CHAPTER 7 PSYCH 100 THINKING & INTELLIGENCE Thinking Cognitive Psychology • Studies how we acquire knowledge about the world • Cognitive psychologists investigate: • • • • Thinking Information processing Language Problem solving Thinking • The mental representation and manipulation of information • Information is represented in the form of: • Mental Images • Words • Concepts • A mental picture or representation of an object or event, not a “photographic” record • Can be held and manipulated • Can lead to creative solutions for puzzling problems • Gender differences in mental imagery • Women seem to use images more in memories, while men use them more in immediate problem-solving • Not limited to visual images Are the objects in each pair the same or different? Same Same Different • Concepts are mental categories we use to group objects, events, and ideas according to their common features • Functions • Helps us make sense of the world and allow us to anticipate the future • Allows us to distinguish threatening from harmless stimuli • Helps us to respond more quickly to events Concepts • What makes a fruit a fruit? • Logical concepts – clearly defined rules for determining membership • Natural concepts – the rules for determining membership are poorly defined or fuzzy • Problem solving - a cognitive process in which we employ mental strategies to solve problems. • We can sometimes solve problems through: • Trial and error (hit or miss) • Insight or “eureka-type” experiences. Insight is believed to result from restructuring a problem. Problem: make a downward facing triangle by moving only three of the dots. Would you try out every possible solution (trial and error approach)? Or will you sit back and mull the problem over in your head, waiting for a flash of inspiration that leads to the correct solution (insight approach)? Problem Move only three of these dots to make a downward-facing triangle Solution Problem Solving • Algorithm a methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a problem, guarantees a solution. • As long as you follow the rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, in math you will get the right answer every time. Computers are programmed to apply algorithms to solve problems. • Heuristics are guiding principles or “rules of thumb” used in solving problems, but they don’t guarantee success. • The matchstick problem shown next is an example of using heuristics to solve a problem. Types of Heuristics include: 1.Means-end analysis – evaluating the difference between a current position and a desired goal, then employing different means to reduce that difference. 2.Working backwards – starting with a potential solution and working backward to see if the data support the Move two matches to solution form four equal 3.Creating subgoals squares. Sub Goal 3 1 2 A Move all rings from A to C without going out of order… B C 1 2 3 Formulating subgoals is where we approach a complex problem by creating subgoals that break down a larger problem into smaller, more manageable problems. • Functional fixedness: the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use • Mental set: when people persist in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past but may not apply to the present problem. Two strings hang from the ceiling but are too far apart to allow a person to hold one and walk to the other. On the table are a book of matches, a candle, and a few pieces of cotton. How could the strings be tied together? Confirmation Bias • The tendency to stick to an initial hypothesis even in the face of strong contradictory evidence. • Do you ever look for information that “proves” you are right while ignoring data that shows you are wrong? • Once you have a first impression – either of a situation or a person – the confirmation bias may explain some of why it is so difficult to get that impression to change. Representativeness Heuristic • The representativeness heuristic involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype or example of that event. • The representativeness heuristic can lead us to poor decisions when the sample we rely upon is not representative of the larger population (e.g., seeing what turns out to be a bad movie because we happen to have overheard someone in an elevator recommending it to a friend). Which is more likely? They are equally likely! ½ x ½ x ½ x ½ x ½ x ½ = 1/64 Availability Heuristic Words beginning with the letter K Which is more frequent? Words with K in the third position The availability heuristic involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how easily relevant instances come to mind - for example, estimating divorce rate by recalling the number of divorces among your friends’ parents. Creativity Thinking that leads to original, practical, and meaningful solutions to problems or that generates new ideas or artistic expressions. Divergent thinking – the ability to conceive of new ways of viewing situations and new uses for familiar objects. Convergent thinking – The attempt to narrow down a range of alternatives to one correct answer to a problem. Cognitive processes underlying creativity Use of analogy Conceptual combination Conceptual expansion Language Language is defined as consisting of symbols that convey meaning, plus rules for combining those symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages. Grammar refers to the set rules that dictate how symbols in a given language are used to form meaningful expressions. • Basic sounds are combined into units with meaning, which are combined into words, which are combined into phrases, then combined into sentences. • Phonemes are the smallest units of speech. English uses about 40 phonemes that can combine to form approximately 500,000 words. • Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language, consisting of root words, prefixes, and suffixes. • Syntax is a system of rules for arranging words into sentences. Different languages have different rules. • Semantics are the meaning of words and word combinations. Learning semantics involves learning the variety of objects and actions to which words refer. Phoneme: s t r ey n j Morpheme: strange strangers Syntax: There are strangers near our house. A stranger is a person you do Semantics: not know ~Age Vocal Activity Description Birth Crying Crying expresses distress 2 months Cooing Infant begins making cooing sounds (e.g., “aah” and “oooh”). Babbling Phonemes, the basic units of sound, appear. 12 months One-word phrases Babies imitate sounds and can understand some words; they begin to say single words. 18 to 24 months Two-word phrases/ sentences Vocabulary grows to about 50 words, and babies emit two-word phrases or sentences. 24 to 36 months Complex speech Sentences become longer and more complex and include plurals and past tense; speech shows elements of proper syntax 6 to 12 months Noam Chomsky Nature and Nurture: • Chomsky believes we have an inborn propensity to learn language. Chomsky introduced the concept of the language acquisition device (LAD), which he described as an innate, prewired mechanism for language development. • Both nature and nurture are involved in language acquisition. Humans have a biological capacity to develop language, but need experience with the sounds, meanings, and structures of human speech for language to develop. Culture & Language • Linguistic relativity hypothesis: -> Language determines thought • Also called the Whorfian hypothesis • Research findings • Language does not determine thought but it does influence how we think about the world • Ex: “fireman” vs. “fire fighter” The capacity to Reason clearly Act purposefully Adapt to one’s environment Pursue one’s goals Definition used by David Wechsler (psychologist and developer of many widely-used IQ tests): “The global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment.” Measuring Intelligence • In 1904 the Frenchman Alfred Binet developed the first modern intelligence test. • In 1912, a German Psychologist, William Stern, offered a formula for computing the IQ based on ratio between mental age (MA) and chronological age (CA). Measuring Intelligence • Lewis Terman • Adapted Binet-Simon test for American use and established norms for comparisons • David Wechsler • Introduced concept of deviation IQ where 100 is average • Created tests designed to measure various mental abilities The distribution of intelligence is represented in terms of a normal distribution (“bell curve”). What are the characteristics of a good intelligence test? How do tests measure up to these standards? • Standardization – establishing norms for a test by administering the test to large numbers of people who constitute a standardization sample. • Reliability – consistency of test scores over time. • Validity – the extent to which a test measures what it purports to measure. Misuse of IQ Tests • Low expectations can become self-fulfilling prophecies • Too much emphasis placed on IQ scores in student placement • May be biased against those from other cultural backgrounds • Development of culture-fair tests • Common myth: neither gender is “smarter” than the other in general. • Women tend to outperform men on some verbal skills, such as reading, writing, and spelling. • Men hold an edge in visual-spatial tasks. Differences in math skills have disappeared in recent years. • Men and women tend to perform similarly on tests of general intelligence and problem-solving. Extremes of Intelligence Intellectual disability • IQ of about 70 or below • Difficulty coping with age-appropriate tasks • Practice of mainstreaming • Causes can be biological, environmental, or both Intellectually gifted • IQ of about 130 or higher Level of Intellectual Disability (approx. IQ Range) Approx. Percentage of Cases Typical Capabilities of School-Age Children 85% Able to acquire reading and arithmetic skills to about a sixth-grade level and can later function relatively independently and engage in productive work. Moderate (3549) 10% Able to learn simple communication and manual skills, but have difficulty acquiring reading and arithmetic skills. Severe (20-34) 4% Capable of basic speech and may be able to learn repetitive tasks in supervised settings. 2% Severe delays in all areas of development, but some may learn simple tasks in supervised settings. Mild (50-69) Profound (below 20) Theories of Intelligence • Spearman’s “g” • Spearman’s two-factor model • General cognitive ability & specific abilities • Thurstone’s primary mental abilities • Gardner’s model of multiple intelligences • Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence Psychologist Louis Thurstone expanded to seven primary mental abilities: • Verbal comprehension • Numerical ability • Memory • Inductive reasoning • Perceptual speed • Verbal fluency • Spatial relations Genetics & Memory • Evidence that intelligence has a strong genetic component • Environmental influences also important • Verbal interaction, reading, exploration • Both nature and nurture interact in complex ways • Heritability suggest that about 50% of the variation in intelligence in the population can be explained by genetic factors