Chapter 3: Glial cells: parents: providing nutrition, healing, and physical support for neurons; cleaners: removing debris from the brain like a
miniature Pac man, devouring dead and damaged cells; protection in three ways: 1. produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)- a colorless fluid
surrounding the brain and spinal cord (this cushions the brain during an impact) 2. form the blood- brain barrier- this prevents foreign material
from entering the brain 3. contribute to the immune system of the brain Neuronal activity can be understood by examining several processes:
resting potential, action potential, synaptic transmission, graded potentials. Pre- and Postsynaptic Potential: Voltage change at receptor
site—postsynaptic potential (PSP), Not all-or-none, Positive voltage shift: excitatory PSP (neuron more likely to fire, deceases negativity
inside), Negative voltage shift: inhibitory PSP (neuron less likely to fire, increases negativity inside neuron). Neurotrans. and Behaviour:
1.synthesized in neuron 2.stored in synaptic terminals 3.released when neuron has an action potential 4.deactivated or removed from synapse
when completed their task. Neurotrans. 1 of 2 effects when released into synapse: 1. Increase chance of postsyn. cell firing (= excitatory
postsyn. potentials) 2. Decrease chance of postsyn. cell firing (= inhibitory postsyn. potentials)Specific neurotrans. function at specific
synapses. Only deliver signals at certain locations on cell, nervous syst.'s commu. more precise. Serotonin: sleep, wakefulness, eating,
aggression, arousal. Somatic Nerv. Sys.: volunt. muscles and sensory recept., carry commands, part of PNS, "two-way streets" with in and
out lanes. Midbrain: sensory (vision and hearing): dopaminergic projections (voluntary movement), reticular activating system (musc. reflex
and arousal). Cerebrum: larges, most complex. Cerebral hemisp.: 2 halves, corpus callosum (info. b/w hemisp.). Four lobes:Occipital:vision,
Parietal:somatosensory (touch), Temporal:auditory, Frontal:movement, executive control systems, Prefrontal:decision making and self control
(thought processes). Evolut. of Behav.: (Darwin) Insights: Organisms vary in endless ways, Some traits heritable, Variations in hereditary
traits might affect survival and reproduct., Heritable traits that provide survival or reproduct. advantage become prevalent over generations
(natural selection: change gene pool). Concepts: Fitness: reproduct. success of organism relative to population. Adaptations: inheritable
characteristic that increased in population b/c it increased probability of survival or reproduct. during time emerged. Absolute refract. period:
Brief period of time after AP, before another AP can begin. Following each AP: brief moment when neuron not fire again, when RP restored:
cell fire again. Synaptic transm.: How neurons commun. w/ each other. Depression, memory, learning and personality. Each neuron makes
chemical messenger (neurotrans.), stores it in terminal buttons. Neurons no touch at synapse, they are separated by gap (synap. cleft).
Electric. signal no jump gap. Neuron sending message (presyn.) releases neurotrans. into synap. cleft. Neurotrans. bind to specialized areas
of adjacent neurons (postsyn.) and stimulate them. Synaptic Transm.: 1.Synthesis, 2.Transport. and storage, 3.Release, 4.Binding (to
receptors post synap.), 5.Deactivat. 6.Autorecept. activat. 7.Reuptake (pre synap., recycle) 8.Degradation. 1 to 4 increase influe. pre syn. on
post syn., steps 5 to 8 reverse or decrease influe. on post syn. Dopamine (DA): Control voluntary movements, rewarding (not thirsty if drink).
PNS: nerves outside CNS. Affer. nerve fibres: axons, carry info to CNS from periphery, part of the somatic NS. Hindbrain: vital functions:
medulla (unconcious funct., breathing), pons (sleep, arousals), cerebellum (balance, coordination). Forebrain: emotion, complex thought.
Thalamus, Hypothal., Limbic Syst., Cerebrum. Amygdala: Central role in learning fear responses and processing basic emotional respon.
Epigenetics: Behav. qualities are influenced by heredity and environ. Heritable changes in gene expres. that not involve DNA modific.
Neurotrans. are stored in the axon termin. before released into synapse. Nervous Syst.: Neurons (commun. only w/ neurons: receive (from
sensory organs), integrate and transmit (NS to muscles) information) and glial (smaller, support for neurons), Soma: cell body, Dendrites:
receive, Axon: transmit away. Synapse: junction, info transmitted (transferred) from one neuron to next, neurons interconnect. Insulation.
Structure: neurons: Cell memb.: channels allow or prevent molec. from entering or leaving cell. Cell body (Soma): contains nucleus. (factory,
proteins and neurotransm. manufactured). Dendrites: gather incoming info from other cells. Axons: long, thin fibre, transmits signals from soma
to other neurons, muscles or glands. Axon terminals: chemicals released by neuron to influence activity of other neurons. Axons are wrapped
in white, fatty substance called myelin (insulating material from glial) Myelin Sheath: stabilize axon and patterns of connectivity in neural
network. Speeds up transmission of signals that move along axons, efficient: each cell maintains elect. charge across membrane. Cells w/
axons wrapped in myelin sheath only maintain charge at small gaps in myelin along length of axon. Axon Terminal: chem. released by neuron
to influence activity of other neurons. Insulation and Info transfer. Neurotrans.: chem. messengers that transmit info from neuron to another.
Insulation and info transfer. Resting potential (RP): Higher concentration [ ] of neg. charged (when resting) ions in the cell. RP of neuron is its
stable, neg. charge when cell is inactive or at rest. Like dam (river), w/ all channels closed to store water (energy) (Na K pump). Na K pump:
create & maintain RP, need 2 ions: K & Na. Small channels in cell memb. allow K to move in & out. Channels for Na usually closed. To create
RP, exchange that pumps 3 Na ions out of cell for every 2 K pumped in. Responsible for keeping more Na outside cell memb. so inside of cell
has relatively neg. charge. Half the energy the brain uses is used to create and maintain the resting potential. W/o RP, the brain not allow
think, feel, learn or move. A useful analogy: dam contains potential energy that if small channels open in dam, the built-up water pressure
causes release of energy as water rushes through channels. Action potential (AP): brief shift in neuron's electrical charge (think voltage spike
or "spark") travels along axon. Bigger the axon or addition of myelin, quicker the speed. All-or-none law: neuron either fires or not. Either an
AP occurs, or it not. Lock and Key: Neurotrans. diffuse across space where they find open receptor sites on postsyn. neuron. Sites recognize
& respond to some neurotrans., but not to others. The same neurotrans. can be excitatory or inhibitory. Depends on receptor bind to.
Specific neurotrans. only work at specific synapses using the lock-and-key mechanism. Angonist: chem. that mimics neurotrans. action (binds
to receptor, fits perfectly to try to trick). Chem. that opposes (blocks) action of neurotrans. Neurotrans. and Behav.: most behav. regulated by
interactions b/w neurotransm. Acetylcholine (ACh): released by motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles. Regulation of attention &
memory. Botox: antagonist. Nicotine : agonist (acts like ACh).
Types of Monoamines: dopamine, norepinephrine & serotonin. Norepinephrine (NE): mood and arousal. Acts as a hormone when in the
body and neurotrans. GABA: Inhibitory transmitter, contributes to regulation of anxiety, sleep & arousal. Endorphins: Resemble opiate drugs
in structure and effects. Plays role in pain relief and response to stress. Effer. nerve fibres: axons that carry info out from CNS to periphery of
the body. Part of the somatic nervous system. ANS: Automatic and involuntary functions. Sympathetic Nervous System: go (fight-or-flight),
digestion resources (support) goes to the muscle for physical activity. Parasympathetic Nervous System: stop, rest and digest, opposite of
sympathetic nervous system. CNS: Brain and spinal cord. Protected by enclosing sheaths (meninges). Bathed in CSF (cerebrospinal fluid)
which nourishes the brain and provides protective cushion. Hollow cavities in the brain that are filled w/ CSF are ventricles. Spinal Cord:
Connects the brain to rest of body through PNS. It houses bundles of axons that carry the brain's commands to peripheral nerves so can
move, relays sensations from periphery of body to the brain. Brain: Part of the CNS. Contains billions of interacting cells that integrate info
from in & out body, coordinates body's actions. Research Methods: Case study: changes in behaviour. Lesioning (damage): destroying a
piece of the brain. Electrical Stimulation (ESB): electric current to brain to activate brain structures. CT scan: x-ray, 2D. MRI: magnetic fields,
3D. fMRI: blood flow and O2. Electroencephalograph (EEG): Electrical activity of the brain. Positron emission tomography (PET) scan:
radioactive, chemical activity. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): magnetic coil, over head. Thalamus: All sensory info (except smell)
must pass to get to the cerebral cortex. Relay station. Hypothal.: Regulation of basic biological needs (hunger, thirst, temp. control).
Communicates w/ major subdivisions of CNS. Also regulates basic biological drives related to survival, including fighting, fleeing, feeding and
mating. Limbic Syst.: Involved in emotions, contains "pleasure centres". Includes parts of thalamus and hypothalamus, hippocampus and the
amygdala and other nearby structures. Hippocampus: Role in memory processes. Brain plasticity and research findings: The brain's
ability to change structure and function. Experience stimulates brain plasticity through changes in dendritic length, synapse formation, and
altered metabolic activity. Research findings: 1. Experience sculpts features of brain structure. 2. Damage or destruction of brain tissue can
lead to neural reorganization (no smell, enhanced hearing). 3. Adults' brains do appear to generate new neurons. Left Hemis.: controls the
right side of body; analytical, language, math, verbal processing, including language, speech, reading and writing. Damage to Broca's area
leads to problems with speech / language production. Damage to Wernicke's area leads to problems with language comprehension. Right
Hemis.: controls the left side of body; creative, intuitive, spacial, non-verbal processing, including special and musical processing, and visual
recognition tasks.
Endocrine System: Glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning. Controlled by the nervous system
through the hypothalamus (at the base of the forebrain). It has intimate connections with the pituitary gland. Hormones: Chem.
messengers in the bloodstream. Pulsatile release (several times in pulses); negative feedback system. Bind to receptors on target cell.
Differences between hormones and neurotrans.: Neurotrans. communicate across very short distances with lightening speed
(milliseconds), along very specific pathways (axons). Hormones travel to distant cells at a much slower speed (measured in seconds and
minutes) and tend to be less specific (they can act on many target cells throughout the body). Endocrine glands: Pituitary: "master gland,"
growth hormone, oxytocin (empathy and bonding). Thyroid: metabolic rate. Adrenal: salt and carbohydrate metabolism. Pancreas: sugar
metabolism (secretes insulin). Gonads: sex hormones.
Behavioural genetics: study of the influence of genetic factors on behavioural traits. Chromosomes: threadlike strands of DNA carrying
genetic information. Human cells: 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. Genes are DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in heredity
transmission. Polygenic: Influenced by more than one gene. Genotype: Genetic makeup. Phenotype: Physical or observable characteristics.
Hereditary Influence: Research Methods: Family studies: run in the family? Twin studies: compare resemblance of identical (monozygotic)
and fraternal (dizygotic). Adoption studies: examine resemblance between adopted children and biological and adoptive parents. Genetic
mapping and CRISPR. Acetylcholine antag. cause paralysis in animals. The monoamine neurot. are serot., dopam. & norepi.. ANS can be
decided into the symp. NS & paras. NS. Hypoth. in midbrain. Rad.act. dye in preparation for PET. Corpus collosum removed in split brain
proced.. Oxytocin horm.: bonding b/w individuals. Adopted child IQ similar to bio.l parents. Love of fatty foods is result of natural select..
Chapter 5: Nature of Consciousness: Variations in Awareness & Control: Freud: Unconscious (consciousness is not an all-or-none, there
are levels of awareness). Even when asleep consciousness moves through series of transitions.Psychologists interested in understanding
human behavior, as a result of conscious thought & unconscious influences on behavior. Almost every human behavior comes from a mix of
the two. Neural Bases of Sleep: Sleep/wake rhythm appears to be regulated by subcortical structures deep within the brain. Areas in the
hypothalamus are responsible for regulation of sleep and wakefulness, & specific areas in the medulla, thalamus & basal forebrain have been
noted in control of sleep & variety of neurotrans. are involved. Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS): Afferent fibres running
through the reticular formation that influence physiological arousal: ARAS projects diffusely into many areas of the cortex. Electrical stimulation
along same pathways produce arousal & alertness. Evolution and Sleep: Sleep has considerable adaptive value, but theorists disagree about
exactly how. Some suggest: Sleep evolved to conserve energy (energy consumption reduced by 30% in sleeping human brain). Inactivity of
sleep reduces exposure to predators & consumption of resources. Helps animals restore bodily resources depleted by waking activities. Study:
CSF flows easily when sleeping. (flow clears metabolic toxins from the brain (toxins contribute to Alzheimer's), In NREM, neurons synchronize.
When neurons turn on & off at same time they not need much O2, = less blood flows to brain & room for more CSF). Is sleep deprivation
bad?: May be major social problem, undermining efficiency at work & contributing to accidents. Sleep restriction triggers hormonal changes
that increase hunger. Sleep deprived individuals consume extra 385 calories a day & increases cravings for high calorie food. Clear link b/w
short sleep duration & obesity. Sleep restriction can impair attention, reaction time, motor coordination problem solving and may have negative
effects on endo. & immune system functioning. Links b/w short sleep duration & increased risk of diabetes, hypertension and coronary artery
disease, possibly due to increased inflammatory response. Memory & mood have been negatively affected by sleep restriction in studies. The
World of Dreams: Tend to unfold in and with familiar settings and people. Non western cultures: dreams are viewed as important sources of
information about oneself, about the future, or about the spiritual world. Freud: contents of waking life spill into dreams; called this spillover
day residue. Day residue: incorporation of external stimuli into dreams shows people's dream world is not entirely separate from real world (the
sound of alarm may be incorporated into dream as siren). Theories of Dreaming: Cartwright (1977): dreams provide opportunity to work
through everyday problems: the cognitive, problem-solving view. Continuity b/w sleeping & waking. Dreaming: Hobson/McCarley: dreams are
by product of bursts of activity emanating from subcortical areas of the brain: the activation-synthesis model. Structure in the brain. The cortex
constructs a story to make sense of internal signals from lower brain centres. This theory downplays the role of emotional factors in dreams.
Dreaming: Freud: purpose of dreams is wish fulfillment. Wish-fulfilling quality of dreams may not be apparent b/c unconscious attempts to
censor & disguise true meaning. Distinguished b/w manifest & latent content of dreams. Deciphering latent of dream was complex, requires
intimate knowledge of dreamer's current issues & childh. conflicts. Latent Cont.: hidden or disguised meaning of events in plot. Manifest
Cont.: plot of dream at surface level. Calv. Hall: Most dreams relativ. mundane. The 1 nearly univ. elem. of dreams is coherent sense of self:
almost always experie. dreams first person perspect. & dream about us & what going on our lives. Meditation: family of practices that train
attention to heighten awaren. & mental proces. under greater voluntary control. Most practic. approaches in N. America are yoga, Zen &
transcendental medit.. All rooted in East. religions (Hinduism, Buddhism & Taoism). Psychology: medit. involves deliberate effort to alter
consciou.. Ancient discipline. Results in potent. benef.l physiological state, bodily arousal is suppressed. Medit. Types: Both achieve "higher"
form of consciou.. 1.Focused attention. 2.Open monitoring. Focused Atte.: Atte. focused on specific object, image, sound or body sensation
(breath). Narrow atte. clears mind of clutter. Concentrate on one mantra, object or idea while shutting out distractions. Open Monit.: Atte.
directed to contents of moment-to-moment experi. in non-judgem./ non-reactive way. Intent in expanding atte. is to become detached observer
of flow of own sensations, thoughts & feelings. Open m. is more akin to being mindful & receiving sensory & stimul. in objective, nonjudgm.
Fashion. Love. Kind. Medit.: Elements of focused & open. Focus to develop love & compassi. for oneself then broaden love to "unlikeable"
others. Any - affect replaced by + affect that is prosocial or empathetic. Long term Benefits of Medit.: potential to modify brain structure &
process (experi. meditators have more grey matter in the brainstem & frontal lobe). Reduce effects of stress. Reg. medit. associ. w/ enhanced
immune response, reduced inflammation. Improve anx., depress. & pain & may have cognitive benefits. Mindful. medit. associ. w/ improvem.
in sustained atte., working mem. & prob. solving, may also improve mental health (increa. emoti. regula. & decrea. rumination & drug abuse
(by increa. pain tolera.). Beneficial effects on BP, self esteem & sleep patterns, overall health, well being & social interact.. Meditative State:
When experienced meditator in this state? Alpha & theta waves more prominent (EEG). Heart rate, skin conductance, respiration rate, O2 use
and CO2 elimination decline. Suggest meditation = beneficial physiological state characterized by suppression of bodily arousal. Hypnosis:
Braid: Popularized hypnotism (1843). Could be used to produce anesthesia. Just as it was catching on as general anesthetic, chem. anes.
were discovered & interest dwindled. Hyp. effects: Anes., Sensory distortions & hallucinations (hear, taste, smell or see things not there),
Disinhibition (doing things norm. inhibited about doing: quack like duck). Posthyp. suggest. & amnesia (told will remember nothing). Hypnotic
Induct. & Susceptib.: Hypnosis: systematic proced., produces heightened state of suggestibility. Passive relax., narrowed attention & enhan.
fantasy. Hypnot. induct. in movies is enacted w/ swing. pendulum. Hypnotist suggest to particip. that they are relaxing. Then repet. & softly,
particip. told are tired, drowsy or sleepy. People differ in how well resp. to hypn. induct.. About 15%: good particip. & 15% not resp. well.
Social-Cognitive Theory of Hypnosis: Hypn. as Role Playing. Hypn. produ. a normal mental state where suggestib. people act out role of
hypnotic particip. & behave as they think hypnot. people are supposed to. Is particip. role expecta. that produce hypn. effects instea. of
trance-like state of consciousness. Theories of Hypnosis: 1. Social-Cognitive Theory. 2. Altered State of Consciousness. Hypnosis: Altered
State of Consciousness: Hilgard argued hypnosis creates dissociation in consciousness (Dissociation: splitting off mental processes into two
separate, simultaneous streams of awareness). Theorizes that hypnosis splits consciousness into 2 streams. 1 stream in communication w/
hypnotist & external world, other stream is difficult to detect "hidden observer". Divided consciousness is common, normal experience (people
drive w/ no recollection of having consciously done so. Consciousness divided b/w driving & persons thoughts). Altering Consciou. w/
Drugs: Alcohol: Drugs common for deliberate efforts to alter consci.. ETOH causes the most harm, after ETOH, most used = cannabis. ETOH
cause more loss of yrs (life) b/c disability & poor health than other drugs. 3rd of such causes: 1.Starvation. 2.Unsafe sex practic.. 3. ETOH (~=
to unsafe water, sanitation & hygiene). ACD.: Recreat.: In N. America, fentanyl claiming lives. In Africa & Asia, Tramadol. Both opioids. Rec.
drug use involves personal, moral, political & legal issues, not matters for sci. to resolve. Need to be knowled. to make informed choices.
Monit. Drug in Canada: Health Can. monitors, Canadian A (ETOH) & Drug Use Monit. Surv. (CADUMS). Men increa. risk of high risk drink.
than women. 2012, 410,000 Can. admit to abus. prescription drugs like stimul., benzos. & opioids. Opioids: Natural or synthetic subst.
capable of relieving pain. Overwhelm. sense of euphoria & wellbeing, a "who cares?" quality & attractive escape from reality. Carfentanil over
100x more potent than fentanyl & was orig. designed for sedate large animals (elepha.). Rising # of deaths caused by OD from opioids is worst
drug safety crisis in Can. history. Stimul.: Increa. CNS activation & behav. activity. Produce increased alertness & euphoria very diff. from
opioids. Larger doses, side effects: heart probs., psychosis & sudden death. Caffeine & nicotine are common used & widely available while
coke = street drug,natural subst. comes from coco shrub. Amphetamine are produced in pharmaceut. laborat. Freebasing (Stimul.): chem.
treatment used to extract nearly pure coke from ordin. Street coke. Crack = most widely distribut. by product of this process, using chips of
pure coke, often smoked. Hallucinog.: diverse group of drugs, powerful effects on mental & emot. funct., marked promin. by distortions in
sensory & perceptual experience. Euphoria, increa. sensory awareness & distorted sense of time. LSD & psilocybin as psychedelic research
drugs (1960’s, highly controv.). Ketamine (hallucinog. qualities but is anesthetic) is treatm. for severe, treatm. resistant depression (off label
use, insura. not cover cost). Initial treatm. of 6 sessions over 3 week period & boosters as needed. $500 a infusion. Treatm. ~ 1.5 hrs.
Detached from body feeling for patient.. Cannabis: hemp plant (marijuana, hashish & THC). Marij. = mix of dried leaves, flowers, stems &
seeds. Hashish = the plant's resin. THC one of main active chem. ingred. & is responsib. for mood altering properties. CBD is other main
active ingred. & not alter mood. Cannab. effective in treatm. of chronic pain & chemotherapy induced nausea. May treat sleep apnea &
fibromyalgia. Long term neg. effects: cancer, neurocognitive deficits & psychosis, especially in genetic. vulner. individ.. Chronic, heavy use:
impairments in atte., learning, and memory. Alcohol: Bevera. contain. ethyl alcohol (beer, wine & spirits). Central effect: relax state of
euphoria, tempor. boosts self esteem, decrea. inhibitions (& feelings: good dancer & can solve all probs. of world). Binge drink. may impair
neural funct. of adoles. brain. MDMA: compound, related to amphetamines & hallucinog., especially mescaline. Referred to as psychedelic
amphetamine. Short lived high, lasts few hours or more. Phys. sensation heightened, feel warm, friendly, euphoric, sensual, insightful &
empathetic but alert & energetic. Possib. long term effects: sleep & memory probs.. Possib. adjunct treatm. (w/ psychotherapy) of PTSD.
Psychoactive Dru.: Chem. subst. modify mental, emot. or behav. function. People prefer drugs that elevate mood or produce pleasurable alt.
in consciousn.. Recreational drug = pleasur. alt. in consciousn.. 6 categ. of drugs freq. used recreationally (psychoact.): opioids, sedatives,
stimulants, hallucinogens, cannabis & ETOH. Not fit in categ.: MDMA (ecstasy/Molly). Seda. (Down): Sleep-induc., decrease CNS activation &
behav. activity. Effect similar to large amounts of ETOH. Historically, widely used: barbiturates. Stricter controls = turn to benzos. Consume
larger doses than prescribed for med. purposes. Amphetamines: Crystal powder (crank), snorted or injected IV. Smokable form of meth ("ice"
or "crystal meth"). Adderall & Ritalin used to treat ADHD, but become more popular w/ uni. students Try: enhance academic performance). No
evidence to support this & 1 study: lower grades. Mechanisms of Drug Action: Psychoactive alter neurotrans. activity in the brain. Coke
blocks reuptake at dopamine, norepi. & serotonin synapses. Amphetamines increase release of neurotrans. at dopamine and norepi. synapses
& interfere w/ reuptake of dopamine & norepi. from synaptic clefts (Elevated activity in dopamine circuits, crucial to the drugs' rewarding effect).
MDMA: large releases of serotonin & + affect; low mood (2-5 days) until serotonin levels normal. Drug Depend.: Phys. or psych. dependent on
drug. Both types of depend. estab. gradually w/ repeated use of drug. Dysregulation in mesolimbic dopamine pathway is chief factor
underlying drug craving & addict.. Phys. Depe.: must continue take drug to avoid withdrawal (fever, chills, tremors, convuls., vomit., cramps,
diarr. & severe aches & pains). Psych. Depe.: must continue take drug to satisfy intense mental & emot. craving for drug. More subtle than
phys. Depe.. Coke can produce, overwhelm. psych. need for continued use. OD: any drug can be fatal if a person takes enough, some more
dangerous than others. The combined effect of slowed HR & slowed resp. rate is common cause of fent. / heroin OD. This leads to hypoxia:
brain death: lack O2. OD: CNS Depressants: Sedatives, opiates & ETOH greatest risk of OD. These drugs = synergistic: combined effects
greater than effects of single drug (many OD = combos. of CNS depress.). OD usually effect of drugs on resp. syst., usually grinds to halt, =
coma, brain damage & death w/in brief period. OD: CNS Stimulant: Fatal OD usually involve heart attack, stroke or cortical seizure. Factors
Influenc. Drug Use: Multifactor. causation, user's: Freq. of use. Quantity consumed & potency, method of administ.. Age, mood, motivation &
personality. Previous experie. w/ drug, body weight & physiology of user. Setting the drug is used. FIDU: Subjectivity of experience:
Expectations potent. powerful factors, influence user's perception: placebo effect: If expects drug to make feel giddy, serene or profound,
expectation may contribute to feelings experienced. FIDU: Tolerance: progressive decrea. in person’s responsiveness to drug. Leads to larger
& larger doses of drug to obtain desired effects. Tolerance, dependence, OD & health risks: Stimulants T.: Rapid. Phys. d.: Moderate.
Psych. d.: High. Fatal od: Moderate to high. Health risks: Sleep probs., malnutrition, nasal damage, hypertension, resp. disease, stroke, liver
disease, heart attack and od. TDODR: Alcohol: T.: Gradual. Phys. d.: Moderate. Psych. d.: Moderate. Fatal od.: Low to high. Health risks:
Accidents, liver disease, malnut., brain damage, neurological disorders, heart disease, stroke, hypertension, ulcers, cancer, birth defects and
od. TDODR: Opioids: T.: Rapid. Phys. d..: High. Psych. d.: High. Fatal OD: High. Health risks: Infec. dis., accid., immune supression and OD.
TDODR: Sedatives: T.: Rapid. Phys. d.: High. Psych. d.: High. Fatal OD: High. Health risks: Accidents. TDODR: Hallucinog.: T.: Gradual.
Phys. d.: None. Psych. d.: Very low. Fatal OD: Very low. Health risks: Accid. & acute pain. TDODR: Can.: T.: Gradual. Phys. d.: None. Psych.
d.: Low to moderate. Fatal OD: Very low. Health risks: Accid., lung cancer, resp. disease, pulm. disease, increa. vulner. to psychosis &
cognitive defects. Endorphins: body's internally produc. Opiate like chems.. Discov. led to new insights about action of opiates. Bind to
specific subtypes of endor. recept. & action at recept. sites indirect. elevate activity in dopam. pathways that modulate reward. Endorp. and
THC: THC (marij.) "hijacks" the brain's cannabinoid receptors & influence activity at GABA & glutamate synapses. Leads to an increased
release of endorphins & activation of dopamine circuits (reward). Endorp.: All Drugs: All drugs of abuse increase activity in neural pathway
called mesolimbic dopamine pathway (reward pathway). Large & rapid increases in release of dopamine along pathway are neural basis of
reinforcing effects of abused drugs. The neural systems that mediate addiction are extensive & complex. Consciousness: Awareness of
internal & external stimuli. Contents of consciousness continually changing. Atte. vs. Consci.: Related, not identical, have either one w/o
other. Mind wandering: People's experience of task-unrelated thoughts (thoughts not related to what trying to do at given moment). 15-50%
time mind wandering (4-5 hrs after waking & again at end of day): social media & multitask. increase prevalence. Benefits of mind wandering:
Facilitating future planning. Produce novel & creative thoughts. Capture meaning in your own experiences. Relieve boredom. Stream of
Consci. & Functionalism: James (1902): understand the flow itself. Awareness of internal & external stimuli (events, internal sensations &
thoughts), constantly changing. Constant movement or fluctuation, Consciousness, consists of continuous flow of thoughts. Functionalism:
belief that psychology investigate function or purpose of consciousness instead of structure. Consci. & Brain Activity: Consciousness not
from distinct structure in the brain but rather from activity in distributed networks of neural pathways. Brain-imaging methods to explore link b/w
brain activity & levels of consciousness (EEG). Core body temp. Is bio. funct. positively correlated w/ alertness. Research mice, Sleep allows
CSF to be flushed from the brain. EEG: Records activity from broad areas of the brain. Changes in EEG activity = related to variations in
consciousness. Monitors elect. activity of the brain over time by recording electrodes attached to scalp. Measures brain waves. The tracings
vary in amplitude (height) & freq. (cycles per sec. or cps). Brain wave activity divided into 4 principal bands: diff. patterns are assoc. w/ diff.
states of consciousness: Beta: normal waking thought. Alert, problem solving (13-24 cps). Alpha: deep relaxation, blank mind (meditation)
(8-12 cps). Theta: light sleep (4-7 cps). Delta: deep sleep (less than 4 cps). Bio. Rhyth. & Sleep: Sleep has critical impact on important things
we process & do every day. Important link b/w sleep quality & body's natural rhythm & many things impact bio. rhythms (periodic fluctuations in
physiological funct.): Light & dark. Change of seasons. Phases of the moon. Circadian Rhyth.: 24 hr bio. cycles found in humans & other
species. Humans circ. rhyth. particularly influential in regulation of sleep. Daily cycles produce rhythmic variations in blood pres., urine
production, hormonal secretions & other physical funct.. Cognitive perform. affected by circ. rhyth.: alertness & short term memory. Circ.
rhyth.: leave individuals physiologically primed to fall asleep easily at particular time of day (chronotype). Generally fall asleep as body temp.
drops & awake as rises. Day-night cycle resets bio. clocks: when exposed to light, some receptors in retina send direct inputs to small
structure in hypothal. called suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which sends signals to pineal gland, whose secretion of melatonin plays key role
in regulation of bio. clocks. SCN works to synchronize multiple downstream circ. clocks throughout body and brain. Suprachiasmatic nucleus
(SCN): small structure in hypothal.. Is considered master pacemaker. When ignore bio. clock & go to sleep at unusual time: Quality of sleep
suffers & proper sleep plays important role in promoting good phys. & psych. Health. Jet lag: out of sync w/ circad. rhyth.. Fly: bio. clock stays
same. Causes inferior sleep, leads to feelings of fatigue & irritable (daytime). People differ in how quickly they reset bio. clocks to compensate
(depends on direction traveled: east is worse b/c you "shorten your day"). Individuals take longer to realign circad. rhyth. as they age. Social jet
lag (sleeping in on weekends). Shift work: Less total sleep & poor quality. 12% of Canadians rotate shifts; 2.3% work regular evening & night
shifts. Impact on work, social, mental health & higher incidence of phys. Diseases. Realigning Circ. Rhyth.: Small doses melatonin to
regulate human bio. clock. Melat. reduce effects of jet lag (timing is critical & easy to get wrong). Melat. popular in child. & pediatricians
cautioning parents. Carefully timed exposure to bright light as treatment to realign circad.. May accelerate workers' adaptation to new
sleep-wake sched., improve quality of sleep, alertness for work & drive home. Enlightened sched. pract.. Careful plan shift rotations. Moving
through progressive later start times & longer periods b/w shift change. Sleep & Waking Cycle Instruments: discovery of REM (1950's).
Instruments: Electroencephalograph (EEG): brain elect. activity. Electromyograph (EMG): muscle activity & tension. Electrooculograph (EOG):
eye move. Bodily functions observed: pulse rate, breathing and temp.. Stages of Sleep: Stages 1-3: Sleep is gradual, no obvious transition
point b/w wake & sleep. 1: NREM: Brief, transitional, light sleep, 1-12 min.. Breathing & heart rate (HR) slow, muscle tension & body
temp.decline. Hypnic jerks: brief muscular contractions. Theta waves prominent (light sleep). 2: NREM: 30-60 min.. Resp. rate, HR, muscle
tension & body temp continue decline. Sleep spindles (brief bursts of higher-frequency brain waves) appear against mixed EEG activity.
Gradually brain waves become higher in amplitude & slower in freq., as body :into deeper sleep (slow wave sleep (SWS)). Pons (and adjacent
areas in the midbrain): Critical to generating REM sleep. 3: NREM: Individuals reach SWS, stay there for ~ 30 mins. Then cycle reverses &
sleeper gradually moves back up through lighter stages. High-amp., low freq. delta waves prominent. REM (Rapid Eye Move): sleepers reach
stage 1 again, go into REM. Side-to-side movements beneath eyelids (ripples) & relatively hard to wake. Deep stage of sleep, EEG activity
high-freq. beta waves, resemble those observed when people alert & awake. Irregular breathing & pulse rate. Muscle tone relaxed, body move
minimal. Dreaming is freq., vivid, memorable, emotional & rich in characters during REM. Last REM of night has astest eye move & is period
where dreams best remembered. Memory Consolidat.: brain activity during sleep is central to consolid. of info acquired during day. Sleep is
important for learning, diff. types of sleep are important for diff. types of learning. Age in Sleep: sig. impact on sleep cycle. Canadians 15-24
greatest sleep time & 35-44 reported least sleep. 1st few months, infants more time in REM sleep (50% of baby vs 20% of adults). Remainder
of 1st year, REM portion declines to 30% & continues decrease. Older adults more time in light sleep & need less sleep than young adults.
Tolerate sleep depriv. better but jet lag / shift work worse. Association b/w Alzheimer's & sleep disturb. (poor sleep): sleep problems show up
first (before other sympt.). Culture in Sleep: Siesta cultures (tropical): less emphasis on productivity & more "time is money". 1-2 hour nap,
avoid working hottest part of day. Reticular Form.: Brain structure important for sleep & wake. Sleep Depriv.: function well when sleep depr.,
effects on mood & perform. present, effects are modest. Effects would be more severe, except most people hard time going w/o sleep for >3-4
days. Sleep restriction (partial depriv.) when people make do w/ less sleep than normal. More common & cause neg. effects, specif.
performance, w/ long-lasting, difficult, or monotonous tasks, can be costly. REM Sleep Depriv.: little impact on day funct. but does effect
patterns of sleep: shift into REM more readily. Once are permitted to sleep properly, experi. "rebound effect": spend extra time in REM for few
nights to make up for depriv.. People sleep less than 7 hrs / night or more than 8 hrs: elevated mortality risk. Mortality rates high for routinely
sleep over 10 hrs / night. Why Need Sleep (REM): Memory consolid.. Assimilating new mem. into existing frameworks. Learning & prob.
solving. Promote creative & insight into probs.. Child & Sleep Deprivation: deficits in emotional regulation, attention & memory. Sleep 8 hours
+ before exam perform sig. better. 83 different sleep disorders. REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD): troublesome, violent, dream enactments
during REM. Talk, gesture or flail. Chased or attacked (dreams). Men b/w 50 & 60. Cause: deterioration in the brainstem structures responsible
for immobilization during REM. Drugs & ETOH, high chocolate & migraines. Develop neurodegen. disorders (Parkinson's). RBD symptoms
may precede emergence of Parkinson's by 10 years. Insomnia: Chronic prob. getting enough sleep. TMost common sleep disorder. Est. 17%
of Canadians. Increases w/ age. Pattern: trouble falling, staying asleep, or waking up early. Decrea. productiv., increa. absents, accid., anx.,
depress., chronic pain, hypertension, GI probs., heart disease & diabetes. Treatments common: benzos (lorazepam/Ativan), Zopiclone,
Trazadone: potential for abuse, hangover effects, tendency to develop depend.. Abrupt discontinu. sleep meds cause unpleas. withdrawal
sympt.. Alte. to med.: regular exercise, relaxation, sleep hygiene edu., & CBT. All underutilized. Narcolepsy: Sudden, irresistible onset sleep
during waking hrs. Impairment in regulation of REM (main cause). Loss of orexin neurons in hypotha.. Some genetic predispos.. Wake to REM
INSTANTLY for 15-20 min.. Occur ANYWHERE. 0.05% of pop. (relatively uncommon). Treated, somewhat effectively, w/ stimul. drugs, but at
$. Sleep Ap.: Freq. reflex gasp for air, disrupts sleep. Stops breath. for at least 10 sec.. Sometim. 100’s of times / night: daytime sleepiness.
Accompanied by loud snoring, and seen in about 8% of adults. Higher incid. in males, older adults, post menopaus. women, obese, genetic
predispos.. Increa. vulne. to CV disease & over x2 overall mortality risk. Associat. w/ declin. in attention, mem. & other cognit. Func.. Life
mods.: weight loss, reduce ETOH, improve sleep hygiene. CPAP and craniofa. surg. in extreme cases. Nightmares: Anx.-arous. dreams:
wakening from REM. Recalls vivid dream & difficu. get back to sleep. Assoc. w/ measu. of well being. Sig. stress assoc. w/ freq. & intensity of
nightm.. Common sympt. of PTSD. 5% adults have occas. nightm.; 10-50% child. regul. nightm.. Most child. outgrow but persist. nightm. may
reflect emotional disturb.. Night (Sleep) Terrors: Abrupt wake from NREM w/ intense autonomic arousal (fight or flight) & panic. Early in night
during slow wave sleep. Pierc. cry & sit upright. Usually not remember. More common in child. (peaks at 18 months) but not indicative of emot.
disturb.. Genetic. Temp. prob.,treatm. not necessary. Somnambulism: Wandering around while asleep. 15% of child.; 2.5% of adults. Peaks at
10 yrs. 23% have daily epis.; 43% weekly. Occur during 1st 3 hrs of sleep, slow wave sleep & more like. those who use non-benzo sleep aids
(esp. ambien). Last from 2-30 minutes. Cause unkn. but episodes assoc. w/ prior sleep depriv. & increa. Stress. Genetic dispos.. Accid. &
injuries common, includ. life threat. injuries. EEG pattern beta: normal waking thought & prob. solv.. Mortality rates are HIGHEST among
people who sleep 10+ hrs / night. CBT recom. as 1st step for treating insomnia. ETOH causes MOST harm worldwide. Narcolepsy &
ADHD treated w/ stimulants. Take MDMA, brain releases large amounts of serotonin. Stimulating mesolimb. dopam. pathway = feelings of
pleasure. Prolonged marij. smoking can = probs. w/ short term memory.
Chapter 4: Main pathway: Projects into thalam. (major relay station). 90% of axons from retinas synapse in lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN).
Visual signals processed in LGN & then distrib. to areas in occipital lobe that make up primary visual cortex (PMV).
Second pathway: Leaving optic chiasm branches off to area in midbrain called superior colliculus before traveling through thalam. & the
occipital lobe. 2nd path. appears to be coordin. of visual input w/ other sensory input. What & where pathways: After visual input processed in
PMV, it routed to other cortical areas for addit. processing. Signals travel through 2 streams character. as what & where path.. As signals move
farther along visual process. syst., neurons become more specialized & stimuli that activate them become more complex. The ventral stream.
The dorsal stream. Ventral stre.: Processes details of what objects are out there (percept. of form & color). Dorsal stre.: Processes where
obj. are (percept. of motion & depth). View. in Colour & ID: Ability to identify objects against complex background enhanced by additition of
color. Theorists: developm. of color vision has important evolut. sig. & color vision evolved in humans & monkeys (improved abilities to find
food, spot prey & quickly recognize predators). Humans discrim. b/w millions of colors, w/ females slightly better color discrim. than males.
Form perception also depends on what people focus their attention on: •Change blindness: failure to notice seemingly obvious change in
visual display. •Inattentional blindness: failure to see unexpect. visual objects or events. Focused attention filter out irrelevant stimuli. The
more a task places high demands on atte., the more likely participants will miss unexpect. Events. Gestalt principles: •Figure & ground:
Figure is thing being looked at & ground is background against which it stands. •Proximity: Things close to one another seem to belong
together, & are therefore grouped together. •Closure: Group elements to create sense of closure or completeness. So might complete figures
that have gaps in them. •Similarity: Group stimuli that are similar. •Simplicity: Organize forms in simplest way possible. •Continuity: Viewers
see elements in ways that produce smooth continuation. Amplitude (hear): Determinant of loudness. Measured in decibels (dB), a phys.
property of sound & loudness, physiological quality. Loudn. depends on amp. & freq.. Greater amp. of sound wav. = louder perceived sound.
Perceived loudn. doubles every 6-10 dB. Sounds over 120 dB = painful & possib. damage. Males: hearing loss more often than females. How
pain signals blocked: Gate-control theory: incoming pain sensations pass through "gate" (pattern of neural activity) in spinal cord that can
be closed, blocking ascending pain signals. Endorp. = body's own natural morphine-like pain killers. A descending neural pathway,
mediates suppression of pain (prob. initiated by endorp.). Glial cells may contribute to regulat. of pain. Diff. Threshold: •People's sensitivity to
diff. b/w stimuli. •Just noticeable diff. (JND): smallest diff. (change in intensity) in amount of stimulation a specific sense can detect. •Absolute
threshold = Nothing - JND. •JND's vary by sense & the smallest detectable diff. is fairly stable proportion of original stimulus. •Weber's Law:
size of JND is constant proport. (or weber fraction) of size of initial stimulus. •As stimuli increa. in magnitu., JND becomes larger.
Psychophysics: Study of how phys. stimu. translat. to psych. Experi.. Sensat. begins w/ stimulus: any detectable input from environm..
Fechner made important contribu.: formulat. concerning sensory thresholds. He Q’ed., for any sense, what is weakest detectable stimulus?
Absolute thres.: For specific type of sensory input, is min. amount of stimulation that organism can detect (stimulus intensity that can be
detected 50% of time, probab. of detection is 50%). Defined by boundaries of organism's sensory capabilities. No single stimu. intensity results
in jump from no detect. to 100% detect.. Detectability: Measur. in probability & depends on decision making process. & sensory process..
Detect. weak signals, have to decide if is actually sensation or if just imagining it; if it is crucially important, might minimize false sensat. but
might also miss some. Results in hits, misses, false alarms & correct rejections. Signal detect. theory: Detection of stimuli involv. decision
process. & sensory process., both influen. by variety of factors besides stimulus intensity. Theory replaces Fechner's sharp threshold w/
concept of "detectability". The Eye: Living Optical Instrum.: To see, incoming visual input converted to neural impulses sent to the brain. The
eye has 2 purposes: 1.Housing neural tissue. 2.Channeling light to neural tissue called retina. Light enters eye through transp. "window" at
front (cornea). Cornea & lens (behind cornea) form upside down image of objects on retina. Lens is crystalline (transparent) structure behind
cornea & focuses light rays falling on retina. Lens & accommod.: Lens made of mostly soft tissue, capable of adjustm. that facilitate
accommod. (process). Accommo.: curvature of lens adjusts to alter visual focus. Focus on a close obj. = fatter (rounder) lens. Focus on a
distant obj. = lens flattens. Pupil: Opening in centre of iris, regulates amount of light passing into rear chamber of eye. Pup. constricts, less
light in eye, sharpens image falling on retina. Bright light, pupil constricts to take advant. of sharpened image. Pup. dilates, more light in, image
less sharp. Dim light, image sharpness sacrificed to allow more light to fall on retina so more remains visible. Fovea: Tiny spot in centre of
optic disc w/ only cones. Info Processing in Visual Cortex: •Early 1960s: Hubel and Wiesel: feature detectors. Microelectrode recording of
axons in PVC of animals. •Discovered feature detectors: neurons that respond selectively to lines, edges, etc. •Groundbreaking research:
Nobel Prize in 1981. •Later research: cells specific to faces in temporal lobes of monkeys & humans. Sound wav. charact. by: Amp. (loudn.).
Wavele. (pitch). Purity (timbre). Sensory Process. in ear: Key struct.: channel energy to neural tissue that receives it. 3 sections: Sound
conducted diff. in each section. External ear depends on vibrat. of air molecu.. Middle ear depends on vibrat. of movable bones. Inner ear
depends on waves in fluid, converted to stream of neural signals sent to the brain. Extern. Ear: Pinna: sound collect. cone (augment sound by
cup. hand behind ear). Sound wav. collect. by pinna, funnel. along audit. canal to eardrum: taut memb. vibrates in response. Animals = large
extern. ears that can aim directly at sound. We only adjust crudely (turn head). Inn. Ear: Cochlea: fluid filled, coiled tunnel, contains recept. for
hearing. Sound enters cochl. through oval window, which is vibrat. by ossicles. Neural tissue in cochlea. Tissue sits on basilar memb., divides
cochl. into upper & lower chambers. Basilar membrane, runs length of cochl., holds audit. recept.. Audit. recept.: hair cells, b/c of tiny bundles
of hairs that protrude from them. Wav. in fluid of inn. ear stimul. hair cells & hair cells convert phys.l stimulati. to neural impulses that sent to
the brain. Signals then routed to thala. to audit. comp. (mostly located in temporal lobe of the brain). Theories of Hearing: How sound wav.
physiologically translat. into percept. of pitch, loudn. & timbre. Pitch better understo. than others. Place theory (von Helmholtz): Place = on
basilar memb.. Percept. of pitch depends on portion of bas. memb. vibrated. Hair cells at vari. locations respond independ. & diff. sets of hair
cells vibrat. by diff. sound freq.. Freq. theory: •Both theories needed to explain pitch percept.. Taste (gustatory system): Phys. stim. for sense
of taste are chem. subst. that are soluble. Percept. of taste quality appear to depend on complex patte. of neural activity initiated by taste
recept.. Recept.: clusters of taste cells found in taste buds that line trenches around tiny bumps on tongue. When these cells absorb chem.
dissolv. in saliva, trigger neural impuls. routed through thala. & to insular cortex in frontal lobe where initial cortical process. happens. Taste
cells last ~ 10 days, then replaced. New cells born at edge of taste bud & migrate inward to die at centre. Chem. Sens.: Smell (olfaction):
Similar to taste. Phys. stim. are chem.: volatile ones that evap. & carried in air. Chem. stim. dissolvable in fluid, specifically mucus in nose.
Recept. for smell are olfact. cilia, hair like struct., constant. replaced. Smell is only sense not routed through thalam. before projects onto the
cortex. Pathway: olfact. cilia → neural impulse → olfact. nerve (recept.) (axons that synapse) → olfact. bulb (brain) → olfact. cortex (temporal
lobe). Smell: Humans: 350 diff. types of olfact. recept.. Most respond to wide range of odours. Specif. odour trigger responses in diff. combo of
recept.. The perceived strength of an odor usually fades to less than half its original strength w/in ~ 4 min.. Recept. for pain mostly free nerve
endings in skin. Pain messag. transmit. to the brain via 2 types of pathways that pass through diff. areas of thala.: Fast pathway. Slow
pathway.
Opponent process theory provides best explanat. of compliment. color afterimages.
Examples of pictorial depth cue?
Steady image of world outside car window despite traveling over bumpy road. Vestibular syst. detect. bumps in road.
Sensation & perception: Processes critical to all experiences (appreciat. chang. colour of leaves or smell of fresh coffee). Sens. & percep.
connect us to phys. world around us in myriad of ways. Sensation: stimulat. of sense organs. Involves absorpt. of energy, like light or sound
wav. by sensory organs (eyes, ears). Perception: selection, organiz. & interpret. of sensory input. Involves organiz. & translat. sensory input to
someth. meaningful, like your child's face or fav. coffee shop.
Synesthesia: condition where perceptual or cognitive activities trigger exceptional experiences. Sensory experie. in 1 domain is accomp. by
sensory experie. in another domain (seeing color "red" when hear word "train"). Listen. to music, "riding music" & see. color blue. Emoti.
synesthesia: condition, "specific stimuli consistently & involuntarily associ. w/ emoti. Responses". Person experi. synesthesia is called
synesthete. Fenyman: physicist famous for being synesthete: saw formulas in color. Taste touch synesth.: taste leads to specific feelings.
Word taste synesth.: words or names lead to taste sensations. Sound Color Synesth.: sounds / musical notes lead to color sensations.
Calendar Synesth.: calendars in minds that take form of specific shapes. When they try to think about months of year, visual pathway is
automat. stimulated: these visuals are distinct & more real than mental image. Threshold: dividing point b/w energy levels that not have
detectable effect. 2 types: 1.Absolute threshold. 2.Difference Threshold. Percept. w/o Awaren.: Sublim. stimuli.: Sublim. percept.:
registration of sensory input w/o consci. awareness. Support for existence of sublim. effect. Sublim. stimul. produces weak effects, typica.
disappear quickly. Effects only detected by very precise measur. under carefully controlled lab. conditions. Sensory adapt.: gradual decline in
sensitivity due to prolonged exposure (nose blindn.: stimu. intens. is stable but w/ continu. exposure, sensitiv. decreases). Sens. adapt. is
automatic, built-in process, keeps people tuned in to changes instead of constants in sens. input. Allows people to ignore obvi. & focus on
changes in environm. that may signal threats to safety. Behav. adapt. sculpted by natural selection. Prolonged stimul. lead to sens. adapt., or
decline in sensitiv. to stimulus. Stimul. intensity remains same but sensitiv. to it decrea.. Sight: Visual System: Vision: filter, permits people to
sense fraction of real world. To see, must be light. Light: form of electromag. radiation that travels as wav., moving, naturally, at speed of light.
Light wave. vary in: Amp., Wavel. & Purity. Amp. (height): impacts mainly perception of brightness. Wavel. (distance b/w peaks): Affects
mainly percept. of colour. Purity (how many diff. wavel. are mixed): Influenc. percept. of saturation or richness of colours. Visible light: Only
narrow band of wavel. human eyes happen to be sensitive. a)Light wav. vary in amp. & wavel.. b)W/in spectrum of visible light, amp. affect.
brightness & wavel. affect. experience of color. Purity is key determinant of saturation. c)If white light (sunlight) passes through prism, prism
separates light into component wavel., creating rainbow of colors. Eye: Make adjustm. to alter amount of light reaching retina. Iris: Coloured
ring of muscle, constricts or dilates via amount of light. Saccades: The eye is in constant motion, moving in ways we not realize are
happening. When look at someth., eyes scan visual environ. & make brief fixations at various parts of stimuli. Saccades: Tiny, nearly
imperceptible eye movem. that help make vision clear by briefly fixating on certain points as eye scans environ.. Tiny movem. essential for
good vision. W/o tiny movem. vision degrades. Research: saccad. reveal hidden thoughts & desires & enhance memory. Retina: The Brains
Envoy: Retina: Neural tissue lining inside back surface of eye, absorbs light, process. images & sends info to the brain. Piece of CNS located
in eyeball, same as how the spinal cord is complicated extension of the brain. Paper thin, contains complex network of specializ. cells
arranged in layers. Millions of recept. cells, sensitive to light. Located in the innermost layer of the retina. Therefore, light must pass through
several layers of cells before gets to receptors that detect it. Only ~ 10% of light arriving at cornea reaches recept.. Retina has 2 types of
recept.: Rods & Cones. Axons that run from the retina to the brain converge at optic disk: where the optic nerve fibres exit eye. B/c no
photorecept. there, it is blind spot. Rods: Elongated & out# cones: over 100 million rods & 6 million cones (are stubbier). Specialised visual
recept. that play key role in night vision (more sensitive in dim light) & peripheral vision (black & white & low light vision). Cones: Specialized
visual recept. that play key role in daylight & color vision. Not respond well to dim light, is why not see colors well in dim light, but provide better
visual acuity (sharpness & precise detail). Concentrated in the centre of retina (Fovea?). Info process.: Receptive fields. Sig. amount of
complex info process. occurs in retina before visual signals sent to the brain. Receptive fields: collection of rod & cone receptors that funnel
signals to particular visual cell in retina. Info Process. in Retina: Light strike retina's recept. (rod & cone) triggers firing of neural signal that
pass to network of cells in retina. Signals move from recept. to bipolar cell, to ganglion cell, which send impuls. along optic nerve- collection of
axons that connect eye w/ the brain. Axons, which depart through optic disk, carry visual info, encoded as stream of neural impuls., to the
brain. Info from over 100 million R & C converges to travel along 1 million axons. Means that bipolar & ganglion cells in intermediate layers of
retina integrate & compress signals from many recept.. Collect. of R & C recept. that funnel signals to particular visual cell in retina make up
cell's receptive field. Receptive field of visual cell is retinal area that, when stimulat., affects firing of that cell. Recept. cells / fields: Rods:
black & white / low light vision. Cones: colour & daylight vision. Adaptation. Adaptation: becoming more or less sensitive to light. Visual
Pathw. & Process.: Light falls on eye, but you see w/ your brain. Visual input meaningless until processed in the brain: Axons exit back of eye
form optic nerves, travel to optic chiasm. Optic chiasm is where optic nerves from inside half of each eye cross over then project to oppos.
half of the brain. Ensures signals from both eyes go to both hemisph. of the brain. Optic nerve fibres diverge along 2 pathw.. Types of colour
mix.: Subtractive: remove some wavel. of light, leaving less light than was originally there. Additive: superimposing lights, put. more light in
mix. than exists in any 1 light by itself. Opponent Proce. Theory of CV (Hering): Color percept. depends on recept. that make antagonistic
respons. to 3 pairs of colors (r vs g; y vs b; b vs w). Complement. colors = pairs of colors, produce grey tones when mixed together. Pairs of
complem. colors arranged in color circle. If stare at strong color then white background, see afterimage = visual image, persists after stimul.
removed. Color of afterim. will be complem. color. Viewing World in Colour (W,A,P.): •Wavelen.: determ. colour. Longer = red / shorter =
violet. •Amp.: determ. brightness. •Purity: determ. Saturation. Theories of Colour Vision (CV): Trichromatic Theory. Opponent Process
Theory.Both theories are necessary to explain color perception. Trichromatic Theory of CV: (Young & Helmholtz): Human eye has 3 types of
recept. (R, G, B.) w/ diff. sensitiv. to diff. waveleng.. Based on demonstrat. that color matched by additive mix. of 3 primary colors. People see
all colors of rainbow b/c eye does its own color mix.. Color blindn. encompas. variety of deficiencies in ability to distinguish among colors.
Individ. Variations in Percept. of Colour: considerable variab. among "normal" observers in percept. of colours. Factors that contrib.: Density
of eye lens varies (variat. influe. one's sensitivity to specif. light wavelen.). Variab. in sensitivity to their 3 typ. of cones. Vari. in how many cones
of each type in eyes. Formulat. Percept. Hypothes.: Distal stimuli: in the distance (outside of body). Proximal stimuli: stim. energies,
impinge directly on sensory recept.. Perceptual hypothe.: inference about which distal stim. could be responsib. for proxim. stim. Sensed.
Context that someth. appears guides perceptual hypothe.. Visual, Perceptual Process. & Reversib. Fig.: Same visual input result in radica.
diff. percept.. Revers. fig.: drawing, compatible w/ 2 interpretat. that shift back & forth. Not passively receive signals, we process / interpret
sens. input. Why experie. of world is diff.. Influen. interpretat. by providing percept. set: readiness to perceive stimu. in particul. way (telling
someone what going to see).Feature Analy.: Detecting specific elem. in visual input & assembling them into more complex form. Start w/
components (lines & corners) & build into percept. of squares, stop signs & bikes. Assumes form percept. involves bottom up process.:
progress. from individual elem. to whole.
Top down process.: Progres. from whole to elemen. Gestalt psych.: whole greater than sum of parts (not active theoret. orientation, influen.
study of percept.). Gest. Princip.: how scenes organiz. into discrete forms: fig. & ground; proximity; closure; similarity; simplicity; continuity.
Perceiving Depth or Distan.: Interpret. of visual cues that indicate how near or far obj. are. 2 types of cues: Binocular & Monocular. Binocular
(depth cues): Clues about distan. from diff. views from both eyes togeth..
Eyes set apart, each has slightly diff. view of world. 3D, glasses separate imag. that slightly diff.. 2 types: Retinal disparity & convergence.
Retinal disparity: Principal binocular depth cue, refers to fact: obj. project imag. to slightly diff. locat. on right & left retinas so R & L eyes see
slightly diff. views of obj.. Converg.: Sensing eyes converg. toward each other as focus on closer obj..
Monocular cues: Clues about distan. based on img. in either eye alone. 2 types: motion parallax & pictorial depth cues. Motion Paral.: Active
use of eye in view. world. Obj. at diff. distanc. move across retina at diff. rates. Closer obj. move faster than distant (highway, fence posts seem
to move faster than trees in distance). Pictorial depth cue: Clues about distan. that given in flat picture. Percept. Constancies: Tend. to
experie. stable percept. in face of continually change. sens. Input. When someo. approach. you, they get larger perceptually. Tend to view obj.
as having constant size, shape, brightn., hue & texture.
Visual illusion: Apparently inexplicable discrepancy b/w appearance of visual stimul. & phys. reality. Müller Lyer illu.: Top line looks longer
than bottom, but same size. Ponzo illu.: Horiz. rectangles are same size but top looks longer b/c of linear perspect. (railroad). Stimul. for
auditory: sound wav. (vibrat. of molecu.). Sound wav. travel through phys. medium (air).
Human Hearing Capabil.: Wavel. as freq.: measur. in cycles per sec. or hertz (Hz). Freq. increa. = pitch increa.. Hear sounds from 20 to
20,000 Hz. Sensitiv. to high freq. tones declines w/ age. Absolu. thresho. for weak. sounds can hear differ for sounds of vari. freq.. Human ear
most sensitive to sounds at freq. near 2000 Hz. Purity: Purest sound, only single freq. of vibrat. (tuning fork). Everyday sounds: complex mix.
of many freq.. Purity or complexity influen. how timbre perceived. Timbre: Note w/ precisely same loudn. & pitch played on horn then violin.
Diff. perceive in sounds is diff. in timbre. Mid. Ear: Vibrat. of eardrum transmit. in by mechan. chain of 3 tiniest bones in body (ossicles:
Hammer, Anvil & Stirrup). Ossicles form 3 stage lever system, converts Lrg. movem. w/ little force into Sml. motions w/ greater force. Amplify
tiny changes in air press.
Freq. theory: (Rutherford). Percept. of pitch depends on basilar memb.'s rate of vibrat.. Memb. like drumhead than harp: whole memb. vibrat.
in unison in response to sounds. The brain detects freq. of tone by rate audit. nerve fibres fire. Audit. Localiz.: Perceiv. sources of sound:
Audit. local.: locat. source of sound. Process of recogniz. where sound coming from. Ears apart contribut. to localiz.. 2 cues particu. Important:
intensity (loudn.) & timing of sounds arriv. at each ear. Sound source on 1 side produ. greater intensity at ear close to sound. 4 prim. tastes:
Sweet, sour, bitter & salty. Umami, Jap. word: savoury taste of glutamate in meat & cheese. Taste results from complex blend of 4, but depend.
on learned preferences & social process.. Sensitiv. to tastes is distribu. unevenly across tongue, but variat. are small. Percept. of Flav.:
Combo of taste, smell & tactile sensat. of food in mouth. Odors contribu.. Nose & mouth work together to produce flavours. 75 to 95% of
flavour determ. by smell. Identif. flavours declines when odour cues absent. Pheromones: Chem. messages, typically imperceptible, sent by 1
organism & received by another of same species. Linked to phys. attraction & mating. Touch: Sens. Syst. in Skin: Sens. recept. in skin
respond to pressure, temp. & pain. Human skin saturated w/ at least 6 types of sens. recept.. Nerve fibers -> spinal cord -> brainstem -> fibers
cross over (brain) -> thalam.-> somatosens. cortex (parietal lobe). Some cells in somatosens. cortex function like feature detectors. Respond
to specific features of touch (movem. across skin in particular direction). Fast pathw.: Registers localized pain & relays it to cortex in fraction of
sec.. Pathw. depends on thick, myelinat. neurons (A-delta fibres) (sharp pain). Slow pathw.: Sec. or 2 behind fast. Carries info. about temp..
Conveys less localized, longer lasting, ach. or burn. pain that after initial injury. Depends on thin, unmyelinat. neurons (C fibres). Percept. of
Pain: Pain not automatic result of certain stimulat.. Percept. of pain influ. greatly by expectations, personality, mood & more. Subjective nature
of pain illustrat. by placebo effect. Willingness to tolerate types of pain. Social support provided by significant others is source of support that
mitigates psych. & phys. pain. Kinesthetic Syst.: Monitors position of various parts of body. Recept. for kine. sense in joints (how much
bending). Rest are in muscles (register. tautness or extension). Most stimul. transm. to brain along same pathw. as tactile stimul. but 2 types of
info. kept separate. Vestibular Syst.: Responds to gravity & keeps you informed of body's locat.. Sense of balance or equilib., compensat. for
changes in body's position. Shares space in inner ear w/ audit. syst.. Semicirc. canals are largest part. Rotat. motion of head is combo of fluid
flows in semicirc. canals. Shifts detected by hair cells.
Stimu. at absolu. thresho. will be detect. 50% of time.
Cones found on fovea.
Rachel looking at dog. Dog is distal stimul., image of dog on retina is proximal stimul..
Object evokes feelings of disgust it appears further away than it is.
Wavel. determines pitch.
Freq. theory suggests sounds of diff. pitch cause hair cells to vibrate at diff. rates.
Ossicles in middle ear.
Chapter 6: Classic Condit. Portrayal: Mechan. process, leads to certain result. Reflects fact that most condit. responses reflexive & difficult to
control but "irresistible force" is misleading b/c fails to consider factors involved in CC. 3 basic process. expand this form of learn.: acqu.,
extinct. & spontan. recovery. Basic Process. CC: Acqu.: Initial stage of learn. someth.. Forming new responses. Pavlov theorized acqu. of
condit. respon. depends on stimu. contiguity. Learn. condit. respon. depends on continuous connection. Now, contiguity alone not automat.
produce condit.. Stimuli that new, unusual or especially intense have more potential to become condit. stimuli than routine stimuli b/c are
salient (stand out among other stimuli). Operant C.: Thorndike's Law of Effect: Instrum. learn. = AKA operant c., introduc. by Thorndike.
Thorndike (1913): emphasize this type of respond. often instrumen. in obtain. desired outcome. Foundat. for Skinner's work. Wanted to know if
animals think, classic experim. of prob. solv. in cats. Results led to law of effect. Law of effect: if response in presence of stimu. leads to
satisfy. effects, associ. b/w stimu. & response strengthened. Instrume. learn. as mechan. Process where success. responses gradually
"stamped in" by fav. effects. OC.: Reinforcem. Contingen.: Box permits experimenter to control reinf. contin. that in effect for animal. -Reinf.
contin. are rules or circumst. that determ. if responses lead to presentation of reinf.. Experimenter manipula. if + (posit.) conseq. occur when
animal makes designated response. Acqu. & Shap.: Acqu.: Initial stage of learn. new pattern of responding. Oper. respons. estab. through
gradual process called shaping: reinf. of closer & closer approxim. of a desired response. Shap. necessary when organism not, on its own,
emit desired response. Skinner box, experimenter begins shap. by releas. food when rat moves toward lever. Experimenter starts requiring
closer approxim. of desired response, give food only when rat touches lever. Stimu. & Signal: Oper. respond. controlled by consequ., however
stimuli that precede response be considerable influence over oper. behav.. Response consistent. follow. by reinf. in presence of particu. stimu.,
stimu. serve as "signal", indicat. response likely to lead to reinforcer. Organism learns signal, respond accordingly. Schedu. of Reinf.:
Organisms continue respond. long after removal of reinf. when response reinf. only some of time. Schedu. of reinf. determ. which occurren. of
specific response result in presentation of reinf.. - Continu. reinf.: every instance of designated response reinf.. - Intermitt. (partial) reinf.:
designated response reinf. some of time. Interm.reinf. makes response more resistant to extinction. Cognit. Process. in Condit.: Latent Learn.
& Cognitive Maps: Tension b/w behaviorism & cognit. Theory. Pavlov & Skinner viewed condit. as mechan. process, learning theorists: worms
condit., then condit. not depend on higher mental process.. Response Outcome & Reinf.: Reinf. not automat. when fav. consequ. follow a
response. Response follow. by desirable outcome, response more likely to be strength. if person thinks response caused outcome. Modern
condit. view it as detecting contingenc. (possible, not certain) among environm. events. Organisms actively try to figure out what leads to what
in world around them. Observ. Learn.: CC & OC NOT account for all human learn.. Bandura (1950's) skeptical of assertion that all learn.
occurr. via direct experience. Demonstrated this not the case. Observ. learn.: Organism's respond. influen. by observ. of others (models).
Bandura not see OL as entirely separate from CC & OC but instead, that it extends reach of condit. process. OL involves being condit.
indirectly by virtue of observ. another's condit..
Observ. Learn. & Reinf.: People have learned responses that they may or may not perform, depend. on situation. Diff. b/w acqu. of learn.
response & perform. of that response. Reinf. affects which responses aperformed: emit responses they think are likely to be reinf.. In observ.
learn., reinf. influen. perform. rather than learn.. Condit.: Involves learn. connect. b/w events that occur in organism's environm. Evaluat.
Condit.: Subtype of CC: changes in liking of stimu. that result from pairing stimu. w/ other + or - stimu. (develop. likes or dislikes through CC).
Used to change attitudes about commercial brands or products, & used in advert. (forming opinions w/o facts: advert.’s dream). Neutral
stimu. paired w/ uncondit. stimu. that trigger + react. so neutral stimu. becomes condit. stimu. that elicits similar + react.. Create - attitudes, +
or fav. attitudes. Evalu. condit. in child. young as 3 yrs. EC: liking of stimu. increas. by pairing it w/ + stimu. & decreas. by pairing w/ - stimu..
Attitudes altered via EC stable & durable. Not sure if (inconsist.) EC occur w/o individuals aware of stimu. pairings. Basic Proce. in CC:
Spontan. Recov.: Reappear. of extingu. response after period of non exposu. to condit. stimu., re expos. produces desired condit. response.
Rejuvenat. response usually weaker & quick. re extingu.. Renewal effect: if response extingu. in diff. environm. than was acqu., extingu.
response reappear if animal returned to original environm. where acqu. took place. R. Effect.: extinction suppress. condit. response instead of
erasing learn. associat.. Basic law of stimu. discrim.: Less similar new stimu. are to original condit. stimu., greater likelihood (& ease) of
discrim.. Higher Order Condit.: Condit. Stimu. (CS) functions if it were uncondit. Stimu.. CC not depend on a genuine, natural uncondit.
stimu.. Already estab. CS will do. New condit. response. built on foundation of already estab. condit. responses. Tone can be paired w/ another
stimu. like light. After subsequ. condit. trials, light will serve to elicit desired behav.. Greatly extends reach of CC. Pavlov's tone but add. light.
Evolut. & Bio. Effects on Condit.: Condit. Taste Aversion (Seligman & Sauce Béarnaise): Develop aversions to food that been followed by
nausea from illness or ETOH: neutral stimu. (food) paired w/ UCS (flu) which caused UCR (nausea). Food became CS eliciting nausea. 1.
Delay b/w CS (food) & UCS (the flu) should prevent condit. from happening, yet condit. occurred in one pairing. 2. Garcia (1989) manipul.
stimul. preced. onset of nausea. Taste cues followed by nausea, quick. acqu. condit. taste avers.. Taste cues followed by other types of
noxious stimul. (shock), not develop condit. taste avers.. Visu. & audit. stimu. followed by nausea fail. to produ. condit. avers.. Almost
impossible to create certain associat., but taste nausea associat. (& odor nausea associat.) almost impossible to prevent. Sig. by product of
evolut. history of mammals. Ev. & Bio. Condit.: Preparedness & Phobias: Evolut. program. organisms to acqu. certain fears more readily than
others b/c of a phenom. Seligman called preparedn.. Preparedn.: species specif. predispos. to be condit. in certain ways & not others. Develop
phobias of heights, dark., spiders & snakes easily but not hammers & hot stoves after painful experie.. Diff. is that heights, dark., spid. &
snakes genuine threats to ancestors. Fear respon. to such obj. has surviv. value for species. Basic Proc. in OC: acqu., shap., extinct. & resist.
to extinct., renew. effect., stimu. control, generaliz. & discrim.. Ratio Schedu. & Vari. Schedu. Outcomes: Ratio schedu. (FR & VR) higher
respon. rates than interv. Schedu.. Variab. schedu. (VR & VI) resist. to extinct. than fixed schedu.. Cogn. Proc. in Condit.: Latent Learn. &
Cogn. Maps: Tolman (1930) develop. 1 of 1st maj. cogn. theor. of learn.. Learn. happen in absence of reinf.. Latent learn.: Learn. not
apparent from behav. when 1st occurs. Reinf. not requir. (absence of reinf. contingen.). Rats had cogn. map (mental represen. of spatial
layout) of maze & demonst. learn. when reward introdu..
Salesperson earns commiss. each car sold. Pay is based on FR schedu. of reinf.. Real estate agent, prospect. buyer, bakes in the hopes smell
make house appealing. Baking is UCS. Learn.: Relatively durable change in behav. or knowledge due to experience. Superstitions: Result
from suchbehav. followed by reward or + reinf. (wins or medals). Phobias: Irrational fears of specific obj. or situations. Snakes & needles. Most
phobias acquired through CC. Classical conditioning: Specific type of learn. where stimu. acquires capacity to evoke response that was
originally evoked by another stimu.. Pavlov: Russian physiologist, Nobel Prize winning research on digestion. Role of saliva in digestive
process. of dogs when discov. "psychic reflexes" (conditioned reflex). Experiment considered most unethical science experiments conducted
on unwitting & vulnerable ever conducted. Similar experiments on orphans. Dogs in harnesses. Saliva was collected in surgically implanted
tube in salivary gland. Present meat to dog & collect result. saliva. Paired meat powder w/ various stimu. that stand out in lab situation (audit.
tone). After tone & meat powder presented together a # of times, then presented tone alone. Dogs responded by salivating to tone alone.
Pavlov: Research: Tone started out neutral (not originally produce response of salivation). Changed that by pairing tone w/ stimu. that DID
produce salivary response. Tone acquired capacity to trigger desired response. Demonstrated how learn. associat. formed by events in
environm.. Built broad theory of learn. that attempt. to explain aspects of emotion, temperament, neuroses & language. Term. & Proced. (UCS
& UCR): Bond Pavlov noted b/w meat powder & salivation was natural, unlearn. associat.. Not created through conditioning. So, it is
uncondit. associat.: UCS: is stimu. that evokes UCR w/o previous condit.. UCR: is unlearn. reaction to UCS that occurs w/o previous condit..
Term. & Proced. (CS and CR): Link b/w tone & salivation estab. through condit.. So, it is condit. associat.: CS: is previously neutral stimu.
that, through condit., acquired capacity to evoke a condit. response. CR: is learn. reaction to a condit. stimu. that occurs b/c of previous
condit.. CC in Life: Lab experiments focused on extremely simple responses. Freq. studied are: eyelid closure, knee jerks, flexing limb & fear
responses. CC in Life: Condit. Fear & Anx.: CC plays key role in shap. these emotional responses. Phobias ex. of responses. Patients suffer.
from phobias suggest irrational fears traced back to experi. that involve CC. Bridge phobia: dad misguid. attempt at humor = bridge phobia
years later (CR). Fear of flying. Fear resp. less severe than phobias might also be products of CC. Ex: sound of dentist drill, when paired w/
pain, became CS. Traumatic experi. associat. w/ stimu. not auto. lead to condit. fears or phobias. Whether fear condit. takes place depends on
many factors. Condit. Respon.: CC also affects physiological processes: Immune suppress.: decrea. in product. of antibodies. Animals
injected w/ drug (UCS) that chem. causes immune suppress., while given unusual taste. liquid to drink (CS). Chem. induced immune
suppress. end., some of animals re exposed to CS by giving unusual taste. solution. Antibody product. indicate animals exposed to CS show
reduced immune response. Heroin OD. Basic Process. in CC: 2. Extinction: gradual weaken. & disappear. of CR tendency. A newly formed
stimu. response bond not last indefinitely (allows adapt. & new learn.). Instead, extinct. occurs under right circumst.. What leads to extinction
in CC? Consist. presentation of CS w/o UCS. Stimu. General. (Watson): After condit. occur., organisms respond to exact CS but also other,
similar stimuli.. Organism that learn. response to specific stimu. responds in same way to new stimuli similar to origin. stimu.. Likelih. &
amount of general. to new stimu. depends on similar. b/w new stimu. & original CS. General. is adapt., given that organisms rarely encounter
exact same stimu. more than once (fear of specific bridge general. to all bridges). Law of stimu. general.: The more similar new stimu. are to
original condit. stimul., greater general.. Stim. Discrim.: Organism that learn. response to specific stim. not respond same way to new stim.
similar to original. Only ordering a dish at 1 restaurant b/c other restaurants not have same item. Discrim. is adapt. - animal's survival hinge
on being able to distinguish friend from foe, or edible from poison.. Organisms gradually learn to discrim. b/w origin. CS & similar if have
adequate experi. w/ both. Cogn. & CC: Rescorla (1978/80), expectations play. prominent role in condit.. Environ. stim. act as signals. Some
signals more dependable than others & some stim. better or more dependable signals than others, Introdu. cogn. element- predict. /
expectat. into models of learning, "Good signal" = allows accurate prediction of UCS. Evolu. & Bio. Effects on Condit.: Psych. assume.
associat. condit. b/w any stim. that organism could register & any response it make. Limits to general. of condit. principles (limits imposed by
bio. / evolut. heritage). OC: Skinner (1930's). A form of learn., responses controlled by consequ.. Derived from belief this type of responding,
organism "operates" on environ. instead of respond. to stim.. Learn. b/c responses influen. by outcomes that follow them (consequ.). CC:
Reflex., involunt. responses to stim., OC: governed by volunt. responses. CC & OC: jointly & interactively govern aspects of behav.. OC:
Princip. of Reinf.: Skinner (1953). Baby box, hoped to modernize child rearing. Reinf.: Organisms repeat responses follow. by fav. consequ..
Reinf. when event follow. response increa. tendency to make that response. A response strengthened b/c leads to reward. consequ..
Someth. reinf. now, may not be reinf. later. Something reinf. for 1 person, may not be for another. If event reinf., make contingent on response
& observe if rate of response increa.. Term. & Proced.: OC: Key depend. variable is subjects' response rate over time. Rate of lever press.
monitor. continu. by cumulat. recorder, creates graph. record of respond. & reinf. in Skinner box as function of time, Skinner box: small
enclosure where animal make specific response that recorded while consequ. of response systematically controlled. Oper. respons. volunt.,
are emitted (sent forth) rather than elicited. Results of OC studies in graphs. Primary vs. Secondary Reinf.: Immediate reinf. = fastest condit..
Prim. 1 reinf.: inherently reinf. b/c satisfy basic needs. Species has limited number of prim. reinf. b/c are closely tied to physiological needs
(food, water & sex). Sec. 2 reinf.: acquire reinf. qualities via associ. w/ prim. 1 reinf. (condit. / learn.). The events that function as sec. 2 reinf.
vary among memb. of species b/c depend on learn. (money, good grades & praise). Extinct.: Gradual weaken. & disappear. of response
tendency b/c response no longer follow. by reinf.. Ex. brief surge in rat's respond., then gradual decline in response rate until 0. Resist. to
Extinct.: When organism continues to make response after delivery of reinf. terminated. Greater resist. to extinct., longer respond. continue.
Casinos want people playing even if not win.. eHarmony wants $ even if not found "the one". Renew. Effe.: Learn not to make specific
response in specific context opposed to any & all contexts (rats fail. to press lever in diff. box, respons. returned when in original environ.).
Discrim. Stim.: Cues that influe. Oper. behav. by indicat. probable consequ. (reinf. or non reinf.) of response. Discrim.: responds to 1 stim.,
but not another similar to it. Reactions to discrim. stim. governed by stim. general. (respond. to similar stim. as if it were original) & stim.
discrim. (learn. to respond only to desired stim.), like react. to CS in CC. Ex. cat respond. to can opener. Reinf. of superstitious behav.:
Accident. reinf. sometimes contribute. Prone to superstitious behav. when in situations where performance evaluated (ex. sports). Ratio
Schedu.: Require designated response a certain # of times to gain each reinf.. FR: Reinf. given after fixed number of non reinf. responses. Ex.
salesman gets bonus after sell. every 4th fridge. VR: Reinf. given after variable number of non reinf. responses. Ex. slot machine pays off ~ 1/6
tries. Interv. Schedu.: Require time period to pass b/w presentation of reinf.. FI: Reinf. given for 1st response after fixed time interval elapsed.
Ex. check. if laundry done. Reward (clean clothes) only after fixed time interval (wash cycle) elapsed. Check. not reinf.. VI: Reinf. given for 1st
response after variable time interval elapsed. Interval varies around predeterm. avg.. Ex. repeat. dials busy number (getting through = reinf.).
+ Reinf.: Response strengthened b/c followed by reward. stim.. Good grades, scholarships & attention. - Reinf.: Response strengthened b/c
followed by removal of aversive (unpleasant) stim.. Cleaning gets rid of mess. Pain meds get rid of pain. Plays key role in escape & avoid.
learn.. Esc. & Avoid. Learn. (- Reinf.): Esc. learn.: Organism acqu. response that decrea. or ends aversive stimulat.. Avoid. learn.:
Organism acqu. response that prevents aversive stimulat. from occur.. A fear response is acqu. through CC & avoid. response maintain. by
OC. Esc. learn. leads to avoid. Learn.. Avoid. Learn Lab: Gives animal signal that shock coming. Run to safe environm. when light on. Ex.
of how CC & OC work together to regulate behavi.. Light = CS, reflex., condit. fear. Response to fleeing = Oper. behav., strengthened by neg.
reinf. b/c reduces condit. fear. Punishment: Conseq. weaken responses. Event following response weaken. tendency to make that response.
Any time undesirable conseq. weaken response (bad food at restaurant). + Punishm.: Presentat. of aversive stim. (spank. child for
misbehav.). - Punishm.: Remove reward. stim. (take away phone). Punishment not necessarily = disciplinary proced.. - Reinf.: Remove
aversive stim., strengthen. response. Punishm.: Presentat. of aversive stim., weaken. Response. Evolut. & Bio. Condit.: Instinct. Drift:
Animal's innate response tendenc. interfere w/ condit. Process.. Trained to drop obj. but instinct to "wash food" interferes. Species specif. bio.
constraints on learn.. Dog bark at visitors (think. intruders) taught to be quiet when a guest enters. Stress = instinct. drift = disregard. learn.
behav. & barking.
Basic mechan. of learn. are similar across species but sometimes modified in evolution as species adapt to specialized demands of environm..
Observ. Learn.: Bandura, 4 process. crucial: 1. Attention: learn by observ., pay attention to another person's behav. & consequ.. 2.
Retention (remember): not have chance to use observ. response for a while. Must store in memory a mental represent. of obsev.. 3.
Reproduct.: enact. modelled response depends on ability to reprodu. response by convert. stored mental imgs. to overt behav.. May not be
easy. 4. Motivat.: unlikely to reprodu. observ. response unless motivat.. Motivat. depends on if encounter situation where believe response will
pay off. Bobo Doll: Bandura. Agression explain 3 aspects: 1. How aggresive patterns developed. 2. What provokes agressive behav.. 3. What
determines if continue to act aggressive behav. pattern in future. Behav. altered by watch. others. Q.’s.: Painful dental drill & now cringes auto.
when hears drill. He experience CC & drill is CS. Cat salivates when open can of cat food, but also when open can of soup. Cat is demonst.
stim. general.. Afraid of dogs b/c was bitten, but never afraid of stoves after burn. This is bio. preparedness. All reinf. increa. probability that
response will be repeated. CC: developed aversion to specific food. Dog learn. to beg at table. End begging behav. by remove + reinf.. More
violence children watch, more aggressive they are at home & school. Build fire in fireplace. Fire spits large ember that hits Sam, burn hurts for
hrs. Fire later, Sam upset & fearful, crying & running. UCS = Pain. UCR = Fear. CS = Fire. CR = Fear around fire. Rainy highway, brake lights
ahead come on. Hits brakes but watches in horror as car glides into 4 car pileup. Shaken up about accident. Later, driving in rain & tenses up
when sees brake lights. UCS = Accident. UCR = Shaken up. CS = Break light in rain. CR = Tense. Cat allergy. Same room as cat for over 30
mins., wheezing. Later, starts wheezing as soon as cat in room. UCS = Allergy (cat). UCR = Wheezing. CS = Cat immediate. CR = Wheezing
immediate.
1. Commission for sale. Bonus for every 3rd sale. FR. 2. $ for doing work ~ once a week. VI. 3. Fly fishing. Each time casts line as the
response that may be rewarded. VR. 4. Jamal, gr. 4, gets star from teacher for every book read. Continu. Reinf.. 5. Profess. Bball player, signs
agreement, salary increa. renegotiated every 3 years. FR. 1. Speeding ticket & fined. Punnishm. 2. Supervisor compliments hard work. +
Reinf.. 3. Let dog out so not have to listen to whining. - Reinf.. 4. Constantly complains about pain to get sympathy. 3 people ignore her.
Extinct..
Chapter 7: Human Mem.: define who we are & sense of self. Intimately tied to ability to funct. effectiv. & efficiently in immedia. moment in
social & non social contexts. Importan. of mem. in ability to orient ourselv. in present is clear. Time travel linked w/ nature of cogn. & mem.
syst. & natu.of cogn. & mem. process. lets us travel through time. Go backwards to remem. Events. 2 Typ. of Mem.: Mem. for general info. &
personal events: Semant. & episod. mem. (Tulving). K.C. brain damage after accident. Seman. mem. (facts) not impaired. Impaired episo.
mem.: not remem. anything that ever happen.. Mem. Stor. & Acqu.: Mem. more than acqu. info. & stor. in mental compartm.; have to get it out
too. Key Process. of Mem.: Process. explain why people forget (:deficiencies in any 3 process.). 1. Encoding: get info in. Forming mem. code
(for word: look, sound or mean). Requir. attention. Elabor., img & motiv. enrich encod.. 2. Stor.: maintain. info. in mem. over time. Info. stor. not
enough to remem. someth.. Must retrieve. 3. Retriev.: get. info. out. Recover. info. from mem. stores. Encoding: get info in mem.. Forget.
event or name of person just met = fail to form mem. code. Pay attention to info if intend to remem. it. Attention. Attention: focus awaren. on
narrow range of stim. or events. Filter that screens out most stim. while allow select few to pass to consciousn. awaren.. Filter location unclear
in info process. syst.. Select. atte. critical to everyday funct.. Screen out most potential stim. to read, converse or think. C. Party Phenom.:
Party, but b/c paying atte., can carry on convers. while filter out. Not block out if hear their name (late select. input). Evidence for early,
intermed. & late select.. Locat. of atte. filter flexible, not fixed. Atte.: Importance of atte. to mem. when focus atte. on 2+ inputs simultaneo..
Large reduct. in mem. perform.. Brain only 1 atte. consum. task at a time. Multitask = switch back & forth. People who frequ. multitask = least
able to multitask. High multitask linked to poor perform.. Levels of Process.: Craik & Lockhart (1972). Not all atte. is =. (Theory): diff. in how
people attend to info are main factors influenc. how much remem.. (C&L) = diff. rates of forget. b/c some methods of encod. create more
durable mem. codes than others. (C&L) L of P theory: deeper levels of process. = lasting mem. codes. L of P theory = influen.; shown mem.
involves more than stor.. L of P.: 3 Levels: Incoming info process. at diff. levels. Ex. verbal info, 3 progressively deeper L of P.: 1. Structural.
2. Phonemic. 3. Semantic encod.. Result in more durable mems.. Deeper process. = enhanc. mem.. L of P. Theory: Types of Encod.: 1.
Structu. encod.: Shallow process.: emph. phys. structure of stim. . Ex. word written in capital letters, # of letters? 2. Phonemic encod.:
Intermed. process.: emph. what word sounds like (naming or saying word). Ex. word rhyme w/ weight? 3. Semantic encod.: Deep process.:
emph. meaning of verbal input. Thinking about obj. & actions words represent. Ex. word fit in sentence: "He met _ on street"? Enrich. Encod.
Process: 3 Process.: Mem. improved / enhanc. by 3 process.: 1. Elab.. 2. Visual img. 3. Self referent coding. Elab.: Linking stim. to other info
at time of encod.. Ex. phobias caused by CC, you apply this to your fear of spiders. Additional associ. created by elab. help remem. info.
Semantic encod. enhanc. by elab.. Imgry. & Dual Cod. Theory (Paivio): Visu. imgry.: creation of visual imgs to rep. words to be remem. &
used to enrich encod.. Some words easier to create imgs than others. Easier to form imgs of concrete obj. than of abstract concepts. Ease of
img form. affects mem.. Ex. Juggler vs truth. Paivio (1986), imgry. facilit. mem. b/c provides 2nd mem. code, & 2 codes better than 1. Dual
cod. theo.: mem. enhanc. by form. semantic & visu. codes, either can = recall. Self Referent Encod.: Self ref. encod. involves decid. how or if
info is personally relevant. Enhanc. recall by promot. addit. elab. & better organiz. of info.. Info personally meaningful is more memorable.
Stor.: Maintain. Info.: Main contribut. of info process. theor.: subdivide mem. in 3 separate mem. stores. Names of stores & charact. vary
b/w theor.. Influent. of the info proce. theor.: Richard Atkinson & Shiffrin: incoming info pass through 2 temp. stor. buffers: sensory & short term
store before transfer to long term store. 3 mem. stores not anatom. structur. but function. distinct types of mem.. Info. Stores: 1. Sensory
mem.: Preserves info in origin. sens. form & hold large amount of info. long enough (fract. of sec.) for small portion select for longer stor.. 2.
Short term mem.: limited capacity & unless aided by rehearsal, stor. duration brief. 3. Long term mem.: store unlimited amount of info for
indeterminate periods. Sens. Mem.: Sensat. linger briefly after sens. stim. over. (Vision) perceive afterimg. instead of actual stim. (ex.
sparklers). Brief preserv. of sensat. (like sim. still there) = useful in react. & + time to recognize changing situations. (Visual) info: brief mem. =
iconic mem.. (Acoustic) info: brief mem. = echoic mem.. Short T. Mem. & Rehers.: Limited capacity store, maintain unrehears. info up to 20
sec.. Maintain info in short store indef. by rehears.: repet. verbal. or think about info. Cogn. psychs. distingu. b/w 2 types of rehears.: 1.
Maintenance: maintain. info in consciousn.. 2. Elab.: more elab. by focus on meaning of info (increa. probability of retain info). W/o rehears.,
info in short mem. lost in less than 20 sec.. Short Mem. & Chunk: Short mem. limited in # items it hold (4 + or - 1 if material unfamiliar).
Increa. capacity by combin. stim. into larger, higher order units = chunks. Chunk: group of familiar stim. stored as single unit. Experts chunk
info diff. & more effectively if info meaningful & familiar. Working Mem.: Short mem. involv. more than rehears.. Baddeley (1980's, 90's):
complex, modular. model of short mem. that charact. it as "work. mem.". Work. mem.: limit. capacity stor. syst., temporar. maintain & stor. info.
by provid. interface b/w percept., mem. & action. Short t. mem.: what have to work w/ in situat.. Work. Mem. Typ. (componen.): 1.
Phonolog. loop: when use recitation to temporar. remem. phone # (memoriz.). Baddeley: phono. loop evolved to facilitate acqu. of language.
2. Visuospatial sketchpad: temporar. hold & manipulate visual imgs, like when try to rearrange furniture or map out route when travel.. Interior
decor. room. 3. Central executive syst.: controls deploym. of attention, switch focus of atte. & divide it as needed (ex. divide atten. b/w text
trying to send in class & what prof. said about exam) & coordinate actions of other components. Atten. direct when multitask.. 4. Episod.
buffer: temporary, limit. capacity store, allows various components of work. mem. to integrate info, serves as interface b/w work. mem. & long
t. mem.. Work. Mem. Capacity: ability to hold & manipulate info. in conscious atten.. Stable personal trait greatly influen. by heredity.
Temporarily reduced by situat. factors (ex. pressure to perform). Variations in capacity correl. w/ intelligen., reading comprehen. & complex
reasoning. Long T. Mem. & Flashbulb Mem.: unlimited capacity store, hold info for lengthy periods of time (indefinitely or maybe even
permanent.). Flashbulb m.: unusually vivid & detailed recollections of momentous events. Striking ex.’s of seemingly permanent stor. (ex.
remem. where, what & how felt when Princess Diana died). Knowledge represent. & organiz. in mem. in # of ways, includ. organiz. structures,
schemas & semantic networks. Organiz. Info for Stor. & Clustering: spontaneously organize info in categories for stor. in mem.. May include
cluster.: remem. similar or related items in groups. Factual info is routinely organiz. into simple categ.: 1. Conceptual Hierarchy: (when
possib.), multilevel classificat. syst. based on common properties among items. Organiz. info. into concep. hierar. can improve recall
dramatically. 2. Schemas: organiz. clusters of knowledge about particular obj. or event abstracted from previous experience w/ subject or
event. People likely to remem. things that are consist. w/ schemas or violate schema based expectations. Ex. schemas for prof.’s office look
like, recalled desks & chairs, but not wine bottle. Falsely recalled office having books. Likely to remem. things consistent w/ schemas than
things that are not. 3. Semantic Netw.: nodes represent. concepts, joined by pathways that link related concepts. Length of pathway represent
degree of associ. b/w 2 concepts. Shorter pathw. imply stronger associ.. word associ.: when think of fire truck, more likely to think colour red
than green. spreading activation w/in semant. netw..: useful in explain. why think. word (butter) make closely related word (bread) easier to
remem..
Retriev.: Get Info Out: Understand. retriev. is key to understand. Mem.. Study = try to encode info so it is stor. in long t. mem., there when
need it. But, not get all Q’s right. Tulving distinguished b/w availab. & accessib., = not able to answer question b/c info is unavailab. (no
longer in mem. syst.) or b/c it not accessib. (still in mem. syst.). Cues may help to access info. Cues to Aid Retriev.: Phenom. & Retriev.
Cues: Tip of tongue phenom.: temporary inability to remem. someth. you know, accompanied by feeling it is just out of reach. Common
experience universal across cultures. Fail. to recall names. Occurrence increa. w/ age. Retriev. cues: stim. that help gain access to mem..
Partial recollections lead person in right direction (ex. know it starts w/ B).
Good retriev. cue = consistent w/ origin. encod. of info to be recalled. If sound of word (phonemic quality) emphasized during encod., then
effective cue should emphasize sound of word. If meaning emphasized during encod., semantic cues are best. Encod. specificity principle:
value of retriev. cue depends on how well it corresponds to the mem. Code. Context Cues: Return to place used to live & being flooded w/
memories (ex. walk in room & forget why, retrace steps & voila!). Value of reinstating context of event may = how hypnosis occasion. stim.
eyewitness recall in legal investigat. (research fail to demonstrate hypnosis reliably enhance retriev. & hypnosis increa. tendency to report
incorrect info). Reconstruct. Mem.: Misinfo Effect: when participants' recall of witnessed event is altered by introducing misleading post
event info. Reliable phenom., challenged prevailing views about validity of mem.. Act of retelling story can introduce inaccuracies in mem..
Source Monitor. & Resulting Errors: Misinfo effect: due to unreliability of source monitor.: process of making inferences about origins of
mem.. Mem. not tagged w/ labels specifying sources. When pull up specific memory records, have to make decisions at time of retriev. about
where mem. came from. Source monitor. error: memory derived from 1 source is misattribut. to another source ("remem." see someth. that
was only ever verbally suggested). Forget.: mem. lapses or declines w/ time. Caused by defects in encod., stor., retriev. or combo of these
processes. Forget. can be adaptive: If remem. everyth., cluttered mem.. Need to forget info that is no longer relevant (ex. old phone numbers).
Contribu. to regulat. emotions (want to forget embarrass. moments). Necessary component of mem. process., helps generalize from our
experiences (our brain may engage in controlled forget.: specific details from an event like bitten by dog are lost, enabling us to generalize
from specific incident to more general so can avoid being bitten in future). Forget.: Ebbinghaus: Studied himself. New material to memorize,
workw/ meaningless materials. Tested mem after various time intervals & created his forget. curve: (graphs retention & forget. over time).
Curve of forget. not so steep when memoriz. someth. meaningful. Conclud.: forget is rapid immediately (w/in few hours) after original learn. &
then levels off. Measur. of Forget.: Retention & Retention Intervals: Measur. of forget. inevitably measure retention as well. Retention:
proportion of material retained (remem.).In studies, results reported in amount forgotten or amount retained.
Retent. interval: length of time b/w presentation of materials to be remem. & measurem. of forget.. 3 principal methods to measure forget.
(measures of retention): 1. Recall: participants reproduce info on own w/o any cues (taking test of memoriz. list of 25 words, on paper, write
down as many words as you can). 2. Recognition: participants select previously learn. info from array of options (MC tests preferred over
short answer, yield higher scores than recall). 3. Relearn.: participant memorize info a 2nd time to see how much time or how many practice
trials are saved by having learned it before (measure how long or how many trials for participant to learn someth., then have participant relearn
it at later date. Measure how much more quickly material is memoriz. the 2nd time). Saving scores: measure of retention (took 20 mins to
memorize the 1st time & 5 mins to memorize it week later, so saved 15 mins). Measured in % (ex. 15/20 = ¾ or 75%, so retained 75% &
forgot. 25%. Why forget: Ineffective Encod.: (Pseudo & Phonem.) Ineffective en.: info may never have been inserted in mem. in first place,
also called pseudo forget.: can not forget someth. you never learn. (due to lack of atten.). Even when mem. codes formed, subseq. forget.
may be result of ineffective or inapprop. encod.. Some types of encod. = more forget. than others, phonem. encod.: can not remem. info just
read due to ineffect. encod.. Decay theory: forget. occurs b/c mem. traces fade w/ time. Occurs in physiological mechan. responsible for
mem.’s: mere passage of time produces forget.. Contribute to selective removal of some memories (decay weakens neurobio. substrate of
selected mem.’s & this process unfolds during sleep). Inferences (Retroact. & Proact.): Interference theory: forget info b/c of competition from
other material. Decrea. similarity b/w material reduces interference & = less forget.. Retroact. interfer.: new info impairs retention of previously
learn. info (learn. produces backwards effect). Proact. interfer.: previously learn. info interferes w/ retention of new info (learn. produces
forwards effect). Long T. Mem. Research: Passage of time not nearly as influent. as what happens during time. Forget. depends on: amount
of time passed, amount, complexity & type of info had to absorb during that period of time. Motivat. Forget. & Repress.: Tendency to forget
things one not want to think about (Freud: repression: keeping distressing thoughts & feelings buried in unconscious). People not remember
anxiety laden material as readily as emotionally neutral material (dental appt., help friend move & deadline). Repress. Mem. Controversy:
Recovered mem. of prev. forgot. sex abuse in childh.. Psych.’s (clinicians) accept recovered mem.’s, saying it is common to bury trauma.
incidents in unconsciousness. Researchers: skeptical of recovered mem.’s b/c have demonstrat. it easy to create inaccurate mem.’s… Mem.’s
recovered spontane. appear more likely to be authentic than those recovered in therapy. Authenticity of repressed mem.’s is challenged b/c it
is not hard to create false mem.’s & many recovered mem.’s actually product of suggestion. 7 Sins of Mem.: How Mem. Goes Wrong:
Schacter (2001) of Harvard, APA Award. Ways mem. fails into 7 sins. The 7 sins are by products of otherwise adaptive features of mem.. Each
of 7 sins has adaptive upside (ex. transience: forget things no longer relevant). Omission: not bring mem. to mind for some reason. 1.
Transience: weakening of mem. over time. 2. Absent mindedness: mem. fail. from lack of atten.. 3. Blocking: temporary prob., fail to
retrieve item like name when meet them: similar to tip of tongue phenom.. Commission: mem. prob. where some type of mem. is present but
either incorrect or unwanted. 4. Misattribution: assign mem. to wrong source (psych. or soci. prof delay exam?). 5. Suggestibility: mem.
distorded b/c misleading questions (misinfo. effect). 6. Bias: inaccuracy due to effect of current knowledge on reconstruct. of past. 7.
Persistence: unwanted mem. or recollections you can not forget: mem. that haunt you. Physiology of Mem.: 1. Neural Circuitry of Mem.: memory formation = alterations in synaptic transmiss. at specif. sites. Specif. mem. depend on biochem. changes at specif. synapses. Specific mem. depend on localiz. neural circuits in the brain (mem. create unique, reusable pathw. in the brain along which signals flow). Neurogenesis (formation of new neurons) contribu. to sculpt. of neural circuits that underlie mem.. - Long t. potentiation: long lasting increa.
in neural excitability at synapses along specif. neural pathw.. Supports idea that mem. traces consist of specif. neural circuits. 2. The
hippocampus: responsible for initial consolidat. of mem.. 3. Cases of organic amnesia: extensive mem. loss due to head injury: are another
source of clues about physiological bases of mem.. Neurogenesis: Formation of new neurons. May contribute to sculpt. of neural circuits that
underlie mem.. New brain cells formed constantly in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. Amnesia (Hyppocampal Region & Consolidat.):
Entire hippocampal region & adjacent areas in the cortex play a role in long t. mem.. The hippocampal region is 1 of 1st areas to sustain
significant damage in course of Alzheimer's disease. These areas crucial to consolidat. of mem.. Consolidat.: hypothetical process involv.
gradual conversion of new, unstable mem. to stable, durable mem. codes stor. in long t. mem.. Process unfold while people sleep. Amnesia
Research: Milner, Hebb & Penfield studied H.M. who had seizures. Scoville thought if remove part of H.M.'s brain where seizures origin., it
might stop them. The operation had beneficial effect on epilepsy, but not able to make new mem.. Types of Amnesia: 1. Retrograde: loss of
mem. for events prior to onset of amnesia. 2. Anterograde: loss of mem. for events after onset of amnesia (H.M.). Syst. & Types of Mem.
(Implicit & Explicit): Implicit mem.: retention exhibited on task not requiring intentional remem. (incidental or unintentional remem.. Ex. remem.
what outfit wore 2 weeks ago). Explicit mem.: intentional recollection of prev. experiences (conscious, accessed directly & best assessed w/
recall or recognition measures). Distinguished by 3 characteristics: 1. They differ in types of knowledge stored (perceptual / motor /
procedural skills in implicit mem. vs facts & events in explicit mem.). 2. The primary brain sites where mem. stor. differ (cerebellum for implicit
mem. vs hippocampus / temporal lobe for explicit mem.). 3. Diff. in recall strategies (unconscious & unintentional for implicit mem. vs
conscious & deliberate for explicit mem.). Implicit mem. for events continue to affect our behavior long after our explicit / conscious mem. for
events that created them has deteriorated. Implicit mem. largely unaffected by amnesia, age, drugs: ETOH, length of retention & manipulat. of
interference. Explicit mem. is affected for all of these factors. Diff. exist b/c implicit mem. & explicit mem. handled by independ. mem. syst.’s..
These independ. syst.’s. are referred to as declarat. & procedu. mem.. Declarative vs. Nondeclarative Mem.: People have separate mem.
syst. for diff. kinds of info. The most basic division of mem. syst. is declarat. & non declarat.. The 2 syst. operate somewhat diff.. Recall of facts
depends on conscious efforts whereas mem. for condit. reflex. largely auto. & requires little effort / atten.. Mem. for skills not generally decline
much. Declarati. mem. more vulnerab. to forget.. Declarat. mem.: factual info (words, definitions, names, dates, faces, events, concepts &
ideas). Non declarat. (procedural) mem.: houses mem. for actions, skills, operations & condit. responses. It contains procedural mem. of
how to execute actions (riding bike, typing & tying shoes).
Semant. vs Episod. Mem.: Declarat. mem. syst. is further subdivided into semant. & episod. mem. (autobiography vs encyclopedia) &
prospect. vs retrospect.. Episod. Mem. & Hyperthymestic Syndrome: Episod. mem. syst. made up of chronological, or temporally dated,
recollections of personal experiences. Record of what you have done, seen, heard (& when you did, heard or saw those things) & serves to
associ. stim. w/ personal context in which you were exposed to them. Memory disorder called hyperthymestic syndrome causes sufferers to
remem. almost everything that has ever happened to them (Price). Semant. Mem.: General knowledge not tied to time when info was learn..
You know dogs have 4 legs & Christmas in December but not remem. when learn. these facts. Q.’s.: 1. Not recall lobes of the brain b/c was
daydream. when it was discussed in anatomy class = Ineffective encod.. 2. Hate job at Tims & always forget. when supposed to work =
Motivated forget. (repress.). 3. Ray's new assistant is Henry Potter. Calls him "Harry" mixing him up w/ Harry Potter = Proact. Interfer.. 4.
Studied Psych. on Sunday & Soci. on Monday. Tuesday struggling w/ Psych. test b/c keep mixing up psych. w/ soci. = Retroact. Interfer..
1. ____ Memory for factual information.
2. ____ An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time.
3. _____ The preservation of information in its original sensory form for a brief time (a fraction of a second).
4. _____ Type of memory apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering.
5. _____ Chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal experiences.
6. _____ The repository of memories for actions, skills, operations, and conditioned responses.
7. _____ General knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned.
8. _____ Remembering to perform future actions.
9. ____ A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 seconds.
Lev. of process., theory, determ. if word fits in given sentence = deepest encod.. Baddeley's model, info transferred from sens. mem. to work.
mem. by atten.. Calc. how much tip to leave on bill. Mental calc. = work. mem.. Lean. Spanish as child & now try. to learn Italian at uni..
Sometimes accident. uses Spanish when speaking Italian = Proact. Interfer.. The suggestibility sin of mem. is reflected in misinfo. Effect. Long
lasting increa. in neural excitability at synapse of specif. neuron is long term potentiation. Neurogenesis occurs primarily in hippocampus. Part
of hippocampus removed during surgery & now has difficulty remem. experiences from one day to the next = anterograde amnesia. Mem. of
how to ride bike is ex. of implicit mem..
Chapter 12: Personality: Individual's unique constellation of consistent behav. traits. Study: describ. & understand. individual diff. used to
explain: 1. Consist.: stability in person's behav. over time & across situations. 2. Distinctiven.: behav.diff. among people react. to same
situation. Personality trait: Durable disposit. to behave in particular way in variety of situations. Adjectives: honest, depend., moody,
impulsive, anx., excitable & friendly = disposit. that rep. traits. Factor analys. (FA): Stats. procedure, correl. among many variab. analyzed to
ID closely related clusters of variab.’s. If measurem. of # of variab. (p. traits) correl. highly w/ 1 another, assumpt. is single factor is influenc. all
of them. Hidden factors: viewed as basic & high order traits: that determ. less basic, more specif. traits. Allow. reduct. of huge list of p. traits to
be reduced to 16 basic dimensions. Cattell used FA to reduce Allport's (1937) list of 1000's of traits to 16 basic dimensions (test = 16 PF). Big
5: Study of P. is oldest topic in psych.. In FA study, 5 traits emerge as higher order factors that can account for other traits: Extravers.: +
emotionally. Outgoing, sociable, assertive, friendly, + outlook on life. Neurotici.: - emotionally. Anx., worried, self pity, hostile, self conscious,
impulsive, emotional instability. Open. to experience: Curious, flexible, tolerant of ambiguity, indep. & variety. Agreeablen.: Sympath.,
trusting, empathy & helping behav.. Conscientiousn.: Constraint, diligent, organiz., punctual, careful, dependable. Self discipline & able to
regulate self effectively. Psychodynam. theor. (perspectives): All diverse theor.’s descended from Freud: unconscious mental forces. Freud:
physician, Vienna, end of 19th. Treated nervous probs. = irrational fears, obsess. & anx.. Psychoanaly. (Freud): Treatm. of mental disorders
using psychoanaly.. Psychoanalytic theo.: (grew from work w/ clients) explain P. by focus. on influen. of early childh. experiences, unconsci.
conflicts & sex. Urges. Freud's peers = uncomfort. w/ theory for 3 reasons: 1. Behav. govern. by unconsci. factors that are unaware of, Freud =
individuals not masters of own mind. 2. Adult P. shaped by childh. experiences & other factors beyond one's control, he = people not masters
of own destinies. 3. Importan. of how cope w/ sex urges, offended conservative, Victorian values. Structure of P.: Freud ÷'ed P. into 3
components: id, ego & superego. Saw behav. as outcome of interact. w/ 3 components. Id: primitive, instinct. component of P., operates
accord. to pleasure principle. Demands immediate gratification / satisfaction of urges. Raw bio. urges (eat, sleep & poop) that energize behav..
Primary process think.: primitive, illogical, irrational & fantasy oriented. Ego: decision making component of P., operates accord. to reality
principle: delay gratification of id urges until appropriate outlets & situations found. Mediates b/w id & external social world. Ego considers
social realities like etiquette, rules & customs to avoid neg. consequ. & attempt. to achieve long term goals. Secondary process think.: rational,
realistic, & orientated towards prob. solv.. Superego: moral component of P., incorporates social standards about what reps. right & wrong.
Emerges out of ego at ~ 3-5 yrs old. Levels of Awaren.: 1. Conscious: whatever 1 is aware of at particu. point in time (ex. as we read,
become aware that hungry).
2. Preconsci.: material beneath surface of awaren. that easily retrieved (ex. argument you had w/ friend, what had for supper).
3. Unconsci.: thought, mem. & desires well below surface of consci. awaren. but exert great influen. on behav. (ex. forgotten trauma,
repressed sex desires). Freud: recogn. of how unconsci. forces influen. behav.. Noticed that "slip of tongue" revealed true feelings. Dreams
express hidden desires & he helped uncover feelings & conflicts not aware of. These diff. levels of awaren. critical component of his theories
about structure of P.. Iceberg (Frued): unconsci. mind (below surface) larger than consci. or preconsci. mind. Ego & superego operate at all 3
levels of awaren., but id completely unconsci. (express urges at consci. level through ego). Conflict: Id's desires for immediate satisfaction
trigger internal conflict b/w ego & superego. Conflicts role in Freud's theo.: assumed behav. is outcome of internal conflicts. Freud: internal
conflicts routine part of lives. Due to complex. of aggress. & sex impulses & that often unclear or subject to individual interpretat., consequ.
surround. these behav. more extensive & frustrating (prolonged, troublesome) than basic conflicts. Internal conflict: trivial & quickly resolved.
Sometimes, conflict linger for days to yrs. Often played out in unconscious, but can slip to surface of consciousn., produce anx..
Anx. & Defense Mechan.: Anx. attributed to ego worrying about: 1. Id getting out of control & doing something terrible leading to severe neg.
consequ.. 1. Superego getting out of control & making feel guilty about real or imagined transgress.. Arousal of anx. crucial event in Freud's
theo. of P. function., but distressing to people, so try to rid themselves of unpleasant emotio. Effort to ward off anx. involves defense mechan..
Defence mechan.: unconsci. react. that protect person from unpleasant emotions like anx. & guilt. Mental maneuvers that work through self
deception. Repress.: keeping distressing thoughts & feelings buried in unconsci.. Soldier w/ PTSD: no recollection of near death. Projection:
attribute own thoughts, feelings or motives to another. Woman who dislikes boss thinks she likes boss but boss not like her. Displacement:
divert emotional feelings (anger) from original source to substitute target. After dad scolding, girl takes anger out on brother. Reaction form.:
behave in a way that is opposite of true feelings. Parent unconsci. resents child: spoils child w/ gifts. Regress.: reversion to immature patterns
of behav.. Adult has tantrum when not get his way. Rationaliz.: create false but plausible excuse to justify unacceptable behav.. Student
watches TV instead of studying, saying that more studying not work anyway. ID: bolster self esteem by form. imaginary or real alliance w/
someone / group. Insecure man joins fraternity to boost self esteem. Sublimation: when unconsci., unaccept. impulses channelled to socially
accept., even admirable behav.. Man's longing for intimacy channelled into creative work.
My girlfriend recently broke up with me after we had dated seriously for several years.At first, I cried a great deal and locked myself in my
room, where I pouted endlessly.(1)I was sure that my former girlfriend felt as miserable as I did. I told several friends thatshe was probably
lonely and depressed.(2) Later, I decided that I hated her. I washappy about the breakup and talked about how much I was going to enjoy
mynewfound freedom. (3) I went to parties and socialized a great deal and just forgot her.It's funny- at one point I couldn't even remember her
phone number! (4) Then Istarted pining for her again. But eventually I began to look at the situation moreobjectively. I realized that she had
many faults and that we were bound to break upsooner or later, so I was better off without her. (5)
1. Regression.
2. Projection.
3. Reaction formation.
4. Repression.
5. Rationalization.
Stages of Psychosex. Develop. (Freud): Sex. (phys. pleasure) urges shift in focus as child. progress from 1 stage of develop. to another.
Stage theory of develop. to explain how child. deal w/ immature but powerful urges. Psychosex. stages: developm. periods w/ characteristic
sex. focus that leave mark on adult P.. Freud (theory): each stage has own unique developm. challenges / tasks. The way these challenges
handled shapes P.. Fixation plays role in process. Fixation: fail. to move forward from 1 stage to another as expected (child's developm. stalls).
Stages: Oral (0-1yr): Erotic focus: Mouth (suck, bite), Key task / exp.: Weaning breast to bottle. Anal (1-3yrs): EF: Anus (expell or retain), T&E:
toilet train. Phallic (3-6yrs): EF: Genitals (masturb.), T&E: identif. w/ role model, cope w/ Oedipal crisis. Oedipal complex: child manifest erotic
desires for opposite sex parent, w/ feelings of hostility toward same sex parent. Freud: way parents & child deal w/ sex & aggressive conflicts
in Oedipal is important. Child has to resolve Oedipal dilemma by purging sex longings for oppo. sex parent & crush hostility toward same sex
parent. Healthy psychosex. develop. hinges on resolution of conflict. Freud theory: w/o ident., sex typ., conscience & other aspects of child's
develop. not progress. Latency (6-12yrs): EF: No (sex. repress.), T&E: expand social contracts. Genital (12+yrs, puberty+): EF: Genitals (sexu.
intimate), T&E: estab. intim. relat.ships. contribu. to society by working. Jung's Analytical Psych.: (Switzerland when write to Freud in 1906.
Exchanged 359 letters before friendship torn apart in 1913) Approach is analytical psych. to differentiate from Freud's theory. Jung emphas.
unconsci. determinants of P.. Proposed unconsci. has 2 layers: 1. Personal unconsci.: material not in awaren. (b/c repressed or forgot.). Same
as Freud's version of unconsci.. 2. Collective unconsci.: (shared w/ human race): storehouse of latent mem. traces inherited from ancestral
past. Ancestral mem. = archetypes: not mem. of actual, personal experiences. Emotionally charged imgs & thought forms have universal
meaning. Show up freq. in dreams & manifested in culture's use of symbols in art, books & religion. Archetype is unlearn. tendency to
experience things in certain way. Adler's Individ. Psych.: (Vienna) He specialized eye doctor & neuro. & psychiatry. Charter memb. of Freud's
inner circle, Psychoanaly. Society, but went on to develop own approach to P. called individual psych.. Source of human motivat. is striving for
superiority. Universal drive to adapt, improve self & master life's challenges, emphasiz. how social forces shape P. developm.. Children feel
weak & helpless, motivates them to acqu. new skills & develop new talents. Inferiority, Compensation, & Birth Order (Alder): Everyone work
to overcome feelings of superiority, (called) compensation: acts / efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by develop. abilities. Is
normal. Some, inferiority feelings excessive, = inferiority complex: exagger. feel. of weakness & inadequacy. Attributed P. disturbanc. to
excess. inferiority feel. that pervert normal process of striving for superiority & = overcompensat.. Some engage in overcomp. to conceal (even
from themselves) feel. of inferiority, work to acqu. status, power & "stuff" (fancy clothes, cars) to cover up underlying inferiority complex (look at
great stuff I have, must be important). Adler: 1st to focus atte. on possib. importance of birthorder (governing P.) (now meaningless). Evaluat.
Psychodyn. Perspectives: 1. Unconsci. forces influen. behav.. 2. Internal conflict plays role in generating psych. distress. 3. Early childh.
experiences have powerful influen. on adult P.. 4. People use defense mechan. to reduce unpleasant emotions. Psychodyn. theor. criticized,
including: 1. Poor testability: psychodyn. ideas too vague to test. 2. Inadequ. evidence: bias, psychodyn. theor. depend too heavily on clinical
case studies (clinicians see what want to). 3. Sexism: Freud: females' penis envy made them inferior to males. 4. Unrepresent. samples:
Freud's theor. based on narrow sample of upper class, neurotic, sex. repressed Viennese women., not represent. of western or other cultures.
Behav. Perspect. (Skinner): Behaviorism: theor. orientation based on premise that scientific psych. should study only observable behav..
Modern behaviorism's theorist: Skinner (1904-1990). His concepts of oper. condit. never meant to be theory of P., but ideas affected thinking in
all areas of psych.. P. Struct. & Dev.: No provisions for internal P. struct. similar to Freud's b/c structures not observed (little interest in what
goes on "inside" of people). He said: useless, irrelev. (& private) & focused on external environ.'s role in moulding behav.. Viewed P. as
collective of response tendencies ttied to specif. situations. P. dev. viewed as lifelong process, response tendencies shaped by reinf..
Behavioural view of P.: Hierarchy of response tendencies for person in specif. stim. Situation. Bandura's Social Cogn. Theory & Reciprocal
Determ.: Response tendencies acqu. through observ. learn. (respond. influen. by observ. of models). Social cogn. theo. emphas. how cogn.
factors shape P. & rejects Skinner's view that behav. governed solely by enviro. & freedom is an illusion. Bandura: internal mental events,
external environm. contingenc. (someth. that might happen) & openly shown behav. all influen. 1 another. People actively seek out & process
info about environ. to max. fav. outcomes. People shape environ. in reciprocal determ. (internal mental events, external environ. events & overt
behav. all influen. 1 another). People's characteristic patterns of behav. shaped by models that they exposed to (response tendencies are
product of imitation). Bandura: Self Efficacy: Beliefs about ability to perform behav. That should lead to expected outcomes. Self ef. high =
feel confident that can execute responses necessary to earn reinf.. Self ef. low = worry that necessary responses beyond abilities. Percept. of
self ef.: subjective & specific to certain tasks (ex. feel confident in ability to handle social situations, but doubtful about ability to handle
academic challenges). Mischel & Person Situat. Controversy: Mischel, psych., advocate of social learn. theo.. His brand of social learn.
theo. emphasiz. how people behave diff. in diff. situations. People make responses they think will = reinf. in situation at hand (ex. if believe
hard work = raises & promotions, likely be diligent & industrious. If think hard work likely unrewarded, might be lazy). Theory sparked debate
about relative importance of person vs. situation in determ. behav.. This debate: recognition that person & situation are important determinants
of behav.. To accurately predict how someone will behave, need to know about person's P. traits & nature of situat. context they facing. Neither
alone will let you accurately predict individuals behav.. Evaluat. Behav. Perspectives: Behav. theories frooted in extensive empirical research.
Behaviorists were criticized b/c neglected cogn. processes. Rise of social cogn. theory blunted this criticism. Social cogn. theory undermines
foundation which behaviorism was built: idea: psych.'s should study only observ. behav.. Critics complain that behav. theor. not behav.
Anymore. Humanistic theor. particularly vocal in criticizing behav. views.
Social Cogn. Theory: P. shaped by interacting social factors (learn. through observ.), cogn. factors (stem from cogn. interpretat. of observ.
social environm.) & behav.. Humanistic: (1950's) Someth. of backlash against behavioral & psychodyn. theories. Critics claimed both schools
of thought fail to recognize unique qualities of behav.. Humanism: theoret. orientation, emphasiz. unique qualities, esp. freedom & potential for
personal growth. Embrace phenomenological approach, assumes 1 has to appreciate individuals' personal, subjective experiences to
understand their behav.. Rogers: a founder of human potential movement. Rogers' Person Centred Theo. & Self Concept: Human potential
movement: self realization through sensitivity training, encounter groups, & exercises to foster personal growth. Focus on self concept:
collection of beliefs about one's nature, unique qualities & typical behav. (mental pic. of self). Only important structural construct. Self concept
not entirely consistent w/ experiences. # of biases affect how we perceive ourselves (unaware of) which leave us w/ inflated self view. Rogers
called gap b/w self concept & reality: incongruence. (Rodgers) Congruence & Incongruence: Incongru.: degree of disparity b/w self concept
& actual experience. Self concept not mesh w/ actual experience, less overlap w/ self concept & actual experience. Everyone experiences
some incongru.. Crucial issue is how much. Too much incongru. undermines one's psych. well being. Congru.w/ reality: if self concept
reasonably accurate. Sig. gap b/w self concept & experience is incongruent. Congru.: Self concept meshes well w/ actual experience (some
incongru. is prob. unavoidable), more overlap b/w self concept & actual experience. Rogers: experiences that threaten personal views of
themselves are principal cause of troublesome anx.. More inaccurate self concept, more likely to have experiences that clash w/ self
perceptions. People w/ highly incongru. self concepts are especially likely to suffer from recurrent anx.. Maslow Theory of Self Actualiz.
(Hierarchy of Needs): His childhood: "unhappy, lonely & isolated". Argued that psych. should have optimistic view of human nature instead of
dwelling on causes of disorders. Thought Freud supplied sickhalf of psych. so humanists fill it out w/ healthy half (balance). Key contribu.:
analysis of how motives organiz. hierarchically & description of healthy P.. He proposed human motives organiz. in hierarchy of needs. When
person satisfy level of needs well (complete satisfaction not necessary), satisfact. activates needs at next level. Basic needs met before less
basic aroused. Maslow: humans have innate drive for personal growth. Needs in upper hierarchy: "growth needs". Human beings have 5
needs seek to satisfy: Bottom to top: Physiolog., safety & security, belonging & love, esteem (achievem. & recognit.), cogn. (knowledge &
understand.), aesthetic (order & beauty) and self actualization (potential).
Self actualization: need to fulfill one's potential. Self Actualiz.: attempt. to ID people of exceptional (ideal) mental health so investigate
characteristics. Maslow: "Self actualizing have exceptionally healthy P., marked by continu. personal growth." Maslow ID characteristics of self
actualizing people. Self actualizing people accurately tuned in to reality & at peace w/ themselves. Accept selves & others, "creative spirit",
deep & meaningful relat.ships, autonomous, sense of humor (in own mistakes), accurately perceive reality sense of purpose & perform tasks
toward purpose, frequ. moments of profound happiness ("peak experiences"), empathy & compassion & appreciat. of good in life (childlike
wonder). Is challenging goal to reach. Humanistic Persp.: Optimistic, health oriented approach laid foundat. for emergence of + psych.
movement. Critics: 1. Aspects of humanistic difficult to put to scientific test. 2. Unrealistically optimistic in assumpt. about human nature &
descriptions of healthy P.. 3. Empirical research needed to solidify. 1. 13 yr old Sarah watches show, leading female manipulates bf by acting
helpless & purposely losing against him. Female lead repeat slogan, "never let them know you can take care of yourself". Sarah = passive &
less competitive around boys = Observ. learn.. 2. Prof. quit job & give up everything to write novel. Explains that she needs new challenge &
will not be happy until she tries = Self actualization. 3. Joey, 4 yrs old, emotion. distant from dad but loves snuggle w/ mom & tries to please
her = Oedipal. Bio. Perspect.: Eysenck: (Germany, fled to London: Nazi era, Britain's psych.'s). Views P. struct. as hierarchy of traits,
superficial traits from smaller # of more basic traits. P. determined by genetic inheritance. Theoriz. all aspects of P. emerge from 3 high order
traits: Extravers.: sociable, assertive, active & lively. Neurotici.: anx., tense, moody & low self esteem. Psychotici..: egocentric, impulsive, cold
& antisocial. Introvers. & extravers. shaped by inherited diff. in ease of condit. (borrowed from behav. theo.). People who condition easily acqu.
more condit. inhibitions than others. Inhibitions make them bashful, tentative & uneasy in social situat.. Social discomfort = turn inward,
become introvert..
Behav. Genetics: Ident. twins raised in diff. homes = more similar in P. then fraternal twins raised together. Suggests genetics shape P..
Heritability est. for P. ~ 50%. Research: shared family environ. has little impact on P.. High extraver. & low neurotic. associ. w/ higher fertility.
Theories: individuals learn to adjust (calibrate) extraver. to reflect attractiven. or strength. Bio. Perspect.: Research: bio. factors help shape
P.. Critics: too much emphasis on heritability est. & efforts to carve behav. into genetic & environ. components = artificial results (b/c nature &
nurture twisted together in complicated way, can not be cleanly separated). Genetic & environ. influences on P. are not entirely independent.
Narcissism: P. trait: inflated sense of importance, need for atten. & admiration, sense of entitlement & tend. to exploit others. Narcissi. is rising
& fuelled obsess. concern about being phys. attractive, = unhealthy diet., overuse of cosmetic surgery & steroids in body building. 2 types:
Grandiose: arrogance, extravers., immodesty & aggressiven.. Vulnerab.: hidden feelings of inferiority, introvers., neurotici. & need for recognit..
Culture & P.: Individualism & Collectivism: Basic trait structure of P. same across cultures b/c the big 5 traits emerge in cross culture
studies. Studies: percept. of national character: inaccurate stereotypes but people's behav. is influen. by cultural heritage. Individualism: put
personal goals ahead of group goals & defining identity by personal attributes rather than group memberships. Collectivism: putgroup goals
ahead of personal goals & defining identity by group 1 belongs to. Markus & Kitayama study cultural diff. in P.. American: independ. conception
of self. Asian: interdepend. view of self. Diff. self conceptions foster cultural disparities in tendency to engage in self enhancement. P.
Assessm.: Curious about ourselves & P. traits. P. tests helpful in: making clinical diagnoses of psych. disorders, vocational (career)
counselling, personnel selection in busin. & industry & measur. specifi. P. traits for research. 2 types of P. tests: 1. Self report inventories: P.
tests ask individuals to answer questions about characteristic behav. (PHQ-9 or GAD-7). 2. Projective tests: asks to respond to vague,
ambiguous stim. in ways that reveal participants' needs, feelings & P. traits (inkblot or TAT test (thematic apperception test: Tell story about
pic.. Stories examined by heroes, needs, themes & outcomes.). Rorschach test: Describe what see. Responses analyzed by content,
originality, feature of inkblot that determ. response & amount of inkblot used. 6 systems exist for scoring.
Agreeablen. (big 5) is neg. correlated w/ $ in men.
According to Freud, sublimation defense mechan. used by man who routinely gives outlandish gifts to people not like.
Defence mechan. is best supported by research.
High extravers.& low neurotici. = higher fertility.
Chapter 13: Social Psych.: Way individuals' thoughts, feelings & behav. influen. by others. How people affected by actual, imagined or implied
presence of others. Individual behav. studied in social context. Stereotyp., prejudice, racism & discrim. fall under umbrella of social psych..
Race, ethnicity, religion & sex orientat. are most common causes of reported hate crimes. Hate crimes against Indigenous = younger than
those of other groups targeted (Residential schools). Person percept.: Form. impressions of others. Percept. & impressions of others affected
by factors like phys. appearance (face = rich source b/c people draw inferenc. about P., social dominance & sex orientat.. These "gut react."
are fast, auto. & are spontaneou. in interact..). Judgem. of others distorted by phys. appearance, ascribe desirable P. characterist. &
competence to people good looking. Cogn. Schemas: Schema: people categorize or organize 1 another into "boxes", help to process info.
Social schem.: organiz.clusters of ideas about categories of social events & people. People have schemas for meetings & dates & certain
categ. of people ("dumb jocks" & "work a holics"). Categor. influen. person percept.. Self schem.: integrated set of mem., beliefs & generaliz.
about behav. in given domain (ex. self schema as athletic = diff. in how process & remem. info. about self in sports. Process info efficiently &
easy judgm. about self, how well did & resist. to idea counter (what think true). Affect how process info about athletes. No self schema =
aschematic. Stereotyp.: Some schemas of others: unique products of personal experi., others part of shared cultural backg.. (stereotypes
special type of schema). Stereotyp.: widely held beliefs, others will have certain character. b/c of membership in particular group: Gender
(women: emotional & men: aggressive). Age (elderly: slow, feeble & forget.). Ethnic (Germans: methodical & Italians: passion.). Occupational
(lawyers: manipulat. & accountants: boring). Stereotyping: cogn. process frequ. auto & saves time & effort required to get handle on
individuals. Save energy by simplify social world, but at cost in accuracy. Subjectiv. & Bias: Stereotyp. & schem. = bias in person percept..
People see what want & overest. how often they see it. Illusion. correl.: when people est. that they encounter. more confirmat. of associ. b/w
social traits than actually seen. Underest. # of disconfirmat. seen ("never met honest lawyer"). Mem. processes contribu. to confirm. bias in
person percept. in many ways. Selectively recall facts that fit w/ schem. & stereotyp.. Evolut. Perspect. on Bias: Evoluti. Psych.: ascribe bias
in person percept. to cogn. mechan. that shaped by natural select.: Some bias in social percept. adaptive in ancestral environ. (attractive =
reproduct. in women & material resources in men). Categoriz. into ingroups & outgroups b/c ancestors' need separate friend from foe.
Program. by evolut. to classify people as members of: Ingroup: group you belong to & ID w/ (seen in positive light). Outgroup: group you not
belong to or ID w/ (stereotyp.: "they inferior, all alike & exploit us", move outgroups out of domain of empathy, so feel justified in not liking them
or discrim. against them). Attribut.: Inferences about causes of events, others' behav. & own behav.. Make attribut. b/c of need to underst.
their experi.. Want to make sense of own behav., others' actions & events. Heider (1958): describe how people make attribut.. People locate
cause of behav. w/in person, attribute to personal factors or outside person, attribute to environ. factors. Internal attrib.: causes of behav. to
personal disposit., traits, abilities & feelings. External attrib.: causes of behav. to situat. demands & environ. constraints. Weiner's attribu.:
assumes people's explanat. for success & fail. emphasize internal vs external causes & stable vs unstable causes. Focus: stability of causes
underly. behav.. Stable unstable dimension in attribu. cuts across internal external dimension, = 4 types of attribu. for success & fail.: I + U:
effort, mood & fatique. I + S: ability & intellige.. E + U: luck & opportunity. E + S: task difficulty. Bias in Attribu.: Fund. Attribu. Error: Common
form of bias in observers is fundam. attribu. error: observer's bias in favor of internal attribu. in explain. others' behav.. Observers: curious tend.
to overest. likelih. that actor's behav. reflects personal qualities instea. of situat. factors. Situat. pressur. not apparent to observer: unaware of
historic. or situat. considerat. like history of poor service at store. Attribu. others' behav. to disposit. is effortless, auto process, but explain.
behav. by situat. factors = more thought & effort. People: few situat. coercive that negate all choice. Actor Observ. Bias: actors favor extern.
attribu. for behav., but observ. likely to explain same behav. w/ intern. attribu.. Fail, AO biases obvious. Success, AO diff. reversed: actors
prefer intern. attribu.: credit for triumphs: grows stronger, more credit for success & less blame for fail.. Self Serv. Bias: attribute success to
personal & fail to situat. factors. Bolster self esteem & subjective well being. Common, widespread & powerful effects on explanat. for success
& fail.. Prevalent in individualism (vs. collectivism). Defensive attribu.: blame victims for misfortunes, so that you feels less likely to be
victimized in similar way. Helps explain calamities & setbacks befall others. Blaming victim helps people maintain belief in world, where they
unlikely to suffer similar fate. a. Won b/c best athletes on other team injured = External Unstable. b. Won b/c have best talent = Internal Stable.
c. Anybody win, competition below average = External Stable. d. Won b/c put in lots of last min. effort & practice & were all fired up = Internal
Unstable. Culture & Attribu.: Cultural diff. in individualism vs. collectivism influen. attribu. tendencies & aspects of social behav.. Collectivist
promote diff. attribu. biases than individualistic cultures. Collectivist not immune to fundam. attribu. error, less susceptible to it than
individualistic societies. Individualism: personal goals ahead of group goals & define identity by personal attribu. Instead of group
memberships. Collectivism: group goals ahead of personal goals & define identity by groups belongs to (family, tribe, work & social class).
Collectivist: higher priority on shared values & resources, cooperation, mutual interdepend. & concern for how actions affect group members.
(Asia, Africa & Latin Amer.). Socioecon. develop.: increa. individualism (North America & West Europe). Patterns of Attribu.: Collectivist
cultures: promote diff. attribu. bias than individualistic. Collectivist societies not immune to fundam. attribu. error, appear less susceptible than
individualistic. Self serv. bias: prevalent in west. societies, emphasis on competit. & high self esteem motivat. people to impress. Seen in
collectivist cultures, but not as frequently. 1. Not consider candidate 30 min late forinterview. Not care about flood, anyone not show up on time
is telling us who they are as person = Fundam. attribu. error (assum. arriving late reflects personal qualities). 2. Not invite Brad, nice but
salesman & not trust him. All cocky = Stereotyp.. Interpersonal Attraction: + feelings toward another. Psych. use term broadly, variety of
experi. (ex. liking, friendship, admiration, lust & love). Factors in Attraction: 1. Phys. attract.: Match. hypothesis: males & females of ~ equal
phys. attract. likely select each other (partners). Pursue high attract. partners b/c of social forces beyond control (reject. by more attract.). Mate
poach.: others lure attract. partner away. Mate Choice Copy: less attract. than partner, others copy: sex preferences influen. by choices others
make. If someone chosen person, must be good reason. 2. Similar. Effect: Attitude alignm.: attract. foster similarity b/c people who close
modify attitudes to make them more congruent. 3. Reciprocity Effects: liking those who like us (+ feedback, help them feel good about
themselves). Perspect. on Mystery of Love: Hatfield & Berscheid: pioneers in research on love. Romantic relat.ships characteriz. by 2 kinds
of love (can co exist but not always go hand in hand): 1. Passionate: powerful, complete absorp. in another, tender sex feelings & agony &
ecstasy of intense emotion (natural addict.). 2. Compassionate: warm, trust., tolerant affection for another whose life deeply intertwined w/ own
(strongly related to relat.ship satisfact.). Sternberg: subdivid. compassionate love into:1. Intimacy: warm., closeness & share. in relat.ship.. 2.
Commitment: maintain relat.ship in spite of difficulties & costs. Love understood in 3 components: passion, intimacy & commitment, form
triangular theory of love. Combos = other forms of love. Intimacy & passion = romantic love: type we read in fairy tales. Passion & commitment
= fatuous love: meet & marry quickly. Intimacy & commitment = companionate love: made commitment & like each other (long t. relat.ships
evolve to companionate love: happy togeth., but no longer same intensity of passion. Passion, commitment & intimacy at same time:
consummate love.
Love As Attachm. : Hazan & Shaver (1987), romantic love: attachm. process & people's intimate relat.ships (adult) follow same form as in
infancy (relive bonding experi.). Love relat.ships: 3 patterns of attachm. (carry model w/ them from 1 relat.ship to next): 1. Secure adults: easy
to get close / trust. 2. Anx. ambival. adults: preoccupied w/ love, expectat. of rejection. Relations: volatile & marked by jealousy. 3. Avoidant:
difficult to get close to others. Love relations lack intimacy & trust. Culture & Close Relat.ships.: Cultures vary in how understand &
conceptualize love & relat.ships.. Some variability attribu. to diff. in societ. & psych. diff. in individualism & collectivism. Cultures vary in
emphasis on love, esp. passionate, as prereq. for marriage. Passionate: individualistic Western cultures. “Follow their heart". Arranged
marriag. in collectivism (India, Japan & China). Internet & Relat.ships.: Internet relat.ships superficial & speed dating = short t. mating.
Power of similarity: eHarmony: match based on compatibility, now other sites use this. Attitud.: + or - evaluat. of obj. of thought. Include up to
3 compon.: 1. Cogn.: beliefs / ideas people hold about obj. of attitude. 2. Affective: emotions / feelings stimulat. by obj. of thought. 3. Behav.:
predisposit. to act in certain way to attitude obj.. Vary in dimensions: 1. Strength: strong attitud. held firmly (resist. change), durable over time &
powerful impact on behav.. 2. Accessib.: how often think about it & quickly it comes to mind. High accessib. attitud. quickly & readily availab..
3. Ambivalence: ambiv. attitud.: conflicted evaluat. include + & - feel. about obj. of thought. When high, attitude = more likely to change in face
of persuasion. Attitude & Behav.: Attitud: mediocre predict. of behav.: attitud. not strongly held & weak predict. of behav.. Behav. depends on
situat. context (ex. opposed to weed legaliz., but not say when friends pass joint at a party, not want argum.). Explicit attitud.: hold consciously
& readily describe. Implicit attitud.: covert (hidden), expressed in subtle auto responses: have little consci. control (learn. behav. seeped into
subconsci.). Influence behav.: measur. using Implicit Associ. test (IAT). Try. Change Attitud.: Not easy to change other’s attitud.. Bombard. by
efforts to alter your attitud.. Persuasion: examine factors that affect persuasion. 4 elements: Source: person who sends communication.
Factors: Persuasion success. when source high credibility (expertise or trustworthin.). Likeability & similarity b/w sources increa. effectiven. of
persuasion. Ideal spokesperson (celebrities & athletes). Receiver: person message is sent to. Factors: Forewarn. receiver, persuasive effort, &
receiver's initial position on issue, more influent. than receiver's P..Strong attitud. harder (resist.) to change. Resist. promot. resist.: success. in
resist persuasive efforts to change attitud. = more certain about attitud.. Message: info transmit. by source. Factors: 2 sided arguments more
effective than 1 sided presentat. (increa. credibility). Mention. issue has 2 sides increa. Credibility. Fear appeals effective (if message success.
in arousing fear): how behav. matters. Repetit. effective: exposure effect: repeat. exposur. to stim. = greater liking of stim.. Channel: medium
the message is sent, communicat. (channel) play role, w/ in person argument more influent.). 1. Convince that program is sound. No
acknowledge 2 weaknesses = Target: cognitive component. Persuas.: message factor. 2. Can have the best ideas, but if not likeable, not
elected = Target: affective component. Persuas.: source factor. 3. Not have to alter their opinions. Convince them to give to campaign = Target:
Behavioural component. Persuas.: receiver factor. Theor. of Attitude Form. & Change: 4 theoret. perspect.: Learn. Theo.: affective
(emotion.) component of attitude created by CC. OC when openly express an attitude. Some people endorse view, others disagree.
Agreement = reinf., disagreement = punishm. (weaken your viewpoint). Attitud. strengthen. by reinf. or acqu. by observ. learn.. Dissonance
Theo.: Festinger, inconsist. b/w attitud. motivat. attitude change. Explains why people believe own lies. Cogn. dissonan.: cogn. inconsist.,
contradict. Create unpleasant tension, motivat. people to reduce dissonance by alter. Cogn.. Self Percept. Theo.: infer their attitud. from their
behav. (behav. determ. attitud.). Festinger: paid 1$, not enough to lie, must been enjoyable. Elab. Likelih. Model: 2 basic "routes" to
persuasion. Both routes = effective persuasion, central = more durable attitude change. Central: taken when people carefully ponder content &
logic of persuasive message (speeches: thoughtfully analyze complex issues). Peripheral: depends on non message factors (emotion.
responses or attractiven. or credibility of source). Yield. to Others: 1. Conformity. 2. Obedience. 3. Normative Influen.. 4. Informative Influen..
Conform.: People yield to real or imagined social pressure (ex. well groomed lawn to avoid complaints or liking type of music only b/c is "cool"
& question taste if not). Asch: people strong tend. to conform. Conform. more likely as group size increa.. Presence of another dissenter in
group reduces conform. observ.. Higher conform. in collectivist cultures. Why Conform: Info influen. about being right, normative influen.
about being liked. Normative influen.: when conform to social norms for fear of neg. social consequ. (conform b/c afraid of being criticized or
rejected). Info influen.: look to others for guidance about how to behave in ambiguous situat.. Obedience: Form of compliance, follow direct
commands, from someone of authority. Milgram (w/ Asch): study tendency to obey authority. Designed lab procedure, famous & controvers.
studies (psych.) (dangerous, dehuman. & unethical). Degree which participants obey directives to do behav. = harm another (view self as carry
out another's wishes = no longer regard self as responsible for actions. Cultural Vari. in Conform. & Obedience: C. & o. transcend culture.
Higher levels of conform. in collectivist cultures. Stanford Prison (Zimbardo, 1971): why prisons abusive, degrading & violent (power of situat.).
(Coin toss). Demonstrat. social roles & situat. pressures tremendous influen. over social behav. (bad situat. make good people do evil; w/o
accountab., people do evil if given power -> power corrupts). Behav. in Groups: Group: 2 or + individuals interact & are interdepend.. By
stander effect: people less likely to provide help when in groups (larger group, less help). Safety in #’s is not necess. true. Diffusion of
responsib.: group size increa., responsib. for get. job done divided among more people & group members ease up b/c individual contribut. less
recogniz.. Productivity declines in larger groups: Reduced efficiency from loss of coordinat.. Social loafing: reduction in effort by individuals
when work in groups compared to when work by self. When individuals "hide in crowd" (less when personal contribu. to productivity ID).
Decision Mak. in Groups: Decisions made about what to do & how to use resources. Display or accentuate bias. Eval. decis. mak. more
complicat. than eval. productivity. Group polariz.: discussion strengthens dominant point of view & = shift to extreme decision in that direction.
Arrived at riskier decisions than individuals (risky shift). Shift either way, to risk or caution, depend. on which way group is lean.. - Groupthink:
memb. of cohesive group emphasize concurrence at expense of critical think. in arriving at decision (everyone think alike; members fail to
share info unique to them). High group cohesiven. (causes groupthink): strength of liking relat.ships link members to each other & group (close
knit, committed, team spirit & loyal). Not effective decision mak.. Incomplete gather. of info. Confirmation bias as seek & focus on info that
supports initial views. Discuss issues, focus on info memb. already shared. Worse when group works in isolation, power struct. dominat. by
strong, direct. leader & group under stress to make major decision. 1. Impressions of others, people not judge book by cover = False. 2.
Attract., birds of feather flock together = True. 3. In love, opposites attract = False. 4. If target of persuasion, forewarned is forearmed = True.
Social Neurosci.: Social psych. that "integrates neurosci. & social psych. to study mechan. of social behav." (Amodio, 2008). Examines
human behav. in social context, not isolated. PET, fMRI, event relat. potent. (ERPs), lesions & transcranialmagnetic stimu. (TMS) to examine
mental mechan. that create, frame, regulate & respond to experi. of social world. Ostracism related to inhibition of central stress pathw.
controlling release of cortisol. Social exclusion = brain activity changes (on EEG). Researched topics = neurosci. of ethnic relations (prejudice
& stereotyp.). Stereotyp., Ethnocent. & Prejudice: Stereotyp.: widely held beliefs: people have certain characterist. b/c membership in
particu. group. Neg. racial stereotyp. diminished but still fuel auto & subtle racism. Stereotyp. persist b/c people see what expect to see. Neg.
attitud. about groups acqu. by observ. learn. & strengthened by OC. Ethnocent.: view own group as superior to others & standard for judging
worth of foreign ways. Competit. b/w groups for resources fuels animosity & prejudice. Percept. of competit. breed prejudice. 3 componen. of
prejud. as attitude: 1. Cogn.: beliefs & ideas. 2. Affective: emotions & feelings. 3. Behav.: predisposit. to act. Relat.ship B/w Prejud. &
Discrim.: Related, not interchangeable. Prejud.: neg. attitude toward memb. of group. Major social problem. Women, elderly, LGBTQ,
disabilities, homeless & mental illness: targets of widespread prejud.. Prejud. subtle & manifest. in inconspicuous microaggress.. Implicit
prejud.: neg. associ. to outgroup that activated auto, w/o control or intention. If racism hidden, more difficult to change. Attribut. bias, like
assume others' behav. reflects disposition, contribu. to prejud., may lead to discrim.. Discrim.: behav. diff., usually unfairly, to memb. of group.
Outgroup derogation & ingroup fav. contrib.. Social identity bases of discrim. & how discrim. perceived have implicat. for disadvantaged to take
affirmative action. Recogniz. Social Influen. Strategies: Used to manipulate behav.. Foot in door techniq.: get people to agree to small
request, increa. chances agree to larger request later (groups seek. $). Reciprocity norm: pay back in kind what we receive from others (give
minimal value in hopes of get more in return). Door in face effect: presented w/ large request, turn it down, but comply w/ moderate request.
Low ball techniq.: get someone to commit to attract. proposit. before hidden $ revealed (summer cottage but it needs work). Feigned Scarcity
phenom.: telling someone they not have something makes want it more, "limited supply".Attractiven. in political candidate is most likely to
influen. if are assessed as good leader.
Liam recently applied for job & was rejected b/c he not put enough effort into resume. Internal unstable attribution.
External attribu. require more effort is why fundam. attribu. error is made frequ..
Wendy = abusive when waitress gave wrong order. Wendy blames fact she hungry at time, while others believe Wendy's difficult P. caused
prob.. Wendy exhibit. actor observ. bias.
Person more attract. than mate = vulnerable to mate poaching.
Tyler & Meghan recently met, but have intense love, fly to Vegas & marry = Fatuous love.
Mayor wants residents to comply w/ wear masks b/c COVID-19. Use fear to increa. compliance.
Higher ratings when wait longer for food = Effort justificat..
Message that requires process. of info. types of messages = elab. likelih. model suggest = most durable attitudinal change.
Chapter 1: Humanists: View schools as de humaniz. & mechan.. Became new school. Maslow & Rodgers. Unique qualities of humans:
freedom & personal growth, optimistic. Humanism's optimistic view: People not let things happen to them (not passive recipients) at mercy
of circumstance. Sense of self & basic needs, evolve over life. Highly motivat. & growth orientat.. Psych. distirb. result of needs not met. +
Psyc.: (Seligman) Psych. is unnecessar. neg.. + emotions & traits. Designed to promo. well being. Theo. & research to underst. +, adapt. &
fulfilling aspects of human existence. 3 focuses: 1. + subject. experi.. 2. + individual traits. 3. + institut. & community. Themes of Psych. (as
field of study): Psych. is: 1. Empirical (knowledge by observ., sci. & research). 2. Theoret. diverse (schools of thought & theory). 3. Evolves in
sociohist. context (ex. clinical prominent in WW2). Themes of Psych. Subject Matter: Behav. is: 1. Determ. by multiple causes. 2. Shaped by
cultural heritage. 3. Influen. by heredity & environm.. Structuralism: Early school of psych.. Structure. (Titchener) Believed psych. should be
about analyz. consciousn. into basic elements, 5 senses. Used introspect.: careful, systematic observ. of own consci. experi., sensation.
Behaviorism: (Watson) Psych. should abandon study of consciousn. & focus on observ. behav.. Watson argued study of mental process.,
claim. they could not be studied scientific.. Freud controver. & influen.: Behav. influen. by unconsci. conflict, sex conflict. Lack of free will &
sexuality, people offended by views. Ideas gradu. accepted, sig. Influen.. Bio. Basis of Behav.: (Olds, 1956 & Sperry, 1981) Behav. neurosci.
perspect.: behav. explain. in the brain's structures & processes. Olds: Electric. stimulat. of brain evokes emotion. responses (animals). Sperry:
Left & right brain specializ.. Psych. Today: Sci. that studies behav. & physiological & cogn. processes that underlie it. Applies accumulated
knowledge to practical probs.. Psych.’s work in many settings. Psychiatry (medicine): diagnosis & treatment (medical approach). 7th Theme of
Psych.: People's experience of world is highly subjective, ee what they want. Critical think.: Use of cogn. skills & strateg. that increa.
probability of desired outcome. Multiple solutions to probs.. Psyche = soul. Logos = study. Pre 1879: Psych. not exist as interdepend. field of
study. Phys. & Pilos. study. questions about mind. Early 18th Century: Term psych. became literal meaning: study of mind. Wundt:
(1832-1920) Advocated to make psych. independ. discipline. Estab. 1st lab. for psych. "psych.'s birth". Functionalism: (James) Investigat.
function or purpose of conciousn. rather than structure. Adapt. to world. Led to mental testing, development. patterns & sex diff.. 1st women in
psych.. School of psych., focus on how mental & behav. processes function: how enable us to adapt, survive & flourish. Verifiab. & Objectiv.:
(Watson), power of sci. method rested on idea of verifiability. Verify or disprove claim depends on objective observ. or things can see. Objectiv.
requires sci. method. Not mental process.. Psych. = sci.. Subject = sci. of behav.. Watson Nature Nurture: Nurture, not nature. Strong
environ. influenc.. Behaviourism focus on Stim. Response (S-R) relat.ships.. Freud & Unconsci.: Physician, influent. & controvers..
Developed psychoanaly. for mental disorders. Influen. of unconsciousn. (thoughts, mem., desires & sex urges). Skinner Behaviourism:
Enviorn. factors determine behav. (nurture). Responses w/ + outcomes repeated, - ones not. Focus on observable. Beyond Freedom & Dignity
book = free will is illusion. External stim.. (Milner): Contribut. to understand. memory. Founder of neuropsych. & cogn. Neurosci.. (Ainsworth):
Attachment theory & dev. psych.. Child attachment to caregiver. (Wright): Edu. philosophy & dev. training (lab preschool) child psych..
(Kimura): Contribut. to study of brain, neuromotor mechan. in communication & sex diff. in cogn.. Clinical Psych.: Diagnosis & treatment of
psych. After WW2, academics became clinicians to treat people suffering from trauma. Cogn. & Neurosci.: Cogn.: mental process involved in
acqu. knowledge (internal mental events). Unobservable processes discouraged by behaviourism. 50's and 60's : Piaget, Chomsky & Simon:
Used sci. to study internal mental events like language, prob. solv. & child cogn.. Culture & Diversity (ethnocentrism): Ethnocentrism:
viewing own group as superior & standard for judging. Historically: middle & high class white men study their own group. Little atten. given to
other groups. 1980's: interest in how culture influenc. behav.(ex. women's rights movem.). Advances in communication & increa. cultural
diversity. Evolut. Psych.: Evolut., behav. process in adaptive value for memb. of species over generations. Patterns of behav. in species are
products of evolut., same way anatomical characteristics are. Natural select. fav. behav. that enhance reproductive success & fitness (ex. if
aggression works, then gene passed down). Research Areas in Psych.: Developm., social, experimental, cogn., P., edu., health, behav.
nurosci. & psychometrics (measurem. using tests). Specialties in Psych.: Clinical, edu./ school, counselling (family, marital or career) &
industry / organizat. (business & HR).
Early topics of interest to Functionalists: mental testing & effectiveness of various edu. practices.
Skinner argued behav. governed by rewards & punishm..
Advent of computer spurred research in cogn. psych..
Cogn. perspect. dominated psych. literature since mid 1970's.