PSYCHOANALYTIC FOUNDATION
THEORY:PSYCHOANALYTICAL /SIGMUND
GOAL
Goal of Psychoanalysis
 Emphasis on the resolution of client’s
problem so as to enhance client’s
personal adjustment, their working
through unresolved developmental
stages and their ability to cope more
effectively with the demands of the
society within which they live
 Focus mainly on personal adjustment,
usually inducing a reorganization of
internal forces within a person
 Help the client become more aware of
the unconscious aspect of his/her
personality.
 Help the client work through a
development stage not previously
resolved.
 Helping client cope with the demands of
the society which they live.
 Knowing oneself
 Bring the unconscious to conscious
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY – emphasize
the interactions of unconscious process
where conflicts arise between the need for
tension reduction and inhibition of basic
instinctual drives.
THE APPROACH IS:
APPROPRIATE FOR:
 Adolescents
 Young children
NOT APPROPRIATE FOR:
 Client with no time to participate
 Client with suicidal impulses
 Anti-social person
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Therapy usually takes about years.
FREUD
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VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
As a complex energy system with
psychic energy or libido.
Individuals are controlled by their
biological drives and instincts.
LIFE INSTINCTS – which are
necessary for organism to survive such
as hunger, thirst and sex.
DEATH INSTINCTS – aggression and
destruction.
Human nature is dynamic
2 fundamental hypotheses
1. PSYCHIC DETERMINISM –
causality nothing happens by
chance or in a random way, all
mental phenomena have a causal
connection to the psychic events
that precede them.
2. UNCONCIOUS METAL PROCESS
– portion of the mind works within
a framework of timelessness,
speechlessness and coexistence
of the opposites.
Classification of Illness
1. NEUROSES – caused by the ego’s
failure to control id impulses in
which ego works out a compromise
Classification:
a. Hysterias
b. Psychastenias
c. Anxiety Reaction
2. PSYCHOSES
Classification
a. Functional – no known
disease
a.1 manic depression
a.2. paranoia
a.3 schizophrenia
b. Organic – originating from
damage or disease
b.1 involutional melancholia
b.2 senile and alcoholic
psychoses
b.3 general paresis
KEY CONCEPTS
Emphasis on the unconscious
3 systems of personality
1. ID – source of psychic energy
2. EGO – complex psychological
organization
3. SUPEREGO – judicial branch of
personality.
 ANXIETY – is a state of tension that
can motivate the individual to action.
ANXIETY EXIST IN 3 FORMS
1. REALITY/OBJECTIVE ANXIETY –
caused by real dangers in the
external world.
2. NEUROTIC ANXIETY – results
from the fear that instincts will get
out of control that causes the
individual to do something for
which he will be punished.
3. MORAL ANXIETY – is a fear of
conscience.
 DEFENSE MECHANISM – is essential
for helping us to cope with failure and to
maintain a positive self-image.
4 PRINCIPLE DEFENSE MECHANISM
1. Repression
2. Projection
3. Reaction Formation
4. Fixation and Aggression
 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVT
1. Oral stage – birth to 1 year
2. Anal stage – 1 to 3 years
3. Phallic – 3 to 6 years
4. Latency – 6 to 12 years
5. Genital – 12 to 18 years
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COUNSELING PROCESS
Counselor explains general procedures,
aims and purposes of therapy.
 Counselor assumes a neutral position
with patient so that the patient will
develop a transference relationship.
 Counselor share very little about
themselves.
 Session is characterized by the patients
deeply reflecting on the past
experiences while lying on a couch, with
the therapist primarily remaining silent,
except when making appropriate
interpretations.
 Counselor employs both active and
passive techniques.
 Counselor separates fantasy from
reality and helps the client gain insight
into how he misperceived or
misinterpreted the present in terms of
the past.
 Counselor works with the unconscious,
instincts, identifications, displacements,
defense mechanisms, transference,
free association and the Freudian
symbols.
 Emotional attachment is necessary
 Development and analysis of the
transference relationship.
 Counselor assumes an anonymous
stance “blank-screen approach”
 Counselor uses confrontation and
clarification.
MODERN INNOVATIONS DEVELOPED BY
PSYCHOANALYTIC RELATIONSHIP
 Maturation interventions
 Written facilitation of free association
 Reflection of the unconscious
negativistic portion of the clients ego
 Supportive interventions
 Massed-time therapy
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TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
INTERPRETATION – explaining to the
patient the meanings associated with
the uncovered unconscious material.
DREAMS (Dream Analysis) – used to
gain access to the unconscious.
TRANSFERENCE (Transference
Relationship) – allows client to work out
conflicts that are retarding their
emotional and psychological growth.
FREE ASSOCIATION – clients are
asked to spontaneously share whatever
thoughts, words, expressions, or
feelings to mind, without censorship.
USE OF PARAPHRASES AND WIT –
usage of “slips of the tongue” and wit
and humor as individuals ways of
releasing pent-up energy attached to
repressed wishes.
ANALYSIS OF TRANSFERENCE –
consists of repetition, elaboration and
amplification.
ANALYSIS OF RESISTANCE – why
client misses appointments, being late
for appointments, not paying fees,
persisting in transference, blocking
thoughts during free association or
refusing to recall dreams or early
memories.
PROJECTIVE TESTS – are usually
used as psychological assessment
instrument such as the Rorschach Ink
blots.
DIAGNOSTIC LABELS – used to
classify client from which they develop
treatment plans.
HYPNOSIS
PLAY THERAPY – can be used
successfully with children using the rule
of free association.
CATHARSIS – a release and freeing of
emotion through talking about one’s
problems.
PSYCHOANALYTIC FOUNDATION / NEO-FREUDIAN
THEORY:ADLERIAN COUNSELING / AFLRED ADLER
GOAL
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
 Focuses on human wellness, individual  Humans were motivated by social,
growth and expansion and social
interpersonal factors.
interest
 Saw people as having control over their
 It is aimed at helping the client lead to a
lives with each individual developing
socially useful life by encouraging the
unique life style.
re-alignment of the individual interest
 The attempt to master feelings of
with that of society.
inferiority provides the motivation for
 Main goal of the counseling process is
striving for perfection and creativity.
to aid the client to realize his priorities
 Humans are pushed by feelings of
and to decide whether or not it is worth
inferiority and pulled by feelings of
paying the price behaviorally to change
superiority, and tend to compensate for
his present life style.
the areas of weakness or desirability by
 Behavioral goal is directed and
developing a lifestyle that allows him to
purposive and that life goals motivate
be successful.
human behavior.
 No two individuals develop the same
 Life goals involve overcoming feelings
style of life.
of inferiority and striving for security.
 Lifestyle is a result of judgments the
 All human beings have “striving for
individual makes about the status of the
superiority” as their life goal.
self.
 Judgment of self in relation to one’s
 Drive toward superiority is similar
perception of status in the world begins
to the concept of self-actualization.
to form patterns of behavior that
 “The great upward drive” – pulls
become one’s lifestyle.
the individual through the
 By the age of 4 or 5 the style of life has
developmental stages.
been formed, and future experiences
------------are merely integrated into it.
Adler introduced terms (individual psych):
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BASIC MOTIVATION
 Inferiority complex
 Striving for perfection – “drive” or
 Masculine protest
motivating force behind all or
 Organ inferiority
behavior and experience. It is the
desire, we all have to fulfill our
Psychological Types
= 4 Humors
potentials, to come closer and
1. Ruling type
Choleric
closer to our ideals
2. Leaning type
Phlegmatic
 Aggressive Drive – referring to the
3. Avoiding type
Melancholic
action we have when other drives
4. Socially useful type Sanguine
such as our need to eat are
frustrated.
 Compensation – striving to
overcome.
KEY CONCEPTS
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Emphasis is on conscious rather than
unconscious.
Process with individuals assuming
responsibility for their life decisions.
Human/individual
 Striving for superiority
 Feeling of inferiority and
compensation.
 Life style
 Family constellation / birth order/
sibling rivalry
Social determinant of personality and life
style.
 Birth order was an important
determinant of the child’s perception
of the world outside the family.
Earliest recollections to help understand
style of life.
Counselor believes that clients could
overcome feelings of inadequacy and
weakness.
Core of Adlerian counseling is the
psychology of use – all behavior has use
or payoff that is usually unconscious
disorder (eg. Conversion disorder – losing
bodily function due to psychological
reason.
The process aggressively fosters
autonomy for self-identity in society while
holding on to the belief in the possible
perfectibility of humankind.
Adlerian counseling is humanistic, holistic,
phenomenological, teleological, fieldtheoretical and socially oriented.
Teleology – we are drawn towards our
goals, our purposes, our ideals.
Fictional Finalism – as if we are sure what
good and bad are all abort, as if
everything we see is as we see it. The
fiction lies in the future, and yet influences
our behavior today.
Social interest/Social Feeling
COUNSELING PROCESS
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Counselor should feel warm and
accepting toward the clients; empathy
was considered to be an important factor
in the establishment of the therapeutic
climate.
Collaborative relationship – in which equal
partners work out and agree upon specific
goals.
Assessment phase – counselor works to
assess the clients style of life through an
understanding of the clients beliefs,
feelings, goals and motives.
Empathy enables the counselor not only
to develop the relationship but also to
understand the beliefs underlying the
feelings.
Counselor probes the clients early
childhood to assess siblings relationship
and the clients perception of his place in
the family.
Early recollections are used to further the
life style investigation,
Counselor identifies the clients “basic
mistakes” and interpretation they are
presently influencing the client.
Counselor emphasizes the development
of insight into problems through an
awareness of mistaken goals and selfdefeating behaviors.
Counselor is confrontive in pointing out
hidden purposes during interpretation to
facilitate insight.
Counselor interprets the clients lifestyle, it
is hoped that they will come to understand
their role in creating their problems, so
that they can see how to improve their
present situation
Counselor orients the client toward action.
Clients are encouraged to take risks and
try out new behaviors, to take
responsibility for their lives and how to
make new decisions that will enable them
to reach their goals.
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TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
FAMILY CONSTELLATION –
information by means of
questionnaires.
EARLY RECOLLECTIONS – single
incident from childhood.
NARRATIVE SUMMARY – all the data
required.
ESTABLISHING RELATIONSHIP thru:
use of listening, respect and
encouragement.
PERFORMING ANALYSIS AND
ASSESSMENT
PROMOTING INSIGHT
REORIENTATION
PROGRAMS
STEP – Systematic Training for
Effective Parenting
DUSO-R – Developing Understanding
of Self and Others.
HEURISTIC DEVICE – useful fictions.
CARL RANSOM ROGERS
THEORY:CLIENT CENTERED THERAPY/ PERSON CENTERED/ HUMANISTIC APPROACH/RELATIONSHIP ORIENTED APPROACH/NON-DIRECTIVE COUNSELING/EXPERIENTIAL COUNSELING/SELF THEORY COUNSELING
GOAL
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
KEY CONCEPTS
COUNSELING PROCESS
TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
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To establish the proper therapeutic conditions
to allow the normal development pattern of the
individual to be brought back into play.
To help the clients become more mature and
reinstitute the movement towards selfactualization by removing the obstacles.
The objective, then, is to free individuals from
anxiety and doubts that prevent them from
developing their own resources and potential.
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TERMS
FORCE OF LIFE /actualizing tendency – defines as
built in motivation present in every life – form to
develop its potentials to the fullest extent possible.
ORGANISMIC VALUING – organism know what is
good for them.
POSITIVE REGARD – umbrella term for things like
love, affection, attention, nurturance, & so on.
POSITIVE SELF-REGARD – self -esteem, selfworth, a positive self-image.
CONDITIONS OF WORTH – society gives us what
we need when we show that we are "worthy"
CONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD – getting
positive regard “on condition”.
CONDITIONAL POSITIVE SELF-REGARD:
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REAL SELF – (I am) “you” that if all does
well
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IDEAL SELF – (I should) something not
real/out of reach/standard we can’t meet
INCONGRUITY – (neurosis) gap between the real
self & ideal self.
Threatening Situation – when you are in a situation
where there is an incongruity between your image of
yourself.
ANXIETY – is a signal indicating that there is trouble
ahead, & you should avoid the situation.
DEFENSES – one way to avoid situation
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DENIAL – blocking out the threatening
situation altogether
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PERCEPTUAL DISTORTION – it is a
matter of reinterpreting the situation so
that it appears less threatening
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PSYCHOSIS – occurs when a person’s
defenses are overwhelmed, & their
sense become “shattered” into little
disconnected pieces.
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The individual can “guide, regulate & control
himself”
Rogers view in 4 basic areas
Belief in the dignity & worth of each
individual.
A perceptual view of behavior
One’s experience are either
 Organized into self-structure
 Ignored because they are inconsistent
with the sense of self
 Perceive distortedly because they are not
harmonious with self-perception
A tendency towards self-actualization
A belief that people are good & trustworthy
Human beings are seen as possessing positive
goodness & desire to become “fully
functioning” – that is to live effectively as
possible.
Based on self-theory (theory of personality) –
wherein an individual’s view of self within the
context of environment influences his/her
actions & personal satisfactions
Belief that a person’s perceptions of self &
environment are reality for that person
Faith in & respect for the client is the
philosophical orientation of the non-directive
counselor
9 formal propositions
All individuals exist in a continually changing
world of experience which they are the center
(phenomenal field)
2. Individuals react to their phenomenal field as
they experience & perceive it. (reality)
3. Behavior is basically the goal-directed attempt
of individuals to satisfy their needs as
experienced, in their phenomenal field as
perceived.
4. The best vantage point for understanding
behavior the internal frame of reference of the
individual.
5. Most ways of behaving adopted by the
individual are consistent with the individuals
concept of self
6. The incongruence that often occurs between
an individuals’ conscious wishes & his behavior
is the result of a split between the individuals
self-concept & his experiences
7. When the incongruence between the
individuals self-picture & the individuals
experience is very wide, a state of anxiety
exists.
8. To lower an individual’s anxiety, the selfconcept must become more congruent with the
individuals actual experiences
9. The fully functioning individual is completely
open to all experiences, exhibiting no
defensiveness
MAJOR CONCEPTS ARE:
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Self-actualization
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Self-direction
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Counselor is fully involved in the client’s world
of values.
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Characteristics of Healthy person/fully
functioning
1. Openness to change
2. Existential living
3. Organismic trusting
4. Experiential freedom
5. Creativity
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Special Qualities of Client-centered counselor
1. Congruence – genuineness, honesty with
client
2. Empathy – the ability to feel the client
feel
3. Respect – acceptance, unconditional
positive regards towards the client.
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“if, then” approach – if certain conditions exist,
then a definable process is set in motion.
Conditions that are both necessary & sufficient
for counseling
CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH
Psychological contact – 2 persons be in
contact
Minimum state anxiety – client be in a state of
incongruence, feeling vulnerable or anxious
Counselor Congruence – counselor must be
congruent or genuine in the relationship
Unconditional positive regard – counselor must
experience emphatic understanding of the
client’s internal frame of reference
Client perception – client must perceive at least
to a minimal degree, the counselor’s
unconditional positive regard & emphatic
understanding
OUTCOMES – counselor must allow the client
to set the goals.
Emphasis on the here-and-now of the
individual’s existence, both inside & outside of
the counseling relationship
The focus is on the current state of the
individual
Silence, acceptance, restatement, empathy &
immediacy responses occur most frequently,
with the client taking the lead on what is
discussed & being responsible for outcomes.
Counselors encourage careful self-exploration,
but they tend to avoid confrontation &
interpretation as tools of hastening insight.
Shifted focus from “what” the therapist does, to
“who” the therapist is
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Ability of the counselor to establish a
relationship
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Counselor must be expert listener
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One who fully accepts each individual by
offering an atmosphere of unconditional
positive regard and emphatic understanding
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Counselor attempts to help the client develop
insight by encouraging free expression & then
reflecting these feelings.
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2 PHASES OF EFFECTIVE CC Relationship
FIRST PHASE – dynamics that Rogers traditionally
identified:
1. Empathy
2. Acceptance
3. Genuineness
4. Liberality
5. Involvement
6. Sensitive listening
7. Equalizing
SECOND PHASE – depends on the effectiveness of
the relationship built in the first phase, centers on the
needs of the client
*Developmental of CC Approach over years; change
include a more active, direct &confrontational role of
the counselor
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COUNSELING STRATEGIES
1. Listening
2. Emphatic understanding
3. Caring
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COUNSELOR ENCOURAGES
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Ages inquiry
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Hypothesis testing
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Investigation of results
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COUNSELOR USES
1. Reflection of attitudes & feelings
*Reflection – is the mirroring of emotional
communication
2. Self-disclosure
3. Kind confrontation
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AFFECTIVE APPROACH – GESTALT THERAPY
FREDERIC “fritz” PERLS
GOAL
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
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Views of people as essentially
 Gestalt = whole
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Gestalt Therapy – is a therapeutic approach
which the therapist assists the client toward
self-integration & toward learning to utilize
his energy in appropriate ways to grow,
develop &actualize
Purpose of GT is to increase the clients selfawareness, since awareness is, itself,
therapeutic
Perls, believe that, with awareness, the most
important unfinished business would emerge
to be dealt with
Attainment of awareness as it relates to the
present
Seeks to assist clients in discovering that
they need not to be dependent upon others,
but they can become independent beings
Helping individuals assume responsibility for
themselves, rather than carrying out duties
to another’s expectations.
Aim is to challenge the client to move from
“environmental support” to “self-support”
Achieving integration
-----SAFE EMERGENCY – the client can feel safer in
working toward self-support
IMPASSE – client is stuck, unable to experience
his feelings because of the threat involved.
5 defenses that result in impasses
1. Introjection
2. Projection
3. Retroflection
4. Deflection
5. Confluence
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phenomenological
Passon’s assumption that form the framework
of G Approach
A person is composite whole made up of
interrelated parts.
A person is also a part of his own environment
and cannot be understood apart from it.
A person chooses how to respond to external
and internal stimuli, is an actor on his world,
not a reactor.
A person has potential to be fully aware of all
sensations, thoughts, emotions & perceptions
A person is capable of making choices
because of this awareness
People have the capacity to govern their own
lives effectively
People cannot experience the past and the
future; they can only experience themselves in
the present
People are neither basically good nor bad.
All other needs were viewed as stemming from
& grounded in the basic need to actualize
oneself
Striving for self-actualization is present
centered
Gestaltist believe that a healthy personality
exists when a person’s experiences form a
meaningful whole (gestalt), where there is
smooth transition between those sets of
experiences that are immediately in the focus
of awareness & those sets that are in the
background.
One has the capacity to know one’s own
balance & to attend to one’s own needs as
these needs emerge
5 Layers of Perls’ Onion
Phony layer – reacting to others in
stereotypical & inauthentic ways
Phobic layer – avoiding the emotional pain
associated with seeing ourselves the way we
really are.
Impassive layer – the point where we are
struck in our own maturation
Implosive layer – exposing our defenses &
beginning to make contact with authentic
selves.
Explosive layer – releasing an enormous
amount of energy as we let go of phony roles
and pretenses
KEY CONCEPTS
NOW (here-and-now)
 Provides basis for an I-thou
relationship, which includes emphasis
on addressing someone directly (even
if absent) instead of talking about that
person to be counselor
 Anxiety – is the gap between the now
& the later
 Awareness per se-by & itself – can be
curative
 Emphasizes the need to relive or reexperience situations from the past
about which clients have unexpressed
feelings such as anger, pain, anxiety,
grief, guilt, resentment, alienation & so
on
 Growth or maturation – the
transcendence from environmental
support or self-support
 Focuses on experience, not on intellect
 The approach is phenomenological, it is
existential
 BASIC PRINCIPLE
1. The holistic principle which state that
persons are organized wholes
2. The didactic principle of opposites
which also includes the principles of
homeostasis
 Kinds of problems that individual
experiences
1. Lack of awareness
2. Lack of responsibility
3. A loss of contact with environment
4. Inability to complete gestalts
5. Disowning of needs
6. Dichotomizing dimensions of self
(topdog, underdog)
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COUNSELING PROCESS
Therapist attempt to presentize the past
by using fantasy to bring the past into
present (done through relating past
events as if they were occurring at the
moment)
Counselors must be able to pick out
discrepancies between verbal and
nonverbal expressions back to clients
Counseling is a confrontative& active
approach stressing the what & how of
behavior & leading to the acceptance of
personal responsibility for behavior
Counselor maximizes actual
experiencing of the existential meaning
of the problem
Works with the clients dream but does
not interpret them, instead let the client
discover the meaning of the dream.
Dream is seen as projection of self.
Establishment of “continuum
awareness”
Counselor is deliberately playing
provocative games with client, games
intended to force the client to confront &
acknowledge feelings that have been so
ardrously avoided
“you can & must be responsible for
yourself” (counselor to client)
Questions like:
What is your right hand doing now?
How does your voice sound now?
*use of how & what questions focus
attention on current functioning
Counselor should have experience,
patience & emotional presence because
GT often leads to intense emotional
experiences
TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
 Use of experiential games
 Specific techniques
1. Use of personal pronouns
2. Converting questions to statements
3. Assuming responsibility
4. Playing the projection
5. The empty chair
Techniques (Passons)
1. Enhancing awareness
2. Personalizing pronouns
3. Changing questions to statements
4. Assuming responsibility
5. Asking how & what
6. Sharing hunches
7. Bringing the past into now
8. Expressing resentments & appreciation
9. Using body expressions
Other technique
1. The dialogue exercise
2. Sharing hunches
3. Substitute phrase
4. Exaggeration
5. Making rounds
6. Guided fantasy
7. Playing the projection
INTERVENTIONS
1. Body awareness
2. Experimentation
3. Role playing
4. Empty-chair technique
5. Psychodrama
AFFECTIVE APPROACH – EXISTENTIAL THERAPY/ LOGOTHERAPY
ROLLO MAY, ADRIAN VAN KAAM, VICTOR E. FRANKL
GOAL
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
Aim is to enable individuals to accept
responsibility for themselves
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Help the client find & develop meanings in life
as a way of reducing anxiety associated with
the threat of nonbeing.
STAGES
1. Client must recognize his freedom of choice,
being capable of choosing both that which is
right for him & that which is not
2. The client learns to accept responsibility for his
decisions by recognizing his need to see how
the consequences of his choices make a
profound impact on his existence
COUNSELOR GOAL
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Bring the clients to the point where they cease
to flee from or to fight their symptoms, &
instead exaggerate them.
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Logotherahy – (Victor Frankl) provides the
answer a person that do not have a meaningful
purpose in life
Challenges the client to become more fully
involved in life with less complaints
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Addresses spiritual conflict more than
psychological conflict
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It is a mix of concepts, attitudes & personal
challenges
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Terms
Sunday Neurosis (arises from an existential
vacuum) referring to a form of depression
resulting from an awareness in some people of
the emptiness of their lives once the working
week is over
existential vacuum - or, as he sometimes terms
it, "existential frustration" - is a common
phenomenon and is characterized by the
subjective state of boredom, apathy, and
emptiness.
-------Applied to persons suffering from physical &
psychological trauma of all kinds
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Helps them understand their pain
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Helps them build attitude for constructive
behavior
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Helps them deal with pain
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Directs them to focus on the future
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Encourage them to use their human capacity
for self-determinant of self-transcendence

May (1961) six existential characteristics that
constitute the nature of an existing person
1. Humans are centered in themselves.
2. Humans have the character of self-affirmation
3. Humans have the possibility of moving from
centeredness to participation with other beings
4. Awareness lies on the subjective side of
centeredness
5. Humans have a unique form of awareness
called self-consciousness
6. Humans have the characteristic of anxiety, the
feeling of one in a struggle against that which
would destroy one’s being.
7. (Frankl(1959) added) The primary force in
one’s life is one’s search for meaning

May "stages" of development:
*Innocence – the pre-egoic, pre-self-conscious stage
of the infant.
An innocent is only doing what he or she must do.
However, an innocent does have a degree of will in
the sense of a drive to fulfill needs.
*Rebellion – the rebellious person wants freedom,
but does not yet have a good understanding of the
responsibility that goes with it.
*Decision – The person is in a transition stage in
their life such that they need to be more independent
from their parents and settle into the "ordinary
stage". In this stage they must decide what to do with
their life, and fulfilling rebellious needs from the
rebellious stage.
*Ordinary – the normal adult ego learned
responsibility, but finds it too demanding, and so
seeks refuge in conformity and traditional values.
*Creative – the authentic adult, the existential stage,
self-actualizing and transcending simple
egocentrism.

man expresses the freedom to take a stand,
expressed in attitude & in action

man possesses a spiritual or existential
dimension that allows him to go beyond
physical, psychological & other limitations

human capacity for self-detachment – the
ability to see oneself at a distance & assume
selfless attitude toward demand
SELF TRANSCENDENCE – ability to move
beyond one’s needs and priorities to help
others

the will to meaning directs behavior

seeking pleasure for its own sake leads to
disillusionment

KEY CONCEPTS
Existential counselor recognizes that
psychological forces take their meaning from
the existential situation of the client’s
immediate life.

Emphasize the philosophical concerns of what
it means to become fully human

Focuses on the human condition

An attitude that stresses the understanding of
persons

One is responsible for one’s existence & one’s
destiny; they are not result of deterministic
forces of conditioning

Awareness of freedom & responsibility is a
basic human attribute
EXISTENTIAL ANXIETY results from the awareness
of being finite & from facing the inevitable prospect of
death
EXISTENTIAL GUILT result of failing to become
what one is fully able to become
EXISTENTIALISM – a philosophical movement
stressing individual responsibility for creating one’s
way of thinking, feeling &behaving
EXISTENTIAL NEUROSIS – feelings of despair &
anxiety that result from inauthentic living, a failure to
make choices, & an avoidance of responsibility
EXISTENTIAL VACUUM – a condition of emptiness
& hollowness that result from meaninglessness in life
FREEDOM – an inescapable aspect of the human
condition, implying that we are author of our lives

COUNSELING PROCESS
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Counselor must understand the client’s unique
world
Counselor helps the client experience his
existence as fully as possible
Counselors expose their true selves
Counselor takes time to help his client
determine sources of meaning & encourages
him to look at these meaning in relation to his
lifestyle
Client -Counselor relationship – client is guided
to assume responsibility for meaning in life
Counselor accepts the value system of the
client unless the client’s values are unfounded
or the client believes that existence is
senseless & useless, & he denies moral truth
Counselor is accepting & challenging
Opens o discussions of values of beliefs
TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
Honesty, authenticity, spirituality knowledge &
insight are presumed to follow commitment

Emphasis is on flexibility & versatility

Futuristic (future rather than past or present)

Confrontation

Borrowed Techniques
1. Imagery Exercises
2. Awareness Exercises
3. Goal setting activities

TERMS ARISEN IN THE PRACTICE
EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
DEREFLECTION – diversion of client’s attention
away from their problems towards accessible
meaning outside the problematic self
PARADOXICAL INTENTION – intentional
exaggeration of problematic behaviors, which breaks
the compulsion to do them
DISIDENTIFICATION – one of the results of avoiding
death is an over-identification with one’s world
DESCRIPTION – the initial verbal expressions of the
clients’ experience are best understood when they
are descriptive
EMPATHY – empathy is expressed when the
counselor provides agree of understanding that rows
out of listening to client’s experience as from the
client’s point of view
PRESENCE – therapeutic presence means being
there, being authentically one’s self, openly & truly
with the client, & encountering the client as a human
being

NEO-FREUDIAN
KAREN HORNEY
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE

TEN NEUROTIC NEEDS
The neurotic need for
1. Affection & approval
2. A partner who will take over one’s life
3. To restrict one’s life within the narrow
boarders
4. For power
5. To exploit others
6. Prestige
7. Personal admiration
8. Personal achievement
9. Self-sufficiency & independence
10. Protection & unassailability

The need simply cannot be satisfied
because of the deep inner conflict that lies at
its source

3 BASIC ORIENTATIONS
Moving toward people – need for love
Moving away from people – need for
independence
Moving against people – need for power
KEY CONCEPTS
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The concept of anxiety that grew out of the
child’s feelings of isolation & helplessness.
The root of anxiety lies in the parent-child
relationship with anxiety being produced by
anything that disturbs the child’s
fundamental security
The insecure children handle their feelings
by developing irrational (neurotic) solution to
problem
Conflicts are avoidable if the child is reared
in loving, accepting home in which warmth
trust, &affection characterize the parentchild relationship
NEO-FREUDIAN
HARRY STACK SULIVAN
KEY CONCEPT
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Role of interpersonal relationship
The importance both of interpersonal
relationships &the role of the therapist as
involved participant in the interview
Personality exists only through the
individual’s interactions with others.
Processes such as thinking, perceiving, &
even dreaming are considered to be
interpersonal
The self-system develops out of the anxiety
experienced in interpersonal relationships,
which originally stems from the motherinfant relationship
Individuals learn that
The good-me self – If they please their
parents, they will be praised
The bad-me self – if they misbehave they
will be punished
the self protects from anxiety & guards
security
if the individual experiences much anxiety,
the self-system will become inflated & will
prevent the individual from growing &
interacting with others in healthy
relationships
Sullivan was first to change the role of the
therapist from a removed observer and
interpreter of the patients experience, to an
active, involved participant in an
interpersonal relationship
COUNSELING PCOUNSELING P

COGNITIVE PROCESSING
PROTOTAXIC - involves experiences that have
no connection or meaning for the experiencing
individual. Infants undergo this kind of
experiencing
PARATAXIC – involves seeing a relationship
between events that occur simultaneously, but
have no actual relationship. Superstitions are
examples of parataxic thought processes
SYNTAXIC – involves the use of language in
which commonly agreed-upon verbal symbols
enable communication

Stages of development
1. Infancy
2. Childhood
3. Juvenile era
4. Preadolescence
5. Early adolescence
6. Late adolescence

Therapeutic interview – the therapist focus
on the communication between the therapist
& patient.

Therapist influence the interaction in the
interview through his attitudes, feelings,
doubts, or personal difficulties.

STAGES OF PSYCHIATRIC INTERVIEW
1. He formal inception
2. Reconnaissance
3. The detailed inquiry
4. The termination
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH – TRAIT FACTOR COUNSELING/DIRECTIVE COUNSELING/COUNSELOR-CENTERED THEORY
EDWARD G. WILLIAMSON/FRANK PARSONS
GOAL
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
KEY CONCEPTS
 Attempt to apply a scientific approach to  Human behavior can be ordered &
 Is the only counseling approach that
counseling by the use of measurement
measured along continua of defined
originated from an essential vocational
& prediction utilizes a process of
traits & factors
counseling use.
gathering data, synthesizing it, forming
 Man is rational being with potentialities
 TFA is essentially a rational-problem
a diagnosis, & planning a program for
which may be developed in either
solving approach.
the client
positive or negative directions
 Explain personality as a system of
 Goals of counseling typically include
interdependent traits & factors such as
 Is capable of developing autonomously
self-understanding, choosing
but needs assistance of others to
abilities, interests, attitudes &
appropriate goals for living, & striving
achieve full potentiality
temperament
for the good life.
 Assumption that man seeks to use self-  TFT – jobs & workers should match
 Williamson Opinion – the purpose of
understanding & knowledge of his
(Parsons)
counseling is to facilitate the
abilities as means of developing
 Today career satisfaction involves not
development of excellence in all
potentialities
only matching person a person to a
aspects of human life.
work environment but also taking other
He asserts that “the task of TF type of
vital factors into consideration that
Counseling is to aid the individual in
includes interests, skills, personality &
successive approximations of selfvalues, family influences, sociounderstanding & self-management by
economic status & physical health.
means of helping to assess his assets &
liabilities in relation to the requirements
of progressively changing life goals &
his vocational career
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1.
2.
3.
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COUNSELING PROCESS
Parsons’ 3 step model
Develop knowledge about self:
aptitudes, interests, resources
Develop knowledge about the world of
work: advantages & disadvantages
opportunities & requirements
associated with occupations
Find a suitable match between the
individual & the world of work.
Counselor influences the development
of the client
Counselor with TF viewpoint is active in
the learning situation represented by
counseling
Counselor involved in diagnosis,
presenting information, clarifying issues
& the like.
Counselor collects data & evaluates the
individual understand himself.
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4.
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5.
TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
Techniques used
Establishing rapport
Cultivating self-understanding
Advising
Checking on the client to see how the
client carried out the advise
Use of psychological test
Williamson placed the counselors
techniques in 5 General Categories:
Forcing conformity
Changing the environment
Selecting the appropriate environment
Learning needed skills
Changing attitudes
Williamson 5 stages of counseling
Establishing rapport
Cultivating self-understanding
Advising or planning program of action
Carrying out the plan
Where appropriate, making referral’s to
other personnel workers
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH – TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
ERIC BERNE
GOAL
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
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10.
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Particularly effective in group counseling
Basic goal is to help client achieve
autonomy
Autonomy is characterized by:
Awareness – a realistic understanding of
one’s world
Spontaneity – ability to express emotion in
an uninhibited, game free fashion
Intimacy – the capacity to share love &
closeness with others
Attempt to enable a client to free his adult
from the confluence of the child & the parent
so that the adult is in control of decision
making
TA evolved from the discovery of the ego
states re-experienced by the persons under
direct stimulation of the brain
INJUNCTION – when the parents are
threatened by a child’s behavior
Injunctions & some possible decisions that
could be made in response to them
Don’t make mistake
Don’t be
Don’t be close
Don’t be important
Don’t be a child
Don’t grow
Don’t succeed
Don’t be you
Don’t be the sane & don’t be well
Don’t belong
*Anything that has been learned can be
unlearned
Counterinjuctions – when parents observe
their child not succeeding or being
comfortable with who they are, they attempt
to “counter” the effect of earlier messages
*Be perfect, try hard, hurry up, be strong,
please me

Berne stresses the interaction between individual as
both a symptom & a cause of psychological
difficulties

Berne described an ontology of games origination
from 3 positions
1. Prosecutor
2. Rescuer
3. Victim
 4 basic life positions
1. I’m okay, you’re okay
2. I’m okay, you’re not okay
3. I’m not okay, you’re okay
4. I’m not okay, you’re not okay
 TA emphasized the human need for emotional &
physical strokes
 Strokes – is any act of recognition or source of
stimulation
 Strokes come in form of physical, verbal &
psychological; they can be positive or negative,
unconditional or conditional.
 Berne believed that individuals need to learn how to
ask for the strokes they want
 2 KINDS OF ANALYSIS
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS – involves the analysis &
recognition of the influence of the individuals ego states
on thinking or behaving
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS – identifying which ego
state is in the power at any given time, the individual is
better be able to understand the nature of her behavior &
the behavior of the others within a social context
- Concerned with the diagnosis of the ego states from
which a social interchange is emanating for two
persons involved & within the clarification of that
exchange
Transactional Stimulus – when one person encounters
another & speaks
Transactional response – reply to TS
Complementary Transaction – occur when both parties
speak from their Adults or when the vectors are parallel,
as when parent speaks to child, & child responds to
parent
Crossed Transaction – occur when the vectors are not
parallel, & communication is broken off
Ulterior Transaction – occur when more than two ego
states are in operation simultaneously
Permission – when parents are excited by a child’s
behavior
KEY CONCEPTS
COUNSELING PROCESS
TA focuses on the games people play to
avoid intimacy in transactions with others

TA is based on a personality theory
utilizing 3 distinct patterns of behavior or
ego states
PARENT – filled with values, injunctions,
“should” &oughts”
ADULT – data processing, probability
estimation & decision making
Regulate the activities of the child &
the parent
Deal with presenting situations in an
organized, adaptable& intelligent
way – that is reality testing
CHILD – childlikeness, fun loving part of most
individuals
Function in 2 distinct form
1. Neutral child – strives for total freedom
to do what it wants whenever it wants,
that includes natural impulses for love,
affection, creativity, aggression,
rebellion & spontaneity
2. Adapted child – influenced by the parent
& has discovered ways usually
compliance or procrastination, to deal
with feelings in a way that will prevent
parent reprimand
Duplicates the original reactions
individual have towards their parents
during childhood including feeling like
guilt, fear, anger & frustration
The emerging adult in the child is
called the little professor & it’s the
source of intuition, creativity &
manipulation; it serves as the
negotiator between the neutral child &
adapted child.
 TA is learning to analyze one’s
relationships with other
 TA Counselor acts very much like
teacher, trainer & resource person with
heavy emphasis on involvement
 TA Counselor attempts to help clients
make full & effective use of all three ego
states & to live game-free lives with
intimate rewarding relationships

TOOLS & TECHNIQUES

Use of Contract – includes a statement
about what the client hopes to achieve in
counseling

Use of Learning Tools – diagrams by
drawing lines, circles, & grids on available
blackboard & whiteboard

Techniques
1. Clients early memories
2. Helping clients free themselves from
constraints of those early decision

4 Kinds of rational analyses
1. Structural A – analysis of individual
personality
*Family modeling
*complementary T, Crossed T, Ulterior T
*analysis of rituals & past times
*analysis of games & rackets
 Racket – consist of the calling up &
collection of feelings that one uses to justify
one’s life script & ultimately one’s decision
Involves collection of stamps
2. Transactional A –analysis of what people
say & do to another
3. Game A – identification of games &
resulting racket feelings
4. Script A – analysis of overall life plans
Life script – determine action
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH – REALITY THERAPY
WILLIAM GLASSER
GOAL
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
 Responsible behavior is its ultimate
 Measures behavior against an objective
goal
standard which calls reality
 Sees individual as functioning in
consonance or dissonance with the reality
 All human behavior is motivated by
striving to meet basic needs –
physiological & psychological that are the
same for all individuals
 2 basic psychological need
1. Need to love & be Loved
2. Need to feel that we are worthwhile
to ourselves & to others
IDENTITY – 2 needs that have been
incorporated into one need.
Glasser believes that identity is a person’s
most important psychological need, built into
the biological system from birth
 Delinquency & withdrawal – resolved from
failure of identity
 Philosophical base of reality is that people
are determining, autonomous &
responsible
 RT Views a person as
1. An adjusted person is classified
“success”. He is happy, confident, rational
& responsible
2. A maladjusted person is classified as
“failure”. He is lonely self-critical, irrational
& irresponsible
KEY CONCEPTS
 Focus is on what the person does, not
feels
 Emphasizes the idea of client’s making
value judgments’ about their own behavior
 Glasser believes that certain generally
accepted moral principles should be
encouraged by the therapist
 Once clients are able to make value
judgments about their own behavior & to
the reality squarely, they are ready to
assume personal responsibilities for their
behavior
 Responsibility – the ability to fulfill one’s
needs & to do so in a way that does not
deprive others of the ability to fulfill their
needs.
 Change is impossible until individuals
stops using conditions in the past, factors
in the present or the behavior of the
others as excuses for their own actions &
start accepting responsibility for their own
lives
 The more responsible people the healthier
they are; the less responsible, the less
healthy
 RT is known as an action system which
focuses on involvement & motivation
 RT is problem centered & success
oriented. It is more of a teaching process
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COUNSELING PROCESS
Behavior change involves helping the
client to do what is right, responsible &
realistic
Reality therapist attempts to teach
clients on approach to life that involves
living responsibly
8 STEPS PROCEDURE
Be involved
Focus on behavior, not feelings
Focus on the present
Making value judgments
Making a plan
Getting a commitment
Accept no excuses
Eliminate punishment
Counselor teaches client that happiness
is a quality that grows within self & only
client can work for it himself
Counselor concentrates on the clients’
conscious thoughts
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TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
Verbal system is direct, frank & realistic
Humor is used that will allow for both
counselor & client to be sensitive to
laughable conditions
Confront client in a non-punitive way
toward a responsible behavior
Verbal shock confrontation – may be
necessary to guide client to responsible
action & behavior
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH – BEHAVIORAL COUNSELING
WOLPE, LAZARUS, BANDURA, KRUMBOLTZ & THORESEN
GOAL
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE

People
are neither good nor bad; they are
 Concerned with behavior change
essentially
neutral at birth with equal potential for
 Behavioral counselors have begun to
good or evil. Dustin and George assumptions
emphasize processes that are more
1. Man is viewed as being neither intrinsically
cognitive in nature, recognizing for
good nor bad, but as an experiencing
instance that there is a cognitive
organism who has potential for all kinds of
behavior
element operating whenever behavior
2. Man is able to conceptualize and control his
changes as the result of its
own behavior
consequences
3. Man is able to acquire new behaviors
 6 steps employed:
4. Man is able to influence others’ behavior as
1. Identify & state the behavior to be
well as to be influenced by others in his own
behavior
changed in operational terms
 Behaviorist sees maladaptive behaviors as being
2. Obtain a base line of the desired target
learned behaviors; their development &
behavior
maintenance are the same as that of any other
3. Arrange the situation so that the target
behavior.
behavior will occur
4. Identify potential reinforcing stimuli &
Implication of this views:
events
 That no behaviors are maladaptive in & of
themselves; rather a behavior becomes
5. Reinforce the desired target behavior of
inappropriate because someone cleans it so.
successive approximations of it
 Maladaptive behaviors as learned is the idea
6. Evaluate the effects of the treatment
that only behavior that brings a pleasant result
procedure by maintaining records of
or that helps to reduce unpleasant result is likely
change in the target behavior
increased.
 General goals
KEY CONCEPTS
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Behaviorist generally considers the
stimulus-response. Paradigm the basic
pattern of all human learning.
Behavior is a function of the stimulus.
Conditioning
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) – respondent is
controlled by its antecedents. “Systematic sensitizing
and desensitizing”.
Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) –
openinstrumental is controlled by its consequences
that strengthen behavior. “behavior modification”
Reinforcer (Operant) – the consequences that
strengthen behavior.
Extinction – the process of eliminating an
undesirable behavior.
Shaping – a procedure that reinforces successively
closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Strategy:
1. Counterconditioning – a new desirable
behavior is substituted for the undesirable
behavior.
2. Withdrawing the reinforcement that has
previously followed a behavior.

Feelings of client are secondary to clients’
behaviors.
Behavior therapy is characterized by:
1. Focus on specific overt behavior.
2. Very precise therapeutic goals
3. The development if a treatment
procedure appropriate to the client’s
problem.
4. An objective assessment as of whether
the therapeutic goals were
accomplished.
COUNSELING PROCESS
TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
Specification of concrete reachable goals provides
greater opportunity for clients to see progress, which
is a motivating force in itself.
SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION
Desensitization – refers to the process of anxiety
reduction.
Counter conditioning – process of learning an
incomparative behavior & is carried out on a step-bystep basis.
ASSERTION TRAINING - emphasized teaching
clients to stand up for their own rights without
violating the rights of others
ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOR – consists of expressing
one’s thoughts & feelings in direct, honest &
appropriate ways
Procedure (Wolpe)
 Relaxation training (30 mins training)
 Identifying anxiety-producing situations.
 Working through the anxiety hierarchy.
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Behavior therapy attempts to help clients:
1. Alter maladaptive behavior.
2. Learn the decision making process
Prevent problems by strengthening desirable
behaviors.
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Behavior contract – is based on the idea that it
is helpful to the client to specify the kind of
behavior desired & the reinforcement
contingencies
Contract enables individuals to anticipate
changing their behavior on the basis of a
promise or agreement that some positive
consequences will be forthcoming

Helps the client “what to do” without nagging

Aspect of contract; reality, specificity,
freedom from threat; & flexibility
SOCIAL MODELING – a person will initiate
behavior of others; is used to help the client
progressively modify his behavior toward that of
observed model.
Counselor uses audio models, filmed models, &
live models
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH – RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY(RET), RATIONAL THERAPY, SEMANTIC THERAPY, COGNITIVE THERAPY, COGNITIVE-BEHAVIOR, RATIONAL BEHAVIOR TRAINING/RATIONAL
EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY(REBT), ABC THEORY, ABCDE THEORY – ALBERT ELLIS
GOAL
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
KEY CONCEPTS
COUNSELING PROCESS
TOOLS & TECHNIQUES

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RET Attempt to help people
discriminate between appropriate
& inappropriate feelings, as well
as to intensify, the appropriate
while reducing or eliminating the
inappropriate
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1.
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View of people is dominated by the principle
that emotion & reason-thinking & feeling-are
intricately entwined in the psyche
RET stresses that all normal humans think,
feel & act & that they do so simultaneously
Their thoughts affect, & often create, their
feelings & behaviors
Their acts affect their thoughts & feelings
Assumptions about the nature of humanity
The individual is uniquely rational & irrational
Emotional or psychological disturbance is the
result of irrational & illogical thinking
Irrational thinking originates in the early illogical
learning that the individual is biologically
disposed toward & more specifically acquire
from parents & culture
Human beings are verbal animals, & thinking
usually occurs through the use of symbols or
language
Continuing states of emotional disturbance,
being a result of self-verbalizations, are thus
determined not by external circumstances or
events but by the perception & attitudes toward
these events that are incorporated in the
internalized sentences about them
Individuals are vast untapped resources of
actualizing their potentials & can change their
personal & social destinies
Negative & self-defeating thoughts & emotions
must therefore be attacked by reorganizing
perceptions & thinking so that thinking
becomes logical & rational, rather than illogical
& irrational
People’s emotions are a result of their beliefs,
philosophies, interpretations & evaluation about
events happening to them & not from the events
as they are
Emotional disturbance includes cognitive
behavioral & emotive elements & that he has his
own human frailties which incite him to irrational
beliefs & behaviors but with great determination
& effort, he can think & behave rationally

Ellis stresses thinking, judging, deciding & analyzing &
doing
 RET emphasizes that emotions, feelings of emotional
disturbance are largely products of peoples thought, ideas
& constructs
 Ellis major illogical ideas
1. It is absolutely essential for an individual to be loved or
approved of by every significant person in his environment
2. It is necessary that each individual be completely
competent, adequate, & achieving in all areas if the
individual is to be worthwhile
3. Some people are bad, wicked, or villainous, & these people
should be blamed & punished
4. It is terrible & catastrophic when things are not the way an
individual wants them to be
5. Unhappiness is a function of events outside the control of
the individual
6. If something may be dangerous or harmful, an individual
should constantly be concerned & think about it
7. It is easier to run away from difficulties & self-responsibility
that it is to face them
8. Individuals need to be dependent on others & have
someone stronger than themselves to lean on
9. Past events in an individual’s life determine present
behavior & cannot be changed
10. An individual should be very concerned & upset by others’
problems
11. There is always a correct & precise answer to every
problem &its catastrophic if it is not found.
 ABC theory/ ABCDE Theory principle of emotional
disturbance which emphasizes the importance of cognitive
control over emotional states
 It is consistent with the phenomenological position that one’s
perception of an event determines one’s behavioral
response to that event
 Counseling is active & confrontive
 Counselor concerned with detection, pinpointing, &
contesting the irrational beliefs & behaviors fundamental to
the emotional disturbance of the client
 RET Major contribution is its emphasis on the close
relationship of one’s thinking to one’s emotions & behavior &
the belief in an individuals capability for self-actualization
 System is therapeutic, educative & preventive
 People are self-talking, self-evaluating & self-sustaining who
create problems when they perceive simple preferences &
desires as being essential he ends.
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STEPS
Show the clients that they are illogical, to help them
to understand how & why they became so & to
demonstrate the relationship of their irrational ideas
to their unhappiness & emotional disturbance
This instant leads clients to understand the
relationship between their values & attitudes & the
should, oughts& must they have incorporated into
their lives
Help clients believe that thoughts can be
challenged & changed
This is accompanied by direct disputing of clients
beliefs by the therapist
Disputing consists of questioning &challenging the
validity of ideas clients hold about themselves,
others & the world
The therapist persistently & forcefully repeats this
process, using the most direct, persuasive, &
logical techniques available
Therapist attempts to teach clients to dispute
themselves in such a way that they reach the goal
of thinking rationally on their own
Helping the client go beyond disputing
irrational/inappropriate ideas by encouraging them
to continue their efforts toward more rational
thinking by rational reindoctrination
RET COUNSELOR
Is active & directive with most clients, doing a great
deal of talking & explaining especially in the early
stages
Confronts clients directly with their problems so as
not to waste unnecessary time
Takes a vigorous approach in getting clients first to
think & then to get them to reeducate themselves
Is persistent and repetitive in hammering away at
the irrational ideas underlying clients emotional
disturbances
Appeals to clients’ reasoning powers, rather than
their emotions
Is didactic & philosophical in his approach
Uses humor & shame exercises as a way of
confronting the client’s irrational thinking.
Counselor seeks for specific information & offers
specific procedures
Cures unreason by reason
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Ellis utilizes a variety of teaching devicespamphlets, books, tape recordings, film &
filmstrips – as part of the process through which
clients learn to recognize the irrational thoughts
which are bringing about the disturbances that are
upsetting their lives.
RET Technique: active, directive teaching,
establishing rapport
Counselor-client relationship & expressive
emotive, supportive, insight methods
Counselor assumes an active teaching role to
reeducate the client
Counselor demonstrates the illogical origin of the
clients disturbances & the self-verablizations that
perpetuate the disturbances in the client’s life
Clients are shown that their internalized sentences
are quite illogical & unrealistic
Effective counselor continually unmasks the
clients past & especially, their present illogical
thinking or self-defeating verbalizations
Counselor teaches the client to re think, challenge
&reverbalize these sentences to make their
internalized thoughts more logical & efficient
Uses of homework assignment – giving clients
specific assignments to try out behaviors that he
fears, encouraging them to take risks, or having
them intentionally fail at the same effort to learn
that (1) that fail is not catastrophic & (2) how to
cope with feeling of failure
Also include a great deal of cognitive work:
reading specific materials, or commonly using selfhelp forms to analyze their ABCs & to act toward
disputing their irrational belief.
RET Counselor counters their logic & reason,
teaching, suggestion, persuasion, confrontation,
deindoctrination, indoctrination, & prescription of
behavior to show the clients the irrational
philosophies to demonstrate how these lead to
emotionally disturbed behavior, to change thinking
thus to change the clients emotions
Counselor instructs the client in the major irrational
ideal of our culture & provides more effective
rational ones thus offering protection from future
disturbances