Chemistry
S I X T H
E D I T I O N
Raymond Chang
Williams College
WCB
McGraw-Hill
Boston, Massachusetts Burr Ridge, Illinois Dubuque, Iowa
Madison, Wisconsin New York, New York San Francisco, California St. Louis, Missouri
Contents
PREFACE
CHAPTER 1
XXV
CHEMISTRY: THE STUDY OF CHANGE
1.1
Chemistry: A Science for the Twenty-First Century
4
1.2
The Study of Chemistry
7
1.3
The Scientific Method
8
1.4
Classifications of Matter
10
Substances and Mixtures /Elements and
Compounds
1.5
The Three States of Matter
12
1.6
Physical a n d Chemical Properties of Matter
13
1.7
Measurement
14
SI Units/Mass and Weigbt/ Volume/Density/
1.8
Temperature Scales
Handling Numbers
19
Scientific Notation / Signißcant Figures
1.9
The Factor-Label Method of Solving Problems
25
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Primordial Helium and the Big Bang Theory
28
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
CHAPTER 2
29 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
30 / Questions and Problems
30 /
30
ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS
36
2.1
The Atomic Theory
38
2.2
The Structure of the Atom
39
The Electron /Radioactivity / The Proton and the Nucleus / The Neutron
2.3
Atomic Number, Mass Number, a n d Isotopes
45
2.4
T h e Periodic Table
46
2.5
Molecules a n d Ions
47
Molecules / Ions
2.6
Chemical Formulas
Molecular Formulas /Empirical
50
Formulas
VII
CONTENTS
2.7
Naming Compounds
53
Ionic Compounds /Molecular Compounds /Acids and Bases /'Hydrates /
Familiär Inorganic
Compounds
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Distribution of Elements on Earth and in
Living Systems
62
Summary of Facts and Concepts
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 3
61 / Key Words
63 /
63
68
MASS RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Atomic Mass
70
Average Atomic Mass
Molar Mass of an Element a n d Avogadro's N u m b e r
71
Molecular Mass
74
The Mass Spectrometer
76
Percent Composition of C o m p o u n d s
77
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Gold Fingerprinting by Mass
3.6
Spectrometry
78
Experimental Determination of Empirical Formulas
82
Determination of Molecular Formulas
3.7
Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations
Writing Chemical Equations /Balancing
84
Chemical Equations
3.8
Amounts of Reactants a n d Products
89
3.9
Limiting Reagents
92
3.10
Reaction Yield
94
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Chemical Fertilizers
96
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
97 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
98 / Questions and Problems
97 /
98
CHEMISTRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS • Determining Avogadro's N u m b e r
CHAPTER 4
f r o m the Structure of a Solid
106
REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION
108
4.1
General Properties of Aqueous Solutions
110
Electrolytic Properties
4.2
Precipitation Reactions
Solubility /Molecular Equations and Ionic Equations
112
CONTENTS
4.3
Acid-Base Reactions
ix
115
General Properties of Acids and Bases / Bmnsted Acids and Bases/
Acid-Base
4.4
Neutralization
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: A n Undesirable Precipitation Reaction
116
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
120
Oxidation Number/Types
4.5
of Redox Reaction
Concentration of Solutions
131
Dilation of Solutions
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Breath Analyzer
132
4.6
Gravimetrie Analysis
136
4.7
Acid-Base Titrations
138
4.8
Redox Titrations
140
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Metal f r o m the Sea
143
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
CHAPTER 5
142 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
144 / Questions and Problems
142 /
144
CHEMICAL MYSTERY • W h o K i l l e d N a p o l e o n ?
152
GASES
154
5.1
Substances That Exist as Gases
156
5-2
Pressure of a Gas
156
SL Units of Pressure / Atmospheric Pressure
5.3
The Gas Laws
löO
The Pressure-Volume Relationship: Boyle's Law/ The Temperature-Volume
Relationship: Charles' and Gay-Lussac's Law/The
Volume-Amount
Relationship: Avogadro's Law
5.4
T h e Ideal Gas Equation
166
Density Calculations / The Molar Mass of a Gaseous Substance
5.5
Gas Stoichiometry
172
5.6
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
174
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Scuba Diving a n d the Gas Laws
179
The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
178
5.7
Application to the Gas Laws / Distribution of Molecular Speeds /
Root Mean Square Speed/ Gas Diffusion
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Super Cold Atoms
186
CONTENTS
5.8
Deviation from Ideal Behavior
Summary of Key Equations
U
CHAPTER 6
Key Words
185
190 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
191 / Questions and Problems
190 /
191
CHEMICAL MYSTERY • Out of Oxygen
200
THERMOCHEMISTRY
202
6.1
The Nature of Energy a n d Types of Energy
204
6.2
Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
205
6.3
Enthalpy
206
Thermochemical
6.4
Equations
Calorimetry
209
Specific Heat and Heat Capacity/Constant-Volume
Calorimetry/
Constant-Pressure Calorimetry
6.5
6.6
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Fuel Values of Foods and Other Substances
215
Standard Enthalpy of Formation a n d Reaction
214
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: How a Bombardier Beetle Defends Itself
221
Heat of Solution a n d Dilution
220
Heat of Solution / Heat of Dilution
6.7
Introduction to Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics/
Enthalpy and the First Law of
223
Work and Heat/
Thermodynamics
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Making Snow and Inflating a Bicycle Tire
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
230 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
232 / Questions and Problems
232 /
232
CHEMICAL MYSTERY • The Exploding Tire
CHAPTER 7
240
QUANTUM THEORY AND THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF
ATOMS
7.1
242
From Classical Physics to Q u a n t u m Theory
Properties of Waves /Electromagnetic
Radiation /'Planck 's Quantum
244
Theory
7.2
The Photoelectric Effect
248
7-3
Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
250
Emission Spectra /Emission Spectrum of the Hydrogen Atom
',
231
CONTENTS
7.4
7.5
xi
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Element from the Sun
255
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Laser—The Splendid Light
256
The Dual Nature of the Electron
254
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Electron Microscopy
259
Q u a n t u m Mechanics
258
The Quantum Mechanical Description of the Hydrogen Atom
7.6
261
Q u a n t u m Numbers
The Principal Quantum Number (n)/The
Angular
Momentum
Quantum Number (l)/The Magnetic Quantum Number
(ntj)/
The Electron Spin Quantum Number (m^
7.7
263
Atomic Orbitals
s Orbitals/p Orbitals/ d Orbitals and Other Higher-Energy Orbitals/
The Energies of Orbitals
7.8
267
Electron Configuration
The Pauli Exclusion Principle / Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism /
The Shielding Effect in Many-Electron Atoms /Hund's
Rule/ General Rules
for Assigning Electrons to Atomic Orbitals
7.9
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
CHAPTER 8
274
The Building-up Principle
277 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
279 / Questions and Problems
278 /
279
PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS A M O N G THE ELEMENTS
286
8.1
D e v e l o p m e n t of the Periodic Table
288
8.2
Periodic Classification of the Elements
290
Representing Free Elements in Chemical Equations /
Electron Conßgurations of Cations and Anions
8.3
Periodic Variation in Physical Properties
294
Effective Nuclear Charge /Atomic Radius / Ionic Radius / Variation
of Physical Properties Across a Period and Within a Group
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: The Third Liquid Element?
302
Ionization Energy
301
8.5
Electron Affinity
305
8.6
Variation in Chemical Properties of the Representative Elements
308
8.4
General Trends in Chemical Properties / Comparison of Groups 1A
and 1B Elements /Properties of Oxides Across a Period
xii
CONTENTS
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Discovery of the Noble Gases
Summary of Facts and Concepts
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 9
320 / Key Words
319
321 /
321
CHEMICAL BONDING I: BASIC CONCEPTS
328
9.1
Lewis Dot Symbols
330
9.2
The Ionic Bond
330
9.3
Lattice Energy of Ionic C o m p o u n d s
332
The Born-Haber Cycle for Determining Lattice Energies/
Lattice Energy and the Formulas ofLonic
Compounds
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Sodium Chloride—A Common and Important
9.4
Ionic Compound
337
The Covalent Bond
337
Comparison of the Properties of Covalent and Lonic Compounds
9.5
Electronegativity
340
Electronegativity and Oxidation Number
9.6
Writing Lewis Structures
343
9.7
Formal Charge a n d Lewis Structure
346
9-8
The Concept of Resonance
348
9.9
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
350
The Lncomplete Octet / Odd-Electron Molecules / The Expanded Octet
9.10
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Just Say NO
352
Bond Dissociation Energy
354
Use of Bond Energies in Thermochemistry
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
358 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
359 / Questions and Problems
359
359 /
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 10
CHEMICAL BONDING II: MOLECULAR GEOMETRY AND
HYBRIDIZATION OF ATOMIC ORBITALS
10.1
XÜi
366
368
Molecular Geometry
Molecules in Which the Central Atom Has No Lerne Pairs /'Molecules
in Which the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pairs/
Geometry of Molecules with More than One Central Atom/
Guidelines for Applying the VSEPR Model
10.2
Dipole Moments
377
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: M i c r o w a v e Ovens —Dipole Moments at
Work
382
10.3
Valence Bond Theory
10.4
Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
381
384
sp3 Hybridization / sp Hybridization / sp2 Hybridization / Procedure for
Hybridizing Atomic Orbitals/Hybridization
10.5
ofs, p, and d Orbitals
Hybridization in Molecules Containing D o u b l e a n d Triple
Bonds
10.6
393
396
Molecular Orbital Theory
Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals
10.7
398
Molecular Orbital Configurations
Rules Governing Molecular Electron Configurations and Stability /
Hydrogen and Helium Molecules /Homonuclear
Diatomic Molecules of
Second-Period Elements / The Lithium Molecule (Li^)/
The Carbon Molecule (C2) / The Oxygen Molecule (O2)
10.8
Delocalized Molecular Orbitals
405
The Benzene Molecule / The Carbonate Ion
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
CHAPTER 11
407 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
408 / Questions and Problems
407 /
408
CHEMISTRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS • Buckyball and Other Large
Ätiotropes of Carbon
414
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
416
11.1
T h e Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquids a n d Solids
418
11.2
Intermolecular Forces
418
Dipole-Dipole Forces/Ion-Dipole Forces/Dispersion
Forces/
The Hydrogen Bond
11.3
Properties of Liquids
Surface Tension / Viscosity / The Structure and Properties of Water
424
CONTENTS
11.4
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Why Do Lakes Freeze From the Top Down?
429
Crystal Structure
428
Packing Spheres / Closest Packing
11.5
X-Ray Diffraction by Crystals
435
11.6
Types of Crystals
437
lonic Crystals / Covalent Crystals /Molecular Crystals /Metallic Crystals
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: High-Temperature Superconductors
443
11.7
Amorphous Solids
441
11.8
Phase Changes
442
Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium/Heat
of Vaporization and Boiling Point/
Liquid-Solid Equilibrium/Solid-Vapor
11.9
Equilibrium
Phase Diagrams
453
Water/ Carbon Dioxide
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Hard-Boiling an Egg on a Mountaintop,
Pressure Cookers, and Ice Skating
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
455
454 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
456 / Questions and Problems
454 /
457
CHEMISTRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS • A Crystal of Gigantic
CHAPTER 12
Proportions
464
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
466
12.1
Types of Solutions
468
12.2
A Molecular View of the Solution Process
12.3
Concentration Units
469
471
Types of Concentration Units / Comparison of Concentration Units
12.4
The Effect of Temperature o n Solubility
475
Solid Solubility and Temperature/ Gas Solubility and Temperature
12.5
12.6
T h e Effect of Pressure o n the Solubility of Gases
477
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: The Killer Lake
480
Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions
479
Vapor-Pressure Lowering / Boiling-Point Elevation / Freezing-Point
Depression / Osmotic Pressure / Using Colligative Properties to
Determine Molar Mass
12.7
Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions
490
CONTENTS
12.8
Colloids
492
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Desalination
493
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
CHAPTER 13
XV
496 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
497 / Questions and Problems
496 /
497
CHEMICAL MYSTERY • The Wrong Knife
504
CHEMICAL KINETICS
506
13.1
The Rate of a Reaction
508
Reaction of Molecular Bromine and Formic Acid / Decomposition of Hydrogen
Peroxide/Reaction
Rates and Stoichiometry
13.2
The Rate Law
514
13.3
The Relation Between Reactant Concentration and Time
517
First-Order Reactions / Second-Order Reactions
13.4
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Determining the Age of the Shroud of Turin
527
Activation Energy a n d Temperature D e p e n d e n c e of Rate Constants
526
The Collision Theory of Chemical Kinetics / The Arrhenius Equation
13.5
Reaction Mechanisms
533
Rate Lauts and Elementary Steps /Experimental
Support for Reaction
Mechanisms
13.6
Catalysis
538
Heterogeneous Catalysis / Homogeneous Catalysis / Enzyme Catalysis
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
546 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
546 / Questions and Problems
546 /
547
CHEMISTRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS • The Molecular Basis of Smell
CHAPTER 14
and Taste
556
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
558
14.1
The Concept of Equilibrium a n d the Equilibrium Constant
The Equilibrium
14.2
560
Constant
Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions
Homogeneous Equilibria /Heterogeneous Equilibria /Multiple
562
Equilibria/
The Form of K and the Equilibrium Equation / Summary of the Rulesfor
Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions
14.3
The Relationship Between Chemical Kinetics a n d Chemical
Equilibrium
572
XVI
CONTENTS
14.4
What D o e s the Equilibrium Constant Teil Us?
Predicting the Direction of a Reaction / Calculating
574
Equilibrium
Concentrations
14.5
Factors That Affect Chemical Equilibrium
579
Le Chatelier's Principle / Changes in Concentration / Changes in
Volume and Pressure / Changes in Temperature / The Effect of a Catalyst/
Summary of Factors That May Affect the Equilibrium Position
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: The Haber Process
585
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Life at High Altitudes and Hemoglobin
Production
586
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
CHAPTER 15
587 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
588 / Questions and Problems
587 /
588
ACIDS AND BASES
596
Bronsted Acids and Bases
598
The Acid-Base Properties of Water
599
The Ion Product of Water
p H — A Measure of Acidity
601
Strength of Acids a n d Bases
603
Weak Acids and Acid lonization Constants
606
Weak Bases a n d Base lonization Constants
613
The Relationship Between the lonization Constants of Acids
and Their Conjugate Bases
615
Diprotic a n d Polyprotic Acids
6l6
Molecular Structure and the Strength of Acids
620
Acid-Base Properties of Saks
622
Salts That Produce Neutral Solutions / Salts That Produce Acidic
Solutions / Salts in Which Both the Cation and the Anion
15.11
Acid-Base Properties of Oxides a n d Hydroxides
Basic and Amphoteric
15-12
Hydrolyze
628
Hydroxides
Lewis Acids a n d Bases
631
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Antacids and the pH Balance in Your
Stomach
633
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
634 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
635 / Questions and Problems
635 /
635
CHEMICAL MYSTERY • Acid-Damaged Papers
642
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 16
XVÜ
ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA AND SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA
16.1
H o m o g e n e o u s versus Heterogeneous Solution Equilibria
16.2
The C o m m o n Ion Effect
16.3
Buffer Solutions
644
646
646
649
Preparing a Solution with a Specific pH
16.4
653
Acid-Base Titrations
Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations/ Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations/
Strong Acid-Weak Base Titrations
16.5
16.6
Acid-Base Indicators
660
CHEMiSTRY IN ACTION: Maintaining the pH of Blood
663
Solubility Equilibria
664
Solubility Product/Molar
Solubility and
Solubility/
Predicting Precipitation Reactions
16.7
Separation of Ions by Fractional Precipitation
16.8
The C o m m o n Ion Effect a n d Solubility
16.9
p H and Solubility
16.10
Complex Ion Equilibria and Solubility
16.11
Application of the Solubility Product Principle to Qualitative
670
672
673
676
Analysis
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: How an Eggshell Is Made
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
683 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
684 / Questions and Problems
CHEMICAL MYSTERY • A Hard-Boiled Snack
683
683 /
684
690
XVÜI
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 17
692
CHEMISTRY IN THE ATMOSPHERE
17.1
17.2
Earth's Atmosphere
694
P h e n o m e n a in the Outer Layers of the Atmosphere
696
Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis / The Mystery Glow of Space Shuttles
17.3
Depletion of O z o n e in the Stratosphere
700
Polar Ozone Holes
17.4
Volcanoes
704
17.5
The Greenhouse Effect
705
17.6
Acid Rain
711
17.7
Photochemical Smog
714
17.8
Indoor Pollution
716
The Riskfrom Radon / Carbon Dioxide and Carbon
Monoxide/
Formaldehyde
Summary of Facts and Concepts
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 18
719 / Key Words
720 /
720
724
ENTROPY, FREE ENERGY, AND EQUILIBRIUM
18.1
18.2
The Three Laws of Thermodynamics
726
Spontaneous Processes a n d Entropy
726
Entropy
18.3
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy Changes in the System/Entropy
731
Changes in the
Surroundings/
The Third Law of Thermodynamics and Absolute Entropy
18.4
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: The Efficiency of Heat Engines
736
Gibbs Free Energy
735
Standard Free-Energy Changes /Applications
(18.7)
18.5
Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium
743
18.6
Thermodynamics in Living Systems
747
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: The Thermodynamics of a Rubber Band
748
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
CHAPTER 19
of Equation
749 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
750 / Questions and Problems
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
19.1
Redox Reactions
19.2
Electrochemical Cells
749 /
750
756
758
Balancing Redox Equations
761
CONTENTS
xix
19.3
Standard Electrode Potentials
763
19-4
Spontaneity of Redox Reactions
768
19.5
Effect of Concentration o n Cell emf
771
The Nernst Equation / Concentration Cells
19.6
Batteries
775
The Dry Cell Battery/ The Mercury Battery / The Lead Storage Battery /
Solid-State Lithium Battery /Fuel Cells
19-7
Corrosion
780
19-8
Electrolysis
784
Electrolysis of Motten Sodium Chloride / Electrolysis of Water / Electrolysis
of an Aqueous Sodium Chloride Solution / Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Dental Filling Discomfort
Summary of Key Equations
Key Words
CHAPTER 2 0
H I V ? JvBkm
mm
785
791 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
791 / Questions and Problems
791 /
792
CHEMICAL MYSTERY • Tainted Water
800
METALLURGY AND THE CHEMISTRY OF METALS
802
20.1
Occurrence of Metals
804
20.2
Metallurgical Processes
804
Preparation ofthe Ore / Production of Metals / The Metallurgy of
Iron / Steelmaking / Purification of Metals
20.3
812
Band Theory of Conductivity
Conductors / Semiconductors
iL. m
20.4
Periodic Trends in Metallic Properties
815
20.5
The Alkali Metals
816
20.6
The Alkaline-Earth Metals
820
Magnesium / Calcium
WHB$$
20.7
Aluminum
822
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Recycling Aluminum
825
Summary of Facts and Concepts
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 21
826 / Key Words
826 /
826
NONMETALLIC ELEMENTS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
830
21.1
General Properties of Nonmetallic Elements
832
21.2
Hydrogen
832
XX
CONTENTS
Binary Hydrides / Isotopes of Hydrogen /Hydrogenation
/ The Hydrogen
Economy
21.3
21.4
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Metallic Hydrogen
838
Carbon
837
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Synthetic Gas from Coal
841
Nitrogen and Phosphorus
842
Nitrogen /Phosphorus
21.5
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Ammonium Nitrate—The Explosive Fertilizer
849
Oxygen and Sulfur
850
Oxygen /Sulfur
21.6
The Halogens
857
Preparation and General Properties qfthe Halogens / Compounds
of the Halogens / Uses of the Halogens
Summary of Facts and Concepts
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 2 2
864 / Key Words
865 /
865
TRANSITION METAL CHEMISTRY AND COORDINATION
870
COMPOUNDS
22.1
Properties of the Transition Metals
22.2
Chemistry of Iron and Copper
872
General Physical Properties / Electron Configurations / Oxidation States
875
Iron / Copper
22.3
Coordination C o m p o u n d s
876
Oxidation Numbers of Metals in Coordination Compounds / Nantes of
Coordination
22.4
Compounds
Structure of Coordination C o m p o u n d s
881
Geometrie Isomers / Optical Isomers
22.5
Bonding in Coordination C o m p o u n d s : Crystal Field Theory
883
Crystal Field Splitting in Octahedral Complexes /
Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes
22.6
22.7
Reactions of Coordination C o m p o u n d s
890
Applications of Coordination C o m p o u n d s
891
Metallurgy / Chemical Analysis / Detergents
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Coordination Compounds in Living Systems
Summary of Key Equation
Key Words
894 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
895 / Questions and Problems
892
894 /
895
CHEMISTRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS • Anticancer Coordination
Compounds
898
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 2 3
XXI
CHEMICAL MYSTERY • Dating Paintings with Prussian Blue
900
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
902
23.1
904
The Nature of Nuclear Reactions
Balancing Nuclear Equations
906
23.2
Nuclear Stability
23.3
Natural Radioactivity
Nuclear Binding Energy
911
Kinetics of Radioactive Decay / Dating Based on Radioactive Decay
23.4
Nuclear Transmutation
23-5
Nuclear Fission
The Transuranium
Elements
The Atomic Bomb/Nuclear
23.6
914
916
Reactors
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Nature's Own Fission Reactor
922
Nuclear Fusion
923
Fusion Reactors / The Hydrogen Bomb
23.7
926
Uses of Isotopes
Structural Determination / Study of Photosynthesis / Isotopes in Medicine
23.8
Biological Effects of Radiation
928
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Food Irradiation
930
Summary of Key Equation
Key Words
! -
929 / Summary of Facts and Concepts
931 / Questions and Problems
930 /
931
CHEMICAL MYSTERY • The Art Forgery of the Century
936
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
938
;
CHAPTER 24
24.1
Classes of Organic C o m p o u n d s
940
24.2
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
940
Alkanes/ Alkenes /Alkynes
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Ice That Bums
952
24.3
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
953
24.4
Chemistry of the Functional Groups
956
Alcohols /Ethers /Aldehydes and Ketones / Carboxylic
Acids /Esters / Amines / Summary of Functional Groups
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: The Petroleum Industry
Summary of Facts and Concepts
Questions and Problems
965
965 / Key Words
962
965 /
CHAPTER 25
SYNTHETIC AND NATURAL ORGANIC POLYMERS
25.1
25.2
Properties of Polymers
972
Synthetic Organic Polymers
Addition Reactions / Condensation
25.3
25.4
970
972
Reactions
Proteins
976
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: Sickle-Cell Anemia—A Molecular Disease
985
Nucleic Acids
986
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: DNA Fingerprinting
989
Summary of Facts and Concepts
Questions and Problems
990 / Key Words
991 /
991
CHEMISTRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS • Cis-Trans Isomerization in the
Vision Process
992
Appendix 1 The Elements and the Derivation of Their Names and
Symbols
A-0
Appendix 2 Units for the Gas Constant
A-7
Appendix 3
Selected Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C
A-8
Appendix 4
Mathematical Operations
A-14
Glossary
A-16
Answers to Even-Numbered Problems
A-26
Index
1-1
Photo Credits
C-l