CSS NOTES
for
HISTROY OF PAKISTAN
AND INDIA
Sir Ahtisham Jan Butt
Assistant Professor
COMSATS Lahore
0321 4646 037
Muhammad Bin Qasim
(Has his conquest of Sind, far reaching effects or not?)
Outlines:
1. Causes of Arab Conquest
a. Plundering of Arab Ships by Pirates
b. Shelter to Arab Rebels (Hafi Tribe) by Raja Dahir
c. Indian help to Persia against Arabs
d. Politico-cum-religious Prejudice of Raja Dahir
e. Continuous defeat of Hajjaj bin Yousuf appointed expeditions
f. Preaching of Islam
2. Causes of Success of Arabs
a. Denouncement of Budhmat and Janemat towards war and bloodshed
b. They wanted change of ruler so they supported Arabs
c. Then manjeeq (war cannon) made Arabs superior from Hindus
d. Generalship of Muhammad Bin Qasim
e. His policy of Tolerance
3. Results/Impacts of M. Bin Qasim’s Invasion
a. Religious Impacts
b. Cultural Impacts
c. Intellectual Impacts
d. Social Impacts
e. Mystic Impacts
f. Administrative impacts
g. Economic Impacts
h. Political impacts
i. Judicial Influence
j. Military Interaction
4. Consequences
1. Introduction:
It is one of the most important and epoch-making event not only in the history of India but also
in the history of the world. Since the invasion of Aryans in India, the arrival of Arab Muslims
under the leadership of Muhammad bin Qasim had far-reaching potential and consequences for
the Indians. This invasion paved the way for other Muslim rulers to come to India as victorious.
The most important books like Chach-nama, Tareekh-e-Sind of Mir Muhammad Masoom and
Tohfatul Kareem by Ali Sher Kani shed light comprehensively about the contemporary History
of Muhammad Bin Qasim’s invasion of Sindh.
Early relations between Arab traders and Indians:
There were relations between Indians and Arabians in the means of trade even before the
emergence of Islam in Arab. India was famous for spices. Arab traders used to go to Yemen
from Indian ports and then from Yemen to Syria through land and from Syrian ports to Egypt
and from Egypt to Southern Europe. Indian products had their access to International market
through Arabs.
1. Causes of Arab Conquest:
a. Plundering of Arab Ships by Pirates:

It proved to be a major cause, a pretext for the Arab invasion. Many Arab traders when
came to sub continent, brought their families with them and used live their for several
months. At Coromondal port, there were some traders, who died and the Sri Lankan king
sent their wives and children with gifts. When they were passing through the Gawadar
port, their ships were confiscated by the pirates, which provided a pretext for Arabs to
invade in India.

Hajjaj bin Yousaf requested Raja Dahir for the return of Muslim widows and children,
but Raja Dahir refused to Hajjaj, which made him aggrieved.
b. Shelter to Arab Rebels (Hafi Tribe) by Raja Dahir:
c. Indian help to Persia against Arabs:
d. Politico-cum-religious Prejudice of Raja Dahir:

He wanted to turn Buddhists into Hindus, who were 90% percent of the population.
e. Continuous defeat of Hajjaj bin Yousuf:

Hajjaj bin Yousuf appointed two expeditions in 711 deputing Ubaid Ullah and Budail
bin Tafah but these expeditions failed and badly defeated by Raja Dahir.
f. Preaching of Islam:
2. Causes of Success of Arabs:

It is desirable to refer to some of the causes, which were responsible for the initial
success of the Arabs in India.

The people of Sind did not present a united front to the invaders.
a. Denouncement of Budhmat and Janemat towards war and bloodshed:

In Buddhism and Jainism, the followers were strictly prohibited to bloodshed and
warfare.

When the majority population of the land would be against the ruler, how the ruler would
compete and achieve victory against the opposing force. And it happened in the case of
Arab invasion of Sindh by Mohammad bin Qasim.

The people of Sind did not present a united front to the invaders. There were Buddhists
and Jainists in Sindha nd they had a grievance against Dahir, the Hindu ruler. The result
was that they had joined hands with the invaders against Dahir.
b. The Natives wish of new ruler:

The native people of Sindh wanted a change of ruler, because Raja Dahir had so they
supported Arabs.

Not only the Buddhists and Jainists, rather the Jats, Meds and certain other orders of the
society also wanted a saviour for them, who could provide them relief and crush the
power of tyrant, Raja Dahir.

The Jats, Meds and certain other orders of the society also had their grievances against
the Hindu ruler of Sind. They also joined hands with the invader.

The people of Sind were divided among themselves and no wonder they failed to check
the advance of Mohammad bin Qasim.
c. Arabs Military superiorty over the Hindus:

The new weapon known as manjeeq (war cannon) made Arabs superior the Hindus.
d. Generalship of Muhammad Bin Qasim:
e. His policy of Tolerance: (he married Raja Dahir’s wife who was his real sister and he
married her to save her wealth from going out to anyone else)
Results/Impacts of M. Bin Qasim’s Invasion:

The Arab occupation of Sind lasted for about two centuries, and it was not an isolated
incident in the history of India as is commonly supposed.

The Arabs left a deep imprint on the life and culture of Sind and established Islam as a
popular religion.

According to Staley Lane-Poole, “The Arabs had conquered Sindh but the conquest
was only an episode in the history of India and of Islam.”

a. Religious Impacts:

It was Muhammad Bin Qasim, who officially brought Islam into India.

Sind became the center of Islam.

According to Masudi, the principle Arab colonies were Mansurah, Multan, Debu, and
Nirun where large Friday mosques were built.

Non-Muslims formed the bulk of the population and were in a preponderating majority at
Debul and Alor.

The relations between Arabs and non-Muslim population were very good. Unlike the
historians of the Sultanate period, the Arab travelers refer to non-Muslims as dhimmis
and not as Kafirs. Soon after the conquest of Sind and Multan, cow-slaughter was banned
in the area. This might have been due to desire to preserve the cattle wealth, but regard
for Hindu sentiments may also have been partly responsible for this step.

Indian trading centers were formed into mosques. Islam became a new religion of India.

If Islam spread in Sind, it was due to the fact that Buddhists, Jats and Medas were eager
to seek emancipation from Brahamanic tyranny. Islam appealed to them as an egalitarian
religion, and its appeal was made attractive by the liberal and tolerant policies of the
Muslim amirs and its teachings brought home to people by the saints, scholars and
traders.

The Muslims in Sind took active interest in Islamic studies. Some scholars of Hadith like
Abud Maashor Najeeb and Raja-al-Sindhi gained recognition even in Arabia.
b. Cultural Impacts:

According to Havell, from a political point of view, Arab conquest of Sindh was a
comparatively insignificant event but its importance on account of its effect upon the
whole culture of Islam was great. For the first time, the nomads of the Arabian desert
found themselves in the holy land of the Aryans in close contact.

This fact is also known that the music of the Indo-Pakistan had its impact on Arab music,
and was appreciated in the Abbasid capital. The famous Arab author, Jahiz, wrote in his
account of the people of Indo-Pakistan sub-continent: “Their music is pleasing. One of
their musical instruments is known as Kankalah, which is played with a string
stretched on a pumpkin."

An Arab author from Andalusia (Moorish Spain) refers to an Arabic version of an
Indian book on music with tunes and melodies.”

The Hindu chiefs, also showed a sympathetic interest in Islam, and a Hindu rajah of
Mehrog, a place said to be between Kashmir and the Punjab, obtained from Mansurah
and Arab linguist who translated the Holy Quran into the local language at his request.
The Arab and the local population became so closely integrated that the Sindi troops
fought on behalf of the Khalifah in distant countries, even as far as the Byzantine
frontier.

The Arabs established the military cantonments, which were turned into the centers of
fine arts and culture.

They founded a number of towns like Mahfuza and Mansura.

The Muslims established various centers of architecture and fine arts, which provided
many skilled painters and calligraphists in India.

Sindi language was evolved.
c. Intellectual Impacts:

During the Ummayads and the early Abbasid period, the Arabs were, not only at the
height of their political power, but were also very active in the intellectual field and made
every effort to acquire knowledge from all sources.

After the Arab invasion of India in 712 AD, the most important development took place
in the exchange of intellect between the Arabs and the Indians.

The Indo-Arab intellectual collaboration was at its height during two distinct periods. It
began during the reign of Mansur. As Sindh was under the actual rule of Khalifah
Mansur, there came embassies from the part of India to Baghdad, and among them were
scholars, who brought important books with them. The second fruitful period was the
reign of Harun Rashid when the famous Barmakid family, which provided wazirs to the
Abbasid caliphs for half a century, was at the zenith of its power. The Barkamids sent
scholars to the Indo-Paksistan subcontinent to study medicine and pharmacology.
Sind became the link through which the fruits of Indian learning were transmitted to the Arabs, and by
them made available to the civilied world.

Arabs were the masters of sciences and arts. They learnt a lot of knowledge from the
Hindus like astrology, astronomy.

The Abbasid caliphs started utilizing the services of Hindu scholars from Sind to translate
Sanskritic works on astronomy, mathematics and medicine. The Hindu scholars
translated the Greek books into Arabic language at Dar-ul-Trarjuma. They engaged
Hindu scholars to come to Baghdad, made tehm the chief physicians of their hospitals
and ordered them to translate from Sanskrit into Arabic books on medicine,
pharmacology, toxicology, philosophy, astrology and other subjects.

“the earliest Indo-Arab intellectual contact recorded in history in 771, when a Hindu
scholar of astronomy and mathematics reached Baghdad with a deputation from Sind and
took with him Sanskrit work (Siddhanta by Brahmangupta) which he translated into
Arabic with the help of an Arab mathematician.

Indian doctors enjoyed
great prestige at Baghdad. An Indian doctor, Manka, was
specially sent for from India when Harun Rashid fell ill and could not be cured by the
doctors at Baghdad. Manka’s treatment was successful and not only was he richly
awarded by the Khalifah, but was entrusted with the translation of medical books from
Sanskrit. Another Indian physician was called in when a cousin of the caliph suffered
from a paralytic stroke and was given up for lost by the Greek physician.

Many Indian medicines, some of them in their original names like artifal, which is the
Hindi triphal ( a combination of three fruits), found their way into Arab pharmacopoeia.

Astrology and palmistry also received consideravle attention at Baghdad. Other subjects
on which books were translated were logic, alchemy, magic, ethics, statecraft and art of
war, but the books which gained greatest popularity were linked with literature.

The Indians introduced the games of chess and chausar to the Arabs, which the Arabs
later spread to the other parts of the world.

The Sindi language came to be written in Arabic script and in that manner, Sind was
linked up with the main-stream of Islamic culture. Later the Quarn was translated in Sindi
language.

The Muslims in Sind took active interest in Islamic studies. Some scholars of Hadith like
Abud Maashor Najeeb and Raja-al-Sindhi gained recognition even in Arabia.

An Arab historian wrote a book known as “Chach Nama”. This book describes the
history of Sind, which sheds light on the socio-economic, political, religious and cultural
aspects of Sind at the arrival of Arabs in Sindh. The style of writing this book changed
the traditions of history writing.
d. Social Impacts:

The caste system in India was broken by Islam.

They married the Sindi women and as a result a new class arose which was less Arab in
blood but Arab in culture and Islam in religion.

The Sindhi temper had much in common with the Arabs.

The Living standards were changed.

The Arab rulers adopted local practices to a much greater extent than did the Ghaznavids
later at Lahore, or the Turks and the Afghans at Delhi. According to Mas’udi , the ruler
of Mansurah had eighty war elephants and occasionally rode in a chariot drawn by
elephants. Like the Hindu rajas, he wore ear-rings as well as a necklace, and wore his
hair long.

The Arabs of Mansurah were generally dressed like the people of Iraq, but the dress of
the ruler was similar to that of the Hindu rajas.
e. Mystic Impacts:

Some western scholars think that several elements in Islamic Sufism are of Indian origin.
This view is largely speculative, but the links of Sind with Islamic Sufism are definite.
The great early sufi, Bayazid of Bistam, had a Sindhi as his spiritual teacher. He once
said, “I learnt the science of annihilation (ilm-i-fana) and Tauhid (Unitarianism)
from Abu Ali (of Sind) and Abu Ali learnt the lessons of Islamic Unitarianism from
me.”

Meanwhile Professor Nicholson also says, “the Sufi conception of the passing away
(fana) of individual in Universal Being is certainly, I think, of Indian origin. Its first
great exponent was the Persian mystic, Bayazid of Bistam, who may have received it
from his teacher Abu’ Ali of Sind.”

The close association of Sind with Sufism is maintained to this day, and one of the most
marked features of Sind is the dominant place which Sufism occupies in her literature and
religious life.
e. Administrative Impacts:

The Arabs divided Sindh into a number of districts called Iqtas and an Arab military
officer was put in charge of a district.

The officers in charge of the district were given a lot of discretion in the matters of
administration but were required to render military service to the governor.

Soldiers were given jagirs. Endowments of lands were also given to the Muslim saints
and scholars.

A large number of colonies came into being. The names of some of these colonies were
Mansura and Mahfuza etc.

The people of Sind were allowed to mange their local affairs a principle of policy as well
as the dictate of the situation.
f. Economic Impacts:

After the Indian invasion of Arabs, they brought new economic concepts to India, which
proved an economic revolution for the Indian people.

The Arabs introduced the interest free economy, which was an opposite to the Hindu
concept of concentration of wealth in one hand; the Bania.

Life in the Arab dominion of Sind and Multan was simple, but agriculture and commerce
were highly developed. Masudi mentions a large number of hamlets in the principalities
of Multan and Mansurah, and the whole country was well cultivated and covered with
trees and fields.

There was active commerce between Sind and other parts of the Muslim world.
Caravans were often passing and repassing that country and Khurasan, most commnly by
the route of Kabul and Bamian. Sindi Hindus, who were excellent accountants and
traders, had a major share in this commerce, and Alor is mentioned as a great commercial
center.

The prosperity of the area may be judged by the fact that Sind and Multan contributed
eleven and a half million dirhams to Abbasid revenue, while the total revenue from the
Kabul area in cash and cattle was less than two and a quarter million dirhams.

They followed the Islamic concept of distribution of wealth through Zakat and Charity.

The Arab Muslims built infrastructure, which provided new opportunities of employment
to the Indian people.

Arabs levied tax on land at the ratio of 2/5th of the total production of the crops.
f. Political Impacts:

Era of Raja Dahir ended and a new beam of light emerged on the political scene of India.

The native population were groaning under the tyrannical rule of Raja Dahir

Though the Muslim political power in Sind began to decline in the later 9th century, Islam
continued to live even after the fade out of Muslim power.

In the political field, the arrangements made by Muhammad bin Qasim with nonMuslims provided the basis for later Muslim policy in the subcontinent.
g. Judicial Impacts:

Rough and ready justice was given to the people. There was no uniformity of law or of
the courts.

The Arab chiefs were allowed to have their courts and they could inflict capital
punishments of their dependents.

There was a Qazi at the capital and there were similar qazis in the districts. They all
decided cases according to the Islamic law.

The Hindus decided their cases and disputes regarding marriages, inheritance and other
social matters in their Panchayats.
h. Military Interaction:

The Arabs introduced new ways of war techniques in India.

The Arabs were the ruler of a mighty empire. They defeated the Romans, Persian,
Bayzantine, Greeks, and learnt new ways of warfare from them.

The Arabs brought these war tools like the use of fire-works, cannons (Manjneeq) etc.
and techniques in India.
f. Consequences:
1. Islam as a rising power:
2. Sind as independent province:
3. Mission to conquer other areas:
4. End of absolutism:
5. Introduction of new administrative set-up:
6. Coordination with the governor of Iraq:
Character of Mohammad bin Qasim
Outline:
1. Introduction
2. Character
a. Personality
b. Valor and bravery
c. As a disciplined soldier
d. Born leader of man
e. As a statesman
f. A just ruler
3. Administration
a. political
b. Military
c. Administrative
Conclusion
____________________________
1. Introduction
 Mohammad bin Qasim was one of the most fascinating personality of history.
 He was a poet and statesman, intrepid soldier and a great administrator.
 His conquest of Sind left indelible imprints on the history of this region. Therefore his
conquests are described as “one of the romances of history.” (lane-poole)
2. Character
a. Personality:
 Mohammad bin Qasim had a very fascinating personality.
 He was endowed with the excellent qualities of head and heart, pen and mind.
 According to S.M. Ikram, “Mohammad bin Qasim ‘s personality was warm and
humane, strong against opponents, tender feature towards friends.”
b. Valor and bravery:
 He was brave soldier and commander. This is evident from the fact that the manner in
which he conquered the vast territories between Sind and Multan by the dint of his
courageousness and meager resources at his disposal.
 Lane-poole describes the story of Mohammad bin Qasim as adventure “one of the
romances of history.” (lane-poole)
c. As a disciplined soldier:
 Discipline and perseverance were hallmark of his personality.
 He never became disloyal to the commands of his Caliph. At the time of his recall, he
was master of the whole territory between Sind and the whole Multan. Yet he submitted
the commands of his caliph and had never questioned death warrants. He submitted to the
execution with fearless dignity.
d. Born leader of man:




Mohammad bin Qasim possessed extra-ordinary leader qualities.
He commanded respect and allegiance of both soldiers and people.
As a general and statesman, he exhibited leadership qualities.
Though his army comprised of heterogeneous elements, but he owed its respect and
allegiance. People mourned his death. As a mark of popularity, the people built his statue
to the commemorate his services.
e. As a statesman:
 He proved himself an accomplished statesman. It is evident from the efficient
administration of the Brahmanabad settlement.
 S.M. Ikram is of the view in his book, “History of the Muslim Civilization”, “he
combined great courage and resourcefulness with moderation and statesmanship of
highest order.”
 He achieved his objectives by negotiations and grant of liberal terms than by sanguine
warfare.
f. A just ruler:
 Mohammad bin Qasim proved himself to be a just and tolerant ruler.
 He was humane and considerate towards non-Muslims.
 His justice is exemplary as is evident from his instructions to his officials, as he said,
“deal honestly between the people.”
3. Administration
a. political:
 He established control over a vast region within a little span of time.
 He brought peace and tranquility to the region, founded such a system which was role
model for his successors.
 Mohammad bin Qasim had a quick grasp of the situation and manner in which he
handled the situation was extra-ordinary.
 He made systematic efforts to seek out officers of the old regime, showered honours and
favours on them and made them collaborators in the task of administration.
 First among them was Moka, claimant to the chieftainship of Bait, a fortress on the banks
of the Indus. He was captured and brought before Mohammad bin Qasim , who treated
him with utmost kindness and consideration. His territory was restored to him “and a
hundred thousand dirhams were given as a reward. A green umbrella surmounted
by a peacock,a chair and a robe of honour were bestowed upon him. All his Takars
(Thakurs) were favoured with robes and saddled horses.” (S.M. Ikram) After this
treatment, Moka became a faithful ally.
 Sisakar, a minister of Raja Dahir, was appointed Wazir of Mohammad bin Qasim. He
offered to surrender if his life was spared. He brought the Muslim women, whose capture
by pirates had brought Hajjaj’s wrath upon Dahir and became the principal adviser of the
Arabs. “Mohammad bin Qasim told him all his secrets, always took his advice and
consulted him on all the civil affairs of the government, his political measures and
the means of prolonging his success.”
 About this time a messenger from Kaksa, a cousin of Dahir, arrived at the Arab camp.
Mohammad bin Qasim received him cordially and tickled his vanity by saying that the
princes of Dahir’s family were “all wise, learned, trustworthy and honest.” He offered
to make Kaksa his cousellor and this offer was accepted.
 Trust begets trust and the generosity shown by Mohammad bin Qasim to leading Indian
administrators was rewarded by their loyal and enthusiastic cooperation.
 In Brahamanabad settlement, he left the affairs of people to their own discretion. He
appointed two cousins of Raja Dahir as his associates
 His benevolent and systematic regime was so popular that the historian Baladhuri,
dealing with the sad end of the Arab general, says: “the people of Hind wept for
Muhammad bin Qasim and preserved his likeness at Kiraj.”
b. Military:
 The conquest of Sind is by no means an insignificant achievement and its value and
significance may amply be gauged by the fact that at least five expeditions towards the
conquest of Sind had failed before Mohammad bin Qasim.
 He conquered Sind with insignificant men, only six thousand (6000) soldiers and the
manner in which he fought battles in inhospitable terrain.
 A series of conquest from Debul, Naron, Siftan, Sesam, Rawar, Brahamanabad, Aror,
Multan etc. was made.
 He established military cantonments in Mansura and Mahfooza etc.
c. Administrative:
 The brief period of Mohammad bin Qasim is known for his administrative achievements
i.e. Administration of the settlement of Brahamanabad.
 He divided it into four (4) parts and in each part, he appointed Kotwal and each Kotwal
was a non-Muslim.
 He conducted population census.
 He distributed 12 dirhams to each man during the siege i.e. the population was duly
compensated after the siege.
 He introduced the judicious system of distribution of wealth. Revenue of Sind rose to
10.5 million dirhams due to tax reforms, Jaziya, Khiraj etc.
 Mohammad bin Qasim divided Sind into a number of districts (Iqtas) and Arab military
officials were appointed as the ruler of these Iqtas.
 The system of justice speaks volume of his administration. A ready and easy accessible
system of justice was introduced. There was no uniformity of law or courts in Sind before
him. Arab chiefs were allowed to have their own courts. Qazis were appointed for every
district and they decided cases under the Islamic basis.
 For non-Muslims, they had their own laws e.g. marriage, inheritance and were resolved
through the Panchiati system.
Conclusion:
Mahmood Ghaznavi
Outline:
1. Introduction
2. Three schools of thought about Mahmood Ghaznavi’s Invasion
a. Hindu Nationalists School of Thought:

Acts of loot and plunder

Loot the wealth of India, raider-in-chief, who came, burnt, killed, plundered,
captured and went away

Not settled in India

Lust for wealth

Shed blood of Muslims in Persia and Central Asia
b. Rightist Muslim School of Thought:

A champion of Islam

Transplanted Islam in India

Alliance against Mahmood having the religious character

Saints and priests like Data Ganj Bukhsh, Sheikh Ismail Bukhari, who
accompanied with Mehmood Ghazna
c. Military School of Thought:

(comprised of S.M Jaffar, Dr. Nazim and Ishwari Parshad)

Great military general and conqueror, his ambitions

To satisfy his ambition of conquest

Historians expose the obvious non-religious character of his campaigns
because idea of holy was over at that time
2. Cause/ Motives of his invasions
i.Religious Motives
a. Appointed by Iraqi Caliph Qadir Billa
b. Duty of Sovereign
c. Temples as place of intrigues
d. He never enforced Islam on the Hindus
e. Composition of Army of Mahmood Ghaznavi
f. Religious liberty to Hindus
g. Destruction of Hindu Temples due to military requirements
ii.Political Motives
a. Ambitious for expanding his empire
b. Strategic position of North-West Frontier of India (Political Necessity)
c. Tussle with Jaypal
d. To establish Central Asian Empire
e. Violation of terms of treaties by the Hindu Rajas
iii.Economic Motives
3. Consequences / Effects of his invasions
i. Exposed the Myth of Hindu strength
ii. Psychological Impact
iii. Contribution for propagation of Islam
iv. Destroyed the centers of Hindu culture from archeological point of view
v. Punjab as part of Muslim Empire
vi. Great cultural impact
4. Achievements of Mahmood Ghaznavi
i. Establishment of vast empire
ii. Never suffered defeat in 33 years
iii. Paved the way for propagation of Islam
iv. Transformation of Heterogeneous army into war machines (invincible)
v. Development of Ghazni
vi. Efficient Administrative System
vii. Establishment of a new city (Mansurpura)
5. Conclusion/ Analysis
Mahmood Ghaznavi
Outline
Different schools of thought about his invasions:
Three Distinct Schools of Thought
1. Hindu Nationalist Historians:
 Acts of loot and plunder
 Not settled in India
 Lust for wealth
 Hindu general in his army
 Shed blood of Muslims in Persia and Central Asia
2. Muslim/ Rightist School of Thought:
 Transplanted Islam in India
 Especially engaged by Caliph Qadir Billa
 Alliance against Mahmood having the religious character
 Smashed the myth of Hindu might and destroyed the political fiber of Hindu
society
 He brought the Muslim saints and priests like Data Ganj Bukhsh, Sheikh Ismail
Bukhari, who settled in India and preached the message of Islam
3. 3rd School of Thought: (comprised of S.M Jaffar, Dr. Nazim and Ishwari Parshad)
 To satisfy his ambition of conquest
 Historians expose the obvious non-religious character of his campaigns because
idea of holy was over at that time
 Needed money to finance his campaign against his Central Asian Enemies
 Conquered India as second line of defence and wanted friendly Punjab and Upper
Sind to strengthen his line of defence. His consolidation of power in Central Asia
was premised on Indian conquest
 Destructed temples because those were centers of military economic and political
power
 India, Punjab as strategic depth
Nature of Mahmood’s invasions
Religious Motives:
According to a famous Muslim historian, Farishta, “Sultan Mahmood really wanted to spread
and consolidate Islam in Indo-Pak sub continent”
i.


ii.

iii.


iv.

v.



vi.


vii.
Appointment by Caliph Qadir Billa of Baghdad:
Mehmood of Ghazna was appointed by Qadir Billa of Baghdad.
He gave support to the Sunni Khalifah of Baghdad by defeating his Isma’ili opponents at
Multan and Mansurah.
Duty of the sovereign to spread Islam:
His victories in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent certainly raised the prestige of Muslim
arms, but it was difficult to accept the claim made by his court historians that his
expeditions to this continent were undertaken solely for the glory of Islam.
Destruction of the temples
Centers of intriguing as well as for wealth as Hindu women gave ornaments to the Hindu
was lords against their common enemy, Mahmood of Ghazna.
According to Farishta, “there was great enthusiasm even among the masses. Hindu
women sold their ornaments to help war effort, and sent their savings to the army.”
Mahmood never forced religion on them
Woosley Haig in Cambridge History of India says, “Mahmod ws the first to carry
the banner of Islam into the heart of India and to treat the path in which so many
followed him.”
Composition of Hindu troops in his army,
Non-religious character; generals in his army like Tilak Rai, Hazari Rai, Sonia Rai etc.
were the famous generals in Mahmood Ghazni’s forces.
They fought with the Muslims against their co-religionists. According to Bosworth, it
appears that they served under their own commander, the sipahasalah.r-i-Hinduyan, and
were employed as a systematic check on the sultan’s own people, the Turks.
”They formed a counterweight to the Turks and seem to have been considered in
many ways more reliable than them.”
Religious liberty granted to the Hindus:
Granted Non-Muslims full religious independence
Separate quarters at Ghazni, college and market at Ghazni for the propagation of Hindu
culture and Sanskrit works. If he was a fanatic, how is it possible to do these things?
Destruction of Hindu temples was due to military programmes:


He never destroyed the temples in the time of peace, having extensive wealth, which
looted by him. It is a wrong and baseless thing. All the resources and wealth would be the
wealth of conqueror as it happened in the time of Chandargupta Mauria and Pushmitra.
Hence the view that Mahmood invaded India again and again to preach Islam by breaking
the idols and desecrating the temples is historically wrong and psychologically culture.
Political Motive:
i. Ambitious man , great general to extend his empire to this country
ii. North west frontier of India strategic position:
 Strong defense line through conquering Punjab and Sindh
iii. Not interested in the conquest of the whole India
iv. To save Kabul and Afghanistan
v. Political betrayal of those Hindu Rajas against Mahmood Ghaznavi
vi. Hindu Fight against Mahmood’s allies
vii. Political necessity
viii. Tussle with Jaypal: ruler king of Hindu Shahi Kingdom of the Punjab, invaded
Ghazna during the time of Sabuktigin. Issue was unsettled
Nand Pal supported opposition of Mahmood in Multan
ix. To establish a central Asian empire, political rather than religious
x. Violation of the terms of treaties by the Hindu Rajas:
 He defeated the raja of Bhatiya (modern Bhera) who had been on friendly terms with his
father and was expected to aid him against Jaipal, but had not fulfilled these expectations.
 Mahmood appointed Sukhpal, a grandson of Jaipal, who had accepted Islam and now
known as Nawasah Shah, as governor of Waihind and returned to Ghani. Nawasah Shah
apostatized, started expelling Muslim officers and proposed to rule either as an
independent king or as the vassal of his uncle, Anandpal.
 He had obtained help from the Hindu rajas of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kanauj, Delhi
and Ajmer.
Economic Motive:


In fact, Mehmood was a famous and well-known general. As a general, he knew the
importance of wealth for waging a new expedition. Therefore he needed money to
finance his campaigns
The most dramatic of Mahmood’s campaigns was against Somnath, the wealthy religious
center on the shores of the Indian Ocean. The dash to this distant goal, through an
unknown and unfriendly area, across the deserts Rajputana and marshes of Cutch, was a
remarkable feat of courage, planning, resourcefulness and tenacity of purpose. In spite of
the hardships, which Mahmud and his army had to suffer on the return journey, the
expedition was completely successful. In its object, Mahmud returned laden with vast
riches, till then unknown and unheard of in Ghazni.
i. S.M Jaffar and Prof. Habib declare it Economic necessity of raider, looter
ii. Wealth is necessary for political power whenever India gave him a chance, he availed it
 Fully realized the importance of wealth in attaining the political power when India
offered him that chance, he availed himself of it
iii. Stanley Lane Pool called him ‘slave of wealth’ (basically wrong) ‘the looters,
plunderers or dacoits can never occupy so elevated a place in history as
Mahmood of Ghazna have.’
Impacts of Mahmood’s Invasions
1. Destroyed the myth of Hindu Might:
 He destroyed the myth of Hindu might and exposed the weakness of India. Destroyed the
political centers of India like Jaypal that is Hindu Shahi family. Ghauri was inspired by
Mahmood’s invasions.
2. Psychological Impact:
 Sher Muhammad Garewal says in (Islamian-e-Hind ka Shandar Mazi) the Splendid Past
of Indian Muslims: Impact of Muslims superiority over the Hindus and Muslims cannot
be defeated because Ghazna was never defeated in India.
3. Contribution towards the propagation of Islam:
 Data Ganj Bakhsh, Sheikh Ismail Bukhari were the well-known mystics of Mehmood’s
time, who came to India as immigrants to India during the process of conquest and settled
in India.
 They started preaching the message of Islam through their mystical activities, in which
they stressed upon the concept of “Unity for all (Sul-hi-Kul).
 Due to their spreading, Islam became a flourishing religion of India.
4. Destroyed the centers of Indian Culture from archeological point of view:
 Destroyed the monuments, statutes and caused great loss to Indian heritage.
5. Punjab became part of Mulsim Empire (1021-22 A.D)
6. Exchange of knowledge:
 Great personalities were associated with his court like Al-Beruni, Al-Farabi, Utibi, Farrukhi. He
established new city of Lahore (Mansurpura) and patronized Persian language.

A Persian scholar, Ferdosi in “Shah Nama” writes: “Sultan Mahmood of Ghazna was
a great patron of learning and his court was a rendezvous of scholars from all parts of the
Muslim world.’
7. Preaching of Islam
8. Contact between two cultures
9. Impact of the Hindu civilization
10. Glory of Ghazni
11. Further conquests by Mulsim rulers
12. Explosion of local military strength
Achievements of Mahmood Ghaznavi:
1.



Establishment of vast empire extending from Iraq and Caspian to Gnages:
During 32 years rule, Afghanistan, vast part of Persia, Transoxiana, Punjab
He conquered Kangra, Tarain, Thanesar, Kanauj, Kalinjar
He defeated badly the collective forces of the Hindu rajas of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar,
Kanauj, Delhi and Ajmer.
 From east to west 2000 miles and from north to south, about 1400 miles.
2. Never suffered defeat in India during 33 years
 He was brave and resourceful general, who during thirty years of ceaseless warfare never
suffered defeat.
3. Paved way for propagation of Islam:
 Data Ganj Bakhsh, Sheikh Ismail Bukhari were the well-known mystics of Mehmood’s
time, who came to India as immigrants to India during the process of conquest and settled
in India.
 They started preaching the message of Islam through their mystical activities, in which
they stressed upon the concept of “Unity for all (Sul-hi-Kul).
 Due to their spreading, Islam became a flourishing religion of India.
4. Transformation of heterogeneous army into an invincible was machine:
 His army consisted of Hindus, Turkish, Afghan, Persian elements.
 Mehmood transformation these heterogeneous elements of army into an invincible was
machine.
5. Development of Ghazni:
 Historians did not shed light on the intellectual and sochalistic services of Mehmood
Ghazni. Rather they give so much intention to the causes of Indian invasion. It will be
gross exaggeration that the historians are more interested in and
 Cultural center of mathematics, scholars, poets, astrologers, historians
 He was a cultured monarch, and by his munificence attracted great poets and scholars to
his court and mad Ghazni the rival of Baghdad in regard to the splendour of its edifices
and the number of men of culture and learning.
6. Efficient Administrative System
7. Established Museum in Ghazni
8. Built new city of Lahore called Mansurpura
S.M Nazim: (The life and times of Mahmood Ghaznavi) “He was the first sovereign to give
practical shape to the idea of Muslim empire in India.”
Mahmud, as Gibbin remarks, was “undoubtedly one of the greatest kings of the world.”
Character of Mahmud Ghaznvi
Outline:
1. Introduction
2. Character
a. Personality
b. Bravery and Chivalary
c. As a great general
d. Born leader of man
e. As a tolerant ruler
f. A just sovereign
g. Religious inclination
h. Generosity
i. Man of refined taste
3. Conclusion
_____________________________________
1. Introduction



Mahmood Ghazni is “one of the greatest personalities in the annals of Indo-Pak subcontinent.
He was the most brilliant general and conqueror of his time.
He was a statesman, intrepid soldier and a great administrator.
2. Character
a. Personality:
 Mahmood Ghazni was a man of medium height, but strong built.
 There is a difference of opinion about his features.
 Accodring to Ibn-e-Athir and Ibn-e-Jozi, Ghazna was a man of attractive personality and
attractive physical features. A small beard on his rounded chin appeared very attractive.
 Nizam-ul-Mulk Tusi has described that Ghana did not possess good physical features.
 He was endowed with the excellent qualities of head and heart, pen and mind.
b. Valor and bravery:
 He was brave soldier and commander. This is evident from the fact that the manner in
which he conquered the vast territories between Sind and Multan by the dint of his
courageousness and meager resources at his disposal.
 Lane-poole describes the story of Mohammad bin Qasim as adventure “one of the
romances of history.” (lane-poole)
c. As a disciplined soldier:
 Discipline and perseverance were hallmark of his personality.
 He maintained discipline in the army ranks, due to which he was never defeated in 32
years of ceaseless warfare.
 His army consisted of hetrogenouys elements like Afghans, Hindus, Turkish etc. who
showed great respect to his commander, Mehmood of Ghazni.
d. Born leader of man:
 Mehmood possessed extra-ordinary leader qualities.
 He commanded respect and allegiance of both soldiers and people.
 As a general and statesman, he exhibited leadership qualities.
 Though his army comprised of heterogeneous elements, but he owed its respect and
allegiance.
e. As a statesman:
 He proved himself an accomplished statesman.
 He achieved his objectives by negotiations and grant of liberal terms than by sanguine
warfare.
f. A just ruler:
 Mehmood Ghazna proved himself to be a just and tolerant ruler.
 He was humane and considerate towards non-Muslims.
 He established control over a vast region within a little span of time
Chronological order of the Sultans of Delhi
Slave Dynasty:
Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak
Sultan Shams-ud-din Iltutmish
Razia Sultana
Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmood
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban
Prince Mohammad ==== elder son of Balban
Bughra Khan
==== younger son of Balban
Kaiqbad
==== son of Bughra Khan
1206-10
1211-36
1236-40
1246-66
1266-86
Khilji Dynasty:
Jalal-ud-din Khilji
Ala-ud-din Khilji
1290-1296
1296-1326
Tughlaq Dynasty:
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq
Mohammad bin Tughlaq
Feroz Shah Tughlaq
1320-1325
1325-1351
1351-1388
Sayyid Dynasty:
Khizr Khan
Mubarak Shah
Muhammad Shah
Alam Shah
Lodhi Dynasty:
Bahlol Lodhi
Sikandar Lodhi
Ibrahim Lodhi
1451-1488
1489-1517
1517-1526
Chronological order of the Mughals
Babur
Humayun
Akbar
Jahangir
Shah Jahan
Aurang zaib Alamgir
1526-1530
1530-40, 1545-56
1556-1605
1605-1628
1628-1658
1658-1707
Q. Comparison among Ghauri, Aibak and Iltutmish:

The political condition of the sub-continent at the time of Shihab-ud-Din Ghauri was in no way
better that of which Mahmud of Ghazni found on the eve of his invasion. The whole country was
divided into a number of independent states. No central controlling authority was present in the
subcontinent and the condition of India was very miserable. The subcontinent was consisted of
the Muslim provinces and the Hindu kingdoms. As a great politician and far-sighted statesman,
Ghauri realized the rotten political condition of India and therefore decided to establish a
permanent kingdom here.

Shihab-ud-Din Ghauri who exploited this situation did not confine himself, like Mahmud, to
military raids and glory, but laid firm foundation of the Muslim empire in the indo-Pakistan
subcontinent to do so he had to bring under this control Muslim kingdoms on the frontier, and in
572/1175 soon after the conquest of Ghazni, he occupied Multan and Ucch. At that time the most
frequented route from Ghazni to India was not the well known Khyber pass, or the Bolan pass in
the south, but the Gomal pass which led to present Dera Ismail khan and to upper Sindh Sagar
Doab. Shihab-ud-din followed this route and for some years left Peshawar and Lahore
undisturbed.

The death of Sultan Muhammad Ghuri within fourteen years of the victory at Tarain was a great
blow to the rising Muslim power in India. But his main task had been accomplished at that time
of his death, practically the whole of northern India was under Muslim rule

Ghauri’s prime and foremost aim was to found a permanent Muslim empire in India and he
furnished during his life time all the resources required for the maintemance of this empire. He
trained under his guidance a number of ablest administrators and generals. And in Aibak,
Illtutmish, Nasir ur din Qabacha and Muhammad Bakhtiyar khalji, he was leaving a group of
capable officers who could complete this task. The Sultan was without a son but when courtier
sympathized with him on this, he smiled and said that the large number of slaves whom had
brought up and trained where like sons to him. This was not wishful thinking, for the sultan’s
well trained slaves, who rose to high position and later established the slave dynasty, proved
worthy heirs. He was the founder of the Muslim empire in India, but was free from fanaticism.

Indo-Pak subcontinent was originally a salve dynasty and the rulers who succeeded him for
nearly ninety years were either slaves or descendants of slaves. Qutb-ud-din Aibak had in his
early life been sold to the Qadi of Nishapur, who impressed by his ability. After the Qadi death
he was sold to Shahab-ud-din Ghauri under whom he served with distinction, and in course of
time was made the viceroy of his Indian possessions. On 24 June 1206, three months after
Muhammad Ghauri’s death he was crowned at Lahore. The contemporary ruler of Ghur
conferred on him the title of sultan, sent him the royal insignia and standard, but his formal
manumission was not obtained till 605/1208.owing to the disturbed situation in Ghazni and Ghur,
he never moved east to Lahore ,which remained his capital throughout his reign.

Qutb-ud-din Aibak was the first independent Sultan who laid the foundation of Muslim rule in
the subcontinent. A great warrior, a man of infinite courage and indefatigable energy of mind and
body, he stands as a prominent figure among the rulers who rose through sheer merit and efforts
to the position of glory and power.

In the beginning, Qutb-ud-din Aibak had also tussle with Kabacha, ruler of Multan and Sind,
Yalduz, ruler of Ghazni and Ikhtiar-ud-din Bakhtiar, ruler of Bengal and Bihar. But he tried to
resolve the issues by making the matrimonial alliances with those rulers. On his accession he took
great pains in the establishment of peace and tranquility throughout his dominions and
strengthened his position by matrimonial relations with the royal chiefs. He married the sister of
Taj-ud-din Yalduz and gave his sister in marriage to Qabacha and his daughter to Iltutmish.
Iltutmish (1211-1236)
Iltutmish as Real Founder of Sultanate Period
Shamsuddin Iltutmish was a slave of Qutb-ud-din Aibak. Iltutmish is often regarded as the real
founder of Slave Dynasty in India. Qutb-ud-Din, no doubt, made extensive conquests, but he did
not get enough time to consolidate them. The work of consolidation fell to the lot of Iltutmish.
He completed what Qutb-ud-din had begun. He was the most fascinating personality of the
Medieval India. He consolidated the nascent Muslim state in India and developed it into a
flourishing empire. But Iltutmish is regarded as the real founder of Turkish dominion in India.
Sir Vastava describes him as just defacto ruler of Medieval period.
Challenges Confromted by Altamish

Turkihs nobles had placed Aibak’s son Aram Shah to throne unfit to rule.

Oppositon of Ulemas

Opposition from Yelduz and Nasir-ud-Din Kabacha (slaves of Shahab-ud-Din Ghaouri)
and Altumish (slave of Qutb-ud-Din Aibak)

Kabacha had Multan and Sind (Occupied territory from Multan to Sind and Lahore.)

Yalduz occupied Ghazni and considered himself ‘King of Ghazni’

Ikhtiar-ud-din Bakhtiar’s successor was supreme in Bengal and Bhear and turned against
Iltitmish.

Threat from Hindu Chiefs of Rajputana
When Iltutmish assumed power, atmosphere in his empire was confused and chaotic. Everything
was in a nebulous and undefined state. Lane-pole describes this situation as, “a time of
confusion, followed the death of Aibak.” Iltutmish had to confront the following challenges;
i. Turkihs nobles:
Turkish nobles had placed Aibak’s son Aram Shah to the throne, who was ‘unfit to rule.’ He was
a puppet in the hands of nobles and his misrule opened the way to rivals. Amid this confusion,
Iltutmish came to power and Turkish nobles had assembled around Delhi at this time. He had to
reign in these nobles.
ii. Oppositon of Ulemas
The Ulemas of Dehil called hi a slave and considered his rule unlawful from Shariat point of
view. But he saw them the letter of Aibak for his name as Aibak’s successor to the throne.
iii. Powerful governors:
Powerful nobles like Taj-ud-Yalduz and Nasir-ud-Din Kabacha were jealous of Iltutmish and did not
consider him equal to themselves as they were slaves of Shahab-ud-din Ghauri and Iltutmish was a slave
of Qutb-ud-din Aibak. Therefore, the most vigorous challenge came from Yalduz and Kabacha.
Like Kabacha had Multan and Sind to the mouth of Indus. He controlled the territory from Multan to Sind
and Lahore.
Similarly, Yalduz occupied the territory of Ghazni and considered himself ‘the King of Ghazni’ and sent
Iltutmish the rob of office of Sultan of India. It was a sort of insult to Iltutmish.
iv. Ikhtiar-ud-Din Bakhtiar’s successor:
Ikhtiar-ud-Din Bakhtiar’s successor was supreme in Bengal and Bihar, who turned against
Iltutmish
He also began coins in his own names, which showed that he commenced the financial
autonomy, which led towards the provincial autonomy of Bengal from the Indian Muslim
empire.
v. Hindu Chieftains of Rajputana:
Hindu Chieftains of Rajputana were the determined enemies of the newly established Muslim
state. They also raised threat to end the newly established Muslim state.
Achievements to Counter the Threats:
Iltutmish was not the man to fatter in the face of these difficulties. So he set himself the task of
re-organizing the state. Iltutmish took the following steps;
1. Iltutmish reduced the Turkish nobles to submission and defeated them. He also formed
“the Forty” by defeating
2. In 1216, Iltutmish overwhelmed Taj-ud-dinYalduz, at that time, was driven by Khwarzim
Shah from Ghazni and occupied territory from Lahore and Thanisar. Iltutmish defeated
Yalduz in the battle of Tarain. He was captured and sent to prison.
3. Iltutmish very effectively countered the threat of Hindus of Rajputana.
4. In 1225, Altutmish moved to Bengal and received homage from refractory rebellions.
That governor of Bengal rebelled against Iltutmish. He defeated the Governor and
appointed Nasir-ud-din Mahmood as a governor of Bengal.
5. In 1217, Iltutmish obtained the possession of Northern Punjab by defeating Kabacha.
Kabacha fled towards Sind and established his rule over there. With the passage of time,
Kabacha’s power grew considerably weak on account of his skirmishes with Jala-ud-din
Khwarzim Shah and his allies i.e. Khokhars, Ghakhars etc. Iltutmish, taking advantage of
this situation, attacked Ucch in 1228, marched towards Bhakkar and occupied the chief
cities of this territory. Kabacha in desperation in 1230, drowned himself in the River
Indus.
Consolidation of Muslim Conquest and Further Expansion of Muslim Rule

After recovering Shahab-ud-Din Ghauri’s conquests, Iltutmish made appreciable
advances to Rajputana and trans-gangatic tracts.

His forward policy towards Punjab achieved great success, this policy constituted an
effective answer to the first challenge directed by Hindus against the nascent Muslim
state in India.

In 1234, he took expeditions towards Malwa and Ujjain, which completed the
submission of all Northern India.

To the domains of Aibak, Iltutmish added lower Sind and parts of Malwa. He
transformed a loosely patched up congeries of Ghaurid acquisitions in Hindustan into a
well-lit and compact state.
Saved Delhi Sultanate from the Mongol Threat

The new government experienced the impact of this gigantic military movement when
Jalal-ud-din, the ruler of Khwarizm, whose father had first attracted the wrath of
Changaiz Khan, crossed the border (Indus River) and sought aid from Iltutmish.

The latter refused to be embroiled in a dispute with the Mongol chief, agve evasive
replies. After the death of Iltutmish, they destroyed Lahore (1214).

They remained entrenched for several years and nearly half a century the principal
occupation of the Delhi government was to defend the subcontinent from the fate which
Central and Western Asia had suffered.
Achievements
i. Restored order in Empire
 Defeated Yalduz in battle of Tarain
 Defeated Kabacha
 Also made victory over Bengal’s Khilji governor and appointed Nasi-ud-Din
Mahmood as governor
 Countered the threat of Hindus of Rajputana
ii. Consolidation of Mulsim conquest and further expansion of Muslim rule:

His expeditions were expanded into the regions like Malwa as far as Ujjain

He also ecovered Shahab-ud-Din Ghauri’s conquests
iii. Saved Delhi Sultanate from Mongol Threat:

Iltitmish refused to provide asylum to Khwarzim Shah in India
iv. Establishment of Administrative System:

Iltitmish esatblsihed such a compact system, which led towards an efficient
administration.
v. Contribution towards monetary system

Iltitmish introduced purely Arabic coins in his empire

Silver currencies (silver tanka)
vi. Real achievement of city of Medieval Delhi:

Before Iltitimish Chohan rulers preferred Ajmair as compared to Delhi
vii. Architectural contributions

Beautified Delhi by constructing buildings, completed Qutb Minar in 1231.
viii.
Patronized art and learning:
ix. Reign of prosperity:
Conclusion:
Character of Iltutmish
Outline:

Introduction

Attractive personality

Nobility of character

As just ruler

Valor and bravery

As a statesman

Cool temperament

Generosity

Patron of letters

Religious inclination (his court was adorned with Ulemas and Mahsakikh including
Sheikh Fareed-ud-Din, Qutb-ud-Din Bakhtiar Kaki, Sheikh Baha-ud-Din Zakria.

Conclusion
____________________________
Character of Iltutmish
1. Attractive Personality:

Minhaj-us-Siraj calls him “unequal in beauty.”

He possessed extra-ordinary physical strength.
2. Nobility of character:

Also known for his nobility of character, humbleness and down to earth person.

He used to say that “God has made me superior over those persons who are thousand
times better than me. When they stand before me, I feel ashamed or shy.”
3. Valor and bravery:

Extra-ordinary will power.

Never hesitated to deal with his foes. In the suppression of Ghakhar, he displayed great
feat of valor and bravery.
4. As a Statesman:

He possessed traits of a great leader such as realism, far-sightedness and stead-fastness.

He was full aware of his limitation and resources. Therefore, he pursued the policy of
steady consolidation rather than the outright expansion.

He was a very calculating and skilful organizer.

His statesmanship is evident from the facts in which he overcame his rivals either they
were driven out or destroyed.

His handling of Mongol threat talks volumes of his statesmanship.
5. As a Just Ruler:

Great sense of justice

According to Ibn-e-Batuta, “Iltutmish had fixed a chain and a bell in his palace, so
that aggrieved persons may not have any difficulty in approaching the Sultan for
justice.”
6. Cool Temperamence:

Coolness and perseverance was also a hallmark of his character.

He showed extra ordinary determination in the wake of difficulties.

He rose to such a high position only by the dint of sheer determination and hard-work.

Sir Wolsely Haig opines, “Whatever he accomplished he accomplished himself.”
7. Patron of Letters:

Proved himself a great patron of art and learning.

Minhaj-us-Siraj said that Iltutmish spent ten million rupees on the religious works. He
spent money on the construction of Jamia Masjid at Badain, Olia Masjid at Dada
Hameed, magnificent mosque of Ajmer.

He patronized scholars and religious clerics such as Noor-ud-Din Mubarik Ghaznavi,
Qazi Hammed-ud-din, Sheikh Baha-ud-din, Jalal-ud-din Tabraizi.
8. Religious inclinations:

Deeply inclined towards the religion.

Very particular about his five prayers.

Nizam-ud-din Ahmad has written, “He said his daily prayers regularly and when in
Delhi, attended Jamia Masjid for his Friday prayers.”

His court was adorned with Ulemas and Mahsakih, who were immigrants from Central
Asia. These included Sheikh Baha-ud-Din Zikriya, Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiar Kaki, Sheikh
Fareed-ud-Din etc.

Minhaj-us-Siraj says, “Never a sovereign so virtuous, kind hearted and reverent
towards the learned and the divines that sat up on the throne of Delhi.”

Mufti Ghulam Sarwar said, “Though Iltutmish was a king yet he was a Derwaish at
heart and respected the mystics and divine.”
Ghiyas-ud-din Balbun (1266-1287)
Outline:
1. Introduction
2. Difficulties before Balbun
i. Control of the Forty over the Kings
ii. Miwati Rebellion
iii. The resurgence of Rajputs of Doab
iv. Rebellion of Rajputs in Bandail Khand
v. Mongol Threat from the Northern fronts of India
3. His Theory of Kingship
4. Feature of Balban’s Mongol Policy
i. Prohibition from the policy of expansion
ii. Appointment of variable governors and administrators
iii. Maintenance of three defensive lines to combat the Mongol threat
iv. Reconstructed old and new forts
v. Reorganization of Army
vi. Introduction of aggressive policy towards Mongols
5. Balban’s Policy of Blood Shed
i. Miwati Rebellion:
ii. Revolts of Hindu Rajputs in Doab
iii. Stern action against the Rajputs of Bundial Khand in Kaithor.
iv. Rebellion of Khokhars in Salt range of Punjab.
v. Rebellion of Tughrail Baig
6. Conclusion
1. Introduction
Zia-ud-Din Barni wrote about the great difficulties faced by Balban,
“Fear of the governing power, which is the base of all good governments and the source of the
glory and splendure of all states, had departed from the hearts of all men, and the country had
fallen into a wretched condition.”
Difficulties before Balbun
a. Control of the Forty over the King:

The forty-official nobility (Chahal Gani) comprised of Altutmish’s slave reigned
supreme. The Forty had virtually assumed the role of King makers and they had usurped
all the powers of King and made him a figure head.
b. The resurgence of Rajputs of Doab:

The Rajputs were the determined enemies of the Muslim rulers.

They always posed stiff resistance against the Muslim rulers.

When they started to obstruct the roads between Delhi and Bengal, it seemed a challenge
for Balban to counter it.
c. Rebellion of Rajputs in Bandail Khand:
d. Plundering of Miwatis:

Miwatis used to plunder the territory of Delhi. After plundering, they usually took shelter
in the thick forests. Even the gates of Delhi were closed before evening.

They had become a great challenge for Balban.
e. Mongol Threat from the Northern fronts of India:

Ishwari Topa described Balbun like a ‘real politicker’

Tughrail Baig : Governor of Bengal revolted against Balban

Then Bugrah Khan, Governor of Bengal, son of Balban

Prince Muhammad : Son of Balban
Balban’s Policy of Blood and iron
He used the brutal force against his opponents and rebellious elements.
i. Steps against the Miwati Rebellion:

Balban dispatched army, which killed about 1 lac Miwatis, cleared the forests and
destroyed the settlements of Miwatis.

The fort of Gopal Garh was built. And Afghans were rehabilitated around the Miwatis
settlements.
ii. Revolts of Hindu Rajputs in Doab:

They obstructed the roads between Delhi and Bengal. So Balban divided the major cities
of Doab and Jagirs among various nobles (feudal, Iqtabars).

He built forts in Kampal, Patiali, Bholpur and Jalali.
iii. Action against the Rajputs of Bundial Khand in Kaithor:

He took stern action against the Rajputs of Bundial Khand in Kaithor, due to which they
never dared to rise their heads during the reign of Balban.
iv. Steps against the Khokhars in Salt range of Punjab:

In 1286-69, Balban quelled the rebellion of Khokhars in Salt range of Punjab.
v. Measures against the Tughrail Baig:

The quelling of rebellion of Tughrail Baig, a personal slave of Balban, was appointed as
Governor of Bengal. But Tughrail Baig raised standard of revolt against Balban
instructed the Governor of Oudh to counter the Tughrail, but he was defeated. Balban
himself advanced and Tughrail Baig was killed and his relatives were publicaly hanged.
Balban appointed his son, Bugrah Khan as the Governor of Bengal.
Dr. Ishwari Parsad: ‘A strong dictoator like Ghiyas-ud-din Balban was the need of hour.’
His Theory of Kingship

To revive the prestige of the institution of Kingship, which at that time appeared to be
fatally wounded on account of crisis of law and order, conspirational role of the ‘Forty’,
rise of rebellious elements, mounting power of Rajputs and the impending Mongol threat.
i. King as viceroy of God on Earth
ii. Heart of the King is the repository of the favours of God
iii. Kingship signified prestige, dignity and greatness only
iv. Kingship is the embodiment of despotism
v. Balbnan maintained that royal dignity and prestige could only become real and effective, if the
ruler enforce court decorum as observed by Persian King Nosherwan.
vi. Army, treasury and Nobles are the three essentials of Kingship
i. To maintain law and order in his dominion
ii. To keep himself well informed about the conditions of his province and their governors
iii. The ruler should be personification of justice
iv. The salvation of King lay in the observance of fulfillment of the following four duties:
a. To protect religion and patronize the faith
b. To crush and minimize the vices, immorality, crimes
c. To appoint pious, God fearing and noble officials
d. To administer justice and equality
Mongol Policy

Assumes unique position in the history of Medieval India

It constituted an effective response to the rising menace of Mongols during the last
quarter of 13th Century by pursuing aggressive policies against Mongols, Balban was able
to resolve Mongol question on long term basis

Mongol intrusion into territories of Punjab and Sind though Altutmish devised a Mongol
policy, but it lacked courage and resources to confront this threat, which had uprooted
order and established empires in Central and South West Asia.
Features of Balban’s Mongol Policy:
Mongol intrusion into territories of Punjab and Sind though Altutmish devised a Mongol policy,
but he lacked courage and resources to confront this threat, which had uprooted order and
established empires in Central and South West Asia.
1. Remained in capital:
He devised his foreign policy, keeping in mind the fear of Mongol invasion and abstained from
the policy of expansion. He would have to expeditions at distant place, as far as possible, he
stationed in the Capital.
2. Appointment of variable administrators:
He appointed such governors and administrators who could effectively counter the Mongol
threat. For instance, he appointed Sher Khan as Governor of Punjab and Multan, who checked
the menace of Mongols very effectively. After Sher Khan’s death, he appointed his own sun
Prince Muhammad as Governor of Multan. Similarly he appointed his younger son, Bugrah
Khan as governor of Samana. After Bugrah’s appointment to Bengal, Balban assigned Prince
Muhammad the Province of Multan and Samana.
3. Maintained three defensive lines:
Balban maintained three defensive lines to combat the Mongol threat on long term basis
First: Uch, Multna
Second: Depalpur, Pakpattan
Third: Samana, Sanam and Hansi
4. Reconstruction of old forts in the frontier regions:
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban reconstructed old forts in the frontier regions and build new forts in Uch,
Multan, Samana, Depalpur and Hansi.
5. Reorganization of Army:
Balban reorganized army under the leadership of Ammad-ul-Mulk.
Unfit officers and soldiers were expelled. He increased the salaries of the troops.
6. Formation of Mongol Army:

Balban raised another army specifically fpr the purpose of Mongol threat.

This army was stationed at various places and could be simultaneously mobilized through
the centers of Multan, Delhi and Samana
7. Introduction of Espoinage:

He introduced the spy system in every department.

Spies were made independent of commanders, even kept check over his sons and
administrators.
8. Balban’s aggressive policy of Mongols.

Balban followed an aggressive policy towards Mongols. He pursued a offensive policy
rather than a defensive policy towards the Mongols. He started raids on the Mongols,
which benefited him a lot.

All other attacks were quelled, commanders were arrested and hanged.

For instance, the major Mongol invaders were defeated in 1279 and 1285. Prince
Mohammad was martyred after he was chasing the retreating Mongols in 1285.
Aziz Ahmed, “Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Balban was a wise and regacious ruler, endowed with many
rare virtues and terance. He had an experienced hand in art of government and directed the
affairs of stated with discrimination and judgment.”
Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316)
Questions
1. Discuss Ala-ud-din Khilji’s administrative, military, revenue and economic reforms.
Critically examine Ala-ud-din Khilji price control policy.
2. “Ala-ud-din Khilji was a crude economist.” Discuss.
3. “Ala-ud-din Khilji’s brilliant conquests were overshadowed by his civil and military
reforms.” Comment.
___________________________
Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316)
Outline:

Introduction

Political Reforms
1. Humiliation of Jalali Nobles
2. Humiliation of Hindu Zamindars

Administrative Reforms
i. Confiscation of property
ii. Spy System
iii. Prohibition of Drinking
Iv. Restrictions upon Nobles meetings

Revenue Reforms
1. Elimination of the corrupt practices
2. Assessment of the revenue
3. Measurement of land
4. Imposition of certain taxes
5. Appointment of new officials
6. Direct control of the land by the Governor:

Military Reforms:
1. Establishment of large standing army:
6. Branding the horses
7. Uniform of the Soldiers
8. Building of forts
9. Fixed salary for the soldiers

Conquests of Ala-ud-din Khilji

Mongol Policy of Ala-ud-din Khilji

Conclusion
________________________________
Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316)
Introduction:
 Ala-ud-din Khilji was perhaps one of the greatest rulers of India. He ruled over India
from 1296 to 1316. His reign was very crucial.
Political Reforms:
When he came to power, he consulted with his companions and reached at the following points;

Sultan’s disregard of state affairs

Drinking wine in the parties

Mutual relations of nobles, who thought about the conspiracy against him in such
meetings

Concentration of Wealth as a dominant factor to raise heads against him
1. Humiliation of Jalali Nobles:

There was a great tussle between Jilal-ud-din sympathizers and the Ala-ud-din khilji.
He killed his uncle, Jilal-ud-din and came on the throne of empire. Resultantly, the
followers of Jilal-ud-din revolted against him, so he wanted to resolve this issue
permanently.

The greatest challenge posed to Ala-ud-din Khilji was from the nobles of Jalal-ud-din
Khilji. The political reforms of Ala-ud-din Khilji were aimed at bringing peace and
order in the empire.

In the beginning, he won them by presenting money and promoted them in their
ranks. The moment he consolidated his government and secured himself on the
throne, Ala-ud-din Khilji decided to strike at their powerful positions.

When Sultan assumed throne, the exchequer was empty. In the second year of his
accession, he appointed Nusrat Khan as his Grand Wazir. He had to deal with the
Jalali nobles.

Sultan and Nusrat Khan removed Jalali nobles from the high government offices
and turned their jagirs into crown heads. The gold which these nobles received from
Ala-ud-din Khilji for their treachery towards the sons of Jalal-ud-din Khilji was
taken back. It is said that in this way, Nusrat Khan recovered property worth of one
(1) crore.

This brought an end to the power of Jalali nobles and strengthened the government
treasury. Sultan also got happy radiance from nobility whose loyalty was always
doubtful. An interesting story is that only 3 nobles who escaped the wrath of Sultan
was those, who remained loyal to the sons of Jalal-ud-din Khilji. This shows that
Ala-ud-din attached great importance to the loyalty.
2. Humiliation of Hindu Zamindars:

Crushing of the power of Hindu chiefs was other important step of his reforms.
Sultan Ala-ud-din Khilji realized that the increasing power of Hindu chiefs was the
main cause behind rebellion.

Sultan pursued symbolic policy of crushing power and privileged position of Hindu
proprieted classes like Chaudhri, Khuts, Moqadams.

Sultan imposed 50% rent on this class. Grazing tax was also imposed.

Tripathi is of the view that measures adopted by Sultan against Hindus were not due
to religious differences, but were due to the political and economic causes.

According to Mohammad Mujeeb in his book, “Indian Muslims”, “The chiefs were
reduced to the level of peasantry and had to pay the land tax they cultivated.”
Administrative Reforms
i. Confiscation of property:

He confiscated the property owned by the wealthy classes, and abolished the private
ownership.

All villages and jagirs including the Muslim inami jagirs and rent free grants were
confiscated.

Khilji also confiscated the religious endowments, pensions, milk land and land held in
proprietary rights.
ii. Spy System:

Ala-ud-din khilji paid full attention to these problems and took very severe measures.

Firstly he introduced the espionage or intelligence system. Its purpose was to run the state
affairs.

Before him, Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Balban established the espionage system. This
intelligence service provided the news of revolts and others activities to the emperor.

Even there was a secret servant in every house of the nobles.

Sultan kept vigilant eye on the doings of high rank governors and officials.
iii. Prohibition of Wine Drinking:

He also ordered that wine drinking and its manufacturing would be prohibited.

He set himself the example by giving up his drinking habit and also broke the equipment
of wine.
iv. Restrictions upon Nobles meetings:

He also imposed restrictions upon the mutual meetings of the nobles even in the marriage
ceremonies.

Nobles were not allowed to maintain matrimonial alliances without the permission of the
Emperor.

He also distributed the Jagirs of nobles among the common people.

Sultan was fully convinced that the abundance of wealth encouraged the people to
rebellion. So he adopted every possible mean to deprive the people of that wealth and for
this purpose, he devised various rules and regulations.

Sultan increased resources of revenue by eliminating the corrupt practices in the revenue
department.
Revenue Reforms:
1. Elimination of the corrupt practices

Sultan increased resources of revenue by eliminating the corrupt practices in the revenue
department.

He tried to stem the corrupt practices of Hindu wealthy class.
2. Assessment of the revenue:

He was the first ruler in India, who introduced the system of land survey and settlements.

The assessment of the revenue was made on the area cultivated and revenue was fixed at
half of the gross production of the land. The government extracted 50% of the
agricultural surplus through this system.
3. Measurement of land:

Previously, the revenue system was based on “Hukm-e-Hasil”, in which revenue was
assessed according to the produce and the government used to collect the revenue.

But Sultan introduced “Hukm-e-Masahat”, (measurement of land). In this system, the
land was measured and produce per Begha was calculated.

It ensured the increase in land revenue. This way the efficiency was increased manifold.

The land was categorized on the basis of “irrigated” and “non-irrigated”. The barren
land was exempted from the revenue collection.
4. Imposition of certain taxes:

Certain new taxes were also introduced i.e. grazing tax and house tax. Similarly,
privileges of Muqadam and Chaudris were also cancelled. Instead of the Chaudris, the
land revenue was collected by the military.

Though this system was not uniform, but it was only implemented in the areas of Doab,
Ruhail Khand and Rajputana states. These areas were directly under the control of
“Deewan-e-Wizarat” and considered Khalsa lands and revenue was collected on
“Hukm-e-Masahat”
5. Appointment of new officials:

New officials were appointed in the revenue department.

New blood in the administration.

He gave targets to the officials for the collection of revenue.
6. Direct control of the land by the Governor:

The governor also used to collect revenue according to the “Hukm-e-Masahat”

But in the far flug areas and distant territories, the revenue was collected on the old
practice. The government used to collect the revenue with the help of Muqadim and
Chaudhries.
7. Collection of revenue in kind, not in cash:

The revenue was preferably received in kind and enabled the government to provide
relief to the people during the famine and drought.
Military Reforms:
1. Establishment of large standing army:

Sultan Ala-ud-din Khilji created a large standing army directly recruited by himself and
the soldiers were paid by the state. Sultan used to think that power and perpetuation of
kingdom depends upon an efficient army and civil machinery.

He recruited an efficient army, consisting of 4, 75, 000 soldiers and 70,000 horses.
2. Branding the horses:

He introduced the practice of branding of horses in order to prevent any cheating so that
unfit horses might not be brought to battle field.

He established “Horse market” only reserved for the army.
3. Uniform of the Soldiers:

Ala-ud-din Khilji also introduced “Hulia” of the soldiers. He got the preparation of
descriptive role of the soldiers so that the temporary substitutes might not be shown on
the parades. For this purpose, he established the “Cloth Market”.
4. Construction of forts:


He ordered to repair and reconstruct the old forts of Delhi
He also ordered for the construction of new forts on the route of the Mongols like Ucch,
Multan, Samana, Depalpur, Pakpattan and Hansi etc.
5. Fixed salary for the soldiers:

Previously, the military was given land in lieu of their services, but Khilji abandoned this
practice.

Now the army was given remuneration and fixed salaries.

Army was recruited in the name of King and paid salary in cash from the government
treasury.

As a result of this, Sultan Ala-ud-din Khilji not only became the Supreme leader, but also
the pay-master general of army.

He was able to obtain full loyalty of army.

A sufficient salary was fixed for every soldier, which amounted to 234 tankas annually.
It seems that 20 tankas per month plus ration was the fixed salary for every soldier.

A man having two horses was given 78 tankas additionally.

He overhauled the administrative machinery through the reforms.
Conquests of Ala-ud-din Khilji:

He made very brilliant conquests in Southern and Northern India.

The conquest of Gujrat was very important economically. It was situated on the coast of
Arabian. Till 1308, all areas of the Deccan were conquered by the forces of Ala-ud-din
Khilji under the leadership of Malik Kafoor.

Though Deccan was not included in his empire and the other states had left for their
rulers to rule.

He conquered the following conquests;

Gujrat in India (1299)

Arinthambol (situated in Rajputana) (1300)

Deccan state is a big mass of land between Bindiya Chal and Ras
Chomari. He conquered the following territories of Deccan like
a. Chatore (1303)
b . Jodhpur
c.
Malva (1305)
d.
Deogir (1308)
Khilji Steps against Mongols:

Ala-ud-din Khilji like his predecessors was confronted with the danger of the everincreasing Mongol raids. The Mongol raids formed a source of constant anxiety and
alarm to the Delhi government for a long time.

In the second year of Ala-ud-din’s region, a large horde of the Mongols came under the
leadership of Amir Daud, but they were routed by Zafar Khan with great slaughter.

Another raid by Saladi of Mongols was defeated by the Zafar Khan.

Between the years 1297 and 1307, we hear of as many as seven (7) raids.
Features of Ala-ud-din Mongol Policy

The invasion of Targi (1303) awakened Ala-ud-din to the need of frontier defence. He
like Balban took some defensive measures to guard the North-West frontier of his
dominion.
1. Appointment of Capable administrators:

He appointed such governors and administrators who could effectively counter the
Mongol threat.

The most capable and trusted officers were placed in charge of the frontier defence.

Ghazi Malik was appointed the Governor of the Punjab in 1305. As a Governor of
Punjab, he could check the menace of Mongols very effectively. He also carried out raids
into the Mongol territory as far as Ghazni and Kabul.
2. Construction and Repair of old forts in Delhi:

He ordered to repair and reconstruct the old forts of Delhi and the new ones to be set up
on the route of the Mongols like Ucch, Multan, Samana, Depalpur, Pakpattan and
Hansi etc.
3. Reorganization of Army:

He kept a standing army in the forts, maintained a separate and permanent army for the
defence of the Nort-West frontier.

This army was stationed at various places and could be simultaneously mobilized.
4. Establishment of New workshops:

New workshops were also erected to manufacture the improved types of weapons to fight
against the Mongols.
5. Raising the additional Forces

Additional forces were raised and powerful armies were stationed at Depalpur, Multan
and Samana.
Ala-ud-din Khilji’s Price Control Policy
Outline:
i. Introduction
ii. Motives/Purpose behind Price control policy
a. Strategic motives
b. Political motive
c. Public welfare
iii. Features of Price Control Policy
a. Fixation of prices
b. Strict rule of supply and demand
c. Ways and means of enforcement of fixed prices
d. A system of checks and balances
e. Three kinds of markets
f. Criteria of appointment of officials
iv. Impacts of Price Control Policy
v. Conclusion
_______________________
Introduction:

Ala-ud-din Khilji is one of the greatest rulers of the medieval India.

His era is known for the reforms particularly his price control policy which is regarded as
a novel experiment in the realm of economic-cum-military management

His reforms were instrumental in the consolidation of Muslim rule in 13th and 14th
century.
Motives/Purpose behind Price control policy:

The motives included economic, military, strategic, political, public welfare, which
enunciated the introduction of reforms.
a. Strategic motives

Sultanate period was confronted with the Mongol threat throughout the 13th and 14th
centuries. When Ala-ud-din Khilji contemplated to establish a permanent army due to
Mongol threat, he needed money and material.

The early historians like Farishta and Zia-ud-din Barni hold view that Khilji was
perplexed by Mongol invasion and wanted wealth to confront the Mongols. He wanted a
large army at the minimum cost. This was the main idea behind his price control policy.
It was possible only if the prices were fixed at a constant level, therefore, the price
control policy and military reforms complemented each other.

Even the modern historians subscribe to the view held by the medieval historians.
b. Political motive

Ala-ud-din Khilji was faced with numerous revolts.

When he investigated the causes of these revolts, he realized that the abundance of wealth
was the main cause behind the rebellions. Unequal distribution of wealth had led the
people to revolt against their masters.

Ala-ud-din believed that the wealth of nobles and feudals need to be confiscated, so that
equality in income might be created.

By this policy, the nobles would be left with the little money and would not contemplate
on revolting against the Delhi Sultanate.

So Khilji wanted to crush and suppress rebellion by making huge army, which would be
loyal to him.

K.S. Lal, a Hindu historian, claimed, “He wanted to crush the economy of the people
(Hindu feudal lords).”
c. Public welfare

Mediaeval Historians like Ameer Hasan Sanjari, Assami, Chirag Dehlvi are of the view
that the price control policy was not introduced merely out of the military and strategic
exigencies but the main reason behind the introduction of policy was the motive of public
welfare.

Ghulam Sarwar Niazi, a Muslim historian, opines, “He wanted to help the poor people
by fixing the prices of various commodities.”
6. Features of Price Control Policy
a. Fixation of prices

Ala-ud-din fixed the prices according to the production level. Zia-ud-din Barni is of the
view that the prices were fixed according to the “Bar Awari”, which means “bringing
out”.

Sultan Ala-ud-din made greater efforts for ascertaining the prices of different items from
other places of production before the official price or “Nirkha-e-Sultan”.
b. Strict rule of Demand and Supply

The fixed prices could not have been maintained unless the supply of all items was
ensured and their demand was fully controlled. For this purpose. Ala-ud-din took the
following steps:

Land revenue was collected largely in kind, not in cash

Establishment of state graineries

Enrollment of carvans in the register of mandi-officials

Advanced the loans of 20 lac tinkas to Multan merchants and settling of merchants on the
tanks of Jamna around Delhi with their families

The order for the collection of almost entire surplus produce form the peasants by
revenue officers and grain merchants, permit system and rare quality cloth, elimination of
middle man (broker) from the sale and purchase of items and slaves

All these attempts were meant to ensure the uninterrupted flow of necessities into the
cities.
c. Ways and means of enforcement of fixed prices:

Ala-ud-din issued certain regulation with the objectives of fixation of prices of food
products, cloth and all kinds of price goods, maid servants, male servants, slaves, cattle,
beasts of burden etc.

Government took strict measures against hoarders and black marketers.

Neither merchant was allowed to accumulate more grains than necessity and requirement
nor the consumer was allowed to purchase in excess of limit

The hoarding of produce of Doab and neighbouring country upto a distance of hundred
kos was prohibited.

There was to be a strict rationing in the times of famine. During the rationing period, a
consumer could buy maximum of half maund of any grain.

The government was to seek that the fixed price level was not disturbed during famine.
d. A system of Checks and Balances:

The Government introduced a system of checks and balances, which was responsible for
maintaining the system and four officials were appointed for this purpose.

A new department was constituted to maintain the price control and it was called
“Deewan-e-Risalat” and Malik Qabool Khan Alkhani was made the administrator of
enforcement of these reforms.

Similarly Government appointed separate officials for market and Yaqoob was appointed
“Shahna-e-Mandi”. He was provided with a schedule of control rates and required to
keep an eye on all sales in the market.

Spies were also appointed to check the efficiency of above two and reported to the
Sultan.

Sultan used to hear the reports of Shahna-e-Mandi, if he found discrepancies in these
reports, these officials were reprimanded.
e. Three kinds of markets:

The Government created the three kinds of markets.

General Market: Ala-ud-din established only one concentrated and whole sale market
for the identical items. This market was also known as “Bazar-e-Am”.

It was scattered throughout the city.

This market was established for all types of grains, wheat, pulses, barley etc.

The government issued seven regulations regarding the market and the prices of
commodities of general items.

Cloth Market: the second market was also known as “Sara-e-Adal”. This market was
located near a deserted place adjoining the Badiun Gate.

Besides the cloth, other articles of daily use were also sold such as edible and lamp oil,
salt, fruits, sugar, cloth etc.

Accoding to the five regulations, the prices of cloths were fixed. The regulation of
controlling the market mechanism was also issued.

Moreover the precious cloth could not be sold without the permission of controller of
Cloth market.

Cattle Market: The third market was the cattle market, in which the horses were also
reserved by the state for the army.

The government also issued regulations. Like three categories of horses for army,
prohibited the horse merchants to sell and purchase the horses from the markets. Those
who would violate these restrictions were punished and reprimanded.

Similarly other regulations dealt with cattle like buffaloes, cows, slaves, maids.
f. Criteria of appointment of officials:

A strict criteria was devised for the appointment of officials and these were not only
trust-worthy and honest, but also Malik Qabool Khan Alkhani was also appointed as an
administrator of Deewan-e-Risalat.

Those officials who failed to accomplish their tasks, Sultan would punish them severely.
6. Impacts of Price Control Policy
Positive Impacts
1. The price control policy of Ala-ud-din Khilji achieved remarkable success as regards
its objectives were concerned. For instance its stabilized the price level at a
reasonable position and provided relief to the people.
2. It also ensured the maintenance of maximum army at the minimum cost. It assisted in
optimum utilization of the resources.
3. This system remained in vogue in Delhi and its suburbs for next fifteen (15) years.
4. Sher Mohammad Garewal highlights in his book “Glorious Past of the Muslims of
India” that this policy fulfilled the three basic requirements of that time i.e. Bread,
Cloth and Asthan (horse).
5. This policy seems more remarkable if it is assessed in the present context, because in
the modern age, it is not easy for the government to maintain the price stability of the
commodities. Despite its limitations, it was very novel and unique policy in the
Indian history.
6. Moreover this policy also provided relief to the people even during the periods of
drought and famine. During a drought, Shahna-e-Mandi complained that the price of
the grain had increased half jital. The violator who was charging the high price was
punished with 20 lashes.
7. Hazrat Naseer-ud-din Chirag Dehlvi has described this period as one of the
prosperous period. Two or three tankas were sufficient for sumptuous dinner
(Ziafat).
8. According to Farishta, “ till to the end of Ala-ud-din’ region, the prices remained
steady….it was a unique and remarkable achievement nothing like that had
been accomplished before and no one can say whether it be possible again.”
9. The economic regulations of Ala-ud-din Khilji were the greatest economic
achievements of Sultanate period.
10. This policy broke the concentration of money in few hands.
11. Zia ud-din Barni has attributed reasons behind the success of this policy
a. strict enforcement of the rules and regulations of the market
e. vigorous collection of taxes
f. zeal of honest officers who acted honestly out of fear of sultan
Negative Impacts:

This policy was not on all India policy but only implemented in Delhi and its suburbs.
K.S. Lal, a Hindu historian, mentions, “This system was only confined in Delhi. It was
not introduced in the whole empire.”

This policy proved to be a disincentive to the traders. Their profit margins were sapped,
because this policy broke the concentration of money in trader hands.

This policy was greatly resented by the Muslim nobility and the Hindu elements, which
constituted the majority of Indian population. The policy tried to crush the powers of
revenue collection machinery which was monopolized by the Hindus.

This policy also crushed the power of nobles, which were the backbone of Sultanate. It
broke the concentration of money in few hands.
7. Conclusion

Despite its limitation s, the policy’s novelity, comprehensiveness and effectiveness can
not be underestimated. This policy earned Sultan the status of greater administrator
among the medieval rulers.

Sultan was temperamentally very perseverant and he himself took keen interest in these
reforms. He supervised them and announced exemplary punishment for the culprits.

Khilji was great judge of men, that enabled him to appoint very efficient administrators.

Moreover, Sultan was fully aware of the psyche of common people and knew how to
force people to compliance.
__________________________________
Mongol Policy of the Sultans of Delhi
Outlines:
1. Introduction
2. Who were Mongols?
3. Iltutmish policy of Mongols
4. Razia Sultana’s policy of Mongols
5. Ghiyas-ud-din Balban’s policy of Mongols
6. Ala-ud-din Khilji’s policy of Mongols
7. Conclusion
Introduction:

Assumes unique position in the history of Medieval India

It constituted an effective response to the rising menace of Mongols during the last
quarter of 13th Century by pursuing aggressive policies against Mongols, Balban was able
to resolve Mongol question on long term basis

India was faced with the initial phase of Delhi Sultanate and Mongols hovered around the
Northern frontiers of India and made intrusions into the territories of Punjab and Sindh.
Mongols:

The Mongols inhabited the stepps beyond the Gobi desert touching the Manchurian
frontier in North Asia. It was a nomadic race whose primary sources of livelihood were
cattle breeding, horse-breeding, hunting and fishing.

Mongols were divided into several groups which were mostly in enmity with each other.
Among one of those tribal groups was born Temuchin titled Chengaiz Khan. He created
an extensive and mighty empire and assumed the title of Chengaiz Khan during his life
time.

Chengaiz Khan conquered large parts of China, Southern Russia, Central Asia, Turkey
and Afghanistan and became a terror to the Islamic world. He was never defeated in his
life and whenever he attacked, he got unprecedented success. He believed in wholesale
plunder and massacre, thus terrorizing people with a view to get quick submission from
his enemies. Whenever he went, he wiped out even signs of culture.

The rise of Mongols was under Changaiz Khan and Hulaqu Khan and their “dance of
death” in central Asia and western Asia. It was the biggest blow, which Muslims would
ever suffer.

A modern Western writer calls it “the supreme catastrophe of Islam”, a blow from
which the Muslim civilization “has never recovered”. A contemporary author, the sober
and careful historian, Ibn-ul-Athir called it “the death blow of Islam and the
Muslims.”
 It began in 1219 (barely twenty five years after the foundation of the Muslim Empire of
Delhi) with Changaiz Khan’s invasion of Transoxiana, and resulted in the destruction
of numberless cities, the desolation of large cultivated areas, the ruin of libraries and
madrasas, and the endless slaughter of women, men and children. It culminated in the
sack of Baghdad and the end of the Abbasid Caliphate at the hands of Hulaqu Khan.
Sultan Iltutmish Mongol Policy:

The new government experienced the impact of this gigantic military movement when
Jalal-ud-din, the ruler of Khwarizm, whose father had first attracted the wrath of
Changaiz Khan, crossed the border (Indus River) and sought aid from Iltutmish.

The latter refused to be embroiled in a dispute with the Mongol chief, gave evasive
replies. After the death of Iltutmish, they destroyed Lahore (1214).

They remained entrenched for several years and nearly half a century the principal
occupation of the Delhi government was to defend the subcontinent from the fate which
Central and Western Asia had suffered.
Sultana Razia Mongol Policy:

Sultana Razia also pursued the policy of not annoying the Mongols like her father. Jalalud-din had left Hasan Qarlugh as the governor of Ghazni and Baniyan. He was seriously
threatened by the Mongols and, therefore, sought the support of Razia against them, but
Razia declined to help him and thus saved her kingdom from the attacks of the Mongols.

The Mongols attacked Punjab and its neighbouring territory during the reign of Sultan
Nasir-ud-din several times. They gradually captured Multan, Sindh and Western
Punjab.
Features of Balban’s Mongol Policy

Mongol started intrusion into the territories of Punjab and Sind, which was a great threat
for the new ruler like Altutmish.

Altutmish devised a Mongol policy, but it lacked courage and resources to confront this
threat.

The Mongols had uprooted order and established empires in Central and South West
Asia.
1. Remained in capital:

He devised his foreign policy, keeping in mind the fear of Mongol invasion and abstained
from the policy of expansion.

He would have to expeditions at distant place, as far as possible, he stationed in the
Capital.
2. Appointment of variable administrators:

He appointed such governors and administrators, who could effectively counter the
Mongol threat. For instance, he appointed Sher Khan as Governor of Punjab and Multan,
who checked the menace of Mongols very effectively.

After Sher Khan’s death, he appointed his own son Prince Muhammad as Governor of
Multan.

Similarly he appointed his younger son, Bugrah Khan as governor of Samana. After
Bugrah’s appointment to Bengal, Balban assigned Prince Muhammad the Province of
Multan and Samana.
3. Maintained three defensive lines:

Balban maintained three defensive lines to combat the Mongol threat on long term basis
a. First defensive line:Ucch, Multna
b. Second defensive line: Depalpur, Pakpattan
c. Third defensive line: Samana, Sanam and Hansi
4. Reconstruction of old forts in the frontier regions:

He reconstructed old forts in the frontier regions.

He built the new forts in Uch, Multan, Samana, Depalpur and Hansi, which became a line
of defence against the Mongols.
5. Reorganization of Army:

Balban reorganized army under the leadership of Ammad-ul-Mulk.

Unfit officers and soldiers were expelled.

He increased the salaries of the troops.
6. Formation of Additional Mongol Army:

Balban raised another army specifically for the purpose of Mongol threat.

This army was stationed at various places and could be simultaneously mobilized through
the centers of Multan, Delhi and Samana
v. Introduction of Espoinage:

He introduced the spy system in every department.

Spies were made independent of commanders, even kept check over his sons and
administrators.
vi. Balban’s aggressive policy of Mongols:

Balban followed an aggressive policy towards Mongols. He pursued an offensive policy
rather than a defensive policy towards the Mongols.

He started raids on the Mongols, which benefited him a lot.

All other attacks were quelled, commanders were arrested and hanged.

For instance, the major Mongol invaders were defeated in 1279 and 1285. Prince
Mohammad was martyred after he was chasing the retreating Mongols in 1285.
Features of Ala-ud-din Mongol Policy:

The invasion of Targi (1303) awakened Ala-ud-din to the need of frontier defence. He
like Balban took some defensive measures to guard the North-West frontier of his
dominion.
1. Appointment of Capable administrators and Generals:

He appointed such governors and administrators who could effectively counter the
Mongol threat.

The most capable and trusted officers were placed in charge of the frontier defence.

Ghazi Malik was appointed the Governor of the Punjab in 1305. As a Governor of
Punjab, he could check the menace of Mongols very effectively. He also carried out raids
into the Mongol territory as far as Ghazni and Kabul.
2. Construction and Repair of old forts in Delhi:

He ordered to repair and reconstruct the old forts of Delhi and the new ones to be set up
on the route of the Mongols like Uch, Multan, Samana, Depalpur, Pakpattan and Hansi
etc.
3. Reorganization of Army:

Sultan Ala-ud-din Khilji created a large standing army directly recruited by himself and
the soldiers were paid by the state. Sultan used to think that power and perpetuation of
kingdom depends upon an efficient army and civil machinery.

He recruited an efficient army, consisting of 4, 75, 000 soldiers and 70,000 horses.

He kept a standing army in the forts, maintained a separate and permanent army for the
defence of the North-West frontier.

This army was stationed at various places and could be simultaneously mobilized.

Ala-ud-din Khilji also introduced “Hulia” (uniform) of the soldiers. He got the
preparation of descriptive role of the soldiers so that the temporary substitutes might not
be shown on the parades.

For this purpose, he established the “Cloth Market”.

Ala-ud-din Khilji also took fixed salaries for the soldiers. Previously, the military was
given land in lieu of their services, but Khilji abandoned this practice. Now the army was
given remuneration and fixed salaries.

Army was recruited in the name of King and paid salary in cash from the government
treasury. As a result of this, Sultan Ala-ud-din Khilji not only became the Supreme
leader, but also the pay-master general of army.

He was able to obtain full loyalty of army.

A sufficient salary was fixed for every soldier, which amounted to 234 tankas annually.
It seems that 20 tankas per month plus ration was the fixed salary for every soldier.

A man, having two horses, was given 78 tankas additionally.
4. Establishment of New workshops

New workshops were also erected to manufacture the improved types of weapons to fight
against the Mongols.
5. Raising the additional Forces

Powerful armies were stationed at Depalpur, Multan and Samana.

Additional forces were deployed at the route of the Mongols.
6. Branding the horses:

He introduced the practice of branding of horses in order to prevent any cheating so that
unfit horses might not be brought to battle field.

He established “Horse market” only reserved for the army.
Projects of Mohammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351)
Outlines:
1. Introduction:
2. Projects of Mohammad bin Tughlaq
a. Establishment of Capital in Deogir
b. Khurasan Expedition
c. Qarachil Expedition
d. Introduction of Token currency
e. Enhancement of taxes in the Doab
3. Conclusion
_____________________________________
Projects of Mohammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351)
1. Introduction:

Ulugh khan was the original name of Mohammad bin Tughlaq.

His period colud be divided into two phases: 1325-35 and 1335-51. The first phase
(1325-35) was the period of comparatively peaceful, prosperous and no signs of
rebellions were located in his reign. During the second phase (1335-51), Mohammad bin
Tughlaq faced a series of troubles and difficulties and these rebellions could be witnessed
in the location of Sind, Gujrat, Bengal and Deccan.

As Ishvari Parsad commented, “Mohammad bin Tughlaq was unquestionably the
ablest man among the crowned heads of the medieval ages of all the kings who sat
on the throne of Delhi after Arabs”
2. Projects of Mohammad bin Tughlaq:
Zia –ud-din Barni mentions five projects of Mohammad bin Tughlaq namely (1) the making of
Deogir into a capital under the name of Daulatabad, (2)the enhancement of taxes in the Doab,
(3) Khurasan expedition (4) Qarachil expedition and (5) the introduction of token currency.
a. Establishment of Capital in Deogir:
i. Deccan as weakest frontier:

Mohammad bin Tughlaq was a man of experience and outstanding genius. He knew the
importance of Deccan problem, when he was an incharge of expedition to Warrangal
during the life time of his father.

He observed that Deccan was the most dangerous and weakest as a defensive point of
view. So he marked a new policy after his accession to throne.
ii. Introduction of Islamic Culture:

Hindus were in majority in Deccan. Socially, politically and economically the Hindus had
pre-ponderance rather than the Muslims. So he wanted to introduce the Islamic culture in
Deccan.

As Mehdi Hussain describes about Sultan Mohammad’s desire, “to make Deogir a
center of Muslim culture and plant there a colony of Muhammadans.”
iii. Establishment of a central capital:

Due to the crucial condition of Deccan problem, he wanted to make another capital in
Deogir under the name of Daulatabad by taking it under his personal charge.

S. M. Ikram opines that “He desired to make Deogir his capital because it was
comparatively central and equidistant from Delhi, Gujrat, Lakhnauti, Satgon etc.
and the other parts of his empire.”
iv. Control of vast Empire:

He had a vast empire, so it was difficult to control such empire from the distant capital.

He wanted to consolidate the authority of the central government. He knew the fact when
Ala-ud-din Khilji conquered the Deccan states, but he gave control to the local Rajas.
v. Orders of Sultan:

The Sultan ordered his influential nobles, upper classes, theologians, outstanding
inhabitants of Delhi to leave Delhi.

Hindus were not ordered to leave Delhi as Sanskrit inscriptions of 1327-1328 show.

Ibn-e-Batuta stated, “The Sultan removed his capital to the Deccan in order to
punish the people of Delhi, who had written to him abusive and scandalous letters
by criticizing his policy.”

The Sultan also gave the nobles and upper classes the price of their landed property as
well as the allowance for the journey.

He also constructed a road of 700 miles from Delhi to Daulatabad.

He provided free food and accommodation to the inhabitants.
Allegations of Batuta and Barni:

Ibn-e-Batuta alleged, “The city (Delhi) was reduced to a desert”.

But Delhi was never deserted and ceased to be a capital. In fact Ibn-e-Batuta came to
Delhi to several years later after this event. He only recorded the Bazaar gossips.

Meanwhile Zia-ud-din Barni also alleged, “Not a cat or dog was left among the
buildings of the city in its palaces or in its suburbs.” But Sultan recruited army from
Delhi to crush the rebellion in Multan.

Zia-ud-din Barni has pointed out that Sultan Tughlaq took personal interest in this
project. But this step was backfired.
Reasons for Failure:

There were various reasons
b. Khurasan Expedition (1337):

Sultan directed towards Deccan due to the encouragement of Khurasani nobles.

Mohammad bin Tughlaq recruited an army of 3,17,000 soldiers for this purpose.

Tarmashirin

Amir Nauroz, son-in-law of Tarmashirin

This expedition did not materialize due to the political changes.
c. Qarachil Expedition:

Sultan Mohammad bin Tughlaq took another expedition.

Sultan never thought about the idea of conquering China, but historians brought a charge
against him.

His main purpose was only to bring the refractory hill station under his control.

Khusru Malik, was appointed as a general of this army for this expedition, but he became
over- confident. When his army advanced in the hilly areas of Tibet, his army was
overtaken by rains, snowfall and disease.

The whole recruited army for this purpose was destroyed with the exception of few.
d. Introduction of Token currency:

Thomas describes Sultan “Prince of moneyers”.

His scheme was sound, scientific and useful, but it was ahead of his age.

He was inspired from Chinese and Persian rulers.

Token currency of copper due to scarcity of silver. It was a necessity.

There are several allegations upon Sultan regarding his introduction of token currency.
They claim that Sultan’s prodigal generosity, the famine, the expenditure in transference
and re-transference of capital persuaded him to issue the token currency.
e. Enhancement of taxes in the Doab:

Failure of the Khurasan and Qarachil expeditions and the fiasco of the token currency
affected the finances of the state and led the Sultan to increase taxes in Doab.

Farishta claimed that tax was increased three or four times, but Zia-i ud-din Barni opined
that it was ten to twenty times.

According to Ishvari Parsad, “A severe famine, which lasted more than a decade,
marked the glory of his reign and set his subjects against him.”
3. Conclusion
Mehdi Hussain wrote in the book, “Rise and Fall of Mohammad bin Tughlaq”, “To judge
Mohamamd bin Tughlaq from the stand point of 20th is to commit anachronism.”
Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388)
Outlines:
1. Introduction
2. Process of Islamization
3. Agricultural Reforms
4. Fond of Architecture
5. Welfare State
6. Firuz’s Expeditions
7. Revenue Reforms
8. Conclusion
1. Introduction:

Firuz Shah Tughlaq was a son of Rajab and a cousin of Muhammad bin
Tughlaq

He was a staunch follower of Islam.

He gave high place to the Ulemas in his court. Those Ulmas also guided him in
the matters of administration

Firuz Shah Tughlaq also took various steps for the introduction of various
reforms.

For the welfare of the people, he arranged the marriages of the daughters of poor
people.
2. Process of Islamization:

Staunch follower of Islam (he wanted to appease the Muslims)

He gave high status place to Ulemas in his court. Those Ulmas also guided him in
the matters of administration. It was their decisions that bounded the Sultan. The
Sultan did nothing without consulting them.

He governed the country according to the laws of Shariat

He inflicted severe punishments upon the Hindus and the Brahmins for their
misconduct and the imposition of Jaziya on them was a state policy. It should be
remembered that the able Muslims were not exempted from the payment of Zakat
which was far heavier than the Jaziya. All Muslims would pay Zakat including the
Shia sect.

We should forget the age of cruelty and intolerance in which he was living and
Firuz Shah was not advance of his age.

He built mosques and Madrisas for the spread and propagation of Islam. He also
hired the services of Sufis and Ulemas to pay them salaries.

His reign was remarkable during the whole Islamic administration due to the
constructive reforms.

Hindu historians exaggerated and under estimated his policy of Islamization.
They alleged him that the Hindus were put to death. Infidel books and the idols
were publicly burnt. No place was given to the Hindus in his country. He also
burnt the Hindu literature. But the Hindus were in majority when he was ruling
over the state.

He also gave about six lakh tanka allowance to the learned men and the Quranic
readers.

Woolsley Haig opines about his era, “The reign of Firuz closes the most
brilliant epic of Muslim rule in India before the reign of Akbar.”

Ishrvi Topa mentions that, “The political state transformed itself into a new
Islamic state. Its bases were Islamic as well as cultural. Promotion of Islamic
and cultural values was its objective. It depoliticizes itself by Islamizing and
culturalizing its foundations.”
3. Agricultural Reforms:

Firuz Shah Tughlaq was also very fond of plantation and gardens.

Firuz Shah Tughlaq constructed five canals in the region between Pakpattan
and Depalpur, Delhi and Satluj. These canals made the region fertile, irrigated
and prosperous.

A famous Muslim historian, Zia-ud-din Barni, eulogizes this step of Firuz Shah
Tughlaq like, “Before these canals, the area was barren, but after the
construction of these canals, the area became prosperous and every two miles
distance, a new village appeared.”

Zia-ud-din Barni, a famous Muslim historian, also praises Firuz Shah Tughlaq
like, “He built 1200 gardens in and around Delhi.”
4. Fond of Architecture:

Firuz Shah Tughlaq was very fond of architecture.

He had built 200 cities and township mainly including Jodhpur, Firuz Kotla,
Firuzpur, Ambala etc.

He brought two historical pillars, one from Marat and the other from Hamaliya
Hills.

.From the point of view of construction, he was the best ruler among the crowned
heads of the Medieval rulers.

He is known as “an engineer of various cities”.
5. Welfare State:

Firuz Shah tried his level best to make the state a welfare state.

For this purpose, he arranged the marriages of the daughters of poor people.

He set up schools and colleges and maintained them at the state expenses.

According to Farishta, “Firuz Shah Tughlaq built 50 dams, 5 canals, 100
bathrooms, 100 sarais, 100 hospitals, 30 colleges, 40 mosques, 150 bridges, 10
pillars, 10 wells for the public use, 20 palaces in Delhi.”

This showed that
6. Policy of Expeditions:

Firuz Shah Tughlaq had no lust for the conquests.

Firstly he marched towards Bengal, because Bengal; proclaimed herself as an
independent state.

He made friendly settlements with the rulers of Nagarkot and Orissa.

His last expedition was towards the Thatta (1362). Later he gave the idea up the
making of the further conquests.
8. Conclusion:

Shams Afeef wrote about the prosperity of state during his reign, “Their houses
were repleat with grain, property, horses and furniture. Everyone had plenty
of gold and silver. No woman was without her ornaments, houses without
good beds and comforts were general. The state did not suffer from financial
bankruptcy during his reign.”
Causes of the Decline of Sultans of Delhi
Outlines:
1. Introduction:
Sultans of Delhi faced many inherent and other extremist factors, which led them towards their
decline. With the passage of time, the weak rulers like Feroz Shah Tughlaq etc. also could not
tackle those issues reasonably, which led the Sultans empire towards disintegration.
2. Reasons of Failure:

Autocratic rule of the Sultans

Absence of the law of Succession

Vastness of the empire

Political Instability

Conspirational role of the nobility

Emergence of Independent and semi-independent states

Blunders of Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Appeasement Policy of Feroz Shah Tughlaq

Role of Slaves

Revival of feudalism

Foreign Invasions
3. Conclusion
Zahir-ud-din Babur
Outlines:
1. Introduction
2. His contributions
a. Establishment of Mughal Empire in India
b. Introduction of governing ideology
c. Literary contributions
d. Military Exploits
3. Personal traits of Babur
i. Depiction of Babur’s personality
ii. His private life as a standard of morality
iii. Temperament
iv. Generosity with the friends
v. As a religious man
vi. Love for Nature
vii. Great Zest for Life
viii. Determined Person
4. As a soldier and General
5. As a scholar
Introduction:

S.M. Edwards describes in his book, “Babur, Diarist and Despot”, “He appears before
us in the diverse roles of ruler, warrior, sportsman, craftsman, author, penman and
devoted student of nature.”

There are many dimensions about the personality of Babur, because he was not just a
ruler like Shaibhani Khan, Ismail Safwi of Persia, Ala-ud-din of Syed dynasty of Bengal,
who were the great rulers of his time, but Babur’s role is quite different from them.

The reason is that he was the only person, who not only ruled over India, but also
founded the Mughal dynasty in India.

According to Dr. V.A. Smith, “Babur was a most brilliant Asiatic prince of his age
and worthy of a high place among the sovereigns of India.”

He occupied a high place among the other emperors, but he was also goos looking and
always wore the attractive dress.

A Muslim historian, Farishta, writes about Babur, “Babur was handsome, his address
was engaging and unaffected, his countenance was planning and his disposition affable.”
2. His contributions
a. Establishment of Mughal Empire in India:

Babur established such a vast empire extending from Badakshan to Bengal and bank of
Oxus to the foothills of Himalayas.

Babur did not find time to consolidate his empire, yet he laid the foundation of splendid
fiber, which his grandson Akbar achieved.

Dr. Tripathi opines, “Without depriving Akbar of his well-deserved greatness, it can be
maintained that the seeds of his policy were sown by his illustrious grandfather (Babur).”
b. Introduction of governing ideology:

Babur provided the empire with a very political outlook.

Babur indicated the policy and character to govern this empire. He defined the governing
ideology of the Mughal Empire.

He established a dynasty, which ruled India for more than 200 years.
c. Literary contributions:

“Tuzk-i-Babri” is one of the greatest literary achievements of Babur. It is said about
Babur that a winning battle could not make him immortalized but the Tuzk-i-Babri would
have even then immortalized his name.”
d. Military exploits:

His military exploits could be categorized among his contributions.

The manner, in which he recovered his tiny kingdom of Farghana after losing it twice at
the tender age of eleven, was a remarkable. He conquered Samarkand thrice at the age of
fourteen (14) years.

He was pitched against the powerful enemies like Shaibani Khan. It speaks volumes of
perseverance and indomitable will.

His exploits in India were with 30,000 soldiers and he defeated an army of 1 lac army of
Ibrahim Lodhi.

Within three years 1526-29, he achieved four great victories in India like Panipat (1526),
Kanwaha (1527), Chundrairi (1528) and Ghagra (1529). These military exploits give
him a permanent place in history.
e. Link between Central Asia and India:

Babur established the link between the Central Asia and India, which led to the cultural
development in both areas.
f. Architectural buildings:

The architectural contributions of Babur had also of enormous importance. He introduced
a new themes and designs in Indian architecture and established Bara Dari.

Similarly, he built the gardens and the practice of dividing gardens into four parts.
g. Writing of Deewan:

He also wrote a Deewan in Turkish language. He also wrote two books on the Turkish
literature and a book on the Muslim jurisprudence.

He also invented a style of calligraphy, which is known as “Khat-e-Babri”.
3. Personal traits of Babur
i. Depiction of Babur’s personality:

Brave, gallant and handsome, Babur was a Turk by birth.

Though miniatures are not available, which show the exact personality of Babur. But
from the miniatures it appears that

“Babur was of slightly above middle height and stoutly built, with broad shoulders and
long hands. He had a fair complexion, longish face, a pointed nose, distinct forehead and
a thin trimmed beard.”

He possessed great energy and stamina and such bodily strength that with “his feet in
stockings, he used to jump along the turrets of a fort and sometimes he jumped from one
turret to another carrying two men under arms.”
ii. His private life as a standard of morality:

S.M. Edwards describes in his book, “Babur, Diarist and Despot”, “He appears before
us in the diverse roles of ruler, warrior, sportsman, craftsman, author, penman and
devoted student of nature.”

These are the qualities of Babur, which depict him as a successful person in these fields,
but his private life was marked by a standard of morality.

He was a very dutiful son and had a profound regard for his parents and superiors.
iii. Temperament:

In temperament, Babur was cheerful, genial and kindly. He had a great sense of humour.

As Havell says, “His engaging personality, artistic temperament and romantic career
make him one of the most attractive figures in the history of Islam.”

In manner, he was free from all affection and pride. He was a polite, cultured and
sensitive to the feelings of the others, which he avoided hurting others.

He was of simple habits and did not care for ostentatious display. He was free from
caprice. He did neither have a quick temper nor suffer from the outbreaks of wrath.

He was true to his words and never broke his promises, even if it meant the loss of battle
or that of a territory.
iv. Generosity with the friends:

He had a soft corner in his heart for his friends.

It is said that he wept for days at the mourning the death of a playmate of his boyhood.

He was also a generous friend. After his victory over Ibrahim Lodhi, he sent costly
presents to his friends and relatives in Kabul, Farghana and Transoxiana. When they
visited him, he treated them with the affection and consideration.

He used to spend every year 17,000 tabrizi tumans in grants to the deserving persons,
and nobody returned from his court empty-handed.
v. As a religious man:

As an orthodox Muslim, he belonged to the sect of Naqshbandiya.

He never punished Hindus on the grounds of religion, which showed his Islamic attitude
with non-Muslims.

He believed, “Nothing would happen but by the will of Allah.”
vi. Love for Nature:

He was great worshipper of nature. He was deeply impressed of the sites of the Kalar
Kahar and described it in this way, “Kashmir is beautiful valley.” He considered Kalar
Kahar at that time as a part of Kashmir valley.

He was deeply impressed of the beautiful flowers, trees, plants, rivers and mountains
anywhere in the world.

He was very fond of hunting and could go to the jungle without any fear.

“Till the end of his days Babur retained his love of nature and his aesthetic tastes. He
went into the state of delight when ever he came across a beautiful object, be it a natural
scenary, a running brook, a flower, a garden, a bird or a building.”
vii. Great Zest for Life:

An interesting aspect of Babur’s character was his great zest for life. He was fond of
wine, music and beautiful women.

In spite of his pre-occupation with wars and affairs of state, he found time to spend a few
hours with his boon companions.

He also liked to watch the wrestling matches, elephant fights and the achrobats
performing their feats.

He enjoyed hunting, hiking, swimming and he recorded with the pleasure, “I swam the
Ganges river counting every stroke; I crossed with thirty three, then without resting swam
back. I had swum the other river, Ganges had remained to do so.”
viii. Determined Person:

One of the outstanding qualities of Babur was his indomitable will, which was unaffected
by the reverses, privation and want.

It was not in his nature to give up his ambitions and to retire to the quiet and monotonous
life of a petty prince of a tiny kingdom.

It was his energy and determination, that thrice he conquered Samarqand, and thrice he
lost it, but his determination enabled him to overcome these difficulties.
As a soldier and General:
“India was an extensive country, full of people and full of produce.”
“India has immense wealth of gold and silver.”

Zaheer-ud-din Babur possessed of good qualities of a soldier like bravery and gallantly.
He also grew as a great commander and general. Though he had no match with the other
generals, because he had some distinctive trace.

Most of his life was spent in the military campaigns. He fought numerous battles in the
Central Asia. As a general, he could not achieve his objectives in Central Asia, so he
failed to consolidate his empire in Central Asia, but he got victories in Kabul.

He was a man of confirm conviction and learnt a lot from his Central Asian military
campaigns. He was defeated by the Uzbiks, but as a general, he learnt the art of warfare
from the Uzbiks. He also learnt the use of the fire-arms from the Persians. He also used to
learn the lessons of cavalry from the Turks. But he could not succeed in Central Asia, but
learnt a lot form these Central Military campaigns.

He fought major battles against the rulers of India like Ibrahim Lodhi and Rana Sangha.
He also defeated the Rajputs of Delhi and Afghans of Bihar. By these brilliant conquests,
he proved himself the striking general of his age.

He made some unique arrangements in this worldly known battle of Panipat. “He kept
the town of Panipat and submerged on the right wing of his army and his left wing was
protected by feld-trees and bushes and ditches. That right wing and the left wing of his
army were led by Prince Humayun and Khwaja Medhi, while Babur himself led the
central wing of the army.”

“This battle was the most decisive battle and changed the course of history.”
As a scholar:

Zaheer-ud-din Babur was the most extensive to his contemporaries, who were fond of
knowledge. Shaibhani Khan, ruler of Samarkand, was a great scholar, well versed in
Islamic principles and established a network of Madrassas in his dominion. But Babur
was more distinctive than Shaibhani Khan.

Zaheer-ud-din Babur was a pen-man and an author. He had written extensively, which
made him a well-known scholar.

“Tuzk-e-Babri” and “Babur Nama” were the masterpieces of Babur.

His other book was “Mubain” in 1521-22. It contains two hundred verses, primarily
dealt with the Islamic Fiqha. He had written advices to his son, Kamran, in this book.

He was well-versed in grammar and poetry. He was also an author of Ilm-i-Arous (Ilm-iArous knowledge which deals with the ozones of poetry). He wrote a booklet known as
“Risala-i-Arouzi”, which dealt with the science of meters in the poetry.

He also played the services as a translator. Risala-i-Waldia was written by Ubaid Ullah
Ahrar, who was a spiritual guide of Timurites. Babur translated it into Persian verses. It
contained 243 verses. Besides, these contributions showed his scholarly taste.

He was also a great Chugtai poet in Turkish language, second to Ameer Ali Sher Nawai.

Babur was a poet of high caliber. He had a “Deevan” to his credit, which is a great poetic
contribution to his credit. He was well-versed in different kinds of poetry. He became an
impressive poet by his contributions.
Memoirs:

His “Memoirs” was full of his writings and conquests. It was a masterpiece of historical
literature.

Some of the autobiographies have the great reputation like the autobiography of
Rousseau, who had written “Confession”.

Its contents are consisted of life of the author, events of campaigns, conquest. This book
deals with its author, which had a chequered history, contemporary political, socioeconomic and geographical conditions of his age.

It is very comprehensive, because it starts from his first day to the last day. “Whatever I
have written, it is based on truth and I do not conceal anything in it.”

Babur had also written the importance of India. He also mentions the conditions of
Indians, when he came to India. He opined that Indians were uncultured and uncivilized.
The Indians did not have any atiquettes. Babur had discussed, in detail, about the
inhabitants of India.

Stainly Lane-Poole appreciated this book, “The power and pomp of his dynasty had
gone, but the record of his life litrascripta, that marks at times remains unaltered and
imperished.”

Dr. Tripathi, “Without depriving Akbar of his well-deserved greatness, it can be
maintained that the seeds of his policy were sown by his illustrious grandfather (Babur).”

Woolsley Haig writes about Babur, “Babur was one of those men, who are so active in
mind and body, they are never idle and always find time for everything.”
Humayun (1530-40,55-56)
Question:
“Humayun tumbled through life and tumbled through out of it.” (“Stainly LanePoole)
Outline:
1. Introduction
2. War of Succession
3. Political Instability
4. Enmity of Afghan rivals
5. Unreliable Army
6. Conclusion
_______________________________
Humayun (1530-40, 1555-56)
1. Introduction:

Humayun, “the fortunate”, was the eldest son of Babur and had three brothers, viz,
Kamran, Askari and Hindal. He was born at Kabul in March, 1508. The name of his
mother was Mahim Begum who was probably a Shia.

It was the historian like Lane-Poole and Sir Richard Burn, who, in view of the way
Humayun died by an accidental fall from the roof of his library. In other words, just as
throughout his life Humayun tumbled at every step or committed blunders over blunders
at every step. Similarly he also died by stumbling over the roof of his library. According
to him, he made mistakes at every step in life.

On the other hand, Humayun was calculated, chatable, generous and an exemplary man.
The meaning of his name was “fortunate”, but he proved “unfortunate”. When he
ascended the throne, he faced difficult conditions.
2. War of Succession:

Humayun, “the fortunate”, was the eldest son of Babur and had three brothers, viz,
Kamran, Askari and Hindal. Kamran and Askari were his real brothers.

Babur advised Humayun to treat kindly with his brothers. He acted upon the advice of his
father and gave them governorship of different territories.

There was no law of succession, so Humayun’ brothers and relatives began to aspire for
the throne and created problems for him. His brothers proved “the brothers of Joseph”.

Among his brothers, Kamran showed aggressive attitude to the throne and found an
opportunity to occupy the throne of Delhi.

Askari and Hindal were not capable of any independent action against Humayun.

Meanwhile his brother-in-law also stood against him for the throne.
3. Political Instability:

Humayun had inherited an ill-organized and un-consolidated empire by his father, Babur.

Babur defeated the Afghans and the Rajputs, but he had not consolidated his power in
India.

Babur divided the jagir among the jagirdars, which later led towards the semiindependent states.

Humayun faced the financial crisis from its start, because his father, Babur, distributed
the treasury of Delhi and Agra among the common people, which made the financial
situation worse in the empire.

It means that Humayun inherited an empire based on the bankruptcy.
4. Enmity of Afghan rivals:

Though Babur defeated the Afghans, but he could not nip the Afghans in the bud.

So when Humayun ascended the throne, the Afghans nobles became bold in the
activities. The names of Mahmood Lodhi, Bahadur Shah and Sher Khan were the most
prominent.

Mahmud Lodhi tried to recapture his power.

Bahadur Shah, ruler of Gujrat and Malwa, had given shelter to Alam Khan, the uncle
of Ibrahim Lodhi and started preparation for fighting with Humayun.

But of all the Afghan chiefs, Sher Shah Suri proved to be the strongest enemy of
Humayun.
5. Unreliable Army:

Babur army was not strong due to its heterogeneous character including the Afghans,
Turks, Rajputs, Uzbiks etc. those nationalities did not acre for the national interest and
national cause.

Rashbrook William says about Babur’s army, “Babur bequeathed a monarchy to his son,
which would be held together by the continuation of war conditions. But in the time of
peace, it was weak and structureless.”

As Lane-Poole said, “Humayun lacked character and resolution. He was incapable of
sustained efforts and after the movement of triumph, he would busy himself in Haram
and dream away precious hours in opium.”

“His character was worst enemy of himself”. These statements were not correct.

Though he had defects in his character, but Lane-Poole said that he lacked character. He
had attracting character, but not dominating.

Tripathi, a Hindu Historian, opined that his character was not responsible for his
downfall.

He was an experienced general and commander. Though he was deficit in political
tactics, aggressive and unscrupulous, otherwise he was an experienced general. He fought
several battles during his father’s time and commanded the forces of Babur at the battles
of Kanwah and Panipat.

He was appointed as governor at the age of twenty years. He was a successful ruler of
Badhiskan. He maintained peace and protected the subjects from the Uzbik attacks. It
shows that Babur had given him power due to his experiences and good judgements.
6. Conclusion:

Tripathi, a Hindu historian, opines, “He was not as man as painted by Lane-Poole.”
_____________________________
Sher Shah Suri
Outlines:
1. Introduction
2. Administrative System
3. Provincial Administration
4. Revenue System
5. Introduction of Coins
6. Military Reforms
7. Police System
8. System of espionage
9. Public works
10. Conclusion
_________________________
Sher Shah Suri
1. Introduction:

A gallant warrior and a great conqueror, “Sher Shah Suri was the architect of a brilliant
administrative system.”

He was an experienced administrator and possessed distinct qualities among his
contemporaries like Iltutmish, Ala-ud-din Khilji, Sikandar Lodhi, Babur, Humayun
and Akbar. His contemporary rulers played their important role in administrating the
government, but the role of Sher Shah Suri was marvelous.

Woolsley Haig said, “Sher Shah Suri was undoubtedly a great ruler and possessed of
excellent qualities.”

He was the first Muslim ruler, who had the genius to see that the government must be
popularized, that the Hindu must be conciliated by a policy of justice and toleration and
that the land revenue must be settled on an equitable basis.

The historian praised him and talked of his reign as a “Golden Period”.

Mr. Keene says, “Not government….not even the British has shown such wisdom as this
Pathan.”

The government of Sher Shah was highly centralized. Though autocratic, it was vigorous
and enlightened.

“He wanted to build his greatness,” Dr. K.Dutta, “on the happiness and contentment of
his subjects and not by oppressing them.”

He introduced many reforms and institutions in his empire in a new spirit. All these
reforms were accepted not only by Akbar the Great, but also by many rulers.

Humayun, the Mughal ruler, praised him as “Teacher of the Monarchs”.
2. Administrative System:

All civil and military powers were vested in his hands and he exercised these powers in
the interest of the people rather than for himself.

He consolidated this administrative system and divided this sytem into four major
departments;
i. Deewan-e-Wizarat: it was an office like of Wazir-i-Azam
ii. Deewan-e-Risalat: this department dealt with the foreign affairs, he had to appoint the
ambassadors.
iii. Deewan-e-Arz: it dealt with the Military affairs. Arz-e-Mumalik was the incharge of
military, who had to appoint the experienced generals for various expeditions.
iv. Deewan-e-Insha: it dealt with the internal affairs. It had to keep the record of the
internal affairs of the state.
Deewan-e-Qaza: It dealt with the department of justice. Qazi-e-Qudat was the incharge of
this department. He had to appoint the Qazis in the various sarkars and parghanas.
Deewan-e-Barid: it dealt with the postal affairs.
3. Provincial Administration:

Sher Shah Suri divided the empire into smaller units known as Sarkars or Subas
(provices).

Two important officers were appointed at the provincial level
a. Sikhdar-i-Sikhdaran: inchrage of the Sarkar. He had to look after the affairs of the law
and order situation in his respective domain. He also used to implement the policy of central
government in the sarkar. He had to supervise the work of Sikhdar at the Pargana
b. Munsifan: incharge of the collection of revenue in the domain of Sarkars

Sher Shah Suri further divided the sarkar into (1,13,000) Parghanas, where he appointed
various officials like Siqhdar, Amin, Treasure, Munsif, Patwari, Chowdhary, and
Moqaddam.

The Parghanas were subdivided into villages in which the Panchayati system was
prevalent.
4. Revenue System:

Sher Shah Suri introduced the revenue system based on justice. Before Sher Shah Suri,
the revenue system was not based on justice.

Sher Shah Suri played very constructive role in this field and introduced radical reforms.

Biga was the basic unit for the fixation of land revenue.

He showed such a system in which leniency was allowed at the time of measurement, but
not at the time of collection of revenue. He tried to eliminate the corruption and
malpractices from the revenue department.

He also introduced a system of land revenue based on the division of cultivated lands;
a. wood land in which government share would be 18 maund / Bigga
b. Middling land in which government share would be 12 maund / Bigga
c.

bad land
Sher Shah Suri gave two documents to the farmers
a. Patta, which was a title deed
b. Kabuliyat, it was an agreement deed

Sher Shah Suri established the direct relations with the cultivators and farmers.

Sher Shah Suri also introduced the Zabti system, which was an innovation on behalf of
Sher Shah Suri. According to this system, he collected a revenue of 52 crore rupees,
which was a sign of prosperity and efficiency of his era.
5. Introduction of Coins:

Muslims were the best in the making of coins. Abdul Malik Marwan firstly introduced
the making of coins.

Sher Shah Suri removed all coins from the market and introduced a new coin known as
Rupee. Before him, there was a prevailing currency known as Tanka.

Sher Shah Suri proved to be an innovator, who introduced the practice of writing Hindi
and Persian scripts on the coins.
6. Military Reforms:

Sher Shah Suri was impressed of Ala-ud-din Khilji. Ala-ud-din Khilji centralized the
whole military organization.

Sher Shah Suri kept close contact with the soldiers.

He also fixed the salaries of the soldiers.

He also copied the practice of branding the horses

Sher Shah Suri introduced such a system in which military officer was kept in one place
for two years.

He maintained strict discipline in the military.

He also introduced personal rank like the rank of Fauji.
7. Police System:

To control the law and order situation, Sher Shah Suri established the police department.

It would check the crime rate in his empire.
8. System of espionage:

In order to run the administration effectively, Sher Shah Suri introduced a spy system, so
that a check could be maintained over the activities of his administrators, governors and
generals.

It was just like a checks and balances over his state functionaries.
9. Public works:

He was very fond of buildings.

He built a fort in every parghana.

Sher Shah Suri wanted to build a fleet for Hajis to Makkah.

He built a mosque at Panipat in the memory of Ibrahim Lodhi.

He introduced many cities and towns like Shergarh, Sher Mandar, Sherpur.

He also built a tomb in his own life at Sasram.

Fort Rohtas-i-Nao was also constructed by Sher Shah Suri. Sher Shah Suri appointed
Todarmal for the supervision of this fort.

The means of communications were very inadequate in the middle ages. Sher Shah Suri
was the first Muslim ruler, who undertook the construction of roads on a large scale for
the public convenience. He built Grand Trunk Road (GT Road) from Peshawar to
Delhi.
10. Conclusion:

Sher Shah Suri was great ruler and fore-runner of akbar in many things

Sher Shah Suri was more superior than Akbar, because he remained in the prescribe of
Islam, while Akbar crossed the limits of Islam.

He also organized the revenue system, which was also followed by Akbar the Great.

Humayun called him “Ustad-i-Badshah”

Qanungu praised him with these words, “Sher Shah Suri was the far constructive
genius.”
Akbar the Great
Outlines:












Introduction
Akbar’s Heritage
Contemporary Movements and Patterns of Thought
Abolition of Jizya
Establishment of Ibadat Khana
Akbar’s Hostility to Ulema
Public Worship Places
Cultural Contacts
The Mahzar or Infalliblity Decree
Deen-i-Illahi or Divine Faith
Principles and Practices of Deen-i-Illahi
Akbar’s Religion: An Assessment
Introduction:
Medieval India exhibited considerable divergence in the matter of religious beliefs and practices
of its people. Islam was firmly rooted in the soil and the Muslims though were in minority
constituted the major section of Indian socio-political order because they provided ruling
dynasties not only in Delhi but also in other regions and provinces. The Muslim rulers had
perforce to associate Hindus in state administration. The Hindus were the conservative people
who were too devoted to their faith and not wanted to alter it at any cost. It is vivid that during
Akbar’s reign conversions to Islam were lessened to a great extent because he did not utilize
force for the sake of it. Furthermore, discrimination between two communities tended to vanish
practically due to the establishment of Hindu sovereign states in some parts of India which acted
as a sort of deterrence to neighbouring Muslim sovereign state that if they ill-treated their
subjects they will have to face consequences for it. Muslim rulers recruited Hindus to highest
offices of the state. Some were commanders of the armed forces. For instance, the rise of Hem
Chandara a petty Hindu of obscure origin to army of Adil Shah Sur as general indicates that the
affinity between Hindus and Muslims arose to secure their political interests on the eve of the
Mughals. J.L Mehta, mentions in his book “An Advanced Study in the History of Medieval
India (1526-1707)”, it can be asserted that in the beginning of the sixteenth century regionalism
instead of religion had become evident factor to determine loyalties of the people to their local
rulers.”
Akbar’s Heritage
J.L Mehta, writes in his book “An Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India (15261707)”Parental and social heritage of Akbar laid solid foundations for the policy of secularism
initiated by him. Humayun taught his son princely values of liberalism and broadmindedness. He
did not hesitate in adopting some of the shia practices to please the Persian ruler from whom he
got the hand of a princesses besides military aid which enabled him to conquer Kandhar.”
R.C. Majumdar, describes in his book, “An Advanced History of India”, “Akbar’s mother the
daughter of a Persian scholar sowed the seeds of toleration in his mind. In addition, his early
contact with Sufism during his stay in the court of Kabul, where a number of Sufi saints fled
away from Persia under the pressure of Safavi persecution helped his mind to generate worthy
liberal and sublime ideas.”3 All of Akbar’s teachers and guides in his early boyhood happened to
be men of liberal religious views. “His tutor Abul Latif was so liberal in his religious outlook
that the people dubbed him a sunni in the shia country of Persia, and a shia amongst the
predominantly sunni populace of northern India. Akbar learnt from him the noble principle of
suleh i kul that is ‘peace with all’ or universal brotherhood which he applied in practice in his
treatment towards his subjects.” R.C. Majumdar, argues that the influence of his hereditary
“endowed him with those qualities of head and heart that prepared him to receive the impress of
his environments, and reflect it in the best possible way.” and he further observes Akbar as
“intelligent to an uncommon degree, with a mind alert and inquisitive, he was best fitted by
birth, upbringing and association to feel most keenly those hakerings and spiritual unrest which
distinguished the century in which he lived. He was not only child of his century; he was its best
replica”.
Contemporary Movements and Patterns of Thought
The fifteen and sixteenth century of the Christian era in India witnessed the growth of new sects,
new philosophies and new religious approaches. Traditional religious thinking was challenged by
these new born sects though they were not quite distinctive from that of the older ones. These
new trends were actually the expression of the spirit of that age. The leaders of the newly
established sects used all possible tools to assume the Prophetic role. However, the open claim to
prophet hood was fraught with dangers, religious thought was shrewdly conducted by secret and
mysterious channels where the mentor come to assume the status almost equal to the Prophet.
Many of the leaders of religious movements like Sayyid Muhammad Ghauth Shattari, Bayazaid
Ansari and other claimed to be illiterates (Ummi) to actually emphasize the divine source of their
leadership.
The Bhakti saints, the Shattari Sufis, the Mahdaavi preachers, the Nuqtawi pseudo-philosophers
and the Zikri, Raushaniya tribalists are exponents of contemporary trends of thought. Akbar
could not have remained unaffected by these movements which were prevalent at that time.
Some of these movements provided the ‘woof and wrap’ for his religious thought:
1. Bayazid Ansari’s search for Afghan identity and his anxiety to control the Afghan tribes
led him to inaugurate his Raushaniya cult. Similarly, Akbar’s desire to establish a strong
and stable government in the presence of multiple religious identities led him to Deen-iIllahi. It can be said that at that point of time religion was used as a medium for the
realization of political motives.
2. The Shattari interest in heavenly bodies paved the way for da’wat-i-asma (control of
stars through recitation of the attributes of God). In the same manner Akbar adopted sun
worship as the basis and symbol of his royal authority.
New methods of calling for prayers (azan), new formula of faith (kalmia) and doubtful
expressions of divinity characterized the techniques of these movements and Akbar’s mind
exhibited exceptional receptivity on adopting some of these devices.
Bhakti ideas appealed to Akbar’s cosmopolitan spirit and he showed great respect for saints of
Bhakti school of thought. It is also argued that Hinduism as Akbar understood was Brahmanic
not Bhakti oriented because Brahmanic influences on his mind were so vigorous to accept the
social content of Bhakti movement particularly it’s rejection of caste system.
Abolition of Jizya:
Maktubat-u-Mulla Ahmad, cited in Sri Ram Sharma, The Religious Policy of the Mughal
Emperors, the Jizya implied “declaration that the Muslim rulers of India were still her
conquerors, holding the inhabitants down by sheer force. It proclaimed the superiority of Islam
over Hinduism in too brazen a fashion.” Sri Ram Sharma opines that every other aspect of
Muslims emperors of India was based upon the imposition of this tax and it’s abolition in 1564
was a turning point in the History of Muslim rule in India. As long as the Hindus were to pay the
Jizya the Muslims seem to be only true citizens of the state. Hindus were the subjects who
attained rights by their undertaking to pay the Jizya to their Muslim Conquerors. Akbar created
common citizenship for all his subjects Hindus and Muslims alike and this happened long before
the coming of Abul Fazl and Faizi to his court.” Aziz Ahmad observes that“In abolishing the
poll-tax (jizya) he followed the plociy of Zayn-al-Abidin of Kashmir. There was no legal
sanction on the basis of the shir’a for the levy of pilgrimage tax on the Hindus or other nonMuslims. Akbar abolished these taxes fairly early in his reign when he was still an orthodox,
practicing Muslim.”
Establishment of Ibadat Khana:
In 1575, Akbar built great edifice called ‘Ibadat Khana’ near the tomb of Shaikh Salim who died
during its construction. Akbar set apart this building for the religious discussions and every
friday after the congregational prayers scholars, dervishes, theologians and courtiers interested in
religious affairs gather at Ibadat Khana where discussions on religious matters in the presence of
emperor took place. Akbar had arranged the meetings at Ibadat Khana for discussions about
Islam but that took him away from orthodox Islam. This was due to those attended its gatherings.
S.M Ikram, mentions in his book “A History of Muslim Civilization in India and Pakistan”,
“At very first session the disputes about precedence aroused and when that was resolved the
battle of wits initiated. There were two great theologians at Ibadat Khana. Of the two, Makhdumul-Mulk was a competent jurist and received the title of Shaikh-al-Islam form Sher Shah Suri. He
was belived to be a corrupt person and he accumulated immense wealth. The other was Shaikh
Abd-un-Nabi who was Sadr-us-Sudur was not personally corrupt but his subordinates were. He
was strict Puritan and on the question of lawfulness of music had sharp difference with his father
who disinherited him.”
Referring to discussions at Ibadat Khana, Stanley Lane Poole observes that “The unity that had
existed among the learned disappeared in the very beginning; abuse took the place of argument,
and the plainest rules of etiquette were, even in the presence of the emperor forgotten. Akbar’s
doubts instead of being cleared up only increased; certain points of Hanafi law, to which most
Sunnis cling, were found to be better established by the dicta of lawyers belonging to the other
three sects; and the moral character of the Prophet was next scrutinized and found wanting.
Makhdum-al-mulk (the head of the ultra bigoted orthodox party) wrote a spiteful pamphlet
against Shaikh Abd-an-nabi, the sader or chancellor of the empire.”
Akbar’s Hostility to Ulema:
The legal authority of Sadr-us-sadar (the head of the department of religious and Judicial affairs)
galled Akbar. At First he tried to get Sadr-us-sadr carry out his orders but failed in a test case.
Ishtiaq Hussain Quershi, describes in his famous book, “A Short History of Pakistan, “The
Qazi of Mathura had collected building material for a mosque. An influential Brahmin removed
the material and abused Islam and the Prophet. The Qazi reported the matter to Sadr-us-sadar,
Shaikh Abd-un-Nabi who made an investigation and reached to the result that the Brahmin
should be penalized but the orders of capital punishment could not be implement until the assent
of the king is secured. Akbar gave no order and he left the matter in the hands of Shaikh Abd-unNabi who executed Brahmin. Akbar did not want to execute the Brahmin and was also reluctant
to take the opprobrium of voting the Sadar-us-sadar in such case. He was unhappy with the
verdict given by him. This was against the conscience of emperor Akbar.
Public Worship Places:
Emperor Akbar removed all restrictions from the public religious places of non-Muslims. There
was check on building of new public worship places and tax on pilgrimage was also taken from
infidels. The imposition of this tax irked Akbar that he abolished it. He further removed all
restrictions from building of non-Muslim places of worship.
Thus as a result, a number of non-Mulism Public religious buildings were erected:
1. Raja Man Singh built a temple at Birndaban at a cost of half million rupees and another at
Benars.
2. A Chirstan Church was built at Agra, another at Lahore.
3. Several Jain temples were built at Ujjain and Satrunjaya.14
Cultural Contacts
Akbar destroyed the prevalent myth that a public worship of Hindus was a profanation to
Muslims. Another idea was widespread at that time which was the study of religious books of
other religions which was considered worse or waste of time by the average Muslims. Similarly,
Hindus did not favour the idea that people of other religion should look into their scared
teachings.Akbar broke these barriers which kept two communities at poles apart. He established
translation department which was given the task to translate religious works of Hindus into
Pesian. Sanskrit works were translated before it into Persian and Arabic which were secular in
nature. Akbar ordered that Athrava Veda, the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and the Ramayana be
translated into Persian language. The translations were accomplished and enriched the Persian
literature and extended toleration to Hindu religious books.
The Mahzar or Infallibility Decree
The Muslim state was a sort of theocracy in which the Ulama had great say and whenever the
king became weak, inefficient they usurped the throne as safe guardians of Muslim laws.
Furthermore, Mullas were divided into various sects who were at daggers drawn with each other.
The Sunnis, Shias and Mahadavis were engaged in bloody conflicts with each other. Akbar had
very bitter experience with them and their interference in state politics was no guarantee for
stability of the state. J.L Mehta, opines in his book, “An Advanced Study in the History of
Medieval India (1526-1707), “The orthodox Sunnis did not allow Akbar to act as the impartial
ruler of the Muslims because they discriminated against Shias and called Mahdavis as heretics.
The Ulama stood as a hindrance to transform the theocratic state into a secular one. Akbar is said
to have given a strong blow to their powers and influence in state politics by Introducing Mahzar
which given religious as well as politically influence to the emperor.16
The document of Mahzar was very carefully drafted by Shiekh Mubarak and was signed by
following Ulema:
1. Maulana Abdullah Sultanpuri
2. Shaikh Abdun Nabi
3. Ghazi Khan Badakhshani
4. Hakim-ul-Mulk
5. Shaikh Mubarak
6. Qazi Jalal-ud-Din Multani
7. Sadr-i-Jahan Muffti
Khaliq Ahmad Nizami, describes in his book, “Akbar and Religion”, Apart from declaring that
the rank of a Sultan-i-Adil (Just King) is higher in the eyes of God than the rank of an interpreter
of law, the Mahzar lays down the appellate and original powers of Akbar as:
(a) To accept any of the opinions of the interpreter of law (mujtahids) given to him in matters of
religion keeping the welfare of people and expediency of administration in view.
(b) To issue any original order, which should be for the convenience of people and not against
the specific injunction of Quran.
S.M Jaffar calls Mahzar as ‘the Act of Supremacy,’ and argues that it “reveals most
unmistakably the statesmanship of Akbar who caught the ferocious lions (the ulama) in their own
dens… Like king John’s Magna Carta it was a petition to the king from the most influential
ulama but unlike it, it increased rather than diminished the royal prerogative.”
I.H Quershi remarks with regard to Declaration of 1579 or Infallibility Decree that “It
enunciated the well known Islamic principle that where the injunctions of Quran and the
authentic traditions of the Prophet are not clear in their application to a situation and the doctors
of law are divided in their interpretation, ‘a just Sultan’ had the right to accept any of the
interpretations offered. The next part of the ruling was not in accordance either with the previous
practice or the spirit of the Muslim law. It is said that Akbar was such a ruler, therefore had such
a right.”
Deen-i-Illahi:
There are divergent views regarding the nature of Deen-i-Illahi. Some historians consider it a
religion while others claim it to be socio-religious order.
Khaliq Ahmad Nizami observes “the Deen-i-Illahi had no metaphysical or even ethical
foundations. No religious policy sustained it and no higher moral or spiritual values buttressed its
ethical position. It was a haphazard agglomeration of certain rituals, whimsically visualized and
pompously demonstrated.”
Von Noer opines about Deen-i-Illahi that “the Deen-i-Illahi had an importance of pre-eminent
practical value; it was a political fraternity the members of which had bound themselves by oath
to stand by the emperor in good and ill-fortunes, in joy and in trouble.”
Vincent A. Smith writes that through Deen-i-Illahi Akbar showed “his contempt and dislike for
the Muslim religion…adherence to which involved solemn renunciation of Islam.” He further
remarks that the “Divine Monotheism (Tauhid Ilahi) or Divine Religion (Din Ilahi) rejected
wholly the claims of Muhammad to be an inspired Prophet and practically replaced him by the
emperor.”
Referring to Akbar’s religious order Stanly Lane Poole describes, “The truth is that Akbar was
singularly sensitive to religious imprssions of every kind, and that his new religion, the Din-iIllahi, ‘divine faith,’ an eclectic pantheism, contained elements taken from very diverse faiths.”
Dr. Ishtiaq Hussain Quershi observes that “The Deen-i-Illahi was not a new faith. It was
intended to be an order of Akbar’s spiritual disciples who promised to sacrifice their property,
life, honour and religion for him. Even in Akbar’s life not many men joined the order as it died
out even before the Emperor’s death.”
Aziz Ahmad writes that Deen-i-Illahi had ten virtues, nine of which were deriver directly from
Quran while the tenth was common place basis of all Sufi thought and experience. These were,
liberty ‘forbearance from bad actions and repulsion of anger with mildness, abstinence, freedom
from violent material pursuits, piety, devotion, prudence, gentelness, kindness, attachment to
God and purification of soul by yearning for God’.
Principles and Practices of Deen-i-Illahi
Abul Fazl in Ain No. 77 has given a list of principles and practices of Deen-i-Illahi which is
given below:
i. “The members of the Divine Faith, on seeing each other, observe the following custom. One
says, “Allah u Akbar,” and the other responds, “Jall u Jallaluh.”
ii. The motive of His Majesty in laying down this mode of salutation is to remind men to think of
the origin of their existence, and to keep the Deity in fresh, lively and grateful remembrance.
iii. It is also ordered by His Majesty that, instead of the dinner usually given in remembrance of a
man after his death, each member should prepare a dinner during his life time, and thus gather
provisions for his last journey.
iv. Each member is to give a party on the anniversary of his birthday, and arrange a sumptuous
feast. He is to bestow alms, and thus prepare provisions for his last journey.
v. His Majesty has also ordered that members should endeavour to abstain from eating flesh.
They may allow others to eat flesh without touching it themselves; but during the month of their
birthday they are not even to approach meat. Nor shall members go near anything that they have
themselves slain; nor eat of it. Neither shall they make use of the same vessels with butchers,
fishers, and bird catchers.
vi. Members should no cohabit with pregnant, old, and barren women; nor with girls under the
age of puberty.
Akbar’s Religion: An Assessment
The most debatable question about religious order of Akbar is that whether in course of his
religious development he remained a Muslim or not. Divergent views are expressed in this
regard. Hindu historians consider him a liberal minded person having Islam his faith with some
heretical views while Western historians are of the view that Islam is incapable to assume
liberalism and since Akbar was liberal so he definitely ceased Islam. It is true that Akbar adopted
and prescribed for his disciples and even to others practices which were taken or borrowed from
other creeds but precedents for this may be found in the lives of many Sufi saints who continued
to be considered Muslims despite widespread departures from traditional Islam. For all of
Akbar’s innovations some Islamic texts or precedents, genuine or fake were cited by his
courtiers. S.M Ikram, mentions in his book “A History of Muslim Civilization in India and
Pakistan”, “Emperor Akbar did not claim to be a prophet or being established a new religion.
However, it can be said that at that time Islam lost its grandeur and Akbar’s practices and
regulations differed from normal Muslim practices.
Shah Jahan’s Period as a Golden Period
Outlines:
1. Introduction:
2. Shah Jahan’s period as a golden period
9. Zenith of Mughal cultural development
10. Era of peace and tranquility
11. Economic prosperity
12. Works of public welfare
13. Magnificence of the Court
14. Military expansion
3. Conclusion
__________________________________
Shah Jahan’s Period as a Golden Period
1. Introduction:

Shah Jahan’s period is marks a glorious chapter in the annals of Medieval India.

This period witnessed unprecedented cultural development, commercial expansion,
general prosperity as well as further military conquests.

On account of these developments, Shah Jahan’s period is described as a golden period.
2. Shah Jahan’s period as a golden period:
i. Zenith of Mughal cultural development:

The most visible manifestation of Shah Jahan’s glorious reign was it cultural
development. It was in the culturalk sphere that Shah Jahan’s reign witnessed a unique
glory.

V. A. Smith says, “In the realm of architecture and other forms of art, it is questionable
that the works of the highest quality in the Mughal period belong to the reign of Shah
Jahan.”

Shah Jahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. Amongst the more famous of
Shah Jahan’s buildings are the Pearl Mosque and the Taj Mahal at Agra, the Red Fort and
Jami’ah Masjid at Delhi, palaces and gardens at lahore, a beautiful mosque at Thatta in
Sind, a fort, a palace and a mosque at Kabul, royal buildings in Kashmir and many
edifices at Ajmer and Ahmadabad.

V.D. Mahajan describes in his famous book “Mughal Rule in India” “On the authority
of Father Manrique of Spain, it is contended that the Taj was designed by Geroniumo
Veroneo, a Venetian. There is nothing impossible pr surprising in Shah Jahan’s taking the
advice form a Venetican architect. However it is strange that the Taj was designed by a
foreigner.”

Perhaps in the whole world, there is not a scene where nature and art so successfully
combine to produce a perfect work of art as within the precincts of this far-famed
mausoleum….. At Agra and Delhi the white marble style was in vogue, but a different
style was current in the Punjab. It consisted of brick construction, with occasional
sandstone additions and its distinctive character lay in the glazed tile decoration which
often covered the entire surface. Brick and tile style of Lahore was away from the sources
of the stone material, but artistic traditions also played their part. “Since the days of the
Ghaznavid occupation, the Punjab capital has been inclined to cultivate an independent
architectural tradition, and instinctively to took to the north-west and beyond for its
aesthetic inspiration. In the first half of the seventeenth century the Safavid art of Persia
had attained its zenith, and for a time Lahore appears to have come under its powerful
spell. It was not that the buildings of the Punjab were exact reproduction of those of Shah
Abbas the Great; they displayed a certain individuality, but the brick construction was
based on that prevailing in Persia, and the glazed tiles were of the same style as those
produced n the famous kilns of Kashan and other places on the Iranian plateau.” As a
matter of fact, glazed tiles for buildings at Lahore seem to have been imported in bulk
from Kashan, and in Lahore, as in Iran, the style is commonly known as Kashi. During
Shah Jahan’s reign a large number of buildings in this style were erected at Lahore and its
neighbourhood, but, owing to the impermanent nature of the brick construction, many of
them are in ruins and some have entirely disappeared.

The finest of this style is Wazir Khan’s Mosque, which was erected in 1044/1634 by the
local governor. Other buildings constructed in this style at Lahore were Gulabi Bagh,
Chauburji and Ali Mardan Khan’s tomb. Many of the constructions did not rise to the
great architectural standards of Delhi and Agra, but tile decoration was of the highest
order and “the brilliantly designed arabesques in variegated hues lit by the eastern sun
produce a vitality of effect disarming all criticism”.’ The glazed tile buildings of the
Punjab and Sind incidentally reflect “tile ardent desire for a display of exuberant colour
innate in the East”.

Thames and Hudson in his book “The Gardens of Mughal India” describes about the
Shalamar Bagh, Lahore “One of the two parterres to east and west of the central
reservoir, the parterres are similar in design and proportion to those at the Taj Mahal, but
the detail of the pattern is floral rather than star-shaped.”

Thatta is also famous for its Jami’ah Masjid, which was built under Shah Jahan’s orders
in 1057/1647 and is one of the largest buildings in Sind. Although “produced to the order
of the Mughal emperor, it was executed according to the brick and tile tradition of the
indigenous style”. It is decorated with finest type of coloured glaze and is remarkable for
the prodigality of decoration. James, a former Commissioner of Sind, said about this
building: “The Emperor Shah Jahan’s mosque possesses the most magnificent fictile
adornment, I should say, of any building in the world. Were it a cathedral in England, its
history would be known to the minutest detail, and many monographs would be written
about it.”

Among the gardens, which testify the Mughal glory include Nishat Bagh, Shamsha Shahi
in Kashmir, Shalimar Garden in Lahore.

Shah Jahan patronized the literati, which is evident from the association of celebrated
historians and poets with his darbar like Abdul Hamid Lahori, Inayat Khan,
Mohammad Saleh Kamboh, Abul Qasim Irani, Khafi Khan, Mirza Zia-ud-din. A
number of numerous Hindu poets were also associated with his court like Tulsi Das,
Behari Lal etc.

The Tomb of Safdar Jang at Delhi, erected in 1197/1783, is indicative of the decline in
the architectural standards, which was to become more manifest in the hybrid structures,
exhibiting European and Mughal influences, at Lucknow.

After Shah Jahan Mughal architecture declined, even at the capital, but some interesting
buildings were put up from time to time.
ii. Era of peace and tranquility:

With the exception of one or two rebellions, the reign of Shah Jahan enjoyed an
uninterrupted peace and order.

Foreign travelers testify to the prevalence of perfect law and order in the empire during
Shah Jahan period,

The roads were safe. The movement of traffic was uninterrupted. The dacoits and the
thieves were inflicted severe punishments and anti-social elements were held in check.

Stern measures were taken to protect the lives of the subjects.

The means employed by Shah Jahan for the protection of his people and to punish all
kinds of oppressive evil doers- all these contributed in a great measure to advance the
prosperity of his empire.
iii. Economic prosperity:

Durin this priod, the trading activities were greatly flourished.

This period witnessed the development of exports between India and Western Asia, and
the beginning of export trade with Europe.

The uninterrupted peace, freedomfrom the foreign invasion enriched the state treasury
and ushered in an era of prosperity and material as well being of the people.

Marland eulogizes the excellent financial administration of Shah Jahan, which increased
the incomes of the people.

Marland calls his reign “a period of agrarian tranquility.”
iv. Works of public welfare:

Shah Jahan paid special attention towards the works of public utility.

Various canals were constructed for the irrigation purpose during his reign. A canal was
dug from River Ravi for irrigation in the vicinity of Lahore.

Similarly, he also repaired the western Jamna canal, which had been constructed by Feroz
Shah Tughlaq and was renamed by Shah Jahan as Ner-e-Bhashit.

Shah Jahan government made all out efforts for the reclamation of lands and increased
agricultural production.

He tried to reform the “Mansabdari System”. He did successful in restoring efficiency in
the Mansabdari system, which had deteriorated in the later years of Jahangir’s reign.
v. Magnificence of the Court:

The most visible manifestation of Shah Jahan’s glorious period was the enhancement of
courts splendour and grandeur.

The Takht-e-Taous and the glitter of jewels dazzled the foreign travelers.
vi. Military expansion:

Shah Jahan’s period witnessed further expansion of Mughal rule in the interiors of
Deccan. He extended his territories by annexing Ahmadnagar, Bejapur, Golcanda made
his subjugation.

In this expansion, his son Aurangzaib played a major roel in extending the southern
frontier of his empire during the firsty thirty years of his reign.
3. Conclusion:

Shah Jahan’s period is marks a glorious chapter in the annals of Medieval India.

This period witnessed unprecedented cultural development, commercial expansion,
general prosperity as well as further military conquests.

On account of these developments, Shah Jahan’s period is described as a golden period.

B.P. Sexana says, “In Shah Jahan’s reign, the Mughal Empire attained the zenith of
prosperity and affluence.”
_______________________________
Mughal Architecture
Outline:

Introduction:

Babur:

Humayun

Akbar

Jahangir

Shah Jahan

Aurangzaib Alamgir

Conclusion
Introduction:
Architecture, which had already achieved a high level of development under the
Sultanate, was to reach a pinnacle of glory under the Mughals. During the early years of Mughal
domination the country was too unsettled to produce any work of distinction, but gradually a
form of the building art emerged, which was expressive of this ruling dynasty and which in the
course of time developed into one of the most important architectural styles in India. Various
factors were responsible for this remarkable development of the building art, and for the high
standards of production that was consistently maintaining over a period of more than two
centuries. As far as India is concerned, its fame in the ancient times was due to its wealth i.e.
silver and gold. People invaded India and accumulated wealth, plundered gold and silver. Some
the invaders settled in India and some went back. Annermarie Schimmel describes in “The
Empire of the Great Mughals” “The architecture of the Mughals is incredibly rich. As well as
fortress-like places, it was above all burial places to which architects of the Mughal Empire
devoted their best efforts, with Humayun’s mausoleum in Delhi serving as a model in this
respect. Akbar’s mausoleum in Sikandra, near Agra, is a remarkable conglomerate of different
styles, and like all mausoleums, is in a large garden, which is supposed to be modeled on the
garden of paradise.
Babur:
Architecture, which had already achieved a high level of development under the
Sultanate, was to: reach a pinnacle of glory under the Mughals. Although Babur’ s stay in: India
was brief, and he was preoccupied with the conquest of the country, he found time to summon
from Constantinople pupils of the great Ottoman architect Sinan, and entrustto them construction
of mosques and other buildings. He states in Babur Namah that every day 680 Indian stone
masons worked on his buildings at Agra and another 1500 were employed at Gwalior, Sikri,
Biana and other places. In the book “A History of India under Baber” William Erskine
describes that, “His natural genius made him fond of all the fine arts, and among other of
architecture and gardenjing. He built palaces and laid out gardens in several parts of his
dominions.”
Humayun:
Time has dealt harshly with the buildings constructed in the reigns of Babur and Humayun, and
only four of the minor ones have survived. It is, however, interesting to observe that these
buildings exhibit no trace of local influence and are distinctly foreign. The most important
building belonging to this period--but owing nothing to the Mughal tradition--is the mausoleum
of Humayun’s successful rival, Sher Shah, built on an elevated plinth in the midst of a lake at
Sahsaram (Bihar). It is a magnificent structure, and has been described as an intermediate link
between the “austerity of the Tughluq buildings and the feminine grace of Shah Jahan’s
masterpiece”.
Akbar patronization:
Akbar evinced great interest in architecture. His most ambitious project was his new capital and
the numerous buildings at Sikri, which was the seat of the imperial court from 977/1569 to
992/1584. Some of the buildings at Sikri are dominated by Hindu style of architecture and reflect
the Emperor’s regard for Hindu tradition. Persian influences were equally strong in his day and
are reflected in the magnificent tomb of Humayun, built early in 1569 at Delhi. Akbar’s efforts
were not confined to tombs, mosques and palaces but covered a wide field. He built fortresses,
villas, towers, serais, schools and tanks. The Buland Darwazah--the magnificent southern gate of
the mosque at Sikri--is for all practical purposes a separate structure, and has been described as
“one of the most perfect architectural achievements in the whole of India”. Akbar built two
major fortresses at Agra and Lahore. The fort which was built on the banks of the Ravi, at about
the same time as that at Agra, was planned and constructed on practically the same grand scale.
As a matter of fact, “its layout generally indicates an advance on that of the more southernly
capital as it is rectangular in plan and the interior arrangements are more regularly aligned”. The
buildings within the Lahore Fort were greatly altered by Shah Jahan and, later, suffered at the
hands of the Sikhs. The material and the style of the structure at Lahore are different from those
of the buildings at Fathpur Sikri. At Lahore there is plenty of carved decoration, representing
living things. “Elephants and lions figure in the brackets and peacocks on the friezes, from which
it may be inferred that Hindu craftsmen predominated, and that the supervision of the Mughal
overseers was of a very tolerant order.” Perhaps, these features may be more correctly ascribed
to Akbar’ s own taste and predilections. Lower Sind had an interesting architectural history,
reflecting changes in the political power and artistic traditions. Sind as well as south-western
Punjab are alluvial plains, and buildings in bricks are, therefore, characteristic of the area. “Such
a monochromatic prospect, which this vast plain presents, cries out for colour, so that it became
the custom to decorate all buildings with brilliant scheme of glazed tiles. This method of
ornamentation was probably first introduced by the Arabs and was revived later by intercourse
with Persia.” Sind tiles are not, however, copies of the Persian model and are different even from
those of the Punjab. The normal Sind tradition is for brick and glaze but, surprisingly enough, the
best known set of buildings in the area--i.e. those at the Makli hills, near Thatta--follow a
different pattern. They are constructed entirely of stone and are carved in a style suggesting the
influence of Akbar’s buildings at Fathpur Sikri. Some of these buildings were erected when the
country was first included within the Mughal Empire and some date from the earlier reigns of
Sammas, Afghans and Tarkhans, who had their capital at Thatta. The similarity in the style of
these buildings and that of those at Fathpur Sikri may either be due to the influences of Akbar’ s
large-scale buildings in a distant part of the subcontinent, or the buildings at Thatta as well as
those at Sikri may both have owed something to common influences--e.g. masons and material
from Rajputana. About the tomb of the Samma ruler Jam Nizamud-din (866-915/1461-1509),
Brown says: “It is possible that some of the stonework of this building is of Brahmanical origin,
procured from a neighbouring temple, as there are miniature shikaras and Hindu motifs among
the carved details.” Mughal architecture in Bengal has suffered because .Raajmahal, which was
the capital of Man Singh and Shah Shuja’, and which contained many beautiful palaces and other
buildings, has been engulfed by the changes in the course of the adjacent river. In Bengal the
main Mughal effect was concentrated on eastward expansion of dominion and its protection from
the raids of the Portuguese and Arakanese pirates. For this purpose the Mughals moved the
capital to Dacca, nearly 170 miles to the east of the old Muslim capital of Gaur. Lack of stone in
the new area must have handicapped building activity, and Travernier, who visited Dacca in
1077/1666, says that the residences of the Mughals consisted entirely of wood and “they usually
sued to reside in tents pitched in a large court”. Even before Travernier wrote, inside the old
Dacca city, the Bara Katrah had been built by Mir ‘Abd al-Qasim, Diwan of Shah Shuja’, who
also built an ‘Idgah outside the city. The more important Mughal buildings of Dacca were
constructed under Sha’istah Khan, who was Viceroy of Bengal for nearly a quarter of a century.
They consist of the Lalbagh Fort, the tomb of Sha’istah Khan’s daughter Pan Bibi, and a mosque
near the tomb. Owing to the paucity of building material, they are of a smaller size than the
normal Mughal buildings, but are solid and contain interesting architectural details.
Jahangir:
Akbar’s death in 1014/1605 was followed by a pause in building activities of the Mughals. His
successor Jahangir was less interested in architecture than in painting and gardens. Akbar’s tomb
at Sikandra and some other buildings were constructed during his reign, but, perhaps, in this field
Jahangir’s greatest contribution was in laying out of a number of large formal gardens which
adorn many cities of Kashmir and the Punjab. The Mughal garden is a regular and formal
arrangement of squares, usually in the form of terraces places on a slope (for easy distribution of
water), with pavilions at the centre. Artificial pools with numerous fountains form an important
part of the plan and the flagged causeways are shadowed by avenues of trees. Babur and Akbar
had made a beginning in this direction, but during Jahangir’s reign a number of lovely gardens
came into existence, like the Shalamar Bagh and the Nishat, laid out in Kashmir by Jahangir and
his Wazir Asaf Khan, respectively. Later Shah Jahan had a larger garden (Shalarnar) constructed
near Lahore, but his interest was primarily in grand edifices. Jahangir’s beautiful mausoleum at
Shahdara near Lahore was probably planned by the Emperor himself, but it was completed in the
next reign by his widow Nur Jahan. It suffered serious damage in the reign of Ranjit Singh,
when, amongst other things, the marble pavilion in front of the building, which offered a central
point of interest, was removed. Jahangir’s tomb has been overshadowed by the great Taj Mahal.
It cannot be fairly judged after the spoilation by the Sikhs and in any event it lacks many noble
features of the later construction, but even now it is a beautiful building, decorated by “lavish
application of inlaid marbles, glazed tiles and painted patterns, some of which are remarkably
good examples of mural decoration”. Not far from Jahangir’s resting place Nur Jahan lies buried
in an unpretentious tomb.The number of buildings erected during Jahangir’s reign was poor as
compared with the architectural record of his father, but two structure of his time are of
exceptional interest and merit. One is the mausoleum of Akbar. R.C. Majumdar, H.C.
Raychaudhuri, and Kalikinjkar Datta explain in the book “An Advanced History of India”
that “The tomb of I’timad-ud-Daulah at agra was built wholly of white marble decorated with
pietra dura work in semi-precious stones. We have an earlier specimen of this work in the Gol
Mandal temple at Udiapur. It was therefore a Rajput style, or most probably, an older Indian
style.”
Shah Jahan love for Architecture:
Shah Jahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. One secret of his success was the
liberal use of the marble. “Like the Roman emperor who boasted that he found Rome of brick
and left it of marble, he could fairly claim that he found Mughal cities of sandstone, and left
them of marble.” He replaced many _sandstone structures of his predecessors in the forts of Agra
and Lahore and other places with marble palaces, but the change of the material was not the only
new feature. This change itself called for and facilitated a corresponding change in architectural
treatment. “The building acquired a new sensibility. Instead of the rectangular character of the
previous period there arose the curved line and flowing rhythm of the style of Shah Jahan while
the chisel of the stone carver was replaced by the finer instruments of the marble cutter and the
polisher.” The style of Shah Jahan’s principal edifices is basically Persian, but it is clearly
distinguished from the Irani style by the lavish use of white marble, minute and tasteful
decoration, particularly the open-work tracery which ornaments the finest buildings and provides
“the apt combination of spacious design with an almost feminine elegance”. Amongst the more
famous of Shah Jahan’s buildings are the Pearl Mosque and the Taj Mahal at Agra, the Red Fort
and Jami’ah Masjid at Delhi, palaces and gardens at lahore, a beautiful mosque at Thatta in Sind,
a fort, a palace and a mosque at Kabul, royal buildings in Kashmir and many edifices at Ajmer
and Ahmadabad.
V.D. Mahajan describes in his famous book “Mughal Rule in India” “On the authority of
Father Manrique of Spain, it is contended that the Taj was designed by Geroniumo Veroneo, a
Venetian. There is nothing impossible pr surprising in Shah Jahan’s taking the advice form a
Venetican architect. However it is strange that the Taj was designed by a foreigner.”
Perhaps in the whole world, there is not a scene where nature and art so successfully combine to
produce a perfect work of art as within the precincts of this far-famed mausoleum….. At Agra
and Delhi the white marble style was in vogue, but a different style was current in the Punjab. It
consisted of brick construction, with occasional sandstone additions and its distinctive character
lay in the glazed tile decoration which often covered the entire surface. Brick and tile style of
Lahore was away from the sources of the stone material, but artistic traditions also played their
part. “Since the days of the Ghaznavid occupation, the Punjab capital has been inclined to
cultivate an independent architectural tradition, and instinctively to took to the north-west and
beyond for its aesthetic inspiration. In the first half of the seventeenth century the Safavid art of
Persia had attained its zenith, and for a time Lahore appears to have come under its powerful
spell. It was not that the buildings of the Punjab were exact reproduction of those of Shah Abbas
the Great; they displayed a certain individuality, but the brick construction was based on that
prevailing in Persia, and the glazed tiles were of the same style as those produced n the famous
kilns of Kashan and other places on the Iranian plateau.” As a matter of fact, glazed tiles for
buildings at Lahore seem to have been imported in bulk from Kashan, and in Lahore, as in Iran,
the style is commonly known as Kashi. During Shah Jahan’s reign a large number of buildings in
this style were erected at Lahore and its neighbourhood, but, owing to the impermanent nature of
the brick construction, many of them are in ruins and some have entirely disappeared.
The finest of this style is Wazir Khan’s Mosque, which was erected in 1044/1634 by the local
governor. Other buildings constructed in this style at Lahore were Gulabi Bagh, Chauburji and
Ali Mardan Khan’s tomb. Many of the constructions did not rise to the great architectural
standards of Delhi and Agra, but tile decoration was of the highest order and “the brilliantly
designed arabesques in variegated hues lit by the eastern sun produce a vitality of effect
disarming all criticism”.’ The glazed tile buildings of the Punjab and Sind incidentally reflect
“tile ardent desire for a display of exuberant colour innate in the East”.
Thames and Hudson in his book “The Gardens of Mughal India” describes about the Shalamar
Bagh, Lahore “One of the two parterres to east and west of the central reservoir, the parterres
are similar in design and proportion to those at the Taj Mahal, but the detail of the pattern is
floral rather than star-shaped.”
Thatta is also famous for its Jami’ah Masjid, which was built under Shah Jahan’s orders in
1057/1647 and is one of the largest buildings in Sind. Although “produced to the order of the
Mughal emperor, it was executed according to the brick and tile tradition of the indigenous
style”. It is decorated with finest type of coloured glaze and is remarkable for the prodigality of
decoration. James, a former Commissioner of Sind, said about this building: “The Emperor Shah
Jahan’s mosque . …possesses the most magnificent fictile adornment, I should say, of any
building in the world. Were it a cathedral in England, its history would be known to the minutest
detail, and many monographs would be written about it.” After Shah Jahan Mughal architecture
declined, even at the capital, but some interesting buildings were put up from time to time.
The Tomb of Safdar Jang at Delhi, erected in 1197/1783, is indicative of the decline in the
architectural standards, which was to become more manifest in the hybrid structures, exhibiting
European and Mughal influences, at Lucknow.
Aurangzeb:
Aurangzaib was not a great builder but amongst some buildings of merit erected in his reign is
the great Badshahi Mosque of Lahore, completed in 1085/1674. Its construction was supervised
by Fida’i Khan Koka, Master of Ordnance, whose engineering skill and experience enabled him
to design and erect a building of great size on a sound basis. It is one of the biggest mosques in
the subcontinent, if not in the world, and there is dignity in its broad quadrangle leading up to the
facade of the sanctuary. Its ornamentation is boldly conceived, but perhaps representing
Aurangzeb’s puritanical taste is sparingly introduced and therein the building suffers in
comparison with the Great Mosque at Delhi. It is, however, a grand edifice. The three bulbous
domes are well- proportioned, and rise into a grand mass of white marble above the western wall,
which presents an almost unbroken surface masonry of imposing appearance.
G.T. Garratt mentions in the book “The Legacy of India”, “The buildings of Aurangzeb’s
reign are inferior in all respects to those of Shahjahan. Among them may be mentioned the Moti
Masjid at Delhi with delicate marble decoration: ands the Badashi mosque at Lahore, which is
almost a copy of the Jami Masjid at Delhi, though inferior to it in several respects.”
___________________________
Propagation of Painting under Mughals
Outlines:
1. Introduction
2. Babur’s love of painting
3. Humayun love for painting
4. Akbar love for painting
5. Jahangir love for painting
6. Shah Jahan’s love for painting
7. Aurangzaib Alamgir
8. Conclusion
_________________________________
Propagation of Painting under Mughals
Introduction:
i. Babur’s love of Painting:

Babur brought the choicest specimen of painting from the Central Asia.

He had true love for painting, but he remained busy in the warfare.

He brought Baizad’s made pictures and portrait making. He praised the painters like
Baizad and Muzzafar Shah.

He could not find any leisure time, because he was busy in the consolidation of his
empire.
ii. Humayun love for painting:

After coming from Iran, he brought various artists, poets, painters, musicians,

He also brought Baizad school of painting from Central Asia. Like he brought Mir
Sayyid Ali and Khwaja Abd-al-Samad.

He asked the painters to illustrate a manuscript of Dastan Ameer Hamza, consisting of
1200 Baizad’s portrait.
iii. Akbar love for painting:

A radical change occurred during the reign of Akbar the Emperor in the art of painting.

He founded the Imperial School of painting in which more than 100 painters worked in a
large state building as Fatherpur Sikri. This school was under the supervision of the
Emperor, akbar the Great.

“The work of all painters are weekly laid before His Majesty by the Daroghahs and the
clerks, he then confers rewards according to the excellence of workmanship or increased
the monthly salaries.”

Abul Fazal wrote that there were about 13 prominent, out of 70 painters were Hindus.

Akbar shattered all such notions that painting was against Islam. As he remarked, “there
are many that hate painting, but such men I don’t like. It seems to me that a painter has,
as it were, peculiar means of recognizing God.”

During his era, the painters usually used very red and bright colours in the painting.

in Ain-i-Akbari that he had great interest and paid attention towards music. He divided
musicians into seven categories

There were a good number of musicians in his court like Kashmiri, Iranian and Indian
musicians. He used to give awards to the musicians.

Sayyid Ali Tabraizi, Khwaja Abdus Samad, Farrukh, Madhu, Mahesh etc were the
prominent painters in his court.
iv Jahangir love for Painting:

Jahangir is known as “Prince of Painters”.

In his memoirs, he wrote that he was very fond of painting and had developed such a
critical judgement that, by seeing a picture, he could tell the name of painter, wheter alive
or dead.”

Muhammad Nadir and Bishan Das made firstly a difference between the paintings of men
and women.

Bishan Das could copy animals, birds, Iranain court home and complexion of the Iranian
Monarch.

It became a medium to know about the features of the foreigners.

Human face profile became conspicuous.

J.H.Mehta wrote, “As far as archtitecture and other arts were concerned, he instructed
painters to practice new trends in painting.”

Mountains became solid and trees quite natural.

Agha Rida of Herat, Ustad Mansur, Bishan Das, Farrukh Baig, Moahmmad Nadir,
Manohar etc were the prominent painters in the court of Jahangir.
v. Shah Jahan love for painting:

Shah Jahan was more interested in architecture than painting, but he patronized the
painting as well.

It is said that painting achieved its climax during the reign of Shah Jahan.

Pose drawing, figure drawing, dancing, sword in hands and embroidery were the painting
features during the period of Shah Jahan. More clarity could be found in the human
profile.

Princes used to make their own albums of painting. These albums had the golden colour
and wide borders of the pictures.

Dara Sikhoh, son of Shah Jahan, prepared an album, which he presented to his wife,
Nadira Begum.

Faqir Ullah and Mohammad Nadir Samarqandi etc were the prominent painters in his
reign.
vi. Aurangzaib Alamgir:

Aurangzaib was more religious in his character

Generally it is believed that he did not like painting, but this is not true picture.

He remained busy in wars for 27 years in Deccan.

Though he was against animated painting, so he threw the Mughal painters out of the
court.

A new variety of painters came in the markets, because painters commenced painting at
the local level. Resultantly, the school of painting was finished.
vii. Conclusion
Propagation of Music under Mughals
Outline:
1. Introduction
2. Babur’s love of music
3. Humayun love for music
4. Akbar love for music
5. Jahangir love of music
6. Shah Jahan’s love for music
7. Aurangzaib Alamgir
8. Conclusion
___________________________
Propagation of Music under Mughals
1. Introduction:
2. Babur’s love of Music:

In Tuzk-i-Babri, he appreciated the musicians.

Maulana Binai, a poet in his court, describes that there were various musicians in his
court, but the Emperor liked Mir Sher Ali. Mir Sher Ali was a Turkish poet and he
recited verses in front of Babur.

He could not find any leisure time, because he was busy in the consolidation of his
empire.
3. Humayun love for Music:

After coming from Iran, he brought various artists, poets, painters, musicians,

He released all the prisoners during the seige of Malva, after listening the songs of
Manjho

Akhwant Mir wrote in Qanoon-i-Humayun that Humayun used to listen instrumental
music two days in a week.

Gulbadan Bagum wrote in Humayun Nama that Begmat used to listen instrumental music
in Harem in presence of their men and no one could enter during this event.

The role of Saints and Sufis like Abdul Qadoos Gangvi, Baha-ud-din Zikriya etc can not
be refuted in the propagation of music. They composed music and spread Isalm through
the musical instruments.
4. Akbar love for Music:

Akbar the Emperor patronized the musicin his reign.

Abul Fazal wrote in Ain-i-Akbari that he had great interest and paid attention towards
music. He divided musicians into seven categories

There were a good number of musicians in his court like Kashmiri, Iranian and Indian
musicians. He used to give awards to the musicians.

There were about 36 prominent singers like Tan Sen, Tan Tarang, Subhan, Maula
Ishaq, Chand Khan, Baba Hari Das, Mir Mangal Khan etc.

Ustad Nazim Ali Khan was a to Sarangi Nawaz

Tambura was played by Mohammad Hussain Khan.

Tan sen Tan was a court musician, who invented two raags Meghi Malhar, which are
said to have caused rain. Similarly, Deepak Raag is said to have lit the candles. Tan sen
was a famous musician due to his darbari Raag, which was sung in the presence of
Emperor and this raag was invented by Tan sen.

Baba Hari Das used to sit on the banks of Jumna and sang for himself.

Meanwhile, the nobles of Akbar like Sheikh Gadai, Faizi, Abu Fazal, Bharam Khan etc
had keen interest in the music.

Faizi wrote a book about music.

Bharam Khan gave one lac to Ram Das in reward of his singing

Talwandi and Bilgram were two centers of music.
5. Jahangir love for Music:

Great musicians in his court. Mohammad Hussain Nai was a flute singer

Jahangir weighed Shoki equal to his weight. Shoki was a tambula singer.

Rahim Dab was appointed as teacher of Jahangir’s children for learning music.

Nur Jahan organized a music festival after Jahangir became well from the fever.

Isa Khan, Governor of Sind, could himself play various musical instruments and was a
vocalist.
6. Shah Jahan efforts for Music:

Shah Jahan’s voice was so enchanting that people would become masmarised after
listening his voice.

He was a good listener, vocalist and patronist

Shah Jahan was able to compose many rags and ragnis. He was deeply interested in
Kashmiri, Iranian and Indian music.

According to Jadu Nath Sarkar, Shah Jahan used to practise music for 2-3 hours and
listened to music after every prayer.

Bakshu Naik was a favourite of Shah Jahan and got a book composed by Bakshu Naik.
Abdul Hamid Lahori says that the Emperor had great liking for Bakshu Naik.

The marriage of Dara with Nadira Begum was celebrated by the music and the musical
instruments amazed the Star Venus. Hamilton said, “A huge sums of money were
distributed to the poor and to the musicians.”
7. Aurangzaib Alamgir:

Aurangzaib was more religious in his character

No music ceremony was there in his time.

Musicians were migrated to other parts of the Empire and got minimal jobs over there.
Resultantly, the school of music was finished.
8. Conclusion:
_____________________________
Aurangzaib Alamgir
Outlines:
i. Introduction
ii. Features
a. Symbolic measures
b. Improvements in manners and morals
iii. Debates surrounding Aurangzaib Religious Policy
a. Hindu Nationlaist Historians
b. Orthodox Muslim Historian
iv. Impacts
v. Conclusion
________________________
Aurangzaib Alamgir
i. Introduction:

His religious policy constitutes a distinctive feature of his reign. Through this policy, as
Harbans Mukheia opines, “Aurangzain tried to brin Islam at a center stage of the state
affairs.”

His critics among the Hindu nationalist historians hold his religious policy responsible for
the Mughal decline, whereas the Orthodox Muslim historians term it as his main
contribution towards the cause of Islam in the Sub-continent.
Background:

Aurangzaib’s religious policy was actuated by the motives on a part of a section of
Mughal nobility to purify the state from those influences which were the followers of
Akbar’s liberalism, to which I.H.Quraishi refers to as “Forces of infidelity” and
“heterodoxy of Akbar.” This section of nobility was the staunch follower of Mujadid Alf
Sani.

Aurangzaib was fully supported by these elements during the War of Succession and his
victory was projected as a triumph of Islam.

Therefore Aurangzaib tried to bring Islam to the front stage of Indian politics through his
religious policy. So it should be seen as his response to those expectations, which were
associated.

ii.Features:
a. Smbolic Measures

Aurangzaib tried to put an end to un-Islamic practices from the court. For instance, in
1668, he forbade music at his court with the exception of Royal band and pensioned off
the large number of musicians and state singers.

The ceremony of weighing emperor on the birthday against gold was discontinued.

In 1669, the ceremony of Darshan was abandoned.

With the passage of time, the festivities held on the Emperor’s birthday were abolished.

Mansabdars were forbidden to make the customary presents to emperor.
b. Improvements in manners and morals:

He appointed the public muhtsibs in the important cities to enforce Islammic law and
discouraged the practices forbidden by Shariah such as drinking, gambling and
prostitution.

He put ban on the Bhang production, prohibition of Satti etc.

He also prohibited on converting boys into eunuchs.

Prostitutions and dancing girls were asked to choose between marriage or exile.

He forbade women from visiting shrines of the Holy men and saints.
iii. Debates surrounding Aurangzaib Religious Policy
a. Hindu Nationlaist Historians:

Through these steps, Aurangzaib tried in an increasing degree to run the empire in
accordance with the Islamic law, which brought the question of position of non-Muslims
to the frone front. For instance, in 1679, he reinforced Jaziya which was abolished by
Akbar.

He issued the orders of destruction of the Hindu temples. Like he was accused of
destroying temples in Benaras, Thatta, Multan, Gujrat, Haridwar, Ayodhya, Muthra etc.

In 1669, he issued the order of closing those schools, which were established in the
Mandirs, and from where the Muslim students received education along with the Hindu
students.

Hindu historians also blamed him for discrimination regarding the job share of the
Hindus.

They also accused him of discrimination in taxation. For instance, Hindus were charged
with 5% and the Muslims 2.5% on the sale of cattle. Muslims were exempted while the
Hidnus had to pay 5% custom duty.

Tax on the production of gardens was levied at 20% and 16.6% from the Hindus and the
Muslims respectively.

The tradition of holding Aurangzaib religious poicy responsible for the Mughals decline
was pioneered by Jaddu Nath Sarkar and he left no stone unturn in describing his period
as “a worst period of the Mughals.” He envisioned Aurangzaib such a zealot, whose
ambition was to turn the Mughal state in a puritanical Islamic institution.

Ishwari Parsad opines, “State became a large machinery.”

Ray Chaudhary writes, “Aurangzaib followed a deliberate and relentless policy of
persecution towards the Hindus.” Ray Chaudhary also mentions, “He revert the religious
(liberal) policy followed by his predecessors.”

b. Orthodox Muslim Historian:

Shibli Nomani, I.H. Quraishi and Sher Mohammad Garewal projected him as a
protagonist of great cause. They tried to exonerate him from the charges of being
responsible for the decline of Mughal empire, rather they highlight those aspects of his
rule, which led towards the glorification of Islam.

I.H.Quraishi opines, “Aurangzaib tried to restore the prestige of Islam in the state, to
give the Muslims onec again the feeling that empire was mainly concerned without being
unjust to the Muslims.

I.H.Quraishi opines, “If his empire collapses like a house of cards after the death of
Alamgir I, the main cause must be sought else where than the religious policies of that
emperor.”

According to a recent research of Omm Parkash, Aurangzaib was quick to destroy those
temples, through which Hindu Rajas tried to assert their autonomous behaviour. On the
other hand, his attitude was quiet and sincere towards those temples which were
cooperative towards the government. He adopted same policy towards the Shahi Mosque
of Golkanda and got it destroy when it became a bastion of the opponents of center.

On the basis of historical evidences, Omm Parkash tried to exonerate Aurangzaib of the
charges of the destruction of Kahsi Vishvanath temple. He also maintains that
Aurangzaib issued various decrees and ordinances concerning the allocation of land to
the temples and the Gurdwaras.

IV. Impacts:

The services of Aurangzaib restored the puritanical Islam.

As a result of his policy, position of Sunni elements became well-established, which led
to the growth of Naqshbandia movement.

Sher Mohammad Garewal eulogizes some achievements of Aurangzaib that he was a
great ruler, who was fully aware of affairs of statecraft. He also tried to exonerate the
charges that Aurangzaib closed the doors for employment on Hindus. This charge amply
can be gauged that the number of Hindu nobles during Akbar the Great was 52, but it
increased to 61 during Aurangzaib’s reign. Similarly, number of Hinud Mansabdars also
reached 80 as compared to 64 in Akbar’s period.
V. Conclusion:

Despite the negative aspects, it is wrong to maintain that Aurangzaib was responsible for
the decline of Mughals, rather structure was the reason beind the Mughal decline. Decline
was a complex phenomenon and the reason was autocratic dispension of Mughals. The
changing circumstances were not properly tackled.
Causes of Decline of Mughals
Outlines:

Introduction

Political Causes

Militray Causes

Economic Causes

Religious Causes

Social Causes

Conclusion
Causes of Decline of Mughals

Introduction
 Political Causes
i. No control over the central government
ii. Incompetent successors of Auranzaib
iii. Rise of Colonial Intrusion (British, French)
iv. Decline of state institutions
v. Role of Mughal nobility intrigues
vi. Emergence of Nationalities
 Militray Causes
i. Defective military organization
ii. Crisis of military leadership
iii. Lack of character of ordinary soldiers
 Economic Causes
i. Agrarian crisis of 18th Century
ii. Role of Parasitic groups
iii. Collapse of Mansabdari system
 Religious Causes
i. Deviation from Religious observance
ii. Moral decline (Intoxication)
iii. Supertitious beliefs
 Social Causes
i. Rise of Social forces
ii. Intellectual stagnation
iii. Decline of the character of nobility
 Conclusion