THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE
SCHOOL OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES
GUIDE TO THE WRITING AND PRESENTATION OF ESSAYS
CONTENTS
1.
ANALYSIS, ARGUMENT AND CRITICISM _________________________________________ 2
2.
ESSAYS _________________________________________________________________________ 2
3.
PLANNING AND WRITING _______________________________________________________ 2
Choosing your topic _____________________________________________________________________
Analysing _____________________________________________________________________________
Outline _______________________________________________________________________________
Researching ___________________________________________________________________________
Note-taking ___________________________________________________________________________
Writing and revising ____________________________________________________________________
4.
2
2
3
3
3
3
WRITING STYLE ________________________________________________________________ 4
Grammar _____________________________________________________________________________
Spelling, hyphens _______________________________________________________________________
Abbreviations__________________________________________________________________________
Capitalisation __________________________________________________________________________
Quotations ____________________________________________________________________________
Numbers______________________________________________________________________________
Dates ________________________________________________________________________________
Underlining/italics ______________________________________________________________________
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5.
REFERENCING _________________________________________________________________ 5
6.
WORKS CITED/BIBLIOGRAPHY _________________________________________________ 6
Book Citations _________________________________________________________________________
Journal Article Citations _________________________________________________________________
Chapter in an edited Collection Citation _____________________________________________________
Electronic Citations _____________________________________________________________________
Final Referencing Note __________________________________________________________________
7.
6
6
7
7
8
ENDNOTE SOFTWARE __________________________________________________________ 8
1.
ANALYSIS, ARGUMENT AND CRITICISM
It is important to understand from the start of this guide that the ‘social sciences’ encompass a range of disciplines and
that each of these will in turn make use of a range of possible techniques, styles and structures of writing. There is no
single formula for essay-writing and different instructors will sometimes direct you in ways that diverge from the
suggestions below. So you should see this guide as a tool amongst other tools, not as a bible.
The study of social sciences requires an analytical, not a purely descriptive, approach. Written work must present an
argument. Essay assignments often ask whether you agree with a certain statement, or ask you to discuss something
critically, to assess a statement, or to make a choice. University essays are often therefore arguments for or against certain
propositions. An argument is a series of generalisations or propositions, supported by evidence and/or reasoning and
connected in a logical manner that leads to justified conclusions.
You must sustain your argument by giving evidence and reasons. Assertions do not constitute an argument. You must
support your opinions with good evidence and valid reasoning. What counts as good evidence and valid reasoning you
will learn by experience, and by consulting your lecturers and tutors. Being critical may mean determining whether the
evidence available justifies the conclusions that are drawn from it; or it may mean uncovering and questioning the
assumptions which underlie theories in the social sciences. Part of demonstrating a ‘critical’ voice is attributing authorship
in the text. For example, consider the following two sentences:
The earth moves around the sun (Gallileo year: page).
According to Gallileo, the earth moves around the sun (year: page).
A critical voice allows for discussion of other contrasting views. In the example above, the second sentence allows for
this and the first one does not.
2.
ESSAYS
Essays give you a chance to show what you can do: that you understand the question asked; that you understand the issues
involved; that you have done the appropriate amount of reading. Having got that far, you must then show you can
communicate your understanding to others.
Make sure that you actually answer the question. If you are asked to assess, or to choose, or to discuss - do it! Do not
write down everything you know about the subject: it may not all be relevant.
Your lecturers and tutors are not necessarily looking for ‘correct answers’. There is generally no ‘line’ for you to follow.
They are concerned with how well you make your case. Whether they agree or disagree with your judgment is not
essential to your mark. Disagreement does not lead to bad marks; bad essays do.
If there are important arguments against your position, do not ignore them; deal with them honestly. Give those who
disagree with you a fair go. Try to meet their arguments with better ones. Scholarship is not a matter of political pointscoring: you must respect evidence and superior arguments.
Your argument should be consistent, and the language used should be clear, grammatical and precise. Furthermore, an
essay is a finished piece of work, not a draft or series of notes (although you are encouraged to produce drafts of your
essays).
3.
PLANNING AND WRITING
Choosing your topic
Many subjects offer several topics for essays. Choose one carefully and begin working on it early. Fit your preparation
and writing into the framework provided by essay deadlines in other subjects. This will avoid a frantic, last minute rush.
Essays are often best done when the topic interests you, but beware of becoming consumed by it: your capacity for
scholarly analysis may be impaired, or you may neglect your other course work.
Analysing
It is vitally important to address directly the essay question or topic at hand. Begin by carefully examining the key words
and concepts in the questions. Pay particular attention to the difference between commonly used words.
compare:
contrast:
analyse:
examine the characteristics of the objects in question to demonstrate their similarities and differences;
examine the characteristics of the objects in question to demonstrate their differences;
consider the various components of the whole and explain the relationships among them;
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discuss:
evaluate:
present the different aspects of a question and problem;
examine the various sides of a question to reach a cogent and plausible conclusion.
Once the topic has been clarified, you should break it down into its component parts. This enables you to decide what
material is relevant to the topic.
Outline
After analysing the question, the components should be organised to form an essay outline (or plan). The outline helps
to ensure that your essay has a coherent, logical structure. It also facilitates the preparation of your essay by guiding your
reading, note-taking and writing. Outlines also enable you to assign relative weighting to the different components of
your answer by differentiating which points are central, and which peripheral. They will thus assist your research effort.
Researching
Wide reading is essential if you wish to submit a good essay. Effective research depends on knowing what to look for,
so always keep your essay outline in mind. Ensure that you read to answer the specific sections of your outline.
The reading requirements are related to the nature of the subject and topic. Some topics may require a detailed analysis
of a small number of texts; yet it is rarely sufficient to read only one or two books on a particular topic. Reading guides
are issued to help students choose material. These are starting points. The most recent scholarship will usually be in
bibliographies of the most recent good textbooks, edited collections, or journal articles.
Note-taking
Use your essay outline as the basis of taking notes from your readings. Try not to photocopy large slabs of reading: it
often delays the hard work of reading and thinking; unhappily, it sometimes substitutes for them.
Be organised in your note-taking. Maintain an order that you can follow and that will be of assistance in writing the
essay. Such an order might be provided by your essay outline. How you choose to make notes is up to you. Keep an
accurate record of the full reference and write down the page from which you obtain each piece of information, even
though it may not be a direct quotation. The use of endnote software will assist in this process; see the library website or
information desk for access to the software and a schedule of the training workshops available.
Writing and revising
The essay should be a coherent and logical piece of analytical prose which, in the first place, answers the question set
and, in the second place, cogently argues, carefully documents, and clearly expresses your case. Writing an essay is
almost always a process of writing and revising. The structure and coherence of your argument often become clearer
upon revision.
The core structure of the essay has three parts: an introduction, the body of the essay, and a conclusion. The
introduction should introduce the topic to be discussed and prepare the reader for what is to follow; be concise. It may
be useful to summarise briefly the overall theme or argument of the essay, indicating the main points to be made. The
body of the essay is the place to present your argument. Attend to the logical sequence of your presentation, and to the
considerations about evidence discussed above. The conclusion should restate briefly the key arguments and their
implications. Some subjects require more specific essay components; check your subject assessment guides carefully.
You will find it helpful to write more than one draft. Use the first draft to map out your ideas within the framework of
your essay outline. Second and subsequent drafts must pay more attention to writing and style. Always assess your own
work by imagining that you are writing for the average intelligent reader: have you included enough information and
evidence, in the right order, to allow such a reader to follow your argument? Would such a reader be convinced by your
argument?
Try to confront your own assumptions and prejudices as you write. Your task is to convince by argument, not by appeal
to the prejudices of others. If you are aware of the presuppositions of others through wide reading, you are prepared to
be more conscious of your own presuppositions.
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4.
WRITING STYLE
Writing styles can vary between high school and university, between departments at universities, and between universities
and the workplace. It is your responsibility to learn the conventions of writing. Some of these are discussed below. The
Academic Skills Unit of the University of Melbourne (https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills) provides a range
of excellent resources to guide essay writing. See for instance:
• Writing: https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing
• Reading and Notetaking: https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/reading-andnotetaking
• Referencing and using sources: https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-ourresources/referencing
Grammar
Sloppy grammar distracts the reader’s attention from your ideas and reduces the force of the argument. A social science
essay is not the place for literary experiments in terms of challenging grammatical conventions.
Spelling, hyphens
The standard spelling reference for Australian writing is the Macquarie Dictionary. In general, English spelling is
preferred to American. The Macquarie is also useful as an up-to-date guide to current hyphenation of words. The
tendency in recent years has been to use fewer hyphens, and many words that formerly consisted of two components have
now become one.
Abbreviations
Use full names of states in the text, though abbreviations may be used in footnotes. Use a full-stop after an abbreviation
(Vic.; ed.), but not after a contraction (Qld, eds). For abbreviations that consist of capitals, do not use full stops: NSW,
ADFA; also BA, PhD, MA. Symbols for currency and units of measurement have no full stop (5 km, 25 lb, 6s). Plurals
of abbreviations do not need an apostrophe: MPs, Revs.
Capitalisation
The rules of capitalisation are complicated and the decision whether or not capitalise is still frequently left to the discretion
of the writer. For the sake of consistency, and of appearance, we advise authors to err on the side of lower case usage,
except in the case of organisations and institutions and with certain titles (eg. ‘President Obama’, but ‘the prime minister,
Ms Gillard’). If in doubt, opt for the lower case.
Quotations
Quotations can be used when you feel that an author's exact words provide the best support for a point you wish to
make. In general, they should be used sparingly and kept as brief as possible. As a general rule you should report the
work of others in your own words, not as a quotation. Use single quotation marks; for a quotation within a quotation,
use double quotation marks. Indent and single space quotations of more than forty words. Use the spelling and
punctuation of the original. If the original is inaccurate, use [sic] (without a full stop) to indicate that the inaccurate
spelling or turn of phrase derives from the original. Put any interpolations in square brackets. If omitting material from a
quotation, use three ellipsis points (...). Do not use ellipsis points at the beginning of a quotation.
Whether you actually quote the writers, or just rephrase their ideas in your own words, you must still provide a
reference. When you paraphrase from a specific point in a source, just as you do when you use a direct quote, you must
be sure to include the page number(s) in the reference, not just author and date. By correct referencing (or citation), you
accurately attribute ideas to the person who wrote them in the first place, and you ensure that anyone who reads your
work would be able to easily locate the exact sources if they wished to.
Numbers
Spell out the numbers one to nine and spell out even hundreds, thousands and millions, except if they include a decimal
point or fraction (eg. 4.25, 41/4), or where they refer to page numbers, or where there are sets of numerals, some of which
are higher than ten (eg. 14, 9 and 6). Use Arabic numerals (11, 12, 13…) for other numbers. Percentages are expressed
as figures followed by % even if the number is less than 10. Always write out a number or year if it begins a sentence.
Large numbers should be written with a comma rather than a space (eg. 50,000). Avoid Roman numerals wherever
possible.
Dates
Dates should be written thus: 15 January 1970. Months should be spelled out in full. No apostrophe is used in 1870s,
1900s. Show a span of years as 1845-50, not 1845-1850.
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Underlining/italics
In most books and journal articles, emphasis is added to words by italicising them. Foreign language words that are often
used in English, but are not yet fully naturalised, are italicised. This does not apply to terms such as vis-a-vis, or laissez
faire. If in doubt, check the Macquarie Dictionary.
5.
REFERENCING
Authors must acknowledge the sources of their information and ideas. Become familiar with the conventions for
documenting intellectual debts, or you run the risk of being accused of plagiarism. This is easily avoided if you provide
references in your work. References enable your readers to know the source of your information, so they can judge
whether or not to accept the claims. They also allow readers to follow up any interesting notions that they read about in
your essay. Also, the person marking your essay will easily be able to judge whether you have read and understood the
relevant references and whether or not you are up to date on the current thinking on the topic you are writing about.
Remember that citations and bibliography are not optional luxuries but help the reader gauge the extent of your
investigations and are important scholarly conventions.
There are several major methods of referencing, details of which can be found through the library’s Re:cite page
(https://library.unimelb.edu.au/recite). Most writing in the social sciences employs one of the author-date referencing
styles, which all have with two key components:
• Citations in the text, including the name of the author and year of publication.
• Reference list at end of the paper, alphabetically listing of all references used in the text.
Harvard is one of the best-known of these, but has not been updated for some time; the library thus recommends using
APA instead. There are some forms of writing within the social and political sciences that require other forms of
referencing – either footnote/references, or numbered references. Before selecting a referencing style check the subject
guide or with your tutor, lecturer or supervisor for the preferred (or required) style.
If no style is specified for an assignment, you should use one of the in-text/author-date styles. It is important to note that
even within each author-date style of referencing, there are considerable variations in practice. The School of Social and
Political Sciences is home to a number of social science disciplines, each of which traditionally has preferences within
the author-date style, based upon the policies of discipline associations or the leading journals in the field. This can be
difficult for students to negotiate. The School therefore permits some discretion in the formatting of references, so long
as you are consistent in presentation and provide all the information a reader would need to find the source.
NOTE: using Reference Management software can assist not only with taking notes but also with ensuring
consistency in how references are presented. The library provides access to, and guidance for use of, various
programs such as Zotero, Mendeley or Endnote, as well as simpler citation generators. See:
https://library.unimelb.edu.au/recite/reference-management-software
There are two main components to referencing: in-text citation, and the formatting of the reference list or bibliography.
The preferred means of citing works in-text is relatively straightforward, and is described next. The reference list or
bibliography is more complicated. We will illustrate key points to bear in mind using Harvard examples.
For more detailed advice about the Harvard style, see:
https://library.unimelb.edu.au/recite/referencing-styles/harvard
For more detailed advice about the APA style, see:
https://library.unimelb.edu.au/recite/referencing-styles/apa7
The Harvard Style of In-Text Citation
The basic citation in the Harvard style (or author-date system) consists in placing the last name of an author and the year
of publication of the work (followed where appropriate by the page numbers) as close as possible to the mention of the
idea that you are discussing in the text. Usually this information comes at the end of the sentence, but these referencing
brackets can occur at the end of a phrase or idea. No comma separates the author and year. Pages, chapters and so forth
follow the date, preceded by a comma. It is unnecessary to use ‘p’, ‘pp’ or ‘page’ to indicate the page numbers. Within
the Harvard system, terms such as ‘ibid’ are not used. To cite an entire book for a specific point is generally unacceptable.
Doyle (1966) initially advanced this idea.
The idea was developed in the United States (Clarke 1968, 254).
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When more than one study is cited, arrange the references in alphabetical order and use semicolons to separate them:
A number of researchers (Bennett 1967, 142; Dent 1969, 1970; Groom 1969) have advanced this argument; however,
the opposite view has considerable support (Cummings 1985; Norquest 1984, 256-63).
Use commas to separate two works by the same author. If works by the same author are also published in the same year,
add lower case letters to the dates of publication and repeat these in the reference list:
This theory was advanced in two articles by Dixon (1974, 1975).
This theory was advanced by Lindsey (1981a, 1981b, 1982).
If there are two or three authors cite all names each time. If there are four or more authors, ‘et al’ (meaning ‘and others’)
should follow the first author’s name. If two or more authors have the same last name, the first initial should be used to
distinguish between them:
The idea was originally advanced by Arndt, Wee and Smart (1955). Independently, other scholars (Drew et al 1967)
advanced a similar idea, which was strongly criticised by Irish researchers (R. Smith 1960; J. Smith 1962).
Nonetheless, the idea has gained widespread acceptance in Ireland (Dent 1969, chap. 2) and overseas (Eckhart 1972,
131-50).
Footnotes also have a role in the Harvard style, but they are not used for the purpose of citations. They can be used to
expand on points in the text, or to provide information on citations of newspaper articles, interviews, and personal
communications. But they should be used sparingly. The material in a lengthy, discursive footnote may better be placed
in the body of the text, or left out altogether. Notes should be numbered consecutively and placed at the end of the essay
(‘endnotes’) or at the bottom of the page (‘footnotes’). The correspondence note number in the text should be written or
typed as a superscript Thus. As with the footnote system, you can automatically insert a reference in Microsoft Word by
clicking on the References tab, then clicking on Insert Footnote. This way footnote numbers are automatically updated
when you insert new ones, or delete others.
6.
WORKS CITED IN THE REFERENCE LIST AND/OR THE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The reference list should appear at the end of the essay, and should contain all (and only) those works cited in-text. The
bibliography appears either after the reference list or replaces the reference list and contains all works which were used
in the preparation of the essay, even if some of these were not actually cited in the essay. Check with your tutors or
subject coordinator to see whether a bibliography is required as well as or in replacement of a reference list. The means
of citation are the same whether it is contained in a reference list or a bibliography. For convenience here, only the term
‘bibliography’ is used below.
The bibliography is compiled in alphabetical order. The information you provide should be as full as possible and
includes:
• the surnames of authors, followed by their initial(s);
• the year of publication (either in brackets or not);
• an indication if the book is edited;
• the book's title in italics;
• the city of publication;
• the name of the publisher;
• an indication of relevant volume if there are more than one.
Please note that some Harvard style variations juxtapose the city of publication and the name of the publisher; either is
correct, but be consistent. Please note also that contemporary referencing practices have reduced the amount of
punctuation contained in citations, but there remains some variation. The School prefers minimal punctuation, but the
important thing once again is to be consistent. Examples are given below.
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Book Citations
Full punctuation:
Minimal punctuation:
Drew, O. & Parsons, S. (eds.), (1952) Socialism and American Life, 2 Vols, London,
Oxford University Press.
Drew O & Parsons S (eds) 1952, Socialism and American Life, 2 Vols., London, Oxford
University Press.
Full punctuation:
Minimal punctuation:
Mayo, H.B., (1955) Democracy and Marxism, New York, Oxford University Press..
Mayo HB 1955, Democracy and Marxism, New York, Oxford University Press
Full punctuation:
Nkrumah, K., (1961), I Speak of Freedom: A Statement of African Ideology, New York,
Praeger.
Nkrumah K 1961, I Speak of Freedom: A Statement of African Ideology, New York,
Praeger.
Minimal punctuation:
Journal Article Citations
The format for referring to journals and periodicals is as follows:
• author's name and initials;
• year;
• article title in lower case;
• journal title in italics;
• volume number;
•
page numbers.
Article titles can appear in inverted commas, and the issue number may also follow the volume number.
Marie, D. 2010. Maori and criminal offending: A critical appraisal, Australian and New Zealand Journal of
Criminology, 43 (2) 282-300.
Morgan R.P.C., (1980), ‘Field studies of sediment transport by overland flow’, Earth Surface Processes. Vol. 5, No. 4,
pp. 307-316.
Chapter in an Edited Collection Citation
The format for referring to a chapter in an edited book is as follows:
• author's name and initials;
• year;
• chapter title in lower case;
• the book's title in italics;
• the city of publication;
• the name of the publisher;
• the page numbers of the chapter (optional).
James, S. (2005) New Policing for a New Millennium? In D. Chappell and P. Wilson (eds) Issues in Australian Crime
and Criminal Justice Chatswood NSW: LexisNexis Butterworths (77-100).
Electronic Citations
The transfer of information electronically has increased as more and more information is added to the material available
via the internet. Electronic sources may include information gathered from a World Wide Web site; telnet, FTP or gopher
site; from newsgroups; and from listserv or e-mail messages. Students are urged to be especially discerning and critical
in their use of the internet for research purposes. Websites, unlike most books and articles, have not undergone any
process of scholarly evaluation and appraisal before publication. Some sites, for instance, those published by racist
organisations, are of no academic value. While such sites could be perused as an object of research, they should not be
treated as an aid to research.
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Students often have difficulty in correctly citing electronic source material. The convention is that if the material has
been published only as an electronic source, then you must cite the details of webpage. If however, the material is also
published in hard copy form (such as journal or newspaper articles), then you must include the publishing details, NOT
the webpage details. For example, you can download journal articles via a range of databases available through the library
website. Most of these articles have been published in hard copy forms. As such, you cite the author, year of publication,
article title, journal title, volume number, issue number and page numbers (as detailed above); NOT the URL of the
journal database.
The use of URL (Uniform Resource Locator) addresses is preferred for most internet materials. It is important to use the
convention of pointed brackets (< >) to enclose an electronic addresses, so it can easily be read. The following information
is required for citing a website in a reference list, notes or bibliography:
• author (the person or organisation responsible for the site);
• site date (the date the site was created or last revised);
• name and place of the sponsor of the source;
• date of viewing the source;
• URL.
Department of Finance and Administration 2001. Department of Finance and Administration, Canberra, viewed 7 August
2001, <http://www.finance.gov.au>
International Narcotics Control Board 1999, United Nations, Vienna, viewed 1 October 1999, <http://www.incb.org>
To cite a document within a website, the following information is required:
The following information is required:
• author, editor or compiler;
• date of document (the date of creation or the date of the most recent revision);
• title of the document;
• version number (if applicable);
• description of document (if applicable);
• name of the sponsor of the source;
• date of viewing;
•
URL (either the full location details if these are necessary to find the document or just the main website).
Anderson, J (Minister for Transport and Regional Services) 2000. CASA approves avgas contamination test, media
release, 23 January, Department of Transport and Regional Services, Canberra, viewed 7 February 2000,
<http://www.dotrs.gov.au/media/anders/archive/2000/jan_00/al6_2000.htm>
Attorney-General’s Department, 1998, Review of the Commonwealth ‘Acts Interpretation Act 1901’, AttorneyGeneral’s Department, Canberra, viewed 5 April 2001. <http://www.law.gov.au>
FINAL REFERENCING NOTE
It is important that you learn the appropriate way to reference your work as early as possible in your academic career.
But you will be confronted with wide variations in the ‘right way’ to do so. You can solve most problems by adhering as
closely as possible to the conventions that have been described above. But the most important things to keep in mind are
that your referencing should be consistent, and should contain sufficient detail that the reader can readily find the sources
you have drawn upon for your essay.
7.
ENDNOTE SOFTWARE
EndNote is a software package that assists in the management of a bibliography. EndNote can be used on PC and
Macintosh computers and has been released in a number of versions. The main functions of EndNote are:
1
2
3
Storing and managing references in files called libraries. References often describe documents like journal
articles, books, conference papers, theses, etc. You might also keep libraries of your CD collection, wine
collection, recipes, etc.
Importing references into your library from many remote journal databases and library catalogues.
Formatting references and bibliographies in the citation style of your choice, in conjunction with MS Word.
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Once these details are included in EndNote, you are then able to insert that reference as a citation in your essay. And,
once you have completed your essay, you need only to press the button titled ‘Format Bibliography’, and the program
will correctly format your bibliography automatically.
While EndNote is not easy to use initially, using it for all essays will ensure that your skills will develop, and that you
have a consolidated list of all materials you have read for essays or tutorial readings.
EndNote also has a field where you can type in any notes about the reference, which can be searched at a later stage for
other essays.
The University of Melbourne has a comprehensive site license for EndNote, so you can download the program from the
library website. The software and guides to using it can be found here: https://library.unimelb.edu.au/recite/referencemanagement-software/endnote
NOTE: The library also provides guidance on alternative Reference Management systems such as Zotero
and Mendeley. While not quite as sophisticated as Endnote, these offer very similar capabilities; they are
also somewhat simpler to use and more mobile.
You can get further information about how to write and correctly reference your essays from
https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills
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