence of
achievements a n d p r e d i c t o r s b e l o n g i n g t o b o t h spheres. S o m e of t h e personality predictors
b e l o n g i n g t o t h e d i s p o s i t i o n a l sphere are intelligence level, creativity, cognitive style preferences. T h e e m o t i o n a l - m o t i v a t i o n a l sphere encompasses t h e level of self-esteem, preferred
hierarchy o f values, a n d interests.
T h e r e is a slight difference b e t w e e n t h e achievements-dispositional sphere relation a n d that
between a c h i e v e m e n t s a n d t h e emotional/motivational sphere. It is m u c h easier t o determine
t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n achievements and t h e dispositional sphere that i t is
i n t h e case o f t h e e m o t i o n a l - m o t i v a t i o n a l sphere of personality. T h e relation between achievements a n d t h e level o f intelligence o r creative ability is unidirectional, w h i l e it is n o t unlikely that
remarkable achievements m a y inspire man's creativity. It is m u c h m o r e difficult t o determine
t h e d i r e c t i o n o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n achievements and self-esteem level, preferred hierarchy
of values o r interests. O n e could say that they are interdependent o r that it is a feedback
dependence. F o r e x a m p l e , h i g h self-esteem exerts a beneficial influence u p o n t h e level of
achievements, b u t at t h e same t i m e remarkable achievements raise m a n ' s self-esteem. I n m u c h
t h e same w a y t h e p r e f e r r e d h i e r a r c h y of values affects the level and structure of achievements
w h i c h , at t h e same t i m e , m o d i f y t h e hierarchy.
T h e c e n t r a l issue tackled i n that p a p e r was the i m p o r t a n c e of personality traits belonging t o
t h e dispositional s p h e r e , i.e. intelligence level and cognitive style preference, t o t h e structure
and level o f achievements.
T h e results o f t h e research c a n be formulated i n the following way:
1. T h e significant p r e d i c t o r s of outstanding achievements i n mathematics are reflexiveness
and field i n d e p e n d e n c e , as w e l l as internal locus of control.
2 . T h e significant p r e d i c t o r s o f outstanding achievements i n t h e humanities are impulsiveness
and field d e p e n d e n c e h i g h e r t h a n i n t h e case of mathematicians, as w e l l as a higher level of
external locus o f c o n t r o l .
3. T h e regularities vary i n relation t o t h e most creative students i n b o t h groups.
4 . T h e significant p r e d i c t o r of achievements i n mathematics is a h i g h level of general
intelligence, especially t h e ability for convergent t h i n k i n g .
5. T h e significant p r e d i c t o r of achievements i n the humanities is a h i g h level of creative
capabilities (the level of divergent t h i n k i n g , especially i n handling verbal material).
6. T h e students b e l o n g i n g t o b o t h t h e examined groups, w i t h outstanding achievements i n
mathematics o r i n t h e h u m a n i t i e s , obtain higher results (on the statistical level) i n tests
investigating b o t h t h e level o f general intelligence (convergent thinking) a n d t h e level of creative
t h i n k i n g (divergent t h i n k i n g ) t h a n t h e average students. Therefore, it can be assumed that levels
of divergent as w e l l as convergent t h i n k i n g constitute significant predictors of outstanding
achievements i n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d i n t h e humanities.
T h e r e is a n e e d t h e n f o r psychologists and educators t o concentrate, m o r e t h a n they have
done so far, u p o n t h e system of values, e m o t i o n a l preferences, and interests demonstrated by
gifted p e o p l e . T h e i r satisfaction derived f r o m the a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of their life aims, n o t
necessarily l i m i t e d t o w e a l t h , independence, comfortable life, must also be t a k e n into consideration.
T h e p a p e r b y E. Farkasova w a s devoted t o special abilities i n foreign language learning.
Changes i n t h e Czecho-Slovak society facilitated a change i n t h e understanding of the function
of f o r e i g n languages. T h e f o r e i g n language is n o longer understood as s o m e t h i n g exceptional,
but as a m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e previous a p p r o a c h also influenced a system of learning
30
Andrzej Sekowski
at school. Students learned m o r e about the language t h a n t h e language itself. T h e result was a
small capability of graduates t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h native speakers at a n adequate level.
T o reduce this bad experience of the past t h e y have leant towards a n experiment t o establish
learning foreign languages at several elementary schools f r o m t h e age of 6. Various questions
concerning f o r m s , methods, a n d curriculum arose for teachers. Questions of possibility a n d
ability of pupils turned u p for psychologists as w e l l . Different approaches w e r e possible t o solve
the outlined problems, a n d individual schools could choose their o w n way. T h e author's institute
w o r k e d out a c o n c e p t i o n a n d dealt w i t h t w o different kinds of procedures at t w o schools (each
school had its own).
It must be m a d e clear that this t y p e of education demands certain psychological qualities.
Future pupils of those classes ought t o pass a psychological examination. N o t every child is able
t o attend those classes. T h e submitted research paper dealt w i t h some aspects as can be
observed i n a year:
- a c o m p a r i s o n of personal traits of h i g h and l o w achievers,
- social e n v i r o n m e n t a n d parent s u p p o r t according t o t h e above m e n t i o n e d categories,
- performance of pupils i n single subjects of the curriculum w i t h special attention paid t o t h e
foreign language,
- generalisation of special abilities needed for g o o d performance at this type of classes.
T h e p a p e r by D . J . D e T o m b e was entitled " A M e t h o d for Defining C o m p l e x Problems". It
stated that before a p r o b l e m can be solved or handled, it has t o be defined. T h e literature about
problem-solving concentrates mostly o n solving t h e problems already defined, often problems
w i t h i n a d o m a i n , like mathematical problems or chess problems. T h e focus of the literature is
mostly n o t o n finding a solution, but o n h o w a p e r s o n solves the p r o b l e m . O n e person is solving
a domain-related p r o b l e m of w h i c h i n most cases there is already a k n o w n and right answer.
A lot of real societal problems are c o m p l e x interdisciplinary problems, problems, for w h i c h
the solution is n o t k n o w n , like pollution and A I D S . Solving interdisciplinary problems demands
a different a p p r o a c h t h a n that used at solving domain-related problems. T h e paper discussed
a special m e t h o d of analysing c o m p l e x problems a n d focused o n complex policy problems.
T h e first step i n solving or handling real societal problems is t o realize that there is a p r o b l e m .
T h e second step is deciding w h o must handle the p r o b l e m .
After having recognized the p r o b l e m and decided t o take some action o n i t , one person o r
m o r e persons w i l l be selected for handling the p r o b l e m . It will depend o n the i m p o r t a n c e of
the p r o b l e m t o t h e policy makers as t o h o w m u c h effort will be set o n handling the p r o b l e m .
Defining interdisciplinary problems is n o t a one-person j o b . Several experts of different domains
must w o r k together i n t r y i n g t o define the p r o b l e m . W h i c h experts of w h i c h domains w i l l be
selected depends o n the initiator(s) mental model(s) a n d point(s) of view u p o n the p r o b l e m . T h e
definition of the p r o b l e m will be influenced by the selection of the experts. T h e selection of t h e
experts includes or excludes some definitions and solutions of the p r o b l e m already.
I n the beginning, the experts w i l l have different m e n t a l models of the p r o b l e m depending o n
their profession, their personal p o i n t of view and t h e i r experience.
I n order t o handle t h e p r o b l e m fruitfully, the g r o u p of experts must t r y t o attain some shared
idea about the p r o b l e m . I n a series of meetings, t h e g r o u p must t r y t o define t h e p r o b l e m as
completely as possible i n order t o obtain a m o d e l of the p r o b l e m close t o reality. This k i n d of
g r o u p a p p r o a c h for defining a c o m p l e x p r o b l e m has some special aspects w h i c h are excluded
by single person p r o b l e m definition. I n t h e g r o u p a p p r o a c h , one encounters problems
concerning individual and professional differences of power, different professional languages,
hidden agendas, g r o u p t h i n k i n g , individual and collective blind spots and context boundedness
of the participants' knowledge.
Report f r o m t h e s y m p o s i u m "Structures and processes i n intellectual achievement"
31
In talking about t h e p r o b l e m , it is n o t always clear w h a t aspect of t h e p r o b l e m t h e person is
talking about. For causal problems that can be quantified, a system dynamic software simulation
t o o l can be a g o o d help i n trying t o concentrate t h e attention of t h e w h o l e g r o u p o n t h e same
aspect of t h e p r o b l e m a n d give t h e g r o u p a mutually shared language.
H a v i n g defined t h e p r o b l e m does n o t automatically lead t o a solution. A t utmost it gives some
indication as t o w h e r e t o look for a solution. For solving c o m p l e x problems, it is n o t always
clear w h a t t h e best solution is. T h e r e can be different solutions for t h e same p r o b l e m w i t h
different consequences. W h a t t h e o p t i m a l solution of the p r o b l e m c a n be depends o n the
position of t h e g r o u p , t h e m o m e n t of t i m e a n d the context of the p r o b l e m . A f t e r defining a
dynamic p r o b l e m , a system dynamic c o m p u t e r t o o l can, t o a certain extent, give some idea of
the effect of t h e interventions one wants t o make. D u e t o lack of precise data most of such
scenarios t e n d t o have a lot of uncertainty i n t h e m . T h e field of chaos t h e o r y belongs t o this.
T h e p a r a d i g m of chaos t h e o r y provides some tools t o describe this uncertainty. N o r m a l l y there
is not m u c h o p p o r t u n i t y t o t r a i n this kind of p r o b l e m defining i n education. It is n o t unlikely
that t h e gifted w i l l be involved i n analyzing problems of this k i n d . Therefore, t h e y should be
trained t o learn special methods that can help analyzing c o m p l e x societal problems. T h e paper
dealt w i t h t h e vital issue of the role of cognitive processes, specifically problem-solving, i n gifted
adolescents' achievements.
T h e paper b y H . J . Scheblanova presented the results of j o i n t research conducted by t h e t e a m
of psychologists led by K u r t Heller of the University of M u n i c h i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h M o s c o w
Academy psychologists.
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e M u n i c h concept, "giftedness" is defined as individual cognitive, motivational
and social possibilities of attaining excellence i n one or m o r e areas. I n this sense, t h e views of
the M o s c o w g r o u p are close t o t h e c o n c e p t i o n of K. Heller and his colleagues.
Till the present t i m e there are n o studies i n Russia w h i c h w o u l d cover varied factors of
giftedness or t h e interrelation of cognitive and non-cognitive personal development of the gifted
i n that c o u n t r y . T h a t is w h y a joint M o s c o w - M u n i c h cross-cultural study of giftedness development was planned under the supervision of professor K. Heller a n d his assistant C h . Perleth.
T h e study has t h e following goals:
- the adaptation t o the Russian sample and evaluation of t h e M u n i c h differential diagnostic
instruments for the identification of gifted and highly gifted schoolchildren w i t h regard t o
intellectual abilities and creativity.
- the observation, description and analysis of gifted children development across t i m e - for
three years; various forms of giftedness and actual performance; cognitive and non-cognitive
personality preconditions.
- c o m p a r i s o n of t h e results of the M o s c o w - M u n i c h and M u n i c h Longitudinal studies and the
factors of gifted children development at Russian and G e r m a n schools.
T h e sample design of t h e study discussed by H . J . Scheblanova was t h e following: Five-age
cohorts w e r e investigated i n the study: about three thousand and a half of students of the first,
third, fifth, seventh and n i n t h grades. I n each age g r o u p there w e r e t w o groups: experimental
and c o n t r o l . T h e c o n t r o l g r o u p of each age consisted of about seventy students f r o m three
classes w i t h o u t selection. It remained constant f r o m t h e beginning until the e n d of the study.
T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p of each age was chosen at r a n d o m and at the beginning of the study
included about six h u n d r e d students - unselected sample i n t h e picture. Next, t h e gifted students
were selected out of those groups.
1. I n t h e selection of the gifted sample, a two-step procedure was applied. T h e first step
consisted i n using teacher's checklists. Teachers of each class w e r e requested t o rate the
intelligence a n d creativity of gifted students as c o m p a r e d t o those of their peers.
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Andrzej Sekowski
2 . A c c o r d i n g t o the rating, thirty per cent or about t w o h u n d r e d f o r m e d t h e preselected sample
of each age. T h e male-female ratio was 1 : 1 .
3 . T h e second step consisted i n the investigation of t h e preselected a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p s w i t h
t h e help of tests a n d questionnaires i n order t o identify t h e t o p students.
I n that phase t h e following tests w e r e used:
- Cognitive Abilities Test K F T (German C o g A T by K. H e l l e r et α/.) w h i c h was preliminarily
adapted by t h e Russian t e a m i n 1 9 9 0 .
- Numbers C o n n e c t i o n Test by Oswald & R o t h .
- Unusual Uses according t o Guilford for 5 t h , 7 t h , 9 t h grades.
- T o r r a n c e Test of Creativity for the first and t h i r d grades.
- Questionnaires of creativity.
Questionnaires of noncognitive personal characteristics:
- achievement m o t i v a t i o n ,
- thirst for knowledge,
- M o s c o w - M u n i c h Activity Inventory, and others.
A c c o r d i n g t o the results of K F T and creative tests, 3 0 % of t h e t o p students w e r e selected i n
the g r o u p of gifted sample (about 7 0 students of each age).
I n 1 9 9 2 , measurements for the gifted and c o n t r o l students w e r e repeated b y t h e author's
t e a m w i t h the help of K F T , tests of creativity, and personal questionnaires.
O n t h e basis of the obtained results, the following conclusions can be d r a w n :
1. T h e adopted instruments used t o measure cognitive a n d n o n c o g n i t i v e (especially motiva­
tional) personality dimensions of the gifted i n the M u n i c h study are reliable for t h e Russian
sample, t o o .
T h e r e were clear differences between the highly and n o r m a l l y gifted students i n each d o m a i n
of giftedness. Multiple or many-sided gifted w e r e t o be f o u n d relatively seldom i n each ageg r o u p . For example, only 1-2 per cent of students w e r e b o t h h i g h l y intellectually a n d creatively
gifted (scores higher t h a n 7 0 o n T-scale). N o substantial c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n intelligence and
creativity at any age was observed.
2 . T h e p r i m a r y screening of the gifted showed that o n l y 5 0 - 6 4 % of teacher's ratings were
according t o test results. T h e teachers found it particularly difficult t o differentiate b e t w e e n the
intellectual and creative domains and levels of giftedness.
3. Teachers of the first, t h i r d , and fifth classes considered t h e girls m o r e gifted t h a n t h e boys.
B u t the test results did n o t c o n f i r m those opinions. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , teachers of t h e seventh
a n d the n i n t h classes considered the boys m o r e gifted t h a n t h e girls. T h e test results
demonstrated that the boys did better o n quantitative a n d non-verbal subtests, but n o t o n verbal
subtests and tests of creativity.
4 . T h e next stage of the investigation conducted by t h e t e a m w i l l be t h e evaluation a n d analysis
of the interaction between giftedness, achievement, personality, over t h e course of t i m e . W h a t
c a n be revealed at this stage is the interaction between h i g h intellectual abilities a n d m o t i v a t i o n a l
characteristics such as "hope for success" and "fear of failure". T h e gifted students of t h e seventh
a n d n i n t h classes scored higher i n the "thirst for k n o w l e d g e " a n d "hope for success" scales and
lower i n the "fear of failure" scale t h a n their peers i n c o n t r o l groups. M e a n w h i l e t h e gifted boys
of this age scored higher i n t h e "hope for success" scale a n d lower i n t h e "fear of failure" scale
t h a n the gifted girls. This tendency was also observed, less clearly however, i n y o u n g e r children.
T h e interaction between cognitive and non-cognitive personal factors of t h e y o u n g e r children
was not stable and n o t significant. Finally, the second phase of the project discussed is being
R e p o r t f r o m t h e s y m p o s i u m "Structures and processes i n intellectual achievement"
33
c o m p l e t e d . T h e data c o l l e c t i o n process is finished, w h i l e n o t all the evaluation is. I n the future,
m o r e significant results are expected.
Peter S p a n o f U t r e c h t U n i v e r s i t y , w h o was debater at the s y m p o s i u m , evaluated individual
presentations. H e stressed t h e i m p o r t a n c e of a novel a p p r o a c h t o t h e achievements issue.
A c h i e v e m e n t s are o f t e n u n d e r s t o o d as measurable success revealed b y school grades or
professional career. T h e t r a d i t i o n a l achievements measure often takes little o r n o account of
particular needs of t h e individual. T h e debater also emphasized t h e need for a n e w viewpoint
u p o n creativity. T h e varied types of research conducted by psychologists a n d educators should
have a c o m m o n basis as w e l l as similar methodological value. O n l y t h e n t h e obtained results
can be c o m p a r e d .
T h e s y m p o s i u m c h a i r m a n A . Sekowski stressed t h e necessity t o l o o k u p o n the p r o b l e m of
achievements f r o m a p o i n t of v i e w m o r e humanistic t h a n it has been d o n e so far. Indicators
w h i c h influence t h e individual satisfaction of a p u p i l , student o r any other person should
a c c o m p a n y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l achievement indicators.
T h e presented research results give evidence of t h e role of intellectual as w e l l as motivationale m o t i o n a l factors i n t h e l e a r n i n g process. Achievements are t o a large extent produced by
cognitive prerequisites. S u c h variables like intelligence level o r special abilities level are threshold
variables, g e n e r a t i n g achievement potential. W h e t h e r this potential is fulfilled or n o t often
depends u p o n t h e system of values, self-image, self-esteem, interests, strong m o t i v a t i o n ,
consistency i n r e a c h i n g t h e objectives set. T h e c h a i r m a n also stressed the i m p o r t a n c e of the
social aspect of achievements. W h e t h e r i n the West, East, N o r t h or S o u t h of Europe, the society
is n o t well p r e p a r e d t o face gifted people. Outstanding achievements of individuals meet w i t h
anxiety a n d envy r a t h e r t h a n a d m i r a t i o n and appreciation. D e m o n s t r a t i n g one's extraordinary
abilities a n d achievements o f t e n requires a lot of courage.
T h e s y m p o s i u m entitled "Structures and processes i n intellectual achievements" met its a i m .
Valuable a n d i n t e r e s t i n g , t h e papers presented revealed t h e need of research o n the problems
of achievement.
Acknowledgment
T h e p a p e r was w r i t t e n w h i l e receiving a Research Scholarship f r o m the Alexander v o n
Humboldt Foundation, Germany (1993).
The role of preferences of cognitive styles and
intelligence in achievement
Andrzej Sekowski
Department
of Psychology,
Catholic
University
of Lublin,
Lublin,
Poland
O n e of t h e fundamental issues approached by specialists i n t h e field o f t h e psychology a n d
pedagogics of t h e gifted is t h e criteria w h i c h determine m e m b e r s h i p i n such a g r o u p . A
psychological criterion c a n , for example, be h i g h intelligence level, creativity, o r t h e c o n c u r r e n t
strong m o t i v a t i o n , w h i l e a major pedagogical criterion is t h e level o f achievements i n various
fields of activity. I n d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r a given person is e x c e p t i o n a l l y gifted o r capable of
remarkable achievements, b o t h the psychological and t h e pedagogical criteria should be t a k e n
into account.
Such psychological criteria as h i g h intelligence, c e r t a i n preferences c o n c e r n i n g cognitive
styles, level of self-esteem, the hierarchy of values or p s y c h o m o t o r abilities, are sometimes called
achievement predictors. T h e predictors discussed i n this article b e l o n g t o t h e g r o u p of
personality predictors w i t h i n w h i c h t w o spheres, dispositional a n d e m o t i o n a l - m o t i v a t i o n a l , can
be distinguished. T h e basic question asked by researchers i n this field is a b o u t t h e i n t e r d e p e n d ence of achievements a n d predictors belonging t o b o t h spheres. S o m e o f t h e personality
predictors belonging t o t h e dispositional sphere are intelligence level, creativity, cognitive style
preferences. T h e e m o t i o n a l - m o t i v a t i o n a l sphere encompasses t h e level o f self-esteem,
preferred hierarchy of values, and interests. T h e r e is a slight difference b e t w e e n t h e achievements-dispositional sphere relation a n d that between achievements a n d t h e e m o t i o n a l - m o t i v a tional sphere. It is m u c h easier t o determine the d i r e c t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
achievements a n d the dispositional sphere t h a n it is i n t h e case o f t h e e m o t i o n a l - m o t i v a t i o n a l
sphere of personality. T h e relation between achievements a n d t h e level of intelligence o r
creative ability is unidirectional, w h i l e it is n o t unlikely that r e m a r k a b l e achievements m a y inspire
man's creativity. It is m u c h m o r e difficult t o determine t h e d i r e c t i o n of r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
achievements a n d self-esteem level, preferred hierarchy o f values o r interests. O n e could say
that they are interdependent or that it is a feedback dependence. F o r e x a m p l e , h i g h self-esteem
exerts a beneficial influence u p o n the level of achievements, b u t at t h e same t i m e r e m a r k a b l e
achievements raise m a n ' s self-esteem. In m u c h t h e same w a y t h e p r e f e r r e d h i e r a r c h y of values
affects t h e level a n d structure of achievements w h i c h , at t h e same t i m e , m o d i f y t h e h i e r a r c h y .
T h e central issue tackled i n this paper is t h e i m p o r t a n c e of personality traits b e l o n g i n g t o t h e
dispositional sphere, i . e . intelligence level and cognitive style preference, t o t h e structure a n d
level of achievements.
A n o t h e r issue is the recognition of the theoretically justified a n d practical t e r m i n o l o g y of
achievement. T h e r e are m a n y categories of achievements: academic, professional, a n d m a n y
others. Achievements are closely linked w i t h the goals m a n a i m s at. M o r r i s ( 1 9 5 6 ) suggested
a differentiation between three ways of life i n pursuit o f different values: D i o n y s i a n - t h e
satisfaction of current wishes and relaxation, P r o m e t h e a n - active t e n d e n c y t o m a n i p u l a t e a n d
alter the w o r l d , and Buddhist - restraint and self-regulation. T h o s e styles c a n have a n i m p a c t
o n the selection of personal objectives a n d w a y of life. T h e g r a d a t i o n of objectives w i l l d e t e r m i n e
the order of preference of various forms of behaviour. I n general, t h e behaviour of a n individual
T h e role of preferences of cognitive styles and intelligence i n achievement
35
will c o n f o r m t o t h e p r i n c i p i a l objective t h r o u g h t h e achievement of sub-goals, i . e. successive
stages of t h e final state (Zaleski, 1 9 8 7 ) .
K u h l ( 1 9 8 3 ) presents a very interesting typology of objectives. T h e y occupy three levels: t h e
first level relates t o actions, t h e second to results, a n d the last o n e t o t h e consequences of those
results. S c h a n k a n d A b e l s o n ' s t y p o l o g y is interesting, t o o (Abelson, 1 9 8 1 ) . Also, there are a
n u m b e r of o t h e r typologies r e p o r t e d by M c D o u g a l l (1924), M u r r a y ( 1 9 3 8 ) , A l l p o r t , V e r n o n ,
and Lindzey ( 1 9 6 0 ) . T h e hierarchic structure of objectives is a frequently used t e r m . Rokeach's
(1973) m a n y years' research p o i n t s t o the fact that values have a hierarchic structure. T h e
system enables m a n t o gauge t h e situation fairly quickly a n d t o order objects i n such a w a y that
he/she perceives relations b e t w e e n t h e m and his/her o w n p o s i t i o n i n relation t o t h e m . I n t h e
multiplicity of attitudes t o w a r d s objects, people and the w o r l d , m a n tends t o adopt the central
position.
Similar assumptions are accepted i n relation t o t h e structure of objectives; empirical research
has p r o v e d t h e existence of a h i e r a r c h y of objectives (Wicker, L a m b e r t , Richardson, and Kahler,
1 9 8 4 ; W a d s w o r t h a n d F o r d , 1 9 8 3 ) . M a n has one principial objective; intermediate goals are
subordinated t o i t .
W h a t are t h e n t h e relations between achievements a n d t h e preferred objectives, between
achievements a n d t h e values a n individual gives preference to? I n t e r m s of t h e categories
proposed by M o r r i s , achievements w h i c h fall w i t h i n the d o m a i n of gifted people's psychology
are related t o t h e a c c o m p l i s h e m e n t of P r o m e t h e a n aims by w a y of active m a n i p u l a t i o n and
tendency t o change t h e w o r l d . Achievements of this k i n d , w h i c h can be called cognitive,
d o m i n a t e psychological research; this results f r o m social expectations as w e l l as f r o m t h e criteria
applied b y societies t o evaluate a n d order the achievements of a n individual.
O n e o f t h e categories of achievements is academic achievements, w h i c h c a n be divided i n t o
those attained i n t h e h u m a n i t i e s , mathematics, technical achievements, artistic achievements
of artistic s c h o o l students. T h e research whose results are presented here was carried out i n
Polish secondary schools, but t h e findings are m u c h the same as other results of piloting research
conducted b y t h e a u t h o r i n t h e U . S . A . and Germany. T h e research was inspired b y educators'
experience a n d b y t h e o p i n i o n held i n the society that t h e structure of abilities or intellectual
functioning of w i t h r e m a r k a b l e achievements i n those apparently completely dissimilar spheres
of m e n t a l activity are quite specific. T h e subjects of research w e r e students gifted i n mathematics
and i n t h e h u m a n i t i e s .
T h e research findings have revealed the fact that cognitive predictors of achievements
(intelligence level, cognitive style preference) are n o t decisive t o functioning i n the field of
humanities o r m a t h e m a t i c s . T h e r e f o r e it can be assumed that personality predictors belonging
to the e m o t i o n a l - m o t i v a t i o n a l sphere are of greater i m p o r t a n c e here.
T h e research presented h e r e i n is concerned w i t h psychological determinants of outstanding
achievements i n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d i n the humanities i n t h e process of learning. T h e research
into predictors of achievements i n those fields usually considers t h e influence of dispositional
and m o t i v a t i o n a l factors a n d t h e i r correlations. A m o n g t h e dispositional factors, the level of
general intelligence, cognitive styles, and the capability of creative t h i n k i n g are m e n t i o n e d ,
whereas t h e m o t i v a t i o n a l factors comprise hierarchy of t h e system of values a n d self-esteem.
T h e specific n a t u r e of cognitive styles consists i n t h e fact they c o n c e r n b o t h t h e first and t h e
second g r o u p of factors. C o g n i t i v e styles constitute b o t h dispositional a n d emotional-motivational traits. T h i s is t h e source of their specific nature a n d of t h e need for research into their
predictive r o l e i n different k i n d s of achievements. M a n y interesting data o n t h e subject are
supplied by t h e b o o k edited b y Ronald Schmeck ( 1 9 8 8 ) . T h e authors of individual chapters,
psychologists f r o m t h e U n i t e d States, Canada, E u r o p e , Asia, a n d Australia, analyse the role of
cognitive styles i n t h e process of learning t h o r o u g h l y . It seems that there exists a necessity for
Andrzej Sekowski
36
such research, as the preferences i n the field of cognitive styles allow t o better understand the
m e c h a n i s m of co-operation between the intellectual traits and the emotional-motivational ones.
T h e preferences i n the field of cognitive styles determine types of the strategy of learning and
of decision t a k i n g concerning the subject of learning and m e m o r i z i n g . T h e w o r k s by H . A.
W i t k i n , H . Gardner and o t h e r scholars are of particular i m p o r t a n c e for this t y p e of research.
I n t h e course of investigations concerned w i t h the influence of cognitive style preferences
u p o n t h e achievements i n mathematics and i n the humanities, the following questions were
asked:
- W h i c h cognitive styles are particularly i m p o r t a n t i n the activity process i n t h e field of
mathematics and of t h e humanities?
- D o t h e cognitive styles selected (reflexiveness - impulsiveness, field
dependence-indepen­
dence) influence the role of other personality factors such as the level of intelligence or the
level of creative capabilities?
- W h i c h preferences relating t o cognitive styles are predictive i n the field of achievements in
humanities, and w h i c h i n the field of achievements of mathematics?
- W h a t are the indices of achievements i n mathematics and i n the humanities?
T o investigate the predictivity of cognitive styles for achievements i n mathematics and i n the
humanities, t w o of t h e m w e r e selected, field dependence-independence, and reflexiveness-impulsiveness. T h e cognitive style "field dependent/independent" determines the force of tend­
ency of a n individual t o break a n organized perception field i n t o separate specific parts. I n the
field dependent, the p e r c e p t i o n is t o a great extent determined by t h e overall organization of
the field, and its parts are experienced as separated f r o m t h e organized background (Witkin et
α/., 1 9 7 7 ) . W i t k i n ' s m o r e recent definitions include qualifications w h i c h are slightly m o r e
general: t h e field-dependent cognitive style is a tendency t o mostly follow the internal indications
i n p e r c e p t i o n (which are the internal standards); the field dependent cognitive style is a tendency
t o follow the external indications t o a greater extent. T h e increase i n field-independent ends at
t h e age of 1 5 - 1 7 (Witkin et α/., 1 9 7 1 ) . T h e beginning of a slow decline has already been
detected f r o m t h e 2 3 r d year of life onwards; i n old people t h e decline is rapid. A t the same
t i m e , a substantial stability of individual differences i n the areas of field dependent-independent
is ascertained.
I n general, the cognitive style "impulsiveness-reflexiveness" determines the degree t o w h i c h
a n individual solving cognitive problems is inclined t o t h i n k over t h e cogency of his/her
hypotheses (Kagan, 1 9 6 5 ; K a g a n & K o g a n , 1 9 7 0 ) .
N u m e r o u s investigations (Kagan & K o g a n , 1 9 7 0 ) reveal that the impulsiveness-reflexiveness
style is n o t connected w i t h intelligence at all, or is connected w i t h it t o a negligible degree. O n
the o t h e r h a n d , the connections between this style and other personality variables, such as
self-esteem, anxiety level, creativity, as well as intensification and orientation of emotional
reactions, are m o r e conspicuous. T h e long t i m e of consideration while solving problems and a
small n u m b e r of erroneous answers testify to impulsiveness.
Procedure
University students w e r e subjected t o the investigation. Preliminary investigation w e r e carried
out i n t h e U S A , G e r m a n y and the Netherlands. T h e p r o p e r investigations were conducted i n
Poland. T h e students w e r e divided i n t o three groups. T h e first g r o u p was composed of students
exceptionally gifted i n t h e humanities, the second - of t h e students exceptionally gifted i n
mathematics, and the t h i r d - of the so-called average students, n o t specially gifted i n either
mathematics o r the humanities. Each group consisted of sixty students.
T h e role of preferences of cognitive styles and intelligence i n achievement
37
Techniques
O n e of t h e most i m p o r t a n t issues was t o separate the g r o u p of students exceptionally gifted
i n mathematics o r i n the humanities. T o make such a classification, talks w e r e held w i t h eminent
scholars i n t h e classics (men of letter, specialists i n the field of the humanities). O n t h e basis of
those talks, o w n experience a n d discussions i n the research g r o u p , t h e criteria for the
classification of students i n t o those w i t h outstanding achievements i n mathematics, i n h u manities, a n d t h e average ones, w e r e established.
The criteria are the following:
- assessment of professors teaching the subjects w i t h particular a t t e n t i o n paid t o grades given
by those lecturers w h o are i n t h e closest contact w i t h individual students;
- p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n research carried out by the scholars;
- results obtained as well as participation i n scientific competitions;
- p a r t i c i p a t i o n and success i n literary and language competitions;
- o p i n i o n of literary circles.
T o investigate some of the individual differences i n gifted students, t h e following research
techniques w e r e employed:
- H . A . W i t k i n ' s T h e G r o u p Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) (field
- J . Kagan's M a t c h i n g Familiar Figures Test (MFF)
dependent-independent);
(reflexiveness-impulsiveness);
- Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices Set II (general intelligence);
- Raven's test for adults (general intelligence level);
- Creativity tests (Application and A n a g r a m Tests) (creative capability level).
Analysis of results
T h e results obtained by the students of all groups (the first g r o u p - students w i t h outstanding
achievements i n mathematics, the second g r o u p - students w i t h outstanding achievements i n
mathematics, t h e t h i r d g r o u p - a g r o u p of students selected at r a n d o m f r o m the entire
population/average students) w e r e subjected t o statistical analysis. T h e Student t test was
applied a n d t h e vitality of the differences between m e a n results obtained by all t h e three groups
i n all t h e tests was assessed. F r o m the viewpoint of the aims of investigations carried out, the
most i m p o r t a n t was t o c o m p a r e t h e results obtained by the students w i t h outstanding
achievements i n mathematics w i t h those achieved by the students w h o had outstanding
achievements i n literature. T h e t h i r d g r o u p differentiated was treated as a test g r o u p , and the
c o m p a r i s o n of the results obtained by those students w i t h those obtained by t w o remaining
groups m a k e it possible t o draw interesting conclusions, t o o . T h e subject of the analysis included
the results obtained by the groups of sixty students gifted i n mathematics, sixty students gifted
i n the humanities, sixty students selected at r a n d o m . T h e most interesting and i m p o r t a n t f r o m
the cognitive viewpoint was the c o m p a r i s o n of the results obtained by t h e students exceptionally
gifted for mathematics w i t h those achieved by the students w h o had outstanding achievements
in the humanities.
T h e results collected demonstrate that the students w i t h outstanding achievements i n mathematics are characterized by reflexiveness and field independence, whereas those w i t h outstanding achievements i n the humanities are m o r e impulsive and field dependent.
Such conclusions can be d r a w n f r o m the statistical analysis of the results obtained. T h e
differences between the results obtained i n the tests measuring reflexiveness/impulsiveness
preferences, and those of t h e test measuring field dependence/independence are statistically
significant at t h e level f r o m . 0 1 t o . 0 5 . This is very i m p o r t a n t f r o m the cognitive viewpoint and
interesting as far as educational practice is concerned. T h e students gifted for mathematics are
Andrzej Sekowski
38
inclined t o t h i n k over t h e problems they are solving for a longer t i m e w h i l e m a k i n g substantially
fewer errors. T h e students gifted for the humanities m a k e their choices i n the problem-solving
process m u c h m o r e quickly but, at the same t i m e , they m a k e m o r e errors. T h e students gifted
for mathematics prefer t o follow internal indications (such as internal standards), whereas the
students gifted for t h e humanities are rather inclined t o follow external indications. It is also
connected w i t h the locus of c o n t r o l . O n e m a y assume that t h e students gifted for mathematics
are characterized b y a n internal locus of c o n t r o l whereas those gifted for the humanities by a n
external locus of c o n t r o l . It is also interesting that these regularities l o o k slightly different i n the
case of t h e most creative persons i n b o t h groups (the persons w i n n i n g highest scores i n the
tests measuring t h e level of creative capabilities). A t t h e same t i m e , t h e level of creative
capabilities is n o t a n explicit predictor of greatest achievements i n t h e learning process.
T h e students gifted for mathematics obtained m u c h higher results /at the level of statistical
significance .01) i n t h e test measuring t h e level of general intelligence (the level of convergent
t h i n k i n g i n b o t h versions of Raven's scale) t h a n t h e students gifted for t h e humanities. A t the
same t i m e , t h e latter g r o u p obtained higher results at the statistically significant level i n the tests
measuring t h e level of creative capabilities (the level of divergent thinking). This, i n particular,
refers t o the results obtained i n the A n a g r a m Test, i n w h i c h verbal material is used.
Conclusion
1.
T h e significant predictors of outstanding achievements i n mathematics are
a n d field independence.
reflexiveness
2.
T h e significant predictors of outstanding achievements i n the humanities are impulsiveness
a n d field dependence higher t h a n i n the case of mathematicians, as well as a higher level
of external locus of c o n t r o l .
3.
T h e regularities vary i n relation t o the most creative students i n b o t h groups.
4.
T h e significant predictor of achievements i n mathematics is a h i g h level of
intelligence, especially t h e ability for convergent t h i n k i n g .
5.
T h e significant predictor of achievements i n the humanities is a h i g h level of creative
capabilities (the level of divergent t h i n k i n g , especially i n handling verbal material).
6.
T h e students belonging t o b o t h examined groups, w i t h outstanding achievements i n
mathematics or i n the humanities, obtain higher results (on the statistical level) i n t h e test
investigating b o t h the level of general intelligence (convergent thinking) and t h e level of
creative t h i n k i n g (divergent thinking) t h a n the average students. Therefore, it can be
assumed that levels of divergent as well as convergent t h i n k i n g constitute significant
predictors of outstanding achievements i n mathematics a n d i n t h e humanities.
general
There is a need t h e n for psychologists and educators t o concentrate, m o r e t h a n they have
done so far, u p o n the system of values, e m o t i o n a l preferences, and interests demonstrated by
gifted people. T h e i r satisfaction derived f r o m the accomplishment of their life goals, n o t
necessarily limited t o wealth, independence, and comfortable life, must also be taken i n t o
consideration.
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Acknowledgment
T h e paper was w r i t t e n w h i l e receiving a Research Scholarship f r o m t h e Alexander v o n
H u m b o l d t F o u n d a t i o n , G e r m a n y (1993).
Intelligence - creativity relationship
- Are creative motivation and need for achievement influencing it?
K a t y a Stoycheva
Institute
of Psychology,
Bulgarian
Academy
of Sciences,
Sofia,
Bulgaria
T h e Problem
T h i s presentation is concerned w i t h intelligence-creativity relationship. A great deal of efforts
has been aimed at investigating relationship between intelligence a n d creativity measures and
a really impressive a m o u n t and variety of data have been collected. O f interest i n the present
investigation is w h a t extensive literature o n intelligence-creativity relationship is d o c u m e n t i n g
about factors that influence i t .
Testing conditions seem t o be t h e largely studied ones a m o n g those factors. Wallach and
K o g a n ( 1 9 6 5 ) showed that u n t i m e d , game-like conditions resulted i n greater independence of
creativity scores f r o m individual differences i n intellectual level. Delias a n d Gaier ( 1 9 7 0 ) , Nicholls
( 1 9 7 2 ) and H a t t i e ( 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 8 0 ) reviewed a lot of studies s u p p o r t i n g Wallach and K o g a n ' s
assumption that pressures of t i m e and evaluation m a y influence t h e intelligence-creativity
relationship. H o w e v e r , t h e y reported also controversial findings. I n a later publication Wallach
( 1 9 7 1 ; cf. H a t t i e , 1 9 7 7 ) concluded that there are consistent individual differences across
game-like and test-like administration procedures and that game-like setting does n o t necessarily
decrease the degree t o w h i c h differences i n scores o n creativity tests are predictable f r o m
i n f o r m a t i o n about intelligence level. It m i g h t well be that personality-based variables are
responsible for individual differences w h i c h situational variations failed t o e x p l a i n .
Intelligence-creativity relationship has been found t o depend also o n intelligence level.
M c N e m a r formulated this tendency as follows: "at h i g h I Q levels there w i l l be a very w i d e range
of creativity whereas as w e go d o w n t o average I Q , and o n d o w n t o lower levels, t h e scatter
for creativity w i l l be less and less" (cf. Delias & Gaier, 1 9 7 0 , p . 59). Findings, s u p p o r t i n g this
"fan shaped" hypothesis are reported also by Torrance ( 1 9 6 2 , 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 8 7 ) . T o r r a n c e ( 1 9 8 7 )
suggested that characteristics like m o t i v a t i o n and test-taking attitudes and skills m i g h t cause this
differentiation i n patterns of relationship.
T h e nature of creativity measures seems also t o be a factor contributing t o t h e variations i n
intelligence-creativity relationship. Differences between creativity tests can hardly be neglected
and should n o t be ignored w h e n their relations w i t h intelligence tests are e x a m i n e d . T o r r a n c e
( 1 9 8 7 ) summarized data f r o m a great variety of studies w i t h T o r r a n c e Tests of Creative T h i n k i n g
(TTCT) a n d came t o t h e conclusion that correlations involving verbal measures are higher t h a n
those involving figural measures. Data reported by Wallach and K o g a n (1965), Delias a n d Gaier
( 1 9 7 0 ) , Guilford and H o e p f n e r (1971), Nicholls (1972) and T o r r a n c e ( 1 9 8 7 ) suggest that
indicators derived f r o m tests m a k i n g use of the creative p r o b l e m solving process (e.g. Guilford's
or f r o m Guilford derived tasks, T T C T ) are m o r e often positively related t o intelligence scores
t h a n those derived f r o m instruments based o n t h e associative concept of creativity (e.g. W a l l a c h
a n d Kogan's battery). Mednick's R e m o t e Association Test w h i c h has been severely criticized
as being a measure of convergent rather t h a n of divergent t h i n k i n g usually produces positive
correlations w i t h intelligence level (Delias & Gaier, 1 9 7 0 ; Cropley, 1 9 8 2 ) .
Intelligence - creativity relationship
41
T o s u m m a r i z e , t h e research data o n intelligence-creativity relationship that has been accumulated s h o w e d t h a t this relationship depends o n characteristics of the measures themselves and
of the testing c o n d i t i o n s . M a n y of the researchers i n this field have also c o m e t o the idea that
personality variables m i g h t account for unexplained variations i n intelligence-creativity relations h i p , b u t f o r t h e m o m e n t this idea has n o t been examined (at least n o research w o r k s o n this
t o p i c are k n o w n t o t h e author).
T h e present p a p e r brings a t t e n t i o n t o t h e role of personality factors i n intelligence-creativity
relationship. S u c h a n assumption is supported by a substantial body of evidence i n creativity
research. T w o m a i n areas of investigation w i l l be reviewed here: personality studies of eminent
creators a n d c o n c e p t u a l models of creative behaviour.
Personality studies of acknowledged creators and of persons w i t h outstanding achievements
(Albert, 1 9 8 3 ; B a r r o n , 1 9 6 8 , 1 9 6 9 ; Catteil & Butcher, 1 9 8 2 ; H e l s o n , 1 9 8 8 ; M a c K i n n o n ,
1 9 7 8 ; R o e , 1 9 8 2 ) investigated productive h u m a n behaviour i n general as well as t h e positive
i n t e r a c t i o n of intellective and non-intellective variables i n real-life creative achievements i n
particular. T h e obtained results w e r e quite similar across areas of creative endeavors and across
research m e t h o d o l o g i e s . T h e y showed that t h e creative performance emerges at a n intelligence
level above t h e average - the average I Q of groups of e m i n e n t creators was already a superior
o n e ( B a r r o n , 1 9 6 8 , 1 9 6 9 ; M a c K i n n o n , 1 9 7 8 ) . B u t their individual scores ranged widely and
n o c o r r e l a t i o n existed between rated level of creative achievements and level of intelligence:
t h e correlations between rated creativity of professional activity and measured intelligence
a m o n g artists, architects, mathematicians, writers, scientists w e r e n o t significantly different f r o m
zero ( B a r r o n , 1 9 6 8 , 1 9 6 9 ; M a c K i n n o n , 1 9 7 8 ) .
A t the same time several personality characteristics had been found t o be positively related
t o creative achievements: driving absorption i n the w o r k (Roe, 1 9 8 2 ) ; concentration and
readiness t o face endless difficulties (Catteil & Butcher, 1 9 8 2 ) ; intellectual competence and
e n j o y m e n t o f intellectual activity, inquiringness of the m i n d , independence i n t h o u g h t and
action; aesthetic sensitivity and openness t o experience; a n achievement oriented personality,
setting standards of excellence a n d striving t o attain t h e m , w i t h positive self-image, h i g h
self-confidence a n d self-acceptance ( M a c K i n n o n , 1 9 7 8 ) .
I n studies of engineers f r o m research and design bureaus, C h o u g o u n o v a ( 1 9 8 4 ) found that
interests, m o t i v a t i o n a n d strong identification w i t h the highly valued profession and w i t h the
w o r k o r g a n i z a t i o n contributed t o creative productivity i n different engineering professional
activities.
T h e accumulated evidence reveals that h i g h intelligence level is a necessary ingredient for the
highest achievements, but a complex pattern of personality factors is equally essential. This
interaction b e t w e e n intelligence and personality variables has been discovered also i n historiometric a n d biographical studies of eminent creators (Cox, 1 9 2 6 ; S i m o n t o n , 1 9 8 4 ) .
C o x ( 1 9 2 6 ) f o u n d that they had been characterized n o t only by h i g h intelligence but also by
forcefulness o r strength of character, persistence of motive and efforts and confidence i n their
abilities. H e r conclusion is especially interesting for t h e present s t u d y : " . . . that h i g h but n o t the
highest intelligence, c o m b i n e d w i t h the greater degree of persistance, w i l l achieve greater
e m i n e n c e t h a n t h e highest degree of intelligence w i t h somewhat less persistence" (p. 187).
S i m o n t o n ' s ( 1 9 8 4 ) review offers additional s u p p o r t t o t h e idea that cognitive contributions
are s u p p l e m e n t e d b y motivational ones i n high-level performance and focuses a t t e n t i o n
especially t o t h e need for achievement.
T h e idea of t h e interaction between intelligence and personality variables is incorporated also
i n different models w h i c h are developed t o explain and examine creative behaviour. A c c o r d i n g
t o Sternberg a n d L u b a r t ( 1 9 9 1 ) , creativity results f r o m a positive confluence of individual
Katya Stoycheva
42
resources like intelligence, knowledge, intellectual style, personality characteristics, m o t i v a t i o n
a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l context. Torrance's m o d e l ( 1 9 7 9 ) also takes i n t o consideration creative
m o t i v a t i o n i n relation t o abilities and skills. U r b a n ( 1 9 9 0 ) attempts t o design a c o m p o n e n t i a l
m o d e l of creativity, w h i c h consists of t h e following c o m p o n e n t s : three cognitive - general
knowledge base, specific knowledge base and skills, divergent t h i n k i n g - a n d three personality
- task c o m m i t m e n t , creative motives, and tolerance of ambiguity. A m a b i l e ( 1 9 8 8 ) also proposes
a c o m p o n e n t i a l m o d e l describing creativity as a result of m o t i v a t i o n , domain-relevant skills a n d
creativity-relevant skills, w h e r e intrinsic m o t i v a t i o n is t h e most i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t .
Therefore, psychological studies of real-life creative achievements and t h e conceptualization
of t h e i r individual determinants i n m u l t i c o m p o n e n t i a l models of creative behavior b o t h justify
the adopted a p p r o a c h , w h i c h is designed for studying intelligence-creativity relationship t h r o u g h
t h e means of its personality moderators. T w o empirical studies will be reviewed i n search of
evidence s u p p o r t i n g o u r hypothesis.
Method
T h e purpose of the first study is t o investigate the influence exerted by creative m o t i v a t i o n o n
the relationship between intelligence and productivity o n creativity tests. Raven's Progressive
Matrices (a measure of intelligence), T o r r a n c e Tests of Creative T h i n k i n g - V e r b a l a n d Figural
F o r m s Β (a measure of creativity) and Creative M o t i v a t i o n Scale by E. P. T o r r a n c e w e r e
administered t o 2 0 4 9 t h graders f r o m t w o public h i g h schools i n Sofia.
T h e second study focuses u p o n the role of need for achievement i n t h e relation between
intelligence and creativity measures. Raven's Progressive Matrices (a measure of intelligence),
T o r r a n c e Tests of Creative T h i n k i n g - Verbal F o r m A (a measure of creativity) and a
questionnaire for measuring need for achievement by Paspalanov and Stetinsky (Paspalanov,
1 9 8 4 ) w e r e administered t o 1 2 6 1 6 - 1 8 years old students f r o m a public h i g h school i n Sofia.
Instruments
Raven's Progressive Matrices (1960) w h i c h w e r e used i n t h e b o t h studies, are constructed o n
t h e basis of Spearman's theoretical assumptions and provide assessment of a person's capacity
for intellectual activity.
T o r r a n c e Tests of Creative T h i n k i n g are a m o n g t h e most p o p u l a r creativity tests (Davis, 1 9 8 9 ) .
A c c o r d i n g t o their a u t h o r (Torrance, 1 9 8 7 ) , they have been translated i n t o m o r e t h a n 3 2
languages and have been used i n m o r e t h a n 1 5 0 0 studies w o r l d w i d e . T h e V e r b a l f o r m consists
of seven and t h e Figural f o r m of three open-ended tasks w h i c h require kinds of t h i n k i n g ,
analoguous t o the t h i n k i n g involved i n recognized creative achievements a n d lead t o a variety
of creative p r o d u c t i o n .
T h e V e r b a l F o r m (Torrance, 1 9 7 4 ) is scored for fluency (the n u m b e r of generated solutions
t o the problem), flexibility (defined as a change i n the subject's a p p r o a c h t o t h e task, shifts i n
attitudes o r focus o n the problem), originality (the degree t o w h i c h unusual, unique ideas are
generated, that are away f r o m the obvious and commonplace).
T h e scoring of the Figural f o r m is based o n its streamlined revision (Ball & T o r r a n c e , 1 9 8 4 ) .
T h e following norm-referenced indicators are used: fluency, originality, elaboration (the n u m b e r
of details, used t o elaborate the pictures), abstractness of titles (the degree t o w h i c h the titles
given b y t h e children t o their pictures are g o i n g beyond w h a t can be seen), resistance t o
premature closure (a measure of the ability t o "keep o p e n " a n d t o resist t o natural psychological
urge t o close the incompleteness by the simplest, easiest solution).
Creative m o t i v a t i o n and need for achievement have been chosen for t h e i r p r o v e d relevance
t o creative productivity. A s it had been s h o w n , creative m o t i v a t i o n and need for achievement
43
Intelligence - creativity relationship
are con-elated positively w i t h rated creativity of real-life achievements a n d they are systematically
presented i n revised conceptual models of creativity. Aside t h e p r o p e r research interest of the
author i n these motivational variables, they are playing a n i m p o r t a n t role i n the process of
personal and social realization of the individual.
Creative M o t i v a t i o n Scale (Torrance, i n press) was developed o n t h e basis of analysis of
r e p o r t e d research and theoretical w o r k s i n t h e field of creative personality, of biographies and
autobiographies of eminent creators. T h e scale measures " . . . a n inquiring, searching, reaching
out, persistent a n d courageous attitude" as a central n o t i o n i n the conceptualization of the
motivational determinants of creative achievement.
T h e questionnaire for measuring n A c h , constructed and standardized b y Paspalanov and
Stetinsky (Paspalanov, 1 9 8 4 ) , is measuring predisposition t o behavior related t o h i g h standards
of activity and success i n terms of a general behavioral strategy i n p e r f o r m i n g different activities.
Study I
T w o hypotheses were set up for the first study:
1. Creative m o t i v a t i o n w i l l influence the relationship between intelligence a n d creativity i n the
direction that higher creative m o t i v a t i o n will result i n higher correlation between intelligence
and creativity scores.
2. Creative m o t i v a t i o n will be a m o r e powerful predictor of individual differences i n creativity
for highly intelligent subjects t h a n for low intelligent ones. A s intelligence i n its u p p e r range
was f o u n d t o be less predictive of creative productivity, it is hypothesized that this is related w i t h
greater predictivity for personality determinants of creative behavior.
T o test the first hypothesis, the subjects were divided i n t o three groups according t o their level
of creative m o t i v a t i o n (low, average, high) and coefficients of correlation between intelligence
and creativity scores w e r e computed for each group. T h e results w e obtained d i d n ' t c o n f i r m
the stated hypothesis.
T o test t h e second hypothesis, subjects were divided i n t h r e e groups again, this t i m e according
t o their level of intelligence, and coefficients of d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e creativity measures by
creative m o t i v a t i o n scores were computed. This time again n o s u p p o r t was f o u n d for our
hypothesis.
T w o - w a y analyses of variance were performed and they d i d n ' t reveal as well any significant
interaction between intelligence and creative m o t i v a t i o n i n d e t e r m i n i n g b o t h verbal and
nonverbal creativity scores. Data analyses showed a tendency for highly motivated individuals
t o produce a greater number of ideas and a greater n u m b e r of details t o elaborate t h e m ; t o use
a variety of creative problem-solving appraches; t o give m o r e rich titles t o their pictures and to
produce m o r e original responses t o b o t h verbal and figural creative tasks. T h i s tendency
however doesn't reach statistical significance. T h e slight positive correlation w e obtained
between creative motivation scores and creativity measures are similar t o those reported by
T o r r a n c e (in press) himself and they c o n f o r m to his theoretical assumption that creative
m o t i v a t i o n and creative abilities are related, but different h o w e v e r prerequisites of individual's
creative behavior and achievements.
Study II
In the second study t w o analogical hypotheses were e x a m i n e d :
1. Need for achievement will influence the relationship between intelligence and creativity i n
t h e direction that higher need for achievement will result i n higher correlation between
intelligence and creativity scores.
K a t y a Stoycheva
44
2 . N e e d for achievement w i l l be a m o r e powerful predictor of individual differences i n creativity
for h i g h l y intelligent subjects t h a n for l o w intelligent ones.
Correlational analyses similar t o those described i n t h e first study w e r e p e r f o r m e d and t h e
results that w e r e obtained rejected once again o u r hypotheses, except for originality scores i n
t h e frame of t h e second hypothesis. T h e correlation between originality scores and need for
achievement scores is highest for t h e h i g h intelligence g r o u p a n d is lowest for t h e l o w intelligence
g r o u p . H o w e v e r , the percentage of explained variance i n t h e h i g h intelligence g r o u p is quite
l o w - 8 % , a n d t h e difference between correlational coefficients just missed significance. T h a t is
w h y w e c a n ' t consider this fact as something m o r e t h a n just a tendency.
T h e t w o - w a y analyses of variance d i d n ' t reveal significant interactions between intelligence
and need for achievement i n this study, t o o . B u t w h a t i t shows a n d w h a t is absolutely away
f r o m o u r expectations is t h e negative i m p a c t of need for achievement o n verbal fluency
( F = 4 . 1 6 8 ; p = . 0 2 ) , verbal flexibility ( F = 3 . 8 4 7 ; p = . 0 2 ) and verbal originality ( F = 2 . 6 8 9 ; p = . 0 7 ) :
students w i t h l o w need for achievement are m o r e productive, m o r e flexible a n d m o r e original
i n solving creative tasks.
This finding is even m o r e surprising w h e n c o m p a r e d t o previous studies (Stoycheva, 1 9 9 0 ) ,
of h i g h school Bulgarian students w i t h outstanding creative and academic achievements w h o
w e r e f o u n d t o score higher o n need for achievement t h a n their agemates that have n o t been
realized such achievements.
In w h a t w a y can w e integrate these findings i n t h e accumulated knowledge about creative
personality and creative performance? T h e following explanation is suggested: S t r o n g orientat i o n towards achievement has negative effect o n creative productivity i n t h e stages of idea-findi n g a n d solution-finding. Creative attitudes like e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h t h e objects, exploring t h e
u n k n o w n , playing w i t h t h e ideas seem t o be m o r e favorable t o t h e creative process at these
stages t h a n t h e desire t o stick u p t o t h e evaluative standards set b y t h e society. T h a t is w h y h i g h
need for achievement blocks the creative output of t h e individuals w h i l e t h e freedom of
evaluative demands (low nAch) stimulates t h e idea generation. T h e slight positive correlation
w e f o u n d between creative m o t i v a t i o n and creative productivity is c o n s o n n a n t t o this explanat i o n . O n t h e next stages of practical i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n of t h e n e w ideas
however, achievement m o t i v a t i o n becomes a factor of crucial i m p o r t a n c e i n finding acceptance
and social s u p p o r t for t h e creative ideas. A s B a r r o n ( 1 9 6 8 , 1 9 6 9 ) and M a c K i n n o n (1978)
notice, w h e n summarizing t h e results of IPA R studies of e m i n e n t c o n t e m p o r a r y creators, highly
creative individuals are characterized by integrating and reconciling of opposite personality traits
w i t h i n themselves a n d that's w h a t makes t h e m unusually effective a n d productive i n diverse
situations.
Conclusion
A s Wallach ( 1 9 8 8 , p . 13) p o i n t e d out, "fulfillment of potential is, after all, o n e of the goals of
t r y i n g t o reach a better understanding of talent (aside f r o m our interest i n t h e knowledge itself)".
T h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e productive mechanisms of h u m a n behavior, as w e l l as the increasing
public awareness of their i m p o r t a n c e for our future call for e x p l o r i n g every research possibility
w i t h t h e a i m of getting m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n about their functionning. A n d enlarging our knowledge
i n creative behavior predispositions is bringing us closer t o its flourisment i n h u m a n beings.
T h a t is w h y I dare t o present y o u a study w h i c h hypotheses were rejected.
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Strategy use and metamemory in gifted and
average primary school children
Christoph Perleth
Institute
of Educational
Psychology,
University
of Munich,
Munich,
Germany
Abstract
I n t h e theoretical f r a m e w o r k of a variant of t h e "Good-Strategy-User-Model" (cf. Schneider
& Pressley, 1 9 8 9 ) a n u m b e r of studies have been conducted t o clarify some aspects of the
interrelation of strategy use, m e t a m e m o r y , and giftedness (Perleth, 1 9 9 2 ) . This c o n t r i b u t i o n
reports o n t w o of these studies w h i c h w e r e lead t h r o u g h w i t h financial s u p p o r t f r o m the
Volkswagen F o u n d a t i o n .
I n t h e f r a m e w o r k of study 1 w e investigated relations between t h e level of giftedness, strategy
use, m e t a m e m o r y , and variables of personality characteristics i n 2 n d and 4 t h graders.
Differences i n strategy use between levels of giftedness w e r e only f o u n d i n 4 t h graders, while
the gifted children i n b o t h grades showed better m e m o r y performance. C o n c e r n i n g the
m e t a m e m o r y scales older and m o r e gifted students scored higher. V e r b a l knowledge as well as
intelligence t u r n e d out t o be stronger predictors of m e m o r y performance t h a n m e t a m e m o r y .
" G o o d Strategy Users" are superior i n m e m o r y performance as w e l l as i n academic achievement
only i n grade 4 . A l l i n all, the differences between gifted and average children m i g h t increase
w i t h age.
Study 3 , a t r a i n i n g study, should determine w h e t h e r the (transfer) effects of t r a i n i n g for the
use of a clustering strategy depend o n the level of giftedness i n p r i m a r y school c h i l d r e n . T h e
sample included 8 5 children i n the training and 9 3 i n the c o n t r o l g r o u p . T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
factors w e r e t r a i n i n g , t h e level of intelligence and the t i m e of measurement. T h e t r a i n i n g turned
out t o be very effective i n all children and showed diminishing effects w i t h g r o w i n g transfer
distances. A l l i n all, evidence for t h e hypotheses of larger transfer effects i n gifted c h i l d r e n w i t h
increasing transfer distance could be collected.
Theoretical background
T h e objective of o u r research o n m e t a c o g n i t i o n and m e t a m e m o r y , including t h e t r a i n i n g of
respective skills, is t o deepen the understanding of the processes that are essential f o r learning
and p r o b l e m solving a n d , thus, of giftedness. O n the other h a n d , results i n t h e d o m a i n of
m e t a c o g n i t i o n c a n be used for intervention programs that enable gifted children t o use their
potentials successfully.
W i t h " m e t a m e m o r y " w e m e a n knowledge about the performance and function of one's o w n
m e m o r y (in t h e tradition of Flavell and W e l l m a n ; e. g., Flavell & W e l l m a n , 1 9 7 7 ) . T h i s is, for
example, knowledge about the effectiveness of m e m o r y strategies a n d awareness o f t h e capacity
of one's m e m o r y . Moreover, a "good strategy user" is a master of special and general strategies
and distinguishes himself/herself t h r o u g h effective w o r k i n g styles, favorable m o t i v a t i o n a l
characteristics, a n d a g o o d non-strategic knowledge base (see t h e description of t h e G o o d
Strategy User m o d e l by Schneider & Pressley, 1 9 8 9 ) .
W i t h (non-trivial) m e m o r y strategies i n the presented studies, cognitive operations are meant
Strategy use a n d m e t a m e m o r y i n gifted and average p r i m a r y school children
47
w h i c h a) are n o t inherent of the task, w h i c h b) a i m at storing t h e material t o be learned, w h i c h
c) are conscious and verbalizable, and w h i c h d) can be controlled b y t h e children. Trivial m e m o r y
strategies o n t h e other side are cognitive operations w h i c h are principally necessary for solving
t h e task (e. g., l o o k i n g at the cards or reading t h e words).
It is n o t yet clear w h e t h e r gifted o r intelligent children differ f r o m t h e i r average peers i n strategy
use o r m e t a m e m o r y . T h e interrelation studies reported t o date have p r o d u c e d a variety of
s o m e t i m e s contradicting results, some indicating a strong superiority of gifted children, some
f i n d i n g n o difference at all. Findings m i g h t also depend o n the (inner-)cultural background of
t h e samples u n d e r investigation (see B o r k o w s k i & Peck, 1 9 8 6 ; Perleth, 1 9 9 2 ; Perleth, Lehwald,
& Browder, 1993).
In o r d e r t o collect m o r e data for typical G e r m a n samples several studies w e r e conducted i n
t h e f r a m e w o r k of t h e Good-Strategy-User-Model using a sort-recall-task as t h e central m e t h o d
(see Perleth, 1 9 9 2 ) . T h r e e of these studies w h i c h were carried o u t w i t h financial support of the
B u n d e s m i n i s t e r i u m für Bildung u n d Wissenschaft ( B M B W ) i n B o n n (study 1) and the V o l k swagen F o u n d a t i o n (studies 2 and 3) are reported i n this paper.
T h e research done i n the three studies was expected t o contribute t o t h e following general
aims: (1) T h e findings should lead t o a deeper understanding of learning a n d p r o b l e m solving
i n gifted c h i l d r e n . (2) T h e research should strengthen a differential perspective i n t h e psychology
of m e m o r y . (3) Profit for the educational praxis was also intended.
I n t h e studies 1 and 2 the differences i n strategy use and m e t a m e m o r y between groups of
different levels of giftedness w e r e under investigation while w e intended t o clarify the question
w h e t h e r t r a i n i n g and transfer effects depend o n the level of giftedness i n study 3.
Study 1
T h e p u r p o s e of study 1 was t o investigate w h e t h e r typical findings o n m e t a m e m o r y and
strategy use i n n o r m a l samples can be found i n gifted children as w e l l . I n addition, the research
was p l a n n e d as a replication or extension study of results r e p o r t e d by K o n t o s , Swanson, and
Frazer ( 1 9 8 4 ) , Carr and B o r k o w s k i (1987) as well as Kurtz a n d W e i n e r t ( 1 9 8 7 ) for 5 t h , 6 t h
a n d 7 t h graders i n p r i m a r y school children. T h e study was conducted as a p a r t of the M u n i c h
L o n g i t u d i n a l Study of Giftedness (Heller, 1 9 9 1 ; Perleth & Heller, 1 9 9 3 ) .
Research questions a n d h y p o t h e s e s
1)
W h a t c a n be said about the strategic behavior and m e t a m e m o r y of gifted and average
c h i l d r e n i n grade 2 and 4?
2)
W h a t are t h e relationships between m e t a m e m o r y , strategy use, and m e m o r y achievement
(in gifted children)?
3)
W h i c h roles do intelligence and m e t a m e m o r y play w h e n predicting the a m o u n t of
memory?
4)
D o gifted children profit f r o m strategy use even w h e n c o m p l e t i n g respective items of a
m e t a m e m o r y questionnaire ("hidden intervention")?
Method
T h e participants of study 1 consisted of t h e t w o youngest cohorts of the M u n i c h Longitudinal
Study of Giftedness. A l l i n all, data could be collected f r o m 2 1 7 2 n d graders ( 1 0 2 boys, 1 0 2
girls) a n d 2 6 8 4 t h graders ( 1 3 7 boys, 1 2 3 girls).
T h e c e n t r a l m e t h o d i n study 1 was a verbal Sort-Recall-Task: This verbal sort-recall-task
consisted of 2 4 word-cards, w h i c h were clusterable i n 4 categories w i t h 6 w o r d s each. T h e
C h r i s t o p h Perleth
48
phases of the task were: 1) instruction, 2) sorting phase, 3) learning phase, 4) keeping phase,
and 5) recall phase. Indicators derived f r o m t h e task w e r e 1) the Adjusted Ratio of Clustering
(ARC) for sorting a n d recall behavior (clustering) and 2) m e m o r y performance.
M e t a m e m o r y was assessed b y a questionnaire derived f r o m t h e scale used by Schneider,
B o r k o w s k i , Kurtz, & K e r w i n ( 1 9 8 6 ) . T h e G e r m a n Cognitive Abilities Test ( C o g A T ; Heller,
Gaedike, & Weinläder, 1 9 8 5 ) was used for measuring cognitive abilities/inductive t h i n k i n g .
T h e study included t w o g r o u p test sessions: D u r i n g step 1 (1st day) t h e verbal sort-recall-task
(and other tests a n d questionnaires n o t reported i n this presentation) w e r e applied. T h e next
day, t h e children h a d t o complete a m e t a m e m o r y questionnaire first, a n d second, a parallel
f o r m of the verbal sort-recall-task was given (in addition other tests a n d questionnaires n o t
r e p o r t e d i n this presentation w e r e lead through).
Results
T h e results of this study are summarized i n t h e following theses (for m o r e details see Perleth,
1992):
1)
B o t h 2 n d and 4 t h graders showed strategic behavior.
2)
A s expected, older children w e r e superior i n m e t a m e m o r y variables.
3)
T h e relationships between m e t a m e m o r y scores, strategy use, a n d m e m o r y achievement
w e r e relatively small.
4)
G o o d strategy users w e r e only found m o r e frequently i n the m o r e gifted pupils of the grade
4.
5)
Intelligence t u r n e d out t o be a better predictor of m e m o r y performance t h a n m e t a m e m o r y .
6)
T h e "hidden i n t e r v e n t i o n " showed nearly n o effects.
Discussion
F r o m a general p o i n t of view, t h e results p r o v e d impressingly that even younger p r i m a r y
school children spontaneously use sorting strategies i n a sort-recall-task. T h i s contradicts, for
example, Bjorklund's (1985) standpoint that only children f r o m grade 5 o n spontaneously
produce cluster strategies. C o n c e r n i n g giftedness effects, the differences between t h e different
giftedness groups under investigation i n sorting behavior and m e t a m e m o r y variables w e r e - if
any - m u c h smaller t h a n expected. Most of the few differences w e r e f o u n d i n children of grade
4 . This m i g h t indicate that giftedness effects enlarge w i t h g r o w i n g age. O n the other h a n d ,
intelligence variables captured m u c h m o r e variance i n achievement variables t h a n m e t a m e m o r y
variables. This undermines the results of Carr and B o r k o w s k i ( 1 9 8 7 ) a n d also Kurtz a n d W e i n e r t
(1987) w h o judged m e t a m e m o r y as a m o r e i m p o r t a n t predictor t h a n intelligence.
H o w e v e r , the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the results of study 1 w e r e complicated because (1) reliability
problems of the m e t a m e m o r y g r o u p questionnaire; (2) the fact that the sample of the M u n i c h
Giftedness Study was pre-selected by a teacher screening; (3) the " h i d d e n i n t e r v e n t i o n " via
questionnaire c a n n o t be regarded as a real intervention.
Therefore, study 2 and 3 w e r e planned t o further clarify the above research questions by
designs w h i c h w e r e likely t o give some answers i n t w o different studies.
Study 2
Research questions a n d h y p o t h e s e s
Study 2 was planned as a n intensive study (single experimental sessions) of t h e strategy
Strategy use a n d m e t a m e m o r y i n gifted and average p r i m a r y school children
49
behavior and m e t a m e m o r y of p r i m a r y school children of different levels of giftedness.
T h e research questions were:
1)
D o gifted and average children differ i n a) the extent of use of a clustering strategy, b)
m e m o r y performance, c) m e t a m e m o r y , and d) t h e n u m b e r and effectiveness of strategies
used?
2)
A r e there larger differences i n a m o r e difficult (free recall) task?
3)
A r e there relations between g o o d strategy use, intelligence, and academic achievement?
4)
W h a t are t h e relationships between g o o d strategy use a n d personality characteristics.
Method
A r o u g h description of the sample can be seen i n the following table:
Ν (female, male)
Grade 2:
Grade 4:
IQ < 90
14 (7, 7)
13 (8, 5)
95 < IQ < 105
18 (10, 8)
15 (7, 8)
115 < IQ
17 (13, 4)
18 (7, 11)
F o r measuring cognitive abilities/inductive t h i n k i n g t h e G e r m a n Culture Fair Intelligence Test
(CFT; Weiss & Osterland, 1 9 8 0 ) was employed i n addition t o t h e G e r m a n Cognitive Abilities
Test ( C o g A T ; see above).
T h e free-recall-task used consisted of a categorizable list w i t h 2 4 w o r d s . T h e r e was n o sorting
possibility: the children had t o learn and reproduce the words after a keeping p e r i o d . Indicators
derived f r o m t h e task w e r e 1) the A R C for clustering of t h e recalled items a n d 2) m e m o r y
performance. M e t a m e m o r i a l interviews were conducted after b o t h tasks.
T h e scales of t h e G e r m a n C o g A T and G e r m a n C F T used as well as additional questionnaires
(on self concept, causal attribution, w o r k i n g styles) w e r e applied i n g r o u p test sessions (step 1).
O n t h e basis of t h e results of the intelligence tests t h e three groups w e r e selected for t h e following
steps. T h e verbal sort-recall-task and the m e t a m e m o r y interviews w e r e conducted i n single
sessions (step 2). Finally, the children had t o w o r k o n the free recall task (group sessions) and,
afterwards, w e r e interviewed o n their strategies individually (step 3).
Results
T h e results of study 2 can be summarized as following (see Perleth, 1 9 9 2 , for a m o r e detailed
description):
1)
C o n c e r n i n g strategy use, a slight superiority of the gifted children was f o u n d only i n the
children of grade 4 .
2)
Older a n d m o r e able pupils showed a higher a m o u n t of m e m o r y , the differences being as expected - larger i n the m o r e difficult free-recall-task.
3)
T h e older a n d m o r e able pupils i n grade 4 showed a slightly better m e t a m e m o r y , while
n o differences could be found i n grade 2.
4)
I n contradiction t o other research reported i n the literature, intelligence showed a stronger
relationship t o m e m o r y performance t h a n m e t a m e m o r y .
5)
I n the 4 t h graders, g o o d strategy user showed better m e m o r y performance, obtained better
school marks, and w e r e less anxious as well as m o r e stress-resistant.
6)
Reliability problems of simple m e t a m e m o r y questionnaires became obvious, thus c o n f i r m ­
i n g other results reported i n literature.
C h r i s t o p h Perleth
50
Study 3
Research questions a n d h y p o t h e s e s
T h e results of study 3 w e r e expected t o provide evidence about t h e question w h e t h e r (transfer)
effects of a m e t a m e m o r i a l intervention depend o n t h e level of giftedness. T h e f o l l o w i n g research
questions w e r e under investigation:
1)
C a n w e prove general effects of t h e training?
2)
If there w e r e any, t h e sizes of t h e (transfer) effects should be ordered as following: verbal
s-r-task > figural s-r-task > verbal series 2 > figure series > verbal series 1 = 0 .
3)
D o t h e effects of giftedness resp. the giftedness χ training-interactions rise w i t h g r o w i n g
transfer distances.
Bear i n m i n d that t h e focus of study 3 was n o t the testing of training c o m p o n e n t s b u t t h e
analysis of transfer effects dependent o n the level of giftedness.
Method
T h e following table contains the relevant characteristics of the sample of study 3 :
Ν (female, male)
Training
Control
PR < 30
19 (7, 12)
19 (8, 11)
30 < PR < 70
29 (13, 16)
28 (7, 21)
70 < PR
15 (12,3)
16 (9, 7)
A s i n study 2 , scales of the t h e G e r m a n C o g A T and C F T w e r e used for assessing cognitive
abilities a n d inductive t h i n k i n g . T h e verbal sort-recall-task was e m p l o y e d as a pre- and posttest.
In a d d i t i o n , three transfer tasks w e r e constructed i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h D r . E. Räder f r o m the
University of Leipzig.
T h e figural sort-recall-task consisted of 2 0 cards w i t h geometrical figures, sortable along t w o
dimensions (form and number/color). T h e phases w e r e the same as i n t h e verbal sort-recall-task.
Indicators of m e m o r y behavior and performance w e r e 1) the A R C for sorting and recall behavior
(clustering), separately for b o t h dimensions and 2) the a m o u n t of correctly recalled items.
I n the first p a r t of the test " C o m p l e t i o n of Verbal Series", the children had t o fill out the b l a n k
i n a series of words. H e r e , n o categorization was needed. Example: T o solve the items of part
2 of t h e test, children had t o choose one out of five pssible answers. H e r e categorization was
needed for t h e correct answer. Example: T o complete the items of the scale C o m p l e t i o n of
Figural Series t h e children had t o find out the missing element of a series of geometrical figures
and t o d r a w t o missing figure i n the free slot. Example: This w a y the different (transfer) tasks
varied along t h e dimensions task p a r a d i g m and material:
Task Paradigm:
M a t e r i a l : verbal
M a t e r i a l : figural
Sort-Recal 1 -Task
Verbal Sort-Recal1-Task
Figural Sort-Recal1-Task
Series
Verbal Series 1, 2
Figural Series
T h e different tasks w e r e given i n the following procedures:
(1)
Pretest:
Session 1: G e r m a n C o g A T , G e r m a n C F T t o measure intelligence o r inductive t h i n k i n g .
Session 2 : (Verbal) sort-recall-task.
(2)
Training:
T h e short t r a i n i n g (all i n all about 6 0 - 7 0 minutes i n t w o sessions) started w i t h a
Strategy use a n d m e t a m e m o r y i n gifted and average p r i m a r y school children
51
d e m o n s t r a t i o n of the strategy and t h e teaching of strategy knowledge by attractive models
i n a w i n n i n g story. T h e children t h e n applied the strategy (to enhance their self c o n t r o l
strategies and demonstrate t h e usefulness of the strategy). V a r i a t i o n of examples (taken
f r o m real life t o enlarge ecological validity) should prepare t h e transfer.
(3)
Posttest:
Session 1: (Verbal) sort-recall-task 2 ; verbal series.
Session 2 : Figural sort-recall-task; figural series.
T h e t w o sessions of the pretest w e r e lead t h r o u g h o n t w o successive days. T h e t w o training
sessions t o o k place about one w e e k later. A b o u t another week after t h e training sessions, t h e
posttest sessions w e r e carried out.
Results
1)
T h e training t u r n e d out t o be highly effective i n increasing the use of a cluster strategy i n
children of all levels of giftedness or intelligence.
2)
S t r o n g training effects w e r e found for near transfer, smaller training effects for middle and
far transfer tasks.
3)
O n l y small giftedness χ training-interactions could be f o u n d . T h e tendencies indicated that,
w i t h g r o w i n g transfer distance, t h e m o r e able pupils did indeed p r o f i t m o r e f r o m the
training.
For m o r e details see Perleth (1992).
Conclusions
B e a r i n g i n m i n d the findings of studies i n the relationships between giftedness and m e t a m e m ­
ory o r m e t a c o g n i t i o n (for overview see Perleth, 1 9 9 2 ; Perleth, L e h w a l d , & B r o w d e r , 1 9 9 3 ) ,
the f o l l o w i n g conclusions could be d r a w n f r o m the three studies presented here:
1)
Even y o u n g p r i m a r y school children (grade 2) of all ability levels use a cluster strategy for
learning categorizable items.
2)
Differences i n strategy use and m e t a m e m o r y between groups of children of different levels
of giftedness could be f o u n d . These differences, however, w e r e m u c h smaller t h a n
expected (also i n t h e m o r e difficult tasks). This finding (which contradicts other findings
f r o m the U S A ) could be explained as a n effect of (West) G e r m a n schooling w h i c h stresses
a n d fosters the use of a p p r o p r i a t e learning strategies especially i n p o o r e r learners.
3)
2 n d graders c a n be taught a useful clustering strategy i n very short training. W h i l e most
children a p p l y the strategy i n near transfer tasks, a t r e n d was found that the m o r e able the
children are t h e higher is the probability t o e m p l o y the n e w strategy i n tasks of m e d i u m
a n d far transfer.
T a k e n together, t h e results give some evidence for the intelligence concept of C a m p i o n e and
B r o w n ( 1 9 7 8 ; see also C a m p i o n e , B r o w n , & Ferrara, 1 9 8 2 ) w h o p u t t h e breadth of transfer
in t h e center of their considerations. A l t h o u g h this m o d e l was originally derived f r o m p o o r
learners and retarded children, it also seems t o fit t o gifted children. O n t h e other h a n d , the
m e t a m e m o r y variables investigated i n the studies here presented m i g h t have been t o o simple
(knowledge a n d use of relatively simple clustering and other m e m o r y strategies). ' H i g h e r order"
m e t a m e m o r i a l or metacognitive variables (complex strategic behavior a n d elaborated plans)
were n o t object of t h e studies. Especially i n older children, however, differences between
children and youths of different levels of giftedness m i g h t occur under these aspects (see for
example t h e results of Sternberg, 1 9 9 1 , or Shore & Dover, 1 9 8 7 ) . Especially t h e training study
showed that elements of m e t a m e m o r i a l or metacognitive training c a n be i m p l e m e n t e d easily
C h r i s t o p h Perleth
52
i n n o r m a l schooling. It was also obvious that n o t only t h e m o r e able, b u t all children profited
f r o m t h e short a n d n o t costly t r a i n i n g . T h i s is confirmed b y training studies w i t h educable
mentally retarded and learning disabled children w h i c h w e r e carried o u t w i t h t h e same or similar
material (Perleth, Schuker, & H u b e l , 1 9 9 2 ; Perleth, 1 9 9 2 ) . Thus, the research here presented
shows that investment i n giftedness research can also yield r e t u r n for average a n d under-average
children.
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Flavell, J . H . , & Wellman, Η. M . (1977). Metamemory. In R. V. Kail, Jr., & J . W. Hagen (Eds.),
Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition (pp. 3-33). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Heller, K. A. (1991). The nature and development of giftedness: A longitudinal study. European
Journal
for High Ability, 2, 174-188.
Heller, K., Gaedike, A. K., & Weinläder, Η. (1985). Kognitiver Fähigkeitstest (KFT 4-13+) (2nd ed.).
Weinheim: Beltz.
Kontos, S., Swanson, H . L., & Frazer, C. T. (1984). Memory-metamemory connection in intellectually
gifted and normal children. Psychological Reports, 54, 9 3 0 .
Kurtz, Β. E., & Weinert, F. E. (1987). Metacognition,
strategy use, and causal attributions in highand average-achieving children (Preprint 10/87). Munich: MPI für Psychologische Forschung.
Perleth, Ch. (1992). Strategienutzung,
Metagedächtnis und intellektuelle Begabung.
Querschnittsund Interventionsstudien
bei Grundschülern [Strategy use, metamemory,
and
intellectual
giftedness. Cross sectional and training studies in primary school children] (Dissertation). Munich:
University of Munich.
Perleth, Ch., & Heller, K. A. (1993). The Munich Longitudinal Study of Giftedness. In R. Subotnik &
K. Arnold (Eds.), Beyond Terman: Longitudinal
studies in contemporary
gifted education (pp.
77-114). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Perleth, Ch., Lehwald, G., & Browder, C. S. (1993). Indicators of high ability in young children. In K.
A. Heller, F. J . Mönks, & A. H . Passow (Eds.), International
handbook of research and
development of giftedness and talent (pp. 283-310). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Perleth, Ch., Schuker, G., & Hubel, S. (1992). Metagedächtnis und Strategienutzung bei Schülern mit
Lembehinderungen: eine Interventionsstudie [Metamemory and strategy use in children with learning
handicaps: A training study]. Sonderpädagogik, 22, 20-35.
Schneider, W., Borkowski, J . G., Kurtz, Β. E., & Kerwin, K. (1986). Metamemory and motivation: A
comparison of strategy use and performance in German and American children. Journal of Cross
Cultural Psychology, 17, 315-336.
Schneider, W., & Pressley, M. (1989). Memory development between 2 and 20. New York: Springer.
Shore, Β. M., & Dover, A. C. (1987). Metacognition, intelligence and giftedness. Gifted
Child
Quarterly, 31, 37-39.
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(Eds.), Handbook of gifted education (pp. 45-54). Boston: Aliyn and Bacon.
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Westermann.
III.
CREATIVITY A N D I N N O V A T I O N
Introduction
I n his review article, Klaus U r b a n first approaches t h e definition p r o b l e m . H e makes a cause
for equating creativity and divergent t h i n k i n g . H i s m a i n focus is o n t h e creative process using
various theoretical models including one of his o w n - a c o m p o n e n t m o d e l . Finally, so-called
foreign, t h a t is, non-psychological research paradigms are discussed briefly w i t h regard t o their
relevance f o r creativity research. T h e next contribution by Edward Necka is concerned w i t h
gifted individual's behavior i n new task situations. Three experiments are presented whose
results, according t o the author, p o i n t t o w a r d a redefinition of t h e relationship between
intelligence a n d creativity i n view of m o d e m models of i n f o r m a t i o n processing. T h e t w o
contributions following this are also dedicated to the empirical analysis of creative t h o u g h t
process i n adolescents. Ornella Dentici A n d r e a n i varies between logical and physical problems,
giving t h e m a i n credit for solving everyday problems to analogous, inductive t h i n k i n g and at
t h e same t i m e t o moral-social components. T h e results, w h i c h are n o t always conclusive, are
discussed w i t h regard t o i n f o r m a t i o n theory assumptions a n d p o i n t i n g out methodological
insufficiencies. M a r i a Trifonova's experiment is designed t o study t h e role of creative process
w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of semantic perception - w i t h the aid of undefined (figural) materials - i n a
cognitive psychological study. T h e theory this is based o n is m a i n l y learning, cultural and
knowledge t h e o r y out of Russia. T h e results are presented very differentially p o i n t i n g out
consequences for creativity research and educational practices w i t h regard t o creativity.
Whereas t h e previous contributions w e r e m o r e or less directed at the individual, i n the
following papers, t h e focus is m o r e o n situation and organizational o r rather system conditions
(without, of course, losing sight of the individual entirely). First, Lutz v o n Rosenstiel presents a
54
Introduction
synopsis of t h e results f r o m t h e s y m p o s i u m " H i g h ability i n organizations". Despite various
emphases o n personal or institutional influences, all six contributions clearly p o i n t out h o w
interlocked individual and situation or organizational factors are w i t h regard t o professional o r
industrial innovations. Whereas H e l m u t Kasper focuses o n "the role of actors i n organizations
f r o m t h e perspective of self-referential system t h e o r y " and presents implications f o r managem e n t t o be discussed, Heinz Schüler attempts t o support Edison's t h e o r y of genius i n t h e light
of m o d e r n research o n p r o b l e m solving i n his concluding c o n t r i b u t i o n . H i s central premise is
that a m i n i m a l role is played by intelligence o r inspiration i n the development o f creative
performances. T h i s agrees, o n the one h a n d , w i t h current results f r o m creativity research (for
example, as presented b y Weisberg i n his w e l l - k n o w n b o o k "Creativity a n d other m y t h s of
genius") but o n t h e other h a n d , leaves certain questions unanswered f r o m the differential
psychological p o i n t of view or f r o m t h e developmental life span p a r a d i g m (e. g. S i m o n t o n ' s
"constant probability of success" model). I n the last presentations, i m p o r t a n t situation d e t e r m i nants of creative performance are p o i n t e d out that are all t o o frequently neglected o r blended
out i n t h e research approaches based m o r e o n t h e individual. This completes the circle t o t h e
c o m i n g contributions: A satisfactory explanation of creative performance w i l l n o t be able t o do
so w i t h o u t all of t h e approaches s h o w n here.
Recent trends in creativity research and theory
Klaus K . Urban
University
of Hannover,
Hannover,
Germany
Increasing interest in the topic
Interest i n creativity seems t o have increased a lot during t h e last 5 t o 8 years again. T h i s is
reflected i n recent publications a n d events; for example: Beside t h e " o l d " " J o u r n a l of Creative
B e h a v i o r " there is "The Creative C h i l d and A d u l t Quarterly" a n d since 1 9 8 7 the "Creativity
Research J o u r n a l " . T h e 8 t h W o r l d Conference o n Gifted a n d Talented 1 9 8 9 i n Salt Lake City
was p r e d o m i n a n t l y devoted t o creativity. T h e r e are freshly installed international networks like
t h e "Institute of Creative Intelligence" (ICI) or t h e "International Creativity N e t w o r k " (ICN) w i t h
its seat i n Buffalo. Four recently published readers give g o o d insights i n t o t h e state of the art,
namely Sternberg's "The Nature of Creativity" ( 1 9 8 8 ) , ' T h e Creative M i n d " b y Flach (1988),
t h e " H a n d b o o k of Creativity", edited b y Glover, R o n n i n g and Reynolds ( 1 9 8 9 ) , a n d Runco and
Albert's b o o k "Theories of creativity", published i n 1 9 9 0 .
Four years ago at t h e 1st E C H A Conference I tried t o summarize developments i n creativity
research a n d t h e o r y i n Western Europe f r o m 1 9 7 7 o n ; that p a p e r was published i n the first
issue of t h e E C H A J o u r n a l (Urban, 1 9 9 0 ) . S o m e of those findings w i l l have t o be m e n t i o n e d
here, t o o , t h o u g h i n a modified w a y since mainly other t h a n E u r o p e a n literature w i l l be referred
t o . A g a i n , I will o m i t all literature dealing w i t h m a i n l y psychoanalytic o r therapeutic views of
creativity.
Creative thinking is more than just quantitatively measurable divergent thinking
T h e long-lasting dominance of A m e r i c a n creativity approaches a n d t h e i r adaptation, especially i n test a p p l i c a t i o n , has partially a n d for some time led t o a limited view of creativity, finally
seen as b e i n g synonymous w i t h divergent t h i n k i n g . S o m e recent n e w developments i n the field
of diagnostic assessment of creativity, w h i c h interestingly e n o u g h all derise f r o m t h e G e r m a n
speaking area, t r y t o have a broader cognitive basis, including qualitative aspects. T h e ' T e s t for
Creative T h i n k i n g - D r a w i n g P r o d u c t i o n T C T - D P " (Jelien & U r b a n , 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 8 9 ; U r b a n &
Jellen, 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 8 6 ; U r b a n , 1 9 9 1 b ) or the TSD-Z i n G e r m a n , elicits a d r a w i n g p r o d u c t i o n ,
m o r e o r less based o n given simple figural fragments; this is assessed by means of a set of 1 4
categories. A verbal-literal f o r m and a m o r e psychomotoric, bodily expressive, playful version
are i n progress. A w i t h d r a w a l f r o m one-dimensional instruments can be observed, t o o , i n the
multi-dimensional diagnostic procedures by K r a m p e n , Frielinger and W i l m s (1990).
Interplay and integration of divergent and convergent thinking
T h e seeming o p p o s i t i o n of intellectual versus creative respectively convergent versus divergent
t h i n k i n g does n o t seem t o be useful any longer (Wolters, 1 9 8 7 ) . T w o n e w diagnostic tools
developed b y Facaoaru (1985), explicitly consider b o t h modes of t h i n k i n g i n a mediated o r
integrated way. These are the ' T e s t des räumlichen Einrichtens" (TRE), a test of spatial
arrangements, and the ' T e s t der Zahlenreihen u n d A n a l o g i e n (TZRA)", w o r k i n g w i t h sequences
of numbers and analogies. Heller (1992b) states that only the simultaneous use of b o t h
c o m p o n e n t s together w i t h comprehensive expert knowledge w i l l i m p r o v e t h e productivity for
Klaus Κ. U r b a n
56
effective solutions. Initially m o r e divergent t h i n k i n g is necessary i n order t o generate hypotheses,
later o n m o r e convergent t h i n k i n g is needed i n order t o test and decide u p o n solutions. Referring
t o Dörner's et al. ( 1 9 8 3 ) studies about solving highly c o m p l e x problems, Preiser ( 1 9 8 7 ) stresses
that it is n o t only necessary t o have b o t h convergent and divergent t h i n k i n g at one's disposal,
but t o integrate b o t h processes i n t o a n e w w a y of p r o b l e m solving t h i n k i n g . T u r n i n g away f r o m
traditional intelligence studies, Rüppell f r o m Cologne, changes the t e r m I Q i n t o Q I , m e a n i n g
the quality of i n f o r m a t i o n processing. H e has studied those cognitive styles and operations that
m i g h t be basic a n d necessary for innovators for inventing, especially i n t h e natural-scientifictechnical area. A s a f o u n d a t i o n for his computerized D A N T E test, he w o r k e d out and described
the f o l l o w i n g qualities o r parameters of inventive tJiinking w h i c h involve, differentiate, a n d
extend t h e classic d i c h o t o m y :
- analogy guided t h i n k i n g : sensitivity for analogies (SA),
- selective elaboration (SE),
- logical-deductive c a p a c i t y of c o o r d i n a t i o n (CC),
processing of i n f o r m a t i o n a n d abstraction,
- spatial-topological flexibility of structuring (FS),
including quick reception and
- synergetic co-playing of different representational formats or synergetic t h i n k i n g (ST).
In spite of several indicators for sufficient validities of "creativity" tests, problems r e m a i n
c o n c e r n i n g criterion validity a n d prognostic validity. Relatively l o w coefficients for reliability a n d
validity could be due t o t h e fact that most instruments are trying t o measure general creativity,
independently of area- specific potentials, whereas t h e recent cognitive psychology and research
i n expertise have w o r k e d out t h e critical relevance of field-specific knowledge a n d abilities.
T h e dialectics of/in creativity
T h e idea becomes increasingly clear that n o t only the old o p p o s i t i o n of convergent a n d
divergent t h i n k i n g has t o be overcome, but that it is essential for t h e creative process and t h e
creative person i n general that apparently opposite styles of t h i n k i n g , cognitive abilities,
personality traits a n d dimensions have t o be balanced o r integrated. O n l y t h r o u g h the p r i n c i p l e
of d i c h o t o m y (Jeffmar, 1 9 8 0 ) , t h e balance of opposites (Vaughan, 1 9 8 5 ) , t h r o u g h the dialectic
interaction of personality traits a n d of the c o m p o n e n t s of the creative process, the creator is
prepared, free, and able t o successfully search for something the new. This dialectic a p p r o a c h
can be seen i n Preiser's ( 1 9 8 7 ) simultaneous need for influence and c o n t r o l versus the need for
safety a n d security, as w e l l as i n the integration of intuition and analysis i n Heller and Facaoaru's
( 1 9 8 7 ) c o n t r i b u t i o n about self- and system-knowledge o r i n Wolters' ( 1 9 8 7 ) description of a
t h e o r y of productive t h i n k i n g .
T h e creative process
W e i s b e r g ' s a t t e m p t s at " d e - m y s t i f i c a t i o n "
Weisberg's b o o k ( 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 8 9 ) stimulated the recent discussion about creativity a g o o d deal.
A m o n g others, he tried t o demonstrate that apparently sudden insights are n o t special processes
but extended ways of n o r m a l processes of p e r c e p t i o n , m e m o r y , and problem-solving. For h i m
the w e l l - k n o w n steps of incubation and illumination are n o t h i n g but insufficiently investigated
and described steps of a highly complex, but n o r m a l step-by-step p r o b l e m solving process o n
a n extremely h i g h t h i n k i n g level. I cannot discuss this p o s i t i o n here, but I t h i n k one has t o
differentiate at least c o n c e r n i n g t w o aspects; first, asking for t h e innovative p o w e r and original
i m p o r t a n c e of the respective creative product, a n d second, considering that different people
w i t h differing knowledge and potentials could go about solving t h e same p r o b l e m i n very
different ways.
Recent trends i n creativity research and theory
57
A definition
Focussing for t h e m o m e n t o n t h e cognitive side of the creative p r o b l e m solver and the process,
I w o u l d like t o define creativity as follows; t h e definition implies t h e ideal-typical description of
t h e process f r o m t h e p r o b l e m t o t h e creative product:
Creativity means t h e
(1) t h e creation of a new, unusual, and surprising product as a solution of a n insightfully
a n d sensitively perceived p r o b l e m or of a given p r o b l e m w h o s e implications have been
perceived sensitively;
(2) o n t h e basis and by means of a sensible, insightful, and broad p e r c e p t i o n of existing,
available a n d o p e n data as well as of i n f o r m a t i o n searched for a n d acquired openly a n d
purposefully;
(3) by analyzing, by solution-oriented but highly flexible processing a n d utilizing unusual
associations and n e w combinations of this i n f o r m a t i o n and w i t h t h e help of data f r o m
one's o w n broad and comprehensive knowledge bases (experiences) and/or w i t h imagined
elements;
(4) by synthesizing, structuring and c o m p o s i n g these data, elements, a n d structures i n t o
a n e w solution-gestalt (whereby t h e processes i n # 3 a n d # 4 m a y partially r u n simultaneously o n different processing and consciousness levels);
(5) a n e w solution-gestalt, w h i c h is elaborated as a product o r i n a product i n whatever
shape o r f o r m ;
(6) a n d w h i c h finally t h r o u g h c o m m u n i c a t i o n m a y be grasped directly via t h e senses o r
via symbolic representation and experienced by others as meaningful and significant
(Urban, 1 9 9 0 ) .
A s already indicated i n (4), the creative process is n o t t o be seen as a simple step-by-step,
one-dimensional procedure, but as a back-and-forth, up-and-down swinging, multidimensional,
partially simultaneously occurring process dependent o n personality variables, like m o t i v a t i o n ,
as well as o n environmental conditions, like material resources, social obstacles etc.
T h e t e r m " p r o b l e m " here is understood i n a very broad sense; n o t only a stated and formulated
question is considered t o be a p r o b l e m , but also the idea of creating a musical c o m p o s i t i o n , of
designing a n e w dress for specific purposes, the idea of looking at something i n a new w a y etc.,
even a need m a y constitute a p r o b l e m ; but n o t every p r o b l e m is one t o be solved creatively.
W e m a y differentiate between different degrees of openness vs. closeness of a p r o b l e m
regarding the input i n f o r m a t i o n or entrance question o n t h e one h a n d a n d t h e solution or
product o n t h e other h a n d (open p r o b l e m / o p e n product; o p e n p r o b l e m / close product; close
p r o b l e m / o p e n product; close p r o b l e m / close product). N o r m a l l y less creativity is used for
the last t y p e of problems w h i c h at most give r o o m for creative t h i n k i n g and d o i n g only as t h e
process, t h e w a y f r o m the p r o b l e m t o the product, is regarded, and if suddenly a n unexpected
and unusual obstacle arises.
T h e definition a t t e m p t shows again, that, even under a mainly cognitive perspective, creative
t h i n k i n g is m u c h m o r e t h a n "mere" divergent t h i n k i n g . A broad p e r c e p t i o n and deep multiple
n e t w o r k i n g of i n f o r m a t i o n is a presupposition for divergent and associative t h i n k i n g , w h i c h
again is accompanied and supported by convergent forms of t h i n k i n g . T h e o p e n , but
goal-oriented process is a i m i n g at a solution-gestalt, w h i c h makes sense a n d has relevance i n
itself, is meaningful and provides a n adequate solution for a given, f o u n d , sensitively seen
p r o b l e m . T h i s is true for a n e w kind of car tire as well as for a sculpture o r a n e w processing
m e t h o d for hamburgers.
Finally a creative solution-gestalt has t o become c o m m u n i c a t e d , it has t o be recognized a n d
appreciated by others i n order t o unfold its inherent creative and stimulating p o w e r . A new,
Klaus Κ. U r b a n
58
highly creative p r o d u c t w h i c h lies " h i d d e n i n the d a r k " has n o t any effect o r sense, probably
n o t even for t h e creator o n a long-term basis.
W h a t is obvious a n d substantial for t h e creative process and the creative p e r s o n , as m e n t i o n e d
above, is t h e "interactional" o r better "dialectic" principle w h i c h c a n be f o u n d at several
stages/places w h e n "gliding t h r o u g h t h e cosmos of creativity". T h e apparent, above m e n t i o n e d ,
dichotomies, w h i c h have t o be linked dialectically, appear, for example, i n
- t h e b r o a d , comprehensive, o p e n and
- the analytical and
t h e purposeful, selective p e r c e p t i o n ;
t h e synthesizing t h i n k i n g ;
- t h e logical c o m b i n i n g and
t h e free associative t h i n k i n g ;
- use of b r o a d general knowledge base and
- using "pieces of reality" and
t o p i c specific knowledge;
imaginated elements.
These "dialectics i n t h e creative process" (Urban, 1 9 9 0 , p . 106) are substantial a n d charac­
teristic n o t only for t h e cognitive side but for t h e personal side of t h e creative p r o b l e m solver,
t o o ; this m a y b e c o m e clearer by means of the c o m p o n e n t i a l m o d e l , w h i c h I w i l l present at t h e
end of m y paper.
Einstein and the change of focus
Using Einstein as a n example, Lesgold ( 1 9 8 8 ) demonstrates a n essential difference between
creatively productive a n d " n o r m a l " p r o b l e m solving processes. This lies i n t h e obvious i m p o r t ­
ance of t h e change between focussed, intense activity a n d t h e w i t h d r a w a l , t h e t a k i n g back of
this intensity, that is, defocussed phases.
If one w o r k s harder, the arousal is g r o w i n g , increased attention is paid m o r e t o t h e central
traits of t h e present task and situation and less t o the m o r e peripheral traits. O n e becomes
faster a n d m o r e efficient, but only i n following t h e most clear and obvious p a t h . Since
creativity is at least partially t h e discovering of n e w paths, some periods of lower intensity
are necessary, periods of relaxation, m o r e of musing t h a n fighting.
T h u s t h e genius of Einstein lies, o n t h e one h a n d , i n the adequate c o m b i n a t i o n of m i g h t y a n d
focussed t h i n k i n g a n d his expertise i n natural sciences a n d , o n t h e other h a n d , i n his ability t o
w i t h d r a w a n d muse f r o m time t o time. H e r e again, w e find t h e balance of oppositions. A n
additional factor is t h e possibility t o inhibiting o r slowing d o w n a n execution of products a n d
simply allow less directed t h i n k i n g t o dominate by spreading patterns of activity.
Following this p a t h of t h i n k i n g , t h e "mechanics and dynamics of the functional c o m p o n e n t i a l
system", t h e interplay between personal and cognitive c o m p o n e n t s , w h i c h w i l l be summarized
i n the final p a r t of m y presentation i n a c o m p o n e n t i a l m o d e l , the interaction between different
levels of consciousness o r awareness m a y become enlightened by recent neurophysiological
deliberations a n d findings.
Martindale ( 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 9 ) considered three older theoretical approaches as identical i n
principle a n d t r i e d a r e f o r m u l a t i o n i n terms of recent neurophysiologically oriented cognitive
psychology. T h e first of those three approaches is close t o Lesgold's ideas, namely Mendel­
sohn's ( 1 9 7 6 ) defocussing
hypothesis
w h i c h at the same time necessitates a large a t t e n t i o n
capacity. T h i s is supported, for example, by empirical evidence, that low-creative persons have
m u c h m o r e n a r r o w focused a t t e n t i o n t h a n m o r e creative ones (Deving & Battye, 1 9 7 1 ; Dykes
& M c G h i e , 1 9 7 6 ; Mendelsohn & Griswold, 1 9 6 6 ) .
A comparable - if n o t the same (see Mendelsohn & Griswold, 1 9 6 6 ) - p h e n o m e n o n is m e a n t
by M e d n i c k ( 1 9 6 2 ) i n his associational a p p r o a c h describing that creative p e o p l e have flatter
associational hierarchies t h a n non-creative ones, a n d are thus able t o produce unusual
associations b y bridging very far distances i n t h e associational n e t w o r k .
Recent trends i n creativity research and t h e o r y
59
A g a i n i n different terms, K r i s , as early as 1 9 5 2 , had postulated that creative individuals are
very capable i n a k e m a t i n g / s w i t c h i n g between the p r i m a r y a n d secondary m o d e of t h i n k i n g .
B o t h modes are seen as opposite poles of one c o n t i n u u m . W h i l e p r i m a r y cognitive processes
are m o r e autistic, free-associative, analogous and deal m o r e w i t h concrete images t h a n w i t h
abstract concepts, are t o be f o u n d i n d r e a m i n g , day- dreaming a n d hypnosis, secondary process
t h i n k i n g means t h e abstract, logical, reality-oriented t h i n k i n g of t h e daily w a k i n g consciousness.
A c c o r d i n g t o K r i s , t h e creative inspiration implies a "regression" towards a p r i m a r y status of
consciousness; elaboration a n d verification require a r e t u r n t o t h e secondary process status.
H e r e , again, t h e principle of dialectic interplay becomes obvious. A n u m b e r of empirical studies
support K r i s ' thesis that creative persons have a n easier access t o those p r i m a r y processes of
thinking (Martindale, 1 9 8 9 ; Suler, 1 9 8 0 ; W i l d , 1 9 6 5 ) , t h e y demonstrate m o r e fantasy activity
(Lynn & Rhüe, 1 9 8 6 ; Singer & M c C r a v e n , 1 9 6 1 ) , do r e m e m b e r t h e i r nightly dreams better
(Hudson, 1 9 7 5 ) , a n d m a y be m o r e easily hypnotized t h a n uncreative persons (Aston &
M c D o n a l d , 1 9 8 5 ; B o w e r s & v a n der Meulen, 1 9 7 0 ; L y n n & Rhüe, 1 9 8 6 ) .
Martindale ( 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 9 ) considers t h e rrand/brain as a huge set of nodes and connections
between these nodes, as a neuronal n e t w o r k . I n order t o be creative as m a n y nodes as possible
must b e c o m e activated simultaneously; this c a n h a p p e n most easily i n a state of low, but general
cortical arousal. T h e n there are m o r e and t o a same degree activated nodes t h a n i n a state of
higher arousal. A c c o r d i n g t o Martindale there is g o o d evidence for t h e assumption that p r i m a r y
process t h i n k i n g , defocussed attention, and flat associational hierarchies are linked t o states of
l o w cortical activation, t o l o w arousal.
Recent applications of "foreign" theories to creativity
A g a i n a n d again it is the creative process a n d the finding of t h e original, n e w , and innovative
solution, t h e classical phases of the so-called incubation a n d illumination/inspiration, w h i c h
seem t o be m o s t mysterious and unexplainable, w h i c h are most attractive a n d stimulating for
researchers a n d theorists. D u r i n g the last few years at least four n e w theoretical approaches
have been used for explaining t h e creative process, all of t h e m originally s t e m m i n g f r o m areas
outside of psychology or the social sciences.
T h e most recent attempts are t h e psycho-economic theory a n d t h e investment a p p r o a c h using
(as t h e names suggest) economic terms, partially i n a m e t a p h o r i c w a y (Rubenson, 1 9 9 1 ) . Nearly
simultaneously t h e y have been proposed by different researchers (Magyari-Beck, i n press;
Rubenson, 1 9 8 9 ; Rubenson & Runco, i n press; S i m o n , 1 9 8 8 ; Sternberg & Lubart, 1 9 9 1 a ;
Walberg, 1 9 8 8 ) . A m o n g others t h e y are t r y i n g t o explain the p r o d u c t i o n of creative results
respectively t h e engagement of single persons and groups b y means of implicit o r explicit
cost-effect-calculations or t o transfer investment strategies t o creative p r o d u c t i o n . For further
i n f o r m a t i o n I refer t o t h e controversial discussion between R u n c o ( 1 9 9 l a b ) , Rubenson ( 1 9 9 1 ) ,
a n d Sternberg and L u b a r t (1991b) i n one of the most recent issues of t h e Creativity Research
Journal (Vol 4 , N o 2).
T h r e e other theoretical approaches stem f r o m t h e field of mathematics a n d natural sciences;
o n l y the t h i r d o n e w i l l be discussed i n m o r e detail here.
T h e first one is t h e "catastrophe t h e o r y " described by Z e e m a n ( 1 9 7 7 ) a n d W o o d c o c k and
Davis ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; it was used b y Boles ( 1 9 9 0 ) i n order t o explain creative behavior as a special
f o r m of problem-solving behavior w h i c h under certain contextual factors involves a "catastrophic
j u m p " leading t o a creative solution.
A k i n d of ' j u m p ' is critical, t o o , for t h e so-called "idealistic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " of q u a n t u m t h e o r y
applied t o creativity as formulated especially b y G o s w a m i ( 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 0 a b ; M c C a r t h y ,
1 9 9 0 ) . F o r h i m , the creative act literally consists of a " q u a n t u m j u m p i n t h e m e c h a n i s m of the
60
Klaus Κ. U r b a n
m i n d " (Goswami, 1 9 9 0 , p . 2). A t the same t i m e , h e considers t h e q u a n t u m a p p r o a c h i n a m u c h
broader m e a n i n g by integrating t h e m o r e mechanistically a n d t h e m o r e organismically oriented
creativity theories. T h u s , t h e q u a n t u m theory of creativity becomes a t h e o r y of t h e developing
and changing self.
It is t h e consciousness, o r better: the awareness w h i c h makes t h e discontinuous a n d a-causal
status of q u a n t u m collapse a n d w h i c h makes a selection f r o m t h e transcendental a n d superpositional p o o l of opportunities. T h r o u g h the action of selecting, t h e result is lifted t o t h e level of
awareness, a n d this n e w possibility is linked t o a n e w conscious state of t h e self. T h i s is a n
analogy t o t h e a c t i o n of measuring i n q u a n t u m physics, w h e n s o m e t h i n g , light, for example,
is existing i n different u n k n o w n states or superpositions at t h e same t i m e a n d simply t h e action
of measuring defines t h e status of t h e object, o r said i n another way, w h e n t h e observation is
inevitably influencing a n d changing t h e observed.
T h e questions remains t h o u g h , i n w h i c h way a n d w h e n , a n d n o t only by chance o r accident,
t h e awareness is grasping t h e n e w idea out of a q u a n t u m state.
T h e t h i r d a n d most recent of those three theories applied t o creativity is t h e chaos theory. It
has generally been described b y Briggs and Peat (1989), Pagels ( 1 9 8 8 , and Rasband (1990),
adapted t o t h i n k i n g a n d b r a i n activity by Babloyantz et at. ( 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 8 6 ) , F r e e m a n (1991),
Skarda and Freeman ( 1 9 8 7 ) , t o creativity especially by Briggs ( 1 9 9 0 ) a n d by Sterling (1991).
T h e chaos t h e o r y is t h e result of nowadays possible and necessary endeavours t o describe and
explain p h e n o m e n a i n nearly all scientific areas, specially the natural sciences, n o t only - and
insufficiently - i n a mechanistic, mono-causal, and linear w a y as aggregates of simple c o m p o ­
nents, but t o re-interpret as complex, nonlinear, dynamic systems. A c c o r d i n g t o Davies, a n
expert i n theoretical physics, "regular", i . e. non-chaotic, behavior seems t o be m o r e t h e
exception t h a n t h e rule i n t h e natural sphere.
Chaos means a "behavior" w h i c h occurs i n such complex, nonlinear, dynamic systems. Internal
and external factors m a k e a dynamic system change continuously w h e r e b y cause a n d effect are
n o t related i n a simple p r o p o r t i o n a l way. Nonlinear systems behave f r o m t i m e t o t i m e i n a n
unpredictable m a n n e r , therefore t h e n a m e "chaotic"; the tendency for such behavior is called
t h e chaotic dynamics. T h e subjacent p o w e r is s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e highly sensible dependency
o n the starting conditions. T h e chaotic dynamics lead t o a n e w self-organization, a process, i n
w h i c h a system i n a far-from-equilibrium-state makes a n abrupt transition, i n t o t h e direction of
a m o r e elaborate and c o m p l e x state. This state is relatively stable until a n e w "crisis" of
equilibrium comes u p .
Every level of organization produces something fundamentally n e w w h i c h was n o t existent i n
the constitutive elements or parts of the previous level (Briggs & Peat, 1 9 8 9 ) ; this is the
archetype of creativity.
Recent neurophysiology and cognitive psychology, n o w , describe the infinitely c o m p l e x , i n a
parallell a n d simultaneous w a y w o r k i n g neuronal n e t w o r k of the b r a i n as a highly c o m p l e x ,
nonlinear, dynamic system w i t h chaotic dynamics. Freeman ( 1 9 9 1 ) is convinced that chaos and
chaotic fluctuations are fundamental for brain functions. Chaos, keeping the system i n a
far-from-equilibrium-state, allows for a n easy, fast and direct access t o all possible "attractors",
latent i n t h e b r a i n ; thus, the step-by-step searching t h r o u g h the m e m o r y stores becomes
superfluous. T h i s idea of a flexible and interactive m e m o r y system, o v e r c o m i n g t h e rigid
separation i n t o l o n g t e r m , short t e r m , and w o r k i n g stores, seems very obvious a n d useful i n
terms of creative t h i n k i n g ; I refer t o Rüppell's factor of synergetic t h i n k i n g w h i c h is possible
only i n a store interactive m o d e .
It is interesting, t o o , that this chaotic state is close t o the state of l o w cortical arousal described
by Martindale. Possibly t h e chaos t h e o r y i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h recent neurophysiology of t h e brain
m a y light u p a substantial part of t h e creative process. It c a n stand for a m o t o r a n d steering
61
Recent trends i n creativity research and t h e o r y
unit of t h e creative process, but for t h e one side only. A g a i n , i n stressing the dialectics of
opposites, w h a t is still missing is the conscious acting of t h e creative p e r s o n ; t h e other unit must
be seen i n t h e p o w e r f u l w i l l of the creator a n d his/her conscious striving for a n e w solution.
W h i l e creativity i n these theoretical approaches is seen m o r e as a bottom-up-process" t h a n as
a "top-down-process", t h e personal side of t h e creative p e r s o n remains excluded, t h e person
w h o o n t h e o n e side has t o (be able to) allow such chaotic states, a n d o n t h e other side must
use o r has t o be able t o use these states.
,r
T h e r e is a n o t h e r t h e o r y i n parts relatively close t o chaos t h e o r y a n d connected w i t h t h e same
p r o b l e m : t h e so-called "chance-configuration-theory" by S i m o n t o n (1988ab). H e r e , t o o , it is
assumed, first, that a large n u m b e r of possibilities for varying a n d c o m b i n i n g mental-cognitive
elements is available, and second, t h e occurrence of certain combinations c a n n o t be predicted.
W h i l e i n Feldman's coincidence theory, creative products sometimes are result of lucky accident
o r even of a n error, here "chance" similar t o chaos t h e o r y is n o t m e a n t t o be absolutely
accidental. T h e relation between t h e factor "luck" a n d creativity has extensively been discussed
b y A u s t i n ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; h e differentiates into four categories of chance, t h e m e r e accident, "serend i p i t y " , t h e luck of t h e expert, and the "elicited luck". Similar t o Cropley's ( 1 9 9 2 ) f o r m u l a t i o n
of luck as "the openmindedness for t h e igniting idea" t h e creative person w i t h his/her motives,
knowledge, a n d active w o r k plays a n essential role.
Comprehensive, interacting components model
T h o u g h u p t o n o w , especially for reason of actuality, a m o r e cognitive view of t h e creative
process was p r e d o m i n a n t , generally complex approaches of creativity are preferred m o r e a n d
m o r e , stressing t h e procedural interactive structure of cognitive a n d personal c o m p o n e n t s of
t h e creative individual, and t h e mutual interdependence of p e r s o n a n d e n v i r o n m e n t i n creative
acting.
I n Sternberg's "three-facet model of creativity" ( 1 9 8 8 ) three basic aspects are interacting i n
t h e creative activity. T h e first, "purely" cognitive facet Sternberg takes over f r o m his triarchic
t h e o r y of h u m a n intelligence, including intellectual traits w i t h relation to creativity, like insightful
t h i n k i n g . T h e second aspect implies functions of intellectual styles as a k i n d of m e n t a l
self-government. T h e t h i r d aspect refers t o personality traits w h i c h probably m o r e t h a n others
contribute t o creative achievements, like h i g h tolerance of ambiguity a n d t h e readiness t o
o v e r c o m e obstacles.
A m a b i l e ' s w o r k o n a "social psychology of creativity" (1983ab) was highly appreciated by her
scientific peers (e. g., B r o w n , 1 9 8 9 ) . She proposes n o t t o conceptualize creativity as a
personality trait o r a general ability, but as a behavior resulting f r o m certain constellations of
personal characteristics, cognitive abilities, a n d social environments. T h e three m a i n c o m p o nents she suggests, namely (1) area-relevant skills, (2) creativity-relevant skills, a n d (3) task
m o t i v a t i o n , n o t o n l y interact w i t h one another, but each of these c o m p o n e n t s itself arises f r o m
a n interplay of different internal and external factors.
T h e cognitively oriented process described i n t h e definition above is dependent o n personality
c o m p o n e n t s as presuppositional, s u p p o r t i n g , and interacting factors. I n order t o describe all
factors participating i n t h e creative process o n the side of t h e creative p r o b l e m solver it is
necessary t o design a m o r e complex m o d e l . T r y i n g t o integrate (both) seemingly opposite
positions I have tried t o design a componential
model of creativity (see figure 1).
T h i s m o d e l is built f r o m six c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h all w o r k a n d function together for a n d i n t h e
creative process. T h e first three representing t h e cognitive c o m p o n e n t s are:
1 Divergent t h i n k i n g a n d acting
2 General knowledge a n d t h i n k i n g base
Klaus Κ. U r b a n
62
3 Specific knowledge base a n d area-specific skills;
t h e o t h e r t h r e e representing t h e personality c o m p o n e n t s are:
4 Focusing a n d task c o m m i t m e n t
5 M o t i v a t i o n a n d motives
6 Openness a n d tolerance of ambiguity.
Divergent
thinking
- elaboration
- originality
- flexibility
- fluency
- problem
sensitivity
Openness/
Tolerance of
ambiguity
- openness for experiences
readiness to take risks
adaption and
resistance
-non-conformlsm
-relaxation
^
.
•humour
Ot
evaluation
- reasoning
and logical
thinking
- analyzing and
synthesizing
thinking
- memory
network
- broad per­
ception
Specific
knowledge base &
specific skills
- acquisition and mastery
of specific knowledge and
skills for specific areas of
creative thinking
and acting
Focusing/
Task commitment
Motives
need for novelty
playfulness
curiosity
drive for
knowledge
communication
self-actual­
ization
devotion/duty
need for control/
Instrumental
usefulness
- topic/object/product
focussing
- selectivity
- steadfastness
and persistence
.^V^
- concentration
0*
0
Figure
1:
C o m p o n e n t s m o d e l of creativity
T h e six c o m p o n e n t s again are composed by different subcomponents as described below a n d
i n figure 1. N o single c o m p o n e n t alone m a y be sufficient o r responsible f o r t h e w h o l e creative
process leading t o a creative p r o d u c t , but w o r k i n g together as a functional system, t h e y are
Recent trends i n creativity research and t h e o r y
63
used for o r participate i n or determine the creative process t o differing degrees and w i t h differing
subcomponents resp. combinations of subcomponents. T h e respective c o m p o n e n t i a l structures
o r t h e different creativities are dependent o n some conditions:
- t h e k i n d of t h e p r o b l e m ,
- t h e stage o r phase of t h e creative process,
- the k i n d of process i n relation t o the k i n d of t h e p r o b l e m ,
- t h e k i n d of process i n relation t o the k i n d of the product striven for,
- t h e respective conditions of m i c r o - a n d macro-environment.
A g a i n , the integration of opposites becomes essential, generally expressed by c o m p o n e n t s 1
t o 2 (or 3) as w e l l as 4 t o 6, and differentiated i n detail by various subcomponents.
C o m p o n e n t s a n d subcomponents w o r k together as a functional system w h i c h builds u p itself,
w h e r e b y each ( s u b c o m p o n e n t plays its interdependent, functionally adequate role at a certain
stage, a certain level, a certain situation. Each c o m p o n e n t is a presupposition a n d a result of
t h e others. O n l y some interdependences m a y be m e n t i o n e d briefly:
I n spite of some o n g o i n g critiques of the concept of divergent t h i n k i n g - w h i c h stem f r o m a
v i e w isolating a n d generalizing it - divergent
thinking, like t h e other c o m p o n e n t s , is considered
essential for t h e creative process and p r o d u c t i o n but it can only w o r k i n relation and c o n n e c t i o n
w i t h t h e other components. T h u s , it must found o n broad perception
and general
deep
knowledge
and thinking
base; those are presuppositions for fluent a n d flexible t h i n k i n g .
Reformulations, for example, have t o be analyzed and evaluated i n regard t o their usefulness
before their elaboration makes sense.
Divergent t h i n k i n g alone w i l l not lead t o creative excellence i n a special field w i t h o u t special
field mastery. I n recent years increasing attention has been given t o area specific knowledge
a n d expertise as a presupposition for generating creative ideas and products, especially for
those of outstanding a n d original, of historic and revolutionizing i m p o r t a n c e . I n following
A m a b i l e ( 1 9 8 3 ) , B r o w n ( 1 9 8 9 ) considers area relevant skills as being fundamental. A similar
p o s i t i o n is held by Hayes ( 1 9 8 9 ) p o i n t i n g out convincing evidence for t h e statement that i n
m a n y areas years of p r e p a r a t i o n and c o m m i t t e d w o r k are necessary i n order t o achieve i n really
creative products. Even Weisberg's ( 1 9 8 8 ) results, regardless of his attempts t o destroy several
so-called m y t h s about creativity, support the c o m p o n e n t of area-specific knowledge. T h e y
clearly show t h a t insights are n o t very likely if task relevant knowledge is missing; insights are
dependent o n t h e availability, accessibility, and integration of knowledge representations w h i c h
are necessary a n d useful for a given task.
T h e acquisition of comprehensive and detailed area specific knowledge a n d skills requires
disciplined topic commitment
and persistence
o n a h i g h level. T h e p r o b l e m i n question and
t h e connecting thematic field has t o be kept i n t h e focus of attention over a longer p e r i o d of
t i m e a n d w i t h varying intensity. C o n c e n t r a t i o n and selectivity are necessary for collecting,
analyzing, evaluating, and elaborating i n f o r m a t i o n and data.
H e r e , again, a n a p p r o p r i a t e motivation,
preferably intrinsic i n nature, is a presupposition.
A m a b i l e ( 1 9 8 3 ) , having this c o m p o n e n t i n the focus of her research, emphasizes the role of
intrinsic m o t i v a t i o n w h i c h emerges by the reaction of the individual t o intrinsic traits of the task.
H e r research shows the relevance of social and contextual factors for creative productions w h i c h
m a y become negatively influenced by external factors, like t h e expectation of evaluation o r even
b y r e w a r d or t h e lack of choice regarding the o w n engagement.
Hayes ( 1 9 8 9 ) , t o o , stresses the essential role of m o t i v a t i o n for creative achievements.
A c c o r d i n g t o h i m , n o purely cognitive variables have been f o u n d suited t o differentiate between
creative and non-creative people. Thus differences i n creativity seem t o have their o r i g i n i n
differences of m o t i v a t i o n w h i c h lead t o cognitive differences, for example, by the differing
Klaus Κ. U r b a n
64
intensity of acquisition and t h e extent of necessary knowledge a n d skills; together t h e y explain
t h e observed differences between creative and non-creative individuals.
Finally, i n dialectic relationship w i t h focussing and task c o m m i t m e n t , the c o m p o n e n t of
openness
and tolerance
of ambiguity
is of substantial relevance.
Creativity a n d the creative process resp. the degree o r level of creativity are n o t defined by
the procedural and c o m p o n e n t i a l characteristics alone but by t h e final creative p r o d u c t and the
quality of its n e w gestalt. Its success and its acceptability depend o n its i n h e r e n t communicative,
innovative, "infectious" p o w e r a n d o n t h e receptivity a n d evaluation of significant others and
the public.
A n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t differentiates between reference levels. Considering t h e criterion of
newness a n d t h e aspect of creative development i n c h i l d h o o d , it is i m p o r t a n t t o w o r k w i t h the
c o m p o n e n t s m o d e l i n three relations, namely referring t o individual, t o g r o u p o r local, and t o
societal, historical o r global dimensions.
R o o t e d i n t h e curious and playful behavior of t h e little child, creativity m a y develop i n spiral
circles, b e c o m i n g broader w i t h increasing creative experiences, developing t o full (adult/mature)
creativity containing all c o m p o n e n t i a l dimensions. A s far as it seems possible, t h e respective
subcomponents i n t h e figure are listed i n a developmental order f r o m the i n n e r t o t h e outer
dimensional circle.
T h e three m e n t i o n e d reference levels are not only i m p o r t a n t a n d necessary i n order t o assess
the respective creative quality of a product or f r o m a developmental view, but also as affecting
variables for t h e respective creative process.
T h i s m o d e l allows one t o place empirical results i n order as well as t o derive, t o n a m e diagnostic
a n d e m p i r i c a l questions, t o isolate t h e m for some t i m e w i t h o u t forgetting a n d neglecting the
w h o l e structure. T h e m o d e l still is relatively static a n d has t o be w o r k e d o n further; i t m a y be
transferred i n t o o r b e c o m e connected w i t h a homeostatic process m o d e l , perhaps partially a
chaotic o n e , w h i c h leads t h e creative process, starting f r o m the original p r o b l e m , a n d including
all t h e c o m p o n e n t s i n a problem-person-specific way, t o t h e elaborated creative p r o d u c t , as it
is indicated i n t h e definition above or/and m a y become elaborated t o a developmental model
respectively c o m b i n e d w i t h other models like Cohen's stage m o d e l (Cohen, 1 9 8 9 ) or her
developmental spiral m o d e l (Cohen, 1 9 9 0 ) .
W h a t can be derived f r o m developmental studies of creativity (e. g., U r b a n , 1 9 9 1 ) is that
general cognitive development and creative thinking/acting can n o t be separated i n very young
children. B u t socialization and education disconnect the f o r m e r c o m m o n line of development
because a certain w a y of intelligent behavior is favoured and challenged m o r e . T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n
of order a n d regularities i n t o the child's "creative chaos" inhibit and hinder further creative
development. Still, n o r m a l traditional education i n schools is far f r o m stimulating a n d s u p p o r t i n g
creative behavior a n d t h i n k i n g i n our y o u t h . T o change this situation is one of o u r great
challenges for t h e future.
It m i g h t be interesting t o see if and h o w those models and n e w theories of creativity will be
reflected s o m e time i n education, training, or daily life. Perhaps one day w e w i l l answer t o the
question " H o w do y o u do?" w i t h " O h thanks, very fine, everything is i n chaos w i t h m e ! "
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Gifted people and novel tasks
- The intelligence versus creativity distinction revisited -
Edward N ? c k a
Jagiellonian
University,
Cracow,
Poland
Abstract
T h e m o d e m information-processing a p p r o a c h t o giftedness suggests a n e w basis for the
classical intelligence versus creativity distinction. It is suggested that, a l t h o u g h intelligent people
deal w i t h novelty quite efficiently if t h e y have t o , they do n o t deliberately seek out such situations.
Creative people, o n the other h a n d , are m o r e willing t o c o n f r o n t novel tasks, a n d enjoy tackling
t h e m , even t h o u g h the efficiency w i t h w h i c h such tasks are p e r f o r m e d is moderate. T h i s thesis
is illustrated w i t h experimental evidence, and serves t o suggest some n e w procedures concerning
identification of the gifted and stimulation of the h u m a n intellectual potential.
Introduction
T h e r e are m a n y facets of giftedness but the area m a y be roughly divided i n t o t w o kinds of
abilities: those connected w i t h general mental ability, measured b y I Q tests, and those connected
w i t h creativity, assessed by divergent p r o d u c t i o n tests. It is quite w e l l d o c u m e n t e d (e. g.,
Sternberg, 1 9 8 8 ) that these t w o kinds of abilities are separate at t h e psychometric level of
analysis. I n other w o r d s , exceptional intelligence m a y or may n o t be associated w i t h exceptional
creativity, a n d vice versa.
T h e p r o b l e m arises of w h e t h e r it is possible t o differentiate intelligence a n d creativity at the
information-processing level as well. Intelligence m a y be described at this level as, for instance,
speed of information-processing operations (Vernon, 1 9 8 7 ) , increased capacity of w o r k i n g
m e m o r y (Necka, 1 9 9 2 a ) , or increased attentional capacity (Necka, 1 9 9 2 b ) . It seems interesting
t o check if elementary cognitive tasks that are used t o assess the information-processing
correlates of I Q may also reveal some i m p o r t a n t aspects of creativity. Consequently, i t seems
w o r t h investigating t h e information-processing correlates of b o t h intelligence a n d creativity i n
order t o check w h e t h e r the distinction between t h e m takes place also at this elementary level
of analysis.
Novel tasks seem especially relevant i n this respect, since intelligence m a y be defined as dealing
w i t h novelty, whereas creativity could be defined as p r o d u c i n g novelty. I n other w o r d s , intelligent
people are probably m o r e efficient i n dealing w i t h difficulty imposed by novel tasks, whereas
creative people are m o r e willing t o produce novel i n f o r m a t i o n and t o enjoy novel tasks. T h i s
hypothesis is examined w i t h three experiments, i n w h i c h three different cognitive tasks w e r e
used t o investigate h o w t h e subjects behave i n novel situations. These studies are not original,
they w e r e conducted previously and have been published elsewhere. T h u s , t h e present paper
is just a comprehensive and concise review of t h e data gathered by t h e a u t h o r and his colleagues.
Experiment 1
This study is a replication and extension of the experiment previously conducted by Chawarski
and Necka ( 1 9 8 9 ; see also Chawarski, 1 9 9 0 ) .
Gifted p e o p l e a n d novel tasks
69
Subjects
Ninety-eight candidates for university studies w e r e examined. T h e i r m e a n age was about 1 9 ,
a n d t h e y w e r e equally divided i n t o males a n d females.
Figure
1:
Exemplary stimulus used i n experiment 1
Standard
Deviation
of RT (msec)
[ ] Low Verbals
f§ High Verbals
Normal
Abnormal
Super
Abnormal
Condition
Figure
2:
Intraindividual standard deviation of R T as dependent o n experimental c o n d i t i o n
and level of verbal abilities (experiment 1) (significant effects: C o n d i t i o n by Verbal
Ability ρ < .05)
Materials
Computerized
test. A huge a r r o w appeared o n t h e c o m p u t e r screen (Figure 1). A subject
was supposed t o press t h e joystick as fast as possible i n t h e direction suggested b y t h e a r r o w
(in the n o r m a l condition). In the a b n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n , a subject was supposed t o press the joystick
i n t h e opposite direction, whereas i n t h e superabnormal c o n d i t i o n a subject h a d t o respond
perpendicularly t o t h e direction suggested b y t h e a r r o w (see Chawarski, 1 9 9 0 , f o r m o r e details).
A letter inside t h e a r r o w was critical because i t indicated w h i c h c o n d i t i o n was valid i n t h e given
Edward Necka
70
trial. T h e r e w e r e 2 4 n o r m a l trials, 2 4 abnormal trials, and 2 4 superabnormal ones. T h e trials
w e r e presented either i n blocks (homogeneous series) o r at r a n d o m (mixed series). Reaction
t i m e , intra-individual standard deviation of RT, a n d response accuracy w e r e registered. It was
assumed t h a t t h e m o r e " a b n o r m a l " the c o n d i t i o n is, t h e m o r e novelty is associated w i t h it;
therefore, t h e analysis of subjects responses i n these conditions should reveal their attitude
towards novelty.
Psychometric
tests. A variety of instruments w e r e applied, including Raven's Advanced
Progressive Matrices, t w o versions of a verbal analogy test, a n d U r b a n a n d Jellen's ( 1 9 8 6 ) Test
of Creative T h i n k i n g - D r a w i n g Production.
Results
O n l y a selection of results w i l l be presented here. Subjects w e r e dichotomized according to
the scores obtained w i t h t h e Raven test, a n d , separately, according t o t h e U r b a n a n d Jellen test
scores. T h e intelligent subjects responded faster (RT), m o r e regularly (reduced standard deviation
of RT), and m o r e accurately t h a n less intelligent ones. N o relationship has been f o u n d between
reaction t i m e a n d creativity; however, the other dependent variables (i.e., S D of R T and
accuracy) b r o u g h t about interesting results. Figure 2 shows t h a t t h e instability index rises as the
experimental c o n d i t i o n changes f r o m n o r m a l t o a b n o r m a l t o superabnormal, but t h e slope of
this function is m u c h steeper for less intelligent subjects. A n d Figure 3 shows quite similar
relationships although this t i m e subjects w e r e dichotomized according t o the creativity criterion.
170
Standard
Deviation
of RT (msec)
1 f i n
150
J High Creat
Q Low Creat
Normal
Abnormal
Condition
Figure
3:
Super
Abnormal
Intraindividual standard deviation of R T as dependent o n experimental c o n d i t i o n
a n d level of creativity (experiment 1) (significant effects: C o n d i t i o n by Creativity
Interaction ρ < .003)
Figure 4 shows t h a t accuracy of responses decreases almost linearly w i t h experimental
c o n d i t i o n , but this effect is typical of less intelligent subjects. T h e intelligent sub-group, o n the
other h a n d , behaved unexpectedly well i n the most d e m a n d i n g " s u p e r a b n o r m a l " c o n d i t i o n .
71
Gifted p e o p l e a n d novel tasks
Exactly t h e same relationship has been observed i n t h e case of creativity (Figure 5), t o t h e effect
t h a t less creative subjects decreased their accuracy as t h e experimented c o n d i t i o n changed f r o m
n o r m a l t o a b n o r m a l t o superabnormal, whereas m o r e creative ones did n o t show any significant
deterioration i n t h e "superabnormal" c o n d i t i o n .
Number of
Correct
Responses
[ ] Low Verbals
| § High Verbals
Normal
Abnormal
Super
Abnormal
Condition
Figure
4:
N u m b e r o f correct responses as dependent o n experimental c o n d i t i o n a n d level
of verbal abilities (experiment 1) (significant effects: C o n d i t i o n b y Verbal Ability
ρ < .002)
Number of
correct
responses
[ ] Low Creat
J
Normal
Abnormal
High Creat
Super
Abnormal
Condition
Figure
5:
N u m b e r of correct responses as dependent o n experimental c o n d i t i o n a n d level
of creativity (significant effects: C o n d i t i o n b y Creativity Interaction ρ < .05)
72
Edward Necka
Discussion
A s w e can see, creativity can be differentiated f r o m intelligence o n l y o n t h e basis of t h e reaction
t i m e : intelligence seems t o be associated w i t h increased speed of responding, whereas creativity
does n o t con-elate w i t h this dimension at all. H o w e v e r , the indices of stability and accuracy
suggest that such a distinction is n o t tenable. O n t h e contrary, creative subjects showed exactly
t h e same patterns of stability and accuracy as could be observed i n t h e case of intelligent subjects.
I n other words, novel and unusual versions of the task provoked h i g h I Q p e o p l e t o fast, regular,
and accurate responding. T h e same situations provoked creative p e o p l e o n l y t o increased
regularity a n d accuracy, but n o t t o increased speed. W h y so?
It seems that t h e motivational factor t o o k place i n this case. Creative individuals w e r e probably
fascinated by the unusual versions of t h e task a n d , therefore, they responded w i t h increased
attention, c o n c e n t r a t i o n , and thoughtfulness. T h e n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n , o n t h e other h a n d , was
probably t o o b o r i n g for t h e m t o induce the cognitive curiosity o r fascination. A s t o intelligence,
the efficiency factor seems m o r e appropriate t o explain the data. Intelligent subjects probably
processed the i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h increased efficiency, that is, w i t h o u t m i c r o - errors and unnecessary repetitions that are typical of less able individuals. T h e increased efficiency of i n f o r m a t i o n processing probably caused three consequences: short RTs, short SDs of R T , a n d l o w error
rates; i n fact, all these effects t o o k place as far as the first study is regarded.
Experiment 2
I n this study, w e adopted a verbal analogy task, modified according t o Sternberg a n d Marr's
(1986) principles. T h e modifications w e r e introduced i n order t o m a k e the task m o r e novel and
unusual for subjects. T h e data presented here have been extracted f r o m t h e already published
study by Necka, Stocki, and W o l s k i (1990).
Subjects
Ninety-nine seven graders w e r e examined. T h e y were n o t especially selected for t h e study,
since w e examined pupils f r o m four forms of one of the public schools i n Cracow.
Materials
Computerized
test. T h e modified verbal analogy task consists i n c o m p l e t i n g the analogy (e.g.,
"Fire is t o Forest as Fox is t o — ") w i t h one of t h e given words (e.g., Water, H e n , Balloon,
Wood). T h e analogy is preceded by a precue statement (e. g., "Foxes are Needles"), w h i c h is
necessary t o take i n t o account while d o i n g the c o m p l e t i o n task. W i t h o u t such a premise, the
p r o p e r solution w o u l d be " H e n " , since fire is dangerous t o forests as foxes are t o hens. H o w e v e r ,
the subjects w e r e supposed t o respond as if this premise w e r e true, so the solution " B a l l o o n "
should be chosen, because fire is dangerous t o forests as foxes (=needles) are t o balloons. I n
other words, the premise introduces the element of novelty, oddity, and unexpectedness, and
at the same t i m e it changes the terms under w h i c h the task should be dealt w i t h .
T h e nature of the premises was varied, t h o u g h . I n the familiar c o n d i t i o n , premises w e r e quite
natural, like "Foxes are mammals"; i n t h e metaphorical c o n d i t i o n , premises w e r e a little bit
unusual because of their metaphorical m e a n i n g , like "Foxes are thieves"; o n l y i n the odd
condition w e r e the premises completely absurd, thus introducing the greatest a m o u n t of novelty.
T h e elements of t h e task appeared o n the c o m p u t e r screen one b y one i n t h e self-paced
procedure. Four w o r d s f r o m w h i c h the answer should be chosen w e r e located u p , d o w n , left,
and right o n t h e c o m p u t e r screen. Subjects made the decision w i t h t h e joystick.
Psychometric
tests.
Raven's Matrices, version A , B , C, D , and E, w e r e used t o assess the
73
Gifted people a n d novel tasks
level of intelligence. Creativity was assessed w i t h t h e verbal divergent t h i n k i n g test proposed
by Necka a n d Rychlicka (1987).
Results
T h e most representative relationship discovered i n this study is s h o w n i n Figure 6. A s w e can
see, t h e m o r e novel t h e situation was, t h e m o r e mistakes t h e subjects c o m m i t t e d . T h e
m e t a p h o r i c a l a n d odd conditions seem t o be m u c h m o r e difficult for all subjects t h a n t h e familiar
c o n d i t i o n . H o w e v e r , this general t r e n d became weaker as t h e level of intelligence increased. I n
o t h e r w o r d s , novel versions of t h e task were significantly less dangerous for m o r e intelligent
subjects t h a n for less intelligent ones.
Familiar
Metaphorical
Odd
Condition
(type ofprecue statement)
Figure
6:
M e a n e r r o r rate as dependent o n a m o u n t of novelty i n t h e task and level of
intelligence (experiment 2 , adapted f r o m : Necka et α/., 1 9 9 0 ) (significant effects:
I Q χ C o n d i t i o n ρ < .001)
N o w , let us l o o k at the creativity data. T h e response accuracy did n o t appear i m p o r t a n t as a
dependent variable, but reaction t i m e did. It can be seen (Figure 7) that highly creative subjects
w e r e slower t h a n their less creative colleagues i n the "familiar" c o n d i t i o n , but t h e y were faster
in t h e most strange and novel " o d d " condition; i n the intermediate " m e t a p h o r i c a l " c o n d i t i o n n o
differences were observed.
Discussion
T h e results of this study clearly indicate that intelligence a m o u n t s t o efficient adaptation t o
novel tasks, whereas creativity should be associated w i t h t h e increased m o t i v a t i o n t o deal w i t h
such tasks. Intelligent people respond t o novel tasks m o r e accurately t h a n t h e less able ones,
a l t h o u g h w i t h t h e same speed. Creative people, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , respond m o r e speedily i n
novel a n d unusual tasks t h a n t h e less creative ones, a l t h o u g h at t h e same level of accuracy. I n
o t h e r w o r d s , creative people show t h e increased mobilization if t h e situation is unusual o r o d d ,
that is, they t r y t o respond quickly. T h e opposite effect of "laziness", reflected by their prolonged
solution latencies i n t h e "familiar" c o n d i t i o n , m a y also be observed. T h e intelligent people d o
Edward Necka
74
n o t seem t o mobilize themselves i n unusual situations, but they are capable e n o u g h t o c o m m i t
less n u m b e r of errors i n this rather demanding version of t h e task. T h u s , t h e creativity versus
intelligence distinction has been s h o w n w i t h t h e use of a n especially prepared cognitive
reasoning task.
Figure
7:
M e a n solution latency as dependent o n a m o u n t of novelty i n t h e task a n d level
creativity (experiment 2 , adopted f r o m : Necka et al., 1 9 9 0 ) (significant effects:
Creativity χ C o n d i t i o n ρ < .018)
Experiment 3
T h e procedure employed i n this study has been devised by A n n a Rychlicka (1993). She has
carried out a series of three experiments. T h e data presented below w e r e extracted f r o m her
t h i r d study.
Subjects
Thirty-eight psychology undergraduates participated i n this study as volunteers.
Materials
Computerized
test. Subjects w e r e presented w i t h t h e pair of t w o words w h i c h appeared i n
t h e middle of t h e c o m p u t e r screen. T h e words m i g h t be closely related (e. g., "chair - table") o r
quite unrelated (e.g., "chair - grass"). A p a r t f r o m this, there w e r e three values of S O A (stimulus
onset asynchrony): t h e second w o r d s m i g h t appear simultaneously w i t h t h e first one, after t h r e e
seconds, a n d after six seconds. Subjects w e r e asked t o press the Y E S b u t t o n if t h e y decided
that t h e y could see some relationship between t h e w o r d s i n a pair, o r the N O b u t t o n if t h e y
could n o t discern any relationship. T h e y w e r e encouraged t o m a k e a free decision, w i t h o u t a n y
75
Gifted p e o p l e a n d novel tasks
pressure a n d presupposed "accuracy" criteria o n t h e experimenter's side. A f t e r having made
t h e decision, subjects proceeded t o the next trial i n the self-paced m a n n e r .
Psychometric
tests.
as i n E x p e r i m e n t 1.
Raven's Advanced Matrices and U r b a n and Jellen's T C T - D P w e r e used,
Results
T h e n u m b e r of Y E S responses was significantly higher i n t h e "close" c o n d i t i o n t h a n i n t h e
" r e m o t e " c o n d i t i o n . It means that the subjects associated t h e w o r d s w h i c h w e r e semantically
close t o each o t h e r m o r e frequently t h a n the w o r d s , w h i c h w e r e semantically distant f r o m each
o t h e r . T h e between groups comparisons are also very interesting. H i g h I Q subjects produced
greater n u m b e r of affirmative responses t h a n t h e less intelligent subjects, b u t only i n t h e "close"
c o n d i t i o n . W h e n t h e w o r d s w e r e semantically distant, t h o u g h , h i g h I Q subjects preferred t o
r e s p o n d N O m o r e frequently t h a n their less intelligent peers (Figure 8). I n other w o r d s ,
intelligence seems t o be associated w i t h the ease t o accept obvious relationships a n d , at t h e
same t i m e , t h e ease t o reject clandestine o r unclear relationships. L o w IQ people, o n t h e other
h a n d , are n o t so sure that w h a t seems t o be unrelated really is.
Figure
8:
N u m b e r of positive associations as dependent o n semantic distance between
stimuli, inter-stimulus asynchrony, and level of intelligence (experiment 3 , Rychlicka, 1 9 9 3 ) (significant effects: Remoteness ρ < . 0 0 0 1 ; I Q χ Remoteness ρ <
. 0 4 3 ; Remoteness χ Interval ρ < . 0 0 0 1 )
A s t o creativity, t h e picture is completely different. H i g h l y creative people are m o r e eager t o
r e s p o n d Y E S , regardless of c o n d i t i o n , that is, they show a n inclination t o perceive the w o r d s
i n a p a i r as mutually associated i n some way. T h i s inclination is even stronger i n t h e " r e m o t e "
c o n d i t i o n (of course, i n c o m p a r i s o n t o the less creative subjects, n o t t o t h e "close" c o n d i t i o n ,
Fig. 9). I n o t h e r w o r d s , creativity seems t o be related w i t h the ease w i t h w h i c h a person discerns
various relationships between different pieces of i n f o r m a t i o n , particularly if these relationships
are distant, unclear, and should be inferred o n one's o w n rather t h a n being just noticed
(compare: M e d n i c k , 1 9 6 2 ) .
E d w a r d Necka
76
It is also w o r t h stressing that the creativity by remoteness by interval i n t e r a c t i o n appeared
statistically significant ( p < . 0 0 5 ) . Figure 1 0 shows the section of Figure 9 i n w h i c h w e can see
t h a t t h e intermediate (3 sec.) interval between t h e first w o r d a n d t h e second o n e produced t h e
greatest n u m b e r of Y E S responses, regardless of t h e ability g r o u p . A n d Figure 1 1 shows t h e
l o w e r section of Figure 9 w h i c h refers t o the " r e m o t e " c o n d i t i o n only. W e can see that, i n this
case, t h e l o n g (6 sec.) interval produced t h e greatest n u m b e r of affirmative responses; it was
particularly true i n t h e case of t h e m o r e creative g r o u p .
12
Number
of "YES"
responses
10
Π
Π
Π
I
Close / Low Creat
•
Close / High Creat
§§ Remote/ Low Creat
H Remote/ High Creat
0 sec.
3 sec.
6 sec.
Interval
Figure
9:
N u m b e r of positive associations as dependent o n semantic distance between
stimuli, inter-stimulus asynchrony, and level of creativity (experiment 3 , Rychlicka,
1 9 9 3 ) (significant effects: Creativity ρ < . 0 0 1 ; Remoteness ρ < . 0 0 0 1 ; Creativity
χ Remoteness ρ < . 0 4 ; Creativity χ Remoteness χ Interval ρ < . 0 0 5 )
H o w can w e interpret this effect? It seems that the longer the S O A , t h e m o r e t i m e is allowed
for t h e subjects t o produce divergent associations w i t h the first w o r d . W h e n t h e second w o r d
appears afterwards, it is easier t o say that it is related t o t h e first one - just because t h e first
w o r d has already "soaked" w i t h various and divergent pieces of associated i n f o r m a t i o n . If t h e
w o r d s appear simultaneously, there is n o possibility for t h e first w o r d t o "soak" w i t h m a n y
associations, and thus t o "await" t h e second w o r d w i t h some semi-prepared semantic connec­
tions. T h e effect of "soaking" is stronger i n t h e case of highly creative people, w h i c h suggests
t h a t t h e possible cognitive m e c h a n i s m of creativity amounts t o m a k i n g n u m e r o u s links b e t w e e n
t h e elements of one's semantic m e m o r y , so that a person be prepared t o m a k e even t h e m o s t
unusual connections if t h e task demands so.
Finally, let us l o o k at t h e latency data. A s w e can see (Figure 12), it takes less t i m e t o r e s p o n d
i n t h e "close" c o n d i t i o n t h a n i n t h e " r e m o t e " c o n d i t i o n , regardless of t h e nature of t h e response
(YES o r N O ) . It is also interesting t o see that h i g h IQ subjects did n o t differ f r o m t h e less intelligent
ones as far as the "close" c o n d i t i o n is regarded; they were, however, significantly faster, i n t h e
" r e m o t e " c o n d i t i o n . A s w e recall (Figure 8), t h e y were also m o r e willing t o say N O i n this
c o n d i t i o n . I n other w o r d s , t h e intelligent subjects preferred t o reject distant associations a n d
are accustomed t o m a k i n g such rejections quite quickly. Creative individuals, o n t h e other h a n d ,
preferred t o accept unusual, r e m o t e associations (Figure 9), and are accustomed t o m a k i n g t h e i r
Gifted p e o p l e a n d novel tasks
77
decisions quite slowly (Figure 13). T h e general conclusion m a y be formulated that it takes t i m e
t o say Y E S a n d t o accept a remote association; t h e negative decision can be made m u c h faster.
H o w e v e r , t h e m o r e frequently one says Y E S for r e m o t e association, t h e m o r e creative one is,
regardless of t h e fact that a n a m o u n t of t i m e is consumed as a consequence.
Figure
10:
U p p e r section of Figure 9 (close associations only) (significant effects: Creativity
ρ < . 0 0 1 ; Remoteness ρ < . 0 0 0 1 ; Creativity χ Remoteness ρ < . 0 4 ; Creativity
χ Remoteness χ Interval ρ < .005)
Figure
11:
L o w e r section of Figure 9 (remote associations only) (significant effects: same as
described i n Figure 10)
Edward Necka
78
Discussion
T h e data clearly suggest that intelligence m a y be redefined as a n ability t o discern quickly and
efficiently t h e logical connections between various pieces of i n f o r m a t i o n . A t t h e same t i m e , it
a m o u n t s t o t h e ability t o reject quickly a n d efficiently t h e connections w h i c h are n o t logically
obvious. I n other w o r d s , h i g h level of intelligence makes people accept the obvious relationships
a n d reject t h e unclear ones; b o t h operations are p e r f o r m e d quickly, efficiently, a n d probably
w i t h o u t hesitation.
Creativity, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a y be viewed as a n ability t o m a k e connections, especially
t h e ones that are n o t obvious i n themselves. Creative people pay for this ability w i t h prolonged
response latencies. I n other w o r d s , t h e y respond slowly b u t s h o w t h e increased preferences t o
discern t h e relationships that are n o t logically obvious.
4.5
Response
latency
(sec.)
0 sec.
3 sec.
6 sec.
Interval
Figure
12:
Response latency as dependent o n semantic distance between stimuli, interstimulus asynchrony, and level of intelligence (experiment 3 , Rychlicka, 1 9 9 3 )
(significant effects: I Q ρ < . 0 4 7 ; Remoteness ρ < . 0 0 3 ; Interval ρ < . 0 1 2 ; I Q χ
Remoteness χ Interval ρ < .048)
General Discussion and Conclusions
I believe the data clearly indicate that the intelligence versus creativity distinction m a y be
established anew o n the basis of t h e elementary information-processing characteristics. Intel­
ligence is probably connected w i t h the increased speed of information-processing, as well as
w i t h t h e increased efficiency and regularity of responding. These characteristics manifest
themselves all the time but they are particularly salient i n t h e new, o d d , and unusual versions
of o u r elementary cognitive tasks. Creativity, o n the other h a n d , is connected w i t h t h e increased
preference t o w a r d new, o d d , and unusual situations. T h i s effect is probably based o n t h e
motivational factors, such as cognitive curiosity a n d intrinsic m o t i v a t i o n . Therefore, creative
p e o p l e d o n o t respond particularly well i n t h e usual versions of the cognitive tasks, b u t t h e y
concentrate themselves o n t h e unusual variations of the tasks, thus s h o w i n g increased regularity
a n d accuracy - n o t i n general but only if the situation is novel e n o u g h . It m a y be concluded,
Gifted people a n d novel tasks
79
t h e n , that intelligence means better adaptation t o novel situation, whereas creativity means
increased predilection t o deal w i t h such situations.
These conclusions lead us the supposition that giftedness has m a n y facets also at t h e
elementary cognitive level of analysis. It should, therefore, be identified w i t h the use of
elementary cognitive tasks, n o t only the psychometric measures w h i c h are applied at present.
Such elementary tasks have m a n y advantages over the traditional tests a n d identification
procedures: (1) t h e y s h o w higher reliability scores, (2) t h e y provide us w i t h numerous dependent
variables, thus m a k i n g o u r diagnostic decisions m o r e subtle a n d diversified, a n d (3) t h e y are
precise e n o u g h t o reveal t h e latent traits that are normally n o t accessible t h r o u g h t h e traditional
diagnostic instruments. T h e latter p o i n t seems especially i m p o r t a n t for t h e identification of
underachievers a n d o t h e r individuals whose capacities, t h o u g h existent, are "blocked" o r
impeded f o r s o m e reasons.
Figure
13:
Response latency as dependent o n semantic distance between stimuli, interstimulus asynchrony, and level of creativity (experiment 3 , Rychlicka, 1 9 9 3 )
(effects: Remoteness ρ < . 0 0 1 ; Interval ρ < . 0 0 2 ; Remoteness χ Interval ρ <
. 0 3 8 ; Creativity χ Remoteness n . s.)
These elementary cognitive tasks may also be used i n order t o boost people's giftedness. T h e
results of the t h i r d study are especially encouraging i n this respect. If creative people m a k e
m o r e " o d d " associations, it m i g h t be possible t o reverse this relationship, that is, t o teach people
h o w t o make such associations i n order t o increase their creativity. For instance, the subtle
cognitive feedback could help people i n m a k i n g "strange" associations, even at t h e expense of
t i m e needed for that, because it is very unlikely that t h e "creativity-remote associations"
connection w o r k s o n l y i n one direction.
T o sum u p , t h e data presented i n this paper indicate that creativity differs f r o m intelligence
o n the i n f o r m a t i o n - processing level of analysis, and that elementary cognitive tasks m a y be,
and should be, used b o t h i n identification and i n stimulation of giftedness.
Edward Necka
80
Author's Note
P r e p a r a t i o n of this article was possible thanks t o grant N o . 1 - 1 0 5 3 - 9 1 - 0 1 f r o m t h e C o m m i t t e e
for Scientific Research (KBN).
I w i s h t o t h a n k m y colleagues: M a r e k Chawarski, A n n a Rychlicka, Ryszard Stocki, and Piotr
W o l s k i . T h e y contributed t o this presentation as authors and co-authors of t h e original studies
o n w h i c h this paper is based.
References
Chawarski, M. C. (1990). Intellectual abilities and dealing with unexpected changes i n task's require­
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unexpected
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Logical and creative thinking in adolescents
O r n e l l a Dentici Andreani
Institute
of Psychology,
University
of Pa via, Pavia,
Italy
Introduction
T h e a i m of t h e present paper is t o discuss t h e results of a research i n w h i c h w e have tried t o
c o m b i n e psychometric a p p r o a c h w i t h t h e study of processes i n c o m p a r i s o n of gifted w i t h
n o r m a l adolescents. T h e psychometric
approach has been d o m i n a t i n g t h e research until t h e
Sixties a n d Seventies, because it made possible large scale research a n d p r e d i c t i o n of success
i n academical career a n d i n w o r k ; it was centred o n t h e products, and explained t h e performance
of subjects by t h e role of one general factor (as S p e a r m a n o r B i n e t , T h u r s t o n e a n d others) or
multiple factors acting o n specific contents (verbal, numerical and so on). This last interpretation,
w h i c h perhaps is m o r e congenial t o A m e r i c a n psychology, reappears i n recent theories of
m u l t i p l e intelligences (Gardner, 1 9 8 3 ) a n d i n t h e emphasis given t o expertise i n different
d o m a i n s (Feldman, 1 9 8 6 ) . O n the other end t h e cognitive
approach,
w h i c h started i n t h e
Seventies has directed a t t e n t i o n o n t h e processes
w h i c h sustain performance a n d w h i c h are at
w o r k d u r i n g p e r c e p t i o n , m e m o r y tasks or p r o b l e m solving. T h e authors of H P theories t r y t o
identify kinds a n d levels of i n f o r m a t i o n processes and t o identify t h e c o m p o n e n t s of abilities
like Sternberg ( 1 9 8 4 , 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 9 0 ) , w h o distinguishes three basic kinds:
- m e t a c o m p o n e n t s = executive processes t o p l a n a n d m o n i t o r a c t i o n , a n d t o evaluate
t h e results
- performance c o m p o n e n t s , like encoding, inference inductive reasoning, analogies
- knowledge c o m p o n e n t s (like learning n e w w o r d s f r o m a context).
Intelligence is understood i n terms of c o m p o n e n t s facets and contextually based skills, a n d
cognitive style plays a great role i n explaining individual differences, between w h i c h is also
giftedness.
T h i s is conceived as a preference
for novel tasks and solutions, as the use of the
best strategies and as automatization
of performances,
w h i c h results i n availability of larger
resources of a t t e n t i o n a n d i n speed. So the gifted have superiority
in metacognitive
components, in performance
components
(problem
solving strategies);
sometimes also i n knowledge acquisition,
that is t h e capacity t o learn f r o m all situations a n d t o transfer old a n d n e w
i n f o r m a t i o n . Sternberg a n d Davidson (1982) n o t e that gifted are superior i n insight,
selective
encoding
a n d selective combinations.
These are also t h e features of creativity.
T h e o t h e r big a n d relevant theoretical a p p r o a c h is t h e cognitive-developmental view by Piaget
and t h e Genevan school, w h i c h emphasizes structures a n d stages. W e shortly r e m a r k some
i m p o r t a n t recent development of the theories:
- i n Geneve: Piaget himself i n the last period studied t h e relationship between 'The
possible
and necessary" ( 1 9 7 6 ) , a n d used o p e n problems w i t h children i n order t o s h o w that at t h e
f o r m a l level there is a n "explosion" of possibilities that is related t o t h e hypothetical deductive
aspects of t h i n k i n g , while t h e inference produces stronger necessities, and p e r m i t s also t o
construct n e w models; so t h e reality is a product of law of necessities, but also a source of
n e w possibilities a n d virtual systems.
- Inhelder a n d coworkers ( 1 9 8 5 ) start a n e w t y p e of research based n o t only o n structures, but
o n procedures of discovery and invention a n d o n t h e observation of individual differences.
Omella Dentici Andreani
82
- Rieben, de Ribaupierre, Lautrey ( 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 9 0 ) study individual differences a n d decalage
l o o k i n g for a n explanation i n two cognitive
styles, analogical
and propositional.
In United
States Pascual L e o n e ( 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 8 7 ) a n d Siegler ( 1 9 8 1 ) (Neo-piagetians) t r y t o understand
cognitive development i n placing some of Piaget's ideas i n a n i n f o r m a t i o n processing
f r a m e w o r k . F o r o u r purpose (the study of gifted) these a u t h o r s present very interesting
suggestions, w h i c h p o i n t t o three types of schemes (figurative, operative a n d executive) w h i c h
evolve w i t h age (Case, 1 9 8 5 ) , a n d t o t h e acquisition of increasingly p o w e r f u l rules f o r solving
p r o b l e m s (Siegler, 1 9 8 1 ) .
T h e relationships o r t h e transition f r o m figural t o f o r m a l is surely a n interesting w a y t o study
gifted a n d talented subjects, w h o often use a figural m o d e i n o r d e r t o represent a quantity of
i n f o r m a t i o n , but w h e n they b e c o m e mature, t h e y make t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o f o r m a l m o d e o r
c o m p l e x t y p e of functioning a n d apply i t t o specific domains (evolving systems: see chapter b y
Gruber i n Wallace & Gruber, 1 9 8 9 ) .
Table
1:
Characteristics of t h e samples A a n d A l
SAMPLE A by sex and age
males
Sex
f
Age
90
15
99
17
Total
189
SAMPLE A
Sex
Level of
High
Average
Low
Total
Table
2:
48
52
100
females
f
92
90
182
1 by sex and intelligence
males
f
%
intelligence
15
16
PR > 90
45
43
PR: 45-55
37
39
PR < 20
100
95
females
f
27
37
32
96
%
%
51
49
100
%
28
38
33
100
total
f
182
189
371
total
f
42
80
69
191
Subsamples Β t o Ε d r a w n f r o m A I (N total = 1 9 1 )
Β
32
Logical
thinking
Creativity
Moral Reasoning
C
32
Logical
thinking
Creativity
Moral Reasoning
EPL
(formal level)
EPL
(formal level)
Mental Imagery
Problem
Solving
D
32
Logical
thinking
Creativity
Moral Reasoning
Ε
32
Logical
thinking
Creativity
Moral Reasoning
EPL
(formal level)
Mental Imagery
Production
of stories and
drawings
Probabilistic
reasoning
%
49
51
100
%
22
42
36
100
L o g i c a l a n d creative t h i n k i n g i n adolescents
83
Objective
T h i s b a c k g r o u n d is t h e f r a m e w o r k of our research, i n w h i c h w e have tried t o use i n a
c o m p l e m e n t a r y w a y psychometric methods o n a large sample and experimental observation
of processes i n individuals. T h e general objective is t o study m a n y aspects of intelligence i n
gifted a n d h i g h l y gifted as c o m p a r e d w i t h a large sample of normals, starting w i t h g r o u p tests
of logical a n d creative t h i n k i n g and analysing i n a subtler a n d deepened w a y t h e level of f o r m a l
reasoning, various creative tasks, the role of imagery i n creative test, a n d i n p r o b l e m solving.
I n this p a p e r w e w i l l present the part of t h e research concerning imagery a n d its role i n
cognitive processes: i n fact imagery seems t o be one of t h e best candidates t o find t h e source
of s u p e r i o r i t y of gifted i n m e m o r y and productive t h i n k i n g . If w e accept as guideline t h e
hypothesis o f different developmental paths suggested b y Rieben, de Ribaupierre and Lautrey
( 1 9 9 0 ) , w h o refer t h e individual differences t o t h e modalities of i n f o r m a t i o n processing, w e
m a y e x p e c t t h a t H i g h Imagers shall be superior i n tasks w h i c h require restructuration of data,
visualisation i n parallel, analogical representation, while L o w Imagers w i t h h i g h intelligence
level shall be s u p e r i o r i n logic mathematical problems w h i c h require sequential processing a n d
propositional representation.
T h e specific a i m of this p a r t of the research is:
1 - R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n individual differences i n Imagery
and creative
2 - R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n individual differences i n Imagery,
problem
solving.
Table
thinking.
logical
reasoning
and
B u i l d i n g S u b g r o u p s of sample D i n order t o study M e n t a l Imagery/Creativity
3:
Intelligence:
N:
High
8
/
Age:
N:
Sex:
N:
15y
4
/\
Μ
2
F
2
Average
16
/
\
17y
4
/\
Μ
2
15y
8
F
2
/\
M F
2 2
/
\
17y
8
/\
M F
2 2
15y
4
/\
Μ
2
F
2
Low
8
\
17years
4
/\
Μ
2
F
2
Design of the research
It is s h o w n i n Tables 1-3: W e have examined t h e first sample A , N = 3 7 1 students, 1 5 t o 1 7
years o l d , f r o m t w o schools (Lyceum). T h e y have been tested by a general reasoning test (D
4 8 ) , a test of creative t h i n k i n g (C 91) and a M o r a l Reasoning test (Dilemmi), w h i c h aimed t o
study t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n abstract reasoning and moral-social problems. F r o m sample A
w e choose s a m p l e Αχ, representative of three intelligence level, defined b y D 4 8 , t h e n f r o m
sample A i w e t o o k 4 subsamples (B, C, D , E) matched for sex, age a n d intelligence, w h i c h
w e r e individually tested (see table 2). Each sample had t h e same c o m p o s i t i o n ; table 3 presents
sample D , w h i c h has b e e n studied for M e n t a l Imagery a n d Creativity. I n sample C w e analysed
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n M e n t a l Imagery and Physical Problems, i n sample Ε between f o r m a l
reasoning i n L o n g e o t a n d probabilistic reasoning, studying t h e effect of visual a n d verbal cues.
84
Table
Ornella Dentici A n d r e a n i
Measurement instruments used w i t h sample D
4:
IMAGERY QUESTIONNAIRES
W I Q - Vividness o f Visual Imagery Questionnaire b y Marks (1973)
W I Q - Vividness o f M o v e m e n t Imagery Questionnaire b y Isaac, Marks and Russell (1986)
T V I C - Test o f Visual Imagery C o n t r o l b y G o r d o n (1949)
W Q - Verbalizer-Visualizer Questionnaire b y Richardson (1977)
CREATIVITY
C 9 1 : W h a t w o u l d h a p p e n i f all S H A D O W S disappear? W h a t w o u l d h a p p e n i f y o u w e r e
INVISIBLE?
W A R T E G G (drawings a n d title)
Description o f a R E A L a n d I M A G I N A R Y T O W N
Story o f a C A R
Table
Characteristics o f t h e samples I a n d F
5:
SAMPLE 1
SAMPLE F
IMAGERY
N = 130
IMAGERY A N D
PROBLEM SOLVING
Ν = 35
3 Questionnaires
WQ
D48
IMAGERY QUESTIONNAIRES
W I Q - Vividnessof Visual Imagery Questionnaire
VMIQ - Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire
TVIC - Test of Visual Imagery Control
W Q - Verbalizer/Visualizer Questionnaire
PHYSICAL PROBLEMS
Wallet
Bath
Reflections
I n t h e second p a r t o f t h e research w e tested another sample o f 1 3 0 (group I ; table 5) b y t h e
four Imagery questionnaires, w e did a factorial analysis o n the results, a n d w e extracted o n e
subsample (F) o f 3 5 subjects o f H i g h a n d L o w Imagers w h o w e r e individually given physicalm a t h e m a t i c a l problems chosen because they required a visual representation (comprehension
of a g r a p h ; construction of a g r a p h ; reflection o f lights).
L o g i c a l and creative t h i n k i n g i n adolescents
85
T h e rationale of this procedure is t o have background data of ability level for t h e general
sample, and t o analyse i n a deeper w a y the processes i n smaller, but equivalent subgroups i n
w h i c h w e w a n t e d t o examine the functional role of imagery i n different types of t h i n k i n g (logical
vs creative thinking).
Methods
T h e tests used for the large sample w e r e D 4 8 , a classic test of inductive reasoning, C 9 1 , a
test of creative t h i n k i n g experimented i n o u r institute w i t h three questions w h i c h explore the
consequences of a n imaginary event (Shadow, Invisibility, W o r d s : see Table 4), a n d a M o r a l
Reasoning Test: this latter presents dilemmas about life a n d death topics, like A b o r t i o n ,
Euthanasia, W a r , and is evaluated according t h e models of K o h l b e r g and Rest (see A n d r e a n i
D e n t i c i , & Pagnin, 1 9 9 2 ) i n order t o see if t h e level of m o r a l judgement is parallel t o t h e level
of logical reasoning. Individual test are L o n g e o t test of operational level ( 1 9 7 8 , 1 9 7 9 ) , logical
p r o b l e m s of probability, physical problems; tests of creativity are p r o d u c t i o n of stories a n d
drawings; Imagery tests are t h e four questionnaires Vividness of Visual Imagery by Marks,
Vividness of M o v e m e n t Imagery, Visual Imagery C o n t r o l , a n d Verbalizer/Visualizer Questionnaire by Richardson ( 1 9 7 7 ) .
T h e differences between subsamples and w i t h i n samples have been analysed by analysis of
variance, Student's t a n d c h i square according t o the variables examined.
First research - Imagery and creativity
First w e analyzed the correlations between instruments, w h i c h are self-report questionnaires.
T h e n w e examined the functional role of imagery i n all the variables of creative t h i n k i n g (like
fluency, flexibility, shifting, originality, elaboration of details).
T h e three questionnaires, Vividness, M o v e m e n t and C o n t r o l have very h i g h correlations
between t h e m a n d w i t h total (.50 - .85) w h i l e W Q is clearly different f r o m others. T h e
d i m e n s i o n V I S U A L I Z E R - V E R B A L JZER by Richardson looks independent f r o m the others
because probably it is a m i x t u r e of skills, strategies, habits, cognitive style m o r e t h a n a n ability
due t o functional features of t h e processing system (like as vividness).
F a c t o r i a l analysis
O u r c o w o r k e r L . Vecchio conducted a factorial analysis of the four questionnaires o n another
sample of 1 3 0 subjects (sample I) f r o m w h i c h w e extracted the H i g h and L o w Imagers w h o did
the physical problems.
T h e analysis c o n f i r m e d the difference between the W Q a n d others, and the i m p o r t a n c e of
Movement
a n d Human Figure (which are considered signs of creative potential i n Rorschach
Test) , but confirms also that t h e self-reports questionnaires are instruments of l o w reliability
and validity, because they m i x different dimensions w i t h o u t separating the scores.
1
Probably the assessment of h i g h imagery should be conducted b y a multiple test battery
including self-report of cognitive style and objective tests of vividness of imagery w h i c h
discriminate color, shapes and spatial ability.
For purpose of research each dimension should be measured b y a specific test, for validity
purposes one could construct a multiple-factor test w h i c h w o u l d be predictive for s o m e class of
tasks. A n y way, since this actually does n o t exist, w e start t o analyse t h e results based o n t h e
actual instruments, w h i c h are largely used i n current research o n imagery.
Omella Dentici Andreani
86
Table
6:
M e n t a l imagery a n d creativity measures for subgroups of sample D , built o n the
basis of three questionnaires
VARIABLES
mean
Subgroups
HIGH
mean
s. d.
WARTEGG
1.,46
People
1.,88
2.,03
3.,88
Objects/animals
0.,52
0.,62
Landscapes
2.,83
2.,38
Symbols
7.,50
0.,93
TOTAL
3.,50
2.,62
Static elements
4.,00
2.,33
Dynamic elements
Originality
4.,12
2.,53
(range 1-8)
6.,38
1..60
Flexibility
REAL TOWN
2.,71
Detai1s
1..75
Structure
6,.25
1.,98
0,.99
People
1..13
2..56
2,.50
Judgement
3,.16
Static elements
3..37
1,.98
Dynamic elements
5,.75
IMAGINARY TOWN
3,.74
3,.63
Detai1s
4,.75
2,.19
Structure
0,.74
People
1 .38
1,.25
1,.17
Judgement
Static elements
4..38
2,.39
5 .38
2,.62
Dynamic elements
1,.64
Originality
3 .13
CAR
4 .25
3 .28
Details
Objects/animals
1 .38
1..06
6 .50
5 .07
People
4 .38
Static elements
2 .33
6 .70
Dynamic elements
8 .63
Origi nality
2 .13
1 .36
32.25
5 .80
D48
C91 Flexibility
6 .50
2 .14
0 .99
C91 Originality
0 .88
High - equal or higher than 75th percentile
Low = equal or lower 25th percentile
LOW
s. d.
t
1. 13
4 . 50
0. 75
1. 63
8 . 00
5.,00
3.,00
0.,83
1.,93
1.,03
1.,92
0.,00
1.,60
1.,60
1.,38
1.,00
1.,75
6. 88
1.,39
1.,33
1.,75
6.,50
1.,13
1.,75
3.,25
6.,13
1..75
3..11
1..55
1,.83
2,.66
3,.78
2,.00
6..00
2,.63
1,.25
4,.12
6,.63
1,.75
1,.93
4,.47
2,.39
1,.39
4,.36
3 .02
1,.39
5,.25
3 .69
2,.25
2 .52
4,.25
2 .43
7,.38
4 .57
6,.00
3 .93
0 .99
1,.88
31.00 3 .67
4 .38
1 .77
0 .25
0 .71
in combined scores
1
2..33*
0,.71
1,.41
0 .88
1,.81
1 .13
1 .66
0 .96
0 .93
2 .17*
1 .45
of three questionnaires
I m a g e r y a n d c r e a t i v i t y : results
T h e n w e have examined t h e differences between H i g h a n d L o w Imagers, chosen t h e first
t i m e according t o t h e three questionnaires, t h e second t i m e according t h e W Q Richardson
( H i g h : ^ 7 5 percentile, L o w : ζ 2 5 ) .
T h e t r e n d is i n favour of H i g h Imagers for all t h e indexes of originality
(Wartegg, Imagined
t o w n , C a r , Shadow test, Invisibility) and flexibility, but m a n y variables d o n o t reach significance,
a l t h o u g h t h e Imagers have m o r e richness of details i n i m a g i n g a t o w n and a r u n n i n g car. Since
the average score i n D 4 8 is higher i n the Visualizers ( 3 4 vs 2 9 ) , w e can t h i n k t h a t the differences
are n o t o n l y a n effect of Visualization ability, but of tacit knowledge
described b y Pylyshyn
( 1 9 8 1 ) , w h i c h e n r i c h quasi-perceptual image by knowledge of details a n d are better utilised by
the brightest.
L o g i c a l a n d creative t h i n k i n g i n adolescents
87
W h e r e H i g h Imagers are assessed t h r o u g h t h e Verbalizer-Visualizer questionnaires, w e find
m o r e difference ( H i g h Visualizer w e r e superior i n perception a n d i m a g i n a t i o n of details i n real
a n d imaginary town) b u t it is interesting t o observe that all t h e differences
in
originality
disappear.
Table
7:
Mental imagery a n d creativity measures for subgroups of sample D , built o n t h e
basis o f t h e Visualizer/Verbalizer Questionnaire
Subgroups
HIGH
LOW
VARIABLES
mean
mean
s., d.
t
s.. d.
WARTEGG
1.,13
0.,84
0. 89
0.,92
People
1.,86
4.,25
1.,91
5. 22
Objects/animal s
0.,75
1.,04
0. 89
0.,93
Landscapes
Symbols
2.,65
1.,86
2.,10
1.,67
7.,78
0.,67
7.,75
0..70
TOTAL
4.,89
1.,76
4.,63
1.,92
Static elements
1.,27
3.,13
1..64
Dynamic elements
2.,89
Originality
2,,75
1..75
3.,44
(range 1-8)
1.,13
1.,30
6..38
0..92
6.,78
Flexibility
REAL TOWN
1,,32
2,.13
2,.80
2.,00
Detai1s
3,.00
5,.63
2,.45
6.,67
Structure
1,.17
1,.38
0,.92
People
1.,11
2,.54
1.,78
2..50
2,.20
Judgement
2,.06
3,.88
Static elements
2.,67
2,.90
1..00
7.,11
5,.25
2,.39
3,.81
Dynamic elements
1..23
IMAGINARY TOWN
2,.39
2,.25
2,.61
3..78
Details
1,.26
7,.00
3,.65
5,.25
3..62
0.,99
Structure
2,.69
3,.13
4,.16
2,.67
People
0,.87
1..00
0,.88
1,.46
Judgement
3,.70
6,.22
4,.13
3 .64
Static elements
1..17
2,.99
6,.50
7,.22
5 .40
Dynamic elements
1,.22
2,.25
1,.45
3,.00
Originality
CAR
3 .53
7,.22
3 .25
3 .81
2,.23*
Details
2 .56
2..44
1,.63
1..19
Objects/animals
4,.33
4 .63
People
3 .12
3..86
6 .44
4 .25
1,.31
Static alements
3 .68
3..15
8,.89
6 .50
0,.88
Dynamic elements
6 .90
3..46
1 .38
Ori gi nali ty
2 .67
2 .58*
1 .23
0..74
29.00
D48
34.56 3 .17
5 .93
2 .45*
6,.00
5 .13
C91 Flexibility
0 .35
1 .58
1..53
0 .38
0 .74
C91 Originality
0,.44
0 .73
High = equal to or higher than 75th percentile in Visualizer/Verbalizer
Questionnaire by Richardson; Low = equal to or lower than 25th percentile
T h i s is particular evident i n t h e Wartegg test, a n d it is easily explained if w e look at t h e task:
t h e originality c a n be due t o t h e drawing itself o r t o t h e title, t h e interpretation, w h i c h c a n
t r a n s f o r m a very p o o r d r a w i n g i n a significant symbol o r a n humoristic situation.
So a H i g h Verbalizer subject designs the small p o i n t of stimulus 1 as a n eye (banal a n d frequent
answer), but t h e title is: "An alien who looks at me asking: Who is that fu η ny fellow?"
Another
88
Omella Dentici Andreani
Verbalizer sees t h e p o i n t as a flake of "a sweet, peacefully
snow-fall"; the same gives a symbolic
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of all t h e stimuli, w i t h a complete restructuration: so t h e sign of stimulus 2 (~)
becomes "A river passing through a forest", the ascending lines of stimulus 3 the walls of "a
chaotic, jam-packed,
inhabitable
town", the small-square of stimulus 4 "a squared soul" and
so o n . T h e noticeable t h i n g is that all the physical aspects are transformed i n symbolic forms
starting f r o m a figural analysis; and that, i n general, H i g h Verbalizers produce m o r e symbolic
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n Wartegg a n d m o r e imaginary hypothesis i n the Shadow a n d Invisibility test.
So w e c a n say that there is a relationship between vividness of imagery and t h e capacity of
restructuring, changing, i m a g i n i n g things i n m o v e m e n t and transformation; but i n m o r e
c o m p l e x tasks, like the i n v e n t i o n of a drawing or a story, the modalities of visualization and
verbalization alternate and interact, and a lower imagery vividness can be compensated by t h e
richness of semantic nets and t h e p o w e r of deductive capacities w h i c h b r i n g t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n
of novelty.
Second research - Imagery and problem solving
T h e second research studies t h e function of images i n Problem solving. W e used t w o types
of p r o b l e m solving;
(a) logical problems - probability - class inclusion,
(b) physical problems.
I n t h e first experiment (Sample Ε - Probability problems) we studied t h e effect of visual o r
verbal cues i n order t o see:
1) w h i c h type of cue
representativeness,
is effective i n avoiding the typical mistakes of heuristic of
2) if verbal cues are more effective for verbalizers subjects a n d , conversely, visual cues
are m o r e effective for visualizers. T h e scheme of procedure can be seen i n table 8.
Table
8:
Probabilistic reasoning: Procedures (From S. Danelli: Lo sviluppo
formale negli adolescenti:
strutture, procedure
ed euristiche di
Tesi d i D o t t o r a t o , Pavia, 1992.)
CLASS INCLUSION
1st Problem A1
TAXI Problem
2nd Problem A2
TAXI
Verbal cue
1st Answer
2nd Answer
Visual cue
del
pensiero
ragionamento.
Logical and creative t h i n k i n g i n adolescents
89
I n short, w e f o u n d that cues are effective only if the subjects have a n ability level w h i c h already
approaches t h e right solution; visualizers i n our sample Ε do n o t utilize the cues, w h i l e verbalizers
seem m o r e ready t o i m p r o v e their performances w i t h these cues. T h i s confirms Johnson-Laird's
assertion that a l t h o u g h images may be useful i n t h e initial phase, linguistic strategies and
p r o p o s i t i o n a l representations are m o r e effective i n t h e problems of class inclusion. I n o u r sample
verbalizers w e r e slightly superior i n all f o r m a l reasoning tasks (Longeot test, Tests of probability)
but w e t h i n k t h a t the effect of cues is related t o a variety of factors w i t h a n interaction between
subject, task a n d instruction.
Table
9:
Physical Problems
1 - Constructing a g r a p h
(Wallet)
T h e g r a p h represents sums of m o n e y spent during day t i m e
2 - Constructing a g r a p h
(Bath)
W a t e r level i n a b a t h at different times
3 - Interaction light/filters and light/coloured i n objects
(Flags)
Es. Italian flag, blue light
Spanish flag, green light
I n t h e second e x p e r i m e n t (sample F) w e tried t o assess the function of imagery i n physical
p r o b l e m s w h i c h required a graphical representation, basing our choice o n problems that utilize
visual representation b o t h i n its aspects of m o d e l of reality (graph) and phenomenological
qualities (colour). T h e problems were
- c o m p r e h e n s i o n of a g r a p h ,
- construction of a g r a p h ,
- drawings of reflection of light o n different object,
- answers t o questions o n reflection and transmission of coloured light.
T h e subjects w e r e chosen for H i g h and L o w Imagery scores f r o m t h e sample I of 1 3 0 subjects
(see table 5); w e gave t h e problems i n individual interview; w e analyzed the difference i n
quantitative (number of right answers, right drawings, abstract drawings) and qualitative variables
(type of errors; graphic o r conceptual, realistic or formal strategies, systematicity).
A s y o u can see f r o m table 1 0 , no difference
emerges: if any t r e n d exists, it is i n favour of
L o w Imagers (reflection of light, right and abstract
drawings).
If w e examine t h e strategies, w e observe that L o w Imagers use m o r e systematic, formal
strategies, and are m o r e flexible i n using verbal, visual o r m i x e d strategies i n different items.
T h e causes m a y be different:
1) O u r sample is t o o small.
2) T h e three questionnaires measure a dimension of imagery (vividness) w h i c h is n o t relevant
for o u r tasks: probably for these physical problems the relevant independent variables are the
visuo-spatial ability, and t h e capacity t o use abstract, symbolic forms.
T h e r e is a large difference between quasi pictorial images, rich i n vividness, details a n d colours,
and abstract images like geometrical forms, graphs, diagram of flux, maps.
Probably t h e first t y p e of Imagery plays a role i n episodic m e m o r y , flash bulb memories, i n
concrete problems, i n t h e i n v e n t i o n of poems, pictures, w h i l e abstract images play a role i n
90
O r n e l l a Dentici A n d r e a n i
mathematical a n d physical problems. Analogie processing c a n vary f r o m realistic analogies to
structural analogies, but sometimes the realistic images m a y be detrimental if t h e subject is not
able t o simplify the figures eliminating w h a t is n o t relevant.
Table
10:
P r o b l e m solving (Physics) measures for t w o Imagery subgroups built o n t h e basis
of t h e three questionnaires (upper part) o r of W Q (lower p a r t of t h e table)
Variables
WALLET: right answers
BATH: errors
INTERACTION UGHT/OBJECTS:
N. riqht drawings A
INTERACTION LIGHT/OBJECTS:
N. abstract drawings A
INTERACTION LIGHT/OBJECTS:
N. right answers Β
INTERACTION UGHT/OBJECTS:
Total strategies Β
Variables
mean
s. d.
mean
s. d.
mean
s. d.
mean
s. d.
mean
s. d.
mean
s. d.
HIGH
N=7
1.86
0.35
2.14
1.35
3.71
1.38
2.86
1.55
3.29
0.70
15.14
2.42
HIGH W Q
N=6
1.83
mean
WALLET: right answers
s. d.
0.37
BATH: errors
mean
1.33
s. d.
1.25
INTERACTION UGHT/OBJECTS:
4.33
mean
s. d.
1.49
N. right drawings A
INTERACTION UGHT/OBJECTS:
mean
3.67
Ν . abstract drawings A
1.10
s. d.
INTERACTION UGHT/OBJECTS.
mean
3.33
N. right answers Β
s. d
0.74
INTERACTION UGHT/OBJECTS:
mean
16.00
Total strategies Β
s. d.
1.83
High » higher than or equal to 75th centile
Low = lower than or equal to 25th centile
LOW
N=12
2.00
0.00
1.92
1.04
4.25
0.92
3.67
1.49
3.33
1.79
12.08
4.03
Student t
LOWWQ
N=10
2.00
0.00
1.60
2.20
4.60
1.20
2.70
1.68
3.00
1.34
13.40
4.32
Student t
-
-
-
-
-
3) M a n y subjects process i n f o r m a t i o n i n analogical f o r m a t i n t h e first c o d i n g of the data of
t h e p r o b l e m , but are unable t o effect the successive t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d t o m a k e the necessary
inferences (error are m o r e frequent i n the 2 n d part of the graphs).
4) C o m p l e x problems, like t h e one o n L i g h t Reflection, require a shifting
f r o m figural
representation of physical objects t o t h e use of rules and inferences derived f r o m the analytical
description of the p r o b l e m and L . T . M . , and these are better represented i n propositional f o r m a t
(or m a y be amodal).
A s w e already observed i n creative tests (Wartegg), t h e creative products
can be obtained
starting f r o m a figural representation or a verbal m e t a p h o r , but this starting p o i n t is followed
by a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n derived f r o m semantic nets o r personal e m o t i o n a l experience; i n t h e same
w a y the solution of complex
problems
alternates
phases of holistic synthetic insight, w h i c h
m a y have a n analogical f o r m , w i t h processes of deductive reasoning, w h i c h must proceed by
sequential steps according t o logic rules and analytical processing.
L o g i c a l a n d creative t h i n k i n g i n adolescents
91
Working
Memory
Control
Information Flow
Retriever
LTM
•
Processing modul
Data structure
Potential
Analogy
Analogy engine
Structural
evaluations
Candidate
inference
Evaluation
Figure
1:
Gentner's (1989) m o d e l of analogical reasoning
I w o u l d like t o m e n t i o n that B i n n i g , Nobel prize laureate for Physics, i n his w o n d e r f u l b o o k
o n creativity "Aus dem Nichts" (1989) describes the alternative role o f synthesis and analysis
i n t h e process o f scientific discovery, and that Wallace and Gruber i n t h e i r biographic studies
o f "Creative
people
at work" (1989) emphasize t h e changing aspects o f creative persons
("evolving
systems").
G e n t n e r ( 1 9 8 9 ) i n her m o d e l of analogical reasoning observes that "analogy i n p r o b l e m solving
is o n l y a special case o f analogy" and proposes a n architectural m o d e l o f analogical reasoning
t h a t includes, besides t h e subjects traits, Short T e r m and L o n g T e r m M e m o r y , inferential and
evaluation processes, plans and goals (Figure 1).
Probably M e n t a l Images i n their pictorial f o r m are useful i n t h e initial phase o f solution of
m a n y p r o b l e m s , but i n successive phase must be transformed i n abstract f o r m and integrated
w i t h o t h e r processes; and probably the most productive thinkers are n o t H i g h Imagers, but
p e o p l e w h o c a n shift f r o m one t o another mode o f processing. So, the best t y p e o f instruction
for t h e gifted should n o t be aimed t o emphasize t o o m u c h specific abilities o r techniques o f
visualization, b u t t o integrate t h e m w i t h verbal strategies; figurative aspects of knowledge m i g h t
be m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r problems concerning infralogical operations, w h i l e i n logic-mathematical p r o b l e m s p r o p o s i t i o n a l aspects m i g h t be better.
Relationship o f imagery t o t h i n k i n g is complex, and differs i n t h e various steps o f p r o d u c t i o n
of hypothesis, p r o b l e m solving, discovery and invention: and the education for t h e gifted should
a i m t o develop analogical and logical reasoning and t o use t h e m i n the most convenient way.
Omella Dentici Andreani
92
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Notes
T h e factors of m o v e m e n t have also significant correlations w i t h some items of L o n g e o t
(mechanical curves a n d probabilistic test of f o r m a l operation)
1
Subject's semantic orientation and creative
thinking
Maria Trifonova
Permanent
Switzerland
Mission
of the Republic
of Bulgaria
to the United
Nations,
Geneva,
Educational institutions are designated b y society t o m a i n t a i n , exercise a n d c o m m u n i c a t e t h e
collective h u m a n intellect (the culture, t h e civilization) of t h e past. T h e m o s t frequent style of
teaching and old didactic methods are most suited t o t h e conservation of i n f o r m a t i o n acquired
over generations, but d o n ' t stimulate creating n e w contributions t o that culture.
T h e education refers t o the processes w h e r e b y children are introduced t o , a n d c o m e t o master
the p r i n c i p a l notational channels of their culture. H o w w e c a n build t h e n o t a t i o n system of
different scientific domains, preventing h u m a n m i n d f r o m sterotypes i n using such k i n d of
system? i t w o u l d be a radical pedagogue indeed w h o w o u l d a t t e m p t t o c i r c u m v e n t o r subvert
it altogether.
Perhaps one must master t h e symbolic system, as it is supposed t o be mastered, before one
can take fresh advantage of i t . Because of its recent development, psychology n o w has t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y t o give a n answer t o questions concerning t h e nature of creativity a n d become
m o r e useful t o education t h a n it has ever been before. T h e fruits of psychological a n d educational
research are m a i n l y writings intended t o provide educators w i t h guidance o n h o w various aspects
of schooling should be conducted. T h u s , it's b e c o m i n g socially i m p o r t a n t t o find out w h a t are
scientific explanations of h u m a n creativity i n learning and c o g n i t i o n .
T h e nature of creative t h i n k i n g is a longstanding t o p i c w i t h i n psychology. Theories of creativity
undergo a n evolutionary process that theorists believe brings us t o successively deeper levels of
understanding of t h e psychological construct under investigation.
Whereas the fundamental unit of analysis i n most psychometric theories is t h e factor, t h e
fundamental unit of analysis i n most cognitive theories is the information-processing c o m p o nent. T h e p o i n t t o be made is that h u m a n t h i n k i n g and especially creative t h i n k i n g c a n n o t
possibly be understood fully, except at multiple levels of t h e processing of i n f o r m a t i o n . N o o n e
a p p r o a c h t o studying cognitive processes is a p t t o be "complete". A c o n t i n u i n g challenge for
t h e future will be the integration of results f r o m various paradigms of research so that o u r
understanding of intelligence and creativity w i l l be trans-paradigmatic rather t h a n specific t o
the research a p p r o a c h that it happens t o use.
D u r i n g most of this century, t h e d o m i n a n t a p p r o a c h t o theory, research, a n d practice i n t h e
field of h u m a n intelligence has been t h e psychometric a p p r o a c h . Investigators using this
a p p r o a c h have sought t o understand intelligence by e x a m i n i n g patterns of individual differences
i n scores o n various kinds of m e n t a l tests. Psychometric theories deal w i t h intelligence p r i m a r i l y
i n its structural aspects. Cognitive theories deal w i t h t h i n k i n g p r i m a r i l y i n its processing aspects.
A c o m p o n e n t is a n elementary i n f o r m a t i o n process that operates o n internal representations
of objects and symbols. T h e p o i n t is that psychometric and cognitive (information-processing)
approaches t o studying t h i n k i n g are c o m p l e m e n t a r y a n d mutually beneficial. T h e role of
cognitive t h e o r y is n o t t o o v e r t h r o w psychometric theories, but rather t o fill i n details. Cognitive
theories elaborate o n rather t h a n replace psychometric ones.
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95
Investigators studying h u m a n t h i n k i n g f r o m a cognitive v i e w p o i n t have p r o p o s e d several
classification schemes for understanding information-processing c o m p o n e n t s , a n d have p r o posed several schemes for understanding sources of individual differences i n these c o m p o n e n t s
and i n the ways i n w h i c h t h e y c o m b i n e . O n e of these sources o f individual differences i n
information processing, according t o R. Sternberg, is m e n t a l representation o n w h i c h c o m p o nents act: some individuals m a y use one particular representation for i n f o r m a t i o n , whereas
others use a different representation. T h e c o m p o n e n t s of intelligence are manifested at different
levels of experience w i t h tasks a n d i n situations of varying degrees of contextual relevance t o
a person's üfe.
T h e knowledge-based a p p r o a c h assigns a central role of old knowledge i n t h e acquisition of
n e w knowledge. P r o p o n e n t s of this a p p r o a c h encompass research focusing o n general w o r l d
knowledge, knowledge of structures o r classes of text, a n d knowledge about strategies for
knowledge acquisition. A c c o r d i n g t o F. K e i l ( 1 9 8 4 , p . 9 1 ) , "...the structure plays a m o r e
i m p o r t a n t role t h a n process i n explanations of m a n y instances of cognitive change...". T h i s
view also puts a n emphasis o n a p r i o r i constraints o n knowledge, a n d o n content-bound versus
content-free knowledge.
Some psychologists usually cite instances of differences between expert a n d novice performance - i n verbal a n d o t h e r domains - that seem t o derive m o r e f r o m knowledge differences
t h a n f r o m processing differences. F o r example, K e i l (1984) suggests that development i n t h e
use of m e t a p h o r a n d i n t h e use of defining features of w o r d s seems t o be due m o r e t o differential
knowledge states t h a n t o differential use of processes o r speed of process execution. Chase
and S i m o n (1973) f o u n d that differences between expert a n d novice p e r f o r m a n c e i n chess
seemed largely due t o differential knowledge structures rather t h a n t o processes.
M u c h of t h e insight i n t o t h e p r o b l e m solving a n d learning i n the N e w e l l a n d S i m o n p r o g r a m m e
is i n their description of t h e knowledge structures that are b r o u g h t t o a p r o b l e m , a n d of h o w
t h e p r o b l e m itself is encoded o r represented. Differences i n strategic knowledge are often used
t o explain differences i n older a n d younger children's ability t o acquire i n f o r m a t i o n about specific
content. Siegler and Richards suppose that this equation can be reversed, however, knowledge
o f specific content m a y influence t h e acquisition of strategies (Siegler & Richards, 1 9 8 2 ) . T h e y
cited a study done b y C h i that presented somewhat m o r e direct evidence that knowledge of t h e
content t o be r e m e m b e r e d c a n play a n e m i n e n t role i n t h e acquisition o f strategies.
I n his triarchic t h e o r y , R. Sternberg attempts t o specify w h a t aspects of t h i n k i n g m i g h t be
universal, and w h a t aspects m i g h t be relative. H e provided three basic kinds of i n f o r m a t i o n processing c o m p o n e n t s , w h i c h are referred t o as m e t a c o m p o n e n t s , p e r f o r m a n c e c o m p o n e n t s ,
a n d knowledge-acquisition. H i s p o s i t i o n is a n integrative rather t h a n segregative view of
perceiving the differences between positions. "The overemphasis o n process that m a y have
characterized some past research should n o t be replaced by a n overemphasis o n knowledge i n
present research. Rather, it should be recognized that knowledge a n d process w o r k interactively
i n complex ways. T h e knowlege-based a p p r o a c h is c o m p l e m e n t a r y t o t h e process-oriented
approaches, n o t a replacement for t h e m " (Sternberg, 1 9 8 5 , p . 110). A c c o r d i n g t o t h e triarchic
theory, c o m p o n e n t s of i n f o r m a t i o n processing are closely tied t o one's experience. Assessing
cognitive processes requires one t o consider n o t o n l y c o m p o n e n t s , but t h e level o f experience
at w h i c h they are applied.
A n o t h e r trans-paradigmatic a p p r o a c h t o creative t h i n k i n g is provided b y H . Gardner i n his
t h e o r y of multiple intelligence. A c c o r d i n g t o this author, "... somewhere between C h o m s k i a n
stress o n individuals w i t h their separate unfolding m e n t a l facilities, t h e Piagetian view of t h e
developing organism passing t h r o u g h a u n i f o r m sequence of stages, a n d t h e anthropological
attention t o t h e formative effects of t h e cultural e n v i r o n m e n t , it ought t o be possible t o forge
a productive middle g r o u n d . . . " (Gardner, 1 9 8 5 , p . 3 1 2 ) .
Maria Trifonova
96
T h e t h e o r y of multiple intelligences puts f o r t h o n a p o s i t i o n t h a t takes seriously t h e nature of
innate intellectual proclivities, t h e heterogeneous processes of development i n t h e child, and
t h e ways i n w h i c h these are shaped a n d t r a n s f o r m e d b y t h e particular practices a n d values of
culture.
T h e concept "creativity" covers a w i d e range o f different skills. M o s t of psychologists associate
w i t h creativity features as novelty a n d originality of t h e p r o d u c t . W e c a n study a n d analyse the
behaviour of creative people, but this w i l l n o t tell us very m u c h , because o f t e n such p e o p l e are
themselves unaware of w h a t triggered t h e brilliant idea. A c c o r d i n g t o E d w a r d de B o n o , the
lateral t h i n k i n g refers t o m o v i n g sideways across t h e patterns instead of m o v i n g a l o n g t h e m as
i n n o r m a l t h i n k i n g . T h e brain is a w o n d e r f u l device for a l l o w i n g i n c o m i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t o
organize itself i n t o patterns. O n c e t h e p a t t e r n has been triggered, t h e n w e f o l l o w a l o n g it and
see things i n t e r m s of previous experience. T h e creativity of students seems t o lie directly i n
their insight abilities, rather t h e n simply i n their IQ-test-type abilities or i n their abilities t o process
i n f o r m a t i o n rapidly. T h e gifted can interpret genuinely novel situations, whereas typical
individuals often have difficulty i n even c o m p r e h e n d i n g t h e nature of such situations. A c c o r d i n g
t o Vigotski's a n d Leontiev's theories of culture-historical experience, t h e h u m a n semantic
system consists of acquired meanings, c o m m o n for t h e members of t h e same culture. T h a t is
w h y t h e y w i l l s h o w a tendency t o code i n a comparable manner. A p p l y i n g this methodological
a p p r o a c h i n t h e field of cognitive psychology, t h e Russian psychologist L . G u r o v a achieved
m o r e c o m p l e x understanding of insightful a n d creative t h i n k i n g . She outlined a dialectic relation
between f o r m a l processing a n d u n f o r m a l , c o n t e n t emphasis i n problem-solving. I n t h e situations
of n e w problems t h e role of u n f o r m a l encoding a n d representations is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n i n
process of solving of familiar tasks and problems.
W h a t kind of available knowledge, stored i n long-term m e m o r y , is involved i n t h e process of
applying creative strategies i n problem-solving? A n o t h e r Russian psychologist, E. A r t e m e v a ,
supposed that i n t h e cognitive processes of p r o b l e m solving n o t o n l y o u r k n o w l e d g e , b u t also
our affective experience w i t h t h e certain c o n t e n t take part. T h i s idea corresponds t o the
theoretical assumption that t h i n k i n g operates o n internal representations of objects a n d symbols
at multiple level of i n f o r m a t i o n processing. D o m i n a t i n g of a process at a c e r t a i n level determines
t h e m a i n characteristics of its direction.
O u r m a i n hypothesis is that semantic o r i e n t a t i o n t o content be represented influences the
choice of creative strategies i n problem-solving. T o be original and creative, t h i n k e r s have t o
reach beyond t h e bounds of their concept structure (learned n o t a t i o n system) a n d t o a p p l y their
personal coding criteria. T h e vital parts of creative t h i n k i n g are subject's skills t o overcome
existing stereotypes, i n w h i c h one perceives a n d imagines, abilities t o m a n i p u l a t e material i n a
flexible m a n n e r , a n d t o represent i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m different points of view.
W e a t t e m p t e d t o s h o w i n our research t h e interaction between s o m e parameters of
i n d i v i d u a l ' s semantic structure (in t h e field of geometry) a n d creative strategies, used i n
problem-solving of geometric tasks. T h e study is designed t o evaluate a m o d e l of structural
relations, a m o n g major cognitive process variables.
Experimental study
O u r study had t w o objectives. T h e first one was t o investigate t h e characteristics of t h e process
of creating a semantic context for p e r c e p t i o n of undefinite visual material i n order t o determine
biases of individual's space of representation of visual stimulus. A c c o r d i n g t o this p u r p o s e , w e
used some psychosemantic m e t h o d s like semantic differential, classification etc.
T h e second objective was t o find out t h e influence of d o m i n a t i n g semantic o r i e n t a t i o n
(denotative and connotative) o n creative problem-solving of geometric tasks. O u r study t o o k
Subject's semantic o r i e n t a t i o n a n d creative t h i n k i n g
97
into account individuals' preferred " c o d i n g " language and the c o n t r i b u t i o n this factor makes t o
creative reasoning. T h e dependent variables i n this study w e r e t h e numbers of creatively solved
geometric p r o b l e m s , and tasks for analogical reasoning; t h e independent variables - numbers
and t y p e of dimensions of individual space for representation of geometric content.
Subjects
Subjects investigated w e r e 1 2 7 students f r o m Bulgarian a n d Russian h i g h schools and 6 4
students f r o m t h e University of Sofia. T e n children (aged 1 1 a n d 12) a n d 2 5 students w e r e also
asked t o d o t h e tasks i n a n earlier p i l o t study. T h e experiment is group-administered i n sessions
of about 4 5 minutes.
Experimental material
In o u r e x p e r i m e n t a l study w e used three different methods - a classification, a semantic
differential a n d a problem-solving, a p p l y i n g t h e m t o t h e same experimental material - sixteen
indefinite geometric figures. T h a t allowed us t o investigate t h e different psychological variables
i n their f u n c t i o n i n g i n the same content area.
T h e m a i n idea of designing t h e experimental material was t o use it for assessment of different
strategies i n classification, moreover t o provide the possibility for problem-solving at different
levels, especially at t h e level of finding a creative decision.
These figures a n d t h e rules for solution of t h e task make easier a p p l y i n g of stereotypes instead
of creating a n e w a p p r o a c h . O r i g i n a l decision is possible o n l y i n case if individual ignores
misleading stereotype.
W e used also B o n g a r d ' s task for analogical reasoning. I n these problems are given the
elements A , Β a n d C, a n d t h e task is t o select element D so that t h e relation between C and D
is the same as t h a t between A and B .
Procedure
T h e sequence of tasks was chosen initially accordingly t o o u r c o n c e p t i o n . I n t h e first session
w e used t h e m e t h o d of classification: the subjects w e r e required t o classify all t h e figures i n t o
groups. T h e y must determine t h e principles of sorting and t h e n u m b e r of groups, involving t h e
figures submitted t o these principles. I n t h e second series w e applied t h e m e t h o d of semantic
differential - t h e same figures are a n object of assessment t h r o u g h several bipolar scales. Each
i t e m o n a semantic differential f o r m has t h e subject rate a figure o n a 7-step scale defined by
a pair of p o l a r qualifiers w i t h t h e middle p o s i t i o n o n the scale defined as neutral a n d t h e three
steps o u t w a r d i n each direction defined as slightly, quite a n d very.The t h i r d m e t h o d w e used is
t h e problem-solving of a geometric tasks. T h e rule that must be followed determine the goal t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a simple figure like a triangle, a square, o r a t r a p e z i u m f r o m the initial
undefinite geometric configurations, dividing it i n t o t w o parts and r o t a t i n g t h e m i n order t o
construct t h e final figure, or figures. Finally, w e provided t h e subjects w i t h Bongard's tasks for
analogical reasoning.
Results
T h e results are organized i n t o t w o sections, corresponding t o each of o u r research questions.
T h e data collected f r o m all series of o u r study are interpreted o n t w o levels - o n t h e level of the
relation of parameters as t y p e of significant dimensions i n individual semantic space, produc­
tivity, problem-solving a n d analogical reasoning, and o n a global level - as a general tendency
i n t h e dynamics of t h e correlations i n t h e three groups w i t h different semantic orientation
towards geometric n o t a t i o n a l system.
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First. T h e parameter "semantic o r i e n t a t i o n " is a c o m p l e x o n e and its e x p e r i m e n t a l definition
is based o n the data obtained w i t h semantic differential a n d classification of geometric figures.
T h e data obtained w i t h semantic differential and i n f o r m a t i o n about system of criteria applied
i n t h e process of classification allows us t o divide all subjects i n t o three groups. T h e groups are
formed i n accordance t o subjects' semantic o r i e n t a t i o n towards content representation and
respectively reflect t h e i r level of activity i n creating semantic context.
T h e G r o u p I : Subjects w i t h strong "denotative" orientation. T h e y rely heavily o n t h e geometric
notational system a n d use only denotatively relevant scales, describing a n d sorting o u t figures.
T h e G r o u p Π: Subjects w i t h connotative o r i e n t a t i o n . For most objects qualifying scales used
by these subjects are rotated i n the affective space t o w a r d that factor o n w h i c h t h e y have their
d o m i n a n t loading - factor "evaluation". Affective scales are n o t meaningless for these subjects
assessing geometric figures.
T h e G r o u p ΙΠ: Subjects w i t h metaphorical o r i e n t a t i o n . T h e y apply n o t o n l y denotative but
also e m o t i o n a l scales for describing geometric content but their a p p r o a c h is quite different f r o m
those of G r o u p I and G r o u p Π. T h e r e is a n active process of creating a n e w m e t a p h o r i c a l object
and association i n t h e subject's m i n d o n the base of t h e stimulus presented. These m e t a p h o r i c a l
designs mediate t h e direct assessment of the f o r m e r geometric figures o n t h e scales. These
subjects demonstrate h i g h level of activity i n the process of content representation.
Second.
T h e three groups w e r e c o m p a r e d o n t h e basis of their p e r f o r m a n c e o n t h e
problem-solving of geometric tasks and o n Bongard's problems for analogical reasoning.
Given the exploratory nature of this research, multivariate, univariate a n d n o n p a r a m e t r i c
statistical procedures w e r e employed w i t h alpha level . 0 5 . A N O V A s using p l a n n e d comparisons
were conducted t o identify g r o u p differences o n the performance i n problem-solving of
geometric tasks and i n analogical reasoning.
Between-group differences w e r e significant for performance variable investigated i n the
process of finding out a creative solution of geometric tasks [ F ( 4 , 1 2 0 ) = 3 . 1 4 ; p < . 0 1 ] .
These results reject the first null hypothesis " T h e factor 'metaphorical semantic o r i e n t a t i o n '
doesn't relate t o creative problem-solving". Differences concerning t h e o t h e r performance
variable - analogical reasoning - w e r e all statistically nonsignificant. Such results allow us t o
accept the second null hypothesis "The factor 'metaphorical semantic o r i e n t a t i o n ' doesn't
influence the successful analogical reasoning".
In addition, w e discovered that there is a positive correlation above the m e a n values between
productivity i n creating m o r e t h a n one decision of geometric tasks and successful problem-find­
ing, but there is a statistically significant but weak correlation between productivity a n d analogical
reasoning. T h e correlation between problem-solving and analogical reasoning undergoes great
fluctuations. I n G r o u p I this correlation appears w i t h positive values; i n G r o u p Π and G r o u p ΙΠ.
this correlation disappears. T h e fluctuation is revealed also for t h e correlation between produc­
tivity and problem-solving. T h e r e is a highly positive correlation between productivity a n d solving
of geometric tasks i n the G r o u p III but i n G r o u p I and G r o u p Π, it becomes slightly negative.
Discussion
O n e m a i n finding emerged f r o m this study: the correlation between connotative (metaphoric)
semantic orientation and creative performance o n problem-solving of geometric tasks.
T h e subjects w i t h denotative o r i e n t a t i o n demonstrate a l o w ability t o solve geometric tasks i n
the first experimental series and a l o w level of productivity. T h e subjects w i t h denotative
orientation are g o o d performers i n tasks w h i c h d o n ' t require creative strategies. T h e subjects
w i t h connotative orientation deal m o r e successfully w i t h analogical reasoning but t h e y failed i n
Subject's semantic o r i e n t a t i o n and creative t h i n k i n g
99
solving t h e geometric tasks w h e r e a h i g h level of activity is necessary i n m o v i n g i n t o t h e content.
G r o u p ΙΠ demonstrates h i g h productivity a n d h i g h level of problem-solving but t h e subjects f r o m
this g r o u p are n o t g o o d performers i n analogical reasoning.
T h e creating of a m e t a p h o r i c a l context for representation of t h e undefinite content means
that t h e subject actively structures a n d manipulates i n a flexible m a n n e r . Acquired geometric
notational system doesn't limit t h e representation of t h e geometric tasks i n t h e shape, specific
for this d o m a i n . T h e activity required for the creative solutions of geometric tasks accumulates
i n every m o m e n t of t h e specific energy for designing hypothetical domains of probable
solutions. This process w h i c h runs ahead of t h e successive decision-finding is due t o existence
of multiple levels of representation, including n o t only relevant denotative schemes but also
connotative space. T h e findings of this study support suggestions that a n expanded view of
cognitive functioning is needed that m a y yield greater understanding of creative t h i n k i n g .
T h e results f r o m this study indicate that t h e d o m i n a t i n g of t h e aesthetic, m e t a p h o r i c and
nonspecific for t h e content, semantic orientation is a factor for o v e r c o m i n g barriers and
sterotypes i n problem-solving. T h i n k i n g becomes increasingly creative w h e n t h e experience
and relationships f r o m different domains can be hamessed t o w o r k together o n specific
problems t o be solved. T h i s is easier for children w i t h a m o r e playful disposition t o tasks. For
these y o u n g children internal representations of geometric structure are n o t yet fixed i n their
attachments t o t h e conventional meanings associated w i t h external n o t a t i o n systems. T h e y
have a n unusual capacity for representing geometrical figures t o themselves i n multiple ways.
T h e effect of m e n t a l representation u p o n strategy shows, I believe, t h e i m p o r t a n c e of
considering representation and cognitive strategy i n conjunction. Neither can be w e l l under­
stood independently of t h e other. T h e use of psyehosemantic methods represents a praise­
w o r t h y start i n this direction.
T h e advantage of theoretical scheme is t o direct research efforts towards particularized and
interrelated aspects of creative activities. I n consequence, e m p i r i c a l research w o u l d n o t
approach creative t h i n k i n g as a simple, undifferentiated process but rather as a coherent unity.
F r o m present research w e c a n d r a w implications for educational practice a n d suggestions for
further research of creative t h i n k i n g . O n e conclusion that follows f r o m this study is that there
is a need t o develop instructions accordingly t o V . V . Davidov's principle of education t o follow
transition f r o m abstract (semantic rules, concepts) t o definite examples. A p p l y i n g this principle
correctly, teachers provide students w i t h a n o t a t i o n system that allows a flexible m a n n e r of
using it. Because of its abstract nature such k i n d of knowledge suppose active task c o m m i t m e n t .
It is relevant t o principles of dialectic logic. A n o t h e r useful a p p r o a c h m i g h t be a p p l y i n g diverse
activities, using t h e same geometric content. T h e children m i g h t enjoy their education taking
part i n the games, require a p p l y i n g t h e aesthetic criteria i n t h e evaluation of geometric
configurations.
Education as a n aptitude development p r o g r a m must a i m at m u c h m o r e t h a n the development
of academic intelligence. It must a i m at p r o d u c i n g aptitude for creative problem-finding, and
for all kinds of problem-solving needed t o advance a n d sustain h u m a n civilization.
References
Artemeva, E. W. (1980). Psychology of subjective semantic. Moscow: Moskow University Press.
Chase, W. G., & Simon, H . A. (1973). The mind's eye in chess. In W. G. Chase (Ed.), Visual
information
processing). New York: Academic Press.
Chi, Μ. T. (1977). Age differences in memory span. Journal of Experimental
Child Psychology,
23,
266-281.
de Bono, E. (1992). Serious creativity. London: Harper Collins Publishers.
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Maria Trifonova
Gardner, Η. (1985). The frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic
Books.
Gurova, L. L. (1976). The psychological analysis of problem-solving.
Voronezh: Voronezh University
Press.
Keil, F. Μ. (1984). Mechanism of cognitive development and the structure of knowledge. In R. J .
Sternberg (Ed.), Mechanism of cognitive development (pp. 81-100). New York: W. H . Freeman.
Leontiev, A. N. (1983). Selected psychological studies. Vol. 1, Moscow: Pedagague Press.
Osgood, C. B. (1980). Lectures on language performance. New York: Springer.
Siegler, R. S., & Richards, D. D (1982). The development of intelligence. In R. J . Sternberg (Ed.),
Handbook of human intelligence (pp. 897-975). Cambridge: University Press.
Sternberg, R. J . (1985). Cognitive approaches to intelligence. In B. B. Wolman (Ed.), Handbook
of
intelligence: Theories, messurements and applications (pp. 59-119). New York: J o h n Wiley &
Sons.
Vygotsky, L. C. (1992). Selected works. The problems of general psychology, Vol. 2. Moscow:
Pedagague Press.
Personal and situational determinants of
innovation
Lutz v o n Rosenstiel
Institute
of Organizational
Psychology,
University
of Munich,
Munich,
Germany
If p r o b l e m s of a p p l i c a t i o n are of interest i n organizations of business a n d administration, the
question arises, u n d e r w h i c h conditions innovations will occur. These innovations can relate t o
procedures o r products. I n search for solutions for these problems, psychologists tend t o a
purely person-centered perspective. Concerning motivation they stress independence, curiosity, achievement m o t i v a t i o n etc. Concerning cognition t h e y p o i n t t o flexibility, orginality,
fluency, all i n all divergent t h i n k i n g . In order t o achieve innovations i n organizations, psychologists t r y t o select applicants w i t h these traits or to f o r m t h e m t h r o u g h measures of personal
development.
T h i s p o i n t of v i e w neglects the situation. Innovations i n organizations are the product of a n
interaction b e t w e e n p e r s o n and situation. In psychological perspective this results i n t w o major
consequences. T h e first consequence is discussed now, t h e second is presented at the end of
t h e chapter:
The creative person, thinking divergently,
has to recognize
the restrictive
circumstances
of the situation.
Even extremely original and fluent ideas, c o m b i n i n g everything, will hardly
lead t o applicable a n d useful results. It is n o t astonishing, that research shows h o w a c o m b i n a t i o n
of divergent a n d convergent competences favours innovations (Facaoaru, 1 9 8 5 ) . T h a t has t o
be considered i n selection and training.
T h e perspective of t h e individual was discussed intensively i n the w o r k s h o p . Dymshitz (1992)
presented criteria of selection i n the Soviet bureaucracy. Schüler ( 1 9 9 3 , see p . 112ff.) wondered
w h i c h personal characteristics can be identified as determinants of performance i n intellectually
h i g h d e m a n d i n g occupations. W u ( 1 9 9 3 , see p. 412ff.) studied the relationship a m o n g the
vocational interest, career maturity, academic aptitude a n d academic interest by senior-high
students talented i n science and mathematics. Pascher (1992) stressed i n n o v a t i o n competence,
a c r i t e r i o n for r e c r u t i n g managers:
Innovations serve a m o n g others t o solve problems and t o adapt t o changing environmental
conditions. " N e w ideas can only be generated and realized b y humans."(Thorn, 1 9 8 0 ) . Drucker
( 1 9 8 5 ) argues t h a t successful entrepeneurs must use "systematic innovations, w h i c h consists i n
t h e puposeful a n d organized search for changes, and i n the systematic analysis of the
o p p o r t u n i t i e s such changes m i g h t offer for economic and social i n n o v a t i o n . "
T h e f o l l o w i n g p r o b l e m s encountered by managers in corporations:
- markets g e t t i n g n a r r o w e r w h i c h necessitate quick reactions t o changing market needs,
- instead of linear-causal planning models and detailed rules, it is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o plan the
d y n a m i c processes flexibly,
- t h e results of m a n y decisions can not be estimated as w e l l ,
indicate t h a t managers have t o react to the increasing pressure of r a p i d canges. O n t h e other
h a n d , these situations allow new levels of order to emerge out of t h e "creative instability". A lot
of definitions t e n d t o suggest that the value of innovation is t o be judged f r o m t h e p o i n t of view
102
Lutz v o n Rosenstiel
t o t h e shareholder interest i n maximising profits. T h i s represents b o t h a value assumption
(that
seeking of profits is i n t h e best interest of all of those affected by the innovation) and a mistake
since i n n o v a t i o n m a y n o t always be economically valuable for a n organization. Regard at this
p o i n t t h e discussion about the social acceptance of change i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h conceptions as
"lean-production" o r "lean-management".
Innovations include social processes as well a n d t h e y are only t h e n successful, w h e n t h e
managers and co-workers accept and c o p e w i t h t h e changes that are a p p r o a c h i n g t h e m quicker
a n d quicker and therefore adapt their behaviour t o these changes. O n e of t h e most obstinate
problems is t h e resistance of the co-workers t o change. A study of Knetsch ( 1 9 8 7 ) s h o w e d t h a t
over 4 0 % of i n n o v a t i o n processes are rejected by non-technical factors, but by individual o r
organizational influences (or resistance). A central task area of t o m o r r o w ' s managers lies i n t h e
area of p r e p a r a t i o n , advising, steering a n d controlling the social processes.
Innovation compentence i n managing means that t h e manager has the ability t o influence
people, departments and regions as w e l l as t h e entire organization i n a w a y t h a t creates
innovation. T h e manager must also be able t o deal w i t h the conflics that arise due t o this.
Theoretical background
I n t h e scientific discussion i n n o v a t i o n surprises by a lot of different definitions, range f r o m
highly specific foci o n technical i n n o v a t i o n t o very broad generalisations, t o o imprecise t o enable
operationalisation.
Innovation is m a i n l y seen as
- a result of a change process,
- a change process,
- a phase of a change process,
- a w h o l e process of change.
T h e t e r m i n n o v a t i o n is usually employed i n four different contexts (according t o Z a l t m a n n ,
Ducan, & Holbek, 1973):
- product-innovation, e. g. a n i n t r o d u c t i o n of a new product,
- m e t h o d - i n n o v a t i o n , e. g. changes i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n facilities,
- structural i n n o v a t i o n , e. g. change of t h e responsibilities of departments,
- social i n n o v a t i o n , e. g. recruiting n e w co-workers o r qualifying t h e staff.
Y o u have t o begin w i t h a t h e o r y of i n n o v a t i o n if y o u w a n t t o find a psychological f r a m e w o r k
for the initiation of i n n o v a t i o n processes. H o w e v e r , the divergent aspects of i n n o v a t i o n research
only show a small degree of integrative character. " A p r o m i s i n g strategy could include research
w o r k o n creativity a n d p r o b l e m solving a n d define i n n o v a t i o n as t h e result of creative p r o b l e m
solving processes" (Meißner, 1 9 8 9 ) .
W h i l e representing a lot of other models of this process, the following m o d e l is a n analogy
t o change i n industrial organizations (Wallas, 1 9 2 6 ; according t o Meißner, 1 9 8 9 ) :
1. Preparation - the discovery of a p r o b l e m
Crisis can s u p p o r t the development of n e w ideas i n business firms.
2 . Incubation - hatching over a p r o b l e m
Precise analysis of the facts (e. g. discussion w i t h the colleagues, establishing of w o r k i n g
groups).
Problems:
T h e managers are affected by pressure of t i m e :
Personal a n d situational determinants of i n n o v a t i o n
103
- a n inaccuarate analysis often leads t o a n inadequate problem-solving process.
Results:
- waste of time a n d m o n e y ;
- g r o w i n g competence
problems.
3. Illumination - t h e spontaneous inspiration
W o r k i n g out t h e solution (=invention).
4 . V e r i f i c a t i o n - t h e investigation of t h e n e w idea
Realisation
- w i t h a strict p l a n of time, budget and competence;
- all departments w h i c h are affected by the realization are t o be embraced i n t h e change
process;
- review of t h e objectives.
T h e anology t o t h e creative problem-solving process is obvious. B u t is i n n o v a t i o n simply a n
innovative n a m e for creativity i n t h e organizations? A c c o r d i n g t o a lot of definitions creativity
involves uniqueness, a novel relational product. (E. g. Rogers [ 1 9 5 4 ] : "It is t h e emergence i n
action o f a novel relational product, g r o w i n g out of uniqueness of t h e individual o n t h e one
h a n d , a n d t h e materials, events, people, o r circumstances of his life o n t h e other." E. g. painting
a picture, developing a scientific t h e o r y ...)
B u t n o t all innovations w i l l be creative. Setting u p autonomous w o r k groups i n a factory may
n o t be creative, but is innovative t o most terms of t h e definition.
I n n o v a t i o n i n industrial context (according t o West & Farr, 1 9 8 8 ) means:
- I n n o v a t i o n always involves intentionality of benefit;
- I n n o v a t i o n has a very clearly social a n d applied c o m p o n e n t w h i c h i m p a c t o n others i n the
organization, w o r k g r o u p .
A n d this necessary c o m p o n e n t differentiates it f r o m creativity. For most of t h e business firms
is it n o question " i f they should realize innovations, rather t h a n t o organize t h e m i n a planned
and steady w a y ..." (Grochla, 1 9 8 0 ) .
In m y study I use t h e following definition of innovation (according t o D r e e s m a n n , 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 8 9 ) :
" I n n o v a t i o n means t h e realisation of subjective new ideas, o r a c o m b i n a t i o n of still existing new
ideas, w h i c h are supported by active o r passive members i n a different way. T h e r e is n o
significant difference between technical, social or structural innovations. I n n o v a t i o n embraces
the w h o l e process of change."
Objectives of the empirical study
T h e t h e o r y of planned organizational change stresses t h e i m p o r t a n t role of the acting
individuals concerned i n change processes.
H e r e is a short survey of some empirically verified characteristics of individuals w i t h a h i g h
ability t o i n n o v a t i o n (according t o Dreesmann, 1 9 8 9 ) :
- a g o o d education
- h i g h ability t o l e a m
- g o o d understanding of complex coherences
- creativity
-
open-mindedness
- h i g h ability t o take t h e risk
- sensitive for problems
104
-
Lutz v o n Rosenstiel
self-confidence
- a h i g h task-orientation
- a h i g h team-orientation
- a h i g h tolerance of frustration
- tenacity.
T h e question of selecting such "innovative personalities" is of central i m p o r t a n c e t o corporations. T h e y c a n avoid and lessen losses that result w h e n initiating and carrying out innovations
w h e n t h e c o r p o r a t i o n considers innovative competence w h e n selecting the managers of the
future.
T h e leading idea of m y study is that the management of change, t h e ability t o i n n o v a t i o n , is
a management of resistance against change, the mastering of the resulting certainty.
Empirical Investigation
I n a pre-study, industrial corporations w e r e questioned by means of interviews and partially
structured questionnaires about the instruments and processes already existing t o evaluate the
"innovative personality".
T h i s questionnaire consists of items about e. g.
- the structure of resistance against change,
- the kind of departments w i t h great n u m b e r of proposals for change,
- the extent of participiation of t h e management while t h e process of change,
- the development of typical situations of resistance,
- the development of strategies t o overcome this resistance,
- a listing of characteristics of t h e "innovative personality",
- a listing of typical tasks for this "innovative personality".
These results w e r e analyzed w i t h newer scientific concepts: as hypothetical-intuitive classification of innovation-relevant ability dimensions is made w i t h the empirically determined
behavioral demands. F r o m this, hypotheses are generated t o evaluate the "innovative personality", predictors are chosen a n d constructed. Resulting f r o m this, a m e t h o d t o recruit
"innovation-competent" managers is introduced and used t o validate the predictors and t o test
the hypotheses.
N o w w e t u r n t o the second of the major consequences w h i c h w e r e announced at the beginning
of the chapter: Not only the individual
is important
for
innovations!
Organizational psychologists should p r o m o t e the f o r m a t i o n of situational conditions that lead
w i t h a higher chance t o innovations (Gebert, 1 9 7 9 ; Meißner, 1 9 8 9 ) . Such conditions are a m o n g
others (von Rosenstiel, 1 9 8 9 ) :
- h i g h complexity of tasks,
- exchange of i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h i n the organizations,
- intensity and frequency of external contacts,
- decentralization of decisions,
- low standardization of procedures.
These and similar structural conditions offer chances for development t o persons ready to
a n d capable of innovations. T h e y enable such persons t o decide t o be a m e m b e r of the
organization and t o continue the membership.
T h e interaction between the individual and organizations can be discussed i n a system view.
T h i s p o i n t of view was offered by Kaspar ( 1 9 9 3 , see p. 106ff.).
Personal a n d situational determinants of i n n o v a t i o n
105
References
Dreesmann, Η. (1988). Innovationsprozesse.
Einführung von Neuerungen
in
Organisationen.
Unpublished reader with 14 contributions.
Landau: University of Landau.
Dreesmann, Η. (1989). Innovationskompetenz.
Unpublished
manuscript. Landau: University of
Landau.
Drucker, P. F. (1985). Innovation and entrepeneurship:
Practice and principles. London: Heinemann.
Dymshits, M . (1992). The subject of Soviet bureaucracy: The criteria of their selection and the psychology
of development. In E. A. Hany & K. A . Heller (Eds.), Competence and Responsibility (Vol. 1, p p .
36-37). Seattle: Hogrefe & Huber.
Facaoaru, C. (1985). Kreativität in Wissenschaft und Technik. Bern: Huber.
Gebert, D. (1978). Organisation und Umwelt. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
Grochla, Ε. (1980). BemebswirtschaftücrHDrganisatorische Voraussetzungen technologischer Innovationen. Zeitschrift für betriebswirtschaftliche
Forschung, Sonderheft 11, 30-42.
Knetsch, W. (1987). Organisations- und Qualifizierungskonzepte
bei CAD/CAM-Einführung. Erich
Schmidt Verlag.
Meißner, W. (1989). Innovation und Organisation. In H . Schuler & W. Stehler (Eds.), Beiträge zur
Organisationspsychologie.
Stuttgart: Verlag für angewandte
Psychologie.
Pascher, K. (1992). Innovation competence: A criterion for recruiting managers. In E. A. Hany & K.
A. Heller (Eds.), Competence and Responsibility (Vol. 1, pp. 111-113). Seattle: Hogrefe & Huber.
Rogers, C. (1954). Toward a theory of creativity. A Review of General Semantics, 11, 249-260.
v. Rosenstiel, L. (1989). Innnovation und Veränderung in Organisationen. In Ε. Roth (Ed.), Organisa­
tionspsychologie
(pp. 652-685). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Thorn, N. (1980). Grundlagen des betrieblichen Innovationsmanagements.
Hanstein, Königstein.
Wallas, G. (1926). The art of thought. New York.
West, M . , & Farr, J . (1988). Innovation at work: Psychological perspectives. SAPU Memo No. 8 1 4 .
Zaltmann, G., Duncan, R., & Holbek, J . (1973). Innovations and organizations. New York: WileyTnterscience Publ.
Innovation processes in self-organizing and
self-reproducing social systems
Helmut K a s p e r
University
of Economics
and Business
Administration,
Vienna,
Austria
Introduction
T h e following aspects deal w i t h theoretical considerations o n the role of actors i n organizations
f r o m t h e perspective of t h e self-referential system theory. T h e focus of the self-referential system
t h e o r y centers a r o u n d the "Eigenleben" of operatively closed systems, that is the creation of
social reality o n self-organizing processes. U p t o n o w starting points for research of h i g h
performance i n organizations w e r e intended innovations of actors. T h i s g r o u p of innovations
is only of m i n o r significance i n t h e actual organizing process, t h o u g h it d o m i n a t e d research i n
t h e past and has been overvalued by researchers. I n contrast, I h o l d the view that t h e majority
of innovations i n organizations "occurs" w i t h o u t being intended or justified by actors. It is t i m e
t o introduce these particular processes i n t o i n n o v a t i o n research and t o define the roles of actors
by means of this concept.
Self-organizing in Social Systems and Self-reference of Social Systems
H o w does self-organizing c o m e about i n social systems? Self-organizing evolves f r o m the m e r e
fact that actions w i t h i n a system are set and observed simultaneously. A t any given m o m e n t ,
observations draw any n u m b e r of impacts w i t h i n a social system. These impacts can be defined
as any noticeable o r perceivable f o r m of reaction (actions, omissions, w o r d s , and even failures).
Self-organization of t h e system is a process that 'happens'. Events take place that are observed
i n the system. If this conversion i n t h e system is operatively effective, that means there is a
reaction t o the observation, a self-organization of the system arises. A c t i o n and observation
merge.
C o m p l e x social systems are active and observe their o w n activity. C o m p l e x social systems
reproduce their unit, structures and elements i n a continuous m a n n e r and i n a n operatively
closed process w i t h the aid of t h e elements that they consist of. Every system controls its
recurring reality assumptions i n this m a n n e r t h r o u g h observation of its observations (Willke,
1 9 8 7 , p. 6). Self-referential social systems are - simply defined - systems, i n w h i c h "elements
that they consist of reproduce w i t h t h e help of other elements that they consist of and t h r o u g h
this r e p r o d u c t i o n process set borders w i t h the e n v i r o n m e n t " ( L u h m a n n , 1 9 8 4 , p . 58). T h e m a i n
i m p o r t a n c e of self-reference is that social systems can only carry out their self-reproduction
w i t h the aid of diverse forms of self-reference. Included here are also self-observations and
self-descriptions. I n order t o manage its o w n advance, the social system w o r k s out descriptions
of itself f r o m itself. Self-reference is, i n fact, the only w a y a social system can handle the
c o m p l e x i t y of the e n v i r o n m e n t . I n order t o cope w i t h the complexity of the e n v i r o n m e n t , social
systems use these self-referenced simplified (self)observations.
In t h e course of t i m e , expectations are developed w h i c h take o n the appearance of structures.
A l l processes that proved successful i n the past become effective w i t h regard t o such structures.
H e r e w e must r e m e m b e r that successful is n o t t o be mistaken for efficient. It must be
I n n o v a t i o n processes i n self-organizing and self-reproducing social systems
107
emphasized: N o t only w h a t is said and done builds a structure, but also w h a t is perceived and
stored.
Social Systems are Collections of Communications
Social systems are n o t t o be considered collections of people b u t collections of communications. T h u s processing of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s is the central p o i n t of o u r observances. W e cannot
observe c o m m u n i c a t i o n s directly but c a n include t h e m i n our observances. A d d i n g c o m m u n i cations t o actions takes place t h r o u g h social descriptions w i t h the aid of schemes of differences.
O n l y if observations i n social systems are operatively effective do t h e y become p a r t of the social
systems. T h i s c a n take place solely i n social systems t h r o u g h c o m m u n i c a t i o n s and according
t o the rules of t h e social system i n question. Observations that are n o t c o m m u n i c a t e d , play n o
role i n t h e social system.
A n e x a m p l e : W i t h o u t p e o p l e there are n o social systems, w i t h o u t such systems there is n o
c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n persons. O n l y the action but n o t the person himself o r herself is part of
t h e o r g a n i z i n g process. T h e inquiry of t h e sales manager i n t h e E D P department, his or her
expectations of t h e subordinated employee etc. but not for example his/her psychic dispositions
o r extra-organizational interest and c o m m i t m e n t s compete w i t h the changes w i t h i n the
c o m p a n y (Exner, Königswieser, & Titscher, 1 9 8 7 ) .
It is t y p i c a l f o r self-organizing processes (and therefore also for innovations a n d changes) that
articulating t h e desire for organizational change is neither a prerequisite n o r a requirement for
changes. T h e c o n c e p t o f self-organization starts one stage earlier, namely w i t h w h a t is observed
a n d perceived w i t h i n a system and leads t o consequences later o n .
A t present i t is i m p o r t a n t t o m a k e people aware of these self-organizing processes. Contradictory e x p e c t a t i o n s are ideal t o start w i t h . T h e emergence of contradictory expectations
triggers t h e desire f o r resolution w i t h i n the system and offers t h e acting managers a n excellent
o p p o r t u n i t y t o discuss a n d t o debate t h e situation and t o remove it f r o m self-organization. M o r e
i m p o r t a n t t h a n clarifications a n d / o r formulations or desired changes by t h e actors is w h a t will
h a p p e n i n t h e system d o w n t h e road.
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e t h e o r y of self-referential systems w e have t o expect that everything that is
set by actors is subsequently completed w i t h meaning, interpretations and reasons (selection
process).
Verbalized changes are also completed expediently and meaningfully i n the course of the
so-called selecting process a n d are also subject t o modifications. B u t that does n o t m e a n a
c o m p l e t i o n of t h e process of change. A n e n d occurs w h e n the system remembers the new
expectations o f expectations. A l l that, i n t u r n , occurs w h e n the changes b e c o m e part of the
organization's m e m o r y i n t h e course of the so-called retention process and w h e n t h e y thus have
t h e chance t o o b t a i n a structure-forming value o n a behavioral level as w e l l .
Breakdown of the Processes of Selection
T h e c o n n e c t i o n s i n figure 1 c a n be presented as follows: Enacting/carrying out change is
being dealt w i t h . Points a r e i n t e r p r e t e d , explained, debated, discussed, but a n agreement need
n o t be reached (1). T h e products gained i n this process of selection (=the negotiated
explanations, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , etc.) m a y end u p i n the semantic r e t e n t i o n of t h e social systems
a n d thus be generalized. These products can only be deemed stored, if the system remembers
t h e m i n future situations. W e speak of t h e m as stored if a social system i n future self-organizations o r selection processes recurs or this should, could or even w o u l d have t o take place. If
this is t h e t r u e , i n t h e e n d these stored contents flow i n self-organizing processes and i n the
process g a i n tangible structural value. I n other words: W h e t h e r the original negotiation of
H e l m u t Kasper
108
changes gains structural value i n the e n d , m e a n i n g if it is suitable t o f o r m expectations, cannot
be determined until afterwards. T h e situation and the means used i n convincing are the decisive
factors. O n e of t h e most i m p o r t a n t means of persuasion (but not the sole means) is semantics.
Let's return t o semantic storage: Whatever is once admitted t o the semantic storage becomes
semantic structure a n d belongs t o the m e m o r y of a social system. T h e contents of the storage
need n o t be logical i n consistency. Precisely the opposite is true: T h e r e are m a n y indications
that semantic storage is full of inconsistencies, unclarified points, half measures and ambivalencies.
Figure 1 shows the m o d e l of self-organizing processes i n complex social systems (Kasper,
1990, p. 350).
Semantic
retention
Semantic
storage
Historical
explanation
Symbols
abbreviations
Selection
Enacting
Self-description
2
1
Planning
Carrying out
change
Writing of
histories
Negotiation of
explanations
Key:
•
Figure
1:
Processes (Enacting,
Selection, Semantic
retention)
j Cultural
I patterns
Direction of
processes
Self-organizing process
A system can refer t o stored interpretations of actions. I n this w a y a system can recall matter
i n storage i n self-organized processes w i t h o u t explicit speech. T h e supposition that these stored
interpretations can be referred to and even have t o be referred t o if needed suffices. T h u s self
description flows via the detour of semantic storage (2) i n t o the self organization (3) of a system.
Self-organizing processes can lead t o negotiations of change (4) so that the cycle begins all over
again.
Innovations through the process of selection
Basically three forms of innovations are imaginable (Kasper, 1 9 9 0 ) .
1. A l t e r a t i o n action (formations) that result f r o m self-organizing processes is sprinkled w i t h
old semantics (Figure 2).
Innovation processes i n self-organizing and self-reproducing social systems
Semantic
retention
Selection
Semantic
storage
Historical
explanation
Symbols
abbreviations
Figure
2:
Enacting
Serf-description
2
Planning
109
1
Carrying out
change
Writing of
histories
Negotiation of
explanations
Giving o f meaning trusts semantic m e m o r y
If innovations occur, but the n e w is mixed w i t h old semantics, this has n o effect o n the direction
of processes o r future expections. T h e " o l d " semantics r e m a i n . B y "readjusting", adapting, o r
cancelling a n i n n o v a t i o n that has taken place, t h e innovative character is u n d e r m i n e d a n d
reduced. T h e i n n o v a t i o n was merely ephemeral, a sudden blossoming that disappears again
w i t h o u t leaving any traces.
T h e cultural parts o f the semantic retention, symbolic abbreviations (the shaded parts i n Figure
2) experience t h e least number of situational limitations. T h e selection process is rapidly
shortened by t h e m . T h e y are altered less strongly t h a n other elements of semantic r e t e n t i o n i n
the course o f selection processes. O n the level of semantics i t is mainly symbolic abbreviations
such as statements of expectations, concepts of duty, references t o habits, normalities and
customs, and o n the level of tangible behavior-myths, rituals, customary matters o f course etc.
(Kasper, 1 9 8 7 ) that have taken their place o n the level of expectations ( L u h m a n n , 1 9 8 4 , p .
416).
2. Actions leading t o alterations (structures) that
are b o r n e i n m i n d w i t h new semantics (Figure 3).
have resulted f r o m
self-organizing processes
In this case a n i n n o v a t i o n is not seen i n the old light but modelled by means of n e w semantics.
These n e w semantics c a n only be brought i n t o t h e system i n a credible w a y f r o m outside
(environment/persons) i n the course of the selection processes. T h e r e are chances for a lasting
genuine i n n o v a t i o n and here t o o the system has t o continue t o remember t h e m later as w e l l .
3. Carrying out of change is t o be effected o n the basis o f n e w self descriptions. I n this case
change is attempted t o be carried out w i t h o u t taking into consideration, for the time being, the
self-organizing processes. T h e attempt is made t o introduce innovations that have already been
made successfully elsewhere or statements about wishes and expectations referring t o innovative
actions i n t h e system are brought i n . Extensive managerial i n n o v a t i o n research has u p t o n o w
m o r e o r less solely concentrated of this type of innovation. T h e cognitive interest has been
limited t o questions concerning h o w workers are t o be m o t i v a t e d t o be innovative and/or h o w
they can effectively be convinced of the necessity of innovative behavior (and actions). W h a t
the m e m o r y (semantic and determinants of behavior) of this system (retention) already has
110
H e l m u t Kasper
accessible is n o t considered. I n this connections, operations w e r e only carried out o n the
semantic level.
+ New selection from outside
Semantic
retention
Semantic
storage
Historical
explanation
Symbols
abbreviations
Figure
3:
Selection
Self-description
Planning
Enacting
Carrying out
change
Writing of
histories
Negotiation of
explanations
Giving of m e a n i n g mistrusts semantic m e m o r y
T h a t w o u l d be t h e n a so-called conformed deviation ( L u h m a n n , 1 9 8 4 ) , a n allowed i n n o v a t i o n ,
a t y p e o f a m e n d m e n t t o a law. This n e w self description remains merely a single event, unless
it reaches t h e semantic r e t e n t i o n o f t h e social system a n d thus i n t h e e n d makes expectation
and structural formations possible. A change c a n indeed be ordered a n d created. B u t if t h e
system n o longer calls it t o m i n d (or is willing t o call it t o mind) o n one of the u p c o m i n g occasions,
this was simply a n individual n e w act.
I n a n y case t h e essential p o i n t is that t h e result of t h e process o f selection is capable o f being
placed i n t h e semantic retention. T h a t means that t h e expectation must be c o m m u n i c a t e d a n d
that t h e stored matter must also be recalled later. Even just t h e possibility o f being able a n d
having t o refer t o such semantics i n principal (for example i n organizational charts that have
been stashed away, w h i c h can/must t h e n be pulled out i n a dispute) suffices. A n i n n o v a t i o n has
n o t t a k e n place i n earnest until it lands i n t h e semantic r e t e n t i o n a n d thus stands t h e chance i n
future o f being used f o r directional purposes i n self-organizing processes o r i n selection
processes.
Implications for Management
F o l l o w i n g this a p p r o a c h leads t o t h e implications listed below f o r m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e
i n n o v a t i o n process a n d thus for t h e creation o f h i g h capabilities:
- Structural changes are i m p o r t a n t :
It is essential that innovations be built i n t o t h e structure of expectations and t h a t the system
I n n o v a t i o n processes i n self-organizing and self-reproducing social systems
111
use these altered expectations of expectations i n future.
- Self organizing processes are of fundamental i m p o r t a n c e :
T h e starting p o i n t for lasting innovations are self-organizing processes, during w h i c h old
structures are used as a basis for n e w ones o r simply remodeled.
- Intended innovations are first of all only descriptions:
Innovations are, i n the first instance, only requests, w h i c h have t o b e c o m e self descriptions
of t h e system. T h e y d o n o t last very long (preliminary innovations) if it is n o t possible t o
pull t h e m out of the semantic storage a n d thus f o r m self-organizing processes.
T h e q u e s t i o n arises once m o r e of the possibilities and necessary steps t o such semantic
storage. T h a t means precisely: H o w can changes be made attractive t o co-workers? H o w can
t h e y be persuaded either t o make a change o r n o t t o make a change? H o w can their personal
resistance against alterations be prevented o r h o w can they be motivated? T h e relationship
seems t o be extremely plausible: T h e m o r e u n k n o w n such a p e r m i t t e d change turns out t o be,
t h e greater t h e likelihood, that it w i l l r e m a i n a single event and therefore w i t h o u t any impact.
T h e chances of a change entering t h e self-organizing processes b y means of the semantic
storage a p p e a r slight. Micro-policy a n d culture patterns play a relatively i m p o r t a n t role.
T h e subsegment treatment (interpretation) / reasoning / evaluation (assessment) of opinions
according t o changes that occur during selection processes are of crucial i m p o r t a n c e . T h u s
processes a n d routines are t o be analyzed retrospectively even m o r e t h a n t h e y have been u p
t o n o w . Briefly stated: T h e "beginning" of processes of change can be traced back further i n t o
t h e past i n this way. U p t o this p o i n t such "beginnings" have n o t been consciously processed.
T h e f o l l o w i n g is a n example of this idea: N o t only t h e decision about t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a
c o m p u t e r system should be observed, controlled, checked and prepared, but also w h a t takes
place afterwards. W e should consider h o w the actors deal w i t h the c o m p u t e r facilities i n the
organizations i n question, provided t h e facilities are used at all, or w h e t h e r t h e c o m p u t e r system
is used f o r t h e purpose it was bought for o r n o t .
Expectations are n o t t o be seen as something definite w i t h t h e i r contents concretely defined.
Instead, expectations provide a n array of possibilities. T h e y c a n exclude specific alternatives,
thus d e f i n i n g w h a t is allowed i n a n indirect way, i n t h e sense of " A n y t h i n g that is n o t forbidden
is a l l o w e d . "
F o r m a n a g e m e n t i t is i m p o r t a n t t o locate every aspect of a n i n n o v a t i o n process. Managers
have t o focus o n the creation of potential for reflection i n the w h o l e system. A t the same time
t h e c o n t e n t o f the reflection should n o t be determined. T h e m a i n goal is t o motivate the system,
t o observe itself i n a better and p e r m a n e n t w a y (= increased self-description). It is crucial t o
differentiate m o r e strongly between acting and observing by means of self-observation and thus
i n t u r n t o get a better g r i p o n innovative processes.
References
Exner, Α., Königswieser, R., & Titscher, S. (1987). Untemehmensberatung - systemisch. Theoretische
Annahmen und Interventionen i m Vergleich zu anderen Ansätzen. Die Betriebswirtschaft,
47\
265-284.
Kasper, H . (1990). Die Handhabung des Neuen in organisierten Sozialsystemen. Berlin: Springer.
Kasper, H . (1987). Organisationskultur.
Uber den Stand der Forschung. Wien: Service Fachveriag.
Luhmann, N. (1984). Soziale Prozesse. Grundriß einer Allgemeinen
Theorie. Frankfurt/Main:
Suhrkamp.
Weick, K. (1979). The process of organizing. New York: Random House.
Willke, H . (1987). Systemtheorie. Stuttgart - New York: Gustav Fischer.
Communication rather than inspiration and
perspiration?
O n performance requirements i n highly qualified occupations
Heinz Schüler
University
of Hohenheim,
Hohenheim,
Germany
T h e title o f this r e p o r t is chosen i n h o n o r of T . A . Edison w h o , i n response t o t h e inquiry
w h a t makes u p a genius, is said t o have answered "Genius is made u p b y one per cent of
inspiration a n d ninety-nine p e r cent of perspiration".
W e can take this as a kind of performance theory, telling us that
1. cognitive abilities o r processes,
2 . effort, h a r d w o r k , persistence
contribute t o performance o r t o occupational success; a n d : Effort is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n
creativity. This does n o t go w i t h o u t saying, as Edison did n o t m e a n performance of t h e the
Sisyphos-type, but tasks like bulb i n v e n t i o n .
M y question - o r hypothesis - is n o w : S h o u l d n ' t w e add a t h i r d factor t o i n s p i r a t i o n and
perspiration - t h e ability a n d willingness t o cooperate w i t h others, here called c o m m u n i c a t i o n
for t h e sake of linguistic correspondence. T h i s hypothesis is based o n t h e p r e s u m p t i o n or
fore-knowledge that even very high-standing o r innovating achievements require i n f o r m a t i o n
f r o m others, discussion w i t h others, stimulation by others, i n some cases even o p p o s i t i o n f r o m
others. T h u s , t h e development of ideas requires t h e i r creators t o talk, t o ask, t o listen, t o behave
i n a n agreeable m a n n e r , a n d t o convince o r dominate. I n other w o r d s , it is suggested that
somebody's ideas just c a n n o t be so brilliant that t h e y could compensate a striking deficit of
social competences - under c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r k i n g conditions and p e r f o r m a n c e criteria (which
actually m a y have changed since Edison's times). So non-cognitive personality traits are assumed
t o play a n i m p o r t a n t role i n facilitating intellectual functioning and social skills t o be crucial for
effective performance i n several stages of c o m p l e x tasks.
A n empirical study was conducted t o test this hypothesis. 1 5 5 engineers and applied scientists
f r o m t h e Research a n d Development (R&D) units of seven G e r m a n high-technology companies
served as subjects. T h e i r m e a n age was 3 5 years. T w o thirds of t h e m w o r k e d o n a technical
level, one t h i r d w e r e first level supervisors. 1 5 0 of the 1 5 5 persons w e r e male. T h e subjects
belonged t o a w i d e variety of departments and research units w i t h i n t h e p a r t i c i p a t i n g firms;
concentrations w e r e i n car construction, chemical engineering, c o m m u n i c a t i o n engineering,
and h i g h frequency engineering. I n detail, this study is reported by Schuler, Funke, Moser, and
D o n a t (in press).
T h e first step consisted i n t h e development of a standardized j o b analysis i n s t r u m e n t . It
included t w o levels of analysis, 1) a task and behavior a p p r o a c h leading t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
w o r k samples a n d simulations, and 2) as a n attribute a p p r o a c h , a m a t r i x of corresponding
taks-attribute ratings delivered t h e most relevant traits for t h e assignment of construct-oriented
tests.
T h e resulting j o b analysis instrument consisted of 2 1 7 items w h i c h can be g r o u p e d i n t o 13
C o m r n u n i c a t i o n rather t h a n inspiration a n d perspiration?
113
consistent a n d interpretable factors. These task dimensions are given i n table 1 , together w i t h
t h e i r m e a n i m p o r t a n c e as rated b y j o b incumbants a n d supervisors.
Table
1:
Task dimensions a n d their i m p o r t a n c e
Task
dimensions
Mean importance
ratings
Management
Solving Complex Problems
Presentation
C o n s u l t i n g Customers
E x p e r i m e n t i n g and Testing
Technical Communication
Technical Service
Formal A n a l y s i s
Innovation
W o r k p l a c e Organization
P u r c h a s i n g and Coordination
C o o p e r a t i o n with Supervisor
I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y Contacts
1.96
3.34
1.78
2.00
2.67
3.26
1.93
2.26
2.98
2.14
2.23
3.41
2.32
Note: Importance of task requirements was rated on a six point s c a l e :
0 = does not a p p l y , 1 = low i m p o r t a n c e , 5 = high importance
These i m p o r t a n c e ratings already demonstrate that c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d c o o p e r a t i o n belong
t o t h e m o s t highly valued requirements i n R & D . F o r separating homogeneous groups of jobs
("job families") according t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e of requirements, a cluster analysis was calculated
w h i c h resulted i n t h e six groups o r j o b families Consulting, Testing, Technical Service, A p p l i e d
Research, Development, a n d Construction. T h e f o r m a t i o n of j o b families b y cluster analysis
allows f o r classification of j o b applicants a n d f o r i m p r o v e d validity generalization w i t h i n these
clusters.
T h e results of j o b analysis served as a basis of deriving predictors as well as criteria. A s t h e
question " W h a t shall be predicted" logically precedes t h e question " H o w c a n it be predicted",
criteria have t o be described first. T h e r e is a b i g variety of possible classifications of criteria.
Distinction of results, behaviors, a n d traits has proved a n especially fertile one. Each one of
these levels of measurement is characterized b y special qualities - advantages a n d weaknesses
(Schüler, 1 9 8 9 ) . So it seemed useful t o represent t h e m all i n performance appraisal. A m o n g
the 2 8 rated abilities/traits w e r e Verbal Abilities, C o n c e n t r a t i o n , M e m o r y , Open-Mindedness,
and Conscientiousness. F o r t h e 1 6 behavior/knowledge ratings Behaviorally A n c h o r e d Rating
Scales (Smith & Kendall, 1 9 6 3 ) w e r e constructed, including items like Scientific-Technical
K n o w l e d g e , Analyzing a n d Testing, a n d Interdisciplinary C o o p e r a t i o n . A m o n g t h e 9 outputdimensions at t h e results-level w e r e N u m b e r of Ideas, Patents, Public Reactions, a n d Efficiency.
Performance appraisal was done b y t h e engineers themselves a n d b y t h e i r supervisors. Rating
instructions w e r e t o evaluate performance of t h e last 1 2 m o n t h s . Retest-reliabilities for t h e
different types of scales w e r e between r = . 6 0 a n d . 7 0 , t h e c o m b i n e d value for t h e total of 5 3
single scales came u p t o r = . 9 2 . For validation, only the data taking supervisory ratings as criteria
are r e p o r t e d .
As predictors of performance, t w o groups of instruments w e r e developed - simulations o r
w o r k samples a n d tests. Most simulations w e r e tasks w h i c h are c o m m o n i n assessment centers,
including individual w o r k samples, role plays, and a g r o u p discussion. I n addition t o conventional
H e i n z Schuler
114
assessment methods, a computer-based simulation was included t o measure c o m p l e x p r o b l e m
solving, tasks simulating typical R & D problems, a n d a highly structured interview c o n t a i n i n g
biographical a n d situational questions.
Additionally, a personality test was constructed o r adapted, representing t h e m o s t relevant
personality dimensions as derived f r o m j o b analysis. Six of these dimensions t u r n e d o u t t o be
sufficiently homogeneous for further analysis. 1 0 measures of cognitive ability corresponded t o
the respective j o b dimensions. I n table 2 , simulations are listed completely together w i t h t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g task dimensions. F o r cognitive tests a n d personality tests, a selection o f those
s h o w i n g significant validity w i l l be given w h e n validity coefficients are r e p o r t e d .
Table
Simulations corresponding t o task dimensions
2:
Task D i m e n s i o n s
Simulations
Innovation
Cooperation with
Supervisor
Management
Technical
Communication
Interdisciplinary
Workplace
}
Intervi ew
Group Discussion
Contacts
Organization
In-Basket
Purchasing and Coordination
Solving Complex
Problems
PC-Simulation
Experimenting and Testing
Formal
Analyses
Formal Analyses Tasks
Presentation
Presentation
Consulting
Role Play
Technical
Customers
Service
(not
included)
I n t h e context of a one-day assessment center, tests a n d simulations/work samples w e r e
a p p l i e d t o t h e sample of 1 5 5 scientists a n d engineers i n groups of three t o seven persons.
Assessors w e r e three t o six trained organizational psychologists. F o r 1 4 0 of these persons,
p e r f o r m a n c e appraisals could be collected f r o m their supervisors as validation criteria. T h i s w a y ,
the investigation has t h e character of a concurrent validation study.
F o r validation, a c o m b i n e d performance score c a n be used, but there is also sense i n using
the best-fitting single criterion scale or, for reasons of reliability, a c o m b i n a t i o n of several relevant
dimensions. These problems are discussed a n d detailed results are reported i n Schuler et α/,
(in press). H e r e , o n l y a small selection of results c a n be offered. Table 3 gives a c o m p i l a t i o n of
uncorrected validity coefficients for t h e most valid cognitive tests a n d personality tests, a n d for
all o f t h e w o r k samples o r simulations. I n all cases, t h e most highly aggregated p e r f o r m a n c e
C o m m u n i c a t i o n rather t h a n inspiration a n d perspiration?
115
score (supervisory ratings) is t a k e n as c r i t e r i o n . F o r specific criteria, higher coefficients w e r e
calculated i n average.
Table
3:
Validity of several tests a n d w o r k samples a n d t o t a l score
Predi ctor
I n t e l l i g e n c e / C r e a t i v i t y Tests
Concentration
Ideational Fluency
S e m a n t i c Redefinition
C r e a t i v i t y (aggregated score)
General Intelligence
(aggregated s c o r e )
validity
for total
n=140
group
validity
for Σ 2 y e a r s <
coop.; n=88
.14
.15
.14
.21
.20
.22
.22
.28
.19
.27
P e r s o n a l i t y Tests
Self C o n f i d e n c e
A c h i e v e m e n t Motivation
Domi nance
.39
.30
.43
.44
.38
.41
Simulations
Interview
PC-Simulation
In-Basket
Role Play
Presentation
Group Discussion
.33
.08
.25
.32
.30
.28
.51
.18
.38
.39
.42
.36
A s expected, t h e values i n Table 3 demonstrate that personality tests and interactive simulation
measures t u r n o u t t o be better predictors of occupational performance t h a n cognitive tests,
even w h e n several subtests are c o m b i n e d t o a creativity o r intelligence score (as opposed t o
single measures f o r t h e other assessment tools). C o n c e r n i n g t h e criteria, however, w e w e r e
suspicious about data quality as several of t h e supervisors declared themselves hardly able t o
assess t h e i r subordinates' performance correctly. A closer inspection of t h e data revealed t h e
existence of t w o moderators of predictor validity. T h e first o n e is t h e time of acquaintance
between supervisor a n d subordinate, t h e second o n e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of task dimensions.
C o n c e r n i n g t h e first o n e of these moderators, a n approximately linear relationship between
time of c o o p e r a t i o n a n d validity of predictors was found. T h i s relationship holds for 2 2 out of
2 4 predictors a n d thus m a y be seen as rather reliable. Especially, a period of c o o p e r a t i o n below
t w o years leads t o l o w validity coefficients - presumably because of insufficient criterion quality.
If w e take o n l y those pairs of supervisors - subordinates as as basis of validity calculation w h o
w o r k together for at least t w o years, validity coefficients s h o w substantially higher values, as
can be seen i n t h e second r o w of Table 3 .
R o u g h l y t h e same picture is s h o w n w h e n o n l y those dimensions of task requirements are
t a k e n i n t o account that w e r e rated as i m p o r t a n t for t h e respective j o b . I n c o m b i n a t i o n , these
t w o m o d e r a t o r effects even lead t o quite u n c o m m o n l y h i g h validity estimates - but as t h e n u m b e r
of cases at t h e same time is highly restricted b y this double contingency, these data are n o t
r e p o r t e d here.
H e i n z Schuler
116
Also for data that are restricted t o cases of sufficient criterion quality, t h e effect holds that
measures of social skills a n d of t e m p e r a m e n t traits are superior t o most cognitive measures and
that, overall, interactive measures (role plays, g r o u p discussion, structured interview) are m o r e
valid t h a n conventional psychological tests, although a kind of ceiling effect for some of the
coefficients can be expected caused by only moderate predictor reliabilities. T h i s result seems
t o be i n o p p o s i t i o n t o meta-analytical findings that general intelligence is n o t only a positive
predictor for all occupations, but that it t u r n e d out t o be of higher predictive validity for m o r e
demanding jobs (Hunter & H u n t e r , 1 9 8 4 ) . I n our case, w e have t o take i n t o account a stricter
- a l t h o u g h , unfortunately, u n k n o w n - preselection for intelligence t h a n for other relevant traits
and competencies b y t h e educational system and by t h e organizations, including self-selection.
Consequently, also a meta-analysis of older validity studies for scientific a n d parascientific
occupations resulted i n higher validities for personality tests t h a n for intelligence tests (Funke,
Krauss, Schuler, & Stapf, 1 9 8 7 ) ; simulation measures of social skills w e r e n o t yet included i n
these studies.
H a v i n g f o u n d this effect, some older data can be viewed i n a n e w light: W h e n inspecting data
f r o m Dömer's L o h h a u s e n experiment, a famous study o n complex t h i n k i n g (Dömer, Kreuzig,
Reither, & Stäudel, 1 9 8 3 ) , it can be found that subjects' results were n o t correlated w i t h
intelligence tests. Instead, they are correlated w i t h a test called Questionnaire for Cognitive
Process Variables. T h i s sounds quite cognitive. B u t w h e n items are inspected somewhat closer,
t h e formulations read like " M y thoughts tend t o digress" or "Problems t e n d t o be t o o m u c h for
me". Feelings like these actually should inhibit cognitive processes, but they do n o t represent
cognitive measures themselves!
Correspondingly, this variable is positively correlated t o Neuroticism, negatively t o Extraversion, a n d virtually by r = . 7 4 t o Self-Esteem. Dörner himself never seemed t o give m u c h weight
t o these results a n d held t o his conception of complex p r o b l e m solving as a successor of
structuralist intelligence research. B u t i n t h e light of the results presented here, Dömer's data
actually c o n f i r m t h e hypotheses stated at the beginning - interpreted, of course, i n t h e light of
today's w o r k i n g a n d selection conditions:
Creative performance comes f r o m inspiration t o a small a m o u n t , f r o m perspiration t o a
moderate a m o u n t , a n d t o a h i g h a m o u n t f r o m self confidence and social skills.
References
Dömer, D., Kreuzig, H.W., Reither, F., & Stäudel, Τ. (Eds.). (1983). Lohhausen. Vom Umgang mit
Unbestimmtheit
und Komplexität [Dealing with uncertainty and complexity]. Bern: Huber.
Funke, U., Krauss, J . , Schüler, Η., & Stapf, Κ. Η. (1987). Zur Prognostizierbarkeit wissenschaftlich­
technischer Leistungen mittels Personvariablen: Eine Metaanalyse der Validität diagnostischer
Verfahren im Bereich Forschung und Entwicklung [Prediction of scientific-technical performance: A
meta-analysis]. Gruppendynamik,
18, 407-428.
Hunter, J.E., & Hunter, R.F. (1984). Validity and utility of alternative predictors of job performance.
Psychological Bulletin, 96, 72-98.
Schuler, Η. (1989). Leistungsbeurteilung [Performance Appraisal]. In E. Roth (Ed.),
Organisationspsy­
chologie. Enzyklopädie der Psychologie O/lll/3 (pp. 399-430). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Schuler, H . , Funke, U., Moser, K., & Donat, M . (in press). Personalauswahl in F&E. Eignung und
Leistung von Wissenschaftlern
und Ingenieuren
[Personnel selection in R & D . Aptitudes and
performance of scientists and engineers]. Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Smith, P. C , & Kendall, L M. (1963). Retranslation of expectations: A n approach to the construction
of unambiguous anchors for rating scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 47, 149-155.
IV.
DEVELOPMENT OF GIFTEDNESS
A N D TALENT
Introduction
I n her review article, Brigitte Rollett first discusses t h e various research approaches t o
personality development i n t h e gifted. I n t h e author's o p i n i o n , t h e lack of interdisciplinarity of
developmental results is a research deficit, i.e. t h e neurophysiological vs. cognitive a p p r o a c h
or t h e biological vs. t h e learning t h e o r y a p p r o a c h . Franz Mönks a n d Christiane Spiel summarize
t h e results of t h e s y m p o s i u m "Development of giftedness i n a life-span perspective". T h e idea
that studying t h e developmental career of t h e gifted beyond childhood a n d adolescence could
be rewarding has only become p o p u l a r i n t h e last decade, although the t h o u g h t has older roots.
T h e theoretical basis of m o r e recent developmental studies i n t h e life-span perspective is t h e
Baltes a n d Schaie seven-component model initially presented i n 1 9 7 3 a n d modified since t h e n
numerous times.
T h r e e developmental studies follow w h i c h focus o n various contents a n d age levels. T h e
follow-up study b y Christiane Spiel and U l r i k e Sirsch analyzes the stability o r instability of
giftedness i n t h e developmental process f r o m early c h i l d h o o d t o early adolescence. F o u r
different cognitive developmental profiles w e r e identified and discussed w i t h regard t o test
t h e o r y a n d educational measures. I n the follow-up study by Aysenur V o n t a r , developmental
changes i n t h e creative t h i n k i n g of 1 1 - t o 18-year-old Turkish students w e r e measured. T h e
T o r r a n c e Test of Creative T h i n k i n g (TTCT) was employed over a t i m e p e r i o d of seven years,
and retest reliabilities of . 5 3 t o . 7 0 were obtained. T h e w e l l - k n o w n decline effect i n creativity
development was also seen here, although i n contrast t o t h e linear decline of measured creative
potential i n t h e A m e r i c a n T T C T standardization sample, a non-linear developmental curve was
118
Introduction
found i n t h e T u r k i s h y o u t h s : After T T C T scores increased t o the age o f 15 years, a decline
followed d u r i n g senior h i g h school. In a d d i t i o n , various developmental curves w e r e f o u n d w i t h
regard t o individual creativity factors (fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration). H a n s Günther
Bastian made use n o t of test data but rather of narrative interviews i n his b i o g r a p h i c a l study of
national winners of a c o m p e t i t i o n i n music. A l t h o u g h t h e w i n n e r s studied here w e r e i n s t r u m e n talists, Bastian comes t o t h e conclusion that musical talent is a multifaceted p h e n o m e n o n . A l l
of t h e cases interviewed emphasized t h e i m p o r t a n c e of early c h i l d h o o d experiences and
impulses. A t t h e same time, t h e y denied - as is frequently assumed - that t h e y h a d b e e n viewed
as child prodigies. T h i s observation about y o u n g gifted individuals is also frequently made i n
other contexts, e. g. a m o n g participants of accelerated school p r o g r a m s f o r t h e gifted or
s u m m e r courses. This m a y , of course, reflect the y o u n g people's great desire t o avoid the
conflict between academic achievement m o t i v a t i o n a n d social exclusion (by peers). It is also
possibly a reaction t o social conformity pressures, i . e. t o (appear to) be u n e x c e p t i o n a l o r
average.
Finally, H e r b e r t J . W a l b e r g et α/, a t t e m p t t o take t h e data f r o m t h e T e r m a n study a n d analyze
it according t o Walberg's educational productivity m o d e l using m o d e m multivariate statistical
methods. T h u s , t h e a t t e m p t is made t o t h r o w n e w light o n the data based o n c o n t e m p o r a r y
theoretical insights i n t h e development of giftedness. Using somewhat n e w variable divisions
(e. g. relatively fixed vs. alterable conditions), the effect of early socialization c o n d i t i o n s o n later
development w e r e t o be determined. T h i s could only be partially realized. T h e authors d o ,
however, r e p o r t a n u m b e r of valuable detailed results w h i c h should be useful for future
longitudinal studies, especially those w i t h a life-span perspective.
Development of high ability
Brigitte Rollett
Institute
of Psychology,
University
of Vienna,Vienna,
Austria
I n spite of t h e fact t h a t t h e development of higher ability and giftedness has n o w been studied
intensively for almost a century, there is still a broad range of questions that has yet t o be
investigated: foremost amongst these are the causes for t h e highly gifted individual's exceptionally efficient ways of i n f o r m a t i o n processing. A l t h o u g h t h e relative i m p o r t a n c e of nature versus
nurture has been studied i n detail, t h e neurophysiological basis of cognitive and personality
development, a n d the interaction of t h e factors pertaining t o these, have been m o r e o r less
ignored.
A possible exception is the recent, still highly speculative debate o n left b r a i n / r i g h t b r a i n
functions a n d t h e i r relationship t o forms of giftedness. T h e crucial question is: h o w does t h e
gifted m i n d w o r k a n d develop and h o w does this translate i n t o neuropsychological findings
pertaining t o t h e o p t i m a l development and functioning of t h e neural system?
S o m e aspects of the neuropsychological bases of expert information processing
T h e cerebral cortex is routinely excited by all n e w a n d unexpected stimuli, i n other w o r d s , by
stimuli that have l o w subjective probability a n d are thus highly informative, but this excitation
occurs only as l o n g as they are considered t o be novel. T o counteract a n overloading of the
processing a n d storing capacities of t h e b r a i n , repetition of t h e same i n f o r m a t i o n causes the
cortical response t o disappear almost completely, a process k n o w n as habituation. T h e ability
t o habituate quickly is therefore a n early sign of giftedness, since it shows superior processing
faculties. W h e n habituation sets i n , t h e i n f o r m a t i o n of these particular stimuli is n o longer
transmitted a n d processed by t h e nervous system, either because it is considered u n i m p o r t a n t
o r because it has already been stored.
Since this subsiding of transmission happens t o all stimuli, irrespective of their i m p o r t a n c e , a
second process, sensitization, counteracts this: W h e n a stimulus o r a set of stimuli excites either
t h e reward o r t h e punishment area of the limbic system, thus indicating that t h e sensory
experience is of consequence t o the well-being of the organism, r e p e t i t i o n leads t o a steady
increase i n the readiness for synaptic transmission and i n cortical response and thus t o the
creating of strong m e m o r y traces (Guyton, 1 9 9 1 ) .
Deciding w h e t h e r a n i t e m of i n f o r m a t i o n is relevant is therefore p r i m a r i l y a n e m o t i o n a l
process, involving t h e limbic system of the brain. These same processes are t h e o r i g i n of
selective a t t e n t i o n and of the selective processing of i n f o r m a t i o n and as a consequence, of
higher order i n f o r m a t i o n processing (Rollett, 1 9 8 4 , 1 9 9 3 ) . This is t h e reason w h y m o t i v a t i o n
plays such a n i m p o r t a n t role i n realizing the promise of early signs of giftedness.
C h i l d r e n w h o w e r e later identified as gifted often show interest i n their e n v i r o n m e n t at a very
early age (Rollett, 1 9 8 9 ) . Even as n e w b o r n infants, they are "efficient orienters", as Stapf and
Stapf ( 1 9 8 8 ) established i n a n investigation of 5 1 gifted children. T h e o r i e n t i n g reaction is a n
indicator of t h e child's readiness t o learn f r o m his o r her e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s active i n f o r m a t i o n seeking behavior is o p t i m a l i n furthering the development of t h e functional units of t h e brain.
T o begin w i t h , any stimuli that elicit a n e m o t i o n a l response automatically are considered t o
B r i g i t t e Rollett
120
be i m p o r t a n t a n d cause the individual t o store t h e m . I n t h e l o n g r u n , this leads t o t h e f o r m a t i o n
of a range of valid w o r k i n g models of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . It c a n be assumed that sensitization is
possible t h r o u g h feedback loops i n t h e h i p p o c a m p u s , w h i c h causes i n f o r m a t i o n labelled as
relevant t o be rehearsed and thus included i n the existing knowledge base of t h e individual b y
c o m p a r i n g it w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n already i n t h e storage systems of t h e b r a i n .
Similar i n f o r m a t i o n units cause t h e existing knowledge units t o be strengthened, dissimilar
ones m a y either w e a k e n t h e m or lead t o conflicting i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e individual's m e m o r y
system. These conflicts c a n be resolved by differentiating and restructuring t h e knowledge base,
another accomplishment i n w h i c h gifted persons are m o r e expert. Klauer developed very
efficient t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s of cognitive t h i n k i n g skills for children, i n d u c i n g t h e m consciously
t o observe similarities a n d dissimilarities w h e n solving problems (Klauer, 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 1 ) .
Giftedness as expert information processing
O n e o f the basic observations made w h e n c o m p a r i n g efficient learners w i t h t h e i r less able
peers is that t h e f o r m e r seem t o be better able t o identify relevant i n f o r m a t i o n a n d t o concentrate
o n processing it rather t h a n u n i m p o r t a n t data.
A general t h e o r y of giftedness must therefore include a t h e o r y of e x p e r t construction a n d
handling of relevant i n f o r m a t i o n (Kraak, 1 9 9 1 ) .
T h e d e f i n i t i o n of giftedness is still somewhat contentious i n literature (Freeman, 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 9 3 ;
Heller, 1 9 8 9 ; H o r o w i t z & O ' B r i e n , 1 9 8 5 ; Passow, 1 9 8 9 ) . H o w e v e r , clear-cut diagnoses of
giftedness, w h i c h m i g h t f o r m t h e prerequisite for a selective early stimulation of exceptionally
c o m p e t e n t infants, are only possible once w e can proceed f r o m exact definitions of giftedness.
Sternberg and Davidson ( 1 9 8 6 ) identified n o fewer t h a n 1 7 concepts of giftedness, w h i c h are
connected w i t h one another i n specific ways, but differ as regards fundamental features. I n their
o w n a p p r o a c h t h e y accorded "insight", a particularly efficient f o r m of processing i n f o r m a t i o n
and solving problems first described by W e r t h e i m e r ( 1 9 4 5 ) , central i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e i r definition
of intellectual giftedness (Davidson & Sternberg, 1 9 8 4 ; Sternberg, 1 9 8 5 ) . I m p o r t a n t aspects
are 1. selective encoding
(differentiating i m p o r t a n t aspects of a p r o b l e m f r o m u n i m p o r t a n t
ones), 2 . selective combination
(efficient fusing of isolated facts, structuring t h e m i n such a
w a y as t o be helpful i n solving t h e p r o b l e m at hand), and 3. selective comparison
(comparing
n e w insights w i t h previous knowledge about t h e p r o b l e m and developing higher-order structures) (Davidson & Sternberg, 1 9 8 4 ) .
We therefore
want to define giftedness
as the ability expertly
to identify,
construct,
process and handle relevant information
in one or more culturally defined fields of action,
calling for " m u l t i p l e intelligences" ( H . Gardner, 1 9 8 3 ) as a necessary (but n o t sufficient)
prerequisite of expert performance. Renzulli's classic m o d e l of giftedness further elaborates this
by d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n t o the role creativity (the ability t o produce relevant n e w ideas) and task
c o m m i t m e n t (willingness t o w o r k towards h i g h accomplishment) play i n attaining superior
results.
Indications of exceptional ability
It is n o t surprising that novelty preference is a better predictor of cognitive development
between the ages of 2 and 6 years t h a n the parents' educational level, as Rose a n d Wallace
(1985) showed i n a longitudinal study of the cognitive functioning o f preschool children.
Rheingold ( 1 9 8 5 ) even defined m e n t a l development as the process of t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e novel
into the familiar.
In t h e i r famous b o o k ' T h e M i n d and its B r a i n " , P o p p e r and Eccles p r o p o s e d t h e t h e o r y that
high-quality i n f o r m a t i o n processing during the first year of life makes f o r m o r e efficient brain
D e v e l o p m e n t of h i g h ability
121
functioning a n d , consequently, higher ability i n later life, since m o s t of t h e cells are built i n t o
t h e cerebral cortex after t h e child is b o m . T h e a m o u n t of cells a n d their inter-relations i n the
c o r t e x are a result o f stimulating experiences i n t h e first years of life, including early playful
language t r a i n i n g . I n the course of this interaction w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e b r a i n develops as
an "organon", a tool.
H i g h l y gifted c h i l d r e n need less t i m e t o react t o and process n e w i n f o r m a t i o n and t h e y are
keen t o do so. A s most functions of t h e cerebral cortex only develop after b i r t h i n response t o
stimulation b y t h e e n v i r o n m e n t (Geschwind, 1 9 8 0 ) , this interest i n novelty brings about a
significant leap f o r w a r d i n t h e child's development, one w h i c h c a n , of course, be increased if
t h e child's persons o f reference k n o w h o w t o play w i t h h i m or her i n a stimulating w a y a n d t o
encourage it (Carew, 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 7 ) .
Lewis, Jaskir, a n d Enright ( 1 9 8 6 ) tested over 1 5 0 children at 3 m o n t h s , 1 2 m o n t h s and 2 4
m o n t h s w i t h t h e Bayley-Scales of m e n t a l development and w i t h the Stanford-Binet at 3 6
m o n t h s ; t h e relationships of the various skills w e r e described b y means of a path-model. Social
a t t e n t i o n p r o v e d t o be a n i m p o r t a n t early characteristic, d e t e r m i n i n g lexical skills at 2 4 m o n t h s
(.22) a n d Stanford-Binet results at 3 6 m o n t h s (.28), w h i c h i n t u r n w e r e t o some degree
s u p p o r t e d b y imitative skills (.16) and verbal skills (.19) at 1 2 m o n t h s . I m i t a t i o n at 1 2 m o n t h s
led t o i m i t a t i o n at 2 4 m o n t h s (.21) a n d measured intelligence at 3 6 m o n t h s (.30). Social
a t t e n t i o n a n d i m i t a t i o n therefore seem t o be crucial s y m p t o m s of later intellectual performance.
A u d i t o r y p r o d u c t i o n at 3 m o n t h s had a small b u t significant influence o n verbal skills at age one
(. 18), w h i c h determined verbal-symbolic achievement at 2 4 m o n t h s . T h i s faculty had a major
influence (0.46) o n intelligence measured a year later. Early mastery of t h e symbolic nature of
language seems t o be a milestone i n intellectual giftedness.
I n his "Three W o r l d s T h e o r y " , P o p p e r ( 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 0 , p . 144) describes t h e development of
t h e m i n d as a n interactive process, inducing t h e individual t o build u p its o w n W o r l d T w o (the
subjective psychological world) b y reacting t o W o r l d O n e (the physical w o r l d of objects and their
relations) and W o r l d T h r e e (the w o r l d of culture). Gifted individuals are better equipped t o m a k e
t h e m o s t of this interactions w i t h their e n v i r o n m e n t (Rost, 1 9 9 3 ) .
Degree of lateralization of cerebral functions and giftedness
T h e general interpretative or Wernicke's area i n the brain plays the most i m p o r t a n t role i n
t h e development of language and t h e handling of meaningful i n f o r m a t i o n i n general. Consciousness a n d self-awareness are mediated t h r o u g h this area. T h u s , it represents the core o f the
personality a n d its development.
I n m o r e t h a n half of all n e w b o r n babies this area is about 5 0 % larger i n t h e left hemisphere
( G u y t o n , 1 9 9 1 ; Niebergall & Remschmidt, 1 9 8 1 ) . A c t i v a t i o n of Wernicke's area makes it
possible t o decode speech patterns a n d recall complicated m e m o r y patterns that may involve
a range of different m e m o r y modalities stored elsewhere i n t h e b r a i n , interpreting, reorganizing
a n d a u g m e n t i n g t h e m w h e n dealing w i t h basically familiar problems or finding ways t o solve
n e w ones.
A s o n e h e m i s p h e r e , usually the left one, is principally used w h e n processing n e w i n f o r m a t i o n ,
it gains d o m i n a n c e over t h e other hemisphere, becoming m o r e and m o r e expert i n dealing
w i t h n e w learning experiences and their results. This process of lateralization leads t o a n efficient
division of labour between t h e t w o hemispheres (Sperry, 1 9 7 4 ) : W i t h most people, the left
hemisphere is devoted t o t h e processing of language and numbers and the development o f the
w r i t i n g a n d reading centers, while t h e right hemisphere is dedicated t o spatial orientation and
construction, t h e processing of pictorial a n d colour i n f o r m a t i o n , music and t h e understanding
a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g of higher order emotions.
Brigitte Rollett
122
A n interesting d e m o n s t r a t i o n of t h e different types of messages processed b y the t w o
hemispheres is provided by t h e w e l l - k n o w n Stroop-effect: W h e n t h e names of colours are
w r i t t e n using t h e a p p r o p r i a t e coloured i n k (red for red, blue for blue, etc.), t h e t i m e necessary
t o read t h e m is significantly shorter i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h reading a list p r i n t e d i n different colours
(the w o r d blue w r i t t e n i n red i n k etc.). T h e reason for this is that the w r i t t e n names are decoded
i n t h e reading center i n t h e gyrus angularis of the d o m i n a n t hemisphere, w h i l e t h e colours are
decoded i n t h e contralateral hemisphere, thus p r o d u c i n g clashing messages that have t o be
reorganized.
Gifted individuals n o t only show a higher degree of lateralization a n d , i n consequence,
specialization of t h e t w o hemispheres, but are also m o r e proficient i n integrating t h e messages
of t h e " t w o brains".
Early signs of giftedness and their impact on family life
Gifted children often have a higher weight at b i r t h , learn t o w a l k earlier a n d are m o r e interested
i n social activities (Sirsch & Spiel, 1 9 9 2 ; Stapf, 1 9 8 3 ) . Generally speaking, t h e so-called
"learning processes contingent o n development", as I w o u l d like t o t e r m t h e m , i . e. the learning
processes connected w i t h and indispensable t o p r o m o t i n g a specific stage of development,
occur earlier. Linguistically gifted children learn t o speak earlier and evince sooner t h a n others
t h e first signs of judgement independent of adults i n t h e f o r m of criticism.
V e r y often highly gifted children require less sleep t h a n other infants, can occupy themselves
earlier for lengthy periods of t i m e (admittedly, only if they have been given a n u p b r i n g i n g that
encourages independence) and attract attention by virtue of their thirst for knowledge and their
interest i n the independent acquisition of competence. A t a n early age t h e y k n o w h o w t o
differentiate relevant things f r o m less i m p o r t a n t ones and delight i n n e w insights. H o w e v e r , as
Stapf and Stapf ( 1 9 8 8 ) have established, for this reason they are m o r e easily disturbed t h a n
other children and react negatively t o noise and disorder i n the household.
Should t h e family situation be adverse, these very attributes can set a negative development
i n m o t i o n (Webb, M e c k s t r o t h & T o l a n , 1 9 8 5 ) . If t h e parents are t o o m u c h caught u p w i t h
themselves a n d their o w n problems, are pressed b y t i m e , demonstrate little educational
competence o r reject t h e child, t o list just a few possible causes, they w i l l feel that the child's
intelligence is a strain o n t h e m .
I n a study conducted b y D e i m a n n and Kastner-Koller ( 1 9 9 2 ) o n the causes of parental recourse
t o psychological counselling, i n 6 % (in contrast t o t h e 1 % or 2 % expected) of the cases
unrecognized intellectual giftedness o n the part of the child was the reason for his o r her
problems.
It is interesting t o study t h e types of problems w h i c h t h e gifted children's parents n a m e d (see
table 1). E m o t i o n a l problems play a n i m p o r t a n t role, n o t few of t h e m clearly induced b y the
parents themselves: "Smacking lips w h e n eating", e. g., is surely a n unusual type of p r o b l e m
for parents t o seek professional help about.
A l t h o u g h n o r m a l l y most cases are presented t o the counselling services at school age,
problems w i t h gifted children seem t o appear already at nursery-school age. A t t h e advisory
centre for gifted children i n H a m b u r g , u p t o 1 9 8 8 2 1 . 5 % of t h e clients w e r e children aged 3-6,
and at t h e advisory centre i n Tübingen 2 0 . 5 % belonged t o this age g r o u p . 3 / 4 of those
presented w e r e boys (Stapf & Stapf, 1 9 8 8 , p. 89).
Need f o r intellectual stimulation
Intellectual stimulation of gifted children is a necessary prerequisite at all ages. A t a m e a n age
123
D e v e l o p m e n t of h i g h ability
of about 8 years, w e f o u n d a definite rise i n interest i n philosophical questions. T h e "philosophy
for c h i l d r e n " - m o v e m e n t capitalizes o n this, providing children w i t h challenging programs t o
develop their critical t h i n k i n g , their understanding o f reality, t h e fallacies of naive realism a n d
other issues.
Table
1:
T y p e s of problems named by parents of gifted children
Age
Sex
IQ
Test
Problem
5
m
HAWIVA
Kindergarten or school?
6
m
VT 130
HT 137,5
VT 137,5
HAWI VA
7
m
138
HAW IΚ
8
m
130
AID
8
9
m
f
140
130
AID
AID
10
10
m
m
130
140
AID
PSB
13
m
130
PSB
Difficulties adapting to
peers in class,
"loner",teacher doubts his
readiness for school
Aggressiveness, hyper­
activity, teacher of 1st
grade had him transferred
to preschool
Aggressiveness, attention
deficits
Smacking lips when eating
Mother thinks daughter is
"hypersensitive"
Demanding parents
Aggressiveness, sibling
rivalry
type of schooling to be
chosen
Effort avoidance, overprotectiveness on the
part of the mother
D e v e l o p m e n t a l ^ , this stage is linked t o t h e mastering of the Piagetian conservation tasks, t h e
emergence of a reflective i n contrast t o a n impulsive cognitive style a n d t h e first steps towards
m e t a c o g n i t i o n as a n e w intellectual t o o l . It is interesting t o note that t h e mastery of these stages
can be observed i n EEG-data, as Stauder ( 1 9 9 2 ) showed: he tested children w h o w e r e either
identified as Piagetian "conservers" o r "non-conservers" a n d found a distinct a n d characteristic
p a t t e r n of event-related potentials (ERP) i n t h e gifted "conserver"-group.
H i g h l y gifted children need n o t only a nurturing and encouraging, but also a stimulating, social
e n v i r o n m e n t t o fulfill their potential a n d develop into emotionally a n d psychologically well-ad­
justed adults.
Adjustment of the gifted
Luther, Zigler and Goldstein ( 1 9 9 2 ) studied a g r o u p of 5 1 1 2 - 1 5 year-old intellectually gifted,
high-achieving youngsters ( 2 5 male, 2 6 female), a g r o u p of 3 0 undergraduates their equals o n
the cognitive level, a n d another g r o u p of 3 9 athletically gifted y o u n g people, a n d c o m p a r e d all
of these w i t h a c o n t r o l g r o u p of 4 7 adolescents of n o r m a l intelligence and t h e same age g r o u p .
T h e intellectually gifted g r o u p , as a w h o l e , was m o r e similar t o t h e older g r o u p of students
Brigitte Rollett
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and the athletically gifted g r o u p t h a n t o their o w n age g r o u p , w h i c h indicates that being
"outstanding" is a characteristic w h i c h affects the lives of y o u n g people m o r e t h a n chronological
age, and that intellectual m a t u r i t y influences a n individual's attitude towards life i n general, and
his social adjustment i n particular.
O n l y t h e gifted girls h a d adjustment problems, w h i c h seemed t o be culturally determined,
since these difficulties could be explained i n terms of " H o m e r ' s effect". T h e y f o u n d it h a r d t o
solve t h e conflict between their need for social acceptance, o n the one h a n d , a n d their striving
for achievement, o n the other. T h i s is a typical U S - A m e r i c a n issue, since evidence of a "fear
of success"-motivation is scarce i n Europe. Rost and Hanses ( 1 9 9 3 ) f o u n d n o differences i n
self-concept between gifted a n d n o r m a l 4 t h graders.
Thus, it is n o t giftedness as such that causes problems i n adjustment, but t h e reaction of the
social e n v i r o n m e n t t o i t .
D r a w i n g o n his experiences of w o r k i n g w i t h gifted boys, H e b e r t ( 1 9 9 1 ) listed 6 adjustment
issues facing t h e gifted:
1. Image management
2 . Self-inflicted pressure
3. B e i n g labelled "different"
4 . I n the case of boys: t h e need for male b o n d i n g
5. Cultural expectations that have t o be m e t
6. Gender role conflict
These points highlight t h e e m o t i o n a l problems and c o p i n g needs of gifted children i n our
society.
T i m e budget and giftedness
Since task involvement plays such a n i m p o r t a n t role w i t h regard t o any exceptional achievem e n t , t i m e budgeting becomes a major consideration. T h e day has only a certain n u m b e r of
hours, but the things trainers and educators of the gifted urge t h e m t o do usually exceed their
powers by far. A four year-old, mathematically and musically gifted b o y once argued, w h e n his
parents w e r e discussing another activity he should take u p , "but I also w a n t t o have t i m e t o
live!" M a n y talented a n d gifted youngsters give u p their careers before they have really started,
because they feel the w o r k load t o be t o o heavy.
W h e n counselling parents, w e often found that they insist o n t o o broad a range of activities
for t h e child t o pursue, causing t h e m t o have n o t i m e for recreation o r playing w i t h friends.
Since the development of creativity presupposes leisure, this tight t i m e schedule can even
endanger the evolution of t h e child's special abilities. Therefore a g o o d guideline is t o let the
child decide w h i c h of the various activities he o r she really enjoys and t o discontinue those that
do n o t meet this criterion.
Developing multiple intelligences
H o w a r d Gardner ( 1 9 8 3 ) formulated the theory of "multiple intelligences", w h i c h proceeds
f r o m t h e premise that t h e abilities t o solve a p r o b l e m competently i n a specific field (e.g. music,
art, different areas of science etc.) develop relatively independently of one another a n d lead to
qualitatively different forms of intelligence. Even w i t h 1 1/2 year-olds, for example, different
gifts c a n be observed. T h e technically gifted "patterners" prefer playing w i t h building blocks and
other construction toys, whilst t h e linguistically gifted "dramatists" like playing w i t h dolls at an
early age (Shotwell, W o l f & Gardner, 1 9 7 9 ) and thus develop different types of intelligence and
learning-behavior (Spiel & Kubinger, 1 9 8 8 ) .
D e v e l o p m e n t of h i g h ability
125
For this reason w e have turned t o a dynamic concept of giftedness today. Giftedness c a n only
unfold if there is a beneficial interaction w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t (Heller, 1 9 8 6 ; Heller &
Feldhusen, 1 9 8 6 ) . T h i s is i n keeping w i t h t h e n e w theories of development, w h i c h , w h e n
explaining h u m a n behaviour, n o longer proceed one-sidedly f r o m a t h e o r y of heredity or, just
as one-sidedly, f r o m o n e of e n v i r o n m e n t , but assume a n interaction between b o t h c o m p o n e n t s .
Inherent potential a n d a conducive e n v i r o n m e n t must combine i n t h e development of supreme
achievement. A f t e r all, t h e w o r d gift has t h e c o n n o t a t i o n of e n d o w m e n t .
If general a n d selective fostering is so i m p o r t a n t i n t h e development of giftedness, t h e question
as t o t h e definition of t h e p o p u l a t i o n of gifted children must be posed anew. I n this context a
study by Steffens ( 1 9 8 9 ) is informative, w h i c h contains a n e w analysis of data f r o m t h e study
o n giftedness initiated by Heller i n M u n i c h i n 1 9 8 5 / 8 6 (cf. H a n y , 1 9 8 7 ; Heller, 1 9 9 2 ) . T o
identify gifted children, t h e following 5 focuses of giftedness w e r e differentiated i n accordance
w i t h Heller's multidimensional m o d e l of giftedness:
- cognitive (intellectual) giftedness
- creative giftedness
- social competence
- p s y c h o m o t o r s giftedness a n d
- artistic giftedness.
A total of 6 , 8 1 5 boys a n d girls f r o m t h e 9 t h f o r m w e r e assessed b y their teachers as regards
these features o n a five-grade scale. It was prescribed that t h e best 5 % of a category should
receive t h e rating 1 , t h e next 1 0 % of the category the rating 2 , the following 1 5 % of the
category 3 and t h e r e m a i n i n g test persons of t h e category 4 . W i t h t h e aid of t h e m e t h o d of
configuration analysis according t o Lienert (cf. K r a u t h & Lienert, 1 9 7 3 ) i t was seen that about
2 % of t h e students could be classified a m o n g at least the u p p e r 3 0 % i n all six fields of giftedness.
Steffens calls t h e m t h e "universally gifted", i.e. they are students w h o possess a b r o a d spectrum
of giftedness. W h e n w e refer t o "gifted" people i n everyday life, w e usually m e a n those w h o
belong t o this special g r o u p of t h e "universally gifted". So w e ignore t h e fact that far m o r e
people have a n exceptional focus of giftedness, w h i c h enables t h e m t o reach supreme
achievement, but only i n one specific field. A s a subsequent career usually requires specialization
i n o n e area, t h e substantial g r o u p of "singularly gifted", as Steffens calls t h e m , are at least just
as interesting as t h e universally gifted. I n t h e M u n i c h longitudinal study the f o r m e r comprised
1,337 boys a n d girls. This corresponds t o n o t less t h a n 2 0 % of t h e overall sample. For
pedagogical practice this result is of t h e greatest significance since, o n t h e one h a n d , it shows
that giftedness is m u c h m o r e widespread t h a n has h i t h e r t o been assumed a n d , o n t h e other, it
compellingly suggests the necessity of selectively fostering special gifts w i t h i n t h e kindergarten
and school systems.
I n infancy there are additional problems i n identifying multiple gifts as the pace of development
of t h e individual, relevant abilities a n d skills is very varied. Evidently, a law exists for the initial
years of a person's life, w h i c h I w o u l d like t o call the " E c o n o m y of Development": i n certain
periods development concentrates o n a delimited area w h i c h makes major progress, whereas
other fields have secondary i m p o r t a n c e . It c a n frequently be observed a m o n g one year-olds,
for instance, that either language or m o t o r i c i t y experiences a special j u m p f o r w a r d i n
development. A f t e r some time the neglected area catches u p . T h i s applies especially t o gifted
children. Evidently, t h e n e w experiences w i t h learning i n a specific field exercise such a
fascination that children specialize i n mastering it thoroughly. For this reason i n t h e development
test w e often can observe surprising performances i n one field at a certain p o i n t i n time that
can n o longer be seen at another. H e n c e , i n traditional development tests of gifted a n d talented
infants, major differences c a n usually be noticed i n t h e results for t h e individual dimensions
tested. F o r this reason such tests are ill-suited t o a psychometric assessment of giftedness or a
Brigitte Rollett
126
reliable forecast of future achievements, as Roedell, Jackson a n d Robinson ( 1 9 8 9 ) of t h e Seattle
project o n giftedness have elaborated (cf. also Stapf, 1 9 9 2 ) . It is necessary t o e m p l o y
i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m different tests, supplemented by long-term behavioural observations by
parents a n d nursery-school teachers, t o be able t o m a k e fairly safe judgements.
So i t is a substantiated fact that at this age there are significant differences i n t h e areas of
giftedness i n w h i c h children display unusual achievements, w h e r e b y t h e results are very variable.
O n l y w h e n a field remains fascinating for a child over a l o n g p e r i o d at t i m e c a n further
exceptional progress i n achievement be observed that finds expression i n consistently h i g h test
results.
Parent-child interaction: encouraging the gifted child
T h e w a y parents treat the child w h e n solving problems together has p r o v e n t o be of special
significance t o t h e development of cognitive competences. Parental interaction w i t h t h e child
w h e n dealing w i t h problems acts as it w e r e as the "scaffolding" for t h e development of intelligent
strategies t o solve problems, as e. g. B r o w n , Palinscar and A r m b r u s t e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) , Rogoff (1984)
and W e r t s c h et α/. ( 1 9 8 0 ) have been able t o prove. I n t h e course of dealing w i t h problems i n
conjunction w i t h parents the child experiences m o r e and m o r e success i n constructing its o w n
solutions, thus developing its intellectual competences.
Shore a n d D o v e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) have been able t o demonstrate that there are characteristic
differences between gifted and n o r m a l children as regards the use of metacognitive strategies.
" M e t a c o g n i t i o n " refers t o " t h i n k i n g about t h i n k i n g " , i . e. rational deliberations about t h e best
strategic e m p l o y m e n t of one's o w n competences a n d strategies t o solve problems. Gifted
children manage t o guide a n d thus optimize their handling of problems t h r o u g h m e t a c o g n i t i o n
earlier a n d m o r e systematically.
Moss a n d Strayer ( 1 9 9 0 ) have conducted a n informative study o n this issue. 2 0 gifted children,
whose B i n e t IQs w e r e higher t h a n 1 3 0 , and 2 0 children w i t h B i n e t IQs of between 1 0 0 and
1 2 0 w e r e selected f r o m a g r o u p of 1 5 0 3 1/2 - 4 1/2 year-old children. Further testing methods
t o assess t h e i r cognitive performance corroborated t h e excellent competences of t h e g r o u p of
gifted children. T h e children's m o t h e r s w e r e t h e n requested t o d o w i t h t h e m three p r o b l e m solving tasks w i t h differing degrees of difficulty: a jigsaw puzzle, a g a m e w i t h creative toys and
free play w i t h building blocks. T h e mothers w e r e asked t o help the children as m u c h or as little
as was necessary i n their o p i n i o n t o solve the task. T h e statements w e r e recorded o n video,
typed a n d coded.
H i g h l y interesting differences w e r e seen between t h e g r o u p of gifted children and t h e c o n t r o l
g r o u p . T h e gifted children used metacognitive strategies m o r e frequently b y emulating their
mothers, o n t h e one h a n d , a n d , o n the other, developing t h e adopted strategies independently
i n a creative fashion. Frequently they only required short tips f r o m their m o t h e r s t o d o the right
t h i n g . B u t t h e mothers, t o o , behaved i n different ways. T h e m o t h e r s of the gifted c h i l d r e n gave
m o r e helpful advice, w h i c h enabled the children t o solve t h e task independently, whereas the
mothers of t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p gave m o r e direct instructions or offered the solution themselves;
they also tended t o r e p r o a c h m o r e . I n contrast, t h e mothers of the gifted children used m o r e
praise and helped structure the process of solving the p r o b l e m b y p o i n t i n g out t o t h e child the
desired final result. T h e y encouraged the development of metacognitive strategies o n t h e part
of their children by predicting the consequences of certain actions and empathetically aiding
self-monitoring i n their endeavours t o solve the p r o b l e m and i n their reality test, i . e. t h e c o n t r o l
of the correctness of their actions and results. T h i s led t o the gifted children w o r k i n g towards
their goal m o r e efficiently, guiding i n a n intelligent fashion their o w n attempts t o solve the
p r o b l e m a n d themselves controlling the adequacy of these attempts t o reality. I n o t h e r w o r d s ,
the m o t h e r s of t h e gifted children exhibited m u c h m o r e encouraging and productive behaviour,
D e v e l o p m e n t of h i g h ability
127
w h i c h had t h e consequence that t h e children w e r e able t o utilize and e x p a n d their competences
better. O f course, these strategies w e r e of t h e kind that lead t o g o o d results a n d t o the
development of a child's o w n competences w i t h children of all levels of ability, if t h e parents,
nursery-school teachers and schoolteachers k n o w h o w t o use t h e m .
A s Moss a n d Strayer elaborate following Vygotsky's t h e o r y , metacognitive strategies are
initially adopted b y infants as a result of direct parental advice. T h e critical p o i n t for t h e child's
future development is w h e t h e r i t remains dependent o n parental assistance o r is i n a p o s i t i o n
t o e m p l o y a n d e x p a n d these strategies o n its o w n . Evidently, t h e m o t h e r s of t h e gifted children
i n t h e study w e r e better able t o guide their children towards independent a n d intelligent
solutions.
It must be assumed that a n i m p o r t a n t c o n d i t i o n for stimulating pedagogical interaction w i t h
a n infant consists i n t h e educators being able t o face t h e fact that naturally m a n y n e w tasks
c a n n o t be solved right away b y t h e child. Neither resignation, n o r d o i n g t h e task oneself, n o r
r e p r o a c h are beneficial t o development; quite the opposite is productive, so-called "helpful
feedback" (cf. Rollett, 1 9 9 1 , p . 106), w h i c h i n t h e l o n g t e r m develops t h e ability t o find
independent solutions. M o t h e r s of gifted children seem better able spontanously t o e m p l o y
these techniques.
T h i s means, of course, that t h e disparity between t h e different ability groups w i l l continue t o
g r o w , as t h e stimulated children can further develop their capabilities, whilst t h e others are
increasingly disheartened o r t u r n t o other m o r e satisfying activities.
T o d a y w e are progressing towards a "new educated elite", as I w o u l d like t o t e r m this t r e n d .
I n m o d e m society those people w h o have t h e g o o d fortune t o g r o w u p i n a friendly stimulating
e n v i r o n m e n t have t h e best opportunities of attaining personal a n d professional self-realization.
For this reason public i n f o r m a t i o n about propitious a n d less p r o p i t i o u s measures of education
and stimulation is b e c o m i n g all the m o r e i m p o r t a n t .
Creativity and giftedness
Creativity, t h e ability t o m a k e unusual associations of ideas and find u n c o m m o n solutions,
presents a special p r o b l e m (cf. U r b a n , 1 9 9 2 ) . It is central t o extraordinary achievement i n m a n y
fields a n d t o success i n later life, b u t is rarely stimulated b y parents a n d educators, n o t least
because y o u have t o be creative yourself i n order t o be able t o recognize creative attainments
as such and t o react t o t h e m i n a suitable way, that is, b y developing t h e idea i n a playful manner.
A t t h e age of about four, m o s t children make a "creativity j u m p " . A t this age language especially
develops, but also t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d , w i t h i t , j o y i n new, surprising associations of thoughts
and w o r d s , n e w w o r d creations a n d creative, imaginative games. D e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r this
development is fostered by t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o r dismissed a "nonsense", it can g r o w into a stable
feature of character o r merely a t r o p h y .
In a retrospective study of successful Austrian authors, w e asked t h e m t o describe their
experiences i n school, p a y i n g special attention t o their grades i n creative w r i t i n g (Rollett &
Schuller, 1 9 8 8 ) . 4 0 % m e n t i o n e d that their overall grades h a d been generally g o o d , 3 8 % that
they h a d been i n t h e middle range, but n o less t h a n 2 2 % confessed t o h a v i n g been p o o r students
at school. I n creative w r i t i n g , t h e picture naturally was m o r e favourable, but even there their
giftedness i n t h e field h a d n o t shielded all of t h e m f r o m negative results: 9 . 4 % had always
received bad grades a n d 2 6 . 4 % h a d only been considered c-students b y their teachers. Felix
Mitterer, a w e l l - k n o w n Austrian author, told us e. g., that h e w r o t e such imaginative a n d unusual
essays i n p r i m a r y school that his teacher t h o u g h t he had copied t h e m out of a b o o k , and severely
reprimanded h i m . A n o t h e r p r o b l e m gifted writers have t o face i n school is t h e pressure t o
c o n f o r m t o w h a t is regarded as " g o o d " w r i t i n g i n t h e textbooks. Gustav E m s t , a world-famous
Brigitte Rollett
128
author w e interviewed, confessed t o having been perpetually puzzled: " I never k n e w w h a t the
teacher w a n t e d t o hear..."
Success in life and the importance of mentoring
T e r m a n a n d O d e n ( 1 9 5 9 , 1 9 6 0 , 1 9 6 7 ) a n d O d e n ( 1 9 6 8 ) investigated t h e m o s t successful
1 0 % of t h e T e r m a n longitudinal (which had originally started i n t h e 2 0 s w i t h 1 5 2 8 children,
cf. T e r m a n , 1 9 2 5 ) study a n d c o m p a r e d t h e m w i t h t h e m o s t gifted 1 0 % w h o h a d had the least
success i n t h e i r lives. It t u r n e d out that there w e r e significant differences between b o t h groups.
T h e less successful, for example, had as children n o t been aware of t h e i r special p o s i t i o n . F r o m
this it c a n be inferred - s o m e t h i n g w h i c h also emerged f r o m t h e i r reports - that t h e y had n o t
received f r o m t h e i r parents and teachers any s u p p o r t commensurate w i t h t h e i r gifts. Similarly,
i n their choice of profession t h e y showed themselves t o be n o t particularly fortunate. O n
questioning, t h e y stated that t h e y found true fulfilment n o t i n t h e i r jobs, but i n t h e i r hobbies.
W i t h t h e g r o u p of successful people the opposite was t h e case: t h e y w e r e absorbed i n their
w o r k and considered it a n agreeable e n r i c h m e n t of their lives.
In relationships w i t h partners, characteristic differences could also be seen b e t w e e n the t w o
groups. T h e less successful w e r e frequently divorced a n d their family relationships w e r e o n the
w h o l e worse t h a n those of the successful. F r o m this i n f o r m a t i o n w e c a n conclude that a h i g h
potential of giftedness alone does n o t suffice t o provide such people w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o make
s o m e t h i n g of their ablities. A n e n v i r o n m e n t that stimulates t h e i r development a n d satisfactory
relationships w i t h loved ones are indispensable.
W h e n counselling gifted adolescents or y o u n g adults, still another p o i n t appears t o be
i m p o r t a n t : it becomes apparent that giftedness, even if it is accompanied b y h i g h degrees of
creativity a n d task involvement, is n o t sufficient if the issue is t o be success i n a given field. I n
Sternberg's t e r m i n o l o g y , this calls n o t only for contextual intelligence i n general, but also for
specific "tacit knowledge", i . e. i n f o r m a t i o n about h o w "the g a m e is played" i n t h e chosen
profession. T h i s t y p e of knowledge is never taught openly - hence t h e t e r m - but it is crucial t o
success i n a career.
A tragic
been used
Theresia.
employer,
example of a lack of tacit knowledge was Mozart as a n adult. A s a p r o d i g y he h a d
t o being admired by t h e celebrities of Europe, including t h e A u s t r i a n Empress M a r i a
A s a g r o w n - u p , he found that he was treated little better t h a n a servant by his
t h e A r c h b i s h o p of Salzburg.
W h a t he lacked was a m e n t o r t o help h i m a n d instruct h i m h o w t o play his n e w role as a n
adult musician and composer i n a w o r l d w h e r e only gentlefolk w e r e valued. G o e t h e , o n t h e
other h a n d , searched for and found such a helpful person i n Frau v o n Stein at the court of his
employer, D u k e K a r l August. T h a t Goethe had been w e l l aware of t h e problems at that t i m e
facing a talented y o u t h of " l o w " origin is s h o w n by his novel "Werther's Leiden", w h e r e he
described t h e ensuing difficulties and disappointments i n detail.
T h e t y p e of "tacit knowledge" indispensable t o outstanding success i n a career has changed,
but t h e fact remains that giftedness alone is n o guarantee of attaining i t . So i n recent years
m e n t o r i n g and its effects have been studied extensively (Beck, 1 9 8 9 ; K a u f m a n n , 1 9 8 6 ; Porter,
1991).
Effects of accelerating the gifted
In t h e course of t h e i r study of mathematically precocious youths, Swiatek a n d B e n b o w ( 1 9 9 1 )
c o m p a r e d accelerated gifted m a t h students w i t h others w h o w e r e n o t accelerated, following
their academic and psychosocial development during a 1 0 year p e r i o d . T h e accelerated g r o u p
finished college about o n e year earlier. B o t h groups showed outstanding academic a n d personal
D e v e l o p m e n t of h i g h ability
129
satisfaction at the age of 2 3 . T h e authors concluded that t h e accelerates had only a slight
advantage over t h e nonaccelerates. A reanalysis of their data i n terms of effect sizes shows,
h o w e v e r , a clear shift of the accelerates i n contrast t o the unaccelerates towards academic
preferences, while t h e unaccelerated g r o u p developed higher self esteem, presumably because
t h e y w e r e n o t continually exposed t o academic peer presure.
Renzulli and McGreevy ( 1 9 8 6 ) investigated 2 3 pairs of twins, of w h o m o n l y one t w i n had
b e e n diagnosed as being gifted and admitted t o a t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e . It was seen that the
o t h e r t w i n indeed displayed a poorer academic performance, but was m u c h m o r e creative and
independent i n t h o u g h t , whereas the twins o n the training p r o g r a m m e h a d tended t o follow
t h e example of the adults and had been interested i n praise f r o m t h e m . T h e message is clear:
acceleration means limiting the range of interest, but attaining higher competency i n the chosen
field of activity, w h i l e abstaining f r o m accelerating the gifted results i n giving t h e m m o r e options
t o chose f r o m i n later life, but m i g h t i m p a i r early success i n a given field.
One-sided stimulation is another issue t o consider. It can have negative consequences if it is
related t o - initially impressive - basic skills i n a specific field, but t h e o p p o r t u n i t y is n o t taken
t o introduce t h e child t o the m o r e demanding areas of the subject. T h i s can h a p p e n very easily
w i t h children gifted for mathematics.
Unusual mathematical abilities can be discerned very early i n life i n a p r o n o u n c e d interest i n
n u m b e r s and their relationships (Oden, 1968). Mathematically inexpert parents and educators
are pleased w i t h t h e child's arithmetical stunts, but are n o t i n a position t o familiarize the child
in a playful m a n n e r w i t h mathematics itself. This results i n mathematics c o m i n g t o a standstill
at the level of the "mental calculator", the acrobat i n mental arithmetic. H o p e ( 1 9 8 7 ) cites a
case i n p o i n t . A t t h e t i m e of t h e investigation 1 3 years old, as a small child Charlene had already
discovered that it was fun "to play w i t h numbers". She t h e n developed quite exceptional abilities
i n m e n t a l arithmetic. A t the first go she was able t o solve the p r o b l e m 8 7 χ 2 3 at lightning
speed and correctly. O n being asked, she stated that she had restructured the p r o b l e m as follows.
She h a d immediately realized that 8 7 corresponds t o the product of 3 χ 2 9 a n d had made the
f o l l o w i n g m e n t a l rearrangement: 8 7 χ 2 3 = (29 χ 3) χ 2 3 - 2 9 χ (3 χ 2 3 ) - 2 9 χ 6 9 - 6 9 χ
( 3 0 - 1). So all t h a t remained for her t o do was the simple calculation 6 9 χ 3 0 - 6 9 , and she
came t o the correct solution, 2 0 0 1 .
It is clear that a lengthy preoccupation w i t h numbers and their qualities a n d t h e extensive
knowledge base deriving f r o m it are necessary t o sense such a calculation as a " r e l i e f . However,
Charlene had received n o further encouragement and had thus c o m e t o a standstill at the level
of perfect mental arithmetic, something she had taught herself. She had found n o access to
higher mathematics. This case shows dramatically that giftedness alone is n o t enough, finely
attuned stimulation of the individual case is indispensable.
T h e case of the Indian boy Balamurati Krishna A m b a t i represents a n example demonstrating
t h e opposite. A t the age of 4 he possessed extraordinary mathematical abilities and at the age
of 10 he reached the impressive number of 7 5 0 points (corresponding t o a percentage of over
99) i n S A T , the official A m e r i c a n college entrance test for 1 7 - 1 8 year-olds, assuring h i m a
place at college (Papalia & Wendkos-Olds, 1 9 9 2 , p. 2 6 9 ) .
Motivating the gifted: beneficial and adverse conditions
Renzulli introduced another i m p o r t a n t aspect about encouragement into t h e discussion. In his
m o d e l a h i g h degree of task-commitment, apart f r o m general above-average abilities and a h i g h
level of creativity, is necessary t o realize the gift. This means t h a t the creation of a positive
achievement m o t i v a t i o n , one characterized by pleasure i n success, must be a central concern
i n any stimulation of giftedness (Rollett, 1989).
130
Brigitte Rollett
Mönks added t o this m o d e l by including t h e agents of stimulation (family, school, peers)
(Mönks, 1 9 6 3 ; Mönks, B o x t e l , V a n Roelofs, & Sanders, 1 9 8 6 ) . Supreme achievement is only
possible w h e n parents a n d teachers manage t o m a k e t h e activity i n question pleasant for the
child. W h o e v e r i n later life is n o t prepared t o t r a i n at least 5 hours a day w i l l , f o r example,
never be successful i n competive sport today, however great his gift f o r sport m a y be. Y e t such
training sessions can only be endured b y somebody f o r w h o m t h e y are a source of pleasure
a n d satisfaction (cf. Rollett & Schuller, 1 9 8 8 ) .
A s early as 1 9 4 3 , Sawyer made a n i m p o r t a n t distinction w h e n he w r o t e : ' T o master anything
- f r o m football t o relativity - requires effort. B u t i t does n o t require unpleasant effort o r drudgery"
(p. 9).
I n t h e course of t h e M u n i c h L o n g i t u d i n a l Study o n t h e Genesis of Individual Competencies
(Weinert, 1 9 8 6 ) , H e l m k e (1987) could demonstrate this effect. H e c o m p a r e d mathematics
pretest achievement a n d self-concept at t h e end of 5 t h grade a n d mathematics posttest
achievement at t h e e n d of 6 t h grade. A path-model showed that b o t h , mathematics pretest
results a n d self-concept, influenced quality of effort i . e. perseverence a n d engagement (.26
and . 2 8 respectively), w h i c h was i n t u r n linked t o mathematics posttest results (.29).
Quantity
of effort o r "drudgery", t o use Sawyer's t e r m (time spent o n h o m e w o r k ) , o n the
other h a n d resulted i n m o r e debilitating cognitive interference (.18) and lower mathematics
posttest results (-.15). T h e r e was n o direct p a t h f r o m quantity of effort t o post-test results,
indicating that longer hours spent at h o m e w o r k do n o t necessarily produce better grades. It
can be assumed that it o n l y led t o negative m o t i v a t i o n .
T h e younger children are, the quicker it is t o spoil for t h e m a potentially stimulating activity,
if the learning atmosphere is unpleasant, o r they are overtaxed (Dömer, 1 9 9 3 ) . If a n activity is
stigmatized b y negative feelings and children have had a chance t o learn t o avoid i t , it is hardly
possible t o motivate t h e m t o a p p l y themselves t o i t , however gifted t h e y m a y be f o r i t . A s w e
could show, this results i n the development of a special f o r m of negative m o t i v a t i o n , t h e so-called
"effort avoidance m o t i v a t i o n " (cf. Rollett, 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 8 7 ; Rollett & B a r t r a m , 1 9 8 1 ) . T h e latter
varies f r o m t h e simple refusal t o do something i n this specific fild of action, t o fits of t e m p e r or
subtle tricks t o prevent having t o do t h e undesired activities.
T h e m o r e intelligent children are, t h e m o r e astonishing are t h e strategies t h e y invent t o evade
a n activity t h e y hate. A highly gifted p u p i l i n t h e second grade of p r i m a r y school, w h o exhibited
extreme tendencies t o avoid effort, o n instructions f r o m his father a n d as t h e price for being
allowed t o w a t c h television that evening was t o w r i t e the sentence: "Dear Daddy, dear M u m m y ,
m a y I w a t c h television?" W h a t he handed i n was t h e following sentence: "Dear parents, m a y I
w a t c h television?" I n a n intelligent way he had at least succeeded i n saving t w o w o r d s .
Studies of gifted children w h o display extremely p o o r performance at school demonstrate that
adverse learning conditions can impede the development of children of all levels of competence,
i . e. also particularly gifted ones. I n 1 9 9 2 Keller was able t o establish that gifted children w h o ,
contrary t o expectations, performed badly at school had the following problems t o contend w i t h :
their teachers had n o t recognized their giftedness and demanded t o o little of t h e m (a condition
that already led t o scant success i n later life i n the study of gifted children by T e r m a n , w h i c h has
already been mentioned), a n d their learning and w o r k behaviour was extremely i n a p p r o p r i a t e .
Moreover, the results of a w o r k behaviour inventory showed that they had evolved a n inadequate
ability t o defer gratification, heightened failure motivation, deficient m e m o r y strategies, difficulties i n concentration c o n t r o l and p o o r learning organization (cf. Keller, 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 2 9 ) .
T o o few demands o n t h e part of t h e teachers can have another negative consequence: t h e
children p e r f o r m w e l l at p r i m a r y school, simply because of their intelligence a n d w i t h o u t m a k i n g
any great effort, a n d only fail at secondary school level w h e n they are asked t o process c o m p l e x
material (cf. Evans, 1 9 9 3 ) , lacking t h e strategies t o m a k e their effort pleasant.
D e v e l o p m e n t of h i g h ability
131
T h e major significance of h a r d application experienced as pleasure is underlined by the
following results. I n a n early study Roe ( 1 9 5 2 ) examined 6 4 w e l l - k n o w n scientists. It was seen
that they all possessed a comparatively h i g h level of intelligence, w h i c h , however, was evidently
n o t solely responsible for their great achievements, as there w e r e major differences i n
intelligence between the researchers. T h e i r outstanding career success was occasioned above
all by their unusual willingness t o w o r k , w h i c h was kept alive b y t h e scientists' great interest i n
their field of research. A s c a n frequently be observed a m o n g gifted scientists, their special
interests h a d already become manifest i n their early childhood a n d had been sympathetically
encouraged by their e n v i r o n m e n t .
A study conducted b y M a c K i n n o n o n architects i n 1 9 6 4 yielded similar results. H e c o m p a r e d
a g r o u p of creative architects w i t h another g r o u p of less creative ones. It was seen that it was
n o t possible t o differentiate t h e m o n the basis of I Q , but certainly i n t e r m s of their devotion t o
their w o r k . T h u s , for t h e pedagogics of t h e stimulation of giftedness it is of t h e utmost interest
t o examine the conditions necessary to create g o o d w o r k m o t i v a t i o n . T h e latter determines
w h e t h e r giftedness can be t u r n e d i n t o achievement. T w o studies can provide us w i t h clues.
L a u r e n Sosniak ( 1 9 8 5 ) questioned t o p pianists as t o h o w their musical development had
progressed. It t u r n e d out that t h e decisive factor had been their personal situation and the
resultant, particularly sympathetic support of their first music teachers. Similarly, Judith
Monsaas ( 1 9 8 5 ) was able t o establish that the w o r l d - r a n k i n g tennis players she investigated
w e r e able t o develop their sporting gifts because they g r e w u p i n families w h e r e the members
had a particularly close relationship t o each other. T h e parents devoted a great deal of time t o
their children, the atmosphere was loving, and m u c h interest was s h o w n i n all of t h e children's
activities. Nevertheless, demands w e r e made o n t h e children. T h e parents w e r e of the o p i n i o n
that everything w o r t h d o i n g was also w o r t h d o i n g well. T h e same applied t o t h e first coaches
of the future tennis c h a m p i o n s . T h e y w e r e w a r m h e a r t e d , kind persons w h o liked w o r k i n g w i t h
children and k n e w h o w t o create a conducive and encouraging atmosphere. T h i s w a y the tennis
court could become a second h o m e for the budding stars.
It was particularly interesting t o note that the first teachers did n o t need t o be experts
themselves. It was e n o u g h for t h e m t o be outstanding teachers, w h o moreover k n e w h o w t o
give the children the feeling of having found genuine persons of reference, w h o w e r e interested
i n their progress and for w h o m it was w o r t h m a k i n g a n effort.
T h e three principles of any early stimulation o f exceptionally gifted children can be summarized as follows: p r o v i d i n g a highly motivating, metacognitively stimulating learning environm e n t at h o m e and at school, positive peer-group experiences a n d , above all, appropriate
m e n t o r i n g taking the special gifts of the child i n t o account.
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Development of giftedness in a life-span
perspective
Franz J . Mönks and Christiane Spiel
University
of Nijmegen,
and University
of Vienna,
Nijmegen,
Vienna,
The
Netherlands,
Austria
Introduction
A s early as i n 1 9 3 3 , Charlotte Bühler introduced a life-span view i n t o developmental
psychology w i t h her b o o k "Der menschliche Lebenslauf als psychologisches P r o b l e m " [The
h u m a n course of life as a psychological problem]. I n a m o r e systematic w a y t h e life-span view
i n developmental psychology i n Europe was substantially influenced by T h o m a e ( 1 9 6 8 ; 1976).
From a life-span perspective
human development
is viewed, analyzed,
and studied
from
conception
to death. T h e life span view tries t o weave together a p o r t r a i t of w h o w e were,
are, a n d w i l l be (Santrock, 1 9 8 3 ) .
U n t i l about three t o four decades ago, h u m a n development was seen as synonymous w i t h
child development. A c c o r d i n g t o Havighurst ( 1 9 7 2 ) the interest i n adult development has only
seriously begun t o develop i n t h e latter half of t h e 2 0 t h century (see Figure 1).
Figure
1:
A p p r o a c h e s t o development
D e v e l o p m e n t of giftedness i n a life-span perspective
137
T h e traditional a p p r o a c h t o development emphasizes extreme change f r o m b i r t h t o adolescence, stability i n adulthood, a n d decline i n old age. Decrease of cognitive functioning has been
discussed extensively i n t h e literature under t h e heading 'deficit m o d e l ' . A c c o r d i n g t o this view
there is a decrease of cognitive functioning f r o m 4 0 years o n (some authors m e n t i o n e d t h e age
of 2 0 years, others t h e age of 4 0 years; see Schaie, 1 9 7 0 ; Rudinger, 1 9 7 1 ) . If, however, a
distinction is made between fluid and cristallized intelligence it turns out that there is n o decline
of cristallized intelligence w i t h age, w h i l e the fluid intelligence decreases indeed f r o m roughly
t h e age of 3 0 years (Schaie, 1 9 7 0 ) . Rudinger (1971) concluded that n o t age as such has
influence o n cognitive functioning but m o r e i m p o r t a n t is t h e a m o u n t a n d quality of academic
training and health conditions. A g e must be regarded as a n index of experiences and n o t as
independent variable w h i c h influences h u m a n behavior.
T h e life-span perspective emphasizes that changes of behavior a n d motives occur n o t only
during childhood and adolescence but t h r o u g h o u t t h e life course (Baltes, 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 8 7 ;
H e t h e r i n g t o n , Lerner, & Perlmutter, 1 9 8 8 ) .
T h e aims and assumptions of the life-span view of h u m a n development have been extensively
discussed i n the last decades (Baltes, 1 9 7 3 ; Baltes & Schaie, 1 9 7 3 ; L e m e r & Ryff, 1 9 7 8 ;
Nesselroade & Reese, 1 9 7 3 ) . Baltes ( 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 8 7 ) summarized a n u m b e r of characteristics
of
the life-span perspective
(see Figure 2):
Multl-dimenslonallty
Life-long development
Multl-dlrectlonality
The life-span perspective
Multl-disclplinariry
Plasticity
Contextualism
Historical embeddedness
(Baltes 1973,1987)
Figure
2:
Characteristics of the life-span perspective
- Life-long
development:
Development as a process of change takes place t h r o u g h o u t the
w h o l e life, n o age period dominates development.
- Multidimensionality:
H u m a n development consists of different dimensions a n d different
c o m p o n e n t s w i t h i n these dimensions.
- Multidirectionality:
- Plasticity:
S o m e dimensions or c o m p o n e n t s m a y increase, w h i l e others decrease.
Development
m a y take different paths, depending o n the individual's life
conditions.
- Historical
embeddedness:
cultural conditions.
Development is influenced by historical as w e l l as economical and
- Contextualism:
T h e individual is responding t o and acting o n contexts; heredity is n o t a fate
but is always "heredity i n a specific e n v i r o n m e n t " (Vossen, 1 9 9 2 , p . 9 2 ) .
Franz J . Mönks a n d Christiane Spiel
138
- Multidisciplinarity:
D e v e l o p m e n t needs t o be studied i n a n interdisciplinary context.
Especially i n research o n intellectual abilities t h e pervasiveness of change t h r o u g h o u t t h e
life-span has been empirically demonstrated (Baltes & Schaie, 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 6 ; Schaie, 1 9 8 3 ) .
Therefore, theoretical views of development as being finalized i n early life (Flavell, 1 9 7 0 ; Freud,
1 9 4 9 ; K o h l b e r g , 1 9 6 9 ; Piaget, 1 9 7 2 ) o r those characterizing t h e latter half of life i n terms o f
decrease h a d t o be discussed f r o m this n e w perspective a n d revised.
Discussion of t h e papers presented under a life-span perspective
I n t h e Symposion three papers w e r e presented:
- B a l o g h , L . , I m r e , D . , N a g y , K., Szabo, J . , & T o t h , L . : Learning
development
of self-knowledge
by means of special programs
with
children.
- Y o n t a r , Α . : A follow
up study about
- Neitzke, C : The professional
creative
development
thinking
of gifted
ability
of
techniques
talented
and
school
students.
men: Two case
studies.
Each of t h e three papers presented w e r e primarily conducted under a traditional a p p r o a c h
of development. H o w e v e r , if o n e changes t h e perspective, that is l o o k i n g at these studies f r o m
a life-span perspective, each of t h e m has its special contribution t o t h e research field of life-span
development. Consequently, these papers w e r e summarized a n d discussed under a life-span
perspective.
Table
1:
S u m m a r y of t h e papers presented i n t h e symposion
"Development of giftedness under a life-span perspective"
Type of study
Number of data
collections
Subjects
Topi c
Balogh et al.
intervention
2
pre - post
13-14 years
old talented
chi1dren
1earni ng
techniques
self -know! edge
Presenters
Yontar
longitudinal
3
Neitzke
retrospective
1
randomly
seiected
subjects from
11-18 years
creati ve
thi nki ng
creati vely
productive and
academi cally
gifted adults
life
course
Balogh
a n d his associates (see Table 1) presented a n intervention study t o prove t h e
effectiveness of a training p r o g r a m for gifted children. T h e intervention p e r f o r m e d b y B a l o g h
et al. focused o n t h e psychosocial competence of gifted children. Results f r o m t h e literature
are extremely inconsistent regarding this topic. Nevertheless, it is o n e of t h e m a i n topics w h e n
studying giftedness. B a l o g h et al. applied t w o special training programs - regarding learning
techniques a n d real self-knowledge - w i t h special goals t o t h e i r subjects. Especially t h e t r a i n i n g
regarding self-knowledge seemed t o be very i m p o r t a n t for t h e later development of t h e subjects.
U n d e r a life-span perspective it w i l l be very interesting t o d o a n additional data collection t o
prove t h e effects of this training i n t h e long-term a p p r o a c h .
Yontar (see Table 1 ; this volume, p . 147ff.) investigated t h e development of creative t h i n k i n g
- i n t h e sense of T o r r a n c e - i n a longitudinal study f r o m 1 1 t o 1 8 years. Y o n t a r primarily d i d
139
Development of giftedness i n a life-span perspective
n o t focus o n giftedness. Subjects of her study w e r e r a n d o m l y selected. Creativity is a n i m p o r t a n t
aspect i n all definitions and theories about giftedness. H o w e v e r , there is a lack of longitudinal
studies i n this field. Therefore, m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n is needed about t h e development of creativity
n o t only i n gifted children. First results suggested that Torrance's tests o n l y grasp special facets
of creativity w h i c h are intercorrelated. H o w e v e r , w i t h regard t o t h e life-span perspective this
project should be continued t o investigate w h a t t y p e of professions t h e subjects w i l l take u p .
T h e study Neitzke presented (see Table 1) is n o t a longitudinal one, but a retrospective study.
Nevertheless, the data have longitudinal impact. U n d e r a life-span perspective her study is very
interesting. Subjects w e r e asked t o reconstruct t h e i r life course t o discover personality o r
environmental conditions determining w h i c h either faciliated o r hindered their career. Neitzke
did a t w o g r o u p c o m p a r i s o n focusing o n creatively productive versus academically gifted subjects
independently f r o m the professional field of the subjects. Because t h e investigation of developm e n t f r o m early childhood to old age i n the longitudinal a p p r o a c h is a n extremely h a r d task,
retrospective interviews are very helpful. A similar study conducted b y Panagl ( 1 9 8 4 ) i n V i e n n a
demonstrated that creative scientists are m o r e independent t h a n n o t creative scientists; and
independence was m o r e i m p o r t a n t for t h e m .
Studying giftedness under a life-span perspective
W h e n T e r m a n i n the 1 9 2 0 s launched his study of t h e gifted, ' T e r m a n began the first
psychological investigation involving a longitudinal research design i n w h i c h a sample of subjects
was followed over the course of several years" ( M i n t o n , 1 9 8 8 , p . 112). Actually, the T e r m a n
study is still o n g o i n g and is regarded the most t h o r o u g h study ever done w i t h regard t o t h e
psycho-social development of people. As a pioneer h e had t o devise m a n y of the instruments
he used because his a i m was t o collect a n assessment of his subjects as complete as possible.
H e attempted t o measure characteristics w h i c h w e r e n o t previously assessed. I n spite of m a n y
deficits of such pioneering a p p r o a c h , his data provided us w i t h rich material a n d new
perspectives o n the development of gifted subjects.
In a recent study Subotnik and A r n o l d (1993) made a n overview o n longitudinal studies of
giftedness. M a n y researchers avoid longitudinal research since it takes years t o get data. A t t h e
t i m e the data are available for interpretation, they m i g h t n o longer be relevant for t h e new
situation due t o environmental and cultural changes. Therefore, t h e most p r o m i s i n g a p p r o a c h
seems t o be a m i x e d longitudinal study according t o Schaie's most efficient design {see Mönks
et α/., 1 9 7 5 ) . Such a design is based o n a trifactorial developmental m o d e l w h i c h isolates the
contributions t o developmental data of the factors age cohort and time of measurement.
In
addition, independently selected control groups (cross-sectional groups) are employed t o assess
e. g. the impact of testing effects i n the subjects included i n the longitudinal study. T h i s design
was applied i n the Nijmegen G r o w t h Study. T h e efficiency of this design became evident because
w i t h i n a t i m e period of 5 years longitudinal data w e r e available f r o m the age of 4 years u p t o
the age of 1 4 years. This was posssible because three different age groups (4, 7, a n d 9 years
old subjects) w e r e followed over a period of five years.
t
Such a n a p p r o a c h as briefly outlined should include t h e characteristics as s h o w n i n Figure 2.
Studies of this kind could provide us w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n o n (a) w h i c h conditions facilitate o r hinder
development of giftedness, (b) whether there are 'typical' developmental processes w h i c h exist
i n the gifted i n comparison t o the non-gifted, (c) w h e t h e r there are d o m a i n specific patterns of
development i n the gifted, (d) the relationship between creativity a n d giftedness, and (e) w h a t
the 'g'-factor contributes to the cognitive development a n d w h e t h e r t h e 'g'- factor shows stability
and/or change over the life-span or parts of the life-span. T h i s final objective is a central research
question of behavior genetics.
Franz J . Mönks and Christiane Spiel
140
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New York: Academic Press.
Minton, H . L. (1988). Lewis M. Terman · Pioneer in psychological
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Assen: Van Gorcum.
Giftedness from early childhood to early
adolescence: A pilot study
Christiane Spiel and Ulrike Sirsch
University
of Vienna,
Vienna,
Austria
Abstract
T h e study investigated stability versus instability of giftedness - identified b y advanced cognitive
c o m p e t e n c e - f r o m early childhood (C) t o early adolescence (A). D a t a stem f r o m a longitudinal
project conducted i n V i e n n a (Austria). 9 4 children participated i n t h e first phase of the study
(C), 5 8 c h i l d r e n (29 boys, 2 9 girls) w e r e included i n t h e follow-up (A). T h e children were
r a n d o m l y selected f r o m public day-care centers. Four different profiles of cognitive development
w e r e identified: G r o u p 1 1 gifted b o t h i n C and i n A ; g r o u p 1 0 only gifted i n C; g r o u p 0 1 only
gifted i n A ; a n d g r o u p 0 0 neither gifted i n C n o r gifted i n A . T h e four groups w e r e c o m p a r e d
i n different cognitive tasks, school grades, and task c o m m i t m e n t . Biological risk factors and
psychosocial conditions w e r e analyzed t o explain differences i n t h e developmental pathways.
Introduction
In the last decades t h e research area of giftedness has attended m u c h interest and b o r n out
numerous studies. H o w e v e r , comparatively few studies investigated giftedness i n early childh o o d . Especially there is a lack of longitudinal studies f r o m infancy t o adolescence. Most
researchers prefered t o study giftedness i n older children o r adults, probably because it is m u c h
m o r e difficult t o identify children between t w o a n d five years as potentially gifted (Fatouros,
1 9 8 6 ) . Teachers' judgement and peer n o m i n a t i o n could n o t be used for this early age period.
Parents' ratings are probably the best source of i n f o r m a t i o n but their frame of reference of
typical behaviour is rarely broad enough (Fatouros, 1 9 8 6 ) . T h e to-date probably best single
indicator f o r giftedness i n early childhood is provided b y scores f r o m individual intelligence or
developmental tests.
H o w e v e r , cognitive abilities are n o t very stable i n early childhood. It is difficult t o make reliable
predictions of the development of intelligence beyond the age of four years (Heller, 1 9 8 6 ) . P o o r
prediction of intellectual performance i n infancy and early childhood was s h o w n i n numerous
studies. B i m s and G o l d e n (1972) found n o correlations i n a sample of 8 9 infants between the
Catteil I n f a n t Intelligence test scores and the Piaget Object scores at 1 8 m o n t h s a n d the
3 6 - m o n t h s Stanford-Binet scores. W i l l e r m a n and Fiedler (1974) investigated 1 0 0 children w i t h
IQs of 1 4 0 a n d above at four years of age w h o had been tested w i t h the Bayley Scales of Mental
and M o t o r D e v e l o p m e n t at eight m o n t h s . T h e results showed that n o t all of these children had
been advanced as infants.
A c c u r a c y of p r e d i c t i o n increases w h e n the children become older. Gössler (1971) e. g.
observed a correlation of . 5 4 between developmental scores at preschool age and later
intellectual performance i n childhood and adolescence (age ranged f r o m 7 t o 1 8 years). T h e
correlation between developmental scores and school achievement was . 7 2 . T r a m o n t a n a ,
H o o p e r , a n d Selzer (1988) reviewed 7 4 studies published f r o m 1 9 7 3 t o 1 9 8 6 regarding
preschool p r e d i c t i o n of later academic achievement. I n most studies a significant relationship
between preschool I Q and later academic achievement was observed.
Christiane Spiel a n d U l r i k e Sirsch
142
Besides differences i n identification of talented children, scientific a p p r o a c h e s t o giftedness
differ f r o m one another i n the i m p o r t a n c e t h e y ascribe t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors a n d personality
traits (Stapf & Stapf, 1 9 8 8 ) . M o r e recently, t h e i m p o r t a n c e of family c o n d i t i o n s is b e c o m i n g
recognized (Mönks, 1 9 9 0 ) . H e n c e , there seems t o be a lack of studies investigating the
significance of biological conditions (e. g. b i r t h weight) for giftedness. H o w e v e r , i n the research
area of risk children the effects of biological and psychosocial c o n d i t i o n s are analyzed and
discussed i n detail (e. g. C o h e n , Parmelee, B e c k w i t h , & S i g m a n , 1 9 8 6 ; K o p p & M c C a l l , 1 9 8 2 ;
Meyer-Probst & T e i c h m a n n , 1 9 8 4 ) .
T h e aims of t h e present study w e r e t o investigate stability versus instability o f giftedness identified b y advanced cognitive competence - f r o m early c h i l d h o o d t o early adolescence; t o
identify subgroups of children w i t h different profiles of cognitive development; t o c o m p a r e these
groups i n actual performance: cognitive tasks, school achievement, a n d task c o m m i t m e n t ; and
t o investigate w h e t h e r t h e differences i n cognitive development due t o biological risk factors
and/or psychosocial conditions.
Procedure
Subjects
Data stem f r o m a longitudinal study conducted i n V i e n n a (Austria). T h e c h i l d r e n w e r e selected
f r o m 1 3 public day-nurseries and w e r e chosen at r a n d o m . 9 4 children p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e first
phase of the project. 5 8 out of these children (29 females, 2 9 males) c o u l d be evaluated three
times. T h e first e x a m i n a t i o n was done one m o n t h after entering k i n d e r g a r t e n (mean age 3 0
m o n t h s , ranged f r o m 2 5 t o 3 6 months), t h e second a p p r o x i m a t e l y seven m o n t h s later, and
the t h i r d e x a m i n a t i o n was done after leaving p r i m a r y school (mean age 1 4 2 m o n t h s , ranged
f r o m 1 3 5 t o 1 5 1 months).
Measures
A t t h e first and second e x a m i n a t i o n the children w e r e examined w i t h t h e scales for t h e t h i r d ,
f o u r t h a n d fifth year of life of the "Kleinkindertest" [Early c h i l d h o o d test] b y Bühler a n d Hetzer
( 1 9 3 2 ) . Six items f r o m t h e Denver D e v e l o p m e n t Scales (Frankenburg & D o d d s , 1 9 6 7 ) w h i c h
had n o equivalent i n t h e Bühler a n d Hetzer test w e r e added. I n s u m 3 6 d i c h o t o m o u s items w e r e
presented t o the subjects.
A t t h e t h i r d evaluation, t h e "Adaptives Intelligenz D i a g n o s t i c u m " (AID) [Adaptive intelligence
test battery] (Kubinger & Wurst, 1 9 8 8 ) was used w h i c h examines cognitive c o m p e t e n c e i n
eleven different domains similiar t o t h e Wechsler Intelligence Scale for C h i l d r e n (WISC-R)
(Wechsler, 1 9 7 4 ) . T h e subtests can be divided i n verbal (e. g. Everyday K n o w l e d g e - crystallized)
and performance domains (e. g. Digit S p a n - numbers).
In addition, t w o Piagetian tasks w e r e administered t o the subjects. It w a s assumed that
competence i n these tasks is less influenced by family background variables t h a n competence
i n the classical psychometric tests like the A I D . T h e first task consisted of t w o syllogistic
deductions (based o n K o d r o f f & Roberge, 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e first statement referred t o a real life
situation; the content of t h e second statement was abstract. B o t h statements w e r e presented
i n four syllogistic forms (affirmation of antecedent, denial of antecedent, a f f i r m a t i o n of
consequent, a n d denial of consequent). T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of t w o statements a n d four syllogistic
forms resulted i n eight tasks. T h e second Piagetian Task was Isolation of variables (based o n
K u h n & B r a n n o c k , 1 9 7 7 ) . I n the present adaptation, t h e material consisted o f three real life
problems (raising plants, getting presents, coating a roof). For each p r o b l e m t h e c h i l d r e n had
t o isolate t h e operative variable and t o identify t h e inoperative variables. Psychometric analyses
demonstrated that b o t h Piagetian tasks can be used as one scale consisting of at least 1 4 items.
Giftedness f r o m early childhood t o early adolescence
143
I n addition, at t h e t h i r d e x a m i n a t i o n school grades and task c o m m i t m e n t - assessed by a trained
observer - w e r e obtained f r o m t h e children.
I n all t h r e e e x a m i n a t i o n s data f r o m t h e parents w e r e collected via questionnaires and/or
interviews t o get i n f o r m a t i o n about the psychosocial conditions (global social screening score,
care conditions, p a r e n t a l education, family climate, social economic status - SES) and about
possible biological risk factors (global biological screening score, b i r t h w e i g h t , pre- and perinatal
risks).
D e f i n i t i o n of cognitive giftedness: I n infancy, giftedness was defined b y t h e criterion " 1 2
m o n t h s or m o r e advanced i n cognitive development i n t h e first a n d t h e second e x a m i n a t i o n " .
Five c h i l d r e n reached this criterion. I n early adolescence (third examination) giftedness was
defined by t h e c r i t e r i o n "percent r a n k above 7 5 i n cognitive competence" (AID). T h i r t e e n
children reached this criterion.
Results
Results d e m o n s t r a t e d that three of t h e children identified as gifted i n t h e first and the second
e x a m i n a t i o n could be identified as gifted again i n the t h i r d e x a m i n a t i o n (group 1 1 , see Figure
1); t w o c h i l d r e n w e r e identified t o be gifted only i n infancy (group 10); t e n children w e r e
identified t o be gifted only i n early adolescence (group 01); 4 3 out of t h e subjects showed l o w
or average intellectual capacity at all three t i m e points (group 00). T h e r e was a significant
correlation of . 5 1 between t h e test scores i n infancy and i n early adolescence.
z-transtormed 2,5
scores 2,0
1.5
. _ - -a
1,0
0,5
0,0
Groups
11 Ο
10 ·
01 •
00 •
-0,5
-1,0
-1,5
-2,0
-2,5
Figure
1:
intancy
early
adolescence
Profiles of cognitive development
T h e four g r o u p s w e r e c o m p a r e d regarding t h e subtests of the A I D belonging t o verbal and
performance d o m a i n s . Results showed similar differences between the four groups b o t h for the
verbal a n d t h e p e r f o r m a n c e subtests (see Figure 2). G r o u p 1 1 showed the highest scores
followed by g r o u p 0 1 . T h e lowest scores w e r e observed i n g r o u p 0 0 . Because of the small
group sizes n o statistical analyses w e r e conducted.
Christiane Spiel and U l r i k e Sirsch
144
T h e n , t h e groups w e r e c o m p a r e d i n the Piagetian tasks. Results showed similar test scores
for g r o u p s 0 1 , 1 1 , a n d 1 0 but lower scores for g r o u p 0 0 (see Figure 3). These results were
contrasted w i t h differences i n "Everyday Knowledge - crystallized". T h i s subtest of t h e A I D was
assumed t o be m o r e influenced by support (Kubinger & Wurst, 1 9 8 8 ) . Results showed higher
scores f o r g r o u p 0 1 a n d g r o u p 1 1 t h a n for g r o u p 1 0 and g r o u p 0 0 (see Figure 3).
z-transformed 2,5 η
scores 2,0 1,5
1,0
0,5
0,0
•
·
-0,5
Groups
11 Ο
10 ·
01 •
00 •
-1,0
-1,5
-2,0
-2,5
verbal
subtests
Figure
2:
performance
subtests
Subgroups i n different domains
z-transtormed 2,5
scores 2,0
1,5
1,0
0,5
O—
0,0
-0,5
-1,0
-1,5
-2,0
-2,5
Figure
3:
Everyday
kowledge
Piagetian
Tasks
Everyday knowledge - Piagetian tasks
Results regarding school achievement (standardized values) showed differences between all
four g r o u p s (see Table 1). T h e subjects of g r o u p 1 1 had received the highest grades while
subjects o f g r o u p 0 0 had g o t t e n the lowest. Similar results w e r e observed for task c o m m i t m e n t
(s. Table 1). Subjects of g r o u p 1 1 showed highest task c o m m i t m e n t w h i l e subjects of g r o u p 0 0
showed lowest task c o m m i t m e n t .
Giftedness f r o m early childhood t o early adolescence
145
N e x t , t h e four groups w e r e compared regarding biological and psychosocial conditions. G r o u p
0 0 was characterized b y a large range i n birth weights and t h e highest biological risk scores. I n
a d d i t i o n , t h e subjects of this group showed l o w social screening scores. O n l y few c h i l d r e n h a d
positive care conditions, parents w i t h average o r h i g h education a n d average o r h i g h SES (see
Table 1). G r o u p 0 1 was characterized by positive psychosocial conditions (social screening
score, care conditions, parental education a n d SES). Subjects of g r o u p 1 0 h a d o p t i m a l b i r t h
weights. These subjects w e r e characterized by h i g h social screening scores, average o r h i g h
SES, b u t negative care conditions. G r o u p 1 1 was as w e l l characterized b y o p t i m a l b i r t h weights.
I n a d d i t i o n , subjects of g r o u p 1 1 showed positive family climate. N o n e of t h e m h a d parents
w i t h average o r h i g h SES.
Table
1:
Biological a n d social conditions, school achievement a n d task c o m m i t m e n t
Group
00
n=43
01
n=10
10
n=2
11
n=3
19.3
19.7
19.5
19.7
2250-4200
1.69
0 to 5
3000-4050
1.30
0 to 3
3280-3300
1.50
1 to 2
3490-3770
1.33
0 to 3
9.60
6 to 14
9/43
11.4
10 to 14
5/10
11.5
12 to 12
0/2
10.0
8 to 12
1/3
10/43
6/10
1/2
1/3
24/43
6/10
1/2
3/3
8/43
5/10
2/2
0/3
.58
-.6 to 1.3
17.70
16 to 18
.29
.1 to .5
16.50
15 to 18
.76
.1 to 1.1
18.67
18 to 20
BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Biological screening
score (mean)
Birth weight (g)
range
Pre- and
perinatal risks
(mean; range)
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
Social screening
score (mean; range)
Positive care
conditions (n of N)
Average or
high parental
education (n of N)
Positive family
climate (n of N)
Average or
high SES (n of N)
SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT AND TASK COMMITMENT
School grades (z-scores)
(mean; range)
Task corrmitment
(mean; range)
-.60
-4.6 to .8
15.21
10 to 19
Discussion
First, it should be m e n t i o n e d that all findings of t h e study have t o be carefully discussed because
of t h e small n u m b e r of subjects i n g r o u p 1 0 a n d 1 1 . Results c o n f i r m previous findings that i t
is difficult t o m a k e reliable predictions regarding cognitive development f r o m infancy t o early
Christiane Spiel a n d Ulrike Sirsch
146
adolescence based o n test scores. I n addition, results suggest that psychosocial conditions and
biological risk factors can help t o explain stability versus instability i n cognitive development
n o t only i n risk children but also i n average gifted a n d gifted children. Results regarding subjects
of g r o u p 0 1 w h o showed a n increase i n cognitive competence suggest that socio-economic
conditions can positively influence cognitive development i n t h e longitudinal a p p r o a c h . I n
contrast, negative care conditions (in that case divorce of parents a n d institutional care) can
cause a decrease i n cognitive development. Differences between t h e four groups i n school
achievement a n d tasks c o m m i t m e n t are similar t o differences i n A I D subtest scores. Therefore,
it c a n be assumed that t h e same latent competences are necessary for these tasks. I n contrast,
n o differences between groups 0 1 , 1 0 , and 1 1 w e r e observed i n t h e Piagetian tasks, w h i c h are
different t o t h e classical psychometric tasks like t h e A I D . A s m e n t i o n e d above, t h e Piagetian
tasks are assumed t o be less influenced by family background variables. These observations
indicate that identification of giftedness is influenced by the t y p e of cognitive tasks used w h i c h
are m o r e or less affected by psychosocial conditions o r parental s u p p o r t .
References
Bims, Β., & Golden, Μ. (1972). Prediction of intellectual performance at 3 years from infant tests and
personality measures. Merrill-Palmer
Quarterly, 18, 53-58.
Bühler, C , & Hetzer, Η. (1932). Kleinkindertests. Leipzig: Barth.
Cohen, S. Ε., Parmelee, A. H . , Beckwith, L , & Sigman, M . (1986). Cognitive development in preterm
infants: Birth to 8 years. Developmental
and Behavioral Pediatrics, 7, 102-110.
Fatouros, C. (1986). Early identification of gifted children is crucial... but how should we go about it?
Gifted Education International, 4, 24-28.
Frankenburg, W. Κ., & Dodds, J . B. (1967). The Denver Developmental Screening Test. The Journal
of Pediatrics, 71, 181-191.
Gössler, I . (1971). Nachuntersuchung
von Kindern
mit überdurchschnittlichem
Entwicklungsaotient im Vorschulalter. Unpublished Dissertation, University of Vienna.
Heller, K. A. (1986). Psychologische Probleme der Hochbegabungsforschung. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie
und Pädagogische Psychologie, 18, 3 3 5 - 3 6 1 .
Kodroff, J . K., & Roberge, J . J . (1975). Developmental analysis of the conditional reasoning abilities
of primary-grade children. Developmental
Psychology, 11, 21-28.
Kopp, C. Β., & McCall, R. B. (1982). Prediction later mental performance for normal, at-risk, and
handicapped infants. Life-span Development and Behavior, 4, 3 3 - 6 1 .
Kubinger, D., & Wurst, Ε. (1988). Adaptives Intelligenz Diagnostikum. Weinheim: Beltz.
Kuhn, D., & Brannock, J . (1977). Development of the isolation of variables scheme in experimental
and "natural experiment" contexts. Developmental Psychology, 13, 9-14.
Meyer-Probst, B., & Teichmann, Η. (1984). Effects of biological and psychosocial risks on personality
development: Results of the Rostock longitudinal study after 10 years. Tfie German Journal of
Psychology, 9, 161-170.
Monks, F. J . (1990). Hochbegabtenförderung als Aufgabe der Pädagogischen Psychologie. Psychologie
in Erziehung und Unterricht, 37, 243-250.
Spiel, C. (1989). Gifted children in day nurseries - comparison with nongifted children. Paper
presented at the Tenth Biennal Meeting of the International Society for the Study of Behavioral
Development. Jyväskylä, Finland.
Stapf, Α., & Stapf, Κ. (1988). Kindliche Hochbegabung in entwicklungspsychologischer Sicht. Psycho­
logie in Erziehung und Unterricht, 35, 1-17.
Tramontane, Μ. G , Hooper, S. Η., & Selzer, S. C. (1988). Research on the preschool prediction of
later academic achievement: A review. Developmental
Review, 8, 89-146.
Willerman, L., & Fiedler, M. F. (1974). Infant performance and intellectual precocity. Child Develop­
ment, 45, 483-486.
Wechsler, D. (1974). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Revised. New York: Psychological
Corporation.
A follow-up study about creative thinking abilities
of students
Aysenur Yontar
Bogazici
University,
Istanbul,
Turkey
Physical characteristics of h u m a n , such as height, colour of eyes o r hair are k n o w n t o be
genetically determined and they are stable t h r o u g h o u t t h e life p e r i o d , but t h e same analogy can
n o t be used for t h e mental characteristics. For example, there are h i g h correlations of I Q
measures of older ages but it shows some fluctuations f r o m infancy t o childhood. Research
studies (Torrance, 1 9 6 3 ; U r b a n , 1 9 9 1 ) indicate similar fluctuations for creative t h i n k i n g abilities
of children. T o r r a n c e ( 1 9 6 3 ) conducted some cross-sectional and longitudinal studies f r o m age
3 t o grade 1 2 a n d derived a developmental curve of creative performance of children. M o r e
currently, U r b a n ( 1 9 9 1 ) conducted a cross-sectional study w i t h a sample of children w h o are
between four a n d eight years of age. A i m of his investigation was t o detect t h e age trends by
using Test for Creative Thinking
scores. A s a result of quantitative and qualitative analysis, he
had proposed six developmental stages of creativity. H e has also c o m p a r e d t h e developmental
changes w i t h the results of Torrance's study. Results of b o t h studies w e r e similar i n terms of
the developmental curve of creativity i n children, w h i c h generally goes u p but also shows some
sections of decline.
Literature often stresses that social environment is m o r e inhibiting t h a n n u r t u r i n g the creative
abilities of children. I n another way, environmental conditions prevent children f r o m being
creative. A d a p t a t i o n t o social life, acceptance of social authorities a n d understanding traditional
expectations affect creative performance of individuals t o some extent. So i n any case the
development of t h e i n b o r n creative t h i n k i n g and acting potentials of children are highly
dependent o n environmental conditions, of course including educational institutions.
A i m of t h e present investigation is t o detect developmental changes i n creative t h i n k i n g
abilities of students between 1 1 and 18 years of age. This investigation is unique for being the
first longitudinal study about creative t h i n k i n g abilities of Turkish students by using the
Torrance
Test of Creative
Thinking.
Sample of the Study
Subjects of the study w e r e chosen f r o m a private p r i m a r y school i n A n k a r a w h i c h has also
junior and senior h i g h levels education. 3 5 fifth grade students w e r e selected randomly. Students
w h o have attended t h e same school for seven years became t h e respondents of t h e study. A s
in most of the longitudinal studies, loss of subjects limited the sample of t h e study t o 2 3 ; 1 1 of
t h e m are female a n d 1 2 of t h e m are male.
Instrument
Torrance
Test of Creative
Thinking
- Figural Form A (TTCT)
w h i c h has been developed
by E. P. T o r r a n c e ( 1 9 6 6 ) was used i n order t o measure creative t h i n k i n g abilities of the subjects.
The instrument emphasized the ability t o generate m a n y n e w ideas (fluency), t h a t are unusual
(originality) and represent a variety of categories (flexibility), as well as t h e ability t o embellish
Aysenur Y o n t a r
148
the ideas (elaboration). Fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration are the c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h
w e r e used for t h e assessment of creative potential. T h e battery includes three activities. First
activity, picture construction, is designed t o stimulate originality and elaboration. T h e a u t h o r of
the instrument advices against t h e use of incomplete batteries but the first activity was excluded
during measurements of the present study. Cultural unfairness of scoring t h e task caused the
elimination. T h e other t w o tasks w h i c h are used i n t h e study elicit increasingly greater variability
i n fluency, flexibility, originality a n d elaboration. I n the incomplete figures activity, flexibility,
originality and elaboration has been considered. Fluency has a m i n o r consideration. I n repeated
figures activity, fluency competes w i t h originality, elaboration a n d flexibility.
Reliability study (Yontar, 1 9 8 5 ) was conducted by using 5 8 r a n d o m l y selected subjects w h o
where attending t h e fifth grade of t h e same private school i n A n k a r a . Before presenting the
evidence concerning test-retest reliability, it seems desirable t o review evidence about inter- and
intra-scorer reliability of scoring. Norms-technical manual of t h e original test indicates t h a t
interscorer reliability coefficients range f r o m . 8 6 t o . 9 8 w i t h a n average of . 9 5 . A s a result of
a similar study w h i c h was conducted by a T u r k i s h fifth grade student sample, comparable
interscorer reliability coefficients w e r e calculated (see Table 1).
Table
1:
Sample Data o n Interscorer Reliability
Coefficient
Fluency
of correlation
Original study
sample of 100 tests .98
Flexibility
Originality
Elaboration
.98
.86
.92
Turkish study
sample of 50 tests
.91
.96
.94
1.00
I n order t o calculate intrascorer reliability coefficients, researcher scored sample of 2 0 tests
t w o times w i t h a t i m e interval. Results indicated a high intrascorer reliability (see T a b l e 2).
Table
2:
Sample Data o n Intrascorer Reliability
Fl uency
.99
Flexibility
.90
Original! ty
.96
"
Elaboration
.94
Test-retest reliability coefficients of t h e study are presented i n Table 3 i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h
three studies indicated i n the norms-technical m a n u a l of the test.
In order t o obtain evidence about validity of the instrument, class teachers, fine art teachers
and administrators w e r e asked t o nominate t e n of the most creative students a m o n g fifth
graders. It was seen t h a t m o r e t h a n half of the students i n the list w e r e the ones w h o obtained
the highest scores i n t h e test.
Unfortunately, there is n o t any n o r m study about T T C T scores of T u r k i s h student sample. So
the core of normative data will be based o n another study conducted by t h e researcher i n 1 9 8 5 .
Sample of that study consists of 1 4 4 fifth grade students w h o w e r e attending state-supported
p r i m a r y schools i n t h a t year. Normative data of the 1 9 8 5 study will be given i n c o m p a r i s o n
A follow-up study about creative t h i n k i n g abilities of students
149
w i t h t h e m e a n scores of sample indicated i n t h e norms-technical m a n u a l of t h e instrument and
the m e a n scores of t h e present study (see Table 4).
Table
3:
Studies about Test-Retest Reliability
Measure
study 1*
Figural Fluency
.71
Figural F l e x i b i l i t y
.73
Figural O r i g i n a l i t y
.85
Figural E l a b o r a t i o n
.83
* ( T o r r a n c e , 1 9 7 4 , p . 19)
Table
4:
Coefficients of Correlation
study 2*
study 3*
Turkish
.50
.80
.63
.63
.64
.68
.60
.60
.53
._7l
180
L70
study
N o r m a t i v e Data A b o u t t h e T T C T Scores of T h r e e Different Samples
Measure
Original
Present
Turkish
Sample**
Sample
Sample (1985)
χ (N=112)
x (N=23)
x (N=144)
Fluency
26.77
24.34
20.31
Flexibility
18.79
17.61
15.86
Originality
23.72
34.74
28.25
Elaboration
54.51
80.57
46.46
** Table 4 p r e p a r e d by using mean scores of particular test tasks
in the manual of the instrument ( T o r r a n c e , 1 9 7 4 , p p . 4 9 - 5 2 )
presented
Procedure
This study is a longitudinal one, w i t h triple testing situation o n 2 3 subjects. T h e y have attended
the same educational institution for seven years. Table 4 w i l l be helpful i n clarifying t h e creative
abilities o f t h e sample. A s it is seen i n the table, m e a n scores of t h e sample are higher t h a n t h e
m e a n scores of t h e T u r k i s h n o r m sample. So it m a y be concluded that creative t h i n k i n g abilities
of t h e subjects i n t h e present study were above t h e average of t h e other T u r k i s h fifth grade
students. Torrance
Test of Creative Thinking was administered for the first t i m e i n 1 9 8 5 w h e n
the subjects w e r e 5 t h graders. Retesting t o o k place four years later w h e n they w e r e 8 t h graders
at t h e e n d o f secondary school. T h r e e years later i n 1 9 9 2 at t h e senior year of h i g h school,
the test w a s administered for t h e last time.
Analysis of data, results and discussion
Because of t h e limited n u m b e r of subjects, non-parametric statistical tests w e r e performed for
analysing t h e data. I n order t o investigate if there are a n y differences between performances
of subjects related t o T T C T scores i n different ages, a F r i e d m a n two-way analysis of variance
was used. It is a non-parametric analogy of t h e parametric two-way analysis of variance. W h i l e
analysing t h e sex differences i n t h e performance of creative t h i n k i n g abilities of subjects, t h e
M a n n - W h i t n e y U test was used.
As it is indicated before, fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration are t h e variables w h i c h
150
Aysenur Y o n t a r
Torrance
Test of Creative Thinking
w i l l be based o n those variables.
measurements are based o n . S o results a n d discussion
T h e question of male versus female superiority i n creative abilities has b e e n o f research interest
for several decades. Studies (Gupta, 1 9 8 1 ; Raina, 1 9 8 0 ; R i c h a r d s o n , 1 9 8 6 ; U r b a n , 1 9 9 1 )
s h o w divergent results as male superiority, female s u p e r i o r i t y a n d n o difference b e t w e e n t h e
sexes, depending o n age a n d procedure of measuring creativity. G u p t a ( 1 9 8 1 ) observed that
Indian boys showed superiority o n verbal fluency, verbal flexibility a n d verbal transformations.
Indian girls scored significantly higher o n non-verbal d i m e n s i o n s , such as originality, c o m p l e x i t y
and productive designing ability. Richardson ( 1 9 8 6 ) f o u n d significantly higher scores for
Jamaican girls o n test of verbal fluency. Raina ( 1 9 8 0 ) f o u n d n o differences b e t w e e n t h e scores
of fluency, flexibility a n d originality f r o m the Torrance
Test of Creative Thinking.
Also Urban's
study ( 1 9 9 1 ) indicates similar results w i t h n o differences b e t w e e n t h e m e a n s of G e r m a n girls
a n d boys f r o m Test for Creative Thinking-Drawing
P r o d u c t i o n f o r various age g r o u p s .
Results of t h e study are congruent w i t h t h e previously m e n t i o n e d literature, differences
between t h e score ranks of girls and boys w e r e n o t significant f o r t h r e e age g r o u p s except the
ranks of flexibility scores of 1 1 year old g r o u p . Results of M a n n - W h i t n e y U test, s h o w e d that
there is a significant difference between the r a n k scores of 1 1 year o l d girls a n d boys i n favor
of girls, at p = . 0 0 4 level of significance.
Table
5:
Variable
Fluency
Flexibility
Ori gi nali ty
El aboration
* ρ < .05
Results of Friedman two-way A N O V A f o r 1 1 , 1 5 a n d 1 8 years old g r o u p s
chi square
val ue
5.826
10.630
5.304
4.195
df
significance
2
2
2
2
.050*
.004*
.070
.122
T h e results of Friedman two-way A N O V A for all age g r o u p s w e r e statistically significant for
the variables of fluency and flexibility, but c h i square value just fail t o reach statistical significance
for t h e other t w o variables originality and elaboration (see T a b l e 5).
W h e n all possible differences between the pairs o f samples w e r e c o m p a r e d i n r e l a t i o n t o the
variable fluency, statistically significant differences w e r e f o u n d b e t w e e n 1 1 - 1 8 a n d 1 5 - 1 8 years
old groups against t h e 1 8 years old g r o u p . This means, ranks of fluency scores of students were
similar between t h e ages of 1 1 and 1 5 but the distribution has changed w h e n students became
h i g h school seniors.
A l s o there w e r e statistically significant differences b e t w e e n flexibility score ranks o f 1 5 - 1 8 and
1 1 - 1 8 years old against 1 8 years old g r o u p w h i c h m e a n s t h a t distribution of flexibility ranks
w e r e n o t similar i n h i g h school i n c o m p a r i s o n t o secondary a n d e l e m e n t a r y school years. Ranks
of students have changed as they became 1 8 years o l d . So t h e r a n k distributions o f t h e sample
w e r e n o t similar for the variables of fluency and flexibility i n different ages.
N o statistical significant differences w e r e found b e t w e e n t h e r a n k s of originality a n d elabora­
t i o n scores w h i c h means that ranks w e r e r e m a i n i n g similar i n different ages.
In order t o c o m p a r e t h e result of the present study w i t h t h e f o r m e r findings of T o r r a n c e
( 1 9 7 3 ) , m e a n scores of the sample w e r e also calculated a n d c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e m e a n scores
A f o l l o w - u p study a b o u t creative t h i n k i n g abilities of students
151
of the A m e r i c a n s a m p l e as indicated i n the norms-technical m a n u a l . O f course those samples
cannot be c o m p a r e d i n t e r m s of m e t h o d s of studies, sample size, cultural differences, etc. - but
the a u t h o r finds i t h e l p f u l i n s h o w i n g some tendencies i n t h e development of creative abilities
of students.
Table
6:
M e a n Scores of T T C T F o r m A by Educational Level
5th
f1uency
USA
TUR
24.4
21.8
flexibility
USA
TUR
16.0
17.6
originality
USA
TUR
28.1
34.7
elaboration
USA
TUR
68.2
80.6
junior
high
19.9
25.1
15.7
19.0
25.5
36.3
74.7
77.4
senior
high
19.6
21.0
15.7
16.0
27.4
29.0
70.6
96.0
Level
Table 6 indicates t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t of creative potential tends t o be non-linear. B o t h m e a n
score distributions s h o w patterns of declines i n different ages. For example, t h e A m e r i c a n
sample shows a linear decline i n t h e i r fluency scores w h i l e T u r k i s h sample performs a n increase
until t h e age of 1 5 a n d t h a n a decline i n the senior h i g h school years.
Conclusion
In c o n c l u s i o n , results of t h e study indicate that score distribution of students i n fluency and
flexibility change after 1 5 years of age while ranks of originality and elaboration r e m a i n similar
during t h e range of those seven years included i n t h e study. A s it was indicated before, sample
of the present study p e r f o r m e d above the T u r k i s h n o r m s w h e n t h e y w e r e 1 1 years o l d . T h e y
were a t t e n d i n g a p r i v a t e s c h o o l w h i c h has sufficient e n v i r o n m e n t for t h e development of their
creative p o t e n t i a l s w i t h respect t o state supported schools. B u t as a result there w e r e some
declines i n t h e i r creative potentials. Senior year of h i g h school is a n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t i n t h e life
of T u r k i s h y o u t h because at t h e e n d of senior year, most of t h e students get university entrance
e x a m i n a t i o n . I n general, T u r k i s h education has a competitive characteristic a n d university
entrance e x a m is o n e of t h e i m p o r t a n t competitive situations i n the system. Positive results of
the e x a m are t h e greatest r e w a r d for t h e h i g h school graduate, a n d most of the students focus
o n this e x a m w h i c h is t h e greatest evaluation of their performance. Such k i n d of a situation
may affect t h e intrinsic m o t i v a t i o n of a n individual. A s it can be seen f r o m t h e picture, students
had s o m e of t h e negative consequences w h i c h affect t h e i r creative performance. T h e y w e r e
w o r k i n g f o r a n expected r e w a r d i n a competitive situation and focused o n expected evaluation
of their p e r f o r m a n c e i n a n e x a m . Competitive characteristics of t h e education system m a y be
one of t h e factors w h i c h is effective i n t h e creative performances of students, but reality consists
of m o r e c o m p l e x interactions o c c u r i n g a m o n g sociological variables, individual differences i n
upbringing a n d genetic factors. Ideally, the students' total e n v i r o n m e n t including h o m e , school
and c o m m u n i t y s h o u l d be s u p p o r t i v e f o r his/her creative behavior for h i m / h e r t o reach fullest
degree. A l t h o u g h this Utopia w i l l probably never c o m e i n t o being, developmental studies w i t h
large samples a n d m a n y carefully selected sociological a n d psychological variables w i l l be helpful
i n enlighting t h e w a y s f o r r e a c h i n g t h a t Utopia.
Aysenur Y o n t a r
152
References
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Plenum Press.
Gupta, A. K. (1981). Sex differences in creativity: Some fresh evidence. The Journal of Creative
Behavior, 15, 269ff.
Raina, Τ. N. (1980). Sex differences in creativity i n India: A second look. The Journal of Creative
Behavior, 14, 218ff.
Richardson, A. G. (1986). Sex differences i n creativity among a sample of Jamaican adolescents. The
Journal of Creative Behavior, 20, 147ff.
Torrance, E. P. (1963). Education and the creative potential. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press.
Torrance, E. P. (1966). Torrance Test of Creative Thinking: Norms-technical
manual research
edition. Princeton, NJ: Personnel Press.
Torrance, E. P. (1974). Torrance Test of Creative Thinking: Norms technical manual. Bensenville,
NJ: Scholastic Testing Service.
Urban, Κ. K. (1991). O n the development of creativity in children. Creativity Research Journal, 4,
177-191.
Yontar, A. (1985). The effects of method and sex on science achievement,
logical thinking and
creative thinking ability of fifth grade students. Unpublished master's thesis, Middle East
Technical University, Ankara.
Author's Note
Preparation of this paper was supported by Bo§azi$i University Research Fund.
From the every-day world and the musical way of
life of highly talented young instrumentalists
Some findings from a biographical study of national winners
of the competition J U G E N D MUSIZIERT
H a n s Günther Bastian
Institute
of the Didactics
of Music,
University
of Paderborn,
Paderborn,
Germany
Andreas, b o r n 1 9 6 8 , first attempted t o play o n a Clarina w i t h coloured keys at the age of
four, started p i a n o lessons at six, was initially successful i n Jugend Musiziert at age seven and
eight, became a p u p i l of the piano professor Karl-Heinz Kämmerling at twelve, w o n first prize
(in a national competition) at age fourteen, w o n first prize at age sixteen, i n t h e same year he
participated i n t h e Eurovision c o m p e t i t i o n of t h e A R D i n Geneva, gave several successful and
highly praised concertos i n the Frankfurt Old Operahouse a n d the Herkules-Saal i n M u n i c h ,
was engaged b y a w e l l - k n o w n concert agency at t h e age of sixteen w i t h eleven concerts each
year. H i s a m b i t i o n at the t i m e of t h e conversation (1985): a concerto w i t h the B e r l i n
P h i l h a r m o n i c Orchestra ...
H i s press notices: A cool w o n d e r b o y - H e c a n really play! - A wonderpianist - A vigorous
p i a n o talent w i t h a future - There is also something w o r r y i n g about his success - A t h i r t e e n year
old following i n C h o p i n ' s foot-steps ...
A n d J o a c h i m Kaiser w r o t e i n m o r e detail i n the "Süddeutsche Z e i t u n g " (January 1 5 , 1 9 8 5 ) :
What happened at this remarkable recital was more exciting than mere splendid
virtuosity
... The young man revealed himself as a remarkably lyrical talent. The sixteen-year-old
artist
was aware of every intimacy of this great abstract music: all of its profound emotional
content
without posing, without precocious posturing. He executed the madly difficult leaps in
Chopin's Β minor Scherzo more exactly than Pollini and Horovitz in their latest concerts.
Bach's debut reminded many of the young Bruno Leonard Gelber, a remarkable
prospect...
(author's translation from
German).
T h e d r e a m career of a n individual, the career-dreams of many? A b o v e all it is a career dream
for those national w i n n e r s i n J U G E N D MUSIZIERT, w h o have h i g h hopes of a successful career.
Absolute one-to-one identity of music and daily life, p h e n o m e n a l performance levels, eager
readiness for unusual effort, the highest level of training and early success characterise our
relatively unusual sample of instrumentalists. I n our society, there is frequently talk of child
prodigies, little Mozarts, but also there is talk of fixated, blinkered instrumentalists, greenly naive,
whose personal c o m m i t m e n t t o music has been at t h e expense of n o r m a l personality
development a n d has led t o psychological disadvantage and deprivation.
This is a h i g h price t o pay. Prejudices and platitudes, t h e best substrate of mythology, become
entwined a r o u n d those w h o stand out f r o m t h e n o r m . A n up-to-date-example f r o m t h e media
1 9 8 7 : Boris Becker as "The Mozart of Sport". W h a t lies behind these headlines used so naturally
that research has n o t analyzed i n G e r m a n y until now?
H a n s Günther Bastian
154
T h e Questions
I n a biographical study ( 1 9 8 5 - 8 9 ) , I set out t o lift t h e veil of secrecy a n d prejudice by focussing
m y a t t e n t i o n u p o n t h e life-history a n d learning-history of y o u n g talented instrumentalists w h o
had w o n national prizes. F o r six m o n t h s I travelled between H a m b u r g a n d K e m p t e n , Saarbrücken a n d B e r l i n a n d held 3- t o 4-hour-conversations t h a t had t o be recorded a n d transcribed.
Sixty narrative interviews w i t h a definite structure (early childhood a n d family life, instrumental
development, personality, school and musical education, leisure t i m e a n d friends, daily life a n d
musical w a y of life) provided us w i t h a systematic construction of t h e biographies of talented
musicians, enabled us t o recognize the subjective and intersubjective processes of development
a n d t o elucidate t h e person's discovery of music and subsequent development, the genesis o f
personal musical identity. F r o m the standpoint of music teaching a n d instrumental training, w e
w e r e l o o k i n g for everyday definitions of musical talent. W e w e r e interpreting musical developm e n t f r o m t h e retrospective accounts of talented instrumentalists. W e w e r e interested i n
lifestyles, nomas, values, orientations, developmental landmarks, t h e classification of musical
functions, ambitions, actual experiences of instrumental learning, success a n d crisis, highpoints
and l o w p o i n t s , mstrumental lessons and instrumental teachers ...
T h e Method
T h e narrative interview is a m e t h o d of inquiry w h i c h allows the subjects t h e freedom t o present
a n d reveal themselves, t o r e p o r t o n their o w n identities, and w e w e r e interested i n precisely
these individual profiles. T h e conversations w i t h these y o u n g people became hermeneutic
instruments for t h e discovery of their individual relevance-structures. O n l y i n this w a y could w e
find o u r w a y t h r o u g h t h e research t o the unique aspects of the individual, unique i n process
a n d i n product.
Results
K e y E x p e r i e n c e s a n d Early C o n t a c t w i t h M u s i c , o r " I was already l i s t e n i n g t o music
before I was b o r n " .
W h a t e v e r our theoretical standpoint, there is consensus i n the awareness t h a t t h e early
socialization of a child i n t h e family is of t h e utmost i m p o r t a n c e for a child's further development.
For musical development, t h e early years are apparently even m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n for m a n y
other fields of activity.
T h e reminiscences of y o u n g people and their parents show that the "revelation o n the road
t o Damascus" that set t h e " b o m artist" o n the p a t h t o greatness is far less c o m m o n t h a n outsiders
m i g h t suppose. It w o u l d be true t o say however t h a t early musical activities and aesthetic interests
are unambigously established by the parents. Musical achievement will n o t take place w i t h o u t
a s t r o n g and even fanatical parental interest i n music. T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of parents t o t h e
discovery and development of the child's musical talents was highly and gratefully regarded i n
the interview accounts of t h e y o u n g people.
Our mother
female).
invested 100%
in us. She was always there for us and for us alone
(21-year-old
A n d t h e y o u n g p e o p l e reveal w h a t was and is i m p o r t a n t t o t h e m :
Even if my mother can't help me very much artistically, it is very important that she shows
interest. If she isn't there even on one occasion, I miss her (15-year-old
female).
T h e key t o t h e child's early encounter w i t h classical music lies i n t h e dreams a n d wishes of
parents i n their educational attitudes. H o w apt was Zoltan Kodaly's statement: The
musical
education
of the child begins 9 months before birth ... (Pause)
...of the mother!"
F r o m t h e life of highly talented y o u n g instrumentalists
155
T h e parental involvement i n music ist revealed by the m a n y parents w h o are instrumental
teachers, w h o lead a musical life, w h o o w n a lavish, carefully chosen record collection. T h e r e
is n o doubt about w h a t t h e family should listen t o : N o t A b b a a n d Muzak but H a y d n and Mozart
during Sunday breakfast a n d Mahler evenings, organized by father.
Classical music was part of my daily life from morning to evening, because my sister
practiced,
my father practiced, my mother practiced, and we all practiced at the same time
(17-year-old
male).
Talent emerges o n l y w h e n a child experiences music, plays, listens, copies, o r transforms
music. A n d t h e first discoverers are mostly t h e parents. W h o else? I n t h e w o r d s of the y o u n g
people themselves:
In our house music was there as long as I can remember. My father studied music and later
my sister studied music too. For me a key experience was listening to my father playing and
practicing the piano in the evenings. I always found that great, and I went to sleep with music
in my ears (15-year-old
female)
T h e absence of music i n the family - a family music deficit - c a n be balanced, if fate allows,
by other influences outside the family such as that of t h e m a n y lay ensembles (such as brass
bands).
Parents a n d y o u n g people emphasized certain observations w h i c h revealed t h e child's musical
sensitivity and enjoyment:
T h e delight i n dancing t o all kinds of music, the playing by ear of nursery rhymes o n t o y
instruments (xylophons, clarina, chimes), early experimentation i n t o n a l organisation w i t h
two-voice playing o n t h e p i a n o , enormous musical m e m o r y f r o m t h e first instrumental lesson,
relatively r a p i d progress, creative sound-production o n home-made instruments, obvious
singing abilities and t h e early solo i n the children's choir. A l s o t h e media, m u c h cursed by m a n y
i n music education, often play a decisive role: by this I m e a n t h e frequent early exposure t o
classical music o n children's records (Peter a n d t h e Wolf, Piccolo a n d Sax, T h e Little Flute) and
fairy tale cassettes.
Key-Categories:
- Mother's
influence
- Music-making
- Participation
- Their
siblings
in public
own singing
- Listening
- Early
by
and early practice
and
to music
musical
concerts
music-making
on records
and
cassettes
education
T h e Preconditions for Instrumental Development
I n numerous cases, the desire t o learn a particular chosen instrument became clear between
the ages of 6 a n d 1 1 . A n instrument-specific differentiation was apparent. For string-players
a n early start was characteristic. For brass-players a relatively late start was n o i m p e d i m e n t t o
a subsequently successful "career".
I n early childhood t h e recorder or the t o y x y l o p h o n e w e r e often useful introductory instruments. I n n o t a few examples the parents dictated that the child learn t h e p i a n o , but this enforced
a p p r o a c h b r o u g h t little success, and sometimes generated a n aversion t o t h e p i a n o .
T h e special feature i n t h e instrumental success of these y o u n g people was the 1 0 0 %
correspondence between their particular profile of talent a n d their choice of instruments, a
one-to-one-identity between instrument and player i n w h i c h t h e chosen instrument becomes,
in effect, a "part of t h e body".
H a n s Günther Bastian
156
W i t h regard t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e first instrumental teacher, o u r findings agree w i t h those
of a n A m e r i c a n study of very talented musicians:
The first teacher was usually of modest ability, but warm, generous with praise, and able to
make lessons into an enjoyable game. For pianists, the teacher was often a local person living
in the neighbourhood.
In all instances however, the children received individual lessons, and
their parents were very involved. The second, already more competent
private
teacher
emphasized skills and discipline more strongly. As soon as the child's exceptional talent was
recognized by parents and child, the emphasis shifted further in the direction of high
achievement. Eventually the family sought a master-tutor, one of those rare experts who train
professionals
and open the right doors for them. Parents spared neither time nor expense
in this and many travelled right across the continent in their quest (B. S. Bloom, in: Der
Spiegel 1982; author's translation from
German).
T h e same c a n be said f o r t h e parents i n o u r study. T h e y spared neither t i m e n o r m o n e y i n
journeys t o distant music schools o r private teachers. T h i s p h e n o m e n o n has been discussed i n
greater detail under t h e heading of t h e "sacrifice" of t h e parents of talented children.
Lessons w i t h master-tutors are used t o b r e a k d o w n t h e perceived deficit: a deficit of technical
capacity a n d musical interpretation. H e r e however, there is n o c o m m o n p a t t e r n , a l t h o u g h there
is a tendency for technical perfection t o dominate as artistic demands increase a n d stage fright
becomes m o r e of a p r o b l e m . I n lessons at music schools there is often a n imbalance between
technical w o r k , artistic interpretation and awareness, and musical analysis. A n understanding
of t h e sense of t h e music as a prerequisite for a fully prepared performance seems t o be
neglected. T r a i n i n g i n physiognomy, questions of interpretation and reflection about t h e w o r k ;
i n these three aspects of artistic interpretation should be given equal weight, a n d t h e y must
result i n m o r e t h a n mere instrumental finger-acrobatics. T h e r e w e r e hardly a n y special crises
of t h e k i n d characterized b y self-doubt and t h e desire t o give u p . T h e increasing quality of their
instrumental playing - as c o n f i r m e d b y qualified teachers, a n d t h e successful p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e
c o m p e t i t i o n "Jugend musiziert" enable t h e m t o be convinced of their talents.
O u r y o u n g musicians enter i n t o a positive developmental spiral very early o n : talent a n d effort
breed success o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d success breeds a renewed c o m m i t m e n t , n e w m o t i v a t i o n
o n t h e other h a n d . T h e circular strengthening-process of instrumental progress, c o m p l e m e n t e d
by t h e educational influence of t h e parents, c a n be presented as follows:
(1) Instrumental success
Performance level
(4) strengthened positive
reaction, new determination
to work, additional
motivation
(2) Recognition by parents
(teachers, classmates)
associated with positive
expectations
(3) emotional security, confidence in
success, positive self-concept/ **~~~
positive estimation of self
F r o m t h e life of highly talented y o u n g instrumentalists
157
O f quite decisive i m p o r t a n c e i n this circle is the achievement of a productive synthesis between
a n awakening of self-confidence and a f i r m belief i n one's o w n capabilities. Self-confidence is,
by n o means, a n automatic c o m p o n e n t of exceptional talent, but it matures little by little w i t h
t h e experience of performance. Lack of stimulation i n this respect w i l l constrict the emergence
of talents.
A n d w h a t about practice - that standard-question w h i c h causes a stir i n interviews w i t h these
young people.
Exceptionally
able people
are extremely w e l l motivated f r o m w i t h i n , a n d are relatively
independent of outside stimuli, and can therefore practice well. I n addition, a n d I w i l l speak
m o r e about this under t h e heading of "personality", they have a h i g h potential for self-realization
a n d great interest i n t h e development of their o w n talent. T h e i r very success w i t h their
instrument is itself a self-generated reward. O f course, there is also a type of "psychic pressure"
u p o n m a n y of these participants w h i c h w e must acknowledge - a m o r e subtle pressure w h i c h
can be m o r e effective. W h e n parents pay for expensive lessons, expensive instruments, and
t h e best possible conditions for musical development, a m o r a l obligation arises. Particularly if,
as was often t h e case, those parents had gone w i t h o u t a holiday for years, o r h a d m a d e d o w i t h
t h e same old car, or p u t u p w i t h the threadbare carpet, a sense of a responsibility c a n c o m p e l
t h e y o u n g person t o m a t c h t h e parental sacrifices w i t h effort, h a r d w o r k a n d also success. I n
fact, we c a n identify a relatively powerful,
achievement-oriented
educational climate i n the
homes of our y o u n g people. A s represented i n metaphors such as:
- Achievement is n o t swept under the carpet i n our house.
- W e w o r k all t h e t i m e as well.
- Everything is governed by laws, and children must learn t o subordinate themselves.
- N o t like at S u m m e r h i l l .
- It's the Christian code: t h o u shalt do this, but t h o u shalt n o t do that!
- Y o u should m a k e t h e best of your aptitudes.
- O r (self-critically): M y a m b i t i o n was detrimental t o the development of m y son's personality.
A n d a single event:
/ could be driven to every first performance,
but I couldn't even get 10 Marks to go to a party.
My parents accept nowadays, that this was wrong (21-year-old
male).
Parental attitudes could be summarized as: Don't spoil the child, provide
a
challenge
insteadl, the idea w h i c h underlies the behavioral-ecological theories of Cube and A l s h u t h . H o w
do they challenge the child? T h e y take t i m e for their Children's education. T i m e that w e
increasingly feel w e cannot afford. A b o v e all, everything
that the child does has a h i g h value
and full recognition i n t h e family.
If a y o u t h decides u p o n a n orchestral
career t h e n n o t only does s/he d r e a m of a top-class
orchestra, but also aims t o w o r k i n such an orchestra.'The standards have got to be good
enough'
is a n oft-quoted demand, a n d here Rohlf's observations are quite correct:
Unlike many foreigners, our German musicians are not often prepared to apply for a middle
position in a mediocre orchestra, even as a means of gaining a foothold on the
professional
ladder. Most of them dream of the first chair immediately (Rohlfs, 1984, p. 224);
author's
translation from
German).
O f course such a w i s h is understandable i n the context of their efforts, their a m b i t i o n , and
their early success i n the national c o m p e t i t i o n . W h o wants t o "go t o seed i n any old provincial
orchestra" o r " t o be swallowed u p by a n anonymous orchestral grave"? For t h e m , the fascination
of a n orchestra career lies i n the heightened sense of belonging generated by t h e orchestral
t e a m w o r k . T h e mediocre pay, the social inconvenience, and t h e dependence u p o n a conductor
bother t h e m less.
H a n s Günther Bastian
158
We d o n ' t w a n t to be child-prodigies
Talented youngsters and particularly talented y o u n g artists r u n t h e risk of being stigmatized
as "little Mozarts", "geniuses", o r "prodigies", b y o u r sensation-creating, star-hungry media.
O n e ' s a d m i r a t i o n for the outstanding performer, t h e expert, quickly transforms t h e individual
into a n outsider, a pitiable v i c t i m of career-conscious parents a n d educational forced feeding
resulting i n dyssynchronous personality development. O n e admires t h e m , i n compensation,
perhaps, f o r one's o w n lack of talent, but one w o u l d n o t necessarily like t o change places w i t h
t h e m : t h e a p p a r e n t stress, t h e privations and single-mindedness, t h e unacceptable excesses of
achievement - people often dissociate themselves f r o m talented p e o p l e i n this way.
T h e m a n y professional music critiques of regional newspapers, themselves specialists,
describe o u r y o u n g instrumentalists i n a ponderous, cultivated language w h i c h stylises t h e m as
exceptional artists.
I n response t o t h e frequently encounted best-selling e u p h o r i a about child prodigies, w e can
say quite categorically that t h e successful y o u n g musicians of our investigation d o n o t w a n t t o
be child prodigies! T h e use of superlatives i n concert-reviews, t h e n o t i o n of genius i n public
o p i n i o n , o r standing ovations of several minutes d u r a t i o n seem n o t t o irritate t h e m . T h e y do
n o t go a l o n g w i t h t h e illusion w h i c h is only created b y others. I n our conversations I asked this
obvious question - a question w h i c h was expected and w h i c h is so often asked.
Are you or were you a child
prodigy?
T h e y all refuted m y suggestion immediately: they f r o w n e d , looked at m e suspiciously, shook
their head o r raised their hands defensively, w h e n speaking of that "fatal mistake" w h i c h was
invented and cultivated by t h e media. T h e label "child prodigy" left t h e m w i t h a "nasty aftertaste";
it evoked c o n n o t a t i o n of obsessional, one-dimensional fixation o n a n instrument, effortless
achievment, talent a n d giftedness w i t h o u t h a r d w o r k or difficulties. T h e y h a d w o r k e d t o o hard
for t o o l o n g t o be described as "child prodigies". " C h i l d prodigies" was s o m e t h i n g else as far as
they w e r e concerned. C h i l d prodigies lacked that essential d e p t h of involvement w i t h music.
/ never wanted to be a child prodigy, but always to be seen as a fully developed adult, and,
from a certain point of time, a mature artist. Of the child prodigy, one says: 'Yes, that's great,
but he's still a child", and I never wanted to be seen in that way (16-way-old
female).
For t h e m , all talk of "child prodigies" is a reification w h i c h belongs i n t h e r e a l m of mythology,
n o t i n t h e m u n d a n e everyday w o r l d of hard graft and practice. T h e y are far t o o critical, far t o o
down-to-earth t o be able t o see themselves as p a m p e r e d child prodigies. T h e y talk instead of
the harsh realities of c o m p e t i t i o n and struggle, and they w a n t t o live like others of t h e i r age.
A n d t h e n , there are the h a r d facts t o consider: technical deficiencies, i m m a t u r e musical
statements, inadequate interpretations, little crisis and depressions - n o t t h e stuff that child
prodigies are made off. T h e y counter any talk of child prodigies w i t h descriptions of t h e i r w o r k
and industriousness.
T h a t , for a child prodigy, w o u l d be somewhat atypical:
/ take issue with people who say: "Oh, what a fantastic talent!" or "what a prodigy!" I blame
it on the press which invents all these stupid ideas. No, first and foremost comes hard work
and industriousness. That is the most important. The hard work enables you to develop your
particular natural aptitudes. It is simply not the case that someone gives you a flute, and you
find you can play beautifully. First comes the hard graft! (18-year-old
female).
Musically T a l e n t e d P e o p l e are M u l t i - T a l e n t e d P e o p l e
If specialists themselves suspect that specialisation o n a single instrument leads t o a n a r r o w i n g
of musical horizons: "A pianist runs the risk of seeing piano music as central and
other
music as of only peripheral
importance.
Specialisation
on a single instrument
can
therefore
F r o m the life of highly talented y o u n g instrumentalists
lead to a narrowing
of musical
refute this completely.
159
. . . " , 1 c a n only say, t h a t m y biographical documents
horizons
F o r the national w i n n e r s of "Jugend musiziert", this supposition is entirely false. T h e y play
second and t h i r d instruments ( 8 3 % i n t h e sample), a n d n o t only as a side-line. O n e youngster
w o n t h e 3 r d N a t i o n a l Prize o n recorder a n d reached performance level 2 i n t h e same
c o m p e t i t i o n o n t h e oboe. A 17-year-old played at national level o n t h e flute, and entered the
next c o m p e t i o n w i t h t h e violin. A n d m a n y are capable of playing at regional o r n a t i o n a l level
o n second a n d t h i r d instruments.
T h e i r talents are n o t restricted t o music either: a y o u n g violinist w i n s a regional public
speaking-competition, a trombonist copied pictures by Dürer w i t h startling accuracy a n d paints
w h o l e walls w i t h nature pictures, paint-bucket i n h a n d , a 17-year-old oboist writes p o e m s and
w i n s first prize i n h e r state c o m p e t i t i o n : A n example (17-year-okl female):
Seiltanz
Wenn sie mir zulächeln,
lache ich zurück.
Ich tanze über das Seil
und falle
herunter
und staune
daß keiner mich auffängt.
When they smile at me,
I answer with laughter.
I walk on the tightrope
and fall off
and am astonished
that no one catches me.
T h e above-mentioned recorder player composes, and one of his compositions w o n outstandi n g h o n o u r s for t h e Avantgarde-Prize of his city. School graduates w i t h a n Abitur-grade of 1.0
(equivalent t o 7 o r 8 Α-levels) are n o rarity i n our sample, a n d they still w a n t t o study music,
because for t h e m music is everything. Others p l a n t o study medicine, law, i n f o r m a t i o n
technology, electrical engineering, economic journalism, politics o r philosophy. A n d most of
t h e m emphasized, t h a t for t h e m the demands of schools have presented little o r n o difficulties
i n spite of t h e intensive involvement w i t h music.
A y o u n g organist writes short stories that have been published, a clarinettist m a d e a historical
study of the persecution of Jews i n his h o m e t o w n , a n d was awarded a prize b y t h e city of
A m s t e r d a m . A 19-year-old violinist talks of her earlier interest i n p a i n t i n g , a n d shows a
self-portrait i n oils: t h e big instrument, t h e little p u p i l , the i m p o r t a n t - l o o k i n g teacher. O n e t h i n g
is sure: these y o u n g musicians k n o w w h a t they w a n t , their a m b i t i o n o n the instrument, their
tenacious constant practice, their stamina a n d their exceptional efforts have shaped t h e m for
life. T h e y certainly do n o t give u p easily. T h e y refer t o orchestral tours including local, national
and European.
M y theory of t h e multi-talentedness of exceptional artistic ability c a n be explained w i t h
reference t o t h e characterisics of a n individual talent: Exceptional performance ability is a
complex c o m b i n a t i o n of different talents (intellectual, creative, practical, psychomotor), of
motivational factors (industriousness, c o m m i t m e n t , independence, continuity, stability) and of
articulation, t h o u g h t a n d w o r k (involving flexibility and originality). Said another w a y : outstand­
ing musical capability is accompanied by creative, artistic a n d p s y c h o m o t o r capabilities, and
these have a positive influence u p o n other areas. I n their self-evaluation, t h e y o u n g people
indentified t h e following aspects of talentedness t o w h i c h they laid claim:
1. a n expressive ability
2 . sensitivity t o feelings
3. ability t o conceptualize structures
4. memory
H a n s Günther Bastian
160
5. essential physiognomic features
6. sensory capabilities
I can c o n f i r m w i t h o u t reservation t h e findings of t h e A m e r i c a n T e r m a n i n his longitudinal
study ( 1 9 2 1 t o 1 9 6 5 ) . Y o u n g instrumental talent reveals itself t h r o u g h :
- goal-directed integration of t h e i r w o r k
- unusual staying-power
- h i g h self-confidence
- interest i n leadership (1st v i o l i n o n the 1st chair of the orchestra, H.G.B.)
- very h i g h standards w i t h respect t o t h e quality of their w o r k .
H i g h e x p e c t a t i o n s o f self a n d self-criticism o r " d i l e t t a n t i s m " is deadly n e r v e - r a c k i n g for
me
T h e description of the self-portrait of talented youngsters (using t h e Semantic Differential
method) emphasizes d e t e r m i n a t i o n , a m b i t i o n , a n d self-criticism as i m p o r t a n t personality
c o m p o n e n t s of musical talent. A c c o r d i n g t o Weiner's ( 1 9 7 2 ) achievement m o t i v a t i o n m o d e l ,
the inner factors "effort" and "capability" explain t h e motivational action of y o u n g musicians.
" L u c k " as a n external and r a n d o m factor has n o place i n t h e focussed goal-directed lives of
these y o u n g people.
Also inherited talent (a hypothetical concept), a certain "gift", figures less t h a n industriousness,
endeavour, effort a n d a healthy p o r t i o n of self-discipline: ' T a l e n t is n o t a present, it's a n
obligation". O u r musicians provide empirical c o n f o r m a t i o n for t h e assumptions of de la
Motte-Haber ( 1 9 8 4 , p . 2 5 ; author's translation f r o m German).
Human action, such as the playing of an instrument, does not depend on how gifted the
person is, but is influenced by motivational factors, and people with similar levels of giftedness
perform at vastly different levels for this reason. There is a complex correlation
between
aptitude and
motivation.
Self-confidence, self-criticism, and a constant striving for i m p r o v e m e n t are t h e overwhelmingly
conspicious personality characteristics that w e recorded again and again i n our interviews. T h e
reasons for these are various: a performance-oriented, working-motivated parental h o m e ,
positive experiences of instrumental playing (very g o o d lessons, r a p i d progress), national success
i n "Jugend musiziert", public acclaim, and praise f r o m all sides (including talk about child
prodigies).
T h e i r self-concept has been shaped during a very long instrumental training by highly qualified
experts: ever higher standards, ever greater accuracy, never casual, never sloppy, always n e w
and m o r e exacting aims, the utmost striving for perfection. T h e side-effect of their music-making is clear: k n o w i n g l y or n o t , they are laying the foundation of their future-life's w o r k .
In m y study of the c o m p e t i t i o n "Jugend musiziert" (Bastian, 1 9 8 7 , p. 2 2 ) , I have already
described the reaction of participants w h o did n o t w i n prizes: "Frustrated, but m o t i v a t e d ! "
O f t e n t h e disappointments w i t h the comments and decisions of the jury ignite sparks of
a m b i t i o n and the desire t o s h o w teachers, parents, jurors, and oneself, that "next t i m e I'll be
the w i n n e r " .
Such a reaction is characteristic of y o u n g people whose achievement m o t i v a t i o n concept is
shaped by t h e " h o p e for success" (Heckhausen, 1 9 6 8 ) . These y o u n g p e o p l e are very critical:
of t h e l o w status of art i n our society, of music teaching i n ordinary school (satiram n o n scribere
difficile est!), of their early music-lessons, a n d , above all, of themselves. This self-criticism is so
conspicious that it can be w o r r y i n g , and it can give cause for concern. It was t h e only unpleasant
aspect of t h e m a n y conversations, because it was often overdone, excessive, far b e y o n d natural
a m b i t i o n and essential healthy laissez-faire.
F r o m t h e life of highly talented y o u n g instrumentalists
161
It immediately makes one w o n d e r , w h a t effect these exorbitant expectations of self have u p o n
friendships, partners, colleagues. A r e they entitled t o make h u m a n mistakes, t o be careless o r
thoughtless, t o underachieve? T h e extraordinary instrument-determined a p p r o a c h t o life sets
standards at almost unattainably h i g h levels.
T h i s raises questions about the quality of life, t h e degree of psychological fitness for life, w h e n
u n t r a m m e l e d a m b i t i o n grips and dominates t h e entire life of a y o u n g instrumentalist. A l l t o o
easily, daily life becomes controlled and planned i n t h e same way, as a piece is prepared for
performance. T h e habit of attention t o detail, t h e rubato-triplets, t h e exciting details of the
tarantella, t h e need for m o r e musicality i n the andante, b e c o m e all pervading. T h e share quantity
of self-critism, self-imposed work-ethic, and discipline of the girl described above tends t o define
h e r as a n outsider w h o w i l l probably find t h e all-too-human side of life difficult t o c o p e w i t h one
day. O u r study confirms the c o m m e n t s of Federal President Richard v. Weizsäcker ( 1 9 8 5 , p .
3) i n his address at t h e International Music Festival of Stuttgart:
"Our up and coming young musicians find it difficult, and often feel that they are of lower
quality, for example, than many foreign competitors.
At music school, they cannot make up
the ground that should have been covered when they were younger. They often say that we
do not attach sufficient importance to the very earliest stages of musical education.
Perhaps
many young musicians worry too much and demand too much of themselves. A violin student
said to me recently, that a violinist who could not play the Bruch Concerto at the age of 16
had no chance of gaining a position in a good German orchestra against all the foreign
competition.
And if you wanted to get into the Berlin Philharmonic,
you had to be able to
play the Bruch at the age of 12." (author's translation from
German).
T h e exacting standards and over-high expectations of the y o u n g people are clear f r o m their
o w n words.
/ place high demands
(19-year-old
male).
upon myself
because I always
have to prove
something
I always strive to improve my best performance.
That's my basic attitude:
attainable goals which are higher than my previous best (20-year-old
male).
to
myself
to set
myself
Whenever I play, I am my own biggest competitor. If the performance
is not my best, then I
see it as the worst possible failure. No one poses such a threat to me as I do myself
(16-year-old
female).
These c o m m e n t s of y o u n g ambitious u p and c o m i n g musicians w h o are dreaming of big
careers as first chair orchestral musicians (or sometimes as soloists) speak for themselves and
need n o c o m m e n t a r y . If w e ask about the educational consequences of these attitudes, the
w o r d s of Sir G e o r g Solti ( 1 9 8 7 ) provide a g o o d answer:
"One must encourage children to work, obviouslyl If my mother hadn't done that, I would
have never become a musician. But do not flog the children for 5 or 6 hours daily, and neglect
general education. That's wrong. They can be child prodigies until they are 20 years old, but
then we demand mature musical performance of them. They usually fail to deliver the goods.
One could say: if a child is not forced, but treated gently and prepared slowly for this difficult
und stressful career, then no harm is done (...). If I had an outstandingly promising son or
daughter, I would allow the child to develop musically under certain
conditions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
that
that
that
that
schooling is not neglected,
the child is not over exerted,
the child is not too specialized,
the child ist protected
emotionally.
We've seen enough sad and tragic examples".
(Author's
translation
from
German.)
I n t h e m e a n t i m e , I h o p e that these y o u n g p e o p l e w i l l realize some of their dreams. T h e i r
positive self-concept, h i g h attitudes, and self-discipline seem t o be a sure guarantee of future
success.
H a n s Günther Bastian
162
Methodological
Reflections
T h e biographical researcher w h o wants t o reconstruct a n d interpret life-stories, life-pictures,
and life-pathways, has inevitably t o make abstractions i n m a n y details. H e is like a geographer
w h o c a n n o t l o o k at every molehill and furrow. H e w o u l d lose himself i n chaos, but he has to
l o o k at t h e contours of t h e land i n order t o determine its special structure, a n d its distinctness
f r o m other landscapes. T h e researcher has t o use his experience a n d sense w h i c h is determined
by t h e m a n y live interviews t o decide w h i c h details t o leave o u t , w h i c h t o interpret, w h i c h to
emphasize. Biographical research is n o t so different f r o m historical research i n general. A n
objective b i o g r a p h y is as impossible t o achieve as a n objective historical text.
A n d y o u w i l l understand, that t h e researcher cannot allow himself t o be rendered incoherent
by well-intentioned caution, n o t can he write a self-justifying footnote t o cover every possible
criticism. Neither did I w a n t merely t o r e p o r t o n musical development (nor could I ; such a task
m a y seem modest, but it is actually quite e n o r m o u s and could n o t succeed). E g o n Friedell's
( 1 9 2 7 ) v i e w of historical research, described i n his Cultural H i s t o r y of M o d e r n Times, is relevant
also as a starting p o i n t for m y biographical studies:
"Many historical consequences and effects become hidden, out of sight, and only become
apparent much later if at all. We do not know the true basis for the mysterious progress of
human development.
However, if a mere mortal should ever become able to unravel this
mystery and write such an impartial work (i.e. an objective historical study, H.G.B.). An even
greater difficulty would arise, namely to find a second mortal who had the strength to read
something so boring." (author's translation from
German).
Biographical research is a tightrope-walk, a balancing-act between the individual a n d the
p o p u l a t i o n , between cause a n d effect, between subjective m e m o r y a n d objective content,
between legitimate a n d illegitimate criticism and evaluation, between unnecessary overcomplication a n d unreliable oversimplification. T o listen t o self-aware, critical, a n d single-minded
y o u n g p e o p l e , telling their life-stories, is not only exciting, but also highly instructive. A n d , of
course, it is w e l l k n o w n , that the best, most instructive stories are stories f r o m real life.
I could n o t do better t h a n t o finish w i t h the w o r d s of one of t h e youngsters:
"For me, music is a way of summoning the strength to explore the most important
aspects
of being. Music has something absolute about it, something that means more than a 500-page
philosophical
treatise. If I listen to Strauss' Zarathustra,
I am reminded so vividly of
Nietzsche's
writings, that I could be reading one of his books. When I listen to the 2nd
movement of Beethoven's
7th symphony, the part where only an absolutely calm chord is
played, I experience a shuddering sensation in my scalp, the Absolute. That's
something
which is independent of human beings and can only be experienced through music. It even
lifts me out of depression. Music has often been my only source of help in times of difficulty.
If I imagine Bach, for example, who wrote his music for God and man, and whose inspiration
is a mystery to me. Perhaps it is simply his creativity that we find so irrestibily
fascinating."
(author's translation from
German).
A n d this is h o w he sees his role as a musician:
The highpoint of a concert for me is, when someone weeps not when someone strokes his
belly and says: "Oh, that was nice." I see the weeping as an ecstatic statement. The listener
should go home disturbed after a concert, have a sleepless night, feel different from
normal.
In central Europe, people live so close together and are so reluctant to allow
themselves
feelings, passions, emotions. It often feel very stultifying, like a bad tape- recorder in which
all the high and low sounds are missing. Extreme passions are castrated! And I want to
generate
them in my music. I want to affect people,
I will strive to do that,
with complete honesty,
When I am successful,
crying. I remember the
so that they are emotionally
shaken.
And
even if it is perhaps a Utopian aim. To do that, one has to perform
emotions laid bare. And this demands a lot and rarely brings success.
I am struck by the reactions of people who sit there, perhaps even
experience of an old man who cried uncontrollably,
although I could
F r o m t h e life of highly talented y o u n g instrumentalists
163
see, that he was ashamed of his tears. I had the impression, that he hadn't cried for twenty
years or more. Iam afraid of that, of penetrating the intimacy of people's inner feelings. Yet
nonetheless, that's what I want to do." (21-year-old male; author's translation from
German).
I a m h a p p y t o announce t o y o u t h e start of a longitudinal study of m y exceptional y o u n g
musicians: " 1 0 Y E A R S L A T E R - W H A T H A S B E C O M E O F T H E M ? "
References
Bastian, Η. G. (1987). Jugend musiziert. Der Wettbewerb in der Sicht von Teilnehmern
und
Verantwortlichen
["Jugend musiziert". The competition from the point of view of the competitors
and organizers]. Mainz: Schott.
Bastian, Η. G. (1989). Leben für Musik. Eine Biographiestudie
über musikalische
(Hoch-)Begabungen [Living for music. A biographical study of musically gifted]. Mainz: Schott.
Bastian, Η. G. (1991). Jugend am Instrument. Eine Repräsentativstudie. Mainz: Schott.
Bastian, H . G. (Ed.). (1991). Musikalische Hochbegabung:
Findung und Förderung. Mainz: Schott.
Bloom, B. (1982). Türen öffnen. Der Spiegel, 17, pp. 215-217.
de la Motte-Haber, H . (1984). Die Bedeutung der Motivation für den Instrumentalunterricht [The
meaning of motivation in teaching musical instruments]. Zeitschrift für Musikpädagogik, 25, 51-54.
Heckhausen, Η. (1965). Leistungsmotivation.
Handbuch der Psychologie II [Achievement motivation]
(pp. 604-606). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Kaiser, J . (1985). Konzertkritik.
In Süddeutsche Zeitung, 15.01.1985.
Rohlfs, E. (1984). Der Wettbewerb "Jugend musiziert". Entwicklungen und Probleme. Üben & Musizieren, 4, p p . 221-225.
Solti, G. (1987). Personal statement made in "Wunderkinder.
Ein Bericht über junge
Hochbegabte"
[Prodigies. A report o n young highly gifted.] Televison report of the NDR, May 2 8 , 1 9 8 7 .
Terman, L M . (1947). Genetic studies of genius, 5. Ed. 1947, Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press.
Weiner, B. (1972). Theories of motivation. Chicago, IL: Markham.
von Weizsäcker, R. (1985). Die Bedeutung der Musik für Kultur und Erziehung [The meaning of music
for culture and education]. In Deutscher Musikrat (Ed.), Referate und Informationen
60/1985 (pp.
2-7). Wiesbaden: Graphische Betriebe.
Early educative influences on later outcomes:
The Terman data revisited
Herbert J . Walberg, Guoxiong Zhang, Eileen P. Haller, Timothy A . S a r e s ,
Winifred E . Stariha, Trudy Wallace, and Susie F. Zeiser
University
of Chicago
and Chicago
Public
Schools,
Chicago,
Illinois,
USA
Abstract
Using data collected o n 8 5 6 males a n 6 7 2 females w i t h IQs over 1 3 5 followed b y Lewis
T e r m a n since 1 9 2 2 , relatively fixed conditions such as parental socioeconomics status (SES)
were e m p l o y e d t o predict t h e influence of relatively alterable conditions such as h o m e library
size, malleable character traits such as self-confidence, and as adult accomplishments such as
occupational prestige and w o r k satisfaction. I n addition, the alterable c o n d i t i o n s and traits w e r e
used t o predict adult outcomes w i t h fixed conditions controlled. Canonical correlations showed
that the fixed variables predicted b o t h alterable variables and outcomes, b u t t h e alterable
variables made n o independent c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the prediction of outcomes. A l t h o u g h the
T e r m a n longitudinal sample is unique i n several respects, it appears t o s u p p o r t o t h e r studies
showing unpredictability of adult outcomes f r o m alterable conditions after, say, t e n years of
age.
E
ducational o u t c o m e research usually focuses o n immediate results indicated by achievement
tests, attitude measures, a n d behavioral performance. A l t h o u g h such indicators are useful,
they hardly constitute t h e complete set of intended outcomes since m a n y educators a n d parents
hold that early conditions and accomplishments foreshadow long-range success i n later life.
T h e purpose of t h e present study is t o a t t e m p t t o estimate t h e relative effects of early
socioeconomic advantages, abilities and accomplishments, and subsequent educative e n v i r o n ments and proclivities o n long range success a m o n g gifted students. T h e study makes use of
the T e r m a n ( 1 9 4 0 ) data o n highly intelligent California children b o r n early i n t h e century.
A l t h o u g h generalizations must be limited t o this unique sample, t h e T e r m a n study provides one
of the most comprehensive, carefully collected, long-range data sets available o n gifted children.
Early I n t e r v e n t i o n s
Considerable research shows that the a m o u n t and quality of instruction as w e l l as educationally-stimulating environments of classrooms, homes, peer groups, and mass media strongly a n d
consistently influence short-range academic learning (Fräser et al, 1 9 8 7 ; W a l b e r g & Stariha,
1 9 9 2 ) . Yet long-term research provides little evidence that early educational advantages and
experiences independently confer large or consistent benefits i n adult life.
Indeed, it has even been difficult t o find specific educational effects o n achievement a n d other
educational outcomes t w o or three years beyond the t e r m i n a t i o n of special p r o g r a m s intended
t o p r o m o t e achievement. W h i t e (1992), for example, analyzed m o r e t h a n 3 0 0 evaluations of
T h e T e r m a n data revisited
165
p r e s c h o o l i n t e r v e n t i o n programs for economically disadvantaged children. C o m p a r i s o n s revealed a substantial (.5 standard-deviation) achievement superiority of p r o g r a m over c o n t r o l
g r o u p s measured at t h e end of t h e programs, but this advantage disappeared w i t h i n three years.
S o c i o e c o n o m i c influences
In contrast t o short-term programs that only occupy a limited fraction of children's daily life,
e n d u r i n g f a m i l y characteristics such as wealth a n d poverty m i g h t be expected t o s h o w large,
e n d u r i n g effects. A vast literature bears u p o n t h e inter-generational effects of parents'
s o c i o e c o n o m i c status (SES) o n their children's academic development a n d life success. M a n y
national surveys and secondary analyses by economists a n d sociologists such as Featherman,
Griliches, H a u s e r , Jencks, Lazear, T a u b m a n n , a n d others bear u p o n this question (see reviews
by t h e e c o n o m i s t Michaels, 1 9 8 2 , and the sociologist Sewell, 1 9 8 1 ) . O t h e r studies have
e x a m i n e d t h e influences of parents' education o n t h e cognitive development a n d health status
of t h e i r c h i l d r e n .
T h e reviews conclude that student learning is consistently associated w i t h levels of parent
e d u c a t i o n , b u t t h e relation is surprisingly weak. W h i t e ( 1 9 7 6 ) , for example, c o m p i l e d 6 3 6
c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients of parental education, occupation, a n d i n c o m e indexes of SES w i t h
ability a n d academic achievement f r o m 1 0 1 studies. T h e average correlations of learning w i t h
p a r e n t i n c o m e , occupation level, a n d education w e r e respectively 0 . 3 1 , 0 . 2 0 , a n d 0 . 1 9 .
T h e SES-learning correlations, of course, m a y be underestimated because of restriction of
range i n s a m p l i n g , unreliability of measures, and other reasons. Still, the best learning correlate
- i n c o m e - accounts for less t h a n 1 0 percent of t h e variance. Since t h e SES indexes w e r e taken
at r o u g h l y t h e same t i m e as the learning measures, moreover, the actual longitudinal predictivity
of l e a r n i n g over t i m e f r o m SES m i g h t be even lower because of intervening environmental
vicissitudes.
M o r e o v e r , t h e causal influences of SES o n academic learning are unclear since they m a y
operate i n several ways that are difficult t o disentangle. H i g h l y educated parents, for example,
m a y themselves provide better child rearing as a result of their superior education; but they m a y
also purchase, because of their higher income, better child-rearing goods and services. B o t h
SES a n d l e a r n i n g m a y also be influenced by genetic a n d environmental factors t h a t account for
their w e a k c o r r e l a t i o n . I n any case, longitudinal analyses can help sort out such influences by
estimating t h e influences of intervening education and environments t a k i n g i n t o account initial
SES, ability, a n d other relevant measures.
E d u c a t i o n a l effects
It t h e effects of generalized intervention p r o g r a m s o n learning are evanescent and the
influences of socioeconomic status are small a n d complex, w h a t are the effects of learning itself
o n adult success? Surveys of adult outcomes provide little evidence that students w i t h g o o d
grades succeed m u c h better t h a n their fellow students. I n 3 5 studies of business, military, and
civil- service people, as w e l l as teachers, professors, scientists, physicians, a n d nurses, grades
accounted for a n average of 2 . 4 percent of t h e variance i n i n c o m e , self-rated happiness, and
j o b satisfaction, numbers of patents and publications, and effectiveness r a t i n g by peers and
supervisors (Samson et al., 1 9 8 4 ) .
A l l these g r o u p s , of course, are m o r e homogeneous t h a n t h e general p o p u l a t i o n i n abilities
indexed b y grades that presumably make for personal a n d career success; such small variance
limits covariance and therefore predictive validity. H a v i n g a specialized degree, moreover, even
t h o u g h one's grades w e r e p o o r , must surely confer s o m e technical c o m p e t e n e a n d m a y lead
t o h i g h e r i n c o m e a n d other outcomes t h a n that of a comparable person w i t h o u t such a degree.
Still, t h e l o w correlations inspire little confidence that added effort t o achieve higher grades
H e r b e r t J . Walberg et al.
166
results i n better long-range outcomes t h a n that, say, gained by specific t r a i n i n g , on-the-job
experience, social intelligence, a n d character traits such as independence a n d perseverance.
W h y t h e absence of linkage of educational and life success? T h e derogatory c o n n o t a t i o n of
t h e w o r d "academic" suggests one set of explanations. M o r e formally, Resnick (1987) argued
that school learning is individual, abstract, symbol manipulating, a n d generalized i n contrast t o
learning outside school w h i c h is shared, contextualized, t o o l m a n i p u l a t i n g , a n d situation specific.
For these reasons, school conditions a n d outcomes m a y have little independent added value i n
lifelong success a n d m a y even be οουηίβφΓοκΙυοανβ i n encouraging t o o m u c h of t h e w r o n g
t h i n g . I n a n y case, most educational research has naturally focussed o n s h o r t - t e r m , school
outcomes; a n d research o n long- t e r m outcomes i n sorely needed.
M u l t i v a r i a t e influences
If education b y itself does n o t decisively influence adult success as measured b y various indexes,
neither do SES a n d other aspects of social background. Walberg a n d Weinstein ( 1 9 8 4 ) analyzed
t h e statistical dependencies of adult outcomes o n 2 5 indexes of SES a n d background (including
age a n d sex of t h e respondent a n d parental characteristics), diplomas a n d degrees, and a
vocabulary test obtained o n about t w o thousand m e n and w o m e n i n t h e General Social Survey
- a set of comprehensive, personal interview data obtained o n cross-sectional national cohorts
over several decades.
A l l independent variables i n c o m b i n a t i o n accounted for only small a m o u n t s of estimated
variance i n adult outcomes. Family background, diplomas a n d degrees, a n d vocabulary, for
example, together accounted for less t h a n 1 3 percent of the variance i n i n c o m e , health, and
happiness.
A m o n g t h e combinations of predictors and outcomes, however, diplomas a n d degrees
accounted for 4 3 percent of the variance i n occupational prestige. T h i s , t h e strongest
association, merely confirms t h e obvious relation of education a n d prestigious e m p l o y m e n t ;
professional degrees, for example, i n law and medicine forecast w o r k i n these prestigious
occupations. H o w e v e r , the unique c o n t r i b u t i o n of diplomas a n d degrees t o occupational
prestige (beyond that accounted for b y social background and verbal competence) was only 2.3
percent.
These findings seem typical of recent associations of educational and other formative effects
o n long-range adult outcomes. O n e of these, perhaps t h e most i m p o r t a n t i n life - happiness
f 'subjective w e l l b e i n g " i n research jargon), has been quantitatively synthesized. W i t t e r , O k u n ,
Stock, and H a r i n g ' s ( 1 9 8 4 ) collection of 1 7 6 (zero-order) correlations f r o m 9 0 studies showed
that t h e a m o u n t and quality of education accounted for only one t o 3 percent of the variance
i n indexes of life satisfaction and happiness; the association had apparently remained constant
for t h e preceding half century. W h e n the association was controlled for occupational prestige,
t h e variance estimates w e r e even smaller.
Even some fixed o r relatively unalterable factors that appear t o have moderate short-term
effects w h e n examined i n isolation f r o m other causes fail t o show long-term influences i n
longitudinal research. Sewell a n d Retherford ( 1 9 9 2 ) , for example, examined early influences
o n occupational attainment i n large, r a n d o m sample of Wisconsin students followed over m a n y
years. C o n t r a r y t o m a n y cross-sectional studies, neither gender n o r b i r t h order had discernible
effects o n occupational attainment w h e n controlled for differences i n age a n d educational
attainment.
S e a r c h i n g f o r efficacy
It appears at best that social background a n d education i n c o m b i n a t i o n lead t o slight
advantages o n indicators of adult success. T h e i r separate influences independent of one another,
T h e T e r m a n data revisited
167
however, are very w e a k - perhaps nil - and difficult t o detect. A l t h o u g h t h e y r e m a i n systematically a n d statistically undocumented, m a n y other factors, such as accidental o p p o r t u n i t i e s ,
initiative, character, a n d social intelligence m a y play far larger roles - a l t h o u g h these m a y be
even m o r e difficult t o measure a n d document.
F r o m a parental o r educational standpoint, i t w o u l d be desirable t o k n o w w h a t specific,
alterable experiences i n t h e formative years yield payoffs n o t o n l y i n academic learning but also
i n adult accomplishment, well being, a n d other life outcomes. Since 2 3 large scale surveys of
2 5 0 , 0 0 0 students s h o w fairly consistent influences of nine p r o x i m a l factors o n academic
learning a n d other short-term accomplishments (Walberg & Stariha, 1 9 9 2 ) , t h e y c a n serve as
a useful conceptual f r a m e w o r k (discussed below). T h e longitudinal T e r m a n data, moreover, m a y
allow a better isolation a n d estimation of causal effects since i t c a n be assumed t h a t l o w t o
moderate intellience could n o t have deterred accomplishments. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e data allow
statistical c o n t r o l for measured intelligence, social background, a n d experience at a n early p o i n t
i n t i m e so as t o isolate t h e influences of subsequent experiences a n d propensities o n subsequent
accomplishments. F o r these reasons, the unique features of t h e T e r m a n study are w o r t h
considering.
T h e T e r m a n Study
Early i n this century, Lewis T e r m a n , a Stanford University professor of psychology, translated
t h e Alfred Binet's intelligence test f r o m the original French and standardized it o n U.S. samples.
D u r i n g this w o r k , h e began t o question the turn-of-the-century stereotype of t h e gifted child as
physically frail, p r o n e t o neurosis, and likely t o decline intellectually by late adolescence. H e
therefore sought t o investigate the mental, physical a n d personality characteristics of highly
intelligent children a n d t h e nature of their development.
Sample
B e g i n n i n g i n 1 9 2 2 , T e r m a n initially identified a g r o u p of b r i g h t California school children,
t h e n periodically assessed their personality characteristics, social attitudes, a n d m e n t a l capabilities. H e defined gifted children as those w i t h IQs over 1 3 5 , "whose ... tested intelligence is
equaled b y only about one i n t w o hundred of t h e school p o p u l a t i o n " (Terman, 1 9 3 9 , p . 6 6 ) .
T h e age range of T e r m a n ' s initial sample of m o r e t h a n 1,000 was four t o fourteen years w i t h
a m e d i a n between nine a n d t e n . Later 3 7 8 h i g h school students a n d 5 8 younger siblings w e r e
added t o t h e study m a k i n g the total sample size 1 5 2 8 . T h e professional status of t h e fathers
exceeded that characteristic of the general p o p u l a t i o n . A t h i r d of the fathers w e r e professional,
one half w e r e semi-professional or business class, and less t h a n 7 percent w e r e f r o m the
semiskilled o r unskilled class (Terman & Burks, 1 9 3 1 ) . Siblings of gifted children also w e r e
found t o be above average intellectually (between 1 2 0 a n d 1 3 0 IQs).
Method
T h e initial testing p r o t o c o l included the Stanford-Binet Intelligence test, Stanford Achievements tests, a general i n f o r m a t i o n test, interest questionnaires, a n d medical examinations
(Terman, 1 9 2 4 ) . T h e study included measures of personality, social behavior, instructional
experience, as w e l l as measures of h o m e e n v i r o n m e n t such as the n u m b e r of books i n t h e
h o m e , t h e a m o u n t of time spent reading, and parental marital satisfaction. Field w o r k e r s made
h o m e visits for p a r e n t interviews and assessment of t h e h o m e e n v i r o n m e n t . I n 1 9 2 8 , the
students a n d parents w e r e again interviewed a n d completed questionnaires. I n 1 9 3 6 , 1 9 5 0 ,
1 9 5 5 , 1 9 6 0 , 1 9 7 2 , a n d 1 9 8 6 questionnaires w e r e mailed t o the participants.
168
H e r b e r t J . W a l b e r g et al.
Terman's findings
C o n f i r m i n g his initial suspicions, T e r m a n f o u n d that t h e gifted children belied t h e i r stereotype.
T h e y scored above average o n measures of e m o t i o n a l stability, a n d had m o r e hobbies t h a n
other children. Gifted girls scored higher o n masculine tests t h a n average girls a n d w e r e less
interested i n stereotypically feminine activities. T h e sample was b o o k i s h , h o w e v e r , and T e r m a n
suggested that t h e close relationship between t h e I Q a n d reading scores is, " p r o b a b l y because
gifted children are such o m n i v o r o u s readers" ( T e r m a n & Burks, 1 9 3 1 , p . 7 7 9 ) .
T o o b t a i n a clearer view of factors that influence successful career achievement, T e r m a n
divided t h e male sample i n t o t h e t o p and lower fourths by t h e c r i t e r i o n of " t h e extent t o w h i c h
a subject had made use of superior intellectual ability" (Terman, 1 9 4 0 , p . 3 0 0 ) . H e l i m i t e d the
study t o m e n since t h e majority of w o m e n w e r e homemakers w h e t h e r b y choice o r lack of
o p p o r t u n i t y . (In some parts of t h e study, however, he c o m p a r e d t h e responses o f m e n t o those
of w o m e n w h o entered t h e w o r k force).
Using this a p p r o a c h T e r m a n f o u n d differences between the early backgrounds of relatively
successful and unsuccessful adults. Twice as m a n y parents of the successful adults w e r e college
graduates, and t h e i r fathers w e r e m o r e likely t o be professional. Divorce a n d separation was
less frequent a m o n g t h e i r families. A l t h o u g h there was little difference i n academic achievement
during the elementary school years, those w h o w e r e later successful, by T e r m a n ' s c r i t e r i o n ,
began t o excel i n h i g h school. Ninety-seven percent of the successful p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e study
entered college, a n 9 0 percent graduated w h i l e only 6 8 % of the unsuccessful g r o u p enrolled
i n college and o n l y 3 7 % graduate.
T e r m a n ' s findings are consistent w i t h m a n y subsequent studies (discussed i n a previous section)
s h o w i n g positive influences of parental socioeconomic status a n d o t h e r f a m i l i y characteristics
o n success i n school and college. Indeed, T e r m a n ' s results show large difference between i n
college matriculation a n d graduation rates, but these results may be a n artefact of T e r m a n ' s
w e i g h t i n g his c r i t e r i o n b y education rather t h a n nonacademic accomplishments.
T h e purpose of t h e present study is t o extend T e r m a n ' s a p p r o a c h by using m o d e m multivariate
analyses and a theoretical f r a m e w o r k t o guide t h e analyses. These analyses a v o i d the subjective
judgement of "the extent t o w h i c h a subject had made use of superior intellectual ability"
(Terman, 1 9 4 0 , p . 3 0 0 ) and allow 1) e x a m i n a t i o n of the full range of v a r i a t i o n i n t h e sample
rather t h a n the t o p a n d b o t t o m quarters; 2) e x p l o r a t i o n of a wider range of indicators of success;
3) a search for explanatory o r independent variable beyond parental SES a n d marital status
particularly those that m i g h t be relatively alterable by parents and educators; a n d 4) e s t i m a t i o n
of t h e separate o r unique influence of such alterable factors b y statistically c o n t r o l l i n g for early
ability, socioeconomic status, a n d family and educational conditions.
Because the o p p o r t u n i t i e s of the boys a n d girls i n the first half of the c e n t u r y differed m o r e
widely t h a n t h e y d o today, t h e present study employed separate analyses of t h e data for females
and males. Even so, it should be recognized that findings o n gifted children f r o m earlier decades
are n o t , by themselves, sufficient t o suggest implications for today's y o u t h .
Method
Sample Attrition
Despite T e r m a n and his colleagues' extraordinary efforts t o retain participants i n t h e study,
t h e sample grew smaller w i t h subsequent waves of data collection because of deaths, m o v i n g ,
and indifference. F o r this reason, several conflicting criteria had t o be considered: m a x i m i z e
t h e sample size, m i n i m i z e t h e numbers of missing cases o n i m p o r t a n t variables, and g a i n t h e
longest-term indicators of success. A l l things considered, 1 9 5 0 seemed t h e best cutoff p o i n t
T h e T e r m a n data revisited
169
for t h e last w a v e of data collection t o be included. D u r i n g this year, those still i n t h e sample
w e r e b e t w e e n 3 3 and 4 2 years of age. This left a potential sample sizes of 8 5 6 males and 6 7 2
females.
A l t h o u g h t h i s decision provides a balanced choice a m o n g t h e criteria, m a n y i n the sample
w e r e still m i s s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n o n certain variables. Therefore, t h e variables w i t h the largest
a m o u n t s o f missing i n f o r m a t i o n w e r e o m i t t e d . A large set of such o m i t t e d variables were health
characteristics identified for only about one-third t h e sample i n a medical examination. I n
a d d i t i o n , parents i n relatively large numbers did n o t respond t o some questions, a n d these also
had t o be omitted.
In a d d i t i o n , s o m e participants had n o t responded t o particular questionnaire items, and some
missed a w a v e of data collection. T o keep t h e m i n t h e sample, t h e means of nonmissing cases
w e r e substituted for their missing values. This substitution provides for a neutral value, neither
h i g h n o r l o w , so as to limit distortion the analyses. Since t h e extremes of t h e variable distributions
mainly d e t e r m i n e their correlations w i t h other variables, this seemed a better choice t h a n
o m i t t i n g f u r t h e r variables o r cases.
S e l e c t i o n a n d classification o f variables
Since t h e W a l b e r g educational productivity m o d e l has a n extensive record since 1 9 7 6 as a
f r a m e w o r k f o r organizing empirical findings o n factors influential o n academic learning and
other a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s (Fraser et al., 1 9 8 7 ; Paschal & Stariha, 1 9 9 2 ; Stariha & Walberg,
1 9 9 2 ) , i t guided the classification of variables i n t h e T e r m a n data. T h e m o d e l posits nine
psychological factors grouped i n t o three clusters: a) aptitude - 1) ability o r p r i o r achievement,
2) m o t i v a t i o n , a n d 3) age or developmental level; b) instructional - 4) quality a n d 5) quantity;
and c) t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s of the - 6) classroom, 7) peer g r o u p , 8) h o m e , a n d 9) mass media. I n
multivariate analyses of large-scale survey research, measures of these factors have s h o w n
consistent influences o n learning w h e n controlled for one another a n d other factors. Experimental a n d quasi-experimental studies, moreover, have s h o w n consistent effects of quantity and
quality of i n s t r u c t i o n a n d h o m e environments.
In a d d i t i o n , life-outcome variables w e r e also included as w e r e socioeconomic status indicators
and o t h e r respondent i n f o r m a t i o n . In the analyses, t h e variables w e r e grouped i n t o t h e following
classifications.
Relatively
Fixed Variables. Collected i n 1 9 2 2 and 1 9 2 3 w h e n the sample ranged f r o m 5 t o
1 4 i n age ( T e r m a n , 1 9 2 4 , p . 158), these variables included p r i o r experiences and relatively
unalterable traits. Ability included the following: the Stanford-Binet Intelligence measure (mean:
1 4 9 for boys a n d 1 4 8 for girls), psychological ratings of originality a n d mechanical ingenuity,
and t h e ages of beginning music, dancing, language, a n d reading. M o t i v a t i o n included attitude
t o w a r d school, n u m b e r of youthful collections, ages at beginning collections, hobbies and things
constructed. A g e and development related variables included age at initial testing, ages of
b e g i n n i n g kindergarten a n d first grade, grade s k i p p i n g , grades skipped, and grade repetition.
Respondent i n f o r m a t i o n included ethnicity (white or other), rural or u r b a n , natural o r adopted
child, a n d father's and mothers's education and o c c u p a t i o n .
Relatively
Alterable
Variables.
Also collected i n 1 9 2 2 a n 1 9 2 3 , these variables w e r e
regarded as relatively alterable particularly by educators a n d t o some extent by parents. Quantity
of instruction included weekly hours of school instruction. H o m e e n v i r o n m e n t included the size
of the h o m e library, parental stimulation of t h e child, hours of weekly h o m e study, hours per
week spent w i t h child by parents, the use of p u n i s h m e n t , and the child's leisure activities.
Also, included i n the category of relatively alterable variables w e r e psychological traits t h a t
seemed possible t o encourage, as well as experiences a n d practices t h a t m i g h t be fostered.
These included t h e T e r m a n teams's ratings of such traits as health, prudence, self-confidence,
H e r b e r t J . Walberg
170
et al.
sense of h u m o r , a n d popularity w i t h other children, as well as activities such as using tools a n d
apparatus, housework, leading a t e a m , creative performance, leisure reading, a n d t h e practices
of music, d r a w i n g , a n d dancing.
Outcomes.
These data w e r e mostly collected i n 1 9 5 0 w h e n t h e sample ranged f r o m 3 3 t o
4 2 i n age. This category included earned i n c o m e , occupational prestige, political offices held,
and marital status; n u m b e r of honors, publications a n d other creative w o r k s , a n d service
activities; life satisfaction w i t h respect t o w o r k , accomplishments, marriage, children, religion,
and t h e fulfilling of intellectual potential; a n d n u m b e r a n d education of children.
Analytic approach
Since there w e r e m a n y independent a n d dependent variables, chance relationships w o u l d
have been exploited b y e x a m i n a t i o n of individual correlations of t h e m a n y variables. Canonical
correlation analysis protects against such chance findings b y d e t e r m i n i n g t h e strength a n d
significance of relations between t w o sets of variables (Darlington et al., 1 9 7 3 ) .
I n addition, canonical analysis yields "loadings" (or correlations between t h e original variables
and t h e canonical variates) w h i c h objectively identify statistical patterns, influences, a n d results
linking specific variables. Since m a n y SES a n d educational experiences vary together, canonical
analysis avoids t h e redundancy of multiple findings but reduces t h e relations t o t h e most
parsimonious accounting. I n m u c h t h e same sense that factor analysis identifies t h e underlying
factors i n a single set of variables, canonical analysis identifies factors (and associated loadings)
that statistically link t w o sets of variables.
For b o t h boys a n d girls, three canonical analyses w e r e c o m p u t e d w h i c h predicted 1) t h e
outcomes f r o m t h e relatively fixed variables, 2) t h e relatively alterable variable f r o m t h e fixed
set, a n d 3) t h e outcomes f r o m t h e alterable variables w i t h t h e fixed variables controlled (by
partial correlation). A l t h o u g h all three analyses m a y be of interest, t h e t h i r d was of greatest
practical interest because i t m i g h t provide hints about alterable practices a n d malleable
proclivities m i g h t lead t o successful adult outcomes beyond that accounted f o r by socioecnono m i c status a n d other relatively unalterable influences.
Results
For males, t h e first canonical correlation predicting outcomes f r o m relatively fixed variables
(Model 1 , Table 1) was . 3 7 . T h e results show t h e familiar p a t t e r n of parental SES predicting
children's years of schooling a n d level of occupation, although n o t reliably since t h e variances
accounted for are quite small. Associated w i t h this p a r t e m , however, was a somewhat stronger
finding f o r t h e n u m b e r of adult honors. I n t h e case of girls, t h e corresponding canonical
correlation was insignificant w h i c h suggests a lack of effect of socioeconomic advantage a n d
o p p o r t u n i t y for bright girls o n t h e outcomes measured during t h e t h i m e p e r i o d i n question.
Table
1:
Canonical Correlation Results for M a l e s i n T h r e e Models
Model 1: Fixed Variables ==> Outcome Variables
0.37 (0.02)
Highest School Grade of Father
0.19
College Degree obtained by Father
0.18
Father's Occupation 1922: Census Grouping
0.15
School Grade at Time 1922 Interest Blank
0.14
Highest School Grade of Mother
0.14
(continued on next page)
T h e T e r m a n data revisited
171
Number of Honors Since 1940
First Child: Years of Schooling Completed
Second Child: Years of Schooling Completed
Occupation: 1946-1950
Life Satisfaction: Work
Model 2: Fixed Variables = >
Alterable Variables
0.50
0.37
0.36
0.29
0.27
0.81 (0.0001)
General Intelligence
Originality
Mechanical Ingenuity
Original IQ
Facts about Home Environment
0.69
0.66
0.19
0.18
0.14
Variety of Interests
Common Sense
Will Power and Perseverance
Self-Confidence
Desire to Excel
0.78
0.67
0.49
0.47
0.47
Model 2 (Cont.): Fixed Variables —> Alterable Variables
Originality
General Intelligence
Mechanical Ingenuity
Father's Occupation 1922: Census Grouping
Highest School Grade of Father
Variety of Interest
0.70
Common Sense
0.65
Self-Confidence
0.46
Sense of Humor
0.45
Will Power
0.41
Model 2 (Cont.): Fixed Variables = > Alterable Variables
School Grade at Time 1922 Interest Blank
Chronological Age in Months
Combined Quotient (Stanford Achievement)
Original IQ
Childhood Residence
Number
Age of
Age of
Age of
Age of
0.77 (0.0001)
0.63
0.62
0.26
0.22
0.11
0.70 (0.0001)
0.63
0.61
0.45
-0.26
-0.19
of Hours of Home Study Per Week in Last Year0.69
Beginning Collection
0.37
Entering School (Above Kindergarten)
0.34
Beginning Music
0.32
Beginning Dancing
0.32
Model 2 (Cont.): Fixed Variables —> Alterable Variables
Mechanical Ingenuity
Original IQ
Highest School Grade of Father
Facts about Home Environment
0.52
-0.15
-0.15
-0.13
Using Tools or Working with Apparatus
Intellectual Modesty
Size of Home Library
Will Power
Amount of Reading Compared to Average Child
0.64
0.21
-0.20
0.20
-0.18
(continued on next page)
0.62 (0.001)
172
Model 2 (Cont.): Fixed Variables =
H e r b e r t J . W a l b e r g et al.
> Alterable Variables
Highest School Grade of Father
Highest School Grade of Mother
Father's Occupation 1922: Census Grouping
Childhood Residence
Facts about Home Environment
0.39
0.32
0.29
-0.17
-0.13
Size of Home Library
Early School Entry
Earliest Half Grade Skipped After Entrance
Studying Your Lessons
Desire to Excel
0.60
0.30
0.25
0.23
0.22
Model 2 (Cont.): Fixed Variables = > Alterable Variables
Facts about Home Environment
0.37
Mechanical Ingenuity
0.15
Mother's Occupation 1922
0.13
Highest School Grade of Mother
0.12
Freedom from Vanity and Egotism
Truthfulness
Using Tools or Working with Apparatus
Truthfulness
Conscientiousness
0.56 (0.001)
0.50 (0.001)
0.40
0.35
0.31
0.26
0.26
Model 2 (Cont.): Fixed Variables —> Alterable Variables
Mechanical Ingenuity
College Degree Obtained by Father
Facts about Home Environment
Original IQ
Childhood Residence
0.18
0.18
-0.18
0.16
0.13
Conscientiousness
Prudence and Forethought
Desire to Excel
Offices, Positions, Honors Held (First Mention)
Theory of Child Training: Answering Questions
-0.26
-0.25
-0.24
0.23
-0.22
Model 2 (Cont.): Fixed Variables —> Alterable Variables
Father's Occupation 1922: Census Grouping
Mechanical Ingenuity
Chronological Age in Months
Original IQ
A natural, Foster or Adopted Child
0.22
0.15
0.10
-0.09
-0.09
Liking for School
School Grades Skipped (First Mention)
Size of Home Library
Desire to Excel
Age of Beginning Collection
-0.33
-0.30
0.25
-0.22
0.20
Model 3: Alterable Variables = > Outcome Variables
Controlling for Fixed Variables 0.52 (0.356)
Child's Leisure Time Activities (Second Mention) -0.28
Health
0.23
Prudence
-0.22
Kindness
0.22
Plays and Games: Play Info, Masculinity
0.22
(continued on next page)
0.48 (0.001)
0.43 (0.01)
T h e T e r m a n data revisited
Creative Work Other Than Writing
Number of Honors, Awards, Accomplishments
Number of Service Activities
Lived Up To Intellectual Abilities?
Second Child: Occupation
173
0.39
0.30
0.25
0.25
0.24
Model 3: Alterable Variables = > Outcome Variables
Controlling for Fixed Variables 0.51 (0.824)
Cheerfulness
Emotional Self-Control
Will Power
Leadership
Being Leader in a Team or Club and Management
0.35
0.23
0.23
0.22
0.22
Earned Income 1946
Feeling About Present Vocation
Publications Since 1940 (Second Mention)
Life Satisfaction: Other
Earned Income 1947
0.34
0.33
0.28
0.27
0.25
W i t h respect t o fixed predicting alterable variables, eight canonical correlations w e r e significant f o r males (Model 2 , Table 1). T h e y m a y be briefly characterized as follows: General
intelligence a n d o r i g i n a l i t y predicted a variety of interests, c o m m o n sense, a n d motivational
traits. T h e same variables also predicted a slightly different w e i g h t i n g of interest variety,
self-confidence, a n d related traits. Mechanical ingenuity predicted t o o l use, w o r k i n g w i t h
apparatus, intellectual modesty, will power, a small h o m e library, a n d little leisure reading.
H i g h e r grade levels c o m p l e t e d by parents, father's occupation, a n d advantaged h o m e life
predicted a large h o m e library, grade skipping, a n d academic m o t i v a t i o n . Advantageous h o m e
circumstances, h i g h e r levels o f mother's education a n d occupation, a n d mechanical ingenuity
predicted t o o l use a n d several character traits - modesty, truthfulness, a n d conscientiousness.
Mechanical i n g e n u i t y , father's graduation f r o m college, disadvantaged h o m e circumstances,
urban residence, a n d I Q predicted political offices, positions, a n d honors held but lower ratings
of conscientiousness, prudence, forethought, desire t o excel, a n d questioning as a p r o m i n e n t
means o f child r e a r i n g . Father's occupation u n d mechanical ingenuity predicted less liking for
school, fewer grades k i p p e d , a larger h o m e library, less desire t o excel, a n d a n older age of
beginning collections.
As s h o w n i n T a b l e 2 , seven significant canonical correlations related fixed a n d alterable
variables f o r females: G e n e r a l intelligence and originality predicted early school entrance a n d
positive character traits. General intelligence, originality, a n d mechanical ingenuity predicted
self-confidence, sensitiveness, conscientiousness, a n d unselfishness. Older, higher achieving
girls w e r e m o r e likely t o have entered school later t h a n kindergarten, studied m o r e , a n d begun
collections a n d music study. H i g h e r originality and mechanical ingenuity predicted truthfulness,
prudence, leadership a n d a stronger sense of h u m o r but less sensitivity. Father's occupation
and highest s c h o o l grade predicted a larger h o m e library, early school entry, a later age of
beginning music, a n d s o m e self- centeredness. Greater parental education, father's occupation,
advantageous h o m e circumstances, a n d mechanical ingenuity predicted a large h o m e library,
exercise-driven g a m e p l a y i n g , generosity a n d unselfishness, leadership, a n d a n absence of
intellectual modesty. T h e length of first e m p l o y m e n t , disadvantaged h o m e e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d
absence o f o r i g i n a l i t y predicted leadership, vanity, a n d physical energy but less conscientiousness, s y m p a t h y a n d tenderness.
174
Table
H e r b e r t J . Walberg et al.
2:
Canonical C o r r e l a t i o n Results f o r F e m a l e s i n T h r e e Models
Model 1: Fixed Variables =
> Outcome Variables
.41 (.106)
Is a Child a Natural Child, Fostered or Adopted
Mothers's Occupation 1922
Highest School Grade of Mother
Highest School Grade of Father
Facts about Home Environment
-.66
.40
.34
.26
-.18
Cumulative Marital Status 1950
Ever Regret Marriage?
Third Child: Years of Schooling
Number of Children
Creative Performance
-.35
-.30
.24
.20
-.19
Model 2: Fixed Variables — > Alterable Variables
.81 (.001)
General Intel1i gence
Originality
General Intelligence
Mechanical Ingenuity
Originality
.80
.76
.31
.29
.21
Early School Entry
Sociability
Physical Energy
Sense of Humor
Desire to Excel
.32
.18
.18
.16
.15
Model 2 (Cont.): Fixed Variables =
> Alterable Variables
General Intelligence
Originality
Mechanical Ingenuity
.90
.41
.16
Self-Confidence
Will Power
Sensitiveness
Conscientiousness
Unselfishness
.73
.73
.60
.58
.52
Model 2 (Cont.): Fixed Variables =
> Alterable Variables
Chronological Age in Months
Combined Quotient (Stanford Achievement)
Original IQ
General Intelligence
Mechanical Ingenuity
.78 ( .001)
.73 ( .0001)
.85
.57
-.27
-.20
-.13
Number of Hours of Home Study Per Week in Last Year .63
Age of Beginning Music
.40
Age of Beginning Collection
.35
Age of Entering School (Above Kindergarten)
.35
Popularity with Other Children
-.30
Model 2 (Cont.): Fixed Variables =
Originality
Mechanical Ingenuity
Facts about Home Environment
> Alterable Variables
.72
.48
-.27
(continued on next page)
.61 ( .0001)
T h e T e r m a n data revisited
175
General Intelligence
Mother's Occupation 1922
-.25
-.21
Sense of Humor
Truthfulness
Sensitiveness
Prudence
Leadership
.49
.30
-.29
.26
.19
Model 2 (Cont.): Fixed Variables
= > Alterable Variables
Father's Occupation 1922
Highest School Grade of Father
Highest School Grade of Mother
Original IQ
Mechanical Ingenuity
.59
.57
.56
.34
-.26
Size of Home Library
Early School Entry
Age of Beginning Music
Generosity and Unselfishness
Freedom from Vanity and Egotism
.60
.38
-.33
-.26
-.25
Model 2 (Cont.): Fixed Variables
= > Alterable Variables
Highest School Grade of Mother
Mechanical Ingenuity
Highest School Grade of Father
Facts about Home Environment
Father's Occupation 1922
.52 ( .0007)
.45
.44
.43
.41
.39
Size of Home Library
Playing Games That Require Lots of Exercise
Generosity and Unselfishness
Intellectual modesty
Being Leader in a Team or Club and Mangement
Model 2 (Cont.): Fixed Variables
.58 ( .0001)
.42
.26
.25
-.23
.21
= > Alterable Variables
Duration of First Employment
Facts about Home Environment
College Degree Obtained by Father
.53
-.31
.26
Leadership
Freedom from Vanity and Egotism
Physical Energy
Conscientiousness
Sympathy and Tenderness
.29
-.25
.23
-.22
-.21
.50 ( .039)
I n M o d e l 3 , outcomes w e r e predicted f r o m alterable variables w i t h fixed variables held constant
t h r o u g h partial correlations. I n n o case was the canonical correlation significant, w h i c h suggests
that t h e alterable variables h a d n o independent effect o n outcomes.
Discussion
A l t h o u g h t h e T e r m a n sample is unique, t h e results c o n f i r m m u c h p r i o r research: Socioecono m i c status (SES) weakly predicted school success a n d occupational standing. Relatively fixed
advantages, moreover, predicted alterable circumstances a n d traits. S o m e of these predictions
Herbert J . Walberg
176
et al.
reveal general patterns of social and psychological advantage. O t h e r patterns are m o r e specific
such as mechanical ingenuity predicting t o o l use, and abilities predicting character traits such
as self-confidence.
Alterable circumstances a n d traits, nonetheless, appeared t o offer little advantage o n outcomes
b e y o n d that already afforded by SES and other relatively fixed variables. T h u s , t h e present study
joins others i n failing t o find o p t i m a l alterable conditions of c h i l d h o o d a n d y o u t h that add
substantially a n d consistently t o their adult prospects.
Several problems m a y account for this apparent absence of linkage: H e r e d i t y a n d t h e first six
t o t e n years of life m a y be most powerful i n determining adult outcomes; even environmentalists
have acknowledged their preponderant influence (Bloom, 1 9 7 6 ) . Early conditions are substantially correlated w i t h later conditions as indeed s h o w n i n the present a n d previous research
(Walberg & Stariha, 1 9 9 2 ) ; this means it is difficult t o detect t h e independent c o n t r i b u t i o n o f
later environmental influences, although they m a y actually be i m p o r t a n t for adult development.
T h e variables, moreover, m a y be insufficiently well measured t o show their t r u e relations.
Still another p r o b l e m is that t h e longitudinal data presently available i n large-scale surveys lack
specificity w i t h respect t o parallel opportunities and outcomes. S o m e research shows, for
example, that independent nonacademic accomplishments d u r i n g the h i g h school a n d college
years predict w i t h a modest degree of accuracy similar accomplishments i n college a n d adult
life (Munday & Davis, 1 9 7 4 ) i n such areas as business entrepreneurship, music, science, a n d
w r i t i n g . Such research, m a k i n g use of observations closer i n t i m e t h a n c h i l d h o o d a n d middle
adulthood, m a y have yielded higher correlations t h a n t h e present study for t h i s reason alone
since older students are m o r e t h o r o u g h l y developed t h a n younger ones, a n d fewer r a n d o m
interventions occur i n t h e shorter t i m e t o reach middle adulthood.
A l l these problems appear plausible, and it m a y be difficult t o solve t h e m w i t h o u t m o r e
intensive and extensive longitudinal research over long t i m e periods. I n view of t h e paucity of
statistically a n d educationally significant findings, it m a y be still m o r e difficult presently t o d r a w
practical implications for educators a n d parents. I n short, it appears that w e have far better
evidence o n h o w t o i m p r o v e learning i n school t h a n success i n life.
References
Bloom, B. S. (1976). Human characteristics
and school learning.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Darlington, R. B., Weinberg, S. L., & Walberg, H . J . (1973). Canonical Variate Analysis and Related
Techniques. Review of Educational
Research, 43, 433-454.
Fräser, B. J . , Walberg, H . J . , Welch, W. W., & Hattie, J . A. (1987). Syntheses of educational productivity
research. International Journal of Educational Research, 11 (2), 73-145 (whole issue).
Michaels, R. T. (1982). Measuring non-monetary benefits of education: A survey. In W. W. McMahon
& T. G. Geske (Eds.), Financing education (pp. 57-61). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Munday, L Α., & Davis, J . C. (1974). Varieties of accomplishment after college. Iowa City, IA.: A C T
Research Reports No. 62.
Paschal, R. Α., & Stariha, W. E. (1992). Educational productivity studies: A quantitative synthesis. In
H . C. Waxman (Ed.), Study of learning environments
monographs,
Volume 5 (pp. 162-165).
Perth, Australia: Curtin University Centre on Science Education.
Resnick, L. B. (December, 1987) Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 13-20.
Samson, G. E., Graue, Μ. Ε., Weinstein, Τ., & Walberg, Η. J . (1984). Academic and occupational
performance: A quantitative synthesis. American Educational Research Journal, 21, 3 1 1 - 3 2 1 .
Sewell, W. H . , & Retherford, R. (1992). The effects of birth order and gender on educational
and
occupational and occupational attainment. Honolulu, Hawaii: East-West Center.
Terman, L. M. (1924). The educational achievements of gifted children. National Society for the Study
of Education, 23(1), 155-169.
T h e T e r m a n data revisited
177
Terman, L. M . , & Burks, B. S. (1931). The gifted child. In C A . Murchison (Ed.), Handbook of Child
Psychology (pp. 773-801).
Terman, L. M . (1939). The gifted student and his academic environment. School and Society, 49,
65-73.
Terman, L. M . (1940). Psychological approaches to the biography of genius. Science, 92, 2 9 0 - 3 0 1 .
Walberg, H . J . , & Stariha, W. E. (1992). Productive human capital: Learning, creativity, and eminence.
Creativity Research Journal, in press.
Walberg, H . J . , & Weinstein, Τ. (1984). Adult outcomes of connections, certification, and verbal
competence. Journal of Educational Research, 77, 207-212.
White, K. R. (1985-1986). Efficacy of early intervention. Journal of Special Education, 19, 401-416.
White, K. R. (1992). The relation between socioeconomic status and academic achievement. Psycho­
logical Bulletin, 91 (3), 4 6 1 - 4 8 1 .
Witter, R. Α., Okun, Μ. Α., Stock, W. A , & Haring, M. J . (1984). Education and subjective well being:
A meta-analysis. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 6, 165-73.
V.
GENDER ISSUES
Introduction
I n recent years, there is g r o w i n g concern about t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of females i n high-level
educational opportunities. Cross-national, representative studies have demonstrated significantly sex-specific patterns of participation i n different domains of study a n d occupation. T h i s
p a r t of the b o o k joins three papers w h i c h describe male-female differences i n several areas of
personality a n d achievement a n d look for major causes of these differences. I n t h e first paper,
Janice L e r o u x reports evidence f r o m literature a n d f r o m her o w n intensive small-sample
investigations that gifted w o m e n are faced w i t h m a n y difficulties w h e n they a t t e m p t t o realize
t h e i r potential b y pursuing a professional career. A persistent matter of conflict is t h e question
of h o w t o c o m b i n e career a n d family efficiently. Gifted w o m e n need a strong personality, i . e.
a positive self-concept a n d a strong desire for success, w h i c h has t o be nurtured b y encouraging
parents.
I n t h e second paper, David Goldstein and V i c k i B . Stocking r e p o r t t h e results of investigations
d o n e w i t h y o u n g p e o p l e w h o participated i n the D u k e University Talent Identification P r o g r a m .
T h e y demonstrate b y using data f r o m m o r e t h a n one decade of research that gender differences
of mathematical ability are m o r e and m o r e disappearing, even at h i g h levels of ability. Despite
this tendency, differences of attitudes seem t o r e m a i n m u c h m o r e stable. Female students prefer
art/music and languages as school subjects whereas male students prefer science a n d physical
education. This difference of preferences continues t o college majors: Male prefer mathematics,
c o m p u t e r science a n d other sciences, females prefer arts, languages and social subjects.
Preferences of occupations m i r r o r these sex differences, t o o . T h e authors conclude that gender
differences of highly gifted students i n the d o m a i n of attitudes are n o t based o n a n objective
180
Introduction
lack of ability but presumably o n t h e p e r c e p t i o n of ability w h i c h is triggered by ability-related
sex stereotypes.
In t h e t h i r d paper, L i n d a B r o d y , L i n d a B a r n e t t , and C a r o l Mills take a closer l o o k at ability
differences of talented male a n d female students. A f t e r reviewing data f r o m several years t a k e n
f r o m Talent Search participants at t h e J o h n s H o p k i n s University, amongst others, a n d gathered
f r o m different sources, t h e y conclude that there are sex differences of quantitative ability a n d
mathematical achievement w h i c h have remained rather stable t h r o u g h t h e last years. These
differences are m o r e p r o n o u n c e d at t h e u p p e r levels of ability a n d c a n therefore affect admission
t o selective institutes of higher education. B r o d y et al. describe i n detail sex differences i n
mathematics of t h e participants of t h e C T Y s u m m e r programs. First, m o r e male t h a n female
applicants pass t h e criteria of being admitted t o mathematics courses. Second, of t h e
participants admitted, m o r e male t h a n female students actually choose mathematics o r science
courses. T h i r d , male students demonstrate higher achievement t h a n females i n m a t h e m a t i c s
and physics classes. T h e authors, as well as t h e other authors of this part of b o o k , p o i n t t o
significant sex differences of m o t i v a t i o n and self-concept w h i c h m a y be m o r e or less responsible
even for t h e development of sex differences of ability.
An asset or a liability? Voices of gifted women
Janice A. Leroux
University
of Ottawa,
Canada
Abstract
H o w d o t h e expectations of y o u n g gifted w o m e n c o m p a r e w i t h those of successful career
w o m e n ? I n t w o studies conducted w i t h 1) able y o u n g w o m e n i n university a n d ; 2) p r o m i n e n t
C a n a d i a n w o m e n , similar concerns were voiced. Pressures t o c o n f o r m t o stereotypical roles,
inconsistent vertical development of careers, and t h e i m p o r t a n c e of connections w e r e reported.
Independence a n d contributing t o the welfare of others w e r e emphasized, as w e r e c o n c e r n for
the m u l t i p l e responsibilities of active career w o m e n .
/ knew I was smart, but I certainly
around my neck.
Margaret
Lawrence
didn't consider
(1989, p. 86, in her memories
it an asset. It was more of a
of
millstone
adolescence)
Introduction
T h e r o l e o f successful females i n the intellectual, professional a n d business communities is a
significant reality today. It is vital, however, t o consider w i t h a critical eye t h e experiences that
lie b e h i n d t h e c u r r e n t publicity. K e r r (1985) documented that even those gifted females w h o
w e r e recognized i n schools and whose p r o g r a m m i n g was specialized, d i d n o t consistently
produce o u t s t a n d i n g accomplishments. W h e n one looks at research o n t h e academic and
vocational achievements of females, one notes that w e are usually c o m p a r e d t o a male
c o u n t e r p a r t . Female performance has been measured b y a male yardstick a n d thus success
appears t o be i n short supply.
Females m u s t be considered o n their o w n terms, as individuals w i t h i n a unique g r o u p i n order
t o fully understand t h e i r particular characteristics and behaviours. I n the quest for a "definable
female m o d e l of success" (Northcutt, 1 9 9 2 ) this paper w i l l focus o n t w o groups of h i g h ability
females t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r perceptions of family influences, mentors, career aspirations, c o p i n g
skills, a n d self-esteem.
Review of the literature
Several key factors i m p a c t o n the achievement patterns of females. T h e first is family
relationships.
T h e early relationship of females w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r s appears t o be a n i m p o r t a n t
factor regardless of w h e t h e r t h e m o t h e r w o r k s at h o m e or outside of h o m e . A s Maitlin (1987)
suggested, m o t h e r s w h o d i d n o t w o r k outside of t h e h o m e "may have encouraged their
daugthers t o aspire t o careers that they themselves h a d n o t been able t o r e a c h " (p. 153).
Fathers, t o o , play a vital role i n creating expectations of achievement i n t h e i r female children
(Raymond & B e n b o w , 1 9 8 9 ) . T h e unspoken parental attitudes a n d values that are internalized
b y the gifted female child are vital i n determining w h e t h e r o r n o t she emerges f r o m childhood
182
Janice A . L e r o u x
w i t h a sense that she c a n excel, notwithstanding t h e fact that she is a w o m a n (Frogatt & H u n t e r ,
1980; Gordon, 1988).
Mentor
relationships
is another key factor. S o m e o n e w h o takes a n a b i d i n g a n d intense
interest i n a p e r s o n as w e l l as her talent can provide significant e n c o u r a g e m e n t f o r a y o u n g
student as w e l l as for t h e potential career w o m a n . Ken* ( 1 9 8 5 ) , L e r o u x ( 1 9 8 8 ) , a n d Rose a n d
L a r w o o d ( 1 9 8 8 ) suggested that females need same sex m e n t o r s t o facilitate identification and
role modelling. O t h e r researchers contended that male m e n t o r s m i g h t be p r o b l e m a t i c i n that
this m i g h t reinforce t h e dependence of females o n male measures, male-defined values o r male
approval ( H o m e y , 1 9 2 6 ; S h a p i r o & Farrow, 1 9 8 8 ) . Whatever the gender o f t h e m e n t o r ,
research supports t h e significance of such relationships.
Cultural expectations
also, are factors w h i c h help shape t h e attitudes a n d values o f females
towards their career goals. Noble ( 1 9 8 9 ) determined that females w e r e subjected t o loneliness
a n d ostracism if t h e y deviated t o o far f r o m cultural n o r m s i n t e r m s o f c o m p e t e n c e a n d
achievement. M o v i n g out of societal expectations for females as m o t h e r a n d n u r t u r e r , c a n
distance y o u n g w o m e n f r o m those w h o see success only t h r o u g h the t r a d i t i o n a l female roles
(Heilbrun, 1 9 8 8 ; K e o w n & K e o w n , 1 9 8 5 ; Rose & L a r w o o d , 1 9 8 8 ) . F o r t h e w o m e n w h o w a n t
career success, w h o shift away f r o m conventional gender stereotypes, a n d w h o o p e n l y seek
"to demystify t h e forces that have told us w h a t w e should be before w e c a n value w h a t w e are"
(Steinhem, 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 0 9 ) , the price m a y be very costly.
For those w h o m a r r y , t h e selection of a mate is seen as a very i m p o r t a n t c h o i c e , o n e w h i c h
w i l l affect career goals as w e l l as personal ones. T h e relationship w i t h a m a t e w a s seen m o r e
as a partnership, w i t h b o t h individuals possessing equivalent goals, aspirations, a n d pressures
(Hertz, 1 9 8 6 ) . T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of children i n t o the equation makes t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of career
and personal life m u c h m o r e difficult. M o r e frequently this is achieved b y h i r i n g s o m e o n e else
t o p e r f o r m the child care a n d household duties (Hertz, 1 9 8 6 ) . H o w e v e r , t h o u g h t h e r e is m u c h
talk of reciprocity between wife and husband, it is still widely acknowledged t h a t w o m e n w e r e
perceived as d o i n g m o r e i n terms of traditional duties at h o m e .
A n o t h e r key factor p o i n t i n g t o success is self-esteem.
M a n y researchers have identified l o w
self-esteem as a major factor contributing t o the underachievement of h i g h l y able females (Kerr,
1 9 8 5 ; Noble, 1 9 8 8 ; Reis, 1 9 8 7 ) . H a v i n g adopted a morality that revolves a r o u n d n u r t u r i n g
a n d encouraging others (Gilligan, 1 9 8 2 ) , y o u n g females tend t o reject t h e i r o w n abilities at a
deep psychological level a n d disavow their o w n values and perceptions ( B r o w n , 1 9 8 9 ; Gilligan,
1 9 8 4 ; Rogers & Gilligan, 1 9 8 8 ) . T h e y tend t o attribute their success t o factors o t h e r t h a n t h e i r
o w n abilities (Arnold, 1 9 8 7 ) and find it difficult t o accept success once it is recognized b y others.
Research o n successful w o m e n , indicated a h i g h sense of self-worth a n d efficacy (Northcutt,
1 9 9 1 ) . T h e r e was a sense of being i n c o n t r o l of one's destiny and a belief i n o n e ' s o w n innate
value and self-worth (Frogatt & H u n t e r , 1 9 8 0 ; K e r r , 1 9 8 5 ) . W h e t h e r self-esteem is a cause o r
a n effect of success has n o t been clearly established.
Personal characteristics
are another factor i n the achievement patterns of females. Research
identified t h e ability t o "fall i n love w i t h a n idea" (Kerr, 1 9 7 5 , p . 6 9 ) , t o have " a n intense love
affair w i t h their w o r k " (Frogatt & H u n t e r , 1 9 8 0 , p . 180), or t h e need t o f o l l o w "a p o w e r f u l
d r e a m " (Daniels, 1 9 8 5 , p . 4 2 9 ) . N o r t h c o t t ( 1 9 9 1 ) described the successful w o m e n i n her
research as being consistently responsible, competent, and c o m m i t t e d t o t h e i r careers. T h e
ability t o use situations t o their advantage, flexibility, a n d skill i n m a n a g i n g dual roles i n t h e i r
daily lives w e r e powerful traits cited. C o m b i n e all of this w i t h the need a n d ability t o interact
well w i t h others a n d one has a rich recipe for success.
W o m e n ' s career goals and aspirations
are t h e final factors t o be considered. O f t e n w o m e n
w h o attain great success t e n d t o do so w i t h n o clearly defined goals ( K e o w n & K e o w n , 1 9 8 5 ) .
A l t h o u g h flexibility of goals is cited as a valuable characteristic i n integrating o n e ' s personal a n d
A n asset o r a liability? Voices of gifted w o m e n
183
professional life (Northcutt, 1 9 9 1 ) , w o m e n do n o t appear t o undertake long-term career
p l a n n i n g . P e r h a p s this is still due t o t h e feeling a m o n g y o u n g females that someone is going
t o c o m e a l o n g a n d take care of t h e m . H o w e v e r , t h e potential demands of child care a n d
h o u s e w o r k m a y still be perceived as interruptions t o a career a n d consequently w o m e n ' s career
paths are less consistently vertical t h a n those of m e n .
Daniels described this as the "legacy of drift" (p. 4 3 4 ) i n w o m e n ' s careers w h i c h leaves one
w i t h t h e p e r c e p t i o n that achievements just h a p p e n t o w o m e n as opposed t o being t h e result
of careful a n d calculated p l a n n i n g by t h e m . N o r t h c u t t ( 1 9 9 1 ) f o u n d t h a t t h e w o m e n w h o later
achieved success i n t h e w o r l d of business usually started out i n traditional occupations o r entered
business m o r e o r less "by default".
H o w e v e r , w h a t e v e r the route t o career achievement, w o m e n perceived satisfaction t o be
associated w i t h n o t only salary, but t h e chance t o contribute t o others' well-being. I n keeping
w i t h females' need t o link self-efficacy w i t h a caring c o n n e c t i o n t o others, successful w o m e n
tended t o include all aspects of their lives i n t h e i r assessment of personal success. For t h e m , a
career w a s a m e a n s of personal fulfillment if it was successfully c o m b i n e d w i t h being a female
b o t h inside a n d outside of t h e workplace.
Methodology
T w o studies are represented i n this paper. O n e of a six year follow-up study of eight gifted
y o u n g w o m e n (ages 2 2 and 2 3 ) , w h o w e r e first interviewed w h e n t h e y w e r e i n gifted programs
i n h i g h s c h o o l . T h e y responded t o a series of questions f r o m t h e original study, a vignette of a
gifted g i r l t o w h o m t h e y had t o give advice, a n d open-ended statements about perceptions of
their c u r r e n t career status (Leroux, 1 9 9 0 ) .
I n t h e second study, twenty-seven successful Canadian w o m e n responded t o a 16-page
questionnaire designed t o reveal environmental factors, c o p i n g strategies, a n d personal
characteristics t h a t contributed t o their h i g h levels of achievement. These w o m e n (ages 3 6 t o
6 0 ) w e r e i n t h e " W h o ' s W h o " anthology of Canadian W o m e n , w e r e n o t e d for extensive
publications, i n t e r n a t i o n a l awards, and prestigious positions i n business a n d technology i n
Canada. T h e y included successful engineers, scientists, artists, c o r p o r a t e executives, and
academics f r o m across t h e country.
T h o u g h t h e t w o studies were carried out separately, t h e y revealed similar patterns i n their
perceptions of life concerns.
T h e f o l l o w i n g discussion compares and contrasts t h e t w o studies.
Discussion
Family Interactions.
B o t h groups of w o m e n indicated a strong sense of family nurturance
a n d connectedness. T h e y o u n g w o m e n valued t h e o p i n i o n s of their parents, but expressed
c o n c e r n t h a t m o t h e r s "have n o power". Several of t h e m said t h e y valued t h e independence
they h a d been able t o achieve i n university, a l t h o u g h one was still so sensitive t o her parents'
wishes t h a t w h e n she changed majors at graduate school she was unable t o tell her parents
until near t h e e n d of the academic year. T h e experienced w o m e n looked back o n family life
a n d a l m o s t u n a n i m o u s l y agreed that b o t h parents h a d contributed positive values t o their
development. " M y m o t h e r was influential as a n independently m i n d e d individual w h o developed
and m a i n t a i n e d h e r o w n career. I grew u p k n o w i n g that w o m e n could d o a n y t h i n g " reported
one w o m a n . " M y father emphasized u p w a r d m o b i l i t y , t h e i m p o r t a n c e of striving for excellence
and rugged individualism," said another.
H o w e v e r , a different p e r c e p t i o n was voiced by several successful w o m e n ; t h e m o t h e r ' s lack
184
Janice A . Leroux
of career being influential. These w o m e n w e r e determined " n o t t o e n d u p like her". A s one
w o m a n said, " I inherited her stymied ambitions". Daughters o f w o r k i n g m o t h e r s appeared to
feel e m p o w e r e d b y mothers w h o w e r e self-sufficient a n d w h o valued e d u c a t i o n for themselves
a n d their children. W h e n m o t h e r s w e r e at h o m e , there was sometimes a n inverse relationship
t o the role modelling.
T h e results of these familial interactions support earlier research w h i c h indicated that a
m o t h e r ' s attitudes t o her daugther's potential was a key factor i n future achievement, w h e t h e r
o r n o t t h e m o t h e r had a career of her o w n . Frequent identification w i t h fathers raised questions
about w h a t areas of early lives each parent actively influenced. I n a n y case, it c o u l d be argued
that family nurturance helped the successful w o m e n develop a s t r o n g , d y n a m i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n
w h i c h w o u l d carry t h e m t h r o u g h various life stressors i n the future.
Career Aspirations.
B o t h groups of w o m e n cited interest i n career paths early i n t h e i r lives
a n d this interest influenced t h e a m o u n t of effort they w o u l d spend o n achieving t h e i r goals. T h e
younger w o m e n spoke about m a k i n g decisions for themselves, but w o u l d a d d t h a t t h e y often
t o o k parents' o p i n i o n s i n t o consideration. For t h e m positive r e i n f o r c e m e n t was a great
motivator. Over half of the experienced w o m e n said that they had first decided o n w h a t was
t o be their career of choice i n university.
W h e n all subjects w e r e asked w h a t help was missing for t h e m i n their a t t e m p t t o select a n
appropriate career, the c o m m o n thread was a plea for m o r e guidance and counselling i n h i g h
school. I n a n a t t e m p t t o seek help i n h i g h school, one y o u n g w o m a n said, " M y interests had
n o time o r place (in the guidance office)." O n e successful engineer repeated t h e t h e m e : " M y
h i g h school counsellor t o l d m e (in f r o n t of the class) that m y aptitude test results indicated that
I was best suited for w o r k as a cocktail waitress!"
T h o u g h these able w o m e n k n e w they w a n t e d t o establish careers, l i m i t e d o p t i o n s were
presented t o t h e m . O f t e n gender stereotyping was evident. "Sexism (role stereotypes) precluded
m e f r o m studying mathematics and physics i n school," said one experienced w o m a n . A n o t h e r
responded, " M o r e awareness of different careers, w h a t choices are available, are needed. I was
only really aware of very traditional jobs - nurse, teacher, etc." These t w o g r o u p s of w o m e n
recognized need for expanded career choices, m o r e female role models, a n d a n e l i m i n a t i o n of
gender barriers i n the vocational counselling of y o u n g females.
Mentor Relationships.
W h e n the y o u n g w o m e n recalled their school days, few teachers w e r e
mentioned as significant influences. For this g r o u p , deferring t o adults at s c h o o l was a matter
of personal choice required t o please those whose displeasure m i g h t feed p o w e r f u l fears o r
insecurity. "If a teacher praised m y w o r k i n front of others, it made t h e m (peers) feel inadequate.
I m i g h t t r y harder for a teacher I liked even if I felt frustrated" c o m m e n t e d o n e respondent.
School w h i c h emphasized c o n f o r m i t y o r singled t h e m out as being different i n a class, was
difficult, particularly d u r i n g adolescence. Finding a n understanding m e n t o r w a s n o t possible for
t h e m at school.
These y o u n g w o m e n preferred affiliation over c o m p e t i t i o n , realizing the incongruities of being
able but at t h e same time different, w a n t i n g t o be popular, but also t r y i n g t o be true t o
themselves. For this g r o u p , wise guidance and counsel often came f r o m a trusted adult, usually
a relative, w h o understood and respected t h e m as individuals w i t h needs, n o t gifted students
w i t h o u t feelings.
H o w e v e r , w h e n they reached university, m a n y of the y o u n g w o m e n like t h e i r successful
counterparts, n o t e d individuals w h o w e r e powerful influences o n their careers. University
professors and other graduate students accepted their abilities and allowed t h e m t o risk voicing
their ideas. " I used t o be teased about being smart, but n o w I a m h a p p i e r because others respect
and admire m e w h e n I get something right, and I ' m n o t afraid t o speak out (in university classes)"
said one y o u n g w o m e n .
A n asset o r a liability? Voices of gifted w o m e n
185
Likewise, t h e successful w o m e n identified m e n t o r - t y p e relationships, particularly f r o m
supportive husbands and individual m e n i n the w o r k place w h o helped t h e m forge n e w paths
i n t h e i r careers. A s one said, " I had mentors - early training i n business f r o m very t o u g h ,
d e m a n d i n g superiors." A n o t h e r agreed: " A series of senior members of t h e Canadian research
c o m m u n i t y w o r k e d w i t h m e and supported m y development." A s previous studies have s h o w n ,
t h e need f o r c o m m i t t e d individuals w h o take a sincere and strenghtening interest i n t h e
aspirations o f gifted females was clearly portrayed i n t h e responses of t h e experienced w o m e n .
Career and family Life. M a n y of t h e younger w o m e n saw themselves delaying marriage and
childbearing; o t h e r s saw themselves as childless b y choice. One-quarter of t h e experienced
w o m e n believed t h a t marriage had a negative, restricting i m p a c t o n t h e i r careers due t o
n o n - s u p p o r t i v e spouses ("My husband was very competitive and jealous of m y accomplishments.
H e tried t o sabotage m y career."). O n e t h i r d of t h e m a r r i e d respondents believed that their
husbands h a d b e e n supportive and encouraging. Fifty p e r cent of t h e w o m e n had n o children,
w h i c h s u p p o r t s data that professional w o m e n w e r e m o r e likely t h a n nonprofessionals t o be
w i t h o u t c h i l d r e n (Rose & L a r w o o d , 1 9 8 8 ) . Fifty eight p e r cent of all i n this g r o u p advised that
a w o m a n " t h i n k t w i c e " before having a family if she w e r e t o be successful i n her career.
Figure
1:
Percentage of shared of household responsibilities
Several o f t h e w o m e n stressed the i m p o r t a n c e of h i r i n g outside help t o d o the housekeeping
a n d child care. T h i s was described as "the only reasonable solution n o m a t t e r w h a t the cost!"
T h e h i r i n g of housekeepers leaves one t o w o n d e r h o w m u c h husbands actually shared i n
household responsibilities. I n the b r e a k d o w n of responsibilities it was evident that traditional
duties such as m e a l preparation, laundry, and grocery s h o p p i n g , w e r e p r i m a r i l y w o m e n ' s
d o m a i n , leaving t h e question o p e n o n h o w m u c h traditional roles have changed (Figure 1).
T h e diversity o f beliefs about the impact of relationships was most evident i n this r e a l m and
it was a p p a r e n t t h a t m a n y factors w e r e at w o r k i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r a m a r r i e d relationship
was a positive o r negative influence i n the careers of successful w o m e n i n t h e study. H o w e v e r ,
Janice A . Leroux
186
i n giving advice t o a younger w o m a n , the majority of experienced respondents stressed the vital
i m p o r t a n c e of finding a c o m p a n i o n w h o will actively share i n t h e duties at h o m e . " F i n d a partner,
n o t just s o m e o n e y o u love," concluded one w o m a n .
Self-image.
T h o u g h describing themselves as determined, capable individuals, t h e young
gifted w o m e n h a d doubts about their ability t o cope, particularly w i t h t h e excellence they
demanded of themselves. " I fear I w o n ' t be able t o achieve w h a t I aspire t o b e c o m e . I t e n d t o
push myself t o o h a r d , n o t accepting m y weaknesses" said one w o m a n . O r as another
c o m m e n t e d " I feel everyone expects m e t o be perfect a n d I ' m n o t really allowed t o make
mistakes. M y weaknesses frustrate m e . " T h e y w e r e passionate about the p e r s o n a l fulfillment of
a career, but had doubts about societal acceptance if t h e y w e r e less t h a n perfect.
T h e y resented t h e societal stereotypes of w o m e n , t h e inherent obligations a n d responsibilities
they perceive expected of career w o m e n . " I hate t h e current image of ideal w o m e n because it
is a n impossible goal. W e have t o juggle everything (career, h o m e , family), a n d be successful
o n t o p of i t , t o o " said one. "Maybe I ' m t o o sensitive about this, but I ' m intelligent a n d I wish
they (society) w o u l d back off a b i t " , stated another.
Balancing career achievements w i t h a healthy acceptance of one's strengths a n d limitations
appeared t o cause discomfort and concern.
aggressive
Figure
2:
assertive competitive co-operative
Feelings vs. actual behaviour for career
success
C o m p a r i n g society's ideal, a personal ideal, and the perceived real self, these able y o u n g
w o m e n f o u n d themselves lacking, continuously pushing themselves towards a h i g h e r , self-imposed ideal of i m p r o v e m e n t .
A n on-going sense of striving was evident i n the successful w o m e n g r o u p as w e l l . W h i l e 1 0 0
per cent described themselves as successful, over half of t h e m attributed success, i n varying
degrees, t o g o o d luck. T h e y w e n t o n t o say that this luck was accompanied b y effort and the
ability t o recognize o p p o r t u n i t y . "Fate a n d fortune played a significant p a r t of m y achievements.
I was i n the r i g h t place at t h e right t i m e and always said I was b o m clutching g o l d e n horseshoes"
c o m m e n t e d o n e w o m a n . " B e i n g o p e n t o w h a t fate offers is i m p o r t a n t " , added a n o t h e r .
A t t h e same t i m e , over half of t h e experienced w o m e n t h o u g h t a w o m a n m u s t be "twice as
g o o d as a m a n i n t h e same p o s i t i o n " i n order t o succeed i n her career. Assertiveness w a s listed
A n asset o r a liability? Voices of gifted w o m e n
187
as a n i m p o r t a n t quality for success, as was c o o p e r a t i o n (Figure 2). T h e key was t o trust
themselves t o select t h e a p p r o p r i a t e behaviour for each different situation. T h i s was believed
possible w i t h n o c o n c o m i t a n t loss of feminine values. A s one w o m a n concluded, ' T o succeed,
w o m e n m u s t be c o m p e t e n t , m o r e cooperative, truly feminine, continue t o care for their families
a n d n o t f o l l o w t h e m a l e m o d e l . " After hearing these words, is there any doubt w h y the younger
gifted w o m e n felt s o m e apprehension?
I n a s u m m a r y of self-image, t h e y o u n g able w o m e n felt they w e r e h a r d w o r k e r s , p r o u d of
their i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d ability t o interact w i t h , as w e l l as nurture others. T h e y felt they pushed
themselves t o achieve, but i n so d o i n g did n o t allow sufficient t i m e for relaxation. T h e y often
described themselves as tense about m a n y things and perceived that their internal drive for
success w a s g e t t i n g i n t h e w a y of an easy-going enjoyment of life.
I n giving advice t o a y o u n g gifted girl, they cautioned her t o r e m e m b e r t o enjoy herself, t o
enjoy achievements, a n d n o t seek for perfection. It appeared that striving for a personal ideal,
taking responsibilities for others, and trying t o prove they w e r e capable i n so m a n y areas had
been at t h e expense o f their o w n personal sense of identity. I n searching for self and success,
these y o u n g w o m e n appeared t o feel that self had been t h e neglected factor.
Several of t h e experienced w o m e n voiced the same concern. " H a v i n g p u t so m u c h energy
i n t o a career I've neglected m y e m o t i o n a l needs and find myself living a very unbalanced life"
said o n e successful w o m a n .
39%
40
35.
33%
30.
27.5%
25.
20.
19%
15.
10.
5.
0..
rape
Figure
3:
physical and
psychological
abuse
discrimination
harassment
at work
T r a u m a t i c experiences reported
Traumatic
Experiences.
A variety of life stressors w e r e reported by t h e successful w o m e n .
Relocation t o a n o t h e r p a r t of the country (74%), o r t o another country entirely (52%), and
coping w i t h t h e d e a t h of a close friend (59%), and caring for familiy members i n t i m e of illness
(80%) w e r e s o m e of t h e events described. I n w o r k p l a c e , 3 9 % had been victims of sexual
harassment, 3 3 % r e p o r t e d some f o r m of discrimination, 6 4 % indicated t h a t male colleagues
tended t o feel t h r e a t e n e d w h e n they w e r e w i t h a w o m a n w h o was m o r e successful i n the career
t h a n t h e y w e r e . I n a d d i t i o n , 1 9 % had been raped at some p o i n t i n their lives, 1 1 . 5 % had been
physically abused, a n d a n o t h e r 1 5 % reported psychological abuse (Figure 3).
Janice A . Leroux
188
T h i s g r o u p , however, did n o t feel defenceless i n the face of stressful situations. T h e y appeared
t o t a p i n t o a n i n n e r strength, a n d t r a n s f o r m adversity i n t o life affirmation. T h e i r personal
intelligence and d e t e r m i n a t i o n c o m b i n e d w i t h a p o w e r f u l connectedness w i t h friends enables
t h e m t o face each crisis and continue t o achieve.
M a n y i n this g r o u p acknowledged the i m p o r t a n c e of self-knowledge, talking t h r o u g h anxieties
w i t h trusted friends, a n d using difficult experiences as springboards for g r o w t h . T h e r e was a
consistent, strong p a t t e r n i n t h e perceptions of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of relationships.
Implications and Conclusions
Gifted w o m e n appear t o k n o w themselves a n d their o w n personal values intensely. T h e y have
a strong sense of t h e i r o w n abilities, and appear t o have a survivor instinct w h i c h carries t h e m
t h r o u g h various trials and life stresses. Even t h o u g h i n post adolescence they are uncertain of
their c o p i n g abilities, they seem t o rely o n this instinct f r o m early ages o n w a r d . I n later life,
they recognize t h e valuable asset female connectedness can be i n h e l p i n g t h e m c o p e w i t h
problems. T h e y seek t o reach for challenges, speak opinions freely and play energetically. I n
their drive for success, they choose n o t t o lose sight of their feminine values, defining success
i n t e r m s of c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e welfare of others o r the c o m m u n i t y at large. If educators
acknowledge t h e connectedness females seek, reinforce the social skills females display, a n d
encourage m o r e risk t a k i n g , t h e n there m a y be less need for w o m e n t o fight the c o n f o r m i t y
and the traditional stereotyping that plagues t h e m .
Successful w o m e n refuse t o blame m e n i n general for obstacles i n their career paths. T h e y
choose n o t t o see themselves i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h others but rather partners i n m a k i n g their
society a little better place t o live. T h e y believe t o be successful one must p l a n carefully t o
combine professional and personal lives. T h o u g h they decried the pressure t o be "Superwom a n " , they often push themselves t o accomplishments that even they had never dreamed of
or planned. Sensitive educators can make opportunities t o help able females discuss career
opportunities that incorporate interests, talents, a n d personal values w h i l e at the same t i m e
counselling the females i n ways t o have fun and enjoy living.
Successful w o m e n pay a h i g h price for their accomplishments, but f r o m the descriptions of
these w o m e n , t h e y never lose faith i n themselves. B e i n g socialized t o care shouldn't preclude
the element of choice i n a career p a t h , n o r should social stereotypes of ability cloud females'
o p t i o n s for future aspirations. Vocational counselling needs t o be m o r e comprehensive a n d
diverse so that able females can make m o r e i n f o r m e d choices about careers and eliminate t h e
"legacy of drift" that still seems t o be i n evidence. I n looking at the lives of gifted y o u n g w o m e n
and highly able career w o m e n , w e see a tapestry of influences, life struggles, a n d c o p i n g
strengths. W e learn h o w they have capitalized o n their o w n gifts t o become achievers
determined t o go beyond any n a r r o w traditional roles for w o m e n and still continue a personal
c o m m i t m e n t t o self and others. For t h e m , being female was n o t a liability if they chose t o c o n t r o l
their o w n assets. A s one w o m a n stated: "Successful w o m e n pay a very h i g h price for t h e i r
accomplishments, but w e must never lose faith i n ourselves."
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TIP studies of gender differences in talented
adolescents
David Goldstein and Vicki B . Stocking
Duke
University
Talent
Identification
Program,
Durham,
North
Carolina,
USA
Abstract
Since the D u k e University Talent Identification P r o g r a m (TIP) was established i n 1 9 8 0 , data
o n talented students aged 1 2 t h r o u g h 1 6 have been gathered i n conjunction w i t h t h e 16-state
regional talent search as w e l l as the S u m m e r Residential P r o g r a m (SRP) held each s u m m e r o n
t h e D u k e University campus. T h i s paper presents a n overview of research at T I P that documents
some differences - a n d some surprising lack of differences - between academically talented
y o u n g males a n d females. W e begin w i t h a s u m m a r y of gender differences i n b o t h mathematical
and verbal ability, as measured by t h e Scholastic A p t i t u d e Test (SAT): I n particular, trends
indicating a recent decrease i n the gender gap o n the mathematical p o r t i o n of the test are
highlighted.
I n addition, data f r o m questionnaires administered t o talent search participants are presented
that highlight gender differences i n attitudes about school and career. Attitudes t o w a r d school,
approached f r o m a variety of perspectives, varied w i t h gender according t o traditional sex
stereotypes: significant differences w e r e found i n girls' and boys' perceptions of classes i n terms
of degree of liking, perceived usefulness, and forced-choice comparisons as w e l l as gender
differences i n degree of interest i n most - but n o t all - potential college majors. Questionnaire
data also revealed significant differences i n the degree of liking of most careers, w i t h a few
notable exceptions. These findings are i n contrast t o earlier studies conducted w i t h T I P SRP
students that demonstrated that SRP course selection varied w i t h gender, a l t h o u g h perform­
ance i n the courses d i d n o t .
These data, taken together, suggest that gender differences i n h i g h ability students are found
primarily i n t h e d o m a i n of attitudes. Gender differences i n performance a n d ability are m u c h
smaller t h a n c o m m o n l y believed. These findings have i m p o r t a n t implications b o t h for our
understanding of t h e nature of gender differences as well as for educational policies and
practices.
Ή Ρ Studies of Gender Differences in Talented Adolescents
A rapidly g r o w i n g b o d y of literature documents the m a n y ways i n w h i c h students of h i g h
academic ability differ f r o m those of average ability (for reviews, see Colangelo & Davis, 1 9 9 1 ;
Heller, Mönks & Passow, 1 9 9 3 ) . Less attention has been p a i d , however, t o ways i n w h i c h
students of h i g h ability differ f r o m each other. O n e notable exception t o this generalization has
been the considerable interest s h o w n i n the question of gender (or sex) differences. A s w i t h the
question of gender differences i n the p o p u l a t i o n at large, the study of gender differences a m o n g
t h e highly able has focused o n b o t h alleged differences i n ability, such as i n mathematics or
visual-spatial ability (Benbow & Stanley, 1 9 8 0 ; Goldstein, Haldane, & M i t c h e l l , 1 9 9 0 ) , as well
as differences i n attitudes, such as i n choice of college major or vocation (Kerr, 1 9 8 8 ) .
T I P studies of gender differences i n talented adolescents
191
I n this paper, a series of recent studies o n gender differences p e r f o r m e d b y researchers at the
D u k e University Talent Identification P r o g r a m (TIP) is r e p o r t e d . Before describing t h e nature
of these studies, some description of T I P is necessary. Covering sixteen states i n t h e A m e r i c a n
Southeast, Midwest, a n d Southwest, T I P identifies t h e brightest children at a n early age and
w o r k s t o develop t h e i r potential t o the fullest. T I P was founded i n 1 9 8 0 a n d is currently one
of four p r o g r a m s of its kind i n t h e n a t i o n (see Goldstein & Wagner, 1 9 9 3 , f o r a n overview of
these and related programs). T o nurture the students' talents t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r middle and h i g h
school years, T I P provides t h e m w i t h various services, including r e c o g n i t i o n ceremonies, a n
extensive Educational O p p o r t u n i t y Guide, a L e a m o n Y o u r O w n (by mail) P r o g r a m , Advanced
Placement course materials, and - for truly exceptional students - a s u m m e r residential p r o g r a m
o n the D u k e University campus.
T h e nature of the T I P sample also requires some elaboration. Each year T I P hosts a large
p o p u l a t i o n of very talented children as t h e y attend t h e S u m m e r Residential P r o g r a m (SRP).
T h e SRP is academically oriented and o p e n t o students w h o have completed grades 7 , 8 , 9 or
1 0 . T o qualify, students participate i n a Talent Search w h i c h invites seventh-graders w h o score
i n the t o p three percentiles o n nationally-normed in-school achievement tests t o take t h e
Scholastic A p t i t u d e Test (SAT) or the A m e r i c a n College Test (ACT), t h e leading college entrance
examinations i n t h e U n i t e d States. Students m a y also take these tests o n t h e i r o w n . For the
summer p r o g r a m , students must score higher t h a n t h e average college b o u n d senior. O n l y
about 6 percent of students w h o participate i n t h e Talent Search are eligible t o attend the
s u m m e r p r o g r a m . F o r purposes of clarity, t h e students w h o participate i n the S u m m e r
Residential P r o g r a m w i l l be referred t o as highly talented,
w h i l e t h e students i n t h e Talent
Search w h o d o n o t qualify for t h e SRP will be designated as talented.
Finally, talent search
students w h o achieve S A T - M a t h scores above 7 0 0 o r SAT-Verbal scores above 6 3 0 - scores
that exceed t h e 9 5 % i l e for h i g h school seniors - w i l l be referred t o as extremely
talented. This
latter g r o u p is i s o m o r p h i c w i t h the sample used b y Stanley a n d by B e n b o w i n their numerous
investigations.
T h e t h r e e studies r e p o r t e d below focus o n the domains of academic ability as w e l l as attitudes
t o w a r d academic a n d vocational choices. T h e first study reports data o n gender differences i n
performance o n t h e S A T - M a t h and SAT-Verbal tests. T h e second a n d t h i r d studies r e p o r t data
o n the attitudes of males and females towards a variety of academic topics, including school
subjects, potential college majors, and potential careers.
Study 1: Gender differences among the extremely talented
T h e starting p o i n t f o r this study is the widely held belief that boys greatly o u t n u m b e r girls at
the h i g h end of t h e c o n t i n u u m of mathematical ability. T h i s belief has been bolstered by the
landmark investigations of B e n b o w and her colleagues (e.g., B e n b o w & Stanley, 1 9 8 0 ; Lubinski
& B e n b o w , 1 9 9 2 ) . I n these studies, the authors r e p o r t that twice as m a n y boys as girls score
at o r above 5 0 0 o n t h e S A T - M a t h and that four times as m a n y boys as girls score at o r above
6 0 0 o n t h e same test. These investigators also suggest that 1 3 boys for every one girl score at
or above 7 0 0 o n this test, a ratio that is b o t h remarkable as well as provocative (see H a l p e m ,
1992).
Method
I n this study, w e analyzed S A T scores f r o m t h e T I P Talent Searches conducted i n the years
1 9 8 1 t h r o u g h 1 9 9 2 , inclusive, first e x a m i n i n g M a t h scores a n d t h e n considering Verbal scores,
w h i c h are studied m u c h less frequently. T h e total n u m b e r of seventh grade (12 year old) students
w h o participated i n these talent searches is 4 6 2 , 5 5 7 . A n additional 6 1 , 7 0 0 students participated i n t h e talent search i n 1 9 9 3 .
David Goldstein a n d V i c k i B . Stocking
192
Table
1:
Male a n d Female Talent Search Participants Scoring at o r above 5 0 0 , 6 0 0 or
7 0 0 o n the SAT-M.
SATM > 600
SATM > 500
SATM > 700
Males
M/F
Femls.
Males
M/F
Femls.
817
(4.0%)
2071
(10.8%)
2.2
51
(0.25%)
324
6.4
(1.69%)
3
(0.01%)
10.7
32
(0.17%)
1984-1986
37854 females
35424 males
1605
(4.2*)
4140
(11.7%)
2.6
109
(0.29%)
516
(1.5%)
4.7
6
(0.01%)
54
(0.15%)
1987-1989
47626 females
44642 males
2146
(4.5%)
4744
(10.6%)
2.2
139
(0.29%)
876
(2.0%)
6.3
6
(0.01%)
94
15.7
(0.21%)
1990-1992
52866 females
50231 males
3837
(7.3%)
7415
(14.8%)
1.9
348
(0.66%)
1290
3.7
(2.57%)
33
(0.06%)
91
(0.18%)
2.8
18370
2.2
(12.29%)
647
(0.41%)
3006
(2.0%)
48
(0.03%)
271
(0.18%)
5.6
Femls.
1981-1983
20597 females
19157 males
1981-1992
158943 females 8375
149454 males
(5.27%)
Lubinski &
Benbow (1992)
2
4.6
4
Males
M/F
9.0
13
Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate the percentage of that gender participating in the
Talent Search who scored at a certain level on the SAT-M.
Results a n d Discussion
SAT-Math
scores. Table 1 provides t h e frequency of students scoring a t o r above 5 0 0 , 6 0 0 ,
and 7 0 0 o n t h e S A T - M a t h test f r o m 1 9 8 1 t h r o u g h 1 9 9 2 , as well as t h e ratios o f males t o
females for each score cutoff. It is clear f r o m t h e table that t h e ratios w e obtained f o r students
scoring at o r above 5 0 0 and 6 0 0 are comparable t o the ratios r e p o r t e d b y L u b i n s k i a n d B e n b o w
(1992). H o w e v e r , t h e ratios w e obtained - for each g r o u p of Talent Search years a n d over all
t h e Talent Search years - differ f r o m t h e 1 3 t o 1 ratio those investigators f o u n d . E x c e p t for t h e
Talent Searches i n 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 8 9 , all groups of Talent Search years o b t a i n e d fewer males t o
females scoring at t h e highest end of t h e S A T - M a t h t h a n suggested b y t h e above study. N o t e
especially t h e ratio f o r t h e 1 9 9 0 - 9 2 Talent Searches, w h i c h indicated t h a t fewer t h a n three
times t h e n u m b e r of males as females scored at this exceptionally h i g h level o n t h e S A T - M a t h
test. This figure stands i n sharp contrast t o t h e ratio of 1 3 : 1 r e p o r t e d b y L u b i n s k i a n d B e n b o w
(1992).
T h e overall rates of m e e t i n g each criterion indicate that t h e representation o f females at each
level is increasing w i t h each successive Talent Search, w i t h t h e largest j u m p i n representation
for each level being made i n the most recent g r o u p of Talent Searches. Males, h o w e v e r , showed
a slight increase i n rates of representation at the first t w o levels ( S A T M > 5 0 0 a n d S A T M >
6 0 0 ) but did n o t exhibit a n y real increase at the highest level. T h e r e f o r e , n o t o n l y are females
increasing i n rate of scoring at h i g h levels, but the males are n o t k e e p i n g u p w i t h t h e increase.
SAT Verbal scores.
W e analyzed males' and females' scores o n t h e V e r b a l p o r t i o n of t h e
S A T t o supplement the i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the M a t h test. Table 2 illustrates t h e p a t t e r n s of scoring
at these levels. Overall, numbers of males t o females is m o r e equal t h a n seen w i t h t h e m a t h
T I P studies o f gender differences i n talented adolescents
193
scores. T h e s e n u m b e r s appear t o be somewhat m o r e stable, as w e l l ; t h e ratios o f males t o
females vary little over t h e course of the Talent Search years. O f n o t e , however, is the decline
i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f males w h o scored above 6 3 0 o n t h e verbal test. W h i l e t h e p r o p o r t i o n of
h i g h s c o r i n g females r e m a i n e d nearly constant between t h e years 1 9 8 1 a n d 1 9 9 2 ( 0 . 0 8 % vs
0 . 0 9 % ) , t h e p r o p o r t i o n of h i g h scoring males d r o p p e d b y nearly one half ( 0 . 1 7 % vs 0 . 0 9 % ) .
Indeed, f o r t h e years 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f h i g h scoring females has been identical t o
that o f males.
Table
2:
M a l e a n d Female Talent Search Participants Scoring at o r above 5 0 0 or 6 3 0 o n
the SAT-V.
SATV > 500
Females
Males
M/F
SATV > 630
Females
Males
M/F
1981-1983
20594 f e m a l e s
19156 m a l e s
778
(3.8%)
869
1.1
(4.5%)
17
(0.08%)
1984-1986
37854 f e m a l e s
35423 m a l e s
996
(2.6%)
1.3
1286
(3.6%)
31
(0.008%)
38
1.2
(0.11%)
1987-1989
47626 f e m a l e s
44642 m a l e s
1276
(2.7%)
1438
1.1
(3.2%)
25
(0.5%)
45
(0.5%)
1545
(2.92%)
1654
1.1
(3.29%)
46
(0.09%)
46
1.0
(0.09%)
4595
(2.89%)
5247
1.1
(3.51%)
119
(0.075%)
161
1.4
(0.11%)
1990-1992
52866 f e m a l e s
50231 males
1981-1992
158943 f e m a l e s
149454 m a l e s
32
(0.17%)
1.9
1.8
Note: Numbers i n p a r e n t h e s e s i n d i c a t e t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h a t gender p a r t i c i p a t i n g
i n t h e T a l e n t S e a r c h who s c o r e d a t a c e r t a i n l e v e l on t h e SATV.
These findings clearly indicate that the gender gap i n mathematical ability is markedly smaller
t h a n t h e data f r o m B e n b o w ' s recent articles w o u l d suggest.Indeed, it m a y be the case that if
current trends c o n t i n u e , the gender gap may become either very small o r nonexistent by the
end o f t h i s decade. T h e "disappearing gender g a p " has been noted elsewhere (Feingold, 1 9 8 8 ;
H a l p e m , 1 9 8 9 ) . T h e s e findings may well occasion a reevaluation o f t h e view that previous
gender differences i n mathematical ability have, i n w h o l e o r i n p a r t , a biological basis. Rather,
these data are consistent w i t h the view that social a n d cultural forces are largely responsible,
b o t h f o r t h e initial r e p o r t s o f large gender differences a n d n o w t h e most recent evidence o f
their a t t e n u a t i o n .
T h e data o n t h e S A T - V e r b a l scores also supports a socio-cultural view o f gender differences
in academic ability. W h a t possible biological forces could account for the decrease i n the n u m b e r
of exceptionally h i g h verbal scores a m o n g males? A l t h o u g h it is beyond t h e scope of our data
t o offer a n e x p l a n a t i o n for this startling t r e n d , one is t e m p t e d t o hazard t h e guess that computers
and video games m a y play a role. Simply p u t , bright males w h o a decade ago spent m u c h of
their leisure t i m e reading n o w use that t i m e playing w i t h t h e electronic marvels that have
appeared since, r o u g h l y , the early 1 9 8 0 ' s .
David Goldstein a n d V i c k i Β. Stocking
194
Given t h e e n o r m o u s sample sizes available i n this study, one w o u l d be hard-pressed t o claim
that these findings are statistical artifacts. For n o w it appears clear that t h e male "superiority"
i n m a t h is still i n existence, but it is n o w h e r e near as large as previously t h o u g h t . T h e
consequences for w o m e n ' s educational and career choices, as w e l l as for society as a whole,
are e n o r m o u s .
Study 2: Gender differences in attitudes toward school subjects
O n e increasingly i m p o r t a n t area of research relevant t o academically talented students
concerns the attitudes students h o l d about school a n d school subjects. T h e literature is replete
w i t h w a r n i n g s t h a t , w h i l e students need t o become engaged i n their studies i n order t o achieve,
schools are failing t o provide t h e stimulation necessary for students t o b e c o m e interested.
Academically talented students are particularly at risk of losing interest due t o inadequate
stimulation (e. g., Ponder & H i r s c h , 1 9 8 1 ) . For example, Yager ( 1 9 8 2 ) cites N A E P (National
Assessment of Education Progress) data reflecting generally negative attitudes about science
classes i n 1 3 a n d 1 7 year-olds. These attitudes have implications for college study; participation
i n h i g h school m a t h a n d science has been s h o w n t o be a strong predictor of majoring i n those
fields i n college, w i t h possibly varying patterns of predictors for males a n d females (e. g., W a r e
& Lee, 1 9 8 8 ) .
T h e current investigation describes attitudes about school for a large sample of academically
talented seventh graders. I n particular, w e consider h o w m u c h students like selected school
subjects, h o w useful they t h i n k these subjects will be i n a career, and h o w m u c h students think
they w o u l d like particular college majors.
Method
T h e participants i n this study w e r e chosen f r o m the 1 9 9 1 Talent Search p o o l of 5 7 , 0 0 0
applicants. W e r a n d o m l y sampled 1,000 each W h i t e males a n d females, and 5 0 0 each
n o n - W h i t e males and females. O f the 1,500 males, 1,485 (98.9%) indicated some racial
designation. O f these 1,485, 1,000 (67.34) w e r e W h i t e , 1 7 8 ( 1 1 . 9 9 % ) w e r e Black/AfricanA m e r i c a n , 1 3 3 (8.96%) w e r e Hispanic, 1 5 (1.01%) w e r e Native Alaskan/Native A m e r i c a n ,
1 1 8 (7.95%) w e r e Asian/Oriental/Pacific Islander, a n d t h e remainder ( 4 1 ; 2 . 7 7 % ) indicated
"other." O f t h e 1,500 females, 1 4 8 1 (98.7%) indicated some racial designation. O f these 1 , 4 8 1 ,
1,000 ( 6 7 . 5 2 % ) w e r e W h i t e , 2 4 7 ( 1 6 . 6 8 % ) w e r e Black/African-American, 1 2 1 (8.17%) were
Hispanic, 1 2 (0.81%) w e r e Native Alaskan/Native A m e r i c a n , 6 4 (4.32%) w e r e Asian/Orien­
tal/Pacific Islander, a n d t h e remainder (37; 2 . 5 0 % ) indicated "other."
O f t h e 3 , 0 0 0 students that w e r e contacted, 1,294 (43.2%) participated i n this study by
returning completed questionnaires. T h e resulting sample was representative of the mail-out
sample of 3 , 0 0 0 i n terms of gender, race a n d geographical location.
Data w e r e collected using the 1 9 9 1 Talent Search Questionnaire (TSQ). Various generations
of this questionnaire have served as the p r i m a r y m e t h o d of annual data collection for T I P over
the course of t h e p r o g r a m ' s twelve-year history. Historically, the T S Q has been administered
t o the entire p o o l of Talent Search applicants or some subset t o address a particular question
of interest. T h e 1 9 9 1 version of the T S Q , t h e p i l o t for a future longitudinal project t o be
conducted by T I P i n collaboration w i t h the A m e r i c a n Institutes for Research (ADR), built u p o n
earlier versions of the T S Q a n d incorporated concepts f o u n d i n other longitudinal w o r k (e. g.,
Project T A L E N T , National Educational Longitudinal Study). T I P administers t h e Talent Search
Questionnaire for research purposes only; t h e independence of c o m p l e t i o n of the T S Q and
admittance t o any of TTP's programs is stressed t o t h e students and their parents.
TIP studies of gender differences i n talented adolescents
195
T h e current T S Q is comprised of t w o separate questionnaires, o n e each for students a n d
parents. Each household received b o t h questionnaires. T h e current investigation involves only
the Student Questionnaire. T h e Student Questionnaire is a 2 4 0 - i t e m measure w i t h items
reflecting a variety of behavioral a n d amtudinal constructs, such as academic performance,
interest i n college majors, interest i n occupations, a n d attitudes about school. Students indicate
their responses t o items o n a computer-readable answer sheet.
Included i n t h e Student Questionnaire are t h e following sets of items c o n c e r n i n g attitudes
about school: (a) h o w m u c h students usually like particular subjects, (b) h o w useful students t h i n k
certain subjects w i l l be i n their careers, (c) forced-choice comparisons of subjects, a n d (d) h o w
m u c h students t h i n k they w o u l d like particular college majors. Students indicated how much
they usually like each of t e n school subjects (English, Social Studies, Mathematics, A r t / M u s i c ,
H o m e Economics, Vocational Education, C o m p u t e r Science, Physical Education, Foreign
languages, a n d Science). Students rated each subject along a five-point Likert-type scale (A =
I w o u l d like this subject very much t o Ε = I w o u l d dislike this subject very much). Students
indicated how useful they t h o u g h t each of t h e t e n areas of study w o u l d be i n their careers
according be t h e f o l l o w i n g scale: A = V e r y useful; Β = Sometimes useful; C « N o t useful at all;
and D = I d o n ' t k n o w .
Students completed 1 5 forced-choice
comparisons
of pairs of r a n d o m l y ordered subjects,
choosing w h i c h subject of each pair they liked better. Students indicated how much they think
they would like each of 1 8 types of college majors according t o a five-point Likert-type scale
(A = I w o u l d like this major very much t o Ε = I w o u l d dislike this major very
much).
Questionnaire packets w e r e mailed i n early February o f 1 9 9 1 , a n d students w e r e asked t o
return t h e answer sheets a n d signed consent forms b y early M a r c h . T h e majority of those
students c o m p l e t i n g t h e Questionnaire returned t h e m b y late M a r c h . T h o s e received between
A p r i l a n d July w e r e processed separately. T h e t w o samples w e r e c o m b i n e d t o f o r m a larger
sample of 1 2 9 4 after comparisons indicated n o differences i n responses f o r t h e t w o groups.
Results a n d discussion
W e examined relationships a m o n g students' attitudes, especially n o t i n g t h e role of gender i n
school-related attitudes (e. g., B e n b o w & M i n o r , 1 9 8 6 ; W a r e & Lee, 1 9 8 8 ) .
Table
3:
M e a n L i k i n g of School Subjects for C o m p l e t e Sample a n d as a F u n c t i o n of Sex
Subject
Complete sample
Mean s.d.
Ν
Mean
Males
s.d.
Ν
Mean
Females
s.d.
Ν
English
Social Studies
Mathematics
Art/Music
Home Economics
Vocational Ed.
Computer Science
Physical Ed.
Foreign languages
Science
2.20
2.14
1.78
1.83
2.76
2.90
2.38
2.01
2.45
1.75
1.20
1.20
1.16
1.09
0.91
0.83
0.99
1.24
1.05
1.06
2.42
2.06
1.68
2.07
2.96
2.72
2.16
1.79
2.64
1.65
1.13
1.13
1.09
1.20
.81
.87
.99
1.09
1.06
LOO
613
617
616
614
608
605
610
615
608
616
2.00
2.22
1.87
1.60
2.57
3.06
2.58
2.22
2.27
1.85
1.23
1.26
1.21
.92
.95
.76
.96
1.34
1.02
1.10
648
653
653
653
646
646
645
653
649
653
1261
1270
1269
1267
1254
1250
1255
1268
1257
1269
Note: Mean liking scores based on the following scale: 1 = I like this subject
very much, 2 = I like this subject a little,
3 = I have no opinion or do not
know much about this subject, 4 = I dislike
this subject a little,
and 5 = I
dislike
this subject very much.
David Goldstein a n d V i c k i B . Stocking
196
Liking school subjects.
Table 3 presents means f o r t h e overall s a m p l e a n d b y sex f o r t h e
degree o f liking o f school subjects. Females indicated liking classes i n t h e f o l l o w i n g order, f r o m
m o s t favored t o least-favored: A r t / m u s i c , Science, M a t h , English, Physical E d u c a t i o n , Social
Studies, Foreign Language, C o m p u t e r Science, H o m e Economics, V o c a t i o n a l Education.
Interestingly, these females defied t h e "traditional" m o l d b y p r e f e r r i n g science a n d M a t h t o
English a n d foreign languages. Males liked classes i n t h e f o l l o w i n g order, f r o m m o s t favored t o
least favored: Science, M a t h , Physical Education, Social Studies, A r t / M u s i c , C o m p u t e r Science,
English, Foreign Language, V o c a t i o n a l Education, a n d H o m e E c o n o m i c s . Girls a n d boys agreed
o n t w o of their t h r e e t o p choices, listing M a t h a n d Science as t w o o f t h e m o s t favored classes.
Similarly, girls and boys listed H o m e Economics a n d V o c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n as t h e i r least favorite
classes.
I n addition t o e x a m i n i n g t h e m e a n levels of liking f o r each course, i t is useful t o consider t h e
percentages o f students w h o liked (i. e., liked " a little" o r "very m u c h " ) a n d d i d n ' t like (i. e.,
disliked "a little" o r "very much") each subject, excluding those w h o indicated t h e neutral response
(i. e., " I have n o o p i n i o n o r d o n o t k n o w m u c h about this subject") t o each i t e m . T a b l e 4 illustrates
this i n f o r m a t i o n . M o r e girls indicated that they liked A r t / M u s i c , Science, a n d M a t h t h a n other
subjects, and fewer girls r e p o r t e d liking H o m e Economics. T h e rates o f liking subjects are most
informative w h e n viewed i n conjunction w i t h rates of disliking subjects (also illustrated i n Table
4). Overall, t h e rates f o r disliking subjects w e r e lower t h a n t h e rates f o r l i k i n g subjects, indicating
that w h e n a student h a d experience w i t h a given subject, t h e student t e n d e d t o have a positive
reaction t o that subject. Girls displayed t h e highest rates of dislike f o r Physical E d u c a t i o n a n d
Social Studies, w h i l e boys m o s t frequently disliked English a n d Social Studies.
Table
4;
Rates o f L i k i n g a n d Disliking School Subjects
Percent liking subject
English
Social
Studies
Mathematics
Art/Music
Home
Economics
Vocational
Education
Computer
Science
Physical
Education
Foreign
languages
Science
Percent disliking subject
Complete
sample
Males
Females
Complete
sample
Males
75.7
[n=126D
77.3
[rr=1270]
84.5
[rr=1269]
78.1
[ιτ=1267]
25.5
[n=1254]
17.8
68.5
[n=613]
79.0
[rr=617]
87.0
[rr=616]
70.6
[rr=614]
16.8
[n=608]
25.5
[n=608]
54.9
[n=610]
82.6
[n=615]
38.1
[n=608]
88.7
[rr=616]
82.4
[17=648]
75.8
[rr=653]
82.0
[17=653]
85.1
[t7=653]
33.7
[n=646]
10.5
[n=642]
33.6
[17=645]
71.0
[17=653]
51.9
[17=649]
74.8
[17=653]
21.4
[17=1261]
19.3
[n=1270]
13.6
[17=1269]
10.2
[17=1267]
10.0
[n=1254]
10.8
[rr=1250]
6.3
[n=1255]
17.3
[n=1268]
10.5
[t7=1257]
11.5
[n=1269]
26.9
[n=613]
17.2
[17=617]
11.5
[n=616]
14.8
[rr=614]
12.8
[n=608]
7.6
[n=608]
4.4
[17=610]
11.6
[rr=615]
13.3
[n=608]
9.4
[n=616]
[ΙΎ=1250]
44.0
[ιτ=1255]
76.6
[rr=1268]
45.3
[rr=1257]
86.7
[rr=1269]
Females
16.2
[rr=648]
21.4
[n=653]
15.6
[rr=653]
5.9
[n=653]
7.2
[n=646]
13.9
[n=642]
8.2
[n=645]
22.8
[n=653]
6.8
[n=649]
13.4
[rr=653]
Note: Means are based on the following scale: 1 = Very useful; 2 = Sometimes useful;
and 3 = Not useful at all. "I don't know" responses were excluded from the analyses.
T I P studies o f g e n d e r differences i n talented adolescents
197
Usefulness
of school subjects.
Table 5 provides t h e means f o r t h e overall sample a n d by
sex f o r t h e perceived usefulness of each school subject. B o t h girls a n d boys rated Mathematics
t h e m o s t useful subject, w i t h English a n d Science following. Girls considered Vocational
E d u c a t i o n a n d Physical Education t o be t h e least useful areas o f study f o r their futures, w h i l e
boys n a m e d A r t / M u s i c a n d t h e n H o m e Economics as t h e least useful subjects.
Forced-choice
comparisons
of school subjects.
A " l i k i n g " score for each subject was
c o m p u t e d b y d e t e r m i n i n g t h e number of times a given subject was chosen over another subject
i n a series o f forced-choice comparisons. Each subject w a s evaluated against another five times,
so a t o t a l score o f five w a s possible; a subject receiving a score of 5 w a s preferred over every
other subject. T a b l e 6 presents means for the overall sample a n d b y sex f o r t h e degree of liking
of school subjects. Girls liked subjects i n t h e following order, beginning w i t h t h e i r favorite subject:
art/music, m a t h , science, English, physical education, a n d social studies; boys liked science t h e
best, w h i c h t h e y liked slightly m o r e t h a n m a t h , t h e n physical education, social studies, art/music,
and English.
Table
5:
M e a n Usefulness of School Subjects for C o m p l e t e Sample a n d as a Function of
Sex
Subject
English
Social Studies
Mathematics
Art/Music
Home Economics
Vocational Education
Computer Science
Physical Education
Foreign languages
Science
Complete sample
Ν
Mean
s.d.
1188
.56
1.39
.63
1092
2.01
.46
1207
1.22
1014
.75
2.30
854
.81
2.23
.77
763
2.24
944
.68
1.59
1084
.76
2.22
.65
1044
1.86
.66
1136
1.52
Mean
Males
s.d.
Ν
Mean
1.44
2.01
1.18
2.36
2.30
2.00
1.47
2.10
1.90
1.46
.58
.60
.43
.73
.79
.77
.62
.77
.65
.61
575
538
599
599
400
390
499
538
510
574
1.34
2.02
1.26
2.25
2.17
2.50
1.72
2.32
1.81
1.57
Females
s.d.
.53
.66
.49
.76
.83
.67
.73
.73
.66
.70
Ν
613
554
608
529
454
373
445
546
534
562
Note: Means are based on the following scale: 1 = Very useful: 2 = Sometimes useful;
and 3 » Not useful at all. "I don't know" responses were excluded from the analyses.
Table
6:
M e a n L i k i n g Scores of School Subjects as a Function of Forced-choice C o m p a r i ­
sons between Classes for C o m p l e t e Sample a n d as a F u n c t i o n of Sex
Subject
Art/Music
English
Math
Physical Education
Science
Social Studies
Complete sample
(n=1272)
Mean
s. d.
2.56
1.93
2.99
2.47
2.86
2.04
1. 74
1. 50
1. 63
1. 76
1. 58
1. 51
Males
(rr=618)
Mean
s.d.
1.70
1.54
3.11
2.82
3.14
2.08
2.16
1.36
1.58
1.73
1.52
1.47
Females
(n=654)
Mean
s.d.
2.93
2.29
2.87
2.13
2.61
2.00
1.70
1.54
1.54
1.72
1.59
1.54
Liking
college
majors. Table 1 presents means f o r t h e overall sample a n d b y sex for t h e
degree o f liking o f each college major. N o t e that males a n d females did n o t differ i n their ratings
198
David Goldstein a n d V i c k i Β. Stocking
of t h e college majors o f Biological Sciences, Business A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , O t h e r liberal arts,
Pre-Dental, o r Pre-Medical.
T h e rankings of these majors, illustrated i n Table 8 , are especially interesting. T h e five most
highly rated majors for boys are m a t h , c o m p u t e r science, physical science, e n g i n e e r i n g , and
pre-medical; girls preferred fine arts, pre-law, pre-medical, f o r e i g n languages, a n d m a t h ,
respectively. These t w o groups share pre-medical a n d m a t h as h i g h l y r a t e d majors, b u t they
differ dramatically o n t h e rankings of several classes. C o m p u t e r science a n d m a t h as college
majors w e r e tied for t h e boys' favorite major, b u t t h e girls r a n k e d t h i s m a j o r 1 1 t h o u t of 1 8 .
Similarly, boys ranked physical sciences 3 r d and engineering 4 t h , w h i l e girls r a n k e d these majors
1 0 t h a n d 1 5 t h , respectively. Conversely, girls ranked fine arts a n d f o r e i g n languages 1st and
4 t h , respectively, w h i l e boys ranked these majors 1 1 t h a n d 1 0 t h , respectively.
Table
7:
Subject
M e a n L i k i n g of College Majors for C o m p l e t e S a m p l e a n d as a F u n c t i o n of Sex
Mean
2.57
Biological sciences
2.79
Social sciences
Physical Sciences
2.43
3.18
Political science or
economics
Engineering
2.75
Foreign languages
2.62
2.23
Mathematics
Other liberal arts
3.01
(philosophy, history, etc.)
2.35
Pre-medical
2.46
Fine arts (music, art,
ballet, drama, etc.)
3.46
Pre-dental
3.63
Agriculture
Computer Science
2.43
Pre-law
2.42
Nursing
3.37
Business administration 2.65
2.82
Physical education or
recreation
Journal ism
2.94
Note:
much,
about
major
Total sample
Ν
s .d.
Mean
Males
s .d.
Ν
Mean
Females
s.<i.
Ν
1..24
1..19
1..24
1..18
1260
1258
1254
1258
2.58
3.00
2.13
3.06
1 .21
1 .26
1..26
1..18
611
611
611
611
2.61
2.59
2.72
3.29
1..26
1 .20
1 .26
1..17
649
647
647
647
1..31
1..27
1..31
1..24
1258
1259
1259
1260
2.21
2.93
2.09
3.07
1..16
1..27
1..26
1..21
611
611
611
611
3.26
2.31
2.36
2.96
1 .23
1 .20
1 .34
1..26
647
647
647
647
1.31
1 .41
1258
1255
2.40
2.99
1.30
1 .17
611
611
2.30
1.96
1 .32
1 .45
647
647
1..24
1 .16
1 .21
1 .33
1 .34
1 .16
1 .37
1259
1259
1259
1259
1253
1256
1258
3.50
3.54
2.09
2.64
3.91
2.67
2.61
1..22
1..17
1..11
1..32
1..11
1..14
1 .32
611
611
613
612
606
608
610
3.42
3.72
2.76
2.21
2.87
2.63
3.02
1 .25
1 .14
1 .22
1..30
1 .33
1 .17
1 .30
647
647
646
647
647
648
648
1 .30
1256
3.21
1 .24
608
2.68
1 .30
648
Mean liking scores based on the following scale: 1 = I would like this major very
2 = I would 7ike this major a little,
3 = I have no opinion or do not know much
this major, 4 = I would dislike
this major a little,
and 5 = I would dislike
this
very much.
Comparisons
of males' and females'
responses.
A series o f t-tests of ratings indicates
significant sex differences i n every set of items. Table 9 presents a list of each i t e m i n w h i c h
males a n d females differed at at least t h e . 0 5 level of significance c o r r e c t e d f o r multiple
comparisons. T h i s table is arranged t o illustrate t h e preferences o f males a n d females f o r each
set of items. F r o m this table, it is clear that even these very talented students display stereotypical
patterns of attitudes about school, i n terms of various ratings o f s c h o o l subjects a n d college
majors. I n all significantly different comparisons, males preferred m a t h a n d t h e sciences, while
females gave higher ratings t o English, languages, a n d art/music.
199
T I P studies o f g e n d e r differences i n talented adolescents
T h e s e data are i m p o r t a n t because they can help educators t o understand t h e attitudes students
have a b o u t s c h o o l , a n d t h e possible relationship of these attitudes w i t h future plans (e. g.,
interest i n college majors). T h e r e is a g r o w i n g need t h r o u g h o u t t h e industrialized w o r l d f o r
individuals versed i n t e c h n i c a l a n d academic fields, a n d i t is valuable t o n o t e t h e patterns of
academic interests i n students as they develop (e. g., Clark, 1 9 8 8 ) . It is especially crucial t o
identify w h e n negative attitudes begin, particularly w h e n they are differentiated b y gender.
T h e s e differences i n attitude stand i n sharp contrast t o earlier studies conducted at T I P that
have d e m o n s t r a t e d little o r n o difference i n classroom performance i n m a n y o f the same school
subjects ( S t o c k i n g & Goldstein, 1 9 9 2 ) . Even i n mathematics a n d science, girls i n t h e T I P SRP
p e r f o r m e d at levels c o m p a r a b l y h i g h t o that of males. T h u s , i f there is a n i m p e d i m e n t t o t h e
r e c r u i t m e n t o f m o r e females i n t o m a t h a n d science careers, t h e i m p e d i m e n t appears t o be
related t o attitudes t o w a r d s these subjects rather t h a n gender-related ability differences i n these
subjects.
Table
8:
R a n k i n g o f College Majors b y M e a n L i k i n g as a F u n c t i o n of Sex
Females
Males
Rank
Mean
1 iking
Subject
Fine Arts
Pre-law
Pre-medical
Foreign language
Mathematics
Social Sciences
1.96
2.21
2.3
2.31
2.36
2.59
2.,61
2.,64
2.,67
2.,93
2,,99
3
7
8
9
10
11
12
Biological Sciences
Business Administration
Journal ism
Physical Science
Computer Science
Nursing
2.61
2.63
2.68
2.72
2.76
2.87
3,.06
3,.07
13
14
2.96
15
16
Other Liberal Arts
Physical education/
Recreation
Engineering
Political Science/
Economi cs
Pre-dental
Agriculture
15
Journalism
3,.21
16
17
18
Pre-dental
Agriculture
Nursing
3,.5
3,.54
3 .91
Note:
very
much
this
Mean
much,
about
major
Mean
1 i ki ng
1
2
3
4
5
6
14
8
9
10
11
12
13
Subject
2..09
2.,09
2..13
2.,21
2.,4
2.,58
Mathematics
Computer Science
Physical Science
Engineering
Pre-medical
Biological Sciences
Physical education/
Recreation
Pre-law
Business Administration
Foreign language
Fine Arts
Social Sciences
Political Science/
Economics
Other Liberal Arts
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Rank
17
18
3.02
3.26
3.29
3.42
3.91
liking scores are based on the following scale: 1 « I would like this major
2 = I would like this major a little, 3 = I have no opinion or do not know
this major, 4 - I would dislike this major a 1 ittle, and 5 - I would dislike
very much.
Study 3 : Gender differences in career interest
T h e academically talented are a special g r o u p w i t h specific attributes a n d concerns. O n e
i m p o r t a n t area o f research c o n c e r n i n g this g r o u p addresses t h e development o f career interests
200
David Goldstein a n d V i c k i Β. Stocking
a n d choices. S o m e researchers believe that these processes are especially c o m p l e x f o r talented
students, because these students tend t o have a w i d e range o f interests a n d abilities that does
n o t lend itself t o a clear occupational p a t h (Kerr & Ghrist-Priebe, 1 9 8 8 ) . T h i s "multipotentiality"
creates t h e need f o r specific career counseling techniques that emphasize needs a n d values and
provide m o r e structure t h a n o p e n exploration (Colangelo & Zaffrann, 1 9 7 9 ) . Understanding
t h e patterns of career interest a n d choice i n this g r o u p is further complicated by recognizing
t h e implications of gender issues for talented students, especially talented girls (Hollinger, 1 9 8 5 ) .
This investigation attempts t o describe patterns o f interests i n specific careers for a g r o u p of
academically talented seventh graders. Career interests tend t o b e c o m e m o r e differentiated
during adolescence ( K e n , 1 9 8 8 ) , a t i m e w h e n students are developing t h e ability t o t h i n k i n
terms of t h e future.
Table
9:
Significantly Different Comparisons b y Sex of School Subjects and College Majors
Area of comparison
Rated higher by males
(n-618)
Rated higher by females
(n=654)
School
subjects :
degree of liking
Computer Science, Math,
Science, Physical
Education, Vocational
Education
Art/music, English,
Foreign languages, Home
Economi cs
School
subject$ :
perceived usefulness
Math, Physical Education,
Science
School
subjects :
liking as a function
of forced-choice
comparisons between
classes
Math, Physical Education,
Science
Art/music, English
College majors:
degree of liking d
Agriculture, Computer
Science, Engineering,
Math, Physical Education
or recreation, Physical
sciences, Political
science or economics
Fine arts, Foreign
languages, Journalism,
Nursing, Pre-Law, Social
sciences
0
b
0
Note: All means listed differ at the .05 level of significance corrected for multiple
comparisons or higher.
a
Males and females rated all school subjects significantly differently in terms of
liking.
b
The subjects of Home Economics, Computer Science, and Vocational Education were
excluded from this analysis because of a high rate of "I don't know" responses (over
2 0 % ) . No significant difference was found in the usefulness ratings of the school
subjects Art/Music, English, Foreign languages, or Social Studies.
c
No significant difference was found in the forced-choice comparison scores of the
subject of Social Studies.
d
No significant differences were found in the ratings of the college majors of
BiologicalScienes, Business Administration, Other liberal arts, Pre-Dental, or
Pre-Medical.
Method
T h i s study was conducted i n a fashion comparable t o that of Study 2 . T h r e e thousand of t h e
approximately 5 7 , 0 0 0 applicants t o t h e 1 9 9 0 Talent Search w e r e selected t o take p a r t i n t h e
Talent Search Questionnaire project according t o t h e following criteria: w e selected o n e
T I P studies of gender differences i n talented adolescents
201
thousand each W h i t e males a n d W h i t e females a n d five h u n d r e d each n o n - W h i t e males a n d
females. O f these three thousand, 1 2 7 2 (42.4%) participated b y r e t u r n i n g completed question­
naires. O n e section of t h e 1 9 9 0 T S Q concerns h o w m u c h students t h i n k t h e y w o u l d like o r
dislike each of 6 0 occupations. Occupations w e r e chosen t o represent a variety of fields a n d ,
i n particular, t o solicit i n f o r m a t i o n o n m a t h - a n d science-related occupations.
Students rated each occupation according t o t h e following scale: (A) I w o u l d like this
o c c u p a t i o n very much. (Β) I w o u l d like this occupation a little. (C) I have n o o p i n i o n o r d o n o t
k n o w m u c h about this occupation. (D) I w o u l d dislike this occupation a little. (Ε) I w o u l d dislike
t h i s occupation very
much.
Students w e r e t o l d t o rate each occupation only b y h o w m u c h they w o u l d like o r dislike each
according t o t h e specific activity that occupation involves, regardless of salary o r status. Students
w e r e told that i f they indicate they w o u l d like a n occupation that they are n o t necessarily stating
a n i n t e n t i o n t o pursue that occupation.
Results a n d D i s c u s s i o n
A series of t-tests indicated that males and females rated m a n y occupations significantly
differently. Table 1 0 presents a n alphabetical list of each occupation i n w h i c h males and females
differed at at least t h e . 0 5 / 5 9 comparisons = . 0 0 0 8 level of significance.
Tahie
10:
Alphabetical list of occupations rated significantly differently b y males and females
Occupations given higher
ratings by males
Occupations given higher
ratings by females
Air Force officer
Airline pilot
Architect
Army officer
Athletic coach
Auto mechanic
Biologist
Carpenter
Chemist
Computer programmer
Electrician
Engineer
Laboratory technician
Marine Corps Officer
Navy officer
Physicist
Professional athlete
Research scientist
Stockbroker
Surgeon
Actor/actress
Art/music teacher
Artist
Dancer
Daycare center operator
Editor
Elementary school teacher
English teacher
Foreign language teacher
Guidance counselor
Homemaker
Interior decorator
Lawyer
Math teacher
Musician
Newspaper reporter
Nurse
Psychologist
Social worker
Veterinarian
Writer
Note: No gender differences were found for the occupations of Accountant,
Banker, College professor, Dentist, Farmer, Insurance agent, Judge,
Mathematician, Medical doctor, Physical Education teacher, Politician,
President of a large company, Real estate agent, Sales representative,
Science teacher, Social Studies teacher, and Statistician.
D a v i d G o l d s t e i n a n d V i c k i Β. Stocking
202
These results suggest significant gender differences i n o c c u p a t i o n a l interests, w i t h males rating
vocations (e. g., A u t o mechanic, Electrician) and science o c c u p a t i o n s h i g h e r t h a n females, and
t h e females demonstrating preferences for teaching a n d t h e arts. It is n o t a b l e t h a t Medical
doctor, part of a traditionally male-dominated field, was rated equally attractive b y males and
females, but this is o n e of t h e few areas that did n o t reflect a gender difference.
It is widely recognized
technical fields such as
p h e n o m e n o n , however,
understand this issue, as
that t h e n u m b e r of females c u r r e n t l y w o r k i n g i n o r e n t e r i n g highly
mathematics o r t h e sciences is small. T h e reasons u n d e r l y i n g this
are unclear. T h e present research effort represents a step i n t r y i n g t o
it pertains t o h i g h ability students.
T h e present findings m a y indicate that gender differences i n o c c u p a t i o n a l choices are
attributable t o factors occurring earlier t h a n t h e seventh grade, i m p l y i n g t h a t a n y interventions
aimed at steering females i n t o m a t h a n d science occupations (for example) m a y need t o be
i m p l e m e n t e d at a n earlier p o i n t i n t i m e .
A careful e x a m i n a t i o n of the list of favored occupations f o r males a n d females also suggests
that differences i n prestige a n d potential i n c o m e a m o n g various careers m a y be m o r e salient
for males t h a n for females. These issues deserve further scrutiny.
Conclusions
These three studies demonstrate the extent t o w h i c h gender differences a m o n g h i g h ability
students are f o u n d primarily i n the d o m a i n of attitudes r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e d o m a i n of ability o r
performance. It is increasingly clear that the l o w ratings t h a t females give t o mathematically
related school subjects, college majors, and careers is n o t based u p o n a n objective lack of
mathematical ability. Rather, it is t h e perception
of l o w ability t h a t m a y be responsible. Y o u n g
females and their families have n o doubt been influenced b y t h e host of studies t h a t have
suggested lesser female ability i n mathematics and t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g explanations that
emphasize t h e biological inevitability of that lesser ability.
T h e data presented here suggest that the occurrence of l o w female ability i n mathematics is
rapidly b e c o m i n g outdated. Indeed, the dramatic decline i n t h e ratio of e x t r e m e l y high-scoring
males t o females o n t h e S A T - M a t h test f r o m 1 3 : 1 i n 1 9 8 1 - 1 9 8 3 t o less t h a n 3 : 1 i n 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2
suggests that t h e gender gap is closing rapidly a n d m a y w e l l disappear - as i t has for t h e
SAT-Verbal test - by t h e e n d of t h e decade. It m a y be fitting t h a t as w e a p p r o a c h t h e 2 1 s t
Century, w e w i l l be able t o discard some of the perceptions t h a t shaped t h e lesser role of females
i n the worlds of m a t h and science during the 2 0 t h Century.
T h e next generation of h i g h ability youngsters needs t o be educated i n such a w a y t h a t gender
is n o longer a barrier t o career choice. T h e needs of t h e n e x t c e n t u r y w i l l be such that t h e
abilities of half of o u r citizens cannot any longer be systematically a n d w r o n g f u l l y underesti­
mated.
Acknowledgements
T h e authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of J o h n W i l s o n , J e n n i f e r K u e h n , M a r y
Charles H o t t a n d L a u r a Porter i n the p r e p a r a t i o n of this m a n u s c r i p t .
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Gender differences among talented adolescents:
Research studies by SMPY and C T Y at The Johns Hopkins
University
L i n d a E . Brody, L i n d a B . Barnett, and C a r o l J . Mills
Center
for Talented
Youth,
The Johns
Hopkins
University,
Baltimore,
USA
Researchers at T h e J o h n s H o p k i n s University have been studying gender differences i n
aptitude and achievement a m o n g talented adolescents for a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w o decades. Since
1 9 7 2 , talent searches conducted under the auspices of the Study of Mathematically Precocious
Y o u t h (through 1 9 7 9 ) and t h e Center for Talented Y o u t h (since 1 9 8 0 ) have revealed gender
differences i n performance o n t h e mathematical p o r t i o n of t h e Scholastic A p t i t u d e Test (SAT-M)
(Benbow & Stanley, 1 9 8 3 ; D u r d e n , Mills, & Barnett, 1 9 9 0 ; Fox & C o h n , 1 9 8 0 ) . C o n c e r n
about this p h e n o m e n o n has stimulated considerable research i n a n a t t e m p t t o shed light o n t h e
extent and causes of gender differences i n aptitude and achievement, particularly i n mathematics
and science.
This paper presents a n overview of gender differences i n students' p e r f o r m a n c e i n the talent
searches and academic p r o g r a m s sponsored b y the Center for Talented Y o u t h (CTY). I n
addition, other studies conducted b y researchers at J o h n s H o p k i n s t h a t have described o r
attempted t o understand gender differences i n t h e talent search p o p u l a t i o n are summarized
briefly.
Gender Differences in C T Y Talent Searches
Seventh Grade Search. C T Y ' s annual talent search invites 7 t h graders w h o score i n t h e t o p
three percent o n a n in-grade standardized test and w h o live i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r e g i o n of t h e
U n i t e d States o r abroad t o take the Scholastic A p t i t u d e Test (SAT). C T Y ' s t a l e n t search r e g i o n
includes 1 9 states and t h e District of Columbia, plus a n international c o m p o n e n t . Regional
talent searches are also conducted i n the U n i t e d States b y D u k e University (see related p a p e r
by David Goldstein and V i c k i B . Stocking i n this volume), N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y , a n d t h e
University of Denver, and there are several state and local talent searches utilizing t h e J o h n s
H o p k i n s m o d e l as w e l l .
T h e S A T was designed t o predict success i n college a m o n g h i g h school seniors. W h e n used
out-of-grade-level w i t h 7 t h graders, this test is useful as a n indicator of e x c e p t i o n a l m a t h e m a t i c a l
and/or verbal reasoning ability. T h e h i g h ceiling o n the m o r e difficult S A T p e r m i t s discriminat i o n of ability a m o n g students w h o all p e r f o r m w e l l o n in-grade achievement tests.
A l t h o u g h males w e r e somewhat m o r e represented i n the early J o h n s H o p k i n s talent searches,
the ratio has been a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 : 5 0 since 1 9 8 0 w h e n C T Y was created a n d t h e search
expanded (see Figure 1). Talent searches held i n 1 9 9 1 and 1 9 9 2 , however, suggest a slight
trend t o w a r d males o u t n u m b e r i n g females again, w i t h females i n those searches representing
4 8 . 1 % and 4 9 . 0 % of the participants, respectively. C T Y w i l l continue t o observe future searches
t o see w h e t h e r this t r e n d continues.
In spite of fairly equal p a r t i c i p a t i o n by males and females, small b u t consistent gender
differences i n talent search m e a n scores o n the S A T - M have been observed, w i t h males
Gender differences a m o n g talented adolescents
205
o u t p e r f o r m i n g females o n this test. Table 1 shows t h e m e a n scores of C T Y talent search
participants since 1 9 8 0 . Differences between t h e m e a n scores of males a n d females range f r o m
a l o w o f 1 9 p o i n t s ( 1 9 9 1 ) t o a h i g h of 3 6 p o i n t s ( 1 9 8 4 ) , always favoring males. T h i s difference
has been less i n r e c e n t years than i n earlier talent searches, however.
Table
1:
M e a n S A T Scores of Talent Search Participants
SAT-M
Female
390
390
380
377
375
383
384
388
384
380
394
388
400
Year
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
Male
421
420
410
408
411
417
416
421
415
404
422
407
423
SAT-V
Female
377
362
361
359
352
353
354
358
349
355
354
360
354
Male
373
369
361
361
358
363
359
358
355
356
353
356
350
TSWE
Female
40
39
39
38
38
38
39
38
38
38
39
38
38
Male
38
37
37
35
36
37
36
36
36
35
37
35
36
In contrast t o t h e gender differences i n performance o n t h e S A T - M , gender differences o n
the verbal p o r t i o n o f t h e S A T a m o n g talent search participants have been very small o r
non-existent, w i t h t h e slight differences fluctuating between favoring males a n d females.
Differences have also b e e n very small o n t h e Test of Standard W r i t t e n English, a test of w r i t i n g
skills a n d English usage, t h o u g h they favor females. Essentially, however, n o meaningful gender
differences i n v e r b a l ability have been observed i n t h e C T Y talent search p o p u l a t i o n .
25000 τ
20000
<>
/ 15000•
Β 10000-
5000-
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92
year
Figure
1:
Males
Η Females
T o t a l Participants (Talent search 1 9 8 0 - 1 9 9 2 )
L i n d a Ε. B r o d y , L i n d a Β. B a r n e t t , a n d C a r o l J . Mills
206
Gender Differences
Among the Highest Scorers on SAT-M. B e n b o w a n d Stanley attracted
considerable a t t e n t i o n i n 1 9 8 3 w h e n they published t h e ratios of m a l e t o female h i g h scorers
o n S A T - M a m o n g 7 t h graders i n t h e J o h n s H o p k i n s talent searches i n 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 8 1 , a n d 1 9 8 2 .
T h e y r e p o r t e d ratios of a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w o males t o every female s c o r i n g 5 0 0 o r m o r e , four
males t o every female scoring 6 0 0 o r m o r e , a n d 1 3 males t o every female s c o r i n g 7 0 0 o r m o r e
(Benbow & Stanley, 1 9 8 3 ; see Table 2). C T Y ' s m o r e recent t a l e n t searches s h o w considerable
i m p r o v e m e n t i n these male/female ratios since those early years; these results are also s h o w n
i n Table 2 . A n analysis of gender differences o n S A T - M f r o m t h e t a l e n t searches h e l d b y C T Y
between 1 9 8 4 a n d 1 9 9 1 f o u n d that t h e ratio of males t o females s c o r i n g 5 0 0 o r above during
those years was still almost 2 : 1 . T h e r e was, however, a slight i m p r o v e m e n t at t h e 6 0 0 o r above
level; this ratio decreased f r o m t h e previously r e p o r t e d 4 males t o every female t o a ratio of
3.4:1.
Table
2:
Score
500 or above
600 or above
700 or above
Gender Differences A m o n g H i g h Scorers o n S A T - M i n J o h n s H o p k i n s Talent
Searches
1980 - 1982 1 ' 3
Females
Males
1,707
3.618
158
648
9
113
M/F Ratio 6
2.1:1
4.1:1
12.6:1
1984 - 1991 2 ' 4
Males
Females
20.569 10,528
4.647
1,292
622
108
M/F Ratio 5
1.9:1
3.4:1
5.7:1
Data from Benbow and Stanley, 1983.
Data from Barnett and Corazza, 1992.
^otal tested: 19,883 males, 19,937 females. Additional students tested for 700 or above distinction,
'hotal tested: 122,185 males, 121,063 females.
^The M/F ratio was adjusted to compensate for the total number of males and females tested except for the
1980-82 700 or above ratio where total tested was unknown.
x
2
A n even m o r e dramatic change t o o k place, however, d u r i n g t h e years 1 9 8 4 t h r o u g h 1 9 9 1
at t h e 7 0 0 o r above level; 5.7 males scored 7 0 0 or above f o r every female t h a t reached that
level, one-half t h e n u m b e r r e p o r t e d by B e n b o w a n d Stanley i n 1 9 8 3 . O f course, t h e p r o p o r t i o n
of total talent search participants w h o score at this level is very small, since these are extremely
h i g h scores. Nonetheless, it is encouraging t o n o t e that t h e p r o p o r t i o n of students w h o score
7 0 0 o r above o n S A T - M before age 1 3 t h a t is female is h i g h e r t h a n w a s previously t h o u g h t .
Young Students'
Search. I n 1 9 9 2 , C T Y initiated a talent search f o r 5 t h a n d 6 t h graders
using t h e U p p e r Level f o r m of t h e Secondary School Admissions Test (SSAT). A s i n t h e 7 t h
grade talent search, t h e purpose of choosing a n above-grade-level f o r m of t h e test was t o
discriminate a m o n g students w h o all p e r f o r m w e l l o n in-grade tests. N o r m s f o r 8 t h a n d 9 t h
grade students w e r e used for c o m p a r i s o n purposes. O f t h e 7 , 9 4 4 students w h o participated,
males w e r e s o m e w h a t m o r e represented t h a n females ( 5 4 % c o m p a r e d t o 4 6 % ) . T h i s contrasts
w i t h t h e m o r e equal representation i n t h e 7 t h grade search.
A s i n t h e 7 t h grade search, males o u t p e r f o r m e d females o n t h e quantitative p a r t o f t h e test,
t h o u g h differences w e r e small. A m o n g 5 t h graders, t h e m e a n scores w e r e 2 7 9 f o r females a n d
2 8 4 for males out of a possible total score of 3 5 0 ; a m o n g 6 t h graders t h e y w e r e 2 8 9 a n d 2 9 6 ,
respectively. N o gender differences w e r e found o n the verbal p o r t i o n of t h e S S A T . Since this
was t h e first year of this talent search, it will be i m p o r t a n t t o observe t r e n d s over t i m e . C T Y
also plans t o observe t h e relationship between scores earned i n t h e y o u n g students' talent search
a n d later S A T scores obtained by t h e same students.
G e n d e r differences a m o n g talented adolescents
207
The School and College Abilities
Test. I n a n a t t e m p t t o identify precocious reasoning ability
a m o n g students y o u n g e r t h a n 7 t h grade, C T Y has also used t h e School a n d College A b i l i t y
Test ( S C A T ) . A study o f gender differences a m o n g students i n t h e 2 n d t h r o u g h 6 t h grades i n
p e r f o r m a n c e o n a n above-grade-level f o r m of t h e S C A T f o u n d significant differences i n
m a t h e m a t i c a l ability f a v o r i n g males (ρ ^ .001). A t every grade level, t h e m e a n difference was
at least o n e - t h i r d o f a standard deviation. A closer e x a m i n a t i o n of responses t o items o n the
S C A T suggested g e n d e r differences according t o mathematical subskills. C o m p a r i s o n of factor
scores revealed n o differences between males and females o n tasks requiring students t o identify
w h e t h e r e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n was provided i n order t o solve t h e p r o b l e m . H o w e v e r , males
o u t p e r f o r m e d females o n p r o b l e m s that required students t o a p p l y algebraic rules o r algorithms,
as w e l l as tasks w h e r e t h e understanding of mathematical concepts a n d n u m b e r relationships
was required (Mills, A b l a r d , & Stumpf, 1 9 9 3 ) .
Other Standardized Tests
I n a n a t t e m p t t o characterize t h e magnitude and p a t t e r n of gender differences i n performance
o n a variety o f standardized tests, Julian Stanley a n d colleagues analyzed 8 6 nationally
standardized a p t i t u d e a n d achievement tests (Stanley, B e n b o w , B r o d y , Dauber, & L u p k o w s k i ,
1 9 9 1 ) . T h e tests included t h e Differential A p t i t u d e Tests (DAT) t a k e n by students i n t h e 8 t h
t h r o u g h 1 2 t h grades, achievement and aptitude tests t a k e n b y h i g h school students (including
t h e S A T , P r e l i m i n a r y Scholastic A p t i t u d e Test, A m e r i c a n College Testing P r o g r a m e x a m i n ­
a t i o n , A d v a n c e d Placement examinations, and College B o a r d achievement tests), and t h e tests
t a k e n b y college students i n t h e U n i t e d States for admission t o t h e nation's graduate, medical,
business, a n d law schools.
Except f o r t h e D A T , t h e results of w h i c h w e r e based o n a n o r m a t i v e sample, all of t h e tests
investigated t h e results f o r t h e total national p o p u l a t i o n of test-takers d u r i n g the years
investigated; t h u s , sample sizes w e r e generally exceptionally large. Except for t h e D A T again,
most of t h e tests are o p t i o n a l and are taken for purposes of admission o r earning credit for
c o u r s e w o r k c o m p l e t e d . Students taking these tests are a fairly selective g r o u p of students w h o
expect t o p e r f o r m reasonably well.
Males excelled m o s t i n mechanical reasoning, females i n spelling; w o m e n w e r e slightly ahead
i n language usage, clerical speed and accuracy, English c o m p o s i t i o n , a n d knowledge of some
foreign languages; m e n w e r e higher i n quantitative reasoning, as w e l l as i n political science,
physics, E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y , c o m p u t e r science, and chemistry. T h u s , higher test performance by
males t h a n females w a s n o t limited t o quantitative fields, as most previous studies had implied.
Gender differences w e r e consistent across tests a n d grade levels and appeared o n achievement
as well as a p t i t u d e tests. T h e pattern of greater differences at t h e upper levels of ability found
i n the talent searches w a s u p h e l d o n m a n y of these tests, a n d differences i n some areas were
great e n o u g h t o affect admission t o selective colleges a n d universities.
C T Y Academic Programs
Enrollment
in Summer
Programs.
CTY conducts rigorous academic s u m m e r programs for
highly capable students i n grades 7 t h r o u g h 1 0 . A separate p r o g r a m was offered for t h e first
t i m e d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r of 1 9 9 2 for h i g h scorers f r o m the y o u n g students' talent search and
is n o w h e l d every s u m m e r .
Eligibility r e q u i r e m e n t s t o attend the p r o g r a m for 7 t h graders a n d above are: for a m a t h o r
science course a m i n i m u m score of 5 0 0 o n S A T - M a n d a composite of S A T - M + S A T - V of at
least 9 3 0 ; t o e n r o l l i n a humanities course, students must score at least 4 3 0 o n S A T - V and 3 5
208
L i n d a Ε. B r o d y , L i n d a Β. B a r n e t t , a n d C a r o l J . Mills
o n t h e Test of Standard W r i t t e n English. Gender differences i n p e r f o r m a n c e o n t h e S A T - M
obviously result i n gender differences i n eligibility for s u m m e r p r o g r a m s .
For e x a m p l e , of 4 2 , 7 3 4 students w h o t o o k t h e S A T i n C T Y ' s 1 9 9 2 talent search, o n l y slightly
m o r e males t h a n females w e r e eligible t o enroll i n C T Y ' s s u m m e r p r o g r a m ( 1 0 . 6 % versus 9 . 2 % ,
respectively). H o w e v e r , t h e difference is m o r e significant w h e n o n e considers students eligible
t o enroll i n a mathematics or science course; 6 . 8 % of t h e males tested c o m p a r e d t o o n l y 3 . 9 %
of the females tested m e t C T Y ' s eligibility requirements for these courses. T h u s , gender
differences o n standardized tests m a y lead t o additional differences i n o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o
participate i n special educational programs. Differential p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n such p r o g r a m s b y
males a n d females m a y contribute t o greater gender differences i n b e h a v i o r a n d achievement.
Choice of Programs.
I n addition t o gender differences i n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e n r o l l i n a C T Y
mathematics o r science course as a result of differences i n p e r f o r m a n c e o n t h e S A T - M , differing
interests m a y be contributing t o gender differences i n mathematics a n d science achievement.
T h e students whose scores made t h e m eligible t o choose t o take either a m a t h e m a t i c s o r science
course o r a humanities course i n t h e 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 0 , and 1 9 9 1 s u m m e r p r o g r a m w e r e studied.
O f the eligible males, 5 8 % elected a m a t h or science course c o m p a r e d t o o n l y 4 0 % of t h e
eligible females. Females were m o r e likely t o choose a humanities course ( 6 0 % c o m p a r e d t o
4 2 % of t h e males; Mills, 1 9 9 2 a ) .
It is certainly a p p r o p r i a t e for students t o select a humanities course f o r w h i c h t h e y are eligible.
H o w e v e r , w h e n w e study gender differences i n mathematics a n d science, i t is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e
that any differences i n achievement due t o gender differences i n a p t i t u d e a n d / o r o p p o r t u n i t y
may be intensified by males a n d females preferring and choosing different l e a r n i n g experiences.
Achievement
in Summer
Programs.
Gender differences have b e e n assessed i n t e r m s of
achievement i n t h e mathematics courses i n t h e C T Y summer p r o g r a m . O n e n t r a n c e placement
tests, females appear t o be equally prepared. However, given a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o proceed at
their o w n pace, the males are m o r e likely t o move at a faster pace t h r o u g h t h e c u r r i c u l u m .
A n analysis of mathematics achievement a m o n g the students w h o attended t h e C T Y p r o g r a m
i n 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 0 , a n d 1 9 9 1 found that the majority of students c o m p l e t e d o n e course at a h i g h
level, including 6 5 % of t h e females and 6 3 % of the males. H o w e v e r , females w e r e slightly m o r e
likely n o t t o complete a full course ( 1 9 % of females versus 1 4 % of males), a n d t h e students w h o
c o m p l e t e d t w o o r m o r e courses were somewhat m o r e likely t o be m a l e ( 2 2 % of males versus
1 6 % of females) (Mills, 1 9 9 2 a ) . T h u s , there were subtle differences i n m a t h e m a t i c s achievement
i n t h e p r o g r a m . W h i l e one cannot rule out differences i n ability a n d / o r m a t h e m a t i c s b a c k g r o u n d
as contributing factors, it is likely that m o t i v a t i o n and/or self-confidence m a y be c o n t r i b u t i n g
t o the a m o u n t of mathematics students complete i n the three w e e k s u m m e r p r o g r a m .
In C T Y science classes, gender differences favoring males w e r e f o u n d i n post-test scores i n
C T Y Physics classes. H o w e v e r , this was n o t t h e case i n the biology o r c h e m i s t r y classes (Güstin
& Corazza, i n press).
Math/Science
Credit/Placement.
Studies have also been conducted o n students' success i n
receiving credit a n d / o r placement for courses t a k e n i n t h e C T Y s u m m e r p r o g r a m w h e n t h e y
return t o school. I n t e r m s of requesting a p p r o p r i a t e credit and p l a c e m e n t : i n m a t h a n equal
percentage of males (80%) and females (83%) requested credit o r p l a c e m e n t , b u t i n science
there w a s a gender difference w i t h 7 2 % of males and o n l y 5 9 % of females initiating discussion
about credit or placement. T h i s discrepancy may relate t o males' greater self confidence i n t h e i r
science abilities a n d willingness t o accelerate i n t o m o r e advanced science courses.
W i t h regard t o receiving credit or placement: O f those w h o requested credit o r p l a c e m e n t i n
science, there were n o statistically significant gender differences i n t e r m s of those w h o w e r e
granted i t . Over 7 0 % of science students (regardless of gender) w h o requested p l a c e m e n t
Gender differences a m o n g talented adolescents
209
received i t , a n d 4 0 % received credit. I n m a t h , however, although a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 0 % o f each
gender w a s a w a r d e d placement u p o n request, there was a gender difference i n those awarded
credit f o r m a t h courses: O n l y 3 0 % of females versus 4 0 % of males w h o requested credit for
m a t h courses t a k e n d u r i n g the summer actually received it (Mills & A b l a r d , 1 9 9 2 ) .
G e n d e r Differences in Personality Traits and Attitudes
Personality
Studies. Mills (1992ab) studied gender differences i n personality variables a m o n g
C T Y s u m m e r p r o g r a m participants and found that either a ''thinking" o r "feeling" cognitive/psy­
chological style as measured by the Myers-Briggs T y p e Indicator (ΜΒΊΠ) was related t o
differences i n ability a n d achievement. Academically talented males w e r e m o r e likely t o be
" t h i n k i n g " types, m o r e goal directed, a n d less concerned w i t h t h e needs of others t h a n
academically talented females. ' T h i n k i n g " females, however, like their male counterparts, had
higher S A T - M scores, chose math/science courses i n larger numbers, a n d achieved at higher
levels o n c e e n r o l l e d i n a flexibly paced mathematics class t h a n "feeling" females. T h u s , " t h i n k i n g "
males a n d females w e r e similar i n aptitude and achievement, as w e l l as o n other personality
variables. T h e s e findings suggest the possibility that t e m p e r a m e n t m a y contribute t o one's
developed abilities, a n d t h a t personality, i n particular a t h i n k i n g o r feeling cognitive style, m a y
influence educational a n d career choices and one's persistence i n pursuing goals. If so, it is
possible t h a t g e n d e r differences i n t h e thinking-feeling d o m a i n m a y influence gender differences
i n behavioral o u t c o m e s . A d d i t i o n a l studies are underway at C T Y t o clarify this relationship
further.
Attitudes
Toward Mathematics.
Studies conducted at J o h n s H o p k i n s i n t h e late 7 0 ' s and
early 8 0 ' s f o u n d t a l e n t search females less confident i n their mathematical ability t h a n males,
even w h e n S A T - M scores w e r e comparable. Males also responded m o r e stereotypically t o
categorizing m a t h e m a t i c s as a male d o m a i n . A m o n g t h e females, those w i t h h i g h aptitude but
low interest i n m a t h e m a t i c s exhibited less confidence i n their mathematical abilities, depicted
mathematics m o r e stereotypically as male, and viewed m a t h as less useful t h a n those w i t h
greater m a t h e m a t i c s interest (Fox, B r o d y & T o b i n , 1 9 8 2 , 1 9 8 5 ) .
Recently, a study w a s conducted t o investigate w h e t h e r such differences still persist. Similar
results w e r e f o u n d a m o n g students w h o attended a C T Y summer p r o g r a m d u r i n g the summers
of 1 9 8 9 o r 1 9 9 0 , all of w h o m had scored a m i n i m u m of 5 0 0 o n t h e Scholastic A p t i t u d e
Test-Mathematics a n d a t o t a l of 9 3 0 o n the verbal a n d mathematical p o r t i o n s c o m b i n e d . Males
exhibited greater confidence i n their mathematics ability, and reported m a t h as m o r e useful and
m o r e stereotypically a male d o m a i n t h a n females. A subgroup of students w h o had selected a
m a t h o r science course at C T Y for at least t w o summers was studied as a high-math-interest
g r o u p for g e n d e r differences. N o differences w e r e found for usefulness o r confidence,
suggesting t h a t girls w h o chose t o take m a t h or science i n the p r o g r a m are likely t o exhibit as
m u c h confidence i n t h e i r mathematical abilities and w e r e as likely t o view m a t h as useful as
their m a l e c o u n t e r p a r t s (Mills, Brody, & K r u g , i n preparation). It is possible that a lack of
confidence inhibits female participation i n mathematics and science at advanced levels, and
that females w h o have t h i s confidence are m o r e likely t o persevere i n t h e study of advanced
mathematics a n d science.
Conclusion
Studies of t a l e n t e d adolescents conducted b y researchers at J o h n s H o p k i n s d o c u m e n t
consistent g e n d e r differences o n standardized tests of quantitative reasoning ability, as w e l l as
in other cognitive areas. A l t h o u g h such differences have n o t emerged o n verbal reasoning tests,
they w e r e f o u n d i n non-quantitative areas such as history and political science.
210
L i n d a Ε. B r o d y , L i n d a Β. B a r n e t t , a n d C a r o l J . Mills
I n measures of quantitative ability, males o u t p e r f o r m e d females o n tests t a k e n b y students as
y o u n g as 2 n d grade t h r o u g h college students a p p l y i n g t o graduate school. I n t h e C T Y talent
search, some i m p r o v e m e n t i n females' performance o n t h e S A T - M c o m p a r e d t o males' has
been n o t e d i n recent years. I n particular, a m o n g the highest scorers o n S A T - M i n t h e C T Y
talent searches, t h e ratio of males t o females scoring at this level is considerably less t h a n was
evident i n t h e talent searches conducted i n 1 9 8 0 - 8 2 .
In addition t o gender differences i n test performance, t h e research summarized here suggests
differences between males a n d females i n educational opportunities, interest, m o t i v a t i o n , self
confidence, a n d personality traits that m a y contribute t o differential achievement b y males and
females i n mathematics a n d science. M o r e w o r k is needed t o help us understand t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
effect o f these variables i n d e t e r m i n i n g the attitudes and behaviors of talented individuals.
References
Barnett, L. B., & Corazza, L. (1992). Identification of mathematical talent and programmatic
efforts
to facilitate development
of talent. Paper presented at the symposium Mathematical talent:
Differential aspects of its development and fostering, Hamburg, Germany.
Benbow, C. P., & Stanley, J . C. (1983). Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability: More facts.
Science, 222, 1 0 2 9 - 1 0 3 1 .
Durden, W. G., Mills, C. J . , & Barnett, L. B. (1990). Aspects of gender differentiation in the Johns
Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth. In W. Wieczerkowski, & Τ. M . Prado (Eds.), Highly
talented young women (pp. 166-185). Bad Honnef, Germany: Κ. H . Bock.
Fox, L. H . , Brody, L. E., & Tobin, D. (1982). The study of social processes that inhibit or enhance
the development of competence and interest in mathematics among highly able young women:
Report to the National Institute of Education.
Baltimore, M D : Johns Hopkins University,
Intellectually Gifted Child Study Group.
Fox, L. H . , Brody, L. E., & Tobin, D. (1985). The impact of intervention programs upon course-taking
and attitudes in high school. In S. F. Chipman, L. R. Brush, & D. M. Wilson (Eds.), Women and
mathematics: Balancing the equation (pp. 249-274). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Eribaum Associates.
Fox, L. H . , & Cohn, S. J . (1980). Sex differences in the development of precocious mathematical talent.
In L. H . Fox, L. E. Brody, & D. Tobin (Eds.), Women and the mathematical mystique (pp. 94-111).
Baltimore, M D Johns Hopkins University Press.
Gustin, W. C , & Corazza, L. (in press). Mathematical and verbal reasoning as predictors of science
achievement. Roeper
Review.
Mills, C. J . (1992a). Gender, personality, and academic ability. Paper presented at the meeting of the
Eastern Educational Researchers Association, Hilton Head, SC.
Mills, C. J . (1992b). Personality,
learning style and cognitive style profiles of
mathematically
talented students. Paper presented at the symposium Mathematical talent: Differential aspects of
its development and fostering Hamburg, Germany.
Mills, C. J . , & Ablard, Κ. E. (1992). Credit and placement: Math and science students' report (Tech.
Report No. 7). Baltimore, M D : Johns Hopkins University, Center for Talented Youth, Publications
and Resources.
Mills, C. J . , Ablard, K. E., & Stumpf, Η. (1993). Gender differences i n academically talented young
students' mathematical reasoning: Patterns across age and subskills. Journal of
Educational
Psychology, 85 (2).
Mills, C. J . , Brody, L. E., & Krug, D. (in preparation). Mathematics
attitudes and interests of
academically talented students.
Stanley, J . C , Benbow, C. P., Brody, L E., Dauber, S., & Lupkowski, A. E. (1992). Gender differences
on eighty-six nationally standardized aptitude and achievement tests. In N. Colangelo, S. G.
Assouline, & D. L. Ambroson (Eds.), Talent Development
(pp. 42-65). Unionville, NY: Trillium
Press.
VI.
SPECIAL GROUPS
Introduction
Betts a n d N e i h a r t ( 1 9 8 8 ) and m a n y others have p o i n t e d out that there is a g r o u p of gifted
children w h o are underserved because they w e a r a "double label". T h r e e contributions of this
part "Special G r o u p s " deal w i t h the case of such children, and they focus of different k i n d of
handicaps. N a v a Butler-Por describes the situation of underachieving children i n Israel w h o
have g r o w n u p i n a culture different of their o r i g i n . Diane M o n t g o m e r y illuminates t h e case of
gifted dyslexics, that is children of severe difficulties i n learning language but of h i g h general
intelligence. Ernst A . H a n y summarizes a w o r k s h o p o n gifted individuals w i t h physical
disabilities. A l l these groups suffer f r o m their talents n o t being recognized by t h e relevant people
around t h e m , o r b y these people being unable t o provide substantial help b o t h for overcoming
the h a n d i c a p a n d for fulfilling one's potential. A special case is made of children w i t h a n
unbalanced structure of intelligence whose problems arise f r o m the inner source of unequal
levels of skill.
G r o u p s of different restraints need different treatment. Nava Butler-Por presents a p r o g r a m
w h i c h a i m s at integrating differently cultured student i n t o the d o m i n a t i n g culture by stimulating
contacts t h r o u g h a two-level tutoring system. Gifted underachieving fifth graders, the target
group of t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n p r o g r a m , are t u t o r e d b y gifted eighth graders. Social activities and
learning projects are t h e topics of the cooperative w o r k w h i c h seems t o be very effective as
can be seen f r o m subjective statements. T h e tutors are supervised b y school counselors w h o
advise t h e m h o w t o carry out the activities of t h e p r o g r a m . A n o t h e r p r o g r a m w h i c h is presented
by Nava B u t l e r - P o r aims at intensifying the student-teacher contacts i n order t o facilitate the
e n c u k u r a t i o n o f t h e underachieving students. Diane M o n t g o m e r y deals w i t h t h e case of gifted
212
Introduction
dyslexics w h o need a completely different treatment. These children have specific learning
difficulties i n reading, spelling a n d w r i t i n g . Therefore, t h e perceptual a n d cognitive processes
w h i c h underly t h e process of acquiring a n d using language have t o be assisted by a processorientated intervention. Careful diagnostic analysis precedes and controls the individual design
of intervention t h e principles of w h i c h are presented by t h e author.
Quantitative data o n highly able children of a n unbalanced structure of intelligence are
presented by M a r i a Herskovits. H e r analyses focus o n students w h o showed large discrepancies
o n t h e t w o parts of t h e Wechsler Scales of Intelligence. A remarkably large g r o u p of gifted
pupils had a m u c h higher global score o n practical tasks t h a n o n verbal tasks and at the same
t i m e indicated several problems i n terms of school achievement a n d personality structure. O n
t h e other h a n d , lower but significant differences between t h e t w o parts of t h e Wechsler test did
n o t h o l d the test author's promise of diagnostic relevance, at least n o t i n the case of data Maria
Herskovits has collected i n H u n g a r y .
Gifted individuals w h o suffer f r o m physical handicaps have n o t received m u c h attention f r o m
the public. A special F o u n d a t i o n , located i n the D u c h y of Liechtenstein, aims at m a k i n g public
aware of t h e substantial m e n t a l potential physically handicapped persons m a y have. A full-day
w o r k s h o p of the T h i r d E C H A Conference dealt w i t h t h e question of p r o v i d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e
s u p p o r t t o this special g r o u p and attracted a big audience. Ernst A . H a n y summarizes t h e
contributions t o that w o r k s h o p w h i c h have been published i n G e r m a n language elsewhere. It
turned out that physically handicapped gifted individuals need a n incredibly h i g h level of energy
a n d m e n t a l and physical strength for convincing institutions of higher education and companies
t o give t h e m a fair chance.
If anyone still has h a d doubts that special efforts for educating the gifted is necessary, the case
material presented i n these contributions w o u l d convince h i m or her that it is.
Reference
Betts, G., & Neihart, M . (1988). Profiles of the gifted. Gifted Child Quarterly,
32, 248-253.
Gifted differently cultured underachievers in Israel
N a v a Butler-Por
University
of Haifa,
Haifa,
Israel
T h e professional interest i n the question of the realization of h u m a n potential w h i c h is
expressed i n m o d e r n educational ideology that believes i n t h e right of every child t o fully develop
his/her unique talents, has increased the awareness of the need t o cater for t h e special needs
of gifted children a n d provide a p p r o p r i a t e educational p r o g r a m m e s i n order t o fulfill their
specific needs. W h i l e increased w o r l d recognition of t h e needs of highly able children has
resulted i n t h e development of diverse p r o g r a m m e s for these children i n m a n y countries, it also
highlighted t h e p r o b l e m of hidden, undetected and unrealized talents of differently cultured
children (Karnes & J o h n s o n , 1 9 9 1 ; Khatena, 1 9 9 2 ; Passow, 1 9 8 2 ) .
T h e seriousness of t h e p r o b l e m of cultural underachievement i n Israel is emphasized by t h e
findings that despite t h e efforts invested i n t h e last four decades i n "bridging t h e educational
g a p " between t h e differently cultured a n d Western child p o p u l a t i o n , very few culturally different
children participate i n p r o g r a m m e s for gifted children i n general and i n t h e special classes for
highly gifted children i n particular. W h i l e it is impossible t o determine t h e full scope of cultural
underachievement, since children may for reasons w h i c h will be discussed later, choose n o t t o
reveal t h e i r t r u e abilities. T h e r e is a m p l e evidence that t h e p r o b l e m is widespread (Butler-Por,
1 9 9 3 ; Karnes & J o h n s o n , 1 9 9 1 ; Richert, 1 9 8 5 ; T h e T h o m a s and Hargreaves Report, 1 9 8 4 ) .
T h e p r o b l e m is highlighted by t h e professional literature's findings of t h e recent 1 9 9 1 and 1 9 9 2
diagnostic tests i n Israel. These tests aimed t o obtain a general and comprehensive picture of
the school achievement of t h e entire elementary school p o p u l a t i o n i n Israel i n arithmetic and
c o m p r e h e n s i o n . T h e results indicated that t h e highest p r o p o r t i o n of failure was a m o n g the
differently cultured Jewish and A r a b students. It is pertinent t o ask w h y i n spite of the efforts
invested i n "bridging t h e gap," i n Israel and the awareness that w h a t is needed is: " A real
c o m m i t m e n t o n t h e part of educator's and society at large t o the concept that talent is n o t t h e
prerogative of any racial or ethnic g r o u p , any social class or any residential areas. It may lie
u n t a p p e d i n some situations under some conditions, but n o p o p u l a t i o n has either a m o n o p o l y
o n o r absence of talents" (Passow, 1 9 7 2 , p . 31), the p r o p o r t i o n of identified ability i n differently
cultured children i n Israel is still very small. T h e answer t o the question of cultural underachievem e n t a n d the possibilities of alleviation of the p r o b l e m should be directed t o t h e following areas:
1. Historical factors
2. Cultural values and socialization practices
3. Diversification of identification criteria
4 . School related factors
H i s t o r i c a l Factors
A t the onset of t h e state of Israel i n 1 9 4 8 a n d the o p e n i n g of its gates t o i m m i g r a n t s f r o m
diverse cultures, t h e school p o p u l a t i o n became very heterogeneous. A h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of t h e
i m m i g r a n t child p o p u l a t i o n came f r o m Middle Eastern countries whose n o r m s of socialization,
values, expectations a n d cognitive experiences differed f r o m the pre-state d o m i n a n t Western
culture. T h e m o t i v a t i o n t o merge the different ethnic groups i n t o a m o r e cohesive entity has
N a v a Butler-Por
214
given impetus t o formulating educational and social objectives a i m e d at " b r i d g i n g t h e educational
g a p " between t h e oriental children believed t o be disadvantaged a n d t h e advantaged school
p o p u l a t i o n . M u c h of t h e thrust of t h e developments i n educational t h e o r y a n d practice has been
directed towards understanding t h e cultural differences i n socialization a n d t h e specific characteristics a n d needs of its children i n order t o develop provisions f o r e d u c a t i o n a l experiences
believed t o be conducive t o t h e cognitive a n d social development o f differently cultured children
and contribute t o t h e process of n a r r o w i n g t h e gap i n scholastic achievements. T h e ideology
resulted i n t h e educational " r e f o r m " w h i c h involved t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l changes i n t h e school
system: (1) T h e elementary education was conducted i n n e i g h b o u r h o o d schools; (2) T h e
secondary education was conducted i n integrated large schools, i n v o l v i n g "bussing" of children.
H o w e v e r , this system w h i l e stimulating n e w developments i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m , has also
highlighted t h e problems of erosion a m o n g t h e differently c u l t u r e d c h i l d r e n as a result of the
encounter of children w h o w e r e considered highly able i n t h e i r n e i g h b o u r h o o d elementary
school w i t h t h e advantaged secondary school pupils. T h e i r h i g h m o t i v a t i o n a n d expectations
inspired by t h e i r previous scholastic successes gave w a y t o helplessness a n d a d o p t i o n of
underachievement patterns of behaviour. Moreover, since insufficient k n o w l e d g e of their
specific characteristics a n d needs was available at the r i m e , teachers w e r e unable t o identify
h i g h ability w h e n manifested i n behaviour products w h i c h differed f r o m those w i t h w h i c h they
w e r e familiar. Similar problems arose later a m o n g the E t h i o p i a n i m m i g r a t i o n f o r t h e E t h i o p i a n
children. T h e transition f r o m their h o m e culture t o Israel c o n s t i t u t e d a "cultural shock." T h e
extreme differences i n t h e i r socialization a n d learning experiences has placed t h e m at t h e lower
end of the scale i n scholastic achievements. H o w e v e r , e m p i r i c a l experience has s h o w n that the
E t h i o p i a n children have m o t i v a t i o n and respect for l e a r n i n g , characteristics t h a t serve as
productive starting p o i n t s for t h e process of fulfillment of t h e i r p o t e n t i a l .
C u l t u r a l Values a n d S o c i a l i z a t i o n P r a c t i c e s
W h i l e it is understandable that it is difficult as Getzels has a r g u e d , t o identify h i g h intellectual
abilities i n children w h o have been socialized i n cultures a n d subcultures w h o s e values and
cognitive experiences differ f r o m those of t h e d o m i n a n t culture (Getzels, 1 9 6 9 ) , Passow ( 1 9 8 2 )
identified t h r e e e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors w h i c h contribute t o cultural underachievement: (a)
Experimental deprivation; (b) limited language development; (c) s o c i o e c o n o m i c o r racial
isolation.
Socialization factors and cultural characteristics have a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n e n h a n c i n g t h e child's
ability t o develop his potential. Frankenstein ( 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 8 4 ) f o r e x a m p l e , m a i n t a i n e d t h a t Middle
Eastern disadvantaged children are characterized by concrete d i c h o t o m i z e d associative and
affective t h i n k i n g . Since these characterize their culture, h e postulated t h a t t h e i r parents
socialization patterns could n o t provide the learning experiences t h a t are conducive t o
developing abstract and critical t h i n k i n g . H e concluded t h a t since t h e p a r e n t s are unable to
assume t h e educative role of providers of cognitive and social stimulus, teachers should fulfill
this role. Based o n these principles, Frankenstein devised special p r o g r a m s designed t o develop
abstract and cognitive abilities i n differently cultured c h i l d r e n . H i s t h e o r y a n d p r o g r a m s are
studied i n t h e Universities and are i m p l e m e n t e d by schools i n Israel.
Diversification of Identification C r i t e r i a
Current professional literature indicates that accurate assessment of abilities requires the
collection a n d evaluation of data f r o m different sources (Frasier, 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e need t o expand
t h e identification practices is of particular significance for t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f talent i n culturally
different students, i n view of t h e recent research o n intelligence a n d t h e assessment of
intellectual capacity, indicating that a n intelligence test provides a n i n c o m p l e t e a n d n a r r o w
215
Gifted differently cultured underachievers i n Israel
p i c t u r e of abilities (Gardner, 1 9 8 3 ; Sternberg, 1 9 8 8 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t is i m p o r t a n t t o emphasize
t h a t w h i l e t h e c r i t e r i a f o r identification of talents i n differently cultured children should include
non-test d a t a such as observations and individual reports (Khatena, 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d non-verbal
creative measures (Khatena & T o r r a n c e , 1 9 9 0 a b ; T o r r a n c e , 1 9 7 4 ) , t h e findings of a research
a i m e d at f i n d i n g m e a n s of identification of talents i n differently cultured children i n Israel,
indicated t h a t b y using t h e t o p quartile of the creative students o n t h e T o r r a n c e Non-Verbal
Tests o f Creative T h i n k i n g ( 1 9 7 4 ) , 6 0 % of t h e h i g h achievers a m o n g t h e Middle Eastern
differently c u l t u r e d e l e m e n t a r y school students w e r e identified (Butler-Por & Lancer, 1 9 8 1 ) . I n
a d d i t i o n , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n should consider the impact of cross-cultural experience a n d intercultural
i n t e r a c t i o n w h i c h have b e e n found significant i n c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e development of creative
abilities i n A r a b c h i l d r e n i n Israel (Man, 1 9 7 9 ) .
S c h o o l Related
Factors
T h e p r o b l e m o f detecting h i g h potential i n differently cultured children has been s h o w n t o be
affected b y t h e f o l l o w i n g inter-related educational factors: (a) Absence of Differentiation; (b)
Labelling a n d L o w T e a c h e r Expectations; (c) Incompatibility B e t w e e n L e a r n i n g Experiences
a n d E d u c a t i o n a l Needs.
(a) Absence
of Differentiation.
Generally, the educational programs aimed t o enhance t h e
scholastic d e v e l o p m e n t of differently cultured children t e n d t o perceive t h e m as a h o m o g e n e o u s
p o p u l a t i o n resulting i n stereotyping their characteristics, focussing o n t h e variables i n w h i c h
t h e y differ f r o m those o f t h e d o m i n a n t culture. Most of t h e programs w e r e based o n enrichment
for t h e e n t i r e differently cultured p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e class a n d thus generally failed t o cater for
t h e needs of t h e talented students t o help t h e m reach higher levels of cognitive t h i n k i n g .
(b) Labelling
and Low Teacher Expectations.
W h i l e t h e need t o "bridge t h e educational g a p "
b e t w e e n t h e student p o p u l a t i o n of the differently cultured a n d d o m i n a n t culture was recognized,
t h e undifferentiated a p p r o a c h t o the differently cultured school p o p u l a t i o n resulted i n the need
t o "label" t h e m i n o r d e r t o i m p l e m e n t the educational policies adopted. H o w e v e r , studies
investigating t h e efficacy o f p r o g r a m s for differently cultured children i n Israel, for example
(Smilansky, 1 9 8 1 ) , indicated t h a t the labelling process leads t o lowering t h e expectations of t h e
teacher w h i c h lowers t h e child's scholastic expectations, a process w h i c h inevitably results i n
underachievement (Butler-Por, 1 9 9 2 ; Rutter er α/., 1 9 7 9 ) .
(c) Incompatibility
Between
Learning
Experiences
and Education
Needs. T h e teachers'
l o w expectations f r o m t h e i r differently cultured pupils constituted t h e basis for their pedagogical
t h i n k i n g w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e kinds of curricula experiences provided a n d teaching methods
utilized for t h e i r p u p i l s .
Since t h e p r o g r a m m e s w e r e n o t designed t o discover and develop p o t e n t i a l , they w e r e n o t
a p p r o p r i a t e f o r d e v e l o p i n g t h e abilities of the gifted differently cultured children. Thus these
gifted c h i l d r e n , considered as "the most disadvantaged w i t h i n this already disadvantaged
c o m m u n i t y " (Smilansky, 1 9 8 1 , p. 2 7 3 ) are deprived of the learning experiences and t h e
intellectual stimuli needed i n order t o fulfil their educational needs a n d contribute t o enhancing
their m o t i v a t i o n f o r l e a r n i n g at a higher level a n d thus b r i n g about significant i m p r o v e m e n t i n
their scholastic achievements. Thus, these children w e r e n o t only deprived i n early childhood
of t h e l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e needed for concept f o r m a t i o n , language and intellectual develop­
m e n t , t h e y w e r e also d e p r i v e d at school. H e n c e , these deficiencies prevented t h e teachers f r o m
recognizing t h e i r p o t e n t i a l a n d f r o m providing t h e m w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e learning experiences
w h i c h w o u l d enable t h e m t o develop their " h i d d e n " abilities. W h e n w e consider t h e accumulated
effects of these processes i t is not surprising that gifted differently cultured children are n o t
f o u n d eligible f o r special gifted programmes i n schools.
Since t h e effects of scholastic failure are cumulative i t is i m p o r t a n t t o identify the gifted
N a v a Butler-Por
216
culturally different u n d e r a c h i e v e s as early as possible d u r i n g t h e i r p r i m a r y school education.
Early detection of potential should be followed by meaningful learning experiences w h i c h should
enable these children t o reach m a x i m u m development and benefit f r o m t h e educational
opportunities provided at the secondary and higher levels of education.
T h e question that must be asked: w h i c h educational experiences are significant f o r gifted
culturally different underachieving children w h o are n o t realizing t h e i r p o t e n t i a l since t h e y lack
t h e knowledge, learning habits a n d skills needed t o fulfil effectively t h e role of t h e pupil? In
addition, i t is i m p o r t a n t t o ask w h a t motivational needs have t o b e fulfilled i n order t o help
overcome underachievement behaviour and m a i n t a i n scholastic progress?
It seems t h a t learning t h e "Role of the p u p i l " could be achieved t h r o u g h close i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h
a tutor, w h o is a n older achieving gifted p u p i l , w i t h w h o m t h e y o u n g e r gifted differently cultured
underachiever can identify a n d f r o m w h o m she can learn t h e behaviours a n d skills w h i c h should
help her t o m a k e progress i n school and develop according t o her ability. T h e w o r k w i t h the
tutor should be accompanied by teacher intervention w o r k aimed t o cater f o r t h e m o t i v a t i o n a l
needs o f the individual child. These needs served as a basis for creating t h e f o l l o w i n g m o d e l of
intervention.
Intervention Model for Overcoming Scholastic Underachievement in Gifted
Differently Cultured Children
Rationale
T h e aims of this m o d e l are derived f r o m the educational a n d psychological needs o f differently
cultured gifted underachieves w h i c h w e r e discussed i n t h e previous sections, a n d o n m y
research and experience of w o r k i n g w i t h gifted children i n general a n d gifted u n d e r a c h i e v e s
i n particular (Butler-Por, 1 9 8 7 ) . T h e specific objectives w e r e f o r m u l a t e d o n t h e assumptions
expressed i n t h e professional literature that t h e differences i n t h e scholastic achievements of
p r i m a r y school differently cultured gifted children a n d those of the m a j o r i t y culture are mainly
expressed at t h e starting p o i n t (Gallagher & Kinney, 1 9 7 5 ) . F o r e x a m p l e , findings of a
longitudinal study of t h e effects of integration of differently cultured c h i l d r e n o f W e s t e r n origin
i n a p r i m a r y school i n Israel, indicated t h a t differences i n arithmetic achievements, for example,
w e r e solely quantitative (Klein & Eshel, 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e objectives for d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e differently
cultured gifted should also aspire t o meet special cultural needs a n d d e v e l o p specific talents. It
is i m p o r t a n t t o note t h a t some of the specific characteristics of differently cultured children,
such as focus o n interest learning, and p r o b l e m solving orientation, are also attributed t o creative
children.
It seemed that the objectives formulated for t h e special classes for t h e gifted, w h i c h aimed t o
cater f o r the development of children of b o t h convergent and divergent t h i n k i n g styles w o u l d
be meaningful for developing t h e potential abilities of gifted differently cultured u n d e r a c h i e v e s
(Butler-Por, 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 8 7 ) .
Objectives
Developing
formal
thinking
and intellectual
depth.
W h i l e intellectual d e v e l o p m e n t is
i m p o r t a n t for all children it is a n essential educational goal for differently cultured c h i l d r e n i n
view of their specific characteristics. H i g h l y intelligent children learn quickly, have excellent
memories, usually read extensively, and have a vast store of general k n o w l e d g e . These
characteristics lead t h e m t o believe that they completely understand t h e c o n c e p t s a n d ideas t h a t
they have read about. T h e lack of sufficient experiences a n d practice i n f o r m a l t h i n k i n g skills,
often leads t o t h e reluctance t o engage i n t h i n k i n g processes w h i c h involve greater d e p t h , a n d
may result, as i n t h e case of gifted underachieves, i n m e n t a l laziness. T h e s e characteristics
Gifted differently cultured underachieves i n Israel
217
mislead t h e teacher of t h e gifted, w h o assume t h a t t h e knowledgeable responses express
c o m p r e h e n s i o n , a n d t h e y may n o t be aware t h a t t h e y should direct a t t e n t i o n and invest effort
i n creating l e a r n i n g experiences that involve their pupils i n t h i n k i n g processes demanding
greater d e p t h . T h i s objective is vital for the differently cultured gifted children. These pupils,
for t h e reasons discussed above, do n o t receive t h e intellectual stimuli t h a t enable t h e m t o
develop adequate cognitive skills.
F u r t h e r m o r e w h e n t h e y enter neighbourhood elementary schools, further development is
h a m p e r e d as a result o f the low expectations teachers have f r o m differently cultured pupils,
w h i c h i n t u r n , d e t e r m i n e the selection of contents a n d teaching methods w h i c h are i n a p p r o ­
priate for d e v e l o p i n g f o r m a l t h i n k i n g skills (Chasin, 1 9 7 5 ; Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1 9 6 8 ; Rutter
et α/., 1 9 7 9 ) . T h u s it is most i m p o r t a n t t h a t teachers should be aware of t h e need t o w o r k
towards fulfilling t h i s objective w i t h differently cultured gifted underachievers.
Providing
tools for learning by self discovery and research methods. T h i s objective is most
relevant f o r t h e differently cultured underachiever since it enables h e r t o utilize specific talents
and thus c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e development of her self confidence. These learning processes enable
acceptance of n o n judgemental feedback w h i c h also serves t o raise t h e level of intrinsic
m o t i v a t i o n (Nisan & B u t l e r , 1 9 7 9 ) . Learning by discovery methods enables t h e gifted differently
cultured c h i l d t o d e t e r m i n e the rate of his individual progress by selecting assignments t h a t he
believes t h a t h e is able t o cope w i t h and complete. Consistent use of such methods improves
processes o f c o n c e p t f o r m a t i o n and the acquisition of self motivated learning habits w h i c h
should c o n t r i b u t e t o w a r d i m p r o v i n g scholastic achievements a n d thus reducing underachieve­
ment.
Developing
creative
thinking
and creativity.
A l t h o u g h t h e development of creativity is
i m p o r t a n t f o r all c h i l d r e n , it should constitute a n integral p a r t of intervention p r o g r a m m e s for
gifted differently cultured underachievers. T h e characteristics w h i c h are typical of the differently
cultured child's t h i n k i n g style are content centered rather t h a n f o r m centered, oriented
externally, problem-centered instead of abstract centered, slow, patient a n d persevering w h e n
interested, r a t h e r t h a n quick and clever. It is t h e f o r m a l language deficiencies, w h i c h Riessman
believes, constitutes t h e differently cultured child's "Achilles heel" i n t h e school (Riessman,
1 9 6 2 ) . T h e s e traits also characterize creative children a n d as such they serve t o reinforce t h e
low e x p e c t a t i o n o f t h e i r teachers w h o m a y n o t recognize t h e expressions of creative t h i n k i n g
and t h e creative p r o d u c t s i n different domains as indicators of h i g h potential. Since the child's
abilities are n o t recognized, the teacher also does n o t reinforce t h e m . T h e gifted differently
cultured c h i l d is n o t o n l y deprived of support and encouragement, but also of t h e appropriate
learning experiences i n t h e areas i n w h i c h he needs t o i m p r o v e - mainly i n t h e cognitive f o r m a l
t h i n k i n g skills.
Educating
Towards Social Involvement.
Educating towards social involvement i n school and
c o m m u n i t y is i m p o r t a n t for all gifted children w h o t e n d t o be m o r e individualistic, preferring
t o w o r k a l o n e o n t h e topics that interest t h e m (Butler, 1 9 7 6 ) . It is particularly relevant for t h e
gifted differently cultured underachievers, since success i n assuming responsibility for experi­
ences w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o the school and the c o m m u n i t y should help t h e m t o overcome their
feelings of d e p r i v a t i o n a n d t o acquire a sense of belonging, w h i c h should contribute t o their
feelings o f social acceptance, well being and self confidence.
Initiation and Implementation
T h e i n t e r v e n t i o n m o d e l consists of t w o interrelated separate p r o g r a m m e s w h i c h should be
conducted simultaneously. T h e gifted tutors are responsible for one p r o g r a m m e , the class
teacher is i n c h a r g e o f t h e second one.
Nava Butler-Por
218
Programme A: T h e tutorial sessions
The educational
team
O n e of t h e attractive features of launching a n e w educational m o d e l is the creative o p p o r t u n i t y
it offers those w h o are involved w i t h its beginning. I n this particular case it was i m p o r t a n t t o
create a supportive educational climate w h i c h constitutes a n essential pre-requisite f o r the
successful initiation a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of the project. For this purpose several meetings w e r e
planned for t h e participants of all t h e educationists involved w i t h the p r o g r a m m e :
A local representative of t h e Ministry of Education, t h e t w o principles of the schools involved
i n t h e p r o g r a m m e - t h e head teacher and t h e counsellor of the secondary school i n w h i c h the
gifted tutors study, t h e head teacher of t h e p r i m a r y school w h e r e t h e differently cultured gifted
underachievers studied, t h e class teachers of b o t h schools and the educational adviser f o r t h e
special classes i n H a i f a w h o was responsible f o r creating t h e m o d e l (the author). D u r i n g the
meetings t h e conceptualization and aims w e r e discussed a n d formulated and t h e different
aspects of the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w e r e finalized.
The
tutors
T h e following activities w e r e conducted i n order t o help the tutors t o understand t h e i r role
a n d prepare t h e m f o r t h e i r w o r k :
W o r k s h o p w i t h the educational t e a m - i n this m e e t i n g the tutors discussed the different aspects
of t h e m o d e l w i t h t h e educational adviser t o t h e special class for t h e gifted. T h e p r i m a r y school
principle described her school and t h e needs of her gifted differently cultured underachieving
pupils, and t h e t u t o r ' s school counselor presented the activities i n w h i c h t h e y w o u l d be involved.
Personal m e e t i n g between the t u t o r and t h e school counselor - i n this meeting t h e specific
objectives a n d activities for the first meeting w i t h their " c h i l d " w e r e discussed, emphasizing t h e
responsibility of t h e t u t o r f o r p l a n n i n g the activities. I n addition the t u t o r was advised h o w t o
w r i t e a personal diary w h i c h w o u l d include t h e objectives, contents, activities a n d personal
description and evaluation for each meeting.
The
population
T h e tutors: 2 8 8 t h grade pupils participating i n t h e special classes gifted p r o g r a m m e i n H a i f a .
T h e tutored - 2 8 5 t h grade differently cultured gifted underachievers, w h i c h w e r e selected for
t h e intervention p r o g r a m m e o n t h e basis of observations of behavior i n class, m o t i v a t i o n a l
needs and evaluation of potential conducted b y the professional staff of their school.
Structure
and
contents
Personal
relationships:
T h e tutorship will be conducted o n a one-to-one basis i n v o l v i n g the
t u t o r and t h e t u t o r e d . Sixteen weekly meetings w i l l take place between the t u t o r - t h e secondary
school gifted p u p i l a n d t h e differently cultured gifted underachiever. Each meeting lasting t w o
hours.
Personal
project:
T h e t u t o r a n d "her" underachiever will select a personal project for t h e i r
cooperative learning. T h e criteria for choice of topic: a) personal interest of t h e differently
cultured underachiever i n t h e topic, b) M o t i v a t i o n for learning m o r e about the topic, c) Practical
possibilities of developing and c o m p l e t i n g t h e project. T h e t u t o r and "her c h i l d " w i l l share t h e i r
learning experiences, study f r o m different sources, and present their findings i n w r i t i n g a n d i n
creative products. T h e t u t o r w i l l thus be able t o stimulate curiosity, i m p r o v e learning skills, tools
and methods w h i c h she herself has learned i n t h e gifted p r o g r a m m e . It was hypothesized that
these activities w o u l d provide intellectual stimulus, developing t h i n k i n g skills and learning habits
w h i c h should help towards m a k i n g better progress i n school. It was believed that t h e tutorial
sessions w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e d cognitive a n d social experiences w o u l d constitute a d y n a m i c
process p r o v i d i n g c o n t i n u e d feedback, positive reinforcement and affective s u p p o r t , factors
Gifted differently cultured underachievers i n Israel
219
w h i c h should contribute t o the development o f intrinsic m o t i v a t i o n w h i c h should enable the
gifted differently cultured child t o sustain t h e progress he has made i n school. Creativity was
encouraged by diverse creative methods of presenting t h e projects.
Creative experiences:
T h e t u t o r and "his c h i l d " w o u l d create games i n different areas aimed
t o develop a n d clarify concepts utilizing unconventional methods capable of developing and
expressing creativity.
Social activities: Jointly, t u t o r and underachiever w i l l p l a n a n d organize g r o u p activities aimed
t o involve the participants of this p r o g r a m m e i n contributing t o t h e school a n d their c o m m u n i t y .
It was believed t h a t social development, just as m o r a l g r o w t h (Piaget, 1 9 6 6 ) c a n only take place
t h r o u g h active p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n meaningful and productive social experiences.
It was assumed t h a t participation i n the social activities w o u l d provide t h e differently cultured
gifted underachievers w i t h the sense of belonging w h i c h is particularly i m p o r t a n t for these
children. Since t h e development of social responsibility constitutes one of t h e objectives of the
gifted p r o g r a m m e of special classes w i t h the regular school, it was h o p e d t h a t t h e satisfaction
experienced f r o m t h e successful c o m p l e t i o n of t h e social projects w o u l d motivate b o t h partners
- the t u t o r s and t h e tutored t o continue w i t h social oriented activities later o n .
A l l t h e meetings w e r e conducted at the p r i m a r y school i n w h i c h t h e gifted underachieving
differently cultured children study. T h e tutors' school counselor was present i n all the meetings
i n order t o help t h e tutors w i t h possible difficulties o r problems w h i c h m i g h t arise.
Follow up and evaluation:
T h e following methods w e r e utilized: (a) Regular meetings of t h e
project's educational t e a m w e r e convened i n order t o discuss the evolving processes, (b)
Meetings between tutors a n d the school counselor. Weekly meetings between t h e t u t o r and t h e
counselor responsible for t h e project w e r e conducted, i n w h i c h the previous meeting of t h e
tutor w i t h t h e underachiever was discussed and evaluated, a n d the subsequent meeting was
p l a n n e d , after they b o t h read the tutor's account i n his diary and discussed t h e problems w h i c h
arose, (c) Final evaluation meeting between t h e gifted differently cultured children w h o
participate i n t h e p r o g r a m m e , their class teachers a n d t h e school's p r i n c i p a l . T h e meeting was
devoted t o t h e evaluation of t h e different aspects of t h e p r o g r a m m e s and suggestion for further
p r o g r a m m e s planned for t h e following school years.
Evaluation and conclusions
I n order t o evaluate t h e efficacy of the tutorial p r o g r a m m e , a final meeting was convened, i n
w h i c h all t h e tutors and t h e educational t e a m responsible for the p r o g r a m m e participated. T h e
tutors w e r e asked t o assess (1) w h a t their pupils have learned, (2) w h a t t h e y themselves have
learned. It is interesting t o note that the tutors have discovered some of the characteristics and
the problems associated i n the literature w i t h differently cultured children (Frankenstein, 1 9 8 4 ;
Passow, 1972) as well as some of the behavioral characteristics of gifted underachievers
(Butler-Por, 1 9 8 7 ) . A l l tutors agreed o n the following characteristics:
- T h e t u t o r e d children had difficulties w i t h concentration, a n d w e r e n o t capable of persevering
i n c o m p l e t i n g tasks. W i t h time their concentration a n d task c o m m i t m e n t i m p r o v e d .
- T h e y tended t o b e c o m e distracted, w a n t i n g t o k n o w w h a t their friends w h o sat next t o us
did. T h e y w e r e inclined t o t h i n k that their friends w e r e d o i n g better things. T h e y felt deprived.
- T h e y seemed curious a n d interested but did n o t k n o w h o w t o go about learning the things
they w e r e interested i n . I n later meetings, they learned h o w t o find out things, a n d achieved
m u c h better achievements t h a n w e expected.
- T h e y seem t o lack a sense of belonging and w e r e reluctant t o talk about their families.
- T h e y need s u p p o r t a n d encouragement. T h e y are very loveable.
- T h e y m a d e g o o d progress i n the following areas: T h e y enjoyed reading about different topics
220
Nava Butler-Por
i n addition t o those related t o t h e i r personal project. T h e y learned t o analyse and summarize
t h e material t h e y read, t o ask relevant questions and seek t h e answers t o their questions.
T h e y i m p r o v e d t h e i r ability t o pose a n d solve problems. T h e i r spelling a n d w r i t i n g i m p r o v e d .
T h e y learned t o create original games, capable of revealing t h e correct answers t o t h e
questions t h e y posed. T h e y discovered that learning is f u n and that presenting their findings
i n attractive ways a n d methods is enjoyable. T h e y learned h o w r e w a r d i n g it is t o w o r k w i t h
others a n d contribute t o t h e i r friends a n d school.
W h e n asked w h a t t h e y , as tutors, have learned, t h e y agreed o n t h e f o l l o w i n g aspects:
- W e discovered that differently cultured children are like all children of t h e i r age w h o need t o
learn t h e things t h e y do n o t k n o w i n order t o m a k e g o o d progress at school.
- T h e y are different f r o m o u r brothers a n d sisters i n responding w i t h greater enthusiasm t o
n e w experiences. It seems t o us that t h e y missed these stimulating experiences at h o m e .
- W e f o u n d out that t h e y did n o t receive t h e same help and a t t e n t i o n f r o m their parents that
w e get at h o m e . W e k n o w h o w i m p o r t a n t it is.
- W e k n o w that all children can i m p r o v e t h e i r school achievements and enjoy learning w h e n
they are provided w i t h help and encouragement.
- W e have discovered that w e have learned as m u c h as they did by w o r k i n g together a n d their
successes made us very h a p p y .
T h e t u t o r e d gifted d i f f e r e n t l y c u l t u r e d e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e t u t o r i a l p r o g r a m m e .
A t t h e end of t h e p r o g r a m m e , personal meetings between the children w h o participated i n
the tutorial sessions, t h e i r class teacher and t h e school p r i n c i p a l w e r e conducted i n order t o
evaluate t h e efficacy of t h e p r o g r a m m e . T h e assessment was based o n (a) t h e completed
personal projects (b) individual discussion w i t h each child.
T h e evaluation of t h e personal projects indicated that all children i m p r o v e d t h e i r w r i t i n g skills,
spelling, ability t o organize, p l a n a n d complete assignments. I m p r o v e m e n t was also n o t e d i n
t h i n k i n g skills, processing of w r i t t e n material, question asking a n d p r o b l e m solving. I n addition
it was noted that t h e personal projects revealed specific talents w h i c h the teachers w e r e n o t
aware of.
D u r i n g t h e personal meetings t h e underachievers agreed o n the following points:
- T h e meetings w i t h o u r tutors encouraged us t o read and find material f o r o u r project.
- T h e w o r k w i t h o u r tutors was very interesting. W e w o u l d like t o continue t o learn about our
t o p i c a n d w e asked o u r teachers t o help us.
- W e enjoyed discussing m a n y things w i t h o u r tutors and w e learned that it is fun t o learn w i t h
somebody else.
- W e n o w d o o u r h o m e w o r k w i t h o u t help at h o m e , and w e enjoy s h o w i n g our w o r k t o o u r
t u t o r , teacher a n d o u r headmistress.
- W e are h a p p y w i t h our progress at school and h o p e t o do even better next year.
- W e like d o i n g things together w i t h o u r friends for our teacher a n d our school.
E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e teachers a n d s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l
Generally i t was felt t h a t despite the limited duration of t h e tutorial p r o g r a m m e , it was possible
t o note t h e changes that occurred i n t h e following aspects:
- T h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n lessons increased.
- Quantative a n d qualitative improvements i n questions asked i n class w e r e n o t e d .
- W r i t i n g , spelling a n d t h i n k i n g skills i m p r o v e d .
- Productive ideas a n d outcomes of creative w o r k i n different areas increased.
Gifted differently cultured underachievers i n Israel
221
- Social involvement i m p r o v e d differentially: some children offered t o help o t h e r children w i t h
their school w o r k , others initiated a n d organized social activities for t h e class, some children
suggested t o t h e headmistress that t h e y w o u l d like t o assume responsibilities for various school
activities a n d functions. A few children did n o t volunteer!
Since t h e m o d e l was designed t o provide teachers w i t h a practical i n t e r v e n t i o n p r o g r a m m e
t h a t can be conducted i n school, it is suggested that this m o d e l should be used b y teachers for
t h e i r gifted differently cultured underachieving pupils i n parallel w i t h t h e tutorial p r o g r a m m e s
described above.
Programme B : T e a c h e r Intervention Model
Rationale
T h e intervention was based o n Glasser's t h e o r y w h i c h suggested that i n order t o break the
cycle of failure, t h e teacher should a t t e m p t t o change t h e scholastic behavior of t h e child t h r o u g h
a process involving three basic principles: (a) Acceptance of t h e child, (b) Recognition of the
need for changing t h e child's school situation, (c) Assuming personal responsibility for bringing
about the desired changes. T h e a i m of this p r o g r a m m e is t o offer a structured educational plan;
a p p r o p r i a t e for fulfilling t h e individual needs of gifted differently cultured underachievers
(Butler-Por, 1 9 8 7 ) .
Procedure
Identification processes should utilize unconventional measures a p p r o p r i a t e for detecting the
potential a n d specific abilities of differently cultured children. These processes should include
observations i n f o r m a l and n o n f o r m a l class situations, evaluation of creative expressions and
activities a n d personal meetings w i t h each child.
Building a diagnostic profile of each underachieving child w i t h t h e assistance of the school
counselor, o r t h e school psychologist. T h e personal file w o u l d facilitate acceptance of the child's
potential and guide the teacher i n helping the child t o recognize his capabilities and the need
f o r changing undesirable behavior and i m p r o v i n g scholastic achievements.
A preliminary m e e t i n g between teacher a n d p u p i l i n w h i c h need for change is recognized and
j o i n t responsibilities for effecting change are accepted. D u r i n g this meeting t h e teacher conveys
t o the child that she believes that he is bright and that she thinks that he could do m u c h better
i n school. She asks h i m w h e t h e r he agreed w i t h her, and discusses w i t h h i m the reasons and
problems that he believes prevent h i m f r o m attaining better achievements i n school. A t the end
of the m e e t i n g these intentions w e r e operationalized i n the f o r m of a contract by w h i c h the
p u p i l sets the assignments he has selected for the c o m i n g week a n d chosen those rewards w h i c h
w o u l d serve as reinforcers. Tasks and rewards w o u l d focus o n one o r m o r e of the following
problematic domains w h i c h are associated w i t h underachievement:
- L e a r n i n g - e.g. p r e p a r a t i o n of h o m e w o r k , p r e p a r a t i o n of creative w o r k , models, paintings,
and visual aids for topics learnt at school o r at h o m e , projects, talks o n subjects of special
interest.
- Social - e.g. organizing a social event, m a k i n g a contribution t o t h e class w i t h a friend, perhaps
o n cultural traditions, etc.
- Behavioral - e.g. reducing disruptive behavior i n class or i n the playground, trying t o stop
interfering w i t h other children's w o r k , reducing truancy, etc.
- Subsequent w e e k l y meetings devoted t o discussion, evaluation a n d reinforcement of
assignments accepted i n the previous w e e k and selecting n e w tasks a n d rewards for the
c o m i n g week. T h e rewards requested by t h e child f r o m t h e teacher enable t h e teacher t o
Nava Butler-Por
222
provide t h e child w i t h help f r o m other teachers o r peers, t o overcome difficulties and specific
problems a n d t o provide assurance that t h e teacher "is o n his side" - most i m p o r t a n t for
creating e m o t i o n a l security, w h i c h constitutes a n essential c o n d i t i o n f o r overcoming
underachievement. I n addition, the personal weekly meeting provides opportunities for
discussing t h e c h i l d ' s t u t o r i a l sessions a n d p r o v i d i n g feedback, r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d
encouragement.
- A final m e e t i n g at t h e e n d of t h e school year i n w h i c h teacher and child evaluate t h e success
of their joint efforts a n d agree that progress c a n be maintained w i t h o u t structured meetings.
T h e child accepts responsibility for m a i n t a i n i n g progress, w h i l e t h e teacher accepts
responsibility t o h e l p , s u p p o r t a n d encourage t h e child w i t h i n the class.
Conclusions and Educational Implications
I n this paper w e have discussed some of t h e issues, causes, problems and p r o g r a m m e s related
t o underachievement a m o n g gifted differently cultured children. W e have stressed the need t o
adopt non-conventional methods for the identification of cultural underachievement and
suggested remediation p r o g r a m m e s w h i c h have proved effective i n helping children t o i m p r o v e
their behavior a n d school achievements.
Furthermore, t h e evaluation of t h e processes a n d outcomes of t h e intervention p r o g r a m m e s
w h i c h were conducted, s u p p o r t Wilgosh's statement (Wilgosh, 1 9 9 0 , p . 14) that:
To attain the ultimate goal of identification
of differently cultured underachieving
gifted
children...and development of their full potential, models and practice must reflect dynamic
assessment using culturally and academically appropriate procedures, coupled with relevant
appropriate strategies for remediating underachievement
and maximizing
potential.
Finally, o u r findings have great relevance for educational practice. T h e initiation a n d
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of b o t h t h e tutorial p r o g r a m m e and teacher's intervention's m o d e l should
contribute t o t h e understanding c f the specific educational and m o t i v a t i o n a l needs of gifted
differently cultured children. I n addition, it is evident that given a p p r o p r i a t e tools t o initiate a n
intervention p r o g r a m m e and o n g o i n g support f r o m peers, tutors a n d teachers, it is possible t o
bring about significant changes i n the differently cultured gifted underachiever's school perfor­
mance and behavior. F u r t h e r m o r e , the two-fold a p p r o a c h described i n this chapter can be
introduced fairly simply i n t o educational school frameworks and can be i m p l e m e n t e d by gifted
tutors attending gifted p r o g r a m m e s and teachers helped by t h e professional personnel of the
school.
T o conclude, it seems most i m p o r t a n t t o develop diverse p r o g r a m m e s and evaluate the
p r o g r a m m e s w i t h gifted underachievers i n different cultures and investigate further the possible
effects of the intervention o n the teachers, a line of research w h i c h m a y be of great significance
for educational practice i n general and the education of gifted differently cultured underachievers
i n particular.
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prepared for International Journal of Special Education.
Underfunctioning: The problems of dyslexics and
their remediation
Diane
Middlesex
Montgomery
University,
London,
United
Kingdom
Abstract
D i a n e M o n t g o m e r y has been researching this area since 1 9 7 9 . H e r case analysis, experiments
a n d teaching studies have s h o w n that t h e core difficulty w h i c h needs t o be addressed is student
spelling problems. W h e n this is done by a specialist remedial p r o g r a m m e refined over t h e last
forty years b y m a n y w o r l d - r e n o w n e d remediators, t h e problems of dyslexia c a n be o v e r c o m e .
H e r research has identified a n articulatory awareness p r o b l e m w h i c h prevents t h e learning of
spelling d u r i n g t h e early years of schooling i n reading and w r i t i n g lessons. H e r t r a i n i n g m e t h o d s
have been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the remediation p r o g r a m m e s a n d are called "multisensory m o u t h
training".
Older dyslexics are helped b y the Alphabetic-Phonic-Syllabic-Linguistic p r o g r a m m e a n d
College a n d University students are helped b y her Cognitive Process Strategies for Spelling.
Able dyslexics are f o u n d i n all schools and can make u p m o r e t h a n 5 per cent of the p o p u l a t i o n .
Sadly parents a n d teachers often regard these pupils as dull or stupid because they are slow t o
learn t o read a n d spell. T h i s is often far f r o m the t r u t h . Students w i t h IQs of 1 5 0 o r m o r e c a n
have this difficulty just as easily as children of very low I Q . A l l of t h e m can be helped t o o v e r c o m e
the problem.
Introduction
Different attitudes and terminologies exist i n the areas of dyslexia and giftedness i n different
countries. I n England the t e r m developmental dyslexia is used t o describe those individuals w h o
have failed t o learn t o read a n d spell adequately for their age and ability. T h i s distinguishes t h e m
f r o m those w i t h acquired dyslexia w h o have learned t o read a n d spell m o r e o r less adequately
but b y reason of accident or brain injury have lost these abilities t o a greater or lesser extent.
H o w e v e r , t h e t e r m developmental dyslexia is only t o be seen i n clinical, cognitive, e x p e r i m e n t a l
a n d neuro-psychological literature. I n educational psychology, administration a n d teacher
education i t is m u c h m o r e likely that this p r o b l e m is described as 'specific learning difficulties
i n reading, spelling a n d w r i t i n g ' . This distinguishes it f r o m similar difficulties arising i n c h i l d r e n
w h o are generally slow t o l e a m including slower i n learning t o read and spell. T h e i r difficulties
are called 'general learning difficulties'. Specific learning difficulties i n N o r t h A m e r i c a n literature
are described as 'learning disabilities'. I n Eastern European countries this area of study is included
as one of t h e Defectologies. T h e reason w h y 'specific learning difficulties i n reading a n d spelling'
is a preferred t e r m i n education i n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m is because it removes the l o c a t i o n of
t h e p r o b l e m f r o m o w n e r s h i p by t h e student. It also suggests that it is n o t a p e r m a n e n t h a n d i c a p
a n d that a t t e n t i o n should be directed t o some kind of educational remediation. I n o t h e r w o r d s
something c a n be done t o help a n d the p r o b l e m is n o t the child's fault. T h i s illustrates a n
attitudinal change that c a m e w i t h the publication of the W a r n o c k R e p o r t ( 1 9 7 8 ) a n d develop-
U n d e r f i i n c t i o n i n g : Dyslexics a n d remediation
225
ments i n the field of special educational needs m o v i n g the concepts and models f r o m t h e medical
frame t o a contextual one.
T h e t e r m dyslexia created concern because it arose i n t h e clinical field a n d people, particularly
parents, tended t o t h i n k of it as a f o r m of medical disease o r disorder. Mittler (1990) sums u p
t h e current a p p r o a c h as a n 'ecological' m o d e l . I n this f o r m of analysis t h e child does n o t ' o w n '
t h e p r o b l e m , instead a range of external and internal factors w h i c h m t e r m i n g l e are considered
t o interact t o create a specific learning difficulty. T h i s c a n respond t o a p p r o p r i a t e educational
intervention so t h a t it is n o t allowed t o become a handicap t o t h e individual. T h e w o r d s
'disorder', 'diagnosis' and 'treatment' are therefore medical i n content a n d n o t a p p r o p r i a t e for
use i n t h e context of learning difficulties, instead 'assessment' of individual needs a n d differences
lead t o the development of ' i n t e r v e n t i o n ' p r o g r a m m e s and 'learning strategies.'
T h e w o r d 'dyslexia' itself means 'dys' - bad, o r difficulty w i t h ; 'lexis' - w o r d , particularly the
w r i t t e n w o r d . It is n o t t h e rubella of reading, as some parents seem t o t h i n k . I n the majority of
cases n o k n o w n pathology o r neurological difficulty can be uncovered, EEGs are n o r m a l and
B E A M analysis merely records the changes w h i c h occur as processing transfers during
remediation f r o m right t o left and right hemisphere processing typifying t h e developmental
changes i n t h e reading and spelling progress.
Hereafter the reading and spelling problems experienced b y t h e able pupils w i l l be referred
t o as 'dyslexia' f o r brevity but must be taken t o m e a n t h e specific learning difficulties i n reading
and spelling w h i c h these students suffer. T h e t e r m 'dysorthographia' w i l l be used t o refer t o
those w i t h spelling difficulties alone.
'Dyslexia' is just one of m a n y of the specific language difficulties that have been particularly
researched because of their p r o f o u n d effect u p o n learning i n school. A range of 'left'
hemisphere organised learning difficulties is listed below bearing i n m i n d t h a t there are a m u c h
smaller percentage, about 5%, w h o are left handed a n d right hemisphere d o m i n a t e d i n language
functions (Annett & Kilshaw, 1 9 8 3 ; Deutsch & Springer, 1 9 8 6 ) .
Developmental dyslexia
Pupils w i t h dyslexia have b o t h reading and spelling problems. H o w e v e r , it has been rare for
their difficulties i n spelling t o have been as t h o r o u g h l y investigated as t h e i r problems w i t h
reading. T h e spelling problems are most often m u c h m o r e severe a n d i n need of m o r e a t t e n t i o n
t h a n t h e reading difficulties. T h e incidence of the severest forms of the difficulty is t h o u g h t t o
be a n average 4 % of t h e British School P o p u l a t i o n (Rutter, Tizard et α/., 1 9 7 0 ) . Pupils are
reckoned t o have 'dyslexia' if their reading (and spelling) is unaccountably l o w i n relation t o
their intellectual abilities. It is therefore feasible for dyslexia t o be f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t the ability
range. I n practice dyslexia is generally only associated w i t h students of higher academic ability
because researchers set m i n i m u m thresholds of 9 0 or 1 0 0 I Q for t h e i r research populations t o
avoid t h e influence of other secondary variables i n understanding and r e m e m b e r i n g instructions
for example. T h e I Q threshold of 1 0 0 is also often set by remediators for e n t r y of dyslexics i n t o
specialist fast-tracking p r o g r a m m e s for obvious reasons. Slower learners are f o u n d t o gain m o r e
benefit f r o m developmental p r o g r a m m e s (Montgomery, 1 9 9 0 ) introduced across t h e curriculum
t h a n short t e r m remedial p r o g r a m m e s for 2 t o 3 hours per week.
Developmental dysorthographia
Pupils w i t h severe spelling problems and w i t h o u t signs of severely delayed reading are included
i n this t e r m . S o m e such pupils originally had a reading difficulty w h i c h has cleared u p , others
may have learned t o read very early and very easily but have s o m e h o w never mastered spelling
and w r i t i n g t o t h e same standard. S o m e never really master spelling at all w i t h o u t very specific
Diane Montgomery
226
help. It is easier f o r these pupils t o b u m p along i n t h e b o t t o m streams o r groups i n schools a n d
conceal t h e i r difficulties t o a large extent f o r t h e same demands are never m a d e u p o n their
spelling as t h e i r reading (Peters & S m i t h , 1 9 8 6 ) . Spelling is basically a total recall activity a n d
is therefore m u c h m o r e difficult t o achieve w i t h t o t a l accuracy t h a n reading w h i c h is a r e c o g n i t i o n
skill. H e n c e recovered dyslexics show signs of their problems whenever t h e y are c o n f r o n t e d
w i t h a n e w subject o r n e w t e r m i n o l o g y as i n t h e early stages of degree p r o g r a m m e s .
Developmental dysgraphia
T h e r e are a considerable n u m b e r of pupils, at least 1 0 p e r cent of t h e p o p u l a t i o n (Gubbay,
1 9 7 6 ; Laszlo, 1 9 8 9 ) , w h o have cüfficulties i n t h e free c o o r d i n a t i o n required i n h a n d w r i t i n g .
T h e i r difficulties m a y bear n o relationship t o reading a n d spelling difficulties b u t t h e current
methods of p r i m a r y teaching i n B r i t a i n using p r i n t script a n d c o p y w r i t i n g severely disadvantages
children w i t h these problems. A s t h e y find w r i t i n g so difficult a n d t i m e - c o n s u m i n g it leaves little
available cognitive processing for spelling a n d w r i t i n g a n d t h e y w r i t e very little, usually i n a
stereotypic f o r m . L a c k of practice i n spelling a n d w r i t i n g t o w h i c h t h e i r difficulty leads c a n be
s h o w n t o have a direct i m p a c t o n spelling development a n d so most pupils e n d u p w i t h b o t h
h a n d w r i t i n g a n d spelling difficulties. I n order t o overcome these it is essential that a cursive
h a n d w r i t i n g t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e is introduced f r o m t h e first days i n school.
Complex Specific Learning Difficulties
T h e difficulties already described m a y be f o u n d n o t only singly but i n c o m b i n a t i o n . M y
researches a n d those of Peters ( 1 9 7 0 ) show, for example, that at least 3 0 p e r cent of all dyslexics
have some f o r m of h a n d w r i t i n g difficulties. I n addition similar p r o p o r t i o n s m a y be f o u n d w i t h
subtle t o severe language difficulties. Pupils w i t h t h e severest forms of such c o m m u n i c a t i o n
disorders are said t o have developmental
dysphasia
and this is i n itself a w h o l e b r a n c h of
specialist enquiry. Developmental
dyscalculia,
a p r o b l e m i n the understanding and m a n i p u l a t i o n of numbers has a m o r e equivocal research base. T h e largest majority of t h e p r o b l e m s i n
this area can be associated w i t h t h e same fundamental
and underlying
deficit or
difficulty
as seen i n dyslexia. T h i s is a verbal processing
difficulty
(Miles, 1 9 9 2 ) . I n reading a n d spelling
it manifests itself as a 'phonological disability' underlying t h e establishment of verbal codes
(Frith, 1 9 8 5 ; Miles & Miles, 1 9 9 0 ; V e l l u t i n o , 1 9 7 9 ) . W h a t is therefore crucial i n research is t o
uncover t h e causes of such a phonological disability if this is possible a n d t o trace t h e effects
of it u p o n t h e learner so as t o be able t o p l a n remedial intervention strategies w h i c h m i g h t
obviate i t o r at least overcome some of its m o r e severe manifestations. T h i s w a y all stricken
children m i g h t l e a m t o be m o r e successful i n school a n d the highly able m i g h t o v e r c o m e w h a t
for t h e m is a totally disastrous a n d career-destroying p r o b l e m w h i c h consigns their intelligence
and h i g h ability t o m o r e devious manifestations such as disruption, disaffection f r o m school and
mental distress.
T h e broad outlines of m y research i n t h e area of dyslexia follow. T h e focus of this research
has been u p o n spelling difficulties of 2 8 8 dyslexics c o m p a r e d w i t h 9 4 c o n t r o l subjects a n d w i t h
a large range of case analyses of individual spellers f r o m kindergarten t o higher education.
Early abilities in reading and spelling
If w e examine t h e early w o r k of children encouraged t o w r i t e ' f r o m inside their o w n heads'
using any spelling skills t h e y can muster, w e can see a m a r k e d difference between t h e i r w o r k
a n d older dyslexics. For example:
T h e w o r k of Kelly a n d Faye w h o are i n their first m o n t h i n school and are b o t h five years old,
shows students w h o have 'cracked t h e alphabetic code' and are using it creatively i n t h e i r
227
U n d e r f u n c t i o n i n g : Dyslexics a n d remediation
spelling. E m m a is 6 years old a n d illustrates t h e kind of progress they c a n be expected t o make.
If they h a d been taught cursive w r i t i n g their progress w o u l d be even m o r e m a r k e d . Cursive
w r i t i n g is o n l y n o w being reintroduced i n t o kindergarten and year 1 i n schools i n B r i t a i n . It was
phased o u t for a p r i n t script i n the years after the 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 1 8 w a r o n t h e basis that it was
simpler a n d easier for infants t o learn. It failed t o take account of t h e needs of learning a n d
m o t o r p r o g r a m m i n g concentrating as it did u p o n t h e visual appearance of t h e p r i n t .
^
&
F i g u r e 1:
<*£*y
e
»'t' -toSiS
*U^t
S
B e g i n n i n g spellers creative spelling. U p p e r part: Kelly (5 years, 1 m o n t h : "Kelly
is i n bed. She is sick. She has chicken pox."); middle part: Faye (5 years, 1 m o n t h :
" M y little sister is i n bed because she is having h e r tonsils out."); lower part: E m m a
(6 years: "Giraffes are t h e biggest animals i n t h e w o r l d ...")
T h e w r i t i n g of dyslexics shows very different patterns f r o m these. James is 7 1/2 years old
and w e l l above average i n ability but he has only just begun t o crack t h e alphabetic code and
he has b e e n O v e r p h o n i c k e d ' rather t h a n taught a p p r o p r i a t e syllable rules a n d structures as he
learns. H e c a n o n l y just 'spell'two words, ' m u m m y ' and 'James'.
David is 8 a n d has a n I Q well over 1 4 0 o n WISC-R and c a n use g o o d visual m e m o r y t o help
h i m spell but m a i n l y refuses t o w r i t e a n y t h i n g at all. H e has little symbol t o sound correspondence.
Diane M o n t g o m e r y
228
Caroline is 7 1/2 years old a n d has learned little about spelling a n d reading. She has a n idea
about w o r d s being divided b y spaces a n d k n o w s t h e y are m a d e u p of letters. She illustrates t h e
extent of h e r knowledge b y using some of the letters o f h e r n a m e t o spell her story a n d preserves
a syllable structure w i t h v o w e l t y p e structures i n t h e medial positions.
Tiny goes to Kinoston
Tiny was a bih anamr and zzzzz a lot at nalt
and in the nanr at waking up I neal koor ht to
waking hen up to the shopn I hatr drear hen
wofr ae I louf hem ater said and Ian I go in
sade th shop wan I go aac made the sopera
marker is gon i nar Tiny eat sen a vea a Beig
a gisc los of I en dldre. I cam I hat to Brd
a hones lat was 200000 foot I en tiny fact in
to 200000 homes I on I hat go gon boa a Big
dreer faar in the mere he had a 2000000
Breankanr.
Αευ
'
Figure
2:
X
ivioU ( W * W E
Noe>
T h e beginning spelling of dyslexic subjects. U p p e r part: James (7 years); middle
part: David (8 years); lower part: Caroline (7 years)
H e r ability i n conversation a n d practical tasks shows she is w e l l above average a n d at least at
t h e h i g h average ability level. She has been receiving weekly in-class s u p p o r t for her learning
but after six m o n t h s has made little progress. T h i s is typical of t h e findings for several
remediation strategies used b y non-specialists. T h e experiences of these children raise questions
about w h y they have failed t o l e a m w h a t other less able children find easy.
U n d e r f u n c t i o n i n g : Dyslexics a n d remediation
229
Patterns of difficulty
A wide scale analysis of dyslexic difficulties b y L i b e r m a n et al. ( 1 9 7 5 ) , G o l i n k o f f (1978), Frith
( 1 9 8 0 ) , a n d Marcel ( 1 9 8 0 ) has identified a set of core of difficulties i n pre-school a n d t h e early
years of school. These early predictors of dyslexia w e r e :
- inability t o appreciate r h y m e
- p o o r knowledge of alphabet names
- p o o r symbol-to-sound correspondence
- p o o r phonological abilities, e. g.
p o o r ability t o blend sounds
p o o r analysis of w o r d s for reading
p o o r synthesis of w o r d s for spelling
inability t o segment phonemes.
F o r example, pupils m a y k n o w that c often has t o sound (k), they m a y w e l l be unable t o say
t h e w o r d 'cat' a n d remove t h e (k) a n d say (k)-(at) i n reading o r r e c o m b i n e t h e m for spelling.
These are called p h o n e m e segmentation and p h o n e m e reassembly tasks. Research shows
( M o n t g o m e r y , 1 9 9 0 ) that these are fundamental sub-skills of spelling w h i c h 'dyslexics' can only
p e r f o r m if t h e y have learned t o spell that particular w o r d . N o r m a l subjects c a n use other
strategies t o give t h e m t h e ability t o segment a n d reassemble sounds for spelling. This suggests
t h a t particular avenues for learning m a y be unavailable t o 'dyslexics'.
Research suggests that there are t w o routes w h i c h adult readers m a y use i n reading and
spelling (Baron & Strawson, 1 9 7 8 ) . T h e r e is n o reason t o suggest that t h e y are n o t also o p e n
t o beginning readers a n d spellers a n d so w e can view t h e L o g o g r a p h i c Route as o p e n t o ' L o o k
a n d Say' methods of teaching a n d t h e Phonological Route as representing Phonics based
methods.
H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h there are only t w o input routes identified b y these researchers it is possible
t o p r o p o s e t h a t h u m a n intellect is such that it can input f r o m its o w n resources and thus creates
a t h i r d route t o reading w h i c h is cognitive i n o r i g i n . It c a n link t h e logographic and phonological
a n d create data f r o m these c o m b i n e d as well as f r o m cognitive processes. Flavell ( 1 9 7 8 ) a n d
others m i g h t refer t o these as metacognitive events w h e n t h e y are m a d e t o become explicit.
T h e present trend t o use m i x e d methods a n d treat reading a n d spelling learning as a
'psycholinguistic guessing g a m e ' (Smith, 1 9 7 3 ) enables b o t h routes t o be used rather t h a n one
o r t h e other a n d because of cognitive interplay t h e w h o l e becomes m o r e t h a n t h e s u m of its
parts.
Table
1:
numbers
T o show m e a n quotients for intelligence, reading a n d spelling
WISC-R
VO
125.3
WISC-R
P0
124.9
full 0
126.8
reading
0 (D&D)
82.8
spelling
0 (D&D)
82.9
high able
dyslexic
30
109.6
73.4
110.2
108.7
77.5
dyslexic
288
107.9
108.6
108.7
NORMAL
94
D&D stands for Daniels & Diack Reading test 12 and D&D Spelling test.
chron
aae
10.2
male/
female
5:1
10.1
5:1
8.0
1:1
230
Diane Montgomery
H o w c a n dyslexic difficulties be analysed and understood?
A n inspection of t h e typical spellings of five year olds a n d older dyslexics clearly shows the
inability of t h e dyslexics t o crack t h e alphabetic code. Even w h e n some alphabetic knowledge
is available t h e dyslexics seem incapable of using it t o build i n t o t h e i r w r i t i n g a n d reading.
O r d i n a r y 5 year olds seem perfectly capable of acquiring this knowledge w i t h o u t being directly
taught (as i n L o o k a n d Say methods of teaching). H o w e v e r , p h o n i c m e t h o d s alone do n o t
prevent dyslexic difficulties occurring (Chall, 1 9 6 7 ) . I n addition n o a m o u n t of remedial phonics
sessions seem t o i m p r o v e t h e dyslexic c o n d i t i o n ( Q t t e l m a n et al., 1 9 8 3 ) .
A s Table 1 shows, h i g h ability does n o t protect individuals f r o m dyslexia. T h e highly able
g r o u p was selected o n t h e basis of having o n e WISC-R score at 1 3 0 o r above either i n verbal
o r performance areas. T h i s g r o u p can also be said t o be underfunctioning o n t h e intelligence
test t o o . T h e y w i l l show m o r e variability a m o n g sub- scores particularly i n areas w h i c h depend
u p o n verbal abilities o r require verbal m e d i a t i o n d u r i n g processing even of pictorial items. S o m e
w i l l s h o w particular deficiencies i n arithmetic because of t h e need for verbal m e d i a t i o n during
n u m b e r processing. T h o m s o n ( 1 9 8 4 ) amongst others has p o i n t e d t o these difficulties i n
assessment of dyslexics.
T h e reading a n d spelling scores of t h e dyslexics w h o as a g r o u p w e r e the same chronological
age as t h e rest of t h e dyslexic groups showed that there was a n intelligence factor at play i n
reading and spelling development. T h e highly able dyslexics w e r e quite clearly using their
superior intellectual skills t o g o o d effect a n d s h o w significantly better scores t o t h e extent o f 5
points i n reading a n d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 points i n spelling. T h e i r reading a n d spelling scores
w e r e comparable whilst those of other dyslexics showed significantly greater retardation i n
spelling.
I n addition t o these differences between h i g h able a n d other dyslexics there was a n o t h e r w i t h i n
t h e age b a n d . T h e r e was m u c h greater variability i n the ages of referral i n t h e h i g h able g r o u p .
A l l t h e six a n d seven year olds referred w e r e i n t h e h i g h able g r o u p as w e r e all t h e fifteen year
olds r e t u r n i n g t o remediation centre for t o p - u p of spelling help. W h e n these individual's scores
w e r e removed f r o m t h e g r o u p , the age of referral of h i g h able dyslexics was later t h a n the rest
of the dyslexic g r o u p . T h i s is t o be expected because, perhaps, their higher scores w e r e tending
t o mask their difficulties. I n education authority areas w h i c h d o n o t include assessment of
intelligence i n t h e profile, these pupils m i g h t be missed and be t h o u g h t t o be functioning at a
slower t h a n average level but n o t seriously so. H i g h l y able pupils m a y be so successful at c o p i n g
i n ordinary classrooms w i t h dyslexic difficulties that they m a y be t h o u g h t t o be just about average
i n ability and achievement. O n c e again pupils w i t h t h e potential for h i g h achievement c a n be
overlooked. T h e total g r o u p of children f r o m w h o m these dyslexics w e r e d r a w n was 2 0 , 0 0 0 .
These results indicate that approximately 1.5 per cent of pupils are f o u n d w i t h dyslexic
difficulties. O n e i n t e n dyslexic pupils w e r e i n t h e h i g h able category. This m i g h t suggest that
there w e r e m o r e h i g h able i n t h e 'dyslexic' g r o u p but this was i n fact a f u n c t i o n of pre-selection
processes i n w h i c h pupils w i t h WISC-R scores below 1 0 0 w h o m a y also be 'dyslexic' w e r e n o t
referred for specialist teaching, it is undertaken i n their o w n schools. T h e dyslexics identified
entered t h e T R T S p r o g r a m m e (Cowdery, M o n t g o m e r y et al., 1 9 8 3 ) at t h e Reading Centre
a n d received specialist remedial tutorials 2 t o 3 times per week for a n h o u r p e r session. It was
feh by t h e Centre teachers that slower learners did n o t profit f r o m t h e r a p i d t o p - u p remediation
technique they used. H o w e v e r they f o u n d that highly able very y o u n g pupils could very quickly
l e a m w h a t t h e y needed f r o m t h e p r o g r a m m e and so attempts w e r e made t o b r i n g t h e m i n at
6 years. T h e earlier they could be identified t h e m o r e success w i t h t h e p r o g r a m m e was f o u n d
for there was so m u c h less for t h e m t o unlearn and there w e r e several years of infant education
left for t h e m t o practise the skills they had learnt. T h e y quickly reached grade level i n six m o n t h s
and maintained t h a t progress.
Underfunctioning: Dyslexics and remediation
231
What can possibly cause 'dyslexic' pupils early difficulties?
T h e key p r o b l e m identified b y researchers (Vellutino, 1 9 7 9 ) i n t h e field is t h e inability t o assign
a p p r o p r i a t e graphemes t o separate p h o n e m e s a n d t o learn the alphabet names. S t r i p p i n g
beginning p h o n e m e s f r o m syllables also poses a p r o b l e m t o dyslexics just as it does t o illiterate
peoples (Marcel, 1 9 8 0 ) .
I n t h e English language there are just 4 4 different p h o n e m e s o r sounds w h i c h make u p w o r d s
and 2 6 alphabet letters. For example, c - a - 1 is made of three p h o n e m e s : consonants 'c' (k)
and Τ and short vowel sound a\ T h e w o r d ' p h o n e ' consists of t h r e e p h o n e m e s (ph is a
consonant d i g r a p h o r t w o graphemes m a k i n g one sound f, V is a l o n g v o w e l sound o r a vowel
w h i c h 'says its n a m e ' , ' n ' is a nasal consonant a n d V is silent. W i t h so few sounds a n d letters
t o learn it seems absurd that clever children cannot grasp t h e m instantly but the fact remains
they cannot. Even i n languages such as T u r k i s h a n d Italian w h e r e t h e relationships between
sounds and t h e i r symbols are quite regular there are still some dyslexics. English is m o r e removed
f r o m a simple phonetic structure and so even w h e n mastery of t h e system eventually comes,
for m o s t 'dyslexics' do learn t o read and spell a little, there are m a n y m o r e hurdles t o overcome
and t h e dyslexics are m o r e widely spread i n attainment and m o r e obviously incapacitated t h a n
in p h o n e t i c languages.
Researches w i t h cohorts of dyslexics i n the g r o u p of 2 8 8 c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e n o r m a l o r regular
school subjects matched for reading and spelling ages rather t h a n chronological ages have
revealed a n u m b e r of interesting insights i n t o 'dyslexic' difficulties.
T h e studies included research i n t o t h e alphabet and t w o significant features w e r e f o u n d . T h e
alphabet appears only to have been invented
once whereas o t h e r f o r m s of w r i t i n g w e r e
invented i n m a n y different cultures (Diringer, 1 9 6 2 ) . It was t h o u g h t t o be invented b y the
Phoenicians i n t h e context of their rather special consonantal
language. T h e y invented 2 2
different a n d t o us arbitrary symbols, for the 2 2 consonants. T h e Greeks b o r r o w e d their system,
added vowels a n d so t h e basis of our system was established a n d passed o n t o t h e Romans and
the rest of t h e w o r l d .
I n this w e learn t h e clues t o t h e resolution of a p r o b l e m . For example, could a dyslexic have
invented the alphabet system so unique and neat? W h y was the system t h o u g h t only t o have
been invented once? W h a t m i g h t be the significance of a consonantal language o n the alphabet's
invention? W h a t is t h e significance of consonants as opposed t o t h e vowels?
VISUAL
AUDITORY
Figure
3:
K I N AESTHETIC
T h e multisensory triangle
Responses t o these questions have led t o a better understanding of dyslexic difficulties and
h o w t o overcome t h e m . For example consonants are sounds w h i c h appear t o have a distinct
feel i n the m o u t h i n w h i c h articulators make contacts i n different key patterns. It w o u l d seem
inevitable if this is so that t h e alphabet could easily be invented i n a consonantal language.
V o w e l s are n o t so easily felt depending for t h e i r identification m o r e u p o n openness of m o u t h
232
Diane Montgomery
a n d shape together w i t h place a n d p o s i t i o n i n t h e o p e n m o u t h f r o m w h i c h t h e sound is made.
If w e hypothesise that t h e dyslexic's p r o b l e m is that he o r she is n o t aware of t h e feel of the
articulators w h e n m a k i n g a particular sound t h e n it w o u l d be m u c h m o r e difficult t o remember
t h e sound of a particular p h o n e m e and its g r a p h e m e c o n n e c t i o n . A n alternative interpretation
m i g h t be that dyslexics are unable t o use articulatory i n f o r m a t i o n t o p u t i n t o t h e multisensory
triangle.
T h i s w o u l d deny beginning spellers a n d readers t h e o n e set of concrete clues f o r m a k i n g
consistent decisions about t h e connections between t h e sounds t h e y hear a n d m a k e a n d the
symbols they read a n d w r i t e . E h r i (1978) for example has suggested t h a t t h e p h o n e m e is an
abstract perceptual unit. A t five years o r b e g i n n i n g school w h a t t h e child needs m o s t is some
concrete experience t o s u p p o r t and structure learning. T h e articulatory feel p a t t e r n of
p h o n e m e s a n d syllables can provide this concrete a n d systematic link t o p h o n e m i c a n d visual
abstract a n d arbitrary symbols w h i c h are outside stimuli. T h i s w o u l d enable a child taught by
phonics o r L o o k a n d Say methods t o p i c k u p skeletal phonics during early learning a n d use it
i n "creative" spelling as Francis (1982) a n d Read ( 1 9 8 6 ) describe. T h e b e g i n n i n g speller may
be seen m o u t h i n g a n d feeling t h e articulators during early spelling. T h e dyslexic remains puzzled
by it all a n d if he o r she learns t o w r i t e i t is m a i n l y copied w o r k o r a few simple spellings learned
"by eye". If t h e child has a very g o o d visual m e m o r y t h e n f o r a w h i l e t h e difficulties m a y be
masked. W h e n t h e articulatory awareness difficulty is accompanied b y a n y other difficulty such
as a h a n d w r i t i n g p r o b l e m , p o o r visualising ability, p o o r m e m o r y , indistinct speech, p o o r
language ability, t h e child becomes at risk f r o m t h e dyslexia for compensatory routes are not
so freely available. T h e r e m i g h t only be a few m o n t h s delay i n establishing awareness of
articulatory patterns but t h e p u p i l c a n quickly become confused a n d muddle graphemes and
p h o n e m e s and t h e n becomes anxious w h i c h can inhibit further learning. A p o t e n t i a l dyslexic
w i t h g o o d visualising a n d g o o d m e m o r y abilities c a n perhaps easily r e m e m b e r t h e f o r m of useful
w o r d s i n t h e early reading a n d w r i t i n g books. H o w e v e r clues w i l l be that letters i n t h e middle
of w o r d s m a y be i n t h e w r o n g order s h o w i n g a visual rather t h a n auditory a n d kinaesthetic base
has been used t o guide t h e construction of w o r d s . A facility for r a p i d sight reading m a y be
observed w i t h a m u c h m o r e limited o u t p u t i n t h e w r i t t e n m o d e . T h i s w i l l be d i s a p p o i n t i n g t o
the teacher and t h e tendency m a y t h e n be t o t h i n k this p u p i l is w i t h h o l d i n g g o o d w o r k a n d n o t
t r y i n g o r is lazy rather t h a n having a specific learning difficulty w h i c h needs special h e l p . T h e
c o n d i t i o n is disabling for t h e p u p i l , a n d extremely frustrating. A t t h e extreme of this c o n t i n u u m
of disability or difficulty there m a y be a small m i n o r i t y i n w h o m there are distinct neurological
difficulties i n t h e area of t h e angular gyrus (Geschwind, 1 9 7 9 ) w h e r e t h e three types of
i n f o r m a t i o n appear t o be integrated. A t t h e opposite extreme w e find a few cases such as Peter
w h o was given four t w e n t y m i n u t e sessions of 'multisensory m o u t h t r a i n i n g ' t o 'feel' a n d use
articulations i n reading a n d spelling a n d w h o suddenly i m p r o v e d his reading a n d spelling skills
by t w o years o n t h e Daniels a n d Diack tests. T h e school was astounded a n d Peter never looked
back. B e t w e e n such extremes are the large g r o u p of dyslexics for w h o m there is n o such magic
f o r m u l a but w h o c a n be helped i n a structured 6 m o n t h t o 2 year p r o g r a m m e . Research by
C l e m m e n s a n d Schiffman ( 1 9 7 2 ) showed that if remediation was introduced before t h e age of
8 years it was likely that i n over 8 0 p e r cent of t h e cases t h e skills could be b r o u g h t back u p t o
grade level by t h e e n d of t h e p r o g r a m m e . I n our L e a r n i n g Difficulties Research Project set u p
i n 1 9 8 1 a n d i n w h i c h teachers and researchers have followed pupils t h r o u g h their remedial
p r o g r a m m e s , these results have been c o n f i r m e d . I n a d d i t i o n t o this t h e brightest 'dyslexic'
children, if identified at 5 a n d 6 years o l d , can be given sufficient training such that i n a t e r m
t o 6 m o n t h s t h e y are functioning as w e l l as peers and often better a n d d o n o t need t o return
t o t h e p r o g r a m m e . T h e younger all t h e children are t h e better t h e results for t h e y have less t o
unlearn a n d their m o t i v a t i o n has less time t o have been spoiled. H o w e v e r , administration is
such that the problems are n o t allowed t o be analysed a n d referred until at least 7 years. Referral
UnderfuTK^oning: Dyslexics and remediation
233
procedures m a y t h e n take a further 1 8 m o n t h s . T h e pupils r e m a i n o n t h e w a i t i n g list for another
year so that finally at 1 0 1/2 they o b t a i n some help t o bail t h e m out before t h e y enter secondary
school w h e r e t h e y m a y be submerged and fall quickly behind i n all subjects i n a n unsupported
e n v i r o n m e n t . Table 2 shows t h e i m p r o v e m e n t i n reading and spelling of dyslexics o n a n A P S L
p r o g r a m m e after a n average of 6 0 one-hour lessons.
Table
2:
1989
N=38
ENTRY
EXIT
Difference
terms
Reading and Spelling test results o n Entry t o a n d Exit f r o m t h e Reading Centre
using the T R T S P r o g r a m m e
CA
RA
SA
10.10
10.78
7.50
10.72
7.33
10.00
1.4
2.44
1.77
Evaluation of most of the programmes i n use have s h o w n that they are ineffective (Transley
& Pankhurst, 1 9 8 1 ) . D u r i n g t h e 1 9 8 0 s however a n effective style of p r o g r a m m e the AlphabeticPhonetic-Syllabic-Linguistic A P S L (Gillingham & Stillman, 1 9 5 6 ) was introduced f r o m t h e
U S A Scottish Rites H o s p i t a l by H i c k e y ( 1 9 7 3 - 1 9 7 7 ) . H o r n s b y and Shear ( 1 9 7 6 ) also f o u n d
t h e p r o g r a m m e effective and developed their version of it. M y colleagues, t h e remedial teachers
i n the project w e r e trained by H i c k e y i n 1 9 7 3 and developed their version of t h e basic scheme
a n d together w e w r o t e it d o w n as t h e Teaching Reading t h r o u g h Spelling (TRTS) p r o g r a m m e
and published it i n seven stages of 1 9 8 3 - 1 9 8 7 . T h e p r o g r a m m e is highly structured, sequential
a n d logical. First alphabet sequencing training is undertaken whilst simple sound and symbol
correspondences are taught visually, auditorily and n o w kinaesthetically a n d i n addition t h e
g r a p h e m e is w r i t t e n i n cursive f o r m . These multisensory connections are trained together one
sound at a t i m e until recognition and recall are automatic a n d t h e n t h e next sound is learned
a n d the t w o are used i n c o m b i n a t i o n T h e initial order follows H i c k e y a n d results f r o m t h e
frequencies of use i n words.
Figure
4:
W r i t i n g exercises following Hickey's recommendations
Simple, regular w o r d s a n d sequences can be built u p phonetically. A s this happens the concept
of syllables as beats i n w o r d s is introduced and that all syllables must have a vowel. First short
vowel sounds are learnt a n d used. Later long vowel sounds a n d t h e affixing rules add, double
d r o p , change, are taught at a p p r o p r i a t e points i n the 7 levels of the p r o g r a m m e .
T h e T R T S a n d similar p r o g r a m m e s operate best i n tutorial w i t h d r a w a l settings i n w h i c h
intensive t r a i n i n g c a n be given by a teacher t o n o t m o r e t h a n t w o pupils. Class teachers of
infants d o need t o learn t h e principles of it t o use w i t h pupils w h o s h o w early difficulties. Parts
Diane M o n t g o m e r y
234
of t h e p h o n i c a n d linguistic structures can be incorporated i n t o m a i n s t r e a m language learning
as individually a p p r o p r i a t e but for teachers w h o s e o w n knowledge of linguistic structure is hazy,
a different but related system of Cognitive
Process Strategies
has been developed. These
strategies w e r e first developed and evaluated w i t h dyslexic students i n higher education
(Montgomery, 1 9 9 0 ) a n d t h e n w i t h their help a n d t h e help of teachers o n inservice courses,
w e r e evaluated w i t h pupils t h r o u g h o u t t h e age ranges i n schools. It was f o u n d that teaching t h e
strategies t o correct misspellings as t h e teacher m o v e d r o u n d t h e class l o o k i n g at individual
children's w o r k , as w e l l as i n c o r p o r a t i n g p h o n i c , syllabic a n d linguistic material as appropriate
t o small groups and i n classwork enabled t h e dyslexic a n d n o n 'dyslexic* children t o reduce their
spelling errors b y 5 0 per cent over the five weeks o f t h e trials. C o m p a r i s o n w i t h age mates i n
parallel classes showed that t h e controls had made n o such i m p r o v e m e n t . C h i l d r e n w i t h reading
a n d spelling difficulties i n n o r m a l o r regular classrooms also i m p r o v e d b u t at a slower rate.
Results o n standardised tests of spelling also showed improvements. T h e students and pupils
enjoyed t h e strategies a n d all reported happily m o v i n g f r o m a state of learned helplessness
actively t o i m p r o v i n g their o w n spelling.
Figure
5:
Stephen's (6 1/2 years) skills before (upper part) a n d progress after six lessons
o n T R T S flower part)
T h e t u i t i o n always began by showing the pupils h o w g o o d their spelling really was w h e n t h e y
w o u l d get most letters i n a w o r d correct. T h e y learnt t o p u t a circle r o u n d t h e e r r o r letter o r
omission and t h e n a p p l y t w o of the cognitive strategies t o correct t h e misspelling. Each t h e n
Underfunctioning: Dyslexics and remediation
235
checked their o w n accuracy by using Stillman's ( 1 9 3 2 ) Simultaneous O r a l Spelling technique.
T h e p u p i l s ' w r i t i n g became m o r e extensive and higher i n quality as t h e y dared t o t r y n e w and
unusual vocabulary. Spelling became a n exciting problem-solving activity w i t h great willingness
between t h e pupils t o share their 'secret' strategies.
Summary
Seven key principles i n h e l p i n g pupils w i t h 'dyslexia' have been outlined. These are
- identification of problems at t h e reception stage o r i n first grade a n d as s o o n as possible;
- t o i m p l e m e n t a remediation strategy;
- t o use a n A P S L remediation p r o g r a m m e w i t h those w h o are t w o a n d three times failures i n
the regular classroom;
- t o s u p p o r t this p r o g r a m m e w i t h 'multisensory t r a i n i n g ' ;
- t o use a developmental cursive w r i t i n g system w i t h b e g i n n i n g readers a n d spellers and those
older pupils i n remedial programmes;
- t o use cognitive process sets of strategies for spelling t o s u p p o r t reading i n early and later
developmental stages;
- t o link the s u p p o r t systems for dyslexic pupils and students and adopt a problem-solving
positive
approach
to
and
learning.
I n these ways it has been found possible t o remove t h e reading and spelling barriers t o learning
of dyslexic students a n d so enable t h e m n o t t o underfunction a n d underachieve i n t h e academic
subjects. Gifted students have thus been able t o reveal their full potential and i n w r i t t e n
examinations have produced spelling error free first class degree papers.
References
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Sackett & Williams.
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The problems of highly able children with an
unbalanced intelligence structure
Maria Herskovits
Institute
for Psychology
f
Hungarian
Academy
of Sciences,
Budapest,
Hungary
Abstract
I n o u r 6-year longitudinal study a i m i n g at t h e early identification of h i g h ability, a total of 1 1 8
children w e r e tested using t h e Wechsler A d u l t Intelligence Scale at t h e age of 1 2 . T h e r e were
9 5 children w i t h I Q over 1 1 0 . U n l i k e t h e 3 5 % incidence proposed by K a u f m a n ( 1 9 7 9 ) , w e
f o u n d significant, i . e. m o r e t h a n 1 2 scores difference between V Q a n d P Q , i n remarkably m o r e
children (58%), a n d this value was over 2 4 (max. 4 8 scores) i n further 2 5 % of t h e cases. T h e
direction of discrepancies considerably shifts f r o m t h e balanced values f o u n d b y K a u f m a n i n
favor of t h e performance side, a n d also the rate of sexes is shifted i n favor of t h e girls. A part
of these children w e r e underachievers, but t h e majority of t h e m w e r e excellent pupils.
O u r present study focused o n children - 5 5 persons - whose I Q was at least 1 1 0 , w i t h a
difference of 1 2 points o r m o r e between t h e V Q a n d the P Q , w i t h either value being higher
t h a n 1 2 0 ( V + , P+), w i t h particular focus o n those w i t h a difference of 2 4 p o i n t s o r m o r e (PP+).
T h e C o n t r o l G r o u p (C) included children w i t h I Q over 1 1 0 , but w i t h less t h a n 9 scores difference
between V Q a n d P Q (33 children). M o r e detailed b r e a k d o w n was calculated according t o sex.
S o m e of the m o r e t h a n 9 0 indices of o u r longitudinal follow-up study are discussed i n this paper.
It p r o v e d t o be very useful t o distinguish t h e P P + g r o u p w h i c h showed extreme differences.
T h e reason for t h e extreme differences was t h e relatively very l o w V Q w h i l e t h e P Q value was
hardly higher t h a n the score i n t h e P + g r o u p . T h e most favorable picture, considering creativity,
leisure t i m e activity, o r even t h e o p i n i o n of teachers a n d t h e mathematics schoolmarks, was
seen i n t h e P + g r o u p w h e r e V Q i n t h e g o o d average o r even i n higher zones was associated
w i t h very h i g h P Q . W h i l e differences of groups w i t h h i g h but n o t extreme discrepancies f r o m
b o t h each o t h e r a n d t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p appeared only occasionally a n d h a d little effect o n
achievement, t h e P P + g r o u p - and w i t h i n this particularly t h e boys - showed less success i n
b o t h school a n d other achievement, a n d their personality was less balanced.
Suggesting that highly unbalanced intelligence structure i n highly able children, w i t h o u t
resulting i n unavoidable difficulties i n school achievement o r adaptability, is even m o r e frequent
t h a n is p r o p o s e d i n literature, our results require further targeted studies regarding cognitive
styles, task solving strategies a n d professional o r i e n t a t i o n .
Problem
I n o u r follow-up study ( N = 1,033) w e had 9 5 twelve years old children w h o scored 1 1 0 or
m o r e at t h e W E C H S L E R A d u l t Intelligence Scale. 5 5 of t h e m - 5 8 % - showed a discrepancy
of 1 2 o r m o r e p o i n t s between V Q a n d P Q - regardless t h e direction.
238
M a r i a Herskovits
W h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e data provided by K a u f m a n ( 1 9 7 9 ) , this is a m u c h higher p r o p o r t i o n ,
a n d the p r o p o r t i o n of t h e directions differs considerably (P+ being m o r e t h a n three times m o r e
frequent t h a n V + ) . Cases w i t h extremly large (24-48) differences are even m o r e frequent (see
Figures 1 and 2).
O u r test groups w e r e as follows:
groups
V+
C
P+
PP+
mal e
7
19
8
9
43
female
5
14
19
7
45
Total
12
33
27
16
88
T h e criteria of t h e selection w e r e :
V+
P+
PP+
Control
Figure
1:
IQ
IQ
IQ
IQ
> 110
> 110
> 110
> 110
VQ >
PQ >
PQ >
120
120
120
and
and
and
and
VQ
PQ
PQ
PQ
>
>
»
-
PQ
VQ
VQ
VQ
(12 - 4 1 )
(12 - 23)
(24 - 4 8 )
(8)
Differences between V Q and P Q : Results obtained by K a u f m a n ( 1 9 7 9 ) at t h e left
side, results obtained by Herskovits (1992) o n t h e right side
I n cases w h e n h a n d l i n g indices together covers t h e differences, t h e data are s h o w n separately
for the t w o sexes.
W e tried t o handle together the P + and the P P + groups, t o o , but this mostly resulted i n the
disappearance of t h e characteristic differences. (In g r o u p V + this differentiation was n o t possible
due t o the limited n u m b e r of cases.) T h e same result appeared w h e n t h e data of all three extreme
groups were jointly c o m p a r e d t o t h e c o n t r o l .
239
T h e problems of highly able children w i t h a n unbalanced intelligence structure
V+
Figure
2:
C
P+
PP+
Distribution of subjects according t o sex
O u r results suggested that the extreme group P P + was t h e problematic one, and w i t h i n this
particularly the boys.
Questions and Methods
O u r present study is a by-product of a large-volume longitudinal study o n t h e early identification
of h i g h intellectual ability. A total of 1 1 8 "suspects t o be gifted" w e r e selected f r o m 1,033
children followed f r o m t h e age of 9 , and w e r e tested a m o n g others using t h e Wechsler A d u l t
Intelligence Scale at the age of 1 2 . (The children are n o w 1 4 years o l d , their follow-up is i n
progress.) O n t h e base of preliminary literature (Kaufman, 1 9 7 9 ) and o u r o w n experience, w e
expected that in the normal population
the significant
V Q - P Q difference
relatively
often
reaches high values (35% rate). K a u f m a n calls attention t o controversies a n d insufficiences of
studies and interpretations regarding the meaning of this difference. W e f o u n d n o references
t o studies o n t h e degree and importance of differences i n the h i g h I Q zone. Kaufman's data
suggest that t h e frequency of differences w i t h i n the I Q increases w i t h ever higher educational
level of the parents, and this indirectly means that considerable differences are m o r e frequent
i n the h i g h I Q zone.
Nevertheless it was surprising that the data of the Wechsler IQs showed t h a t
- differences exceeding 12 points w e r e seen between V Q and P Q in more
sample
(58%);
- the frequency of extremely
Kaufman;
- t h e direction
high differences
(24-48)
than
half of
the
was the manifold of that reported by
of differences was markedly shifted towards p e r f o r m a t i o n (12:43);
- the rate of girls was higher t h a n that of the boys i n t h e P + g r o u p .
Since w e have a large a m o u n t of b o t h individual a n d g r o u p data o n t h e children, t a k e n at
ages of 9 , 12 a n d 1 4 (not t o be reported here due t o t h e limited space available), w e p u t the
question whether we can find a meaningful
explanation
for these differences,
or we can
identify certain factors in the school career of the children
which can be related to these
differences;
i. e. how these groups can be characterized.
Besides t h e partial data of t h e
Wechsler test, t h e following data is interpreted here:
M a r i a Herskovits
240
at age 9:
Raven Progressive Matrices
Intellectual A c h i e v e m e n t Responsibility Scale
Teachers' Rating Scale
Creative Leisure T i m e Scale (Torrance)
at age 12:
Raven Progressive Matrices
School Marks
Intellectual A c h i e v e m e n t Responsibility Scale
Level o f A s p i r a t i o n
at age 14:
Advanced Raven
Tel-Aviv Inventory of Creative Performance (Milgram)
California Psychological Inventory (shortened f o r m , 3 0 0 items)
T h e data w e r e processed by t h e B M D P p r o g r a m pack, using t-tests a n d A N O V A s (two-way
analysis o f variance).
Explanation of the Wechsler data
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t result here (Table 1 , Figures 3 a and 3b) was that P + and P P + groups
w e r e distinguished b y t h e V Q , but n o t by t h e P Q . W h i l e r a n g i n g i n t h e average zone V Q i n the
P P + g r o u p ( m e a n = 1 0 4 , s.d.=7.5), t h e V Q means fell into t h e higher-than-average zone (just
like P Q i n t h e V + group) i n the P + g r o u p . T h a t is, w i t h one side i n t h e extreme h i g h zone and
t h e o t h e r i n t h e w e a k average one, t h e latter is assumed t o determine school performance, and
t h e resulting discrepancy experienced by t h e child m a y affect his o r her self-esteem a n d may
lead t o a labile personality.
Table
1:
Distribution of t h e Wechsler IQs a n d Subscales
(the data of boys a n d girls are n o t presented separately)
IQ
VQ
PQ
SUBSCALES
Information
Comprehension
Digit Span
Arithmetic
Similarities
Coding
Picture
Arrangement
Picture
Completion
Block Design
Object Assembly
V+
125
135
112
C
127
125
125
P+
129
116
135
PP+
122
104
136
11
12
15
13
13
12
11
11
15
12
12
13
10
10
13
11
11
14
10
9
11
9
10
14
11
12
13
13
10
12
7
13
13
11
14
14
12
14
14
13
A s t o the subscales, t h e most surprising result was that t h e Information
subscale was t h e only
o n e w h e r e n o difference was seen between t h e groups. Further surprising results w e r e that i n
t h e V + and C groups t h e highest value was t h e Digit Span subscale, w h i l e i n t h e P P + g r o u p
T h e problems of highly able children w i t h a n unbalanced intelligence structure
I
Figure
3a:
Ch
DS
A
S
C
PA
PC
BD
241
OA
Distribution of t h e Wechsler subscales - males (Legend see Figure 3b)
PP+
Ch
Figure
3b:
DS
PA
PC
BD
OA
Distribution of the Wechsler subscales - females (Legend: I = I n f o r m a t i o n ; C h =
C o m p r e h e n s i o n ; D S = Digit Span; A = A r i t h m e t i c s ; S = Similarities; C = C o d i n g ;
P A = Picture A r r a n g e m e n t ; P C = Picture C o m p l e t i o n ; B D = B l o c k design; O A
= Object Assembly)
M a r i a Herskovits
242
t h e deepest p o i n t s w e r e t h e Arithmetic
a n d t h e Reasoning
subscales w h i c h m a y indicate b o t h
learning a n d o r i e n t a t i o n problems. I n t h e P e r f o r m a t i o n side t h e Coding
subscale (whose
non-consistence w i t h t h e other subscales was p o i n t e d o u t b y K a u f m a n as well) showed
interaction. A striking result was t h e very l o w value of t h e V + g r o u p i n t h e
Comprehension
subscale w h i c h indicates that t h e Hand Assembly
w h i c h lacks conceptual s u p p o r t w a s a n
unsoluable task f o r m a n y children.
T h e Raven test - w h i c h is usually regarded as a n index o f fluid intelligence, a n d t h e r e f o r e our
hypothesis w a s t h a t it w o u l d correlate w i t h t h e performance side -, h o w e v e r , d i d n o t show
results w h i c h w e r e easily interpretable (Table 2). It was n o t e w o r t h y t h a t i n boys, its value
decreased instead of t h e expected elevation w i t h i n three years i n t h e P + a n d P P + g r o u p s , a n d
increased considerably i n t h e V + g r o u p . W e d o n o t have a n explanation f o r t h i s p h e n o m e n o n ,
since t h e Advanced Raven t a k e n at 1 4 years of age showed n o differences a t all b e t w e e n t h e
extreme groups.
Table
2:
Means of dependent variables
V+
male
48
53
Raven at age 9
Raven at age 12
Advanced Raven
25
at age 14
83
Teacher Rating
Leisure time
at age 9
56
Leisure time
at age 14
19
Legend: m=male, f=female
female
47
48
C
m
47
49
f
48
50
P+
m
46
45
f
47
49
PP+
m
47
45
f
47
50
25
63
27
75
23
75
24
85
25
78
25
73
25
81
47
64
62
65
68
61
61
15
21
12
22
22
24
20
Teacher Ratings a n d Creative Leisure T i m e A c t i v i t y Scales showed less favorable evaluation
and a less colorful - perhaps m o r e learning-centered - w o r l d i n V + g r o u p girls, a n d m o r e
comprehensible leisure t i m e activities a n d higher appreciation b y teachers i n t h e Ρ d o m i n a n c e
groups, b u t mostly i n t h e P + , i . e. i n t h e non-extreme children.
Table
3:
School marks at age 1 2
V+
Behaviour
Oiligence
Hungarian
grammatics
Hungarian
literature
Russian
Science
Hi story
Math
Note: Data evaluation
C
P+
PP+
m
4.5
4.8
f
5.0
4.5
m
4.1
4.3
f
4.9
4.9
m
4.0
4.4
f
4.7
4.7
m
3.9
3.9
f
4.6
4.6
4.5
4.5
4.1
4.8
4.0
4.8
3.2
4.4
4.7
4.7
4.8
4.7
4.5
for the
4.5
4.5
4.8
5.0
4.2
4.9
3.9
4.5
4.5
4.1
4.0
4.8
4.5
4.6
4.5
14-year-old group is in
4.4
4.8
4.4
4.9
4.6
4.3
4.7
4.4
4.7
4.8
progress.
3.7
3.1
3.8
4.1
3.6
4.4
4.6
4.3
4.4
3.8
T h e p r o b l e m s of h i g h l y able children w i t h an unbalanced intelligence structure
243
Success at School
T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f data was mostly i n accordance w i t h o u r expectations, i . e., t h e children
p e r f o r m e d w e l l at school (Table 3).
I n t h e boys, t h e V + g r o u p was the only one w h e r e schoolmarks f o r behavior a n d diligence
w e r e equal t o t h o s e of the girls, otherwise, as usual, the girls had better m a r k s i n each subject
except m a t h e m a t i c s . School achievement was best i n the V + g r o u p , except mathematics w h e r e
t h e best results w e r e obtained by the P + g r o u p . It is all t h e m o r e striking that the mathematics
m a r k s o f t h e P P + g r o u p w e r e so low. Kaufman's factor analysis suggests that t h e
Arithmetic
subscale does n o t b e l o n g t o either of t h e verbal or the performance groups, still w e have t o
t h i n k t h a t p o o r mathematics schoolmarks are closely related t o t h e l o w performance of these
children i n t h e Arithmetics
subscale. School achievement of girls - except mathematics - is n o t
considerably w o r s e , whereas t h e boys i n the P P + group are generally underachievers, and their
m a r k s f o r b e h a v i o r a n d dilligence are also remarkable lower, a n d this indicates that a disbalanced
structure o f abilities - as a rule, or as a consequence? - is associated w i t h behavioral problems
as w e l l .
Table
4:
M e a n s of Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Scale (Crandall-Katkowsky) and
indices o f t h e Level of A s p i r a t i o n Test (Robaye-Herskovits)
V+
m
IARS
Locus of success
15
at age 9
Locus of failure
14
at age 9
Locus of success
14
at age 12
Locus of failure
at age 12
11
LEVEL OF ASPIRATION
first performance
20
goal discrepancy
1.6
achievement increase 1.6
C
P+
PP+
f
m
f
m
f
m
f
14
13
14
14
15
13
12
13
11
14
11
13
10
13
12
12
13
14
13
12
13
8
8
10
9
9
8
8
9
-4.8
1.8
18
1.9
3.1
16
2.8
2.5
20
2.5
1.9
21
2.6
1.4
22
5
0.9
12
2.1
0.3
Personality Characteristics
B o t h m e t h o d s (as depicted i n Table 4) equally focus o n t h e children's relation t o their o w n
achievement. I A R S refers t o t h e intellectual achievement, and asks f o r t h e children's attitude
experience i n i m a g i n a r y situations of success and failure. T h e Level of A s p i r a t i o n Test is a
m o d e l - r e a c t i o n task, t h e children p u t together nuts and bolts, and have t o guess their next
p e r f o r m a n c e , t h e y act i n real success and failure situations.
T h e I A R S suggests t h a t i n the P P + groups the internal c o n t r o l is lower, especially i n failure
situations; t h o u g h i t is n o t e w o r t h y , and does n o t t h r o w g o o d light o n t h e schools, that
responsibility t a k i n g f o r success a n d failure showed remarkable decrease i n t h e w h o l e p o p u l a t i o n
w i t h i n t h r e e years.
T h e analysis o f t h e level of aspiration offers a m o r e differentiated picture. First Performance
shows self-esteem, a m b i t i o n s and often t h e sense of reality. H e r e w e can see t h a t girls i n the
e x t r e m e g r o u p are m o r e cautious, while the boys are braver i n each case. I n the Goal
244
M a r i a Herskovits
Discrepancy, w h i c h is t h e classic index of t h e level aspiration, striking results w e r e the extremely
l o w (-4.8) value of t h e girls i n t h e V + g r o u p , t h e constantly h i g h value of t h e P + g r o u p , a n d
h i g h values, a p p r o a c h i n g rigidity, irreality, i n t h e boys i n t h e P P + g r o u p . These results are of
particular i m p o r t a n c e if w e consider that t h e Increase of A c h i e v e m e n t (which is a n index of
effectivity a n d ability t o perform) is very l o w i n t h e P P + g r o u p , w h i l e t h e best increase o f
achievement was seen i n t h e "cautiously ambitious" C o n t r o l g r o u p w h i c h scored somewhere i n
the middle of t h e previous t w o indices.
Characterizing t h e groups,
- V + : t h e self-confidence of t h e girls is very low, t h e y are afraid o f failure;
- C: there is n o discrepancy between t h e sexes, b o t h t h e girls a n d t h e boys are h i g h achievers,
ambitious;
- P + : n o dicrepancy between t h e sexes, h i g h a m b i t i o n ;
- P P + : non-effective; their self-esteem sometimes slides t o irreality.
Table
5:
Do
Cs
sy
Sp
Sq
Wb
An
Re
So
Sc
To
Es
GiCm
Ac
Ai
Ie
Py
Em
Fx
Fe
FACTORS
Stabil
Social
Superego
Independ
California Psychological Inventory (CPI)
(Means of subscales a n d factors)
V+
m
49
51
48
51
51
34
54
f
49
57
61
56
50
49
49
C
m
31
42
40
43
31
46
55
f
51
56
61
57
51
50
42
P+
m
36
46
51
43
35
49
48
f
49
50
53
52
56
42
51
PP+
m
34
30
37
38
40
42
59
f
52
56
56
52
47
41
47
Overall
Mean
44
48
50
49
46
44
50
32
43
30
26
33
18
51
41
41
44
56
50
59
41
43
65
52
48
46
47
48
47
52
55
56
54
60
54
44
56
42
39
36
35
50
43
46
41
51
45
50
54
47
65
52
47
52
41
53
48
51
52
54
59
61
44
48
57
49
39
45
50
55
53
44
46
49
49
49
37
42
54
39
37
44
37
55
44
47
53
54
50
54
48
43
47
47
29
31
39
43
50
40
32
49
39
52
50
50
59
52
44
49
53
45
46
48
54
58
53
53
43
44
56
45
39
42
39
51
46
47
48
53
50
54
48
28
53
45
47
48
53
53
55
41
37
54
51
49
56
51
55
52
42
47
46
40
54
52
48
40
35
49
44
50
53
48
49
43
48
51
50
T h e interpretation of t h e C P I data (Table 5) is hindered by t h e fact that t h e difference between
t h e sexes is significant i n each g r o u p . Since i t is n o r m a l at this age that boys a n d girls are o n
different levels of development, it is n o t surprising that t h e girls offer a fairly m o r e balanced
picture, a n d have very h i g h values i n the Sociability (Sy) a n d Degree of Socialization (So) scales.
T h e problems of highly able children w i t h a n unbalanced intelligence structure
245
A n i m p o r t a n t result is that t h e boys' D o m i n a n c e (Do) value reaches t h a t o f t h e girls o n l y i n t h e
g r o u p of h i g h verbality, whereas extremely l o w values are seen i n t h e factor of E m o t i o n a l
Stability (I), a n d i n t h e ability t o elicit G o o d Impression (Gi). A further striking result was that
the P P + boys showed unfavourably l o w values i n t h e Sociability factor (Π) a n d also i n scales
indicating their attitude t o achievement (Ai, le).
Social Background
It is often m e n t i o n e d i n t h e Wechsler literature t h a t performance dominance - o r verbal score
significantly lower t h a n t h e performance value - is a consequence of handicapped sociocultural
background. Since our sample as a whole was characterized b y t h e overrepresentation of highly
educated parents (Table 6), this claim was only partially verified b y our data. A l l but o n e children
w i t h fathers of l o w educational level ( 1 4 persons) belonged t o t h e P + a n d t h e P P + groups. A n
interesting a n d w e l l interpretable relationship was f o u n d , however, w h e n t h e nature of t h e
father's occupation was taken i n t o consideration: there w e r e markedly m o r e fathers i n t h e
technical field, b o t h engineers and skilled workers, i n t h e P + a n d P P + groups. I n addition there
w e r e relatively m a n y artist fathers, a n d t h e only teacher father's subject w a s arts a n d p a i n t i n g .
This seems t o corroborate t h e explanation, proposed but n o t unambiguously p r o v e n b y
K a u f m a n t h a t hemisphere dominance a n d t h e resulting cognitive style are i n close connection
w i t h t h e verbal o r performational dominance of t h e intelligence structure.
Table
6:
Fathers Education a n d Occupation
high
medium
field/education
low
P+.PP+ V+.C
P+,pp+ V+,C
P+.PP+
group
V+,C
9
6
5
technical
14
1
12
4
artist
1
human
9
3
1
2
4
8
others
6
2
Legend: V+: no father under medium-level education;
C: mostly graduated fathers, almost all the doctors;
P+.PP+: dominance of technical profession (engineers - skilled
workers), artists, except of one case all the fathers
with low educational level belong to this group
Conclusions
1. T h e major consequence that c a n be d r a w n f r o m o u r study is that more caution than ever
before is needed when using VQ-PQ differences
for diagnostic
purposes,
particularly i n case
of children w i t h h i g h intelligence. K a u f m a n specified the rate of children w i t h V Q - P Q differences
larger t h a n 1 2 t o be 3 5 - 4 0 % i n t h e n o r m a l p o p u l a t i o n . I n o u r sample this rate was 5 8 % , i . e.,
the larger share of the sample.
T h e fact w h e t h e r o r n o t h i g h V Q - P Q differences are
characteristic t o t h e extremely h i g h intelligence zones must be clarified by further studies only.
2 . O u r knowledge u p t o n o w seems t o be insufficient t o explain why VQ-PQ dominance
has
shifted
to the side of PQ; all t h e less because children of highly educated parents w e r e
overrepresented i n o u r sample, a n d children f r o m parents of l o w education a m o u n t e d t o o n e
quarter o f participants only. W e have a single, only impression-based assumption, namely that
t h e arrangement a n d evaluation of Coding and Completion
subscales are outdated i n their
present f o r m , a n d m a n y can achieve m a x i m a l scores i n these tasks. O n t h e other h a n d , subscales
M a r i a Herskovits
246
of Information,
Digit Span and Arithmetic
m e a n appear t o be m o r e difficult for the majority
of children because of changes i n the methodology of school education a n d t h e widespread use
of calculators.
3. O u r results suggest t h e conclusion that, as specified i n literature, the significant
(12)
difference
between VQ and PQ is not to be accepted
as a meaningful
one in the high
intelligence
zone where even the lower values belong to the higher zone. N o k i n d of
pathological indications w e r e f o u n d either i n t h e V + ( 1 2 - 4 1 p o i n t differences) o r i n t h e P +
g r o u p ( 1 2 - 2 4 points) i n o u r test series; school achievement of these c h i l d r e n was as g o o d as,
o r sometimes even better t h a n that of t h e C o n t r o l G r o u p of well-balanced h i g h intelligence. I n
our case the divergences i n t h e direction of intelligence m i g h t influence t h e cognitive style, t h e
fields of interest a n d t h e n choosing of profession, so its study seems t o be a task of educational
psychology rather t h a n a subject t o clinical psychology.
4 . The extremely
high difference
between VQ and PQ ( 2 4 - 4 8 scores) i n favour of P Q is a
real challenge f o r several reasons. First, as opposed t o Kaufman's data of 6 - 7 % , this occured
i n 2 4 % i n o u r sample, i . e. i n nearly a quarter of the cases. These children w e r e p a r t l y
underachievers, t h o u g h belonged t o t h e average zone even so. T h e problems came f r o m t h e
relatively
low VQ a n d t h e i r school performance was i n g o o d accordance w i t h this result.
Manifested i n m a n y cases, t h e disbalance m a y result f r o m t h e strong discrepancy a n d all its
practical a n d e m o t i o n a l consequences, as well as f r o m other factors t o be clarified b y further
targeted, problem-centered individual studies. T h e incidence of t h e p h e n o m e n o n c a n o n l y
partially be explained b y t h e handicapping sociocultural background. Implications
of
hemis­
phere dominance
m a y offer themselves as a n explanatory principle but this again w o u l d need
further targeted studies.
References
Crandall, V. C , Kratkowsky, W., & Crandall, V. J . (1965). Children's beliefs in their control of
reinforcements i n intellectual academic achievement behaviors. Child Development,
36, 91-109.
Gajdatsy, Α., & Gefferth, 6. (1982). A Raven teszt sulyozasa es a nehezitett valtozat. Modszertani
füzetek. Budapest: OPI.
Gefferth, 6., & Herskovits, M . (1987). Teacher Rating Scale - our adaption of a personal note from
Urban-Jellen. Unpublished version. Budapest: Institute for Psychology of the Hungarian Academy
of Sciences.
Herskovits, M . (1976). Level of aspiration - Az igenyszintvizsgalat felhasznalasa a palyavalasztasi
tanacsadasban. Budapest: Akad4mia.
Kaufman, A. S. (1979). Intelligent Testing with the WISC-R. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
Kürti, J . (1987). Creative Leisure Time Scale (Things done inventory, Torrance 1962). Unpublished
version. Budapest: Institute for Psychology of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
Milgram, R. A. (1987). Tel-Aviv Inventory of Creative Performance (Manuscript). Unpublished version.
University of Tel-Aviv, Israel.
Olah, A. (1984). A CPI röviditett valtozatanak ismertetese. Modszertani Füzetek. Budapest: OPI.
Disability and the development of giftedness
The complicated relationship of two concepts which lays consider
to be opposites
Ernst A. Hany
Institute
of Educational
Psychology,
University
of Munich,
Munich,
Germany
D u e t o t h e great interest i n t h e t o p i c "Disabilities a n d t h e development of giftedness", a
w o r k s h o p was organized and sponsored by the Foundation for N u r t u r i n g t h e Physically
H a n d i c a p p e d Gifted {Duchy of Liechtenstein). The most i m p o r t a n t contributions a n d results of
the o n e day session have already been published i n G e r m a n (Foundation for N u r t u r i n g the
Physically H a n d i c a p p e d Gifted, 1 9 9 3 ) . This English version represents a s u m m a r y of the
G e r m a n publication.
In his introductory talk, Michael Jäger, workshop organizer a n d chair of t h e above-named
f o u n d a t i o n , spoke about p r e d o m i n a n t social prejudices. These prejudices m a k e i t difficult t o
c o m b i n e the ideas of physical handicaps w i t h giftedness. Even educators t e n d t o view a physical
handicap as a deficit a n d never as potential or a special o p p o r t u n i t y . T h e r e are numerous
individual examples that handicapped (e.g. hearing or visually impaired) have m a d e h i g h m e n t a l
accomplishments. O n the federal side, the academic a n d professional education of t h e
handicapped must be supported by special financial measures. T h e handicapped need i n
addition t o e m o t i o n a l support special aids i n order to deal w i t h daily life. If these are n o t provided,
m u c h m e n t a l potential goes t o waste.
F o l l o w i n g this, Ernst Schulte told about his experiences as t h e director of t h e Rhineland-Westfalia V o c a t i o n a l School for H e a r i n g Impaired. It is quite possible for the h a r d of hearing today
t o achieve a professionally qualified school degree since t h e r e are n u m e r o u s schools offering
this i n G e r m a n y . T h o s e individuals w h o are deaf, however, face m u c h m o r e difficult barriers.
T h o s e y o u n g people w h o do finish a school degree are usually extremely motivated a n d possess
very h i g h c o m m u n i c a t i o n abilities. This is also the most i m p o r t a n t prerequisite f o r successfully
beginning a career. T h e speaker regretted the limited n u m b e r of c o n t i n u i n g education
experiences for this g r o u p (e. g. technical schools for the hearing impaired).
Matthias Weström followed w i t h a talk about the G e r m a n Institute for t h e B l i n d i n M a r b u r g .
This school offers a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 6 0 students (50 per grade level) various degree opportunities.
T h e students are provided w i t h a support system in educational a n d practical/emotional things.
In a d d i t i o n t o the acquiring of knowledge, the focus of school w o r k is o n learning practical skills.
T h e students live i n small groups and gradually learn, by means of systematic directions, t o
better deal w i t h their life situation. T h e mediation of perceptual and e x p l o r a t o r y strategies is
especially i m p o r t a n t i n this educational system.
U w e K o c h , M a r t i n N e h e r a n d Harald Messing reported about a research project for
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e life situation of visually and hearing impaired individuals w h o are a t t e m p t i n g
t o o r have acquired a n academic degree (Koch & Neher, 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e great a m o u n t of data,
collected mostly i n interviews w i t h approximately 1 5 0 persons i n G e r m a n y , c a n be summarized
as follows: "The results show that successful school and professional careers d o n o t represent
individual cases, but even extremely handicapped visually a n d h e a r i n g i m p a i r e d persons c a n be
successfully integrated i n t o schools and professions given t h e right s u p p o r t . " Prerequisite for
248
Emst A . H a n y
this is the development of certain special competencies (Braille o r sign language) social skills
(mobility, c o m m u n i c a t i o n ability) and support t h r o u g h m o d e m technical e q u i p m e n t (computers,
transcribing telephone, etc.). Special vocational counseling a n d aids for beginning a career are
also very i m p o r t a n t .
These talks w e r e followed by self-reports of three physically handicapped individuals about
their personal a n d professional development. A l l three (Maike Stein, Roland Zeh, and Julia
Ellins-Haidukiewicz) have begun o r successfully completed a university degree p r o g r a m . There
was a consensus a m o n g the t h r e e that they w e r e continually faced w i t h prejudices by
non-handicapped individuals. V e r y few people believed t h a t t h e y w e r e capable of mental
accomplishments; they had t o frequently fight their w a y t h r o u g h schools for higher education.
Parents, friends a n d well-meaning parents w e r e always a n i m p o r t a n t s u p p o r t . W i t h o u t the
personal s u p p o r t of the social n e t w o r k a n d their o w n , individual m o t i v a t i o n t o achieve, often
inflamed b y t h e barriers they faced, they w o u l d never have been able t o realize their gifted
potential.
T h e concluding discussion, led b y Klaus U r b a n a n d Michael Jäger, included further experts
and the audience. T h e discussions led t o t h e following recognitions:
(1) Research is necessary t o develop appropriate support measures for t h e gifted handicapped.
This research should provide epidemiological data o n handicaps and types of giftedness. I n
addition, possibilities for t h e early recognition of giftedness should be f o u n d . It w o u l d be
advantageous, if w e could develop methods of diagnosing giftedness i n handicapped preschoolers.
(2) Even m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n carrying out research, it is i m p o r t a n t that scientific results are
consistently p u t i n t o practice by political measures. There has l o n g been i n f o r m a t i o n available
o n w h i c h concrete measures handicapped individuals need i n order t o successfully complete
school. T h i s includes early i n t e r v e n t i o n (e. g. language development support i n hearing
impaired), includes t h e individual support d u r i n g education (e. g. t h r o u g h technical aids,
translators, etc.) a n d is directed n o t only at t h e provision of specialized schools but also at the
intensive education of later employers w i t h regard t o the handicapped.
(3) A l l those involved w e r e i n agreement that t h e daily life of the physically handicapped must
be made less difficult. Schools, authorities, school dormitories a n d public transportation must
be made accessible for t h e handicapped. T h e positive examples t o be f o u n d i n t h e U n i t e d States
w e r e frequently referred t o . T h e financial support of handicapped students must c o m e f r o m
one source. Presently, t h e Office f o r Educational S u p p o r t , t h e Public H e a l t h System and the
Social Services Offices are all responsible, but all pass t h e responsibility o n . There was n o
consensus about w h e t h e r t h e responsibility should be given t o local agencies or t o specialized
departments of cross-regional offices.
(4) T h e handicapped themselves must also be involved i n t h e development of social and
educational policies. T h e y k n o w best w h e r e their gifts and their involvement are being wasted
at any given t i m e . Generally they have t o use a large part of their energies t o tear d o w n walls
of misunderstanding about their gifts a n d lack of sensibility about their needs. T h e removal of
social prejudices and political or e n v i r o n m e n t a l impediments is t h e most i m p o r t a n t step i n this
direction so t h e physical handicaps do n o t necessarily develop i n t o " m e n t a l " handicaps (in the
sense of limitations), especially i n t h e gifted.
T h e discussion about t h e current educational policy is being continued i n Germany. T h e
"Arbeitskreis Begabungsforschung u n d Begabtenförderung" (Circle of Research o n Giftedness
and Nurturance of the Gifted) is h o l d i n g a conference o n this t o p i c i n fall of 1 9 9 3 i n Rostock.
Disability a n d t h e development of giftedness
249
References
Koch, U . , & Neher, M . (1992). Entwicklungsbedingungen
sinnesbehinderter
Begabter (Developmental conditions of visually and hearing impaired individuals). Unpublished final research report prepared
for the Ministry of Education and Science. University of Freiburg.
Stiftung zur Förderung körperbehinderter Hochbegabter (1993). Behinderung und
Begabungsentfaltung. Bericht über den Internationalen
Workshop. (Foundation for Nurturing the Physically
Handicapped Gifted (1993). Disability and the development of giftedness. Report o n an international
workshop). Vaduz: Author.
W o r k s h o p chair's address:
F o u n d a t i o n f o r N u r t u r i n g t h e Physically Handicapped Gifted
Michael Jäger
I m Quäderle 1 1
F L - 9 4 9 0 Vaduz
Liechtenstein
VII.
IDENTIFICATION A N D
P S Y C H O L O G I C A L MEASUREMENT
PROBLEMS
Introduction
I n his keynote lecture, Ivan K o r e n addresses m a n y of t h e current concerns of t h e discussion
o n the value of systematic identification of gifted children. H e gives special a t t e n t i o n t o the
e m o t i o n a l and social consequences of labeling processes and deals w i t h the most p o p u l a r
criticisms against identification. H i s definitions and recommendations f o r designing the identification process a t t e m p t t o avoid r u n n i n g into these criticisms. I n his perspective, identification
has t o be a three-step a p p r o a c h starting f r o m perceiving indicators of giftedness, t h e n a p p l y i n g
detailed diagnostics, a n d finally evaluating the diagnosis b y assessing achievement and p r o g r a m
outcomes. B y using multiple sources of i n f o r m a t i o n a n d a m e t h o d of continuously collecting
i n f o r m a t i o n , decision errors and ever-lasting labeling of t h e students are avoided or at least
reduced. H a r a l d Wagner, by c o m m e n t i n g Ivan K o r e n ' s thoughts, puts still m o r e emphasis o n
the limitations of psychometric measures w h i c h call for a n i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of measures of
cognitive processes a n d strategies, and he reminds us of t h e economical analysis and evaluation
of t h e identification process f r o m a decision-theoretical perspective.
T h i s comprehensive theoretical discussion is t h e n enriched b y reports o n concrete procedures
and instruments used f o r the identification of gifted a n d talented persons. Günter T r o s t a n d
Ingemar W e d m a n first summarize contributions made t o their w o r k s h o p o n identification.
Despite advanced theoretical concepts and practical instruments being available i n most
countries, there still r e m a i n substantial debate o n central issues as t h e nature of giftedness, t h e
role of identification i n t h e w h o l e process of p r o g r a m design, and t h e a m o u n t of effort w h i c h
has t o be p u t t o t h e diagnosis of individual pre-requisites of learning.
252
Introduction
Individual papers of full length follow this summarizing report. Nail $ a h i n and E k r e m Duzen
describe their system of identifying a very small g r o u p of children t o be educated i n a special
school f r o m a very large p o p u l a t i o n of students. T h e y use a sequential procedure of selecting
students by applying stages of teacher r e c o m m e n d a t i o n , g r o u p and individual tests, and
assessment centers.
H e i n r i c h S t u m p f opens a series of contributions w h i c h present instruments currently under
development. H i s battery of scales for measuring spatial abilities w i l l fill a substantial gap of t h e
collection of standardized instruments available n o w . T h e same will hold true for a complex
instrument H e r m a n n Rüppell reports of. H e has developed this instrument w h i c h attempts t o
measure t h e learning and effective use of analogical reasoning, o n t h e basis of remarkably
sophisticated theorizing w h i c h other instruments often lack. S o m e first empirical data is
provided by Seokee C h o for her instruments w h i c h a i m at measuring cognitive processes a n d
t h i n k i n g skills. These instruments are intended t o i m p r o v e the prognostic validity of the
identification procedure used i n programs for the gifted by including further pre-requisites of
learning progress i n t h e statistical models of prognosis a n d selection. Zuzana Tomas*kova finally
presents some clever tasks she has developed for use w i t h secondary school students i n order
t o collect evidence o n their mathematical reasoning skills. H o w e v e r , w h e n she c o m p a r e d the
test results w i t h indicators of school achievement, she received only low values of correlation.
O t h e r authors, including H e r m a n Rüppell and H e i n r i c h Stumpf, have struggled w i t h l o w validity
coefficients as well. H o w e v e r , this fact does n o t de-value the instruments o r tasks they have
developed. Instead, these results question t h e validity of easily available indicators (e. g., of
school grades a n d teachers' judgements) for representing subtle differences of basic learning
abilities and creative talent.
Identification of the gifted
Ivan K o r e n
Faculty
of Philosophy,
University
of Zagreb,
Croatia
Abstract
Four topics are selected f r o m t h e plethora of issues related t o t h e identification of t h e gifted:
(a) stratification of t h e concept of identification (recognition, d e t e r m i n a t i o n , verification); (b)
cybernetic modelling of identification (identification as process diagnostics); (c) methodological
problems of identification (especially the value of teachers' a n d parents' assessment); and (d)
individual and social consequences of labelling (positive and negative experience).
A synthetic account of each of t h e selected topics was made o n t h e basis of recent relevant
literature, the attitudes of c o m p e t e n t experts w e r e reviewed, controversies of t h e empirical data
w e r e outlined, and answers t o some disharmonious issues w e r e suggested. T h e discussion is
summarized i n t o t h e conclusions of b o t h theoretical a n d practical relevance.
Introduction
H a v i n g received a k i n d invitation f r o m the T h i r d E u r o p e a n Conference organizers t o give the
keynote lecture related t o t h e identification of the gifted, I f o u n d several issues t o be selfimposed.
First, is it at all possible t o encompass so complex a n d comprehensive a subject-matter i n
such a short a n address w i t h o u t excessive reduction a n d simplification, w h i c h w o u l d create a n
impression of superficiality? Second, is it m o r e profitable t o a p p r o a c h the issue i n a n extensive
m a n n e r , by addressing a w h o l e range of the themes related t o the area, o r t o select a few key
themes and t h e n t o elaborate t h e m m o r e intensively? T h i r d , should the paper represent a
general review of the classification and systematization of t h e concepts related t o the area, o r
should it c o n t a i n the most recent empirical knowledge obtained t h r o u g h research? Finally,
should the content be addressed f r o m a positivistic v i e w p o i n t , based o n the prevailing concepts
o f t h e established scientific authorities, or give a critical and anticipatory i n t o n a t i o n , a n d h o w
m u c h , if any at all, should one's o w n experience and attitudes be represented, etc.?
These, and m a n y similar questions seem t o be well justified. Namely, there is hardly a b o o k
o n giftedness a n d the gifted that contains n o chapter o n identification. F u r t h e r m o r e , there isn't
a n y professional or scientific meeting o n the gifted i n w h i c h t h e identification issues are o m i t t e d .
A l l t h e reports of any research project review the identification procedures administered t o t h e
subjects participating i n it. Finally, the discussion of t h e issues of identification a n d c o n f i r m a t i o n
o f gifted individuals has a long tradition.
T h e first conceptualizations of the identification procedures are found i n the discussions of
t h e Greek philosophers Socrates ( 4 7 0 t o 3 9 9 B.C.) and Plato ( 4 2 7 t o 3 4 7 B.C.) o n t h e nature
a n d t h e structure of giftedness, and the first practical procedures i n t h e organized selection of
"the handsomest, strongest and the most clever y o u t h " for t h e education of social leaders by a
M o h a m m a d a n ruler at t h e beginning of X V I century (according t o W i t t y , 1 9 7 7 , p . 1). H o w e v e r ,
t h e first scientific a p p r o a c h t o the identification of t h e gifted certainly must be attributed t o
Ivan Koren
254
Lewis M . T e r m a n a n d his collaborators, and t o their famous follow-up study of t h e gifted children
i n California f r o m 1 9 2 0 o n (Terman, 1 9 6 8 ) .
C o n c u r r e n t l y w i t h T e r m a n , as well as later, and especially f r o m the mid-century, numerous
studies have been initiated, and based u p o n quite different identification programs. It is quite
clear t h a t they cannot be hereby enumerated, let alone described. H o w e v e r , t h e examples can
be given t h r o u g h t w o of those classic studies. O n e of t h e m is "Project T a l e n t " (Flannagan et
al., 1 9 6 2 ) , w h i c h covered 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 subjects f r o m h i g h schools t h r o u g h o u t t h e U S A , and
e m p l o y e d a respectable battery of 2 3 tests, 3 personality inventories, a preference test, and
t w o w r i t t e n tests. T h e second example is t h e M u n i c h study of giftedness (Heller & H a n y , 1 9 8 6 ;
Heller, 1 9 9 0 ) , w h i c h employed a two-level identification procedure covering t h e areas of
intellectual, creative, social, psychomotor and musical abilities w i t h numerous instruments for
each of these domains, a n d also o n the large n u m b e r of subjects. B o t h projects are of a
longitudinal design, a n d are characterized by a segmental strategy of differential identification
of t h e h i g h l y gifted y o u n g people, and by t h e c o n t r o l over a large n u m b e r of relevant variables.
T h e large quantity of references o n the identification of t h e gifted m a y be w e l l illustrated by
a selective bibliography o n t h e identification of t h e intellectually gifted c o m p i l e d by B . Feger o n
the occasion of t h e V I W o r l d Conference o n Gifted Children ( H a m b u r g , 1 9 8 5 ) , listing 3 5 5
references for just this single area of study of t h e gifted. T h e s y m p o s i u m "Identification of the
Gifted" was held at t h e same Conference, a dozen of quite informative papers w e r e presented,
and later published i n the b o o k edited by K. A . Heller & J . F. Feldhusen "Identifying and
N u r t u r i n g the Gifted: A n International Perspective" (Toronto: H u b e r , 1 9 8 6 ) . T h e Gifted Child
Quarterly periodical often publishes papers related t o the issues of identification as well, and
its special issue (vol. 2 8 (4), 1 9 8 4 ) was dedicated t o t h e subject area. T h e similar stands for
other periodicals, as w e l l as for special editions i n Europe, A m e r i c a a n d Asia.
A l l those considerations influenced m y decision n o t t o m a k e this paper a general review of
the identification-related issues, i.e., n o t t o represent a reasonably successful c o m p i l a t i o n of the
similar reviews already published, but rather t o elaborate i n it several issues, t o examine t h e m ,
and t o t r y t o provide plausible solutions. T h o s e issues are, as follows: t h e analysis of the concept
of identification, conceptualization of identification as of process diagnostics, some methodological difficulties of identification procedures, a n d practical effects of identification o n the
identified individuals and o n their social environment.
Let us n o w consider each of t h e above m e n t i o n e d issues.
T h e stratification of the concept of identification
T h e a i m of every identification procedure i n the area of giftedness is certainly t h e diagnosis
of t h e individual status of a potential candidate related t o some relevant characteristics, and the
prognosis
of t h e development of those characteristics i n terms of t h e quantity a n d quality of
their scope. Obviously, the practical goal of identification is the provision of the o p t i m a l
educational and other support t o the transformation of a n individual's high-quality potentials
into t h e concrete manifest abilities. Namely, the identification procedures are usually applied
t o be able t o intervene i n the most favourable t i m e of life (usually i n the early youth) and t o
provide b o t h t h e internal and external conditions necessary for t h e transformation of the
dispositions i n t o the productive mechanisms designated by various terms, such as manifest
giftedness, productive giftedness, talent, etc.
T h e identification itself, as a set of methods and procedures for t h e detection a n d c o n f i r m a t i o n
of gifted individuals, is prevailingly determined by t w o factors. T h e first d e t e r m i n i n g factor is
t h e conception
of giftedness,
and the other t h e particular
purpose of t h e identification, i.e.,
the content of t h e intervention (educational p r o g r a m , vocational choice, research selection,
school selection, etc.), o r t h e purpose of its initiation.
Identification of t h e gifted
255
T h e conceptualization of the p h e n o m e n o n of giftedness has developed t h r o u g h t h e process
of t h e gradual accumulation of knowledge w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k of pertinent sciences, a n d o n
the basis of theoretical explanation of the empirically gathered data. I n simplified t e r m s , the
process departed f r o m a m o n o l i t h i c conception of giftedness, usually expressed as a h i g h I Q
( T e r m a n , 1 9 6 9 ) towards t h e c o n c e p t i o n of giftedness as a multi-area system, encompassing
smaller o r greater n u m b e r of types of giftedness (Kathena, 1 9 7 9 ; W a g n e r et α/., 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e
m o s t recent accounts of t h e field usually m e n t i o n six areas, based o n t h e general intellectual,
speciftc-academic, creative, leadership, artistic (expressive), a n d p s y c h o m o t o r abilities (Gal­
lagher, 1 9 7 6 ) .
T h e o t h e r direction i n the conceptualization of giftedness departed f r o m t h e first conceptions
of giftedness as a particular really existing p r o p e r t y of a n individual, w h i c h one c a n have o r
have n o t , t o t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y viewpoint of giftedness as a developing process related t o some
conditions (Cudina-Obradovic, 1 9 9 0 ) . A typical example of a developmental concept of
giftedness is t h e w e l l - k n o w n Renzulli's interactive m o d e l of above-average abilities, h i g h
creativity and m o t i v a t i o n , f r o m w h i c h the later c o m p o n e n t i a l m o d e l of talent (Wagner et α/.,
1 9 8 4 ) has been developed.
T h e accepted c o n c e p t i o n of giftedness is the basis for its operational definition, o n w h i c h , i n
t u m , t h e concrete identification procedures are based, i n t h e sense of t h e definition of the
variables t o serve as the tools of identification and of t h e methods t o be applied i n i t .
O n t h e other h a n d , the compositions of the identification procedures are substantially
influenced by t h e purpose of the procedure itself. It is w e l l k n o w n that t h e identification of t h e
gifted is organized i n view of various goals. T h e identification procedures m a y be roughly divided
by p u r p o s e i n t o t w o domains: the d o m a i n of pragmatic goals (provision of t h e educational
s u p p o r t , selection t o elite schools, vocational guidance, c o m p e t i t i o n for scholarships, etc.) and
t h e d o m a i n of theoretical and research purposes (accumulation of knowledge o n t h e p h e n o m e ­
n o n o f giftedness, testing of the efficacy of the detection and p r o m o t i o n of giftedness, studies
of t h e pertinent environmental factors, etc.). Naturally, these goals are f o u n d c o m b i n e d i n
various ratios i n all t h e practical purposes.
T h e c o n c e p t i o n a n d the purpose of the identification, therefore, determine its methodological
structure, i.e., t h e procedures and the instruments. H o w e v e r , different procedures a n d instru­
m e n t s are characterized by different levels of validity, reliability and objectivity. T h i s means that
the identification procedures differ substantially b o t h b y t h e content that is t h e subject-matter
of a n y particular diagnosis, and by the level of the diagnostic-prognostic validity of t h e results
of t h e identification itself.
W e have, therefore, reached the fundamental issue o n w h e t h e r t h e concept of t h e identifi­
cation of the gifted represents a unitary entity, as usually deemed i n t h e lay circles, and
sometimes i n professional discussions as well, or every identification procedure should e n c o m ­
pass also a n attribute t o denote it m o r e clearly. It is certain that the concept of identification is
a stratified one, that it includes various degrees of identification procedures f r o m w h i c h stem
the o u t p u t s of various value levels, and that it includes t h e d e n o t a t i o n m a r k of t h e specific field
of giftedness t o w h i c h t h e identification itself relates. T h e differentiation of at least three levels
of identification is, therefore, recommended i n any given area of giftedness (Koren, 1 9 8 9 ) , as
represented i n Figure 1.
Recognition
of t h e gifted represents the disclosure of t h e signs of giftedness. It is a n initial
phase of identification, i n w h i c h certain symptoms are recognized i n particular individuals that
set t h e m apart f r o m their relative populations, i n the sense of their ability t o p e r f o r m certain
activities significantly quicker, better or w i t h m o r e success i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e i r peers. T h e
disclosure of such s y m p t o m s m a y c o m e about spontaneously (from parents, teachers, club
leaders, and other individuals i n position t o observe t h e reaction of t h e potentially gifted), o r
Ivan K o r e n
256
t h r o u g h a n organized effort of particular institutions, social a n d professional associations.
Determination
of t h e gifted represents t h e definition of t h e type and the level of giftedness.
This is the phase i n t h e identification i n w h i c h t h e identity of t h e gifted individual is recognized,
i.e., i n w h i c h t h e set of abilities that constitute his/her giftedness is determined. T h e determin a t i o n process is applied t o t h e already recognized gifted individuals, but c a n be used i n t h e
p o p u l a t i o n as a w h o l e . Prerequisite for this phase is t h e involvement of t h e c o m p e t e n t
professionals (psychologists, educators, physicians, etc.), a n d t h e use of t h e standardized
measuring instruments, o r t h e evaluation by teams of experts (juries).
Figure
1:
Segmental stratification of t h e concept of identification
Verification
of t h e gifted represents the highest level a n d t h e final stage of t h e identification
process, i n w h i c h t h e individual's actual giftedness is evaluated, either t h r o u g h its manifestation
i n a particular outstanding p r o d u c t , or i n a product w h o s e potential is p r o v e n w i t h h i g h
probability. T h e verification procedures m a y be organized i n different ways; t h e practice has
established t h e verification by specially f o r m e d official committees. T h e identification, therefore,
m a y be considered a broader concept that includes t h e diagnostic and prognostic procedures
of various scopes a n d breadth, w i t h a w h o l e range of methodological forms: f r o m t h e least
complex and least reliable activities, such as self-evaluation or peer ratings, t o t h e most c o m p l e x
ones accompanied by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of instruments of established metric characteristics. T h i s
surely justifies calling for, besides t h e claim of somebody's identification as of t h e gifted, t h e
specification of t h e level of t h e identification procedure as well. Similarly, t h e level of t h e applied
identification procedures is t o be t a k e n into account at t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e results o f a
research p r o g r a m .
Cybernetic model of the identification process
M a n y criticisms of identification are f o u n d i n t h e professional literature. T h e A m e r i c a n
psychologist J . W . B i r c h ( 1 9 8 4 ) has entitles one of his papers "Is any identification procedure
Identification of the gifted
257
necessary?". T h e answer t o the question is presented i n t h e conclusion of the paper:
"Identification of gifted students, as generally practiced i n t h e U n i t e d States, is neither desirable
n o r necessary." H e , therefore, had i n m i n d a particular t y p e of the procedures for the
identification of t h e gifted, as well as the other authors w h o criticized t h e actually practiced
identification procedures, a n d found t h e m i n m a n y ways deficient.
Such criticisms are most frequently based o n the fact t h a t t h e identification is usually
p r o g r a m m e d as a single-term procedure, that t h e diagnoses are m a d e o n t h e basis of a limited
inventory of diagnostic means, that the measuring instruments applied posses p o o r prognostic
properties, that a psychometric approach is favoured i n contrast t o t h e holistic one, a n d that
those procedures usually neglect the multi-dimensionality of t h e p h e n o m e n o n of giftedness.
T h e direct outcomes of these and similar pitfalls of t h e majority of identification procedures
represented t h e great mistakes of identification, b o t h i n t h e sense that m a n y actually gifted
individuals failed t o be recognized, and i n the sense that some quite average individuals w e r e
diagnosed as t h e gifted.
T h e creators of identification methodology are aware of t h e objective difficulties i n t h e
organization of the practical activities i n the identification of the gifted, a n d consequently
endeavour t o remedy, if n o t totally eliminate m a n y of t h e actual setbacks. These efforts m a y
be formulated i n terms of particular principles t o be respected i n t h e p l a n n i n g phases of the
identification procedures:
a) The concept of identification
comprises
a series of specific procedures.
A s n o universal
giftedness exists, there is neither a universal identification procedure t o be applied i n all the
instances. T h e t y p e of giftedness and the purpose of the identification procedure determine t h e
actual methods a n d procedures of the process.
b) The identification
represents
a continuing
process. T h e h u m a n characteristics constituti n g t h e concept of giftedness are dynamic categories, so t h e single-term diagnoses o n their
developmental level are always risky. A continuing evaluation of t h e obtained diagnoses is,
therefore, necessary, thus m a k i n g the identification a process activity.
c) The optimal age for identification
is not determined
unequivocally.
I n relation t o the
chronological age, t h e identification should n o t be attempted t o o early, w h e n the organic
structures are n o t yet m a t u r e enough for the reliable determination of their potential, n o r t o o
late, w h e n the o p t i m a l period of development, and the possibility of influencing it, is terminated.
F r o m this viewpoint, t h e o p t i m a l age for identification is dependent o n t h e t y p e of ability t o be
identified, and o n the individual developmental rate of t h e gifted individual.
d) The identification
procedures
are population-oriented.
Starting f r o m t h e principle of
democracy, each m e m b e r of the population must have a n equal o p p o r t u n i t y t o have the type
a n d t h e level of his/her giftedness determined i n any phase of his/her development, should the
relevant indications appear. This makes the identification a n o p e n process w i t h all the members
of a particular p o p u l a t i o n as permanent candidates.
e) Careful
use of verbal labels of the identification
results. Because of t h e possibility of
failure of t h e identified gifted individuals t o realize their potential, as well as for t h e possibility
of t h e adverse reactions of t h e (usually ill-prepared) environment, t h e indiscriminate and
abundant use of t h e direct labels for the identified individuals is quite dangerous (e.g., "gifted",
"talented", "highly above-average", etc.).
Even these few conceptual remarks indicate the complexity of t h e identification process, and
t h e necessity of careful p l a n n i n g of all its components. Several authors have elaborated such
plans, as illustrate hence by t h e model by w h i c h the identification process encompasses five
steps (Feldhusen, 1 9 8 4 ) : (1) definition of the p r o g r a m m a t i c goals a n d types of giftedness (those
abilities and characteristics that represent the subject o f identification); (2) application of the
258
Ivan K o r e n
n o m i n a t i o n procedures (various pre-selection procedures generating a broader circle of the
potentially involved i n special treatment); (3) application of t h e individual identification proce­
dures (a m o r e precise d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f types of giftedness a n d the e x t r a c t i o n of those t o enter
special programs); (4) application of t h e individual differentiation p r o g r a m s (determination of
specific characteristics of t h e gifted aimed at clear individualization of educational programs);
and (5) validation of t h e identification process (determination of t h e efficacy of the applied
procedures aimed at their affirmation or possible future modification).
These, and similar c o m p o n e n t s may, i n various combinations, be f o u n d i n t h e proposals b y
other constructors of the identification procedures' plans (Renzulli, 1 9 7 7 ; Khatena, 1 9 7 8 ;
R i m m , 1 9 8 4 , a n d others). H o w e v e r , they all lead towards a pragmatic m o d e l based u p o n t h e
mutual p e r m e a t i o n of identification procedures a n d various educational p r o g r a m s o n one side,
and specific content a n d specific forms of their elaboration o n t h e other. These programs for
t h e gifted differ f r o m regular school programs n o t only i n content, but b y far m o r e b y
instructional techniques. T h e y are oriented towards self-reliance, individual freedom, initiative,
scientific and creative w o r k , productive c o o p e r a t i o n , a n d self-control.
A larger n u m b e r of subjects is initially included i n t o a particular educational p r o g r a m , w h i c h
consists of less c o m p l e x task, o n the basis of certain pre-selection procedures (sometimes t h e y
can be based just o n self-perception a n d interest). O n the basis of performance i n p r o g r a m m a t i c
activities, a differentiation of those w h o have manifested their abilities i n a productive m a n n e r
is carried out, and they are subsequently admitted t o p r o g r a m m a t i c activities of increasing
complexity, so t h e process continues as a spiral by reduction of the n u m b e r of subjects a n d by
the increment of complexity of relevant p r o g r a m m a t i c activities. T h e criteria for admission i n t o
particular m o r e specific programs are, besides t h e demonstrated success i n previous tasks, t h e
results of psychological and educational exploration including, naturally, testing by use of
adequate measurement instruments.
It is quite obvious that some of t h e admitted individuals d r o p out i n t h e course of such a
combined process (Renzulli, 1 9 8 4 ) , but other individuals c a n also j o i n i n any phase, regardless
of the reasons for their previous omission, if the relevant indications appear (various n o m i n a ­
tions, test results, etc.). T h i s sort of identification, based o n repeated d e t e r m i n a t i o n of abilities
and characteristics accompanied b y t h e evaluation of manifested performance, is usually n a m e d
P R O C E S S D I A G N O S T I C S . Consequently, the final diagnosis (not i n the absolute sense of t h e
word) is the result of t h e evaluation of all t h e previous diagnostic/prognostic procedures.
Elements of process diagnostics m a y be f o u n d i n m a n y models and p r o g r a m s aimed at t h e
identification and t h e development of the gifted. O n l y several examples w i l l be m e n t i o n e d here,
all of w h i c h are reviewed i n a comprehensive account of such models [Renzulli (Ed.), 1 9 8 6 ) :
S M P Y - M o d e l for identification and education of the mathematically gifted students (Benbow);
S-O-I M o d e l for identification of t h e gifted and training of individual intellectual abilities (Meeker
& Meeker); P U R D U E T H R E E - P H A S E M O D E L for t h e identification of gifted children a n d
training of their t h i n k i n g skills (Feldhusen & Kolloff), Triad/Revolving D o o r M o d e l ( T R D M ) ,
w h i c h starts f r o m a p o p u l a t i o n , t h r o u g h pre-selection a n d three subsequent " e n r i c h m e n t
programs", t o include 5 - 1 0 % of t h e pupils i n the most complex phase (J. S. Renzulli & S. M .
Reis), etc.] T h e M o s c o w Y o u n g Physicists' T o u r n a m e n t - Y P T ( K o m e e v a et α/., 1 9 9 1 ) c a n also
be included i n this g r o u p . These, a n d numerous other similar models, are characterized b y t h e
mutual p e r m e a t i o n of identification and educational treatment of t h e potentially gifted.
In consequence t o the all reviewed above, it m a y be concluded that t h e population-based
process diagnostics can be explained by a "sift-down" m o d e l (Treffinger, 1 9 8 6 ) , i n w h i c h t h e
p o p u l a t i o n of t h e "officially designated" is reached t h r o u g h a multi-level screening. T h e
individual-based process diagnostics can be represented by a cybernetic m o d e l (Figure 2).
Identification of t h e gifted
259
The stepwise diagnostic process is based o n feedback, a n d t h e route f r o m recognition t o
verification leads t h r o u g h a series of steps, where the admission i n t o a higher level is stipulated
by the success at previous ones. Every potential candidate must be given a chance of multiple
testing of his capacities at every diagnostic level. Certainly, t h e call for t h e utmost flexibility of
such a m o d e l is self-evident.
Selected
RECOGNITION
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candidate
Areas of probations
No
#
Yes Γ
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f
SPECIFIC
1
No
ΓΊ£
\
No
Population
&
ff
I&
IONAL
IONAL
No
PROGRAMS
7" \
YesL
etc.
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PROGRAMS
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Conclusive diagnosis
VERIFICATION
2:
REGULAR
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Figure
,
Process of identification of a gifted individual (cybernetic pattern)
Methodological problems of identification procedures
M a n y different methodological forms and procedures are used i n t h e identification of the gifted
i n accordance w i t h the operational definition of giftedness a n d the purpose of t h e particular
identification activity. T h e abundance and variety of the existing methodological forms m a y be
illustrated by t h e b o o k "Successful Programs" (Juntune, 1 9 8 6 ) , w h i c h reviews over 1 2 0
educational p r o g r a m s for gifted and talented children and y o u t h of U S A a n d Canada. Dozens
of types of individual a n d g r o u p tests of general and specific intellectual abilities w e r e employed
i n their identification, along w i t h a variety of creativity tests, personality tests, attainment tests,
teachers' and parents' nominations, check-lists, questionnaires, interviews, peer ratings, selfratings, and other identification techniques.
T h e attempts at t h e systematization of the procedures used i n c o n t e m p o r a r y practice for the
identification of t h e gifted could lead t o their classification i n t o t w o groups of methods:
assessment methods a n d testing methods, as s h o w n i n Figure 3 (Koren, 1 9 9 1 ) .
T h e basic feature of all assessment
acteristics by m e n . T h e assessment
methods
is a direct d e t e r m i n a t i o n of particular char­
is, consequently, always subjective a n d vulnerable t o
Ivan K o r e n
260
w e l l - k n o w n subjective errors. T h e r e are t w o forms o f assessment: assessment o f the develop­
mental level o f subject's relevant characteristics
(abilities, personality traits, interest, motiva­
t i o n , etc.), a n d assessment o f the value o f subject's spiritual and material products
(scientific
w o r k , technical patent, p o e m , painting, musical interpretation, acting performance, etc.).
CHARACTERISTICS
* nomination by teachers
* parents' and guardians' reports
* reports by club leaders
* peer assessment
* self assessment, etc.
PRODUCTS
* scientific reports and publications
* patents, new instruments
* awards at competitions and meetings
* work of art and creations
' selection, nomination, etc.
^
CHARACTERISTICS
* intelligence tests
' specific ability tests
' creative ability tests
* personality tests
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S
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Ε
S
Τ
' knowledge and attainment tests, etc.
Figure
3:
Assessment and measurement i n the process o f identification
T h e assessment is most frequently done by teachers, parents, club leaders, and less frequently
by peers and acquaintances, while self-assessment is used just occasionally.
T h e basic feature o f all t h e testing methods is the use o f standardized measuring instruments,
of k n o w n metric characteristics, that can be applied by trained professionals. T h e instruments
are calibrated i.e., they possess t h e n o r m s that allow f o r t h e placement o f a n y particular
individual's result o n t h e appropriate spot o f t h e c o n t i n u u m of a measurement scale (usually
percentile scale), a n d thus for the determination o f the p r o p o r t i o n o f his p o p u l a t i o n above o r
below h i m by t h e results obtained t h r o u g h that particular diagnostic instrument.
T h e m e t h o d o l o g y of identification, f r o m b o t h general a n d specific viewpoints, was discussed
by m a n y authors i n the field. R. Strang (1967), f o r instance, points out the p h e n o m e n o n of
so-called pseudo-giftedness, w h e r e some lively a n d talkative children, especially those of
ambitious parents, m a y convey a false impression o f giftedness, i n contrast t o t h e w i t h d r a w n ,
but actually gifted ones. E. P. Torrance ( 1 9 7 1 ) emphasizes t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f h a r m o n y b e t w e e n
the identification criteria, w h i c h includes t h e use o f instruments, and t h e aims o f p r o g r a m s for
the t r e a t m e n t o f t h e gifted. P h . V e r n o n (Vernon et al, 1 9 7 7 ) points out that, regardless o f t h e
Identification of t h e gifted
261
identification technique w e choose t o employ, there is n o single all-valid assessment. D . Sisk
(1987) discusses t h e list of the most frequently used identification procedures, reviews specific
instruments for t h e handicapped, and stresses the i m p o r t a n c e of case study technique. C. L.
Hollinger a n d S. Kosek (1989), and N . S. Leites ( 1 9 8 8 ) speak of t h e possibilities, as w e l l as of
the numerous difficulties related t o t h e prediction of the later development of t h e early identified
gifted children. A . Kleverlaan ( 1 9 9 1 ) elaborates (on the example of T h e Hague) t h e difficulties
i n the identification of gifted children of ethnic rninorities, etc.
Moreover, numerous designers of research p r o g r a m s aimed at t h e s u p p o r t t o t h e gifted of
general a n d specific abilities r e p o r t o n the variety of methodological approaches t o t h e
identification i n those areas. Different combinations of trait assessment, p r o d u c t assessment,
a n d characteristic's measurement are present there, t o o . T h e representative sample of papers
t o illustrate t h e scope of methodological issues related t o specific areas of giftedness is extremely
hard t o c o m p i l e . F o r instance, one could m e n t i o n the finding (Freedman, 1 9 8 6 ) that b o t h artistic
interest a n d musical p r o d u c t i o n abilities are equally i m p o r t a n t predictors of artistic giftedness.
T h e construction a n d development of valid measurement instruments could also be included,
such as Clark's D r a w i n g Abilities Test for screening and identification i n visual a n d p e r f o r m i n g
artistic abilities (Clark, 1 9 8 9 ) , H a m b u r g e r Test für Mathematische Begabung i n t h e area of
mathematical giftedness (Wagner & Z i m m e r m a n n , 1 9 8 6 ) , and other similar tests. T h e d i l e m m a
o n h o w a n d w h e n t o use the measures of general versus specific intellectual abilities (Stanley,
1 9 8 4 ) could be m e n t i o n e d , t o o , as w e l l as the p r o b l e m of differentiation of t h e gifted i n terms
of their academic potential w i t h i n a particular identification m o d e l (Van Tassel-Baska, 1 9 8 4 ) ,
a n d so o n .
These few r a n d o m l y selected general and specific methodological issues cannot represent a
systematic review of t h e field, but can present us w i t h t h e illustration of b o t h their diversity and
complexity. T h e r e is, however, a n issue that seems t o deserve special consideration, a n d will
be addressed separately. This is the issue of t h e value of various n o m i n a t i o n s (based u p o n
assessment), especially b y teachers, because they take t h e t o p r a n k o n t h e list of generally used
identification procedures (Marland, according t o Sisk, 1 9 8 7 ) .
F r o m a theoretical viewpoint, teachers do possess certain qualifications for valid detection of
gifted students. Primarily, they are i n the position t o observe, o n a long-term basis, t h e behaviour
of children i n various curricular and extra-curricular activities. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y have the
o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o m p a r e the developmental levels of the characteristics of children of t h e same
o r similar chronological age. Moreover, they possess a psychological a n d educational t r a i n i n g ,
w h i c h is prerequisite for understanding and recognition of individual children's reactions. T h e y
are also i n constant c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h family e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d are thus able t o acquire the
relevant i n f o r m a t i o n o n a child. Finally, they are able t o consult professionally w i t h other
teachers, and so o n . H o w e v e r , m a n y findings indicate t h e p o o r validity of their assessment. I n
a review of synthetic evidence f r o m a number of studies, J . T . W e b b et al. ( 1 9 8 2 ) c l a i m that
t h e teachers' n o m i n a t i o n s identify less t h a n a half of students subsequently identified as gifted
b y individual testing. A t the same t i m e , 1 0 % of the students identified as gifted by t h e m fail t o
be p r o v e n actually gifted, and even 2 5 % of the highly gifted ones r e m a i n unnoticed b y their
teachers. M a n y p r i o r and later papers corroborate these findings. W h e r e does this paradox
stem from?
There are t w o a p p a r e n t reasons for this controversy. T h e first one is the evaluation
criterion
o n w h i c h teachers' assessment is based. These assessments are usually c o m p a r e d w i t h test
results, a n d tests are a p r i o r i taken as valid diagnostic/prognostic instrument; this is a clear case
of circulus vitiosus. O n l y the appropriate follow-up studies could, as t h e matter of fact, provide
us w i t h t h e possibility of evaluation of real validity of teachers' n o m i n a t i o n s . T h e second reason
stems f r o m t h e fact that teacher is considered t o be "a completed instrument".
For, as J .
W h i t m o r e ( 1 9 8 5 , p . 112) puts i t , "most teachers and o t h e r school professionals have n o t been
262
Ivan K o r e n
prepared t o identify accurately the gifted children w h o are n o t h i g h achievers a n d t o provide
for t h e i r special needs". If the teachers received a systematic methodical education (e.g., i n t h e
area of analytical discrimination), a n d w e r e provided w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e apparatus (manuals,
evaluation scales, etc.), t h a n their assessment w o u l d prove t o be of a greater use i n t h e
identification of t h e gifted, as demonstrated b y some recent studies (Hany, 1 9 9 1 ) .
D u e a t t e n t i o n should be paid t o other forms of n o m i n a t i o n s i n identification procedures. T h e
i m p o r t a n t role is played b y parents. T h e advantage of parents' evaluation is that they have t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y t o observe the continuous development of child's behaviour i n a great variety of
situations, a n d t h e shortcomings stem f r o m t h e lack of possibility of adequate c o m p a r i s o n of
one's o w n child w i t h his peers, t h e lack of methodological t r a i n i n g , a n d t h e e m o t i o n a l
involvement that usually leads t o over-rating of child's characteristics. S o m e authors, such as
J . A l v i n o ( 1 9 8 5 ) , claim that parents should acquire reliance o n their evaluation skills, because
it seems t h a t they do possess a n intuitive knowledge of their children, a n d are aware, although
usually unable t o explain h o w , of their children's unusual ability. Despite such viewpoints, m u c h
research o n t h e possibilities of professional help i n t h e efficient appraisal of t h e characteristics
of one's o w n children is certainly t o be expected, for t h e knowledge i n this area is very restricted,
especially c o n c e r n i n g t h e construction of appropriate instruments. This, of course, stands for
all the o t h e r potential n o m i n a t o r s , such as peers (Gagne, 1 9 8 9 ) .
Because w e are unable t o further elaborate neither t h e discussion of t h e already m e n t i o n e d
methodical issues of identification, n o r t o extend it b y inclusion of additional issues, w e shall
conclude this chapter w i t h a general statement. T h e diagnostic methods of identification of t h e
gifted are studied a n d evaluated extensively, especially regarding the tests of individual simple
and c o m p l e x abilities. T h e relevant knowledge is m u c h less abundant i n t h e area of t h e so-called
inter-diagnostics, i.e. o n t h e c o m b i n a t i o n of various c o m m o n diagnostic measures, a n d i n
diagnosis of t h e process characteristics of gifted individuals (Hany, 1 9 8 7 ) . It is very likely t h a t
the further developments i n t h e area of diagnostic/prognostic procedures for identification of
the gifted w i l l be directed towards t h e disclosure of t h e relation between t h e interaction of
cognitive and non-cognitive characteristics of gifted individuals w i t h their social and cultural
e n v i r o n m e n t , and their projection o n certain criterion variables (Heller, 1 9 8 7 ) , leading t o t h e
affirmation of non-parametric methods of identification of t h e gifted. This remains, however,
a separate issue.
Individual and social outcomes of the publication of identification results
T h e feature inherent t o identification procedures is a certain statement of t h e results (output)
of these procedures. Regardless of t h e f o r m of their publication - i n descriptive categories, i n
statistical terms, o r i n some other m a n n e r - they always relate t o actual individuals. There is n o
a n o n y m o u s identification, at least for t h e identified and for those w h o are t o support t h e i r
development, for such activities w o u l d t h e n be senseless. Consequently, a question o n t h e
individual a n d social outcomes of identification and their publicized results seems t o be quite
relevant.
F r o m a theoretical viewpoint, as s h o w n i n Figure 4 , n o t only the extremely polarized results
are t o be expected, but also a full scale of different outcomes, such as, for instance: the absence
of specific outcomes, exclusively (or prevailingly) positive outcomes, exclusively (or prevailingly)
negative outcomes, positive effects i n one area, and negative i n t h e other, positive outcomes
for t h e identified, a n d negative for their e n v i r o n m e n t (siblings, peers, etc.), varying outcomes
for different individuals i n t h e same situation w i t h n o possibility of generalization, etc.
T h e above m e n t i o n e d theoretical assumptions are present i n t h e views of particular authors,
but also substantiated by various e m p i r i c a l results, w h i c h i n some instances disclose smaller o r
greater positive effects, w h i l e i n t h e others smaller or greater negative consequences w e r e
Identification of the gifted
263
observed, either for the individual or for his environment. These discordant a n d indeed
contradictory results w i l l be illustrated by several examples.
T h e close relation of the publication (labelling) of the gifted w i t h t h e conceptualization of t h e
concept of giftedness is pointed out by J . Freeman and Κ. K. U r b a n ( 1 9 8 3 ) . T h e authors claim
that giftedness is n o t just a n individual/psychological, but also a social/cultural p h e n o m e n o n ,
a n d that t h e expectations f r o m t h e labelled individuals are dependent o n t h e social definition
of the concept of giftedness. B y reference t o t h e findings of a n u m b e r of researchers, they
emphasize t h e positive effects of identification o n the motivation of b o t h subjects themselves,
and of those w h o are engaged i n their education and support, but w a r n , at the same t i m e ,
against t h e negative effects of segregation, especially i n small children, p r o p o s i n g t h e inner
differentiation of t h e curriculum, i.e., the individualization of t h e procedures w i t h i n a n o r m a l
educational e n v i r o n m e n t .
HYPOTHETIC SPECTRUM OF EFFECTS
Figure
4:
Theoretical consequences of the publication of t h e results of t h e identification
process
A synthetic overview of t h e relatively controversial findings o n t h e effects of publication of
t h e gifted was c o m p i l e d by A . Robinson (1986). It is reported that t h e publicized gifted
adolescents t e n d t o have a positive attitude towards themselves, and are n o t rejected b y their
peers (S. L. Guskin); that the school environment doesn't necessarily perceive the publicized
gifted negatively (A. J . T a n n e n b a u m and H . J . Morgan); that t h e direct a p p r o a c h of teachers
t o the gifted individuals is a n affirmative one (A. Robinson); but, o n the other h a n d , that the
labeling of the children as gifted produces negative outcomes i n families w i t h several children,
b o t h for the gifted a n d for other children (E. Fisher and D . G. Cornell); that s o m e teachers tend
t o rate t h e identified gifted children lower (B. Clark and J . C. Jacobs); that s o m e psychologists
a n d counselors react negatively t o t h e labeling of the gifted (J. L . Weiner a n d J . A . Deiulio),
and so o n . These findings have brought A n n Robinson t o the following conclusion: ' T h e effects
264
Ivan K o r e n
of labelling children gifted are, at present, unclear.... I n either case, t h e issue of identifying and
subsequently labelling children as gifted continues t o be a n interesting a n d controversial area
of investigation" ( 1 9 8 6 , p . 108).
J . Freeman includes the issues of t h e effects of identification and labelling of t h e children as
gifted i n t o t h e area of e m o t i o n a l aspects of giftedness, speaks of t h e stereotypes of the gifted,
and points out t h e differences between the A m e r i c a n a n d t h e E u r o p e a n stereotypes. While t h e
former, based o n T e r m a n ' s and m a n y other subsequent results, are of prevailingly positive
connotations, t h e latter are mostly negative, and associate giftedness w i t h various difficulties,
especially w i t h e m o t i o n a l problems. T h e author substantiates this claim b y t h e results of
Gulbenkian's English project for gifted children, w h i c h demonstrate t h e statistically significant
larger presence of e m o t i o n a l behaviour disorders i n t h e labeled gifted g r o u p , as c o m p a r e d w i t h
the control.
T h e diversity of t h e findings is w e l l evident f r o m several other studies. Guskin a n d Zimmerm a n n (1986) r e p o r t o n t h e results of their study of 2 9 5 gifted students, a n d conclude that they
demonstrate highly positive attitudes towards giftedness, but consider themselves n o different
f r o m t h e others, and are, w i t h few exceptions, w e l l accepted by the other students. Colangelo
and B r o w n ( 1 9 8 7 ) have disclosed t h e difference between t h e short-term a n d t h e long-term
family effects of t h e identification a n d the publication of the gifted, a n d d e t e r m i n e d that the
immediate adverse effects t e n d t o disappear over the time, although the gifted themselves
express some doubt about t h e presence of completely positive attitude of their f a m i l y members
towards their abilities. C o r n e l l ( 1 9 8 9 ) has carried out a study investigating the effects of the use
of t e r m "the gifted" by t h e parents o n t h e adaptation of their children as expressed t h r o u g h
self-concept, anxiety a n d social status. H e has concluded that t h e children of those parents w h o
use this label t e n d t o display significantly lesser adaptation i n some of these variables t h a n t h e
children of the parents w h o refrain f r o m the use of the t e r m .
O u r study (Kolesaric & K o r e n , 1 9 9 1 ) , organized as a two-year longitudinal study that included
t h e experimental and c o n t r o l g r o u p of elementary school students (sixth and e i g h t h grade), had
demonstrated that t h e public labeling of the gifted students produced n o statistically significant
adverse effects o n t h e attitudes of students, their parents and teachers o n the onset o f giftedness
a n d o n the gifted. H o w e v e r , t h e consistency of attitudes of t h e gifted a n d their parents proved
n o t t o be stronger t h a n t h e one of t h e attitudes of other students and their parents. Moreover,
t h e publicly labelled students, i n c o m p a r i s o n t o all the other students as well as t o t h e other
gifted students (who w e r e n o t i n f o r m e d o n their giftedness), believe t o the significantly lesser
extent that the identification leads t o the development of negative character features.
Even these few r a n d o m l y chosen studies c o n f i r m the initial assumptions o n t h e equivocality
of t h e effects of the public labeling and differential treatment of gifted individuals. This also
means that t h e identification itself does n o t automatically produce positive o r negative
outcomes, but that these outcomes are rather dependent o n the actual organization of the
identification procedures i n varying objective circumstances.
Namely, every person involved i n t h e organization of identification procedures tends t o believe
that t h e outcomes of these procedures w i l l produce positive effects b o t h o n t h e identified
individuals and o n their e n v i r o n m e n t , and that the potential adverse outcomes m a y be prevented
or significantly suppressed by preventive action. I n other case, n o one w o u l d ever get involved
i n these activities. T h e issue, consequently, arises o n t h e identity of t h e critical factors of
identification that m a y generate t h e adverse effects. T h e y are indeed numerous, b u t t h e most
p r o m i n e n t seem t o be t h e ones related t o t h e inadequate psychological p r e p a r a t i o n of the
identification candidates, as w e l l as of those involved i n t h e process immediately o r remotely,
such as family members, peers, teachers, co-members i n various clubs, associations, organizations, etc.
265
Identification of t h e gifted
{
TURNING AWAY
OR
ALLEVIATION
IDEN
Figure
5:
T l ON
Ο
Ο
Ο
Ο
Ο
creation of the favorable social climate
for giftedness
.
•
circumspective use of direct labels in
categorization of the gifted
κ
/
psychological preparation of the identified
gifted individuals
psychological preparation of the immediate
social environment
avoidance of manipulation and of inappropriate
pressure on the gifted persons' performance
high quality level of the diagnostic/
prognostic procedures
Preventive activities aimed at alleviation of the negative consequences of identi­
fication
T h e psychological p r e p a r a t i o n of the candidates t o be potentially categorized as gifted includes
their education o n t h e relation o f their natural potentials and t h e realization o f these potentials,
as w e l l as o n all t h e possible reactions o f the social environment t o their distinction, w h i c h can
range f r o m understanding a n d unconditional support, t h r o u g h i g n o r i n g a n d envy t o t o t a l
rejection. T h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e social environment encompasses t h e educational and other
procedures aimed at the natural and tolerant acceptance o f individual differences w i t h i n t h e
particular social g r o u p , and o n the manner o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n respecting those differences.
Naturally, the forms of such a n educational preparation are specific for particular categories o f
subjects, such as parents, siblings, peers, etc.
M a n y other factors m a y significantly influence the effects of the publication of t h e identification
results. T h e general social climate, as expressed i n the attitudes o f authorities, legal regulations,
and i n t h e media, is of great significance. T h e existence of the tradition o f identification activities
w i l l b e o f s o m e influence, t o o (the first attempts at identification o f t h e gifted i n a society w i l l
produce different effects t h a n those w h i c h are already become the usual practice). Furthermore,
t h e m a n n e r o f use o f identification results' labels, especially t h e exaggerated and indiscriminated
use o f direct labels as "gifted", "talented", "highly above-average", etc., m a y produce negative
outcomes, especially if some o f the labelled individuals fail t o manifest their potentials. Similarly,
t h e seriousness o f the a p p r o a c h , as well as the methodological level o f t h e procedures and their
organization, represents t h e significant regulators o f their positive o r negative outcomes.
Ivan K o r e n
266
A l l the above m e n t i o n e d , as well as m a n y other factors that m a y p r o v e h a r m f u l t o t h e gifted
individual's personality and/or his e n v i r o n m e n t i n t h e course of p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e identification
results m u s t be t a k e n i n t o account i n t h e phase of identification p r o g r a m m i n g , so t h a t various
corrective procedures m a y be applied t o check their potential adverse effects.
Concluding statements
T h e present paper refers t o , defines a n d discusses just a few outs o f a large i n v e n t o r y of issues
related t o t h e identification of the gifted: first it discusses the very c o n c e p t of identification
c o n c e r n i n g its c o m p l e x i t y a n d layered structure, t h a n attempts t o present i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the
gifted i n a f o r m of process diagnostics and t o represent it b y a cybernetic m o d e l , t h e n analyzes
some methodological difficulties and concerns present i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f identification
procedures, a n d , finally, draws a t t e n t i o n t o the potential individual a n d social o u t c o m e s of the
publication o f the results of identification activities. Such a n e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e issue allows for
t h e synthesis of t h e following concluding statements:
(a) T h e issue of identification represents a crucial c o m p o n e n t of every system o f organized
care for t h e development and s u p p o r t of the gifted. M o r e o v e r , t h e quality of individual
educational a n d other supportive p r o g r a m s is t o a significant e x t e n t d e p e n d e n t o n t h e quality
of identification procedures themselves.
(b) Every identification procedure is determined by t h e present c o n c e p t i o n of giftedness and
its o p e r a t i o n a l definition o n one h a n d , and by t h e purpose a n d goals t o be achieved by that
particular identification activity o n the other.
(c) T h e very concept of identification
of the gifted includes several p r o c e d u r a l levels. These
levels differ b o t h i n concept and i n methodology, a n d the m o s t p r o m i n e n t o f t h e m are, as
follows: recognition
(perception of relevant signals of giftedness), determination
(definition of
t h e t y p e a n d t h e level of giftedness), a n d verification
(evaluation o f t h e manifested giftedness).
(d) Identification, as a set of specific methodological procedures, represents a c o n t i n u i n g
process. These procedures interchange w i t h various p r o g r a m s of educational s u p p o r t t o t h e
gifted. T h e interrelation of identification and educational processes p r o d u c e s t h e actual
diagnosis f o r each particular gifted individual. These procedures are, t h e r e f o r e , justly n a m e d
process
diagnostics.
(e) Every single diagnosis at each level of identification process m u s t be verified o r falsified b y
feedback o n the actual manifestation of the diagnosed characteristics, f o r it represents the basis
for the f o l l o w i n g steps of process diagnostics; all the relevant i d e n t i f i c a t i o n activities take place
following a cybernetic m o d e l .
(f) N u m e r o u s procedures of assessment and testing are e m p l o y e d i n practical identification
activities. T h e r e are continuous efforts towards the construction a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of n e w
measurement instruments, a n d the i m p r o v e m e n t of the diagnostic/prognostic validity of t h e
existing ones, especially for specific areas of giftedness.
(g) T h e r e p o r t e d discrepancy between p o o r validity of teachers' n o m i n a t i o n s a n d t h e i r realistic
potential f o r m o r e successful assessment of their students' giftedness is h i g h l i g h t e d . T h e reasons
for this p a r a d o x seem t o be the inadequate criterion used for t h e v a l i d a t i o n of t h e i r n o m i n a t i o n s
(test results), a n d their lack of a p p r o p r i a t e training i n the m e t h o d o l o g y o f assessment.
(h) T h e m o s t frequent f o r m a l o u t p u t of identification procedures is labelling o f t h e identified
gifted. A s t h e available studies failed t o present us w i t h conclusive evidence o n t h e individual
and social effects of identification, so the w h o l e range of o u t c o m e s , f r o m positive t h r o u g h
neutral t o o negative, is theoretically t o be expected, preventive a c t i o n a i m e d at t h e e l i m i n a t i o n
or suppression of t h e possible adverse effects is called for.
Identification o f t h e gifted
267
(i) T h e organizational measures accompanying identification procedures t o prevent t h e
adverse effects o f identification are, o n one h a n d , the appropriate psychological p r e p a r a t i o n
of the identified gifted individuals and of their immediate and r e m o t e e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d , o n the
other, t h e quality o f diagnostic/prognostic procedures themselves.
It can be stated, i n conclusion, that some other authors reviewing this particular field w o u l d
probably select s o m e o t h e r present issues of identification, o r w o u l d view a n d discuss these
ones i n a different m a n n e r . This confirms the n o t i o n of the discussion of identification as of a
c o n t i n u i n g process itself, a never completed p a t t e r n of knowledge o n t h e subject. I w o u l d be
h a p p y if m y present p a p e r succeeded i n adding a small contribution t o that p a t t e r n .
Summary
Four topics are selected a n d discussed out of the broad range of subject-matter related t o the
identification o f t h e gifted: stratification of the concept of giftedness, cybernetic m o d e l of the
identification process, methodological problems related t o identification procedures, and
individual a n d social outcomes of publication of t h e identification results.
Starting f r o m a p r e s u p p o s i t i o n that the purpose of every identification procedure i n t h e area
of giftedness is diagnosis
of individual status i n relevant characteristics of a particular potential
candidate a n d t h e prognosis
of the development of those characteristics, as well as f r o m the
fact that i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is determined by the conception of giftedness a n d t h e concrete purpose,
t h e concept o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is analyzed. It has been argued that this concept is n o t a unitary
entity, but r a t h e r consists of at least three levels: recognition
(acknowledgment of t h e signs of
giftedness), determination
(appraisal of the type and level of giftedness), a n d
validation
(evaluation of t h e manifested giftedness). Such a stratification has its methodological consequences, for every phase of the identification requires specific methodological procedures.
Identification, viewed as a set of specific methodological procedures, represents a
continuing
process.
T h e s e procedures are mutually permeated w i t h various p r o g r a m s of educational
support, a n d t h e inter-relation of identification and educational processes produces t h e actual
diagnosis of every gifted subject. For this reason these procedures are n a m e d
process
diagnostics.
Because every individual diagnosis at every level of identification process must be
verified o r falsified b y feedback i n f o r m a t i o n o n the actual manifestation of the diagnosed
characteristics, all t h e relevant identification activities may be described i n terms of a
cybernetic
model.
I n the practical identification activities numerous procedures are used, b o t h f r o m t h e g r o u p
o f assessment m e t h o d s , a n d f r o m the g r o u p of measurement (testing) methods. T h e discrepancy
between teachers' n o m i n a t i o n s and their realistic potentials for successful assessment of level
of giftedness of t h e i r students (substantiated by the results of m a n y studies) represents a separate
methodological p r o b l e m . A more detailed analysis of this p r o b l e m discloses that its reasons
stem f r o m t h e existence of the questionable
criterion
for t h e evaluation of their n o m i n a t i o n s
(mostly test results) a n d f r o m their inadequate
methodological
training
i n assessment
procedures.
T h e most frequent f o r m a l output of identification procedures is labelling of the identified gifted
individuals. T h e results u p t o date failed t o produce unequivocal accounts o n t h e individual and
social outcomes of identification, so, as all the options r e m a i n theoretically possible, f r o m
positive t h r o u g h n e u t r a l t o negative, it is advisable t o carry out preventive activities a i m e d at
t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o r at least d i m i n u t i o n of the possible negative outcomes. T h e advised preventive
activities encompass t h e psychological
preparation
of the identified gifted individuals a n d their
immediate a n d distant e n v i r o n m e n t at one side, and t h e highest possible
standard
of
diagnostic/prognostic
procedures
o n the other.
Ivan K o r e n
268
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Birch, J . W. (1984). Is any identification procedure necessary? Gifted Child Quarterly, 28, 157-161.
Clark, G. (1989). Screening and identifying students talented in the visual arts: Clark's Drawing Ability
Test. Gifted Child Quarterly, 33, 98-105.
Colangelo, N., & Brown, P. (1987). Labelling gifted youngsters: Long-term impact o n families. Gifted
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Cornell, D. G. (1989). Child adjustment and parent use of the term "gifted". Gifted Child
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Company.
Freedman, J . (1986). Identification of the artistically gifted child. In A. J . Cropley et al. (Eds.), Giftedness:
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Freeman, J . (1989). Emotional aspects of giftedness. In J . Freeman (Ed.), The psychology of gifted
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hochbegabten Kindern. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht, 30, 67-73.
Gagne, F. (1989). Peer nominations as psychometric instrument: Many questions asked but few
answered. Gifted Child Quarterly, 33, 53-58.
Gallagher, J . J . (1976). Teaching the gifted child. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Guskin, S. L., & Zimmerman, E. (1986). Being labelled gifted or talented: Meanings and effects perceived
by students in special programs. Gifted Child Quarterly, 30, 61-65.
Hany, E. A. (1987). Psychometrische Probleme bei der Identifikation Hochbegabter. Zeitschrift für
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Heller, Κ. A , & Hany, Ε. A. (1986). Identification, development and achievement analysis of talented
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the gifted: An international perspective (pp. 67-82). Toronto: Hans Huber Publishers.
Heller, K. A. (1987). Perspektiven einer Hochbegabungsdiagnostik. Zeitschrift für Differentielle
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Heller, Κ. A. (1990). Zielsetzung, Methode und Ergebnisse der Münchener L^ngsschnittstudie zur
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Hollinger, C. L , & Kosek, S. (1985). Early identification of the gifted and talented. Gifted Child
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Commentary on "Identification of the gifted"
Harald Wagner
Bildung
& Begabung
e. V., B o n n ,
Germany
T h e identification of the gifted is w i t h o u t doubt one of t h e most controversial issues i n research
o n giftedness as it is closely related t o a n equally controversial issue: t h e definition o r concept
of giftedness itself.
Ivan K o r e n ' s impressive presentation made it totally obvious that w e c a n n o t expect simple
answers t o difficult questions and that w e have t o develop individual strategies of identification
w i t h respect t o specific abilities or talents, t h e age a n d the social background of t h e person t o
be diagnosed, t h e purpose of the identification a n d t h e possible consequences.
I t h i n k it was a wise decision that Ivan K o r e n , for t h e purpose of this conference, chose t o
concentrate o n some highly i m p o r t a n t aspects of identification rather t h a n t o a t t e m p t a
comprehensive overview. A n d this was very friendly towards t h e discussant as w e l l , as it leaves
ample space for m e t o add some thoughts o n identification f r o m a rather pragmatic p o i n t of
view.
(1) W h e n Ivan K o r e n talked about process diagnostics
he referred t o a n identification
procedure w h i c h combines diagnostic elements w i t h elements of educational s u p p o r t i n a sense
of formative
evaluation.
Just for t h e sake of clarity, I w o u l d like t o add that t h e t e r m process
diagnostics is used as w e l l w i t h a different m e a n i n g : namely the assessment
of
cognitive
processes.
Most achievement tests yield n o t h i n g but a product, a result of cognitive a n d
metacognitive activities, l i t t l e or n o t h i n g do w e learn about how a result - w h e t h e r right o r
w r o n g - was achieved. A s w e fairly well k n o w that intellectually highly able people n o t o n l y
differ i n quantitative aspects of cognitive functions - for instance speed of processing, capacity
of i n f o r m a t i o n i n p u t and storage - but also i n qualitative aspects - t h e y think differently - it
w o u l d be highly desirable t o possess diagnostic tools t o evaluate t h i n k i n g and p r o b l e m solving
processes. Steps i n this direction have been undertaken i n G e r m a n y for instance by Facaoaru
(1985) and by Rüppell et al. (1986). It seems t o be doubtful, however, w h e t h e r w e w i l l ever
end u p w i t h tests that could be as easily administered as traditional intelligence tests.
(2) Most of o u r current ability and achievement tests are p o o r l y suited t o reliably measure h i g h
performance. T h e y are made t o differentiate optimally i n a m e d i u m range of ability but t h e y
usually have a ceiling w h i c h is t o o l o w t o allow a differentiation w i t h i n t h e u p p e r 3 or 5 percent.
T h e r e are at least t w o solutions for this p r o b l e m : (a) a p p l y a m o d e m , differential aptitude test
that provides several levels of difficulty well beyond t h e age of the child t o be tested; (b) a p p l y
aptitude and achievement tests that are standardised for older populations. T h i s latter a p p r o a c h
was successfully introduced by Julian Stanley w h e n he developed the talent search f o r
mathematically precocious youths i n the U S (Benbow & Stanley 1 9 8 3 ) . T h o s e 12-year-olds
w h o belonged t o the t o p 3-5 percent o n in-grade (age appropriate) achievement tests w e r e
allowed t o take the Scholastic A p t i t u d e Test, w h i c h is designed for 1 6 t o 18-year-old senior
h i g h school students. T h i s procedure is suitable for discovering extremely accelerated c h i l d r e n
(figure 1). F o r most identification purposes it is n o t i m p o r t a n t t o end u p w i t h a precise
age-oriented percentile r a n k o r I Q but to have a n estimate of the intellectual potential o r a r a n k
order of t h e tested persons.
C o m m e n t a r y o n "Identification of the gifted"
271
(3) O n e of t h e least developed areas i n educational a n d psychological endeavours about gifted
children - at least i n Europe - is t h e identification of t h e gifted a m o n g disadvantaged groups cultural a n d ethnic minorities f r o m low socio-economic backgrounds a n d p o o r l y educated
parents a n d t h e identification of handicapped gifted children. W h e n it is said that about 5 0 %
of t h e gifted are n o t identified i n schools, it has t o be assumed t h a t t h e percentage of n o t
identified gifted f r o m the groups just m e n t i o n e d is m u c h higher. V e r y recently J o h n Feldhusen
r e c o m m e n d e d n o t t o l o o k for generally or broadly gifted persons i n disadvantaged groups but
" t o assess y o u t h ' s special talents, aptitudes, o r abilities ... t h e need is particularly acute w h e n
w e are assessing youths f r o m special populations, w h o m i g h t have suffered severe restrictions
i n their development of general, allround giftedness" (Feldhusen. 1 9 9 2 , p . 123), W i t h t h e
g r o w i n g n u m b e r of immigrants i n t o Western Europe, t h e question of talent identification and
development for t h e disadvantaged becomes increasingly pressing.
Two-step model of identification
Figure
1:
Two-step m o d e l of identification as used i n Stanley's talent search
(4) Identification of giftedness must never be a n end i n itself. T h e r e is n o p o i n t i n searching
for highly able just t o label t h e m and leave t h e m as t h e y are o r ask t h e m w h a t t h e y w a n t . A
m o r e sensible a p p r o a c h w o u l d be first t o develop educational p r o g r a m m e s a n d opportunities
w h i c h can be realised w i t h the available resources and w h i c h meet t h e special needs of highly
able learners i n distinct areas and second t o select those w h o are likely t o benefit most f r o m
t h e p r o g r a m m e . Such programmes can be of diverse character like early entrance t o school,
h i g h school o r university, acceleration t o higher level classes, Saturday o r a f t e r n o o n classes,
specialised clubs o r organisations, residential s u m m e r p r o g r a m m e s , m e n t o r programmes,
special classes o r even special schools.
(5) M y last p o i n t deals w i t h economic aspects of the identification procedure. I assume that
most of y o u are familiar w i t h this model that represents t h e relation between a certain ability,
for instance, "mathematical reasoning" and a test procedure designed t o assess this ability. A s
w e have n o means of directly measuring ability, w e usually take one o r a c o m b i n a t i o n of several
Harald Wagner
272
tests as a m o r e o r less accurate estimate of t h e t r u e ability. W e assume that the different levels
of ability f o r m a c o n t i n u u m o n w h i c h w e c a n locate a p o i n t w h i c h separates t h e "highly able"
o r "gifted" f r o m t h e "above average" o r " n o r m a l " . T h i s p o i n t can be qualitatively o r quantitatively
defined. T h e ideal case w o u l d be that the test score accurately represents the true level of ability
i n 1 0 0 % of all cases. I n this case all persons w o u l d be just o n one line. T h i s , however, is never
t h e case. Instead t h e y w i l l usually gather i n a ellipse like this - a little bit idealised.
Level of
ability
"high"/
•gifted"
"low'/
"average
1
"selected"
Test score
Figure
2:
C o r r e l a t i o n between "true" ability and test score. Identification of t h e gifted by
means of a cut-off p o i n t .
T o determine the highly able, w e use a cut-off p o i n t w h i c h is chosen arbitrarily a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e purpose of the identification procedure. T h e result is four groups of subjects: (1) T h e
correctly identified gifted, (2) t h e correctly identified non-gifted, (3) the "false positives" (Type I
o r alpha-error), (4) the "false negatives" (Type Π o r beta-error). B y raising t h e cut-off score w e
c a n reduce t h e n u m b e r of false positives but automatically increase the n u m b e r of false
negatives. B y lowering t h e cut-off score w e can reduce the n u m b e r of false negatives b u t vice
versa increase the n u m b e r of false positives.
T h e false classifications bear differential benefits for the individual and the selecting institution.
T h e institution often seeks t o minimise the false positives, especially i n those cases w h e r e a
costly educational p r o g r a m m e is t o follow (e. g. pilot's training, national scholarship p r o ­
gramme). O n the o t h e r h a n d t h e benefit for t h e individual is obviously rather low if he/she has
been erroneously rejected. A possible solution for this d i l e m m a is, as Ivan K o r e n p o i n t e d o u t ,
1) a multilevel identification strategy of educational units followed by further diagnostic testing
t o reduce t h e n u m b e r of false positives and 2) subsequent opportunities for t h e false negatives
t o enter t h e educational p r o g r a m m e after their true abilities have been discovered.
T h e effort and expense for the diagnostic procedures are t o be seen i n relation t o personal
a n d financial consequences and t o h o w easily a n erroneous decision can be corrected. Just
t h i n k of t w o extremes: t h e selection of a manager for a t o p industrial p o s i t i o n and t h e a d m i t t a n c e
of a p u p i l t o a n afternoon maths class for able and motivated children. T i m e does n o t p e r m i t
m e t o deal w i t h other interesting topics like the i m p o r t a n c e of non-cognitive factors f o r t h e
prognosis of talent development o r the negative consequences of not identifying gifted c h i l d r e n .
B u t I a m confident that there w i l l be ample o p p o r t u n i t y for it i n the course of this conference.
C o m m e n t a r y o n "Identification of the gifted"
273
References
Benbow, C. P., & Stanley, J . C. (Eds.). (1983). Academic precocity. Aspects of its
development.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Facaoaru, C. (1985). Creativity in science and technology. Operationalization
of
problem-solving
skills and cognitive style. Bern: Huber.
Feldhusen, J . (1992). From the editor: Talent identification and development i n education. Gifted Child
Quarterly, 36, 123.
Ruppell, H . , Wiegand, J . , & Hinnersmann, H . (1986). Q I instead of IQ: Unusual qualities i n human
information processing. In M . Amelang (Ed.), Bericht über den 35. Kongreß der Deutschen
Gesellschaft für Psychologie in Heidelberg (p. 257). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
The workshop "Identification of gifted students"
Summarizing paper
Günter Trost and Ingemar W e d m a n
Institute for Test Development
and Talent Research,
and Department
of Education,University
of Umea,
Germany,
Sweden
T h e eight contributions t o t h e full-day w o r k s h o p o n t h e identification of gifted students covered
b o t h a w i d e age span and a great n u m b e r of aspects. T h e age groups involved i n the analyses
ranged f r o m age six o r seven (beginners of elementary school) t o t h e late twenties (graduates
f r o m university and students c o m p l e t i n g their doctoral dissertation). T h e a u t h o r s ' a t t e n t i o n was
focussed o n t h e characteristics of different kinds of giftedness, for instance i n mathematics and
i n sports, a n d o n the possibilities for identifying students endowed w i t h special features of
giftedness. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e contributions dealt w i t h large-scale schemes for t h e identification
of gifted students across special fields of talent i n t h e context of b o t h research projects and
scholarship o r special educational programs. Nine researchers f r o m seven E u r o p e a n countries
participated i n t h e w o r k s h o p .
Irina S. A v e r i n a f r o m t h e Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology i n M o s c o w , Russia,
presented t h e concept and some of the results of t h e "Moscow-Munich
Longitudinal
Study
of Giftedness:
Identification
of Different
Types of Giftedness
at Various Age Levels".
This
research project is designed as a cross-cultural study analyzing, o n samples of Russian students,
t h e same variables that have been investigated by K u r t Heller a n d his co-workers i n t h e M u n i c h
study of giftedness o n West G e r m a n students, and using the same instruments of assessment.
T h e variables t o be assessed w e r e :
- intelligence,
- creativity,
- achievement m o t i v a t i o n ,
- quest for knowledge,
- w o r k i n g styles,
- other non-cognitive characteristics and
- indicators o f achievement i n different areas.
T h e project started i n 1 9 9 0 w i t h the construction and evaluation of a Russian version o f the
G e r m a n intelligence test "Kognitiver Fähigkeitstest" (KFT) w h i c h had been used successfully i n
t h e M u n i c h study. T h e results of t h e p i l o t study indicated that the G e r m a n a n d t h e Russian
versions corresponded well i n terms of reliability, distribution of scores, and some aspects of
validity.
In a two-step procedure gifted children w e r e identified: b y teacher checklists o n t h e o n e h a n d
and by test scores i n the K F T a n d i n tests of creative t h i n k i n g o n the o t h e r h a n d . Five age
cohorts w e r e included i n t h e study: students of grades 1 , 3 , 5, 7 a n d 9 . O u t of 6 0 0 students of
each age c o h o r t about 7 0 students w e r e selected respectively.
F r o m t h e analyses that have b e e n carried out so far it can be concluded t h a t
- intelligence and creativity are independent dimensions of giftedness,
T h e w o r k s h o p "Identification of gifted students"
275
- there are clear differences between various types of giftedness, and multiple giftedness occurs
relatively seldom,
- teachers do fairly well i n identifying the intellectual abilities of t h e i r students,
- teacher ratings o n creativity do n o t correspond w i t h the results of creativity tests.
M a n y of t h e findings of the M o s c o w study are i n line w i t h t h e findings of t h e M u n i c h g r o u p
o n G e r m a n students.
A n ambitious project has been launched i n Turkey; it aims at a nation-wide p r o g r a m for t h e
identification of children of extremely h i g h ability levels for special education. Since the first
step of t h e selection procedure w i l l be teacher n o m i n a t i o n , a logical starting p o i n t was a n
investigation i n t o t h e concepts of gifted individuals formed by t h e teachers as w e l l as b y university
students i n t h e psychology and education departments. I n their r e p o r t titled ' T h e 'Gifted
Child'
Stereotype
Among
University
Students and Elementary
School Teachers",
N a i l $ a h i n and
E k r e m D u z e n f r o m the D e p a r t m e n t of Psychology at the Middle East Technical University i n
A n k a r a , T u r k e y , presented the results of their investigation.
O u t of a large p o o l of traits w h i c h are used b o t h i n the research literature a n d i n various
selection p r o g r a m s t o characterize gifted individuals, 4 5 statements w e r e chosen describing five
dimensions ("academic achievement", "comprehension", "curiosity/creativity", "perseverance"
a n d "social relations/self-expression"). 2 3 2 students at four universities and 3 0 3 fifth grader
teachers at 2 5 schools w i t h a long teaching experience w e r e asked t o rate each o f these 4 5
statements as t o t h e degree t o w h i c h they describe a highly gifted child.
T h e intercorrelations between the five dimensions were rather h i g h w i t h coefficients ranging
f r o m . 4 0 t o . 7 6 . T h e r e are m a r k e d differences between t h e m e a n ratings given b y teachers
a n d those given by students. Teachers placed the greatest emphasis u p o n "academic achievem e n t " , closely followed by "comprehension"; third i n the rank order was "curiosity/creativity";
statements about "social relations" w e r e considered least descriptive of h i g h giftedness. A n
exploratory factor analysis yielded five stable and interpretable factors. T h e y differ considerably
f r o m t h e a p r i o r i dimensions described above. A core factor explaining 6 3 p e r cent of the
c o m m o n variance consisted of statements related t o comprehension and p r o b l e m solving. T h e
second factor was labelled "task persistence and involvement" ( 1 4 p e r cent). T h e r e m a i n i n g
factors w e r e labelled "maturity-persistence" (12 percent), "responsibility-leadership" (6 p e r c e n t )
a n d "communicative-interactive abilities" (5 per cent of the c o m m o n variance). O n t h e basis of
these results, a shorter version of the checklist is being developed as a n o m i n a t i o n f o r m for the
first nation-wide selection c a m p a i g n that will be r u n i n 1 9 9 3 .
T h e features of this "Multi-Step
Selection
Process for the High-Ability
Children"
were
outlined by N a i l $ a h i n and E k r e m Duzen i n a second c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e w o r k s h o p . T h e
procedure aims at the selection of a small number of 3 5 extremely gifted c h i l d r e n out of
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 fifth graders i n nine Turkish provinces for p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a special
education p r o g r a m offered by a newly founded special school for the gifted.
T h e first step involves teacher n o m i n a t i o n . W i t h the help of a n o m i n a t i o n f o r m teachers are
asked t o n o m i n a t e any child w h o shows signs of very high ability, t o rate each candidate o n
t h e 2 0 traits that emerged f r o m the abovementioned study and t o d o c u m e n t t h e child's
achievements.
T o all n o m i n a t e d children (probably 1 0 , 0 0 0 t o 1 2 , 0 0 0 ) t w o tests of general intelligence and
general academic ability w i l l be administered i n regional test centers: Raven's Progressive
Matrices and a locally developed Test of Academic Reasoning. I n this second step, a m a x i m u m
o f 5 0 0 candidates w i l l be selected for the next stage o n the basis of a composite test score.
T h e t h i r d step includes individual testing and interviews w i t h t h e children a n d t h e i r families.
T h e Wechsler intelligence test (WISC-R) will be used i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h tests of divergent
276
Günter Trost a n d Ingemar W e d m a n
t h i n k i n g and creativity. T h e interviews w i l l focus o n t h e child's previous achievements and family
environment. A s a result of this selection stage, 6 0 t o 7 0 children will be admitted t o the last
step.
Step four is a 2 0 day summer c a m p offering various forms of challenging activities and
entertainment. T h e children's social interactions, cooperation, p l a n n i n g and c o p i n g skills, and
adaptability w i l l be observed and judged by trained supervisors. T h e final decision o n t h e
admission t o t h e special school w i l l be based o n all of t h e available data o n t h e children.
Intense research is i n progress t o ensure t h e validity of t h e selection instruments t o be used.
T h e goal of identifying t h e gifted students has also guided research activities and the
development of assessment instruments i n Slovenia for m a n y years. T h e results of these
endeavours w e r e presented by J a n Makarovic, m e m b e r of t h e Faculty of Social Sciences of the
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, i n his paper o n "The System of Talent Identification
in
Slovenia".
F o r t h e present system of selecting gifted students for a scholarship p r o g r a m , out
of a great variety of tools, those individual measures have been retained "that proved t o be t h e
most satisfactory metrically, t h e most predictive a n d the least redundant" (Makarovic).
I n the first step for identification, t h e screening phase, a broad net of separate indicators of
talent is t a k e n i n t o account. A m o n g t h e criteria are
- extremely h i g h scores i n a battery of psychological tests of mental abilities that are applied
t o the total age c o h o r t of pupils i n t h e last grade of elementary school;
- pupils' answers t o a Questionnaire about t h e V o c a t i o n a l Choice yielding i n f o r m a t i o n o n family
environment, curricular and extracurricular interests and activities, vocational interests a n d
aspirations, as well as the children's self-ratings of their abilities t o p e r f o r m 2 1 different kinds
of w o r k ;
- teacher ratings of each pupil's academic ability, his or her diligence at school w o r k , a
description of t h e pupil's personality and problems, and data about school marks i n the m a i n
subjects.
T h e second step i n t h e identification process demands m o r e refined methods w h i c h take i n t o
account t h e c o m p l e x interrelation of the various indicators of giftedness. T h e diagnostic
instruments used i n this stage are:
- the Questionnaire about the Possibilities of Realizing the Vocational W i s h ; it contains scales
of intellectual interests, of attitudes t o w a r d school w o r k , of creativity i n extracurricular
domain-oriented activities and of social creativity, of t h e pupils' values, and finally, of
participation a n d success i n contests;
- a test n a m e d "Uses of T h i n g s " measuring t h e abilities needed for divergent p r o d u c t i o n ;
-
interviews.
A systematic identification of the talented has been performed i n Slovenia since 1 9 8 6 . O n
t h e basis of t h e results of concurrent c o n t r o l studies, the instruments used i n t h e p r o g r a m have
been revised several times. T h e present system aims at identifying t h e t o p t e n per cent o f a n
age cohort i n terms of intellectual abilities by t h e first step and at selecting approximately one
quarter of these pupils by t h e second step for scholarship programs.
While the identification programs reported so far are of a general, comprehensive t y p e and
address themselves t o younger age groups, t h e p r o g r a m for t h e "Identification
of
Mathematically Gifted Students"
presented b y Zuzana TomaSkova f r o m the Pedagogical Faculty of
Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic, is focussed o n t h e identification of a special talent,
a n d t h e reference g r o u p are students i n t h e first four grades of secondary school.
T w o versions of a n algebraic test and t w o versions of a geometric test w e r e developed, t h e
final versions c o n t a i n i n g eight problems each. Unusual and challenging problems w h i c h are n o t
T h e w o r k s h o p 'Identification of gifted students"
277
p a r t of t h e regular mathematics curriculum were chosen for t h e tests. T h e stress was laid o n
p r o v o k i n g creative t h i n k i n g and elegant, fast solutions.
T h e algebraic test is designed t o assess the abilities of
- logical judgement,
- selection of relevant i n f o r m a t i o n ,
- c o m b i n a t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n ,
- mathematizing real-life situations,
- recording reasoning procedures i n mathematic symbols,
- handling numbers imaginatively.
T h e geometric test aims at assessing the abilities of
- spatial visualization,
- transformation of geometric i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o the language of algebra,
- c o m b i n a t i o n a n d reasoning.
T h e entire tests take 5 0 minutes. Participation is voluntary. T h e tests serve as instruments for
t h e identification of mathematically gifted students w h o c a n t h e n be offered special programs.
Statistical analyses w i t h t h e first set of tests o n a sample of 1 5 0 students i n t h e first grade of
secondary school yielded very h i g h reliability coefficients a n d almost o p t i m u m difficulty indices
for t h e algebraic test (data o n t h e geometric test are n o t reported). T h e coefficients for the
correlation of t h e test scores w i t h school marks i n mathematics w e r e very l o w indicating that
t h e tests do require qualities of t h i n k i n g (particularly problem-solving abilities) that are different
f r o m those required i n t h e regular mathematics courses.
Quite another special field of talent has been studied b y Jacques v a n Rossum f r o m the
D e p a r t m e n t of Psychology of the Free University, A m s t e r d a m , Netherlands. H i s c o n t r i b u t i o n
dealt w i t h 'Talent
in Sport:
Characteristics
of Top-Level
Athletes
According
to their
Coaches".
Questionnaires w e r e sent t o members of t h e guidance teams of t h e D u t c h national
squad i n six Olympic sports inquiring i n t o the experts' o p i n i o n s about t h e relevance of a variety
of characteristics for success at top-level sport.
I n the first study, eight general characteristics that had been chosen f r o m the literature were
rank-ordered according t o their importance for success as a top-level athlete by 5 0 coaches i n
judo, speed skating, table tennis and s w i m m i n g . A l t h o u g h t h e rank-orders differed across
disciplines, "natural e n d o w m e n t " held the highest rank i n three of the four sports. O n l y i n table
tennis was "technical ability" ranked highest. "Natural e n d o w m e n t " means, i n this context,
a p p r o p r i a t e body configuration (e. g. long arms for j u d o a n d s w i m m i n g , l o n g legs for speed
skating). " Q u a n t i t y of t r a i n i n g " was generally judged t o be of m i n o r i m p o r t a n c e .
I n t h e second study, 2 7 field hockey and 1 9 track and field coaches w e r e asked t o rate the
i m p o r t a n c e of a n enlarged list of t e n general characteristics for success as top-level athlete. For
field hockey, " m e n t a l fitness" was rated highest, for track a n d field "physical fitness" obtained
the highest ratings. The author demonstrated the findings o n the examples of international t o p
athletes and interpreted t h e m i n the light of concepts of giftedness.
C o m p e t i t i o n is stiff n o t only a m o n g top-level athletes but also a m o n g school o r college
graduates applying for highly attractive positions. W h e n e v e r personnel selection takes place i n
multi-cultural a n d multi-lingual societies, there is a need for culture-fair assessment instruments
that, at the same time, reflect some central requirements of t h e jobs i n question i n terms of
aptitudes needed t o p e r f o r m well. A new a p p r o a c h t o meet this d e m a n d was reported b y A l i
Baykal f r o m the D e p a r t m e n t of Science Education of Bogazici University, Istanbul, T u r k e y : the
development a n d analysis of "Tangram
and Tetris Items in the Measurement
of Ability".
He
has transformed problems of the old Chinese game T a n g r a m (a variety of complete a n d closed
278
Günter Trost and Ingemar W e d m a n
figures d r a w n by others have t o be replicated b y a set of rectangles, triangles a n d parallelograms)
into multiple-choice items. Tetris is a popular c o m p u t e r g a m e i n w h i c h t h e c o m p u t e r randomly
releases, at small time intervals, different kinds of objects w h i c h are all made u p of four small
squares. T h e player has t o c o m b i n e all objects b y m a k i n g t h e m adjacent t o each other w i t h o u t
any blank space between t h e m . A l i Baykal has designed a multiple-choice test presenting five
Tetris-like objects w h i c h consist of six small squares each. T h e test items are m o r e complex
figures, each o n e made u p of four of t h e objects; the candidate has t o identify t h e missing fifth
object.
T h e new subtests, a m o n g other tests, were tried out o n a sample of 6 7 5 graduates of the t o p
four universities i n Turkey. T h e results indicated o p t i m u m difficulty for t h e T a n g r a m and t o o
h i g h difficulty for t h e Tetris subtest; f u r t h e r m o r e , satisfactory coefficients of internal consistency
w e r e obtained for t h e T a n g r a m items and h i g h coefficients for t h e Tetris items. Finally, low
intercorrelations w e r e f o u n d b o t h between t h e t w o subtests and between each of t h e m and t h e
other cognitive subtests i n t h e battery. These findings give reason t o assume that the new i t e m
types m i g h t also be useful additional instruments for the identification of gifted students.
I n the last c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e w o r k s h o p , Günter T r o s t f r o m t h e Institute for Test Development
a n d Talent Research, B o n n , Germany, gave a n overview o n concepts a n d programs for t h e
"Identification
of Gifted University
Students for Scholarships
in Germany".
There are nine
organisations offering scholarships for gifted students i n higher education. Eight of t h e m are
affiliated w i t h t h e major political parties, the major confessions, and the T r a d e - U n i o n Congress
respectively. O n e organisation (the largest one) is neutral w i t h respect t o political, social o r
confessional orientation. T h e total number of G e r m a n scholars of all the scholarship foundations
amounts t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 , 5 0 0 students a n d 2 , 4 0 0 doctorands, w h i c h is equal t o less t h a n
one per cent of t h e t o t a l student p o p u l a t i o n .
T h e general goal of all organisations is t o further, i n a n individual way, t h e development of
the abilities, t h e development of t h e total personality a n d especially t h e development of their
scholars' particular c o m m i t m e n t t o w a r d society. T h e scholarship p r o g r a m s include three types
of assistance: (a) financial s u p p o r t - largely depending o n family i n c o m e , (b) individual guidance
b o t h i n academic and personal matters, and (c) e n r i c h m e n t p r o g r a m s such as s u m m e r schools,
weekend seminars, foreign language courses, one year of study abroad, practical experience
and excursions.
Seven of the nine organisations accept applications submitted by the candidates themselves;
t w o organisations only accept nominations of gifted persons b y school teachers, university
professors, a l u m n i o r other persons.
A l l organisations d e m a n d academic achievement at least w e l l above average as a necessary
but n o t sufficient c o n d i t i o n for admission; however, they differ considerably i n the degree of
selectivity. A second c r i t e r i o n applied by all organisations is a sense of responsibility as a citizen
and active p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n social, political, religious or cultural life. O t h e r personality traits such
as task c o m m i t m e n t , initiative, open-mindedness, breadth of interest and social competence
are frequently m e n t i o n e d as further criteria of selection.
A l l scholarship foundations reach their selection decisions i n t w o steps: (1) selection o n t h e
basis of w r i t t e n material: school-reports, n o m i n a t i o n forms, certificates, testimonials, curriculum
vitae etc.; (2) selection by means of m o r e individualized assessment techniques either i n selection
seminars o r o n individual a p p o i n t m e n t s : extended interviews, g r o u p discussions (three o r g a n i sations), essays (two organisations), intelligence test (one organisation), a n d presentation of
papers (one organisation).
Most organisations conduct follow-up studies o n t h e academic and professional careers of
their f o r m e r scholars. T h e results indicate that, i n general, t h e scholars do very w e l l i n t h e i r
academic studies and that, later o n , m a n y of t h e m gain positions of h i g h responsibility a n d
T h e w o r k s h o p "Identification of gifted students"
279
influence. H o w e v e r , w i t h o u t including c o n t r o l groups (same abilities, n o scholarships) i n t o the
longitudinal studies, it is n o t possible t o separate the effects of t h e selection procedures and the
effects of the scholarship programs.
A l l of t h e contributions t o the w o r k s h o p stimulated intense discussion w i t h a large and active
audience involved. T h e variety of perspectives represented i n t h e papers evoked c o m m e n t s ,
questions a n d disputes covering a correspondingly w i d e range of topics connected w i t h t h e
identification of gifted students. T h e discussion was centered a r o u n d
- the concepts of giftedness underlying the various identification p r o g r a m s a n d research studies
presented i n t h e w o r k s h o p ,
- t h e appropriateness and effectiveness of different strategies a n d instruments used for the
identification of the gifted, and
- the implications of t h e reported research findings for practical p r o g r a m s for t h e gifted.
A s a result of b o t h the papers and the discussion, it became evident that easy solutions t o
some of t h e central problems i n this field are n o t at h a n d : A m o n g these problems are the everlasting difficulty of defining and operationalizing the criteria of giftedness (and finding consensus
about it), a n d t h e d i l e m m a of conflicting goals of including large numbers of potentially gifted
persons i n t o t h e identification programs and carrying out time-consuming " i n - d e p t h analyses"
w i t h individualized assessment techniques w h i c h must be reserved t o small numbers.
Notwithstanding the problems that remained unsolved, t h e w o r k s h o p offered a g o o d o p p o r tunity t o exchange results, experiences and opinions a n d t o l e a m about interesting concepts of
giftedness, systems and techniques of talent search as w e l l as research designs that have been
developed and evaluated i n other countries.
A multi-step selection process for the high-ability
children
Nail $ a h i n and E k r e m Duzen
Department
of Psychology,
Middle
East
Technical
University,
Ankara,
Turkey
Abstract
In this paper, t h e selection process f o r a unique and pioneer p r o j e c t i n t h e identification of
gifted children between 1 1 a n d 1 3 years of age w i l l be described. I n T u r k e y , t h e r e are 1.5
m i l l i o n 5 t h graders expecting t o graduate at the end of t h e 1 9 9 2 s c h o o l year, a n d a p p r o x i m a t e l y
out of t h e 6 0 0 . 0 0 0 of these students, only 3 5 will be selected f o r a n e w l y - f o u n d e d school f o r
t h e gifted. T h i s extreme selectivity i n t h e project necessitated a multi-step selection process.
T h e first step w i l l involve t h e nation-wide distribution of the teacher n o m i n a t i o n forms.
Teachers of the fifth graders w i l l be asked t o n o m i n a t e any child w h o shows signs of very h i g h
ability i n their classrooms. T h e n o m i n a t i o n forms w i l l c o n t a i n the necessary details t o guide t h e
teachers' decisions. For those children w h o are n o m i n a t e d , the second step w i l l involve t h e
application of g r o u p tests o n reasoning w i t h verbal a n d spatial p r o b l e m s , a n d general intellectual
ability (Raven's S P M ) . Testing will be conducted i n regional centers t o facilitate t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n
of candidates f r o m rural areas. T h e t h i r d step w i l l include individual testing a n d interviews. I n
this step, t h e I Q measures as well as tasks emphasizing creativity a n d p r o b l e m solving abilities
w i l l be emphasized. T h e final step w i l l involve a 20-day summer c a m p , w h e r e l e a r n i n g of totally
unfamiliar material w i l l be introduced and observation records w i l l be k e p t a b o u t t h e child's
performance i n various social activities. T h e final decision will be based u p o n all of t h e available
evidence about a child. Separate n o r m s and cutting scores are b e i n g c o n t e m p l a t e d for males
and females, as w e l l as for children f r o m urban and rural backgrounds. C o n c u r r e n t validities of
t h e g r o u p a n d individual tests are being studied. Intense research activity is i n progress t o
establish the validity of t h e tests t o be used i n the selection process.
Introduction
T h e selection/identification process t o be described i n this r e p o r t is envisaged w i t h i n t h e
objectives set by Inang F o u n d a t i o n , a private organization dedicated f o r t h e e d u c a t i o n o f gifted
children, especially for those i n families w i t h a limited income. T h e Ιηαης f o u n d a t i o n w i l l finance
a specialized school for this purpose w h i c h is expected to begin instruction i n t h e 1 9 9 3 - 9 4
academic year. T h e preparations for the selection of students have already b e g u n . T h e r e w i l l
be about 1.5 m i l l i o n p r i m a r y school graduates at the e n d of the academic year 1 9 9 2 - 1 9 9 3 . A
n o t e w o r t h y aspect i n the recruitement policy of the Inan$ F o u n d a t i o n school is t h a t , i n t h e first
year, at t h e end of a nationally representative survey w h i c h will include a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 0 0 , 0 0 0
fifth graders, only 3 5 children will be accepted. I n addition, half of these c h i l d r e n live i n small
villages o r hamlets scattered i n a vast geographical area. This small n u m b e r m a k e s t h e project
extremely selective and w i l l probably challenge all the k n o w n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n procedures. T h e
selection process t o be described i n this paper was outlined i n a series of m e e t i n g s w i t h t h e
representatives of Inang F o u n d a t i o n and experts i n various fields.
A multi-step selection process for the high-ability c h i l d r e n
281
T h e selection c o m m i t t e e cannot rely u p o n the records of schools for initial screening, simply
because s c h o o l psychological services, or routine testing a n d record k e e p i n g do n o t exist. T h e
scores i n t h e state a n d private school entrance examinations are n o t reliable criteria either.
Children identified b y t h e i r teachers and encouraged b y t h e family m a y participate i n these
nation-wide c o m p e t i t i v e examinations and may be recruited i n t o t h e state-supported boarding
schools o r p r i v a t e schools. A m o n g those recruited i n t o these schools a considerable n u m b e r of
gifted c h i l d r e n c a n undoubtedly be found. H o w e v e r , this selection procedure is based u p o n
material t a u g h t at schools a n d t o a large extent o n encylclopedic knowledge, a n d some p r o b l e m
solving abilities w h i c h c a n be boosted by special training. A n e w c h a i n of private courses have
been r a p i d l y e x p a n d i n g i n t h e cities for this purpose. These cuurses emphasize t h e test taking
skills, review t h e s c h o o l c o n t e n t (especially i n mathematics a n d natural sciences), expose their
students t o shortcuts, a n d administer frequent multiple-choice examinations t o familiarize t h e
students w i t h t h e actual test-taking situation. Consequently, t h e scores i n these nation-wide
examinations are expected t o be heavily biased t o w a r d t h e school material, a n d t h e child's skill
i n taking t h e multiple-choice tests.
Because of t h e relativity of the grading system i n the schools a n d its heavy emphasis u p o n
rote m e m o r i z a t i o n , r a t i n g children according t o their school achievement is n o t a reliable
measure either. C e r t a i n l y , for some children, the scores i n t h e entrance examinations o r school
grades w i l l be correlated w i t h mental ability. T h e challenge i n t h e selection procedure is t o
reduce t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e memorized school material, but t o capture t h e c o m p o n e n t s of
mental p o t e n t i a l t h a t w i l l preferably be independent of such biases.
A n y selection/identification process of giftedness must rely u p o n a n explicit definition of this
concept. I n o u r case w e have defined it as h i g h "general academic ability", excluding specific
artistic talents. A multi-step selection model has been outlined involving four major steps. It
begins w i t h t h e c o l l e c t i o n of teacher nominations, followed b y t h e g r o u p administration of the
general ability a n d academic reasoning tests. Individual testing a n d interviews m a k e u p t h e t h i r d
step. A s u m m e r c a m p including further observations a n d testing is t h e f o u r t h step. T h e first
phase, t h e call f o r teacher nominations, has already been initiated as of December 1 9 9 2 .
S t e p s o f t h e selection process
Teacher N o m i n a t i o n s
In some p r o g r a m s teacher nominations constitute t h e sole source of identification o r
acceptance c r i t e r i o n f o r gifted education (Borland, 1 9 7 8 ) . I n t h e T u r k i s h case, teacher
n o m i n a t i o n s w i l l be o b t a i n e d t o identify those eligible for inclusion i n t o the " g r o u p testing stage".
A l t h o u g h t h e n o m i n a t i o n s w i l l not be restricted t o teachers alone, the teachers' opinions w i l l ,
nevertheless, constitute t h e essential source of i n f o r m a t i o n about the candidates during the first
year. W i t h t h e c o o p e r a t i o n of the Ministry of Education, w h i c h presides over a large centralized
educational system, t h e n o m i n a t i o n forms will be distributed t h r o u g h o u t the country. For t h e
first year, 9 p r o v i n c e s w i t h largest populations are selected i n seven representative geographical
regions. T h e s e centers c o n t a i n approximately 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 fifth graders.
Teacher n o m i n a t i o n f o r m s emphasize extremely h i g h ability, a n d invite teachers t o document
the achievements o f t h e child they nominated. T h e teachers are also asked t o rate each
candidate o n t h e 2 0 traits w h i c h emerged i n a previous study as t h e core characteristics of gifted
children (§ahin & D u z e n , 1992a). If a teacher nominates m o r e t h a n o n e child, he/she is asked
t o rank o r d e r these candidates and rate the first candidate o n t h e 2 0 traits. T h e teacher
n o m i n a t i o n f o r m s w i l l be used for the initial screening, a n d i n p r i n c i p l e , all c h i l d r e n n o m i n a t e d
by the teachers w i l l be included i n the group testing. T h e impression w e gained during t h e pilot
studies a n d interviews w i t h t h e teachers is that, they w i l l be receptive and eager t o cooperate
Nail Sahin and E k r e m Duzen
282
o n such a n issue. T h e potential n u m b e r of candidates is still expected t o be very h i g h .
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 6 . 0 0 0 teachers w i l l be contacted d u r i n g this phase of t h e project and
nominations i n t h e range of 1 0 . 0 0 0 t o 1 2 . 0 0 0 students are expected.
Group Testing
T h e step after n o m i n a t i o n s w i l l involve t h e administration of g r o u p tests w h i c h will be carried
out i n t h e regional centers m e n t i o n e d above. G r o u p intelligence tests (Raven's S P M a n d some
subscales of t h e A P M ) a n d a locally-developed General A b i l i t y (Academic Reasoning) Test w i l l
be the t w o instruments t o be used during this phase of t h e project. It is expected that these tests
can be administered i n t h e same day, during the m o r n i n g a n d afternoon sessions. G r o u p testing
w i l l be carried o u t simultaneously i n all centers.
a) Test of Academic Reasoning. A test of general academic ability, prepared b y experts i n
educational testing, consists of verbal, spatial, quantitative ability sections, and reasoning o n
natural science a n d social science problems. T h e initial 3 4 0 items w e r e given i n t w o parellel
forms t o 6 6 9 children i n t h e 6 t h grade. Items w i t h highest discriminative validity w e r e retained
resulting i n a 1 2 0 - i t e m scale (Özgelik & Eski, 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e items do n o t require t h e specific
knowledge of t h e school content but rather give the necassary i n f o r m a t i o n and ask for a
reasonable solution. T h e administration is expected t o take about 9 0 t o 1 2 0 minutes. T h e
concurrent validity of this test is currently being studied i n different samples (Duzen & $ a h i n ,
1992).
b) Raven's S P M Test: T h i s test will be used as a mesaure of general intelligence (Raven, C o u r t ,
Raven, 1 9 8 3 ) . Considerable evidence exists for its cross-cultural suitability (Nehring & C o u r t ,
1 9 9 2 ; Raven, 1 9 8 9 ) a n d appropriateness i n the selection for gifted education p r o g r a m s . A
series of studies w e r e initiated t o obtain t h e local n o r m s for t h e target age g r o u p ( 1 0 t o 12).
Additional data collection is also i n progress for younger and older age groups. T o o b t a i n validity
i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e S P M is being administered together w i t h other tests planned t o be used i n t h e
selection process. Percentile ranks a n d t h e I Q equivalents are n o w being c o m p u t e d i n t h e
samples and comparisons are being carried out w i t h t h e data reported i n t h e published literature.
Alternative versions of t h e R P M are being experimented u p o n , t o adjust t h e required level of
difficulty. T h e set A of the Advanced Progressive Matrices Test was also included i n t h e p i l o t
studies. T h e administration of t h e S P M is expected t o take 4 0 t o 6 0 minutes. A n i n f o r m a t i o n
sheet will also be included t o collect m o r e detailed i n f o r m a t i o n about the child's b a c k g r o u n d
and family characteristics.
It should be emphasized t h a t the most significant reduction i n the n u m b e r of children w i l l take
place during this phase of testing. F r o m a total of 1 0 , 0 0 0 children expected t o participate i n
the g r o u p testing, a m a x i m u m of 5 0 0 will be selected for t h e next stage, i . e. t h e individual
testing. T h i s means a selection ratio of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 over 2 0 children. T h e r e f o r e , t h e
discussion of t h e inclusion and exclusion errors comes most pointedly at this stage. T h e
challenge is t o reduce these numbers w i t h a m i n i m u m error possible and still keep i n t h e sample,
those children w i t h a n I Q above 1 4 0 .
It is h o p e d that a composite index, including the A R T and the S P M scores o r a n y subset of
items f r o m b o t h tests, w i l l be developed t o be t h e most sensitive predictor c o m b i n a t i o n for t h e
selection of h i g h ability children (Govindarajulu, 1 9 8 8 ) . Final decision about the best m e t h o d
of composite derivation is n o t yet taken, w e are currently e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h various alternatives. A m o n g t h e candidate procedures are regression equations, involving test, subtest o r i t e m
i n f o r m a t i o n a n d teacher evaluations.
Individual testing, interviews w i t h the child and the family
A m o r e detailed evaluation is expected t o be achieved d u r i n g the individual testing stage. F o r
A multi-step selection process for the high-ability c h i l d r e n
283
t h e assessment of ability, the WISC-R will be the m a i n measure o n w h i c h locally-developed
n o r m s are available (Savasir & $ a h i n , 1 9 8 8 ) . T h e W I S C - R m a y be sensitive e n o u g h t o this
ability r a n g e , as was b o r n e out i n our pilot studies ($ahin & Duzen, 1 9 9 2 b ) . I n addition,
supplementary measures, like p r o b l e m posing, tests of divergent t h i n k i n g and creativity m i g h t
also be included at this phase. Presently, there is some c o n c e r n over t h e predictive validity of
t h e creativity tests. V a l i d a t i o n studies of the creativity tests are being carried out by independent
teams. T h e i r findings w i l l be critically evaluated before a final decision is made for t h e inclusion
of these tests i n t h e individual testing stage. This step w i l l also include a detailed interview about
t h e family, t h e child's previous achievements, academic a n d personal status of siblings, parents
etc. T h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the tests and the interviews w i l l be conducted b y senior psychologists
w i t h over 2 0 years of experience i n w o r k i n g w i t h children of this age.
T h e n u m b e r of children t o be accepted t o the final stage of t h e selection process (summer
camp) w i l l be reduced t o 6 0 or 7 0 , a n u m b e r twice as large as t h e final acceptance w h i c h is set
t o be 3 5 students for t h e first year.
Summer camp
T h e candidates selected after the individual testing w i l l be invited for a 20-day s u m m e r c a m p
i n a convenient setting. I n this relaxed, holiday atmosphere, t h e y w i l l be observed i n various
social interactions, their cooperation, p l a n n i n g and c o p i n g skills, a n d adaptability will be
recorded. V a r i o u s forms of entertainment and new, challenging activities w i l l be introduced.
T h e p u r p o s e of this step is t o observe and collect i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e personal characteristics
of the c h i l d , aspects that are n o t adequately t a p p e d b y t h e instruments i n the previous steps.
A detailed "observation f o r m " w i l l be kept daily for each child b y their supervisors. T h e ratio of
supervisor t o child w i l l be very low, allowing for intensive a t t e n t i o n for each child.
T h e agenda for t h e cognitive activities i n the c a m p is n o t yet finalized. A l t h o u g h one of the
defining characteristics of intelligence has been the "speed i n learning t h e n e w material", this
characteristic m a y n o t be captured adequately by the intelligence tests. W e w o u l d like t o include
some measures of dynamic testing and learning speed, a n d tasks that are likely t o be correlated
w i t h h i g h ability such as learning a n e w (or exotic) language. Tasks such as analogical reeasoning
(Stone & D a y , 1 9 8 4 ) , learning complicated chess-like games are m e n t i o n e d but n o t yet finalized.
T h e final decision w i l l be based u p o n a composite index e m p l o y i n g all available evidence about
a child. T h e selection c o m m i t t e e is n o t particularly a n d fanatically interested t o rely u p o n the
test scores. W e w i s h w e had other m o r e objective a n d precise instruments t o be used i n such
a venture. T h e h a r d reality is that there will be a critical public, questioning the validity of each
step i n o u r selection process and a n over-attentive press t o publicise - a n d of course criticize such an a m b i t i o u s a n d pioneeer project. Being i n charge of a unique experience i n o u r country,
w e feel obliged t o produce objective data, commensurable w i t h the experience i n the international practice i n the identification of gifted children.
Problems, Questions, Discussion
I n the n a t i o n a l standardization of WISC-R there w e r e n o gender differences a m o n g children
w i t h a t o t a l I Q of 1 3 0 a n d above ($ahin, 1 9 9 2 ) . Similarly, t h e preliminary figures f r o m the
o n g o i n g R a v e n ' S P M standardization indicate n o gender difference a m o n g t h e highest scorers.
T h e r e seems t o be n o gender bias i n t h e n o m i n a t i o n s of teachers either, a l t h o u g h there w e r e
m o r e males i n t h e highest ability g r o u p studied ($ahin & Duzen, 1 9 9 2 b ) . O u r selection criteria
w i l l emphasize t h e general academic ability w h i c h is expected t o be related t o mathematical
t h i n k i n g . I n t h e nation-wide sample, it is possible t o expect a male bias, as reported b y other
researchers (Stanley, 1 9 8 8 ) . Use of special quotas a n d separate n o r m s for females as a strategy
is suspended until t h e final gender c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e sample is obtained. Similarly, special
284
Nail Sahin and E k r e m Duzen
adjustments m i g h t become necessary for the evaluation of children f r o m rural a n d urban
backgrounds, a practice similar t o that followed i n the evaluation of lower vs. higher SES children
i n the WISC-R standardization (Savasir & $ a h i n , 1 9 8 8 ) . Similar adjustments m a y be required
i n t h e Raven's S P M a n d t h e Academic Reasoning Test.
In the general reviews of the gifted identification process, t h e hazards of relying u p o n a single
test score are being frequently voiced. A l t h o u g h t h e multi-step selection process has t h e
advantage of reducing t h e errors associated w i t h decisions based u p o n a single criterion, it has
t h e disadvantage of being very costly a n d
time^onsuming,
and requiring a continuous
organization. Studies are needed t o develop a shorter, yet equally effective selection model.
T h e present m o d e l provides for opportunities t o refine t h e identification process. I n addition
t o the accumulation of evidence for testing t h e validity of t h e decisions, there will be a
longitudinal database t o fine-tune the mstruments used i n t h e selection procedure. Contacts w i l l
be maintained w i t h high-ability children n o t selected. S o m e of t h e planned activities include t h e
referral of these children t o other institutions, feedback t o their family and teachers, keeping
t h e m o n t h e m a i l i n g list for creative activities, b o o k sharing a n d periodic visits. Ways are sought
t o reward teachers w h o w e r e successful! i n the identification of gifted children. For the c o m i n g
years, standardization of some alternative instruments is being planned. A m o n g these, t h e
dynamic testing procedures w i l l have a p r i o r i t y . W o r k has already begun by another t e a m o n
t h e standardization of the Leiter Battery. W o r k is also planned o n the P P V T - R for the initial
screening, and the W o o d c o c k - J o h n s o n battery for the subsequent stages.
T h e real validity of t h e identification model, of course, is t h e life-long productivity of t h e
children selected {Renzulli, 1 9 9 0 ; Sternberg, 1 9 8 7 ) . T h e validity t o be obtained t h r o u g h school
achievements is only the first wave, and m a n y m o r e waves of data have t o be collected i n t h e
future.
References
Borland, J . H . (1978). Teacher identification of the gifted: A new look. Journal for the Education of
the Gifted, 2, 22-32.
Duzen, Ε., & $ahin, Ν. (1992). Multiple
Validation of giftedness judgements.
Manuscript i n
preparation, Middle East Technical University, Dept. of Psychology.
Govindarajulu, Z. (1988). Alternative methods for combining several test scores. Educational
and
Psychological Measurement,
48, 53-60.
Nehring, D., & Court, J . (1992). A n update on the psychometrics of the Raven Progressive Matrices.
Paper presented at the XXV International
Congress of Psychology, Brussels, 19-24 July.
Özcelik, D. Α., & Eski, R. (1992). Genel Yetenek Testi Gelistirme Projesi Raporu. (Project report of
the development of the General Ability Test). Inane Foundation, Interim report, January.
Raven, J . C. (1989). The Raven Progressive Matrices: A review of national norming studies and ethnic
and socioeconomic variation within the United States. Journal of Educational Measurement,
26(1),
1-16.
Raven, J . C , Court, J . H . , & Raven, J . (1983). Manual for Raven's Progressive Matrices and
Vocabulary Scales. Section 3, Standard Progressive Matrices. London: Η. K. Lewis & Co.
Renzulli, J . S. (1990). A practical system for identifying gifted and talented students. Early Child
Development
and Care, 63, 9-18.
Savasir, I., & $ahin, N. (1988). Wechsler Qocuklar
Igin Zeka Ölgegi (WISC-R)
El Kitabi.
(Handbook
of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, WISC-R) Milli E§itim Basimevi, Ankara.
$ahin, N. (1992). The profile analyses of high-ability children in the WISC-R Turkish
standardization
sample. Manuscript in preparation. Middle East Technical University, Dept. of Psychology.
$ahin, N., & Duzen, Ε. (1992a). The "gifted child" stereotype among university students and elementary
school teachers. Paper presented at the European Council for High Ability (ECHA), Third
European Conference, October 11-14, Munich, Germany.
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Sahin, N., & Duzen, Ε. (1992b). Ability profiles of the teacher-nominated gifted children. Paper
presented at the European Council for High Ability (ECHA), Third European Conference, October
11-14, Munich, Germany.
Stanley, J . C. (1988). Some characteristics of SMPY's ' 7 0 0 - 8 0 0 on SAT-M before age 13 group" :
Youth w h o reason extremely well mathematically. Gifted Child Quarterly, 32(1), 205-209.
Sternberg, R. (1987). Second game: A school's-eye view of intelligence. In J . A. Langer (Ed.), Language,
literacy, and culture: Issues of society and schooling (pp. 23-48). Norwood, NJ: AWex.
Stone, B., & Day, M . C. (1984). A developmental study of the processes underlying solution of figural
matrices. Child Development,
52, 359-362.
Author notes
1. Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed t o :
Nail$ahin
Professor of Developmental Psychology
Middle East Technical University
D e p a r t m e n t of Psychology
A n k a r a 0 6 5 3 5 Türkiye
2. C o m m e n t s about t h e selection process may also be sent t o :
Inane Foundation
A t t e n t i o n of D r . Füsun A k a r s u
Educational C o o r d i n a t o r
Sarayardi Caddesi, N o 2 4
A c i b a d e m , Istanbul
Türkiye
Subskills of spatial ability and their relationships
to success in accelerated mathematics courses
Heinrich Stumpf
Center
for Talented
Youth,
The Johns
Hopkins
University,
Baltimore,
USA
Abstract
T h e study explored w h a t subskills of spatial ability m a k e a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n of
success i n accelerated mathematics courses. W e compiled a battery of 1 4 types of spatial tests
that broadly sample t h e ways i n w h i c h spatial ability has been operationally defined i n terms of
tests so far.
T w o forms of this battery w e r e administered t o large samples of students t a k i n g courses offered
by the Center for Talented Y o u t h . M a n y of t h e 2 8 subtests examined had a n a p p r o p r i a t e level
of difficulty for t h e p o p u l a t i o n under study; some t u r n e d out t o be t o o easy. T h e reliability
estimates for most of t h e tests w e r e at least adequate a n d i n some cases very h i g h . A subset of
t h e complex tasks requiring spatial visualization i n three dimensions (pattern assembly, paper
folding, surface development, and perspectives tasks) t u r n e d out t o be t h e most valid predictors
of success i n mathematics courses. T h e correlations of these tasks w i t h the c r i t e r i o n (success
i n mathematics education) c o m p a r e d very well w i t h t h e predictive validity of t h e mathematical
section of the S A T . Most of the tests requiring t h e p e r c e p t i o n , r e t e n t i o n , and transformation
of visual forms w i t h i n a plane showed l o w correlations w i t h t h e criterion, as did threedimensional m e n t a l r o t a t i o n tasks. W e expect that a revised version of the battery w i l l enable
us t o i m p r o v e our present instruments for predicting success i n learning mathematics at the
advanced h i g h school level.
Subskills of spatial ability and their relationships to success in accelerated
mathematics courses
This paper deals w i t h t h e p r o b l e m of predicting success i n accelerated mathematics education
by measures of spatial ability. Spatial ability w i l l be broadly defined here as t h e ability t o
understand the spatial relationships a m o n g objects, and a large range of spatial tasks will be
considered as possible predictors of success.
T h e r e is n o doubt that tests of mathematical a n d , possibly, verbal reasoning ability should play
t h e most i m p o r t a n t role i n predicting success i n studying mathematics. T h e merits of such tests
have been highlighted i n m a n y publications, such as Stanley's ( 1 9 7 7 ) w o r k o n t h e Study of
Mathematically Precocious Y o u t h (SMPY). Y e t a n u m b e r of theoretical and e m p i r i c a l studies
suggest that spatial ability m i g h t make a n additional c o n t r i b u t i o n t o predicting success a n d thus
help t o i m p r o v e t h e validity of our present talent identification procedures.
Reasoning tests (especially indicators of mathematical reasoning such as t h e mathematical
section of t h e Scholastic A p t i t u d e Test) are likely t o set t h e standards against w h i c h measures
Spatial ability a n d success i n accelerated M a t h courses
287
o f spatial ability are t o be compared, but there are several reasons t o expect that spatial tests
m i g h t be useful i n predicting success. Four of these arguments w i l l be m e n t i o n e d here.
First is t h e observation that m a n y problems i n mathematics have spatial implications. This is
m o s t evident i n geometry, but it is also true for m a n y o t h e r areas of mathematics. T h e
m a t h e m a t i c i a n i m a g i n i n g the relationships a m o n g different sets of numbers o r the g r a p h of a
c o m p l e x f u n c t i o n also uses spatial concepts. These observations have been convincing e n o u g h
f o r psychometricians t o include spatial tests i n batteries designed t o predict t h e success of
students i n mathematics and science. A p r o m i n e n t example of such a battery is t h e collection
of Study Field O r i e n t e d Tests developed i n G e r m a n y ( B l u m , H e n s g e n , & T r o s t , 1 9 8 5 ) . T h e
Study Field O r i e n t e d Test for Mathematics, for instance, includes intersection tasks as a spatial
subtest.
T h e second reason is that observations i n cognitive psychology p o i n t o u t t h e use of spatial
p r o b l e m solving strategies i n everyday life, mathematics, a n d t h e sciences. T h i s literature has
recently b e e n summarized by West, M o r r i s , and N i c h o l ( 1 9 8 5 ) . A typical view of h o w spatial
strategies are used i n mathematical p r o b l e m solving is expressed by H e r m e l i n a n d O ' C o n n o r
( 1 9 8 6 , p . 1 5 5 ) : ' T h o s e w h o are gifted for mathematics can convert verbal codes i n t o spatial
images, are able t o operate o n these images, and can retranslate their solution i n t o verbal f o r m . "
T h e t h i r d reason is that a n u m b e r of theoretical models of mathematical ability and of talent
i n fields w h e r e mathematics is i m p o r t a n t explicitly postulate spatial abilities as i m p o r t a n t
c o m p o n e n t s . A n example of such a m o d e l is Rüppell's ( 1 9 9 1 ) t h e o r y of technological innovative
talent, w h e r e this c o m p o n e n t is called "structuring flexibility."
T h e f o u r t h a n d most i m p o r t a n t reason that spatial tests m i g h t be useful i n predicting success
i n mathematics courses is that m a n y empirical studies link spatial ability t o mathematical talent
a n d talent i n fields w h e r e mathematics is i m p o r t a n t . M o s t of these studies are correlational.
Tests of spatial ability have been related t o success i n mathematics (e. g., B i s h o p , 1 9 8 0 ;
F e n n e m a , 1 9 7 4 ; Fennema & S h e r m a n , 1 9 7 7 ; Guay & M c D a n i e l , 1 9 7 7 ; H e r m e l i n &
O ' C o n n o r , 1 9 8 6 ; Hills, 1 9 5 7 ; Kovac, 1 9 8 9 ; L e a n & Clements, 1 9 8 1 ; S h e r m a n , 1 9 8 0 ; S m i t h ,
1 9 6 4 ; T a r t r e , 1 9 9 0 ; W e i n e r & Robinson, 1 9 8 6 ) , natural sciences (Baker & Talley, 1 9 7 4 ;
Bennett, Seashore, & W e s m a n , 1 9 7 3 ; Tracy, 1 9 9 0 ) , a n d engineering ( H e i n r i c h , d'Costa, &
Blankenbaker, 1 9 8 8 ; Poole & Stanley, 1 9 7 2 ) .
T h i s b o d y of research also includes factor analytic studies i n w h i c h spatial ability was found
t o be a c o m p o n e n t of mathematical talent (McCallum, S m i t h , & Eliot, 1 9 7 9 ; V e m o n , 1 9 5 0 ) .
A l t h o u g h m o s t of these studies reported substantial correlations between spatial ability tests and
p e r f o r m a n c e i n mathematics and science, their results are n o t entirely consistent, because there
are a n u m b e r of counter-examples (Lean & Clements, 1 9 8 1 ; W e i n e r & R o b i n s o n , 1 9 8 6 ) .
Despite widespread s u p p o r t for the view that spatial ability is i m p o r t a n t i n mathematical and
scientific p r o b l e m solving, spatial ability tests have n o t played a p r o m i n e n t p a r t i n most of the
large p r o g r a m s i n w h i c h tests are used operationally t o identify mathematical a n d scientific
talent. Psychometricians at the Educational Testing Service, for example, developed a large
series of spatial tests (some of w h i c h will be m e n t i o n e d below), but did n o t include a single one
i n a large-scale p r o g r a m like the Scholastic A p t i t u d e Test. A s one of a few large-scale programs,
the Test f o r Medical Studies (Institut für Test- u n d Begabungsforschung, 1 9 9 0 ) used i n G e r m a n y
does have a spatial subtest, but t h e predictive validity of this test proved t o be m u c h lower t h a n
t h e validity of the mathematical reasoning tests also included i n t h e battery (Stumpf & Nauels,
1990).
T h e inconsistency of research results and the m i x e d success of practical applications of spatial
tests m i g h t be due t o t h e facts that the various studies used different spatial tests and that most
of t h e m e m p l o y e d only a small n u m b e r of t h e m , i n m a n y cases only one. B u t according t o
theories of spatial ability - t o m e n t i o n only the most recent ones by L o h m a n ( 1 9 8 8 ) as well as
Heinrich Stumpf
288
by G u t t m a n , Epstein, A m i r , a n d G u t t m a n ( 1 9 9 0 ) a n d C a r r o l l ( 1 9 9 3 ) - t h e construct o f spatial
ability is multifaceted a n d involves several relatively independent c o m p o n e n t s o r subskills.
It appears t h a t o n l y certain subskills make substantial contributions t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e
criterion (success i n mathematics education), but i t is n o t clear w h i c h skills these are. If w e look
at t w o c o m p o n e n t s t h a t are distinguished b y most theories, spatial visualization a n d spatial
orientation, m o s t researchers a n d theorists w o u l d agree t h a t visualization is t h e m o r e salient
factor, but a n empirical study b y Hills ( 1 9 5 7 ) pointed t o t h e opposite.
T h e purpose of t h e present study was t o find o u t w h i c h subskills of spatial ability m a k e a
contribution t o predicting success i n a n area of accelerated mathematical education.
Specifically, s u m m e r courses offered by t h e Center for Talented Y o u t h (CTY) at T h e J o h n s
H o p k i n s University i n B a l t i m o r e w e r e evaluated. W e tried t o assess spatial ability as broadly as
possible and t o examine w h a t c o m p o n e n t s o f this ability c a n m a k e a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o predicting
success. A large n u m b e r of potential measures of spatial ability for such a n assessment exist.
Eliot a n d S m i t h ( 1 9 8 3 ) attempted t o survey a n d collect all existing figural tests of spatial ability
a n d found several hundred of t h e m . It m i g h t appear hopeless t o t r y a comprehensive assessment
of t h e construct as i t has so far been operationally defined i n terms o f figural tests, b u t i n
collecting t h e tests, Eliot ( 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 8 3 ; see also Eliot, S t u m p f , a n d Tissot, 1 9 9 2 ) m a d e a n
i m p o r t a n t observation: H e found t h a t t h e existing tests (with very few exceptions) c a n each be
classified i n t o o n e of 1 6 categories.
These categories, listed i n Table 1, c a n be grouped, i n t u r n , i n t o t w o divisions - a r e c o g n i t i o n
and a m a n i p u l a t i o n division.
In terms of Kelley's ( 1 9 2 8 ) definition of spatial ability, t h e tasks of t h e recognition division
require t h e p e r c e p t i o n , r e t e n t i o n , a n d transformation of visual forms w i t h i n a two-dimensional
plane, whereas t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n tasks require t h e mental m a n i p u l a t i o n of visual shapes across
a plane (Eliot, 1 9 8 3 , p . 11). M o r e detailed i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e rationale of t h e classification is
presented i n t w o of Eliot's publications (Eliot, 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 8 3 ) .
Table
1:
T h e Categories of Eliot's Classification of Figural Spatial Tasks
Recognition Division:
Category
Category
Category
Category
Category
Category
Category
Category
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Manipulation Division:
Category 9
Category 10
Category 11
Category 12
Category 13
Category 14
Category 15
Category 16
Perceptual Speed Tasks
Copying Tasks
Maze Tasks
Figure-Ground Tasks
Visual Memory Tasks
Gestalt Resolution Tasks
Paper Formboard Tasks
Figural Rotation Tasks
Block Tasks
Intersection Tasks
Block Rotation: External
Block Rotation: Internal
Paper Folding Tasks
Pattern Assembly Tasks
Surface Development Tasks
Perspectives Tasks
Note: Adapted from Eliot et ah,
1992, p. 6.
289
Spatial ability a n d success i n accelerated M a t h courses
Table
2:
Subtests of t h e C T Y Spatial Test Battery, F o r m A A , Recognition Division
Category
Author(s)
Comparative Guidance and
Placement Program: Form QPG,
Book 3: Path Finding Test
Copying and Maze Tasks
Educational Testing
Service (1959)
3
Kit of Reference Tests for
Cognitive Factors: Hidden
Figures Test, CF-1
Figure-Ground Tasks
French, Ekstrom, &
Price (1963)
6
Learning Figures Test
Visual Memory Tasks
Institute for Test
Development & Talent
Research (1986)
11
Kit of Factor-Referenced
Cognitive Tests, Gestalt
Completion Test: Cs-1
Gestalt Resolution Tasks
Ekstrom, French,
Harman & Dermen
(1976)
8
Senior Aptitude Test for
Indian South African:
Form Β (Paper Formboard
Test)
Paper Formboard Tasks
DeVilliers,
Oosthuizen, & Kruger
(1977)
No. Name
10
Figural Rotation Tasks
Fouche & Alberts
Senior Aptitude Tests:
(1978)
Subtest 7: Spatial 2D
(Figural Rotation Test)
Note: The number in the left column indicates the position of the subtest in the battery.
12
3:
Subtests of t h e C T Y Spatial Test Battery, F o r m B B , R e c o g n i t i o n Division
No.
Name
Category
Author(s)
10
Kit of Reference Tests for
Cognitive Factors, Copying
Test: CF-3
Copying Tasks
French, Ekstrom &
Price (1963)
3
Special Aptitude - Spatial
Relations: Hidden Figures
Test
Figure-Ground Tasks
College Entrance
Examination Board
(1951)
6
Visual Memory Test
Visual Memory Tasks
Stumpf (1992)
13
Street Gestalt Completion
Test
Gestalt Resolution
Tasks
Street (1931)
8
Kit of Reference Tests for
Cognitive Factors, Paper
Formboard Test, Vz-1
Paper Formboard Tasks
French, Ekstrom &
Price (1963)
12
Kit of Reference Tests for
Cognitive Factors, Card
Rotations Test, S-l
Figural Rotation Tasks
French, Ekstrom, &
Price (1963)
Table
Note: The number in the left column indicates the position of the subtest in the battery.
Heinrich Stumpf
290
Relying o n this classification, one should be able t o represent most of t h e major ways i n w h i c h
spatial ability has been operationally defined so far i n terms of figural tests i n one test battery,
if a very large one.
Method
T h e C T Y S p a t i a l T e s t B a t t e r y (STB)
I n 1 9 9 1 a n d 1 9 9 2 , a n experimental version of such a battery, the C T Y Spatial Test Battery
(STB; Eliot & S t u m p f , 1 9 9 2 ) was developed at t h e Center for Talented Y o u t h . This battery has
1 4 subtests a n d three Forms, A A , B B , and C C . T h e present p a p e r w i l l deal w i t h F o r m s A A
a n d B B only. T h e n u m b e r of subtests i n each F o r m was limited t o 1 4 i n order t o m a k e the
administration of the battery feasible. I n c o m p i l i n g t h e battery, w e deleted the category of
Perceptual Speed Tasks a n d c o m b i n e d the C o p y i n g and Maze categories i n t o one. T w e n t y seven of the 2 8 subtests i n t h e t w o Forms had been published and used before; the r e m a i n i n g
one - the Visual M e m o r y Test of F o r m B B - was developed at C T Y .
Tables 2 t h r o u g h 5 give a n overview of the tests included i n Forms A A and B B of t h e S T B .
I n t h e tables, t h e subtests appear i n t h e order of t h e categories they are designed t o cover. T h e
numbers of t h e subtests i n t h e test booklets are specified i n the first c o l u m n . B o t h F o r m s have
t w o Parts, t h e first of w h i c h contains the subtests 1 t h r o u g h 6, the second, the subtests 7 t h r o u g h
1 4 . T h e administration of each Part takes about one h o u r a n d a half. Sample items f o r most
of the subtests are given i n t h e directory of spatial tests by Eliot and S m i t h (1983).
Procedure
T h e Battery was administered t o a sample of students taking C T Y summer courses, i n c l u d i n g
courses i n mathematics and natural sciences. T h e courses are o p e n t o students w h o have
reached at least the seventh grade and attained qualifying scores o n the Scholastic A p t i t u d e
Test. T o qualify for courses i n mathematics, t h e youngest applicants (up t o 1 3 years a n d six
months) needed scores of at least 5 0 0 o n the mathematical section of the S A T a n d at least
9 3 0 o n the w h o l e S A T . T h e oldest students (16 years and six m o n t h s t o 1 7 years) needed
scores of at least 6 7 0 o n the mathematical section of the S A T and of 1 2 7 0 o n the S A T as a
whole.
C T Y mathematics courses are demanding a n d fast paced. T h e y last a p p r o x i m a t e l y three
weeks. Topics covered include pre-calculus mathematics, linear algebra, m a t h e m a t i c a l logic,
history of n u m b e r theory, a n d calculus. T h e classes are small - usually 1 6 students o r less i n
one class. A t the end of every course, the C T Y teacher writes a detailed evaluation of t h e success
of every student i n t h e class. Such a n evaluation summarizes the observations made b y t h e
teacher o n each student, appraises his o r her performance, makes statements o n strengths a n d
weaknesses, a n d gives recommendations for the further education of the student. These
evaluations provided the c r i t e r i o n against w h i c h the subtests of the S T B w e r e validated i n t h e
present study. T h e evaluations, usually about one page long, w e r e rated by t w o experts o n a
five p o i n t scale. T h e reliability of these ratings proved t o be rather h i g h , w i t h a c o r r e l a t i o n of
. 9 1 between t h e ratings of t h e t w o experts. Therefore, the t w o ratings w e r e c o m b i n e d i n t o o n e
criterion measure by averaging t h e m . This composite had a split-half reliability of . 9 5 .
Clearly, this criterion score is difficult t o predict because the t i m e of observation is s h o r t a n d
the score incorporates arbitrary elements, n o t only f r o m t h e teachers but also f r o m t h e raters.
It was expected, however, that the validity of the p r i m a r y predictor, t h e mathematical section
of t h e S A T , w o u l d set a standard against w h i c h the validity of the S T B could be c o m p a r e d .
291
Spatial ability a n d success i n accelerated M a t h courses
Subjects
T h e S T B w a s administered at o n e site w h e r e t h e C T Y courses w e r e being offered t o about
9 5 0 students a n d w h e r e t h e students lived for three weeks. A l l students at t h e site w e r e invited
t o take t h e S T B ; participation was voluntary. T h e test w a s administered i n large classrooms b y
C T Y teachers.
4:
Subtests of t h e C T Y Spatial Test Battery, F o r m A A , M a n i p u l a t i o n Division
Name
Category
Author(s)
7
Thurstone's Primary Mental
Abilities Tests: Subtest 17
(Block Counting Test)
Block Tasks
Thurstone (1937)
4
Special Aptitude - Spatial
Relations: Subtest 1,
(Intersections Test)
Intersection Tasks
College Entrance
Examination Board
(1951)
2
Eliot-Price Mental Rotations
Test
Block Rotation Tasks
(External)
Eliot & Price (1976)
14
Special Aptitude - Spatial
Relations: Subtest 4
(Identical Blocks Test)
Block Rotation Tasks
(Internal)
College Entrance
Examination Board
(1951)
5
Kit of Reference Tests for
Cognitive Factors: Paper
Folding Test, Vz-2
Paper Folding Tasks
French, Ekstrom, &
Price (1963)
9
Three Dimensional Test:
RBH-0125 Subtest
(Pattern Assembly Test)
Pattern Assembly Tasks
Richardson, Bellows,
& Henry Staff (1950)
Special Aptitude - Spatial
Relations: Subtest 3,
(Surface Development Test)
Surface Development
Tasks
College Entrance
Examination Board
(1951)
Guay's Visualization of Views
Test
Perspectives Tasks
Guay (1976)
Table
No.
13
1
Note: The number in the left column indicates the position of the subtest in the battery.
Part I o f F o r m A A was taken by 3 5 5 students. T h e n u m b e r of students c o m p l e t i n g Part Π of
F o r m A A w a s 2 1 8 . A s for F o r m B B , a total of 2 7 9 students t o o k Part I of t h e test; 1 8 7 t o o k
Part Π. T h e age of t h e students i n all four samples ranged f r o m 1 2 t o 1 7 years. T h e data of t h e
samples m e n t i o n e d so far w e r e used i n t h e tests analyses reported i n t h e following section. N o t
all of these students, however, t o o k mathematics courses. T h e conelations of t h e S T B subtests
w i t h the c r i t e r i o n score reported refer t o students for w h o m b o t h S T B data a n d criterion scores
w e r e available. T h e numbers of students included i n t h e correlation analyses are specified i n
t h e results section.
H e i n r i c h Stumpf
292
5:
Subtests of t h e C T Y Spatial Test Battery, F o r m B B , M a n i p u l a t i o n Division
Name
Category
Author(s)
7
Factored Aptitude Series:
Subtest 12: Blocks Test
Block Tasks
King (1956)
4
Special Aptitude - Spatial
Relations Tests, Form Μ:
Intersections Test
Intersection Tasks
College Entrance
Examination Board
(1938)
2
Mental Rotations Test
Block Rotation Tasks
(External)
Vandenberg & Kuse
(1978)
Guay's Visualization of
Rotations Test
Block Rotation Tasks
(Internal)
Guay (1976)
5
Structure of Intellect Tests:
Paper Folding Test
Paper Folding Tasks
Guilford (1968)
9
Special Aptitude - Spatial
Relations Subtest 3 (Pattern
Assembly Test)
Pattern Assembly Tasks
College Entrance
Examination Board
(1951)
Kit of Reference Tests for
Cognitive Factors: Surface
Development Test, Vz-3
Surface Development
Tasks
French, Ekstrom, &
Price (1963)
Cube Perspectives Test
Perspectives Tasks
Stumpf & Fay (1983)
Table
No.
14
11
1
Note: The number in the left column indicates the position of the subtest in the battery.
Results
A s documented i n Tables 2 t h r o u g h 5, the various subtests of t h e S T B w e r e developed i n
largely differing contexts. Therefore, their appropriateness for t h e present p o p u l a t i o n h a d t o
be examined before considering their validity coefficients. Thus, some of t h e basic psychometric
properties of t h e subtests w i l l be described before t h e validity of t h e battery is discussed.
Basic i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e psychometric properties of t h e S T B i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n specified
above is given i n Tables 6 a n d 7. Most of t h e tests showed a n a p p r o p r i a t e a m o u n t of reliability
for t h e present p o p u l a t i o n , a l t h o u g h some proved t o be rather easy.
I n F o r m A A (see Table 6), five of the subtests had average p-values i n t h e range of . 4 0 t o . 6 0 ,
w h i c h is considered t o be o p t i m a l for a study like t h e present one. T h e H i d d e n Figures Test
turned o u t t o be slightly t o o difficult i n our sample. T h e Path Finding, Gestalt C o m p l e t i o n ,
Paper F o r m b o a r d , Figural Rotations, Eliot-Price M e n t a l Rotations, Identical Blocks, Paper
Folding, a n d Pattern Assembly tests w e r e t o o easy for o u r p o p u l a t i o n , but despite this, m o s t of
these tests showed rather h i g h levels of reliability. T h e C r o n b a c h A l p h a coefficients f o r 1 3 of
t h e 1 4 tests are larger t h a n . 7 0 , t h e m i n i m u m level of reliability considered t o be adequate i n
a research like ours. It should be n o t e d , however, that 1 0 of these tests h a d A l p h a - coefficients
i n excess of . 8 0 , w h i c h is very encouraging. T h e test that showed a deficit i n internal consistency
is t h e Gestalt C o m p l e t i o n Task.
I n F o r m B B (see Table 7), t h e average p-values for 1 0 of t h e 1 4 subtests are w i t h i n t h e range
of . 4 0 t o . 6 0 . I n t h e recognition division, t h e H i d d e n Figures Test proved t o be t o o difficult
Spatial ability a n d success i n accelerated M a t h courses
Table
6:
293
Psychometric Properties of t h e C T Y Spatial Test Battery, F o r m A A
Ν of
Items
Subtest Name
Path Finding Test
Hidden Figures Test
Learning Figures
Gestalt Completion
Paper Formboard Test
Figural Rotations
Block Counting Test
Intersections Test
EP Mental Rotations
Identical Blocks
Paper Folding Test
Pattern Assembly
Surface Development
Guay's Visualization
of Views Test
25
20
20
20
25
30
80
25
20
20
20
50
30
21
Time
Limit
Mean
SD
4
12
5/5
4
12
6
8
10
12
10
12
15
12
12
19,.6
7,.4
8..3
12,.8
18,.6
25,.0
41,.1
12,.2
14 .2
13 .5
16 .1
32 .7
14 .6
11 .6
4.,2
3.,8
3.,8
2.,9
5.,9
4.,9
14.,5
5..3
4..4
5..1
2..9
12..6
7,.9
4.,7
Avg.
ρ
.78
.37
.41
.64
.74
.83
.51
.49
.71
.68
.81
.65
.49
.55
Cronbach
Alpha
.84
.75
.71
.69
.91
.88
.95
.83
.84
.88
.75
.96
.93
.84
Note: The first time specified for the Visual Memory Test refers to the memorization
period, the second to the reproduction period.
Table
7:
Psychometric Properties of t h e C T Y Spatial Test Battery, F o r m B B
Copying Test CF-3
Hidden Figures
Visual Memory
64
16
20
6
10
5/5
32.,5
5..5
8..4
11.,1
3.,1
4.,3
Avg.
Ρ
.51
.34
.42
Gestalt Completion
Test Cs-1
Formboard
Card Rotations S-l
Block Counting
Intersections
Mental Rotations
Visualization of
Rotations
Paper Folding
Pattern Assembly
Surface Development
Cube Perspectives
24
4
12,.8
2.,9
.53
.53
24
224
30
25
20
25
12
6
8
10
10
12
11,.3
110,.8
21,.1
12,.0
10,.0
15,.6
4.,3
40., 3
4.,0
4..5
5.,1
5..6
.47
.50
.70
.48
.50
.62
.80
.98
.72
.77
.88
.86
30
25
60
21
10
15
12
12
13,.2
10,.0
44,.7
11 .7
5,.9
4..1
13,.8
3..9
.44
.40
.75
.56
.85
.82
.96
.73
Subtest Name
Ν of
Items
Time
Limit
Mean
SD
Cronbach
Al pha
.95
.70
.79
Note: The first time specified for the Visual Memory Test refers
to the memorization period, the second to the reproduction period.
under the present time allowance. I n t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n division, t h e B l o c k C o u n t i n g a n d Surface
Development Tests a n d , fractionally, t h e Visualization of Rotations Test turned o u t t o be t o o
easy. A s far as t h e C r o n b a c h - A l p h a coefficients are concerned, eight tests showed high levels
of internal consistency (Alpha > .79). T h e H i d d e n Figures a n d t h e newly developed Visual
M e m o r y Test, as well as t h e B l o c k C o u n t i n g , Intersections a n d Cube Perspectives Tests also
proved t o have adequate degrees of reliability. T h e Gestalt C o m p l e t i o n Test, however, d i d n o t
t u r n out t o be internally consistent enough for r o u t i n e a p p l i c a t i o n i n this p o p u l a t i o n .
294
Heinrich Stumpf
After acceptable levels of difficulty a n d reliability for t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e tests h a d been
established, w e addressed the question of w h e t h e r the tests c a n predict success i n t h e C T Y
summer courses i n mathematics.
T h e correlations of t h e scores o n t h e subtests of t h e S T B a n d o n t h e t w o parts of t h e Scholastic
A p t i t u d e Test (SAT) a n d the c r i t e r i o n scores are displayed i n T a b l e 8 .
Table
8:
Correlations of t h e Scores o n t h e Scholastic A p t i t u d e Test a n d t h e
C T Y Spatial Test Battery w i t h t h e Average Course Success R a t i n g
SAT, Mathematical Section
SAT, Verbal Section
.31
.32
CTY Spatial Test Battery:
Form AA
Copying/Maze Tasks
Figure-Ground Tasks
Visual Memory Tasks
Gestalt Resolution Tasks
Paper Formboard Tasks
Figural Rotation Tasks
Block Tasks
Intersection Tasks
Block Rotation: External
Block Rotation: Internal
Paper Folding Tasks
Pattern Assembly Tasks
Surface Development Tasks
Perspectives Tasks
.01
.09
.13
.09
.19
.09
.20
.17
.16
.07
.36
.37
.38
.23
Form BB
.02
.34
.34
.16
.10
.05
.08
.20
.06
.25
.38
.45
.20
.45
I n the present study, each subtest of the S T B represents o n e of t h e i t e m types specified above.
Since the key question of the study was w h a t i t e m types predict success i n m a t h e m a t i c s courses,
irrespective of the reliability of the specific test, the correlations of t h e S T B subtests w i t h t h e
criterion score of success i n t h e mathematics classes w e r e corrected for a t t e n u a t i o n . T h e
correlations reported i n Table 8 rely o n 1 0 8 students for Part I of F o r m A A , 6 8 subjects for
Part Π of the same F o r m , 8 3 students for Part I of F o r m B B , a n d 4 9 students for Part Π o f F o r m
BB.
T h e S A T h a d been used t o select the students for the courses. T h u s , t h e r e w a s a restriction
of range o n t h e distribution of the S A T scores. This restriction t u r n e d o u t t o be smaller t h a n
expected: T h e standard deviations of the mathematical a n d verbal sections w e r e 8 5 . 6 9 a n d
6 9 . 4 8 , respectively, as c o m p a r e d t o standard deviations of 1 0 0 i n t h e overall S A T p o p u l a t i o n .
Nevertheless, t h e correlations of the S A T scores w i t h the ratings w e r e n o t o n l y corrected for
unreliability, but also for restriction of range using T h o r n d i k e ' s ( 1 9 5 0 ) f o r m u l a .
T h e correlations w i t h t h e criterion differ widely across t h e predictors. Surprisingly, t h e
correlation of t h e verbal section of t h e S A T w i t h t h e c r i t e r i o n was a b o u t t h e same as t h e
predictive validity of the mathematical section. These validity coefficients, i n t u r n , p r o v e d t o be
Spatial ability a n d success i n accelerated M a t h courses
295
lower t h a n t h e validity of s o m e of the S T B subtests. I n t h e t w o F o r m s of t h e S T B , t h e C o p y i n g
a n d Maze Tasks a n d t h e F i g u r a l R o t a t i o n Tasks showed essentially zero correlations w i t h the
average r a t i n g s , as d i d t h e Figure-Ground, Gestalt Resolution, Figural R o t a t i o n and Internal
B l o c k R o t a t i o n Tasks i n F o r m A A and the Figural R o t a i o n , B l o c k C o u n t i n g a n d External Block
R o t a t i o n Tasks i n F o r m B B . T h e Visual M e m o r y , Paper F o r m b o a r d , B l o c k C o u n t i n g , Intersections, External B l o c k R o t a t i o n , and Perspectives Tests i n F o r m A A , as w e l l as t h e Closure,
Paper F o r m b o a r d , Intersections, and Surface Development Test i n F o r m B B also showed l o w
correlations (.10 < r < .25) w i t h the criterion measure. T h e validity coefficients of the
F i g u r e - G r o u n d , Visual M e m o r y , and Internal Block R o t a t i o n Tests i n F o r m B B proved t o be
higher t h a n t h e coefficients just mentioned; some of these correlations slightly exceeded the
predictive validity coefficients o f the t w o sections of t h e S A T , but for these i t e m types, the
validity coefficients w e r e n o t consistent across the t w o F o r m s of t h e S T B . T h e most valid subtests
across t h e t w o F o r m s w e r e t h e Paper Folding and Pattern Assembly Tasks, but t h e Surface
D e v e l o p m e n t T e s t i n F o r m A A a n d the Perspectives Test i n F o r m B B also showed h i g h validity
coefficients as c o m p a r e d t o t h e t w o sections of the S A T .
Discussion
T h e difficulty level o f m a n y of t h e subtests i n the C T Y Spatial Test Battery was found t o be
a p p r o p r i a t e for t h e p o p u l a t i o n tested. I n addition, t h e internal consistency of most subtests was
at least acceptable a n d , i n m a n y cases, h i g h .
I n assessing t h e predictive validity coefficients of the subtests, one should keep i n m i n d that
t h e c r i t e r i o n is difficult t o predict, as mentioned above a n d documented by t h e relatively low
correlation of t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l section of the S A T w i t h t h e average r a t i n g .
T h e differences a m o n g t h e validity coefficients for t h e various subtests of t h e S T B demonstrate
t h a t not all subskills of spatial ability are g o o d predictors of success i n learning mathematics.
F o r example, m a n y of t h e subtests i n the recognition division of Eliot's classification proved t o
be essentially u n c o r r e l a t e d w i t h success i n t h e accelerated mathematics courses. Several of the
m o r e c o m p l e x proficiencies assessed by the subtests of t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n division, however,
showed closer relationships w i t h the criterion t h a n did the mathematical section of t h e S A T ,
w h o s e validity coefficient w a s originally expected t o be a n u p p e r limit for t h e correlations of
t h e S T B subtests w i t h t h e c r i t e r i o n . N o t all of the tasks i n t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n division, however,
t u r n e d o u t t o be predictively valid. In particular, the m e n t a l r o t a t i o n tasks, w h i c h are often
believed t o measure a c o r e c o m p o n e n t of spatial ability, proved t o have only trivial or low
correlations w i t h success i n t h e mathematics courses. T h e core of t h e predictive validity of
spatial ability w i t h respect t o mathematics learning, therefore, appears t o rely o n t h e complex
visualization skills assessed b y t h e Pattern Assembly and Paper Folding tasks a n d , probably,
also by Surface D e v e l o p m e n t a n d Perspectives tests. In the latter t w o cases, however, the results
obtained here are n o t entirely consistent across the t w o F o r m s of t h e S T B .
A s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e findings of the earlier studies o n the p r e d i c t i o n of success i n
mathematics e d u c a t i o n are inconsistent t o some extent, a l t h o u g h most of these studies found
positive correlations b e t w e e n scores o n spatial tests and t h e various criteria studied. Given the
results of o u r study, a m a j o r p a r t of this inconsistency is likely t o be due t o t h e facts that different
subskills o f spatial ability w e r e assessed and that n o t all of these abilities are essential for success
i n mathematics e d u c a t i o n . T h e predictive validity of those subskills of spatial ability that are
related t o success i n t h e c r i t e r i o n performance, however, compares very w e l l t o t h e predictive
p o w e r of well-established m a t h e m a t i c a l reasoning tests such as t h e quantitative section of t h e
S A T . T h e validity coefficients of t h e subtests of the S T B measuring these skills are certainly
h i g h e n o u g h t o encourage f u r t h e r studies w i t h a revised version of the C T Y Spatial Test Battery.
A revised (and abridged) version of the S T B m i g h t well b e c o m e a n economical instrument that
296
H e i n r i c h Stumpf
can be used t o i m p r o v e our present methods for identifying mathematical talent i n young
students.
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The DANTE test
H e r m a n n Rüppell
Seminar
Cologne,
for Education,
Germany
Department
of Educational
Psychology,
University
of
Cologne,
D A N T E is a process-oriented, computer-guided testing p r o c e d u r e . T h e c o m p u t e r presents
complex t h o u g h t problems and rriicrostructurally m o n i t o r s , guides a n d analyzes l o n g t e r m
t h o u g h t processes that sometimes last hours. This is m a d e possible b y t h e analysis of solution
steps, mistakes, a n d particularly answer sensitive assistance. W i t h t h e h e l p of t h e underlying
theory of i n f o r m a t i o n processing it is possible t o analyze t h o u g h t processes i n detail.
D A N T E does n o t belong t o t h e field of traditional intelligence diagnostics, b u t r a t h e r t o that
of experimental psychology. Methodically and diagnostically D A N T E represents a n e w k i n d of
test that is characterized by t h e attempt t o register t h e qualities o f inventive t h i n k i n g , i . e.
Analogy Sensibility
(AS), Selective Elaboration
(SE), Coordination
Capacity (CC),
Structuring Flexibility
(SF) and Synergetical
Thinking
(ST). T h i s is m a d e possible b y presenting a
complex t h o u g h t p r o b l e m w i t h i n a limited t i m e span and e m p l o y i n g diagnostic evaluation scales.
T h e t h o u g h t p r o b l e m is characterized by a l o n g lasting c o m p o s i t i o n process a n d a coherent
succession of t h o u g h t challenges. T h e i r successful m a n a g e m e n t calls for gradually m o r e
complex t h o u g h t processes. Finally a coherent problem
space develops similar t o t h e real
process of inventing:
- at first y o u learn all t h e relevant facts and represent t h e m coherently,
- t h e n y o u infer further by c o m b i n i n g different t h o u g h t processes
- and finally y o u integrate everything w i t h i n a flexible r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
T h e D A N T E test, t r y i n g t o maximize its logical validity, also consists o f t h r e e analogical,
succeeding phases:
- a phase of preactivation and gradual i m m e r s i o n ,
- a phase of gradually m o r e complex deliberations
- and a n integration phase, i n w h i c h the different p r o b l e m situations have t o be related t o o n e
another i n order t o construct a n image of the w h o l e s i t u a t i o n .
B y m o n i t o r i n g t h e t h o u g h t behavior of a D A N T E candidate, t h e relative p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e
qualities of inventive t h i n k i n g c a n be deduced. T h e p e r f o r m a n c e of
- Structural
Analogy
Sensibility
can be deduced f r o m structural transfers t h e candidate uses
w h e n confronted w i t h structure analogical objects a n d situations,
- Procedural
Analogy Sensibility
can be deduced f r o m t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of analogical p r o b l e m
solving patterns w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k of transfer h i e r a r c h y ,
- Selective Elaboration
can be deduced f r o m bridge-head constructions, i.e. t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of cognitive nets w h i l e d r a w i n g apparent conclusions,
- Coordination
Capacity
of several conclusions,
- Structuring
Flexibility
can be deduced f r o m c o n d i t i o n a l c o m p i l a t i o n s , i.e. t h e c o m b i n a t i o n
can be deduced f r o m varying visualization c o m p l e x e s a n d
- Synergetical
Thinking
can be deduced f r o m the aggressive use of pictures, statements a n d
analogies that support each other.
299
T h e D A N T E test
I n view of t h e D A N T E development these diverging challenges h a d t o be merged i n a w a y
t h a t a h o m o g e n e o u s , w e l l r o u n d e d p r o b l e m solving situation was created. T h i s situation is
supposed t o present a l o n g lasting, exciting challenge of t h e limits of creative i n f o r m a t i o n
processing as used b y inventive thinkers. Thus, t h e development of D A N T E became a n inventive
p r o b l e m itself. Its creators h a d t o step into the shoes of inventors themselves w h i l e keeping i n
m i n d the D A N T E goals. A f t e r a n u m b e r of revisions that are characteristic for inventions, the
D A N T E activities, i.e. t h e Logical
Combinations
of Spatial Structures
(see below), w e r e
created. T h e y m a k e u p t h e D A N T E test i n t h e f o r m of a succession of exercises, w h i c h the
candidate has t o interrelate.
A f t e r a casual phase o f visual preactivation, a n o r i e n t a t i o n phase of gradual i m m e r s i o n follows,
e m p l o y i n g s i m p l e Logical Combinations
of Spatial Structures.
These combinations gradually
b e c o m e m o r e c o m p l e x m a k i n g use of transfer effects and s o o n reach their full complexity. T h e
ultimate challenge of inventive t h i n k i n g , i.e. the recognition of analogical conclusive patterns
becomes m o r e a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t . Those patterns also include structures that fulfill t h e
prerequisite of a c o n d i t i o n a l premise but negate its consequence.
L o g i c a l C o m b i n a t i o n s of S p a t i a l S t r u c t u r e s
T h e L o g i c a l C o m b i n a t i o n s of Spatial Structures call for the holistic visualization of spatial
structures using familiar, analogically structured images of every day situations. Moreover, they
challenge a flexible, t h r e e dimensional c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e different logical patterns. D A N T E
candidates h a v e t o decide w h i c h structures can coexist w i t h i n a defined cubic lattice w i t h o u t
displacing o n e a n o t h e r ; w h i c h ones fit well together a n d w h i c h do n o t .
Configurations m a d e u p o f c o l o r e d cubes are used as spatial structures a n d a 3 b y 3 b y 3
cubic lattice serves as t h e space i n w h i c h different figures are supposed t o be combined. T h e
candidate is presented w i t h various pictures of structures at t h e very beginning of the test, even
before he gets t o read t h e instructions or k n o w s w h a t t h e test is all about. T h e pictures appear
as a kind o f slide s h o w ; t h e y are preactivated as the experimental psychologist w o u l d say. D u r i n g
t h e actual test t h e candidate m e r e l y gets t o read descriptions of t h e structure pictures and does
n o t get t o see t h e m again.
These p r o p o s i t i o n a l c o m p l e x e s represe