Chapter 3 Motivation
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
1.1.Nature of Motivation (Mitchell)
1.2.Definitions and Framework
1.3.History of perspectives on Motivation
2. Needs-Based Theories
2.1.Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
2.2.ERG Theory (Alderfer)
2.3.Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)
2.4.Acquired Needs Framework (McClelland)
3. Process-Based Perspectives
3.1.Equity Theory of Motivation (Sweeney)
3.2.Expectancy Theory
4. Learning-Based Perspectives
4.1.Traditional vs Temporary views of learning
4.2.Reinforcement Theory
4.3.Social Learning
5. Applying Motivational Theories at Work
5.1.Job Characteristics Theory (Hackman)
5.2.Goal Setting and Motivation (Locke)
1. Introduction
1.1 Nature of Motivation
What defines a motivated person? Climbing Mount Everest has proven to be a life gambling,
torturous, rewarding feat. What makes some crave the adventure of risking their lives to make it
to the top of the world? What causes teams, employees, companies to outperform the
competition? In this Chapter, we review Motivational theories that help us define Motivation
and how Motivation plays an important role in performance.
Performance is result of many inputs in a web of process and how affective these inputs are,
typically return to Motivation. Motivation is described as a set of forces that leads people to
behave in certain ways. Or another definition (Mitchel 1982) the degree to which an individual
wants and chooses to engage in certain specified behavior. A way to highlight the importance of
Motivation as it relates to performance is by a simple formula:
Performance = expectations x ability x motivation x environment
Mitchell (1982) expanded on this formula and asked the questions: do you know what is
required, do you have the ability or training, are you motivated to do what is required, is the
environment such that process can result in predicted behavior. Motivation is the part of the
process that leads to performance, it is not the end goal.
1.2 Definitions and Framework
A need can be anything a person requires or wants such as food, health, recognition, knowledge,
status, money, etc. Need deficiency (the realization that you are not meeting a need) triggers an
attempt to satisfy the need. For the sake of the next few definitions we will focus on a need of
money.
Reassessment of need deficiency occurs after the person assesses the extent to which the
outcome addressed the original need deficiency. When your attempt to satisfy the need falls short
of the desired outcome, say less money than desired, you may reassess the current status of that
need and how it has changed in gravity or desire. This could also be the reassessment of
deficiency if you failed to reach a
Goal-directed behaviors result from individuals trying to satisfy their need deficiencies.
Behaviors are the way an individual chooses to act, and goal directed behaviors are actions that
are taken in order to fulfill a need. What does an individual have to do this year to make enough
money to pay the mortgage payment they owe monthly?
Rewards and punishments are respectively the positive or negative consequences of the goaldirected behavior. If an individual’s actions (behavior) in the workplace model exceptional
performance they may be financially rewarded, and inversely punished with no bonus payout for
poor behavior.
1.3 Historical Perspectives on Motivation
The Traditional Approach as documented in “Scientific Management” (Frederick Taylor)
assumes that employees are motivated solely by money. This form of thinking is not as common
in modern workplaces but can still be seen in entry level labor positions where job conditions
have little differentiation. An example of this is when a college student is looking to work for the
summer and save money for the upcoming school year the primary goal is money to be earned
regardless of conditions.
The Human Relations Approach assumes employees’ needs outweigh money and that fostering
favorable employee attitudes (the illusion of involvement) results in motivation. This
environment has a focus on giving employees meaningful projects, autonomy, variety, and
feedback. A genuine
The Human Resource approach assumes people want to make genuine contributions; managers
should encourage their participation by providing the proper working environment conditions.
This approach takes the human relations approach to the next level of motivation by finding the
right fit for the right people, rather than the illusion of involvement. McClelland described
Institution managers as those who are interested in personal power and create the best teams by
creating an environment that seems to be aligned with the Human Resources approach. These
thoughts align on influencing people to do things not because you told them, but because they
want to (McClelland, D.C., & Burnham, D.H).
2. Needs-Based Theories
2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
A.H. Maslow – A theory of Human Motivation (1943) describes how human needs, or the
deficiency of those needs, affect a person's motivation and behavior. It assumes that human
needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance, once needs are satisfied, a new need emerges,
motivation changes and growth can occur. The opposite is also true, if needs are not satisfied, or
deficient, needs will regress, and motivations will change, growth diminishes. The theory
describes 5 needs categorized as Basic and Growth.
Basic needs
Physiological – this foundational need can be referred to as homeostasis: the body's automatic
efforts to sustain life. Things such as breathing, heartbeat, metabolism – the basic functioning of
your body. Physiological needs are foundational, if a person is missing all things in life to the
extreme, physiological needs will be the motivation factor in that person's life. For example, If a
person is starving there is no interest other than food.
Safety – this need can take multiple forms from physical, emotional, protection, law and order,
control, etc. A child's behavior is a prime example of the motivating factors for this need, mostly
because they do not inhibit reactions as adults do. Children will cling to parents when scared,
seek comfort when hurt, the look for stability and predictability. Safety needs are very strong,
and the theory suggest that they are closely aligned with physiological needs. In life threating
situations, safety will most certainly be the motivating factor. For most functioning adults in
society, safety needs are met with ease and content, therefore most motivation factors move
beyond safety.
Belonginess – once both Physiological and Safety needs are met, the next need to emerge in
Belongingness. This is the need for love, affection, and the want to belong. Examples can be
spouses, significant others, friends, or children, people that reciprocate love and affection. Once
a person is fed and is satisfied with his safety, the need to belong, loved, and part of a society
emerges as a motivation.
Growth Needs
Esteem – this need is based on status, reputation, prestige. It is the feeling of self-confidence,
worth, strength, capability, usefulness and feeling necessary to the world. It is the first of the
growth needs and describes the motivation of people wanting beyond sustaining life, safety and
belonginess. Without this need, one feels inferior, week and helpless.
Self-Actualization – this is the pursuit to be who you want to be. As Maslow wrote “What a man
can be, he must be”. This need describes the relentless drive to grow and be who you were meant
to be. It explains the inner drive or motivation to continue to improve and be the authentic
person you are.
Figure 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy
As you can see in Figure 1 above, needs can be related to business as well. If we are not happy
with our base salary, it may be difficult to be motivated by growth needs.
Maslow describes exceptions and the hierarchy may not be as rigid as detailed above. For
example, one may be motivated more by esteem needs (title, power, prestige) than belongness or
the need to love. Another example is people who may have suffered greatly, such as starvation,
famine, war, may stop at basic needs. They will be satisfied for life if enough food and safety is
available for them to live. Another describes children who have been deprived of love in early
years, they may skip the belongness need altogether and lose this desire.
In summary, the needs follow a general hierarchy and can describe how motivating factors will
have different effects on individuals, dependent on thier life situation. How a person's needs are
met, or how deficient, will attribute to behaviors and performance in personal and professional
settings.
2.2 ERG Theory
ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth) theory was developed by Clayton Alderfer, published
in 1969. His theory is a slight modification of Maslow’s needs described above by grouping all 5
needs into 3 categories. The Existence group combines Maslow’s physiological and security
needs. Relatedness is synonymous with Maslow’s social needs, and Growth corresponds with
Maslow’s esteem needs and self-actualization described above.
Why is ERG Theory Different from Maslow’s? A key differentiator is that Alderfer allowed for
more than one need to be worked on at a given time as opposed to needed to fulfill a need before
moving up the pyramid. An example of this is someone who needs to build a stronger social
circle but is also focusing on building a strong reputation in their career as well.
Another unique attribute described in the regression in people due to frustration. For example, is
someone has been struggling to create a strong social circle may get frustrated and double down
on their security and physiological needs of staying inside and eating. Or maybe more applicable
in the professional environment someone who struggles to reach the esteemed praises of
promotion, may start to regress in development and double down on their socializing around the
office.
Figure 2: ERG theory includes existence,
relatedness, and growth. Source: Based on
Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new
theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior
and Human Performance, 4, 142–175. Image from
“biz.libretexts.org” Source: “5.2: Need-Based
Theories of Motivation”
https://biz.libretexts.org/Courses/Kwantlen_Polytechnic_University/BUSI1215_Organizational_
Behaviour/05%3A_Theories_of_Motivation/5.2%3A_Need-Based_Theories_of_Motivation
2.3 Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
The last topic on needs-based theories is Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory of Motivation.
In this theory, Motivation factors are looked at in two separate dimensions: Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction. It is not in the traditional sense, in which one may be satisfied or dissatisfied
with a job, but rather job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are viewed as two separate
influences on motivation.
The factors are split in two types:
Motivation factors which affect satisfaction
Factors that individuals use as growth and to the degree one achieves satisfaction or no
satisfaction (see figure below). These describe how an individual can have feeling of content and
satisfaction with a job. For example, the theory describes recognition as a Motivation Factor and
concludes that one may be satisfied with the recognition they received, or no satisfaction occurs
if they do not receive recognition. The basis of the theory is that one is not necessarily
dissatisfied if a motivation factor does not exist, rather there will be no satisfaction.
Hygiene factors which affect dissatisfaction
As the name implies, these factors are what manage dissatisfaction and used to prevent
dissatisfaction from occurring (see figure below). They can be referred to “Maintenance” factors
as they will need to addressed first for Motivation and job enrichment to be achieved. For
example, look at Pay/Base salary at your job. If one is unhappy with their salary, dissatisfaction
occurs, and it is a challenge for that employee to be motivated by growth factors. Hygiene factors
should be addressed first and when no dissatisfaction exists, the employee can look to
Motivation factors to achieve growth.
Figure 3. The Two Factor Theory of Motivation
There are criticisms with this theory and can be challenged with cultural differences and the
method used during implementation. The relationship with your supervisors and the impact they
have on our ability to function at a job may very well be a Motivation Factor for some, especially
in western culture. Some employees may find satisfaction by having an open, healthy working
relationship with their supervisors, others may not have this need.
2.4 Acquired Needs Framework
David McClelland was a psychologist who is well known for his work on a needs-based theory
of motivation where needs are acquired over time and may be affected by life experience. These
needs manifest in 3 forms of motivation’ Achievement, Affiliation, and Power.
Achievement focused people have the tendency to set goals and strive to reach them with the
priority of their own achievement and recognition as a top priority. Someone with a goal of
accomplishments and recognition will be motivated to work on hard projects, but not too hard
that there would be a decent probability of failure, as the potential for recognition would be
lower. Often high achievers will be promoted to management roles for obvious reasons, but what
is not obvious is how this can result in poor performance. McClelland describes a situation where
a high achieving sales representative after moving into a management role continues to take tasks
from his team to achieve himself and was perceived as a poor manager. The focus on personal
achievement as a manager takes away from a person's opportunity to influence the team to
accomplish the task and experience growth.
Affiliation, or affiliative managers have a higher need for their team to like them than a need for
power or achievement. Leaders who want to be liked will bend the rules and procedures for their
team and may struggle giving constructive feedback to avoid discontentment. According to
McClelland the disregard for protocol left employees feeling weak, irresponsible, no idea what is
coming next, what to do next, and what the manager thought of them. Employees left without
constructive feedback will have a hard time developing because weaknesses are not highlighted,
and strengths are harder to recognize if you are unsure of the sincerity of the positive feedback.
Power describes the managers who have a need for personal power and are motivated by creating
a strong sense of responsibility on the team. Power is often heard as a derogatory term in the
office for people who are “power hungry” or on “power-trips” while playing office politics.
However, McClelland differentiates by describing personal power are those recognized as
institutional managers that are highly ambitious and use it to stimulate the team to be more
productive. Managers with a high need for power will use their ability to empower their team to
have a greater sense of responsibility, and in return the team may have a significantly higher
morale. Power must be controlled with discipline for it to benefit the organization, for example if
the inspiration is centered on a powerful leader and that leader exits it is likely that the team may
exit. But in contrast if the power is centered on the institution the team can remain productive
without the leader as the core of the values learned are based in the institution and not the
specific leader.
Figure 4. Team ratings of managers with different motivational profiles. (McClelland)
Which management style is most effective? McClelland and Burnham concluded that managers
strong in Institutional Power (power need greater than affiliation, partnered with high inhibition)
had teams that felt a strong sense of responsibility, the organizational clarity was higher, and
team spirit was higher (as high as personal power). This phenomenon is described in Figure 4
above.
3. Process-Based Perspectives
3.1 Equity Theory of Motivation
When we compare ourselves with peers and feel that we are not being treated fairly, we feel
dissatisfaction, and this will have a negative effect on our motivation. If we feel we are being
treated the same or better than our peers, we feel satisfied and have a positive effect on
motivation. This is the basis of the Equity Theory of Motivation. We compare our inputs with
others with the outcomes achieved. The perception of fairness has a substantial implication on
one's motivation. This describes the basic equity comparison.
Equity Comparison
Outcomes (self) compared with Outcomes (others)
Inputs (self)
Inputs (others)
Equity is the perceptual belief that one is being treated fairly in relation to others. Inequity is the
perceptual belief that one is being treated unfairly in relations to others. A prime example of this
is pay satisfaction and the comparison with others. If one feels they are providing equal inputs in
a group, yet pay is less than their peers, dissatisfaction will occur along with loss of motivation.
Like the need-based perspective discussed earlier in the chapter, one will find it difficult to
achieve growth until inequities (need-deficiencies) are addressed.
Figure 5. Responses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequity
Paul Sweeney (1990) published a study on the impacts of satisfaction in relation to pay. This
study elaborated on the individuals pay and how the participants themselves felt their pay
compared with others and then evaluated satisfaction. As expected, if one felt their pay was less
than their peers, they felt less satisfied. One the contrary, if one felt they were overpaid
compared to their peers, they also felt less satisfied, however more satisfied than when paid less,
but highest satisfaction occurred when one felt they were paid the same as their peers for equal
effort. What interesting about Sweeney's study is that when equity is achieved, not more or less
but equal, satisfaction is the highest.
As we look at motivation and the effect on performance, it's important to look at satisfaction as a
means for to one's personal growth and ability to excel. When inequity is created, or the feel of
inequity is not addressed, this has a clear effect on motivation and performance.
3.2 Expectancy Theory
The expectancy theory is the most complex model of employee motivation in organizations. The
key components of expectancy theory are effort-to-performance expectancy, performance-tooutcome instrumentality, and outcomes, each of which has an associated valence. These
components interact with effort, the environment, and the ability to determine an individual’s
performance.
First level outcomes are the direct result of the behavior (“recognized as performing at a high
level”)
Second level outcomes are a partly a result of the first level outcome. (“promoted based on high
performance”)
Victor Vroom discussed motivation as a “force” that moved people into action with the
expectation that it will lead to rewards. The catch for a company is that the rewards must be
desirable in order to be effective in maintaining performance. For example, if a worker is
motivated by formal status of a promotion and they receive some recognition, it will only work
as motivation if it could also move them closer to the second level outcome of promotion.
4. Learning-Based Perspectives
5.1 Traditional vs Contemporary views of learning
Traditional Learning is conditioning for example, Pavlov’s Dog (conditioned to hearing the bell
and resulting in salivation regardless of food) is like being conditioned by marketing to think,
“Why are you watching football and not drinking beer?” And why do you think twice about
buying something you don't need just because it says "clearance" or "sale"?
A more Contemporary view of learning is Social Learning theory, as described by Latham and
Saari, acknowledges that human thought, affect, and behavior are influenced by observation and
experience. People do not just react to external influences, but select, organize, and transform
those stimuli that come at them. (Latham, Saari)
Social learning differs from Skinners Operant on whether a reinforcer strengthens preceding
responses or whether it facilitates learning anticipatorily. For example, if you tell a class if they
don’t pay attention for the next hour they will most likely fail, they are more likely to pay
attention. (also works better before the behavior is demonstrated).
5.2 Reinforcement Theory
Learned base theories look at the causes of an action, the consequences and use this to
understand the behavior or, more importantly, how a behavior is changed. B.F. Skinner (1938)
created the term called Operant Conditioning, which describes three types of responses that
follow behavior:
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Neutral Operants: Responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease
the probability of a behavior being repeated.
Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior
being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
Punishers: Response from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior
being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
Operant Conditioning describes behavior reinforcement and how it affects a desired response.
As you read the three types of behavior responses above, you may go back to your childhood and
remember scenarios of all three. As a teenager, if you snuck out of your house at night to meet
up with friends, your parents never found out and your social status did not increase, that is a
Neutral Operant. If you successfully snuck out, your parents never found out and you became
more popular at your school because of your daring escape, this is a Reinforcer. If your parents
found out, you became grounded and loss social status with your friends, this is a Punisher.
The reinforcement theory looks at how reacting to a behavior with both positive and negative
reinforcement to either reinforces the continued behavior or reinforces a change in behavior. To
further describe the reinforcement theory, let's look at the 4 types of reinforcement:
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Positive Reinforcement – A reward or other desirable consequence that a person receives
after exhibiting a behavior
Negative Reinforcement – The opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant
circumstance after exhibiting behavior
Extinction – Decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a reward or desirable
consequence that follows that behavior
Punishment – An unpleasant or aversive consequence that results from behavior
Skinner (1948) created what's known as the “skinner box” in which he used a rat for this study.
In that box he put a lever in which a hungry rat would bump into and food would appear. The rat
quickly learned to push the lever for food. This describes positive reinforcement as the
consequence for the behavior of pushing the lever resulted in food. This changed the behavior of
the rate by using positive reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant reinforcer, in which an unpleasant
experience is stops once the desired behavior is achieved. In Skinners box study, the rat was
subjected to an electrical shock which caused the rat to move around the box, and when it would
hit a lever, the shock would stop. The rat learned to associate the pressing of the lever with
removing of the electrical shock. This is known as achieving a behavior with negative
reinforcement.
Obviously, humans are much more capable than rats and feel and learn in different ways. If we
look at a job performance example, we can use a bonus. If an employee is set to receive a 15%
salary bonus if they achieve a predetermined sales goal. In the event the employee does not
achieve the sales goal, the bonus is not paid. This is considered as extinction reinforcement to
motivate employees to achieve the sales goals.
I think we can use many examples of where punishment was used as the reinforcer in our
childhood. Punishment is also used in job performance motivation, an example would be a call
center may set goals to a minimize the amount an employee's spends per call with a customer,
with the goal to reduce call time per customer to keep staff at a minimum. The company may set
criteria for call times and if they exceed the call time criteria, employees will be docked pay.
This would be considered a punishment for not achieving short call times with customers.
As basic as the reinforcement theory may seem, it may be sometime difficult to decipher
between two types of reinforcements. Negative reinforcement and punishment may seem
similar. The following figure details the types of reinforcements and if a stimulus is presented or
removed.
Figure 6. Types of Reinforcers. Sources: Based on B. Lachman, F. Camm, & S. A. Resetar, Integrated
Facility Environmental Management Approaches: Lessons from Industry fror Department of Defense
Facilities, 2001. Santa Monica, CA: TAND Corporation.
In 2007, Saul McLeod provided a summary of Skinner’s operant conditioning and concluded that
operant conditioning theory does not take human reasoning into account and that the
reinforcement action to a behavior is not a black and white process. Human needs and responses
effect personal motivation in many ways and while the reinforcement theory can be used to
increase performance, implementation and timing of this practice are very important.
4.3 Social Learning
Much of what we have learned and has shaped our world views has been attributed to the social
environment we have experienced. Culture, heritage, society, where we live, etc. all influence
us, I think most would agree with that. Social Learning in an organization occurs when people
observe the behaviors of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behavior as a
result.
The Social Learning theory described by Lathan and Saari (1979) puts into perspective how
interaction with peers, along with clear direction, have effect on change in behavior. They
published a study of supervisor training and how the effect of planting supervisors in a training
session that have been clearly instructed on the program and the expectations. The supervisors
were mixed in with the remaining trainees and the results of the training were measured.
It showed positive effectiveness of the entire training months after completion. It was a means to
confirm the social learning theory that by giving a portion of the employees who attend the
training clear direction, still had effect on the remaining training group through social learning
and positive results occurred. Social Learning theory acknowledges that human thought, affect,
and behavior are influenced by observation and experience with others.
5. Applying Motivational Theories at Work
5.1 Job Characteristics Theory
Job characteristics theory is an important contemporary model of how to design jobs. The theory
draws on Maslow’s needs and the expectancy theory as a basis for its hypotheses. The HackmanLawler theory of Job Characteristics rests on 5 hypotheses summarized below.
1. When people believe they can achieve an outcome they want by demonstrating a behavior, the
probability that they will engage in that behavior is increased.
2. People pursue outcomes to satisfy the physiological or psychological needs of the individual
as described by Maslow.
3. Employees will be motivated to work hard to achieve goals if the working conditions are set
up that their needs are satisfied by pursuing the company goals.
4. Most people's lower-level needs (e.g., health, security) can be easily satisfied for individuals
in first world modern economies, therefore, will not serve as motivational incentives except
under unusual circumstances (war). However, higher order needs like personal growth and status
will not be as easily satisfied.
5. People who can reach the higher-level needs and accomplish meaningful goals will
experience satisfaction as a result of their efforts. The meaningfulness and effectiveness can be
enhanced with feedback to the employee.
By using 5 core job characteristics managers can enhance three critical psychological states.
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Meaningfulness of the work
Responsibility for the outcome
Knowledge
These three states in turn can improve a variety of outcomes. Individual differences also affect
how the job characteristics affect people.
Research generally supports the theory, however:
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Performance seldom found to correlate with job characteristics
Measures used to test theory are not always valid and reliable
Role of individual differences is not supported
Theory is lacking in specific guidelines for implementation
Figure 7. The Job Characteristics Model. Source: Hackman and Oldham (1980, 90).
When you have an upcoming set of work, how do you decide whether to assign it to the group or
assign the deliverables to individuals?
Designing tasks on a group basis is recommended under the following conditions:
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When the group can assume responsibility for a total product or service, but the nature of
the work is such that individuals cannot. Thus, when the meaningful work potential of
even the best possible individual job is low.
When the work is of such a nature that high interdependence among individual workers is
essential.
When the workers involved have high social need strength, with the result that
enrichment of individual jobs risks breaking up satisfying group relationships.
When the motivating potential of the job would be expected to be much higher if
arranged as a group task rather than as a set of individual tasks.
In contrast, individual (as opposed to group) task design is recommended:

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When the individuals have high needs for personal growth but weak needs for social
relationships at work.
When the prospect of dysfunctional conflict within a group is high.
When there is no inherent interdependence in the work of the individuals.
When the expertise needed to design group tasks, an inherently difficult process, is
lacking
5.2 Goal Setting and Motivation
Goal setting has a specific purpose and influence in an organization. It is used to provide a
useful framework for managing motivation to enhance employee performance. Also, to serve
management as a control device for monitoring how well the organization is performing.
The theory of goal setting discus’s the effects of specific goals on performance and the
importance of having a clear direction or understanding of the expectations. It defines the
relation of goal difficulty to performance. Locke and Latham (2002) assumes that behavior is
the result of conscious goals and intentions, therefore goals influence behavior (performance).
Setting of goals results in engagement of personal commitment to the outcome and provides
motivation to a desired behavior. Locke and Latham (2002) describe the goal setting theory as
follows and the High-Performance Cycle in this figure:
Figure 8. Essential Elements of Goal-Setting Theory and the High-Performance Cycle. Source:
Locke & Latham (2002).
Goal Core - Setting the Specificity and Difficulty has a direct effect on performance. Locke and
Latham (2002) found positive, linear function that high, difficult goals produced the highest level
of effort and performance.
Goal Mechanisms – four mechanisms that describe the affect goal setting can have on
performance.
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Choice/Direction - affect direct attention and effort toward goal-relevant activities
Effort – affect energizing function, high goals lead to higher effort
Persistence – affect time spent on goals, tight timelines can lead to quicker work

Strategies – affect the indirect action of arousal, discover and use of task-relevant
knowledge
Moderators – factors that influence the goal to enhance performance
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Goal Commitment - Goal-performance relationship is strongest when people are
committed to their goals and their beliefs the goal in attainable.
Goal Importance – Factors that make goal attainment important to people, including the
importance of the outcomes that they expect.
Self-efficacy - Factors that create personal investment in attaining the goal and enhances
the commitment.
Feedback - provide summary feedback that reveals progress in relation to their goals
Task Complexity - the difficulty of the goal needs to be leveled for the task complexity.
Goal setting has a smaller effect on highly complex task compared to simpler task.
Locke and Latham found that the focus on the goal interfered with acquiring the
knowledge to perform the task.
Satisfaction - Exceeding the goal provides increasing satisfaction as the positive discrepancy
grows, and not reaching the goal creates increasing dissatisfaction as the negative discrepancy
grows.
To summarize the theory of goal setting; Goal Mechanisms, Moderators, and Satisfaction
influence the effectiveness of goals and the resulting performance. This theory focuses on
motivation in a work setting. Locke and Latham concluded that “the effects of goal setting are
very reliable”.
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