Course: Mass Media and Society
by
Agbo, Ene Faith
Lecturer, Department of Mass Communication,
University of Calabar.
Introduction
The media no doubt is an integral part of the society. Every society makes
use of the media which in turn impacts communication on a larger scale. The
growing number of media organizations across the globe indicates the place and
role these organizations play in the effective functioning of the world.
Media end products consumed by the audience do not just come into
existence as they are created by professionals to meet the needs, yearnings and
aspirations of the audience. Media organizations engage the services of
professionals who create products either as books or news programmes meant for
their various audiences. The functioning of media organizations follows laid down
structure in terms of norms and practices of media professionals. This include but
not limited to; how professionals create media products, the personal and social
networks the media professionals cultivate and the ways the organizational
structure of media outlets shape the methods of media work.
It is worthy to note that media professionals do not just create products as
they please, they do not make these products under circumstance chosen by them
but under circumstances directly created, laid down and transmitted from the past.
In essence, media products are not just disseminated to the audience directly from
the originator but these products must go through various stages of production
where decisions are made by different players hence the presence of some
limitations be it economic or political.
Economic Constraints
Every media organization irrespective of its capacity in terms of services or
man power requires and depends on funds to sail smoothly on a daily basis.
Revenue generation comes to play for the sustenance of media organizations be it
privately owned or government owned. The situation is most critical for privately
owned media as they depend greatly on the marketing and sale of their products to
generate revenue. Government run media organizations enjoys the benevolence of
government through funding which serve as running cost hence are with less
implication for its sustenance.
The survival or sustenance of media organizations is dependent on the
economic viability and capacity. To get a clear perspective on media industries, one
must understand what motivates these organizations, their market functionality and
the stress executives have to go through to make choices about the ways their
companies will be operated, the actions they will embark on, and the quality of
programs to disseminate and sell to their audience. The establishment of media
organizations is cumbersome like any other organization but requires the
engagement of a number of personnel even as a start up to meet the division of
labour nature of the industry. It also requires capital to purchase equipment for
efficiency and effective production.
Some companies after establishment stay
afloat and survive in the market, while some that were once highly successful,
become redundant and some are never successful and disappear.(Picard, 2011)
Decision making in the creation of media products is one of the processes of
production that requires professionalism at its peak! For instance, in television,
there are script writers, programme producers, directors, whose duties are
synchronized to achieve the final goal of selling quality programmes to its
audience. The professionals who create and select programmes for programming,
i.e scheduling, do so by deciding which programme are slated for prime-time and
other time belts. Those that are selected for prime-time are the ones with high
ratings. These programmes are scheduled to air within the times most television
viewers turn in. For example on most TV stations in Nigeria, 6:45pm to 9pm are
considered prime-time because it is usually a time most persons are in their houses
after their daily endeavours. These persons usually engage in watching
programmes like soap operas, sitcoms, news etc. A producer or writer of a
television program at this juncture must create and package his or her program to
attract a great number of audience hence the similarities of format or content of
most television programmes.
The process of creating media products is not an easy terrain as it could generate
tension between economic constraints and programmers, producers, writers etc.
Croteau et al states that the selection of media programs rests on key players in the
industry who must make decisions that are in tandem with the revenue generation
policy of their organization (122) This is to say that the real economic cost of
operating media organizations lies with these key players. The aforementioned
tension could be between programmers and writers where writers are expected to
present commercially viable scripts, likewise, programmers are required to
schedule programs with high ratings especially those lined up for prime-time. As a
result, professionals must “gauge” the mood of the audience and “appeal” of
programs to produce and identify shows that will meet profit requirements.
As highlighted by Picard, there are four major categories of economic forces that
affect operations and choices of managers in media firms: market forces, cost
forces, regulatory forces, and barriers to entry and mobility. He further explains
thus:
Market forces are external forces based upon structures and choices in the
marketplace. Cost forces are internal pressures based upon the operating
expenses of firms. Regulatory forces represent the legal, political, and
self-regulatory forces that constrain and direct operations of media firms.
Barriers represent factors that make it difficult for new firms to enter and
successfully compete in a market.(72)
In summary, the economic viability of a media organization is dependent on the
decision making of key players in the creation and selection of its programs. This
act of decision making is a dicey one such that there are no simple formulas to
select which shows will appeal to the audience and which is profitable through
placement of advert particularly those meant for prime-time belts. This is so
because audience taste is dynamic and unpredictable hence the need for strategic
and effective decision making at various stages of production. A script writer be it
for radio or television must be sensitive to the yearnings of the audience through
effective research by inculcating contents that appeal to the audience and
invariably commercially viable. So much is at stake with content creators for
media organizations as they are the custodians of what can make or mar the
existence of these organizations hence the need to demonstrate creativity and
implementation prowess for the successful delivery of media products. In the
nutshell, economic constraints are overcomed by media professionals by adopting
certain rules or conventions to smooth-out and routinize the decision-making
process. To make things easier, these professionals decide to create programs that
look alike and select those that are currently popular.
Political Constraints
There are certain political forces like government regulations that determine
how media organizations operate. However, media organizations sometimes
ignore, reinterpret, challenge or preempt these regulations. No integral institution
such as the media can operate without regulations and these regulations sometimes
do not augur well with practitioners. In Nigeria, the National Broadcasting
Commission, NBC is a government regulatory body that covers broadcast media
organizations’ operations. There is also the Film Censorship Board which regulates
the movies industry in Nigeria.
In as much as regulations exist, media organizations have a way of
challenging regulations that do not sit well with it! For instance, the US 1990
Children’s Television Act required TV stations to include educational television in
their Saturday morning lineups but this law left a good deal of “interpretation” of
the meaning of “educational” programming. At this juncture broadcasters were
willing to define almost all programmes as educational including cartoons!
(Croteau et al 2003) Media organizations can also use legal strategy to override
government regulations by using supportive politicians and threatening opponents
in an effort to win legislation regarding regulations against the industry. Program
age rating is another way media organizations respond to political constraints of
government regulations. Media creators have purposeful program ratings and
warning labels in films and music videos to avoid direct government regulators.
In summary, just as economic constraints do not fully determine the actions
of media professionals, media organizations are passively complaint in the face of
political constraints. Practitioners continue to operate effectively within specific
constraints by making decisions that will keep them afloat, devoid of issues
associated with government regulations.
How Media Work is Organized
Media professionals comprise of various personnel with distinct duties
aimed to achieve the same objective of producing and distributing media products
be it news, music or films. For every media product in existence, more than one
person was involved even if it is a solo musician, there must be someone else other
than the singer who mixes the sound or creates the album art or markets the final
work! Media organization employs the expertise of professionals who according to
their duties and skills must work as a team and not as an individual.
Team work in the media entails professionals being involved in the creation
and production of programs using already existing methods. This is what is
referred to as “doing things the conventional way” because daily media activities
are routinized. This makes the identification of programs easy. For example, when
a television program shows an anchor or two anchors sitting behind a counter desk
in a studio, that program is most certainly a news broadcast even if different
anchors take the news. It is therefore important to ascertain how these conventions
came about.
News Routines
To get a clearer perspective of news routine, it is imperative to define what is
News in the first instance? News in lay terms is the timely report of events.
Different events happen on a daily basis at different locations and at different
times, sometimes two or three events can take place simultaneously but at different
locations. Hence reporting all events in situations like this is difficult and that is
why media organizations particularly those that deliver News as its principal
program employs the services of reporters, sometimes referred to as journalists or
newsmen.
With a myriad of events happening on a daily basis, the onus thus lies on
media organizations to decide which event is newsworthy. Some of the attributes or
determining factors for news is proximity, timeliness, impact, prominence, number
etc The job of news professionals appear more tasking than that of other
professionals as they have to first make sense or define what they should consider
as news, edit it and file it to meet deadline. The situation is more tasking for those
working in the print media. Newspaper news staffs have to generate enough copy
to fill up the pages in the papers regardless of what did or did not happen that day.
Whether it is for newspapers, television and radio, meeting deadline is paramount
to achieving the set target of delivering news to the audience but it requires careful
packaging particularly for broadcast media whose contents are transient hence the
pressure involved in packaging newscasts. These pressures as asserted by Khan
and Haider emanates from the harassment from within and outside the organization
which in turn influences media content. (2) Media all over the world works
under some pressure that can be named as internal and external influences;
this applicable globally irrespective of the type of media organization. (Shoemaker
and Reese, 1996) The media industry therefore engages the services of
professionals who can work under tight schedule to meet up with competition.
News routines typically begins in the newsroom which is the engine room
for daily preparation of news items and some of the professionals involved in these
activities include reporters, proofreaders, editor in chief/editors, news anchors or
readers etc Reporters are expected be in the field most times sourcing or “nosing”
for news. They are the principal personnel to effective news gathering by attending
or covering events and reporting same to their media organizations. There is a
group of media professional who are rarely mentioned and they are called
stringers. They work in tandem with news reporters as informants in hard-to reach
locations like rural areas. They are not pay rolled staff of media organizations yet
they play an integral role in the gathering and reportage of news. They are paid
stipends based on their effort.
In order to source and report news effectively, media organizations adopt
conventional means by assigning reporters as bureau chief in locations deemed
important to it. This staffs sometimes are situated in places other than the physical
address of their organization and with the use of ICT, their stories are filed in.
Media organizations also establish what is known as “beats” at prominent
institutions like the court, police, university, government house, house of assembly
etc Reporters from various organizations sometimes converge on daily basis at the
aforementioned institutions to get current information which may be in form of
press releases, public announcements, press conferences etc . For specialized beats
like sports, business, arts or entertainment, reporters are expected to file in stories
on a daily basis and they do so by establishing relationships with key players in
these beats to guarantee regular supply of news. In essence, the job of a news
reporter is routine based where he or she schedules daily activities around the
institutions they are covering. We can see that before any event happens on a given
day except for breaking news items, news organizations have already decided
about where they intend to dig for news. Due to the deadline nature of news
particularly the broadcast media, a lot of editing has to be done to decide which
story is news worthy even with the print media that may not publish on daily basis.
Selecting Front-Page Stories
Print media organizations which include newspaper and magazine
particularly those that centers on only News, engage in a more cumbersome
production. As reporters write their stories, newspaper editor must decide which
stories to feature on the front page. Such decisions are not done in haste and
deliberation takes place during what is known as editorial conference.
The editor has to make critical judgment of which story is timely, its impact
on the community and the prominence of the participants of the event. This critical
process of selecting front-page stories brings us to the concept of “gate keeping” In
essence, the news editor is a key player that determines newsworthiness and
determines how the final print will turn out and all these are evaluated during
editorial conference. The managing editor chooses which story should grace the
front page to sell the organization and most times these front-page stories begin as
only headlines or a brief introduction while the full story is inside the paper. This
will encourage the reader to go through other pages just to get to the juicy one
flashed on the front page. The first page of the newspaper is the selling point of a
newspaper hence it must be designed and presented professionally to attract a
reader’s attention. This is why editors dedicate much energy in deciding which
stories and elements should be placed on the most prized page of their publication.
(McQuail, 2010). The use of gate keeping concept to select front page stories leads
the editor to apply objectivity in the entire production of his publication.
Objectivity
The issue of objectivity in the media profession is mostly synonymous with
News coverage and reporting. It is imperative for aspiring media professionals to
understand the concept of objectivity before venturing into the field. At a glance,
objectivity is seen as a set of practices or conventions that the professional
journalist is trained to follow. Objectivity in other words is the application of the
principles of impartiality, fairness and truthfulness in the sourcing, packaging and
dissemination of news. Okunna puts it thus: “objectivity requires that journalists in
reporting the news, keep themselves out of their report by not injecting their
emotion and personal opinions into their news stories”. (Okunna 2003).
Accordingly Ayodele asserts that objective news-reporting is that which is devoid
of inferences, judgment and slanting.(106) A journalist in the course of sourcing
and writing news stories must avail himself or herself with the following 6 key
practices in objective journalism and they are:
1.
Maintaining political neutrality
2.
Observing prevailing standards of decency and good taste.
3.
Using documentary reporting practices, which rely on physical
evidence.
4.
Using standardized formats to package the news.
5.
Training reporters as generalists instead of specialists.
6.
Using editorial review to enforce these methods.
In summary, objectivity in journalism is reporting facts and letting the
audience interpret stories on their own. For example, if a reporter is to write a story
about a notorious criminal who belong to an ethnic group the reporter has
reservations about. The reporter according to the rules of objectivity should not
inject how he feels about the criminal whether based on the individual’s ethnic
affiliation or the crime(s) committed. The reporter should simply report the events
of the story and that is all!
Irrespective of the unifying method of objectivity in journalism, there is a
political consequence to this practice. Since news is routinized, where journalists’
daily activities are centered around potential institutions to get news (court,
governor’s office, police, house of assembly, university etc), the question of how
objective are news stories emanating from these institutions comes to light. Some
news items are handed down to reporters in form of press releases by information
officers of these institutions hence in this situation, objectivity does not apply
because the news is predetermined. In this regard, the views of those in power is
highlighted, they are given visibility than those outside the centres of power. For
instance, what a Governor of a state says about a community project takes
prominence than what the end users of the project say. There may even be
conflicting reports and at the end, the governor’s opinion appears to be the
objective news.
Occupational Roles and Professional Socialization
No matter the role of a media professional, be it a filmmaker, newscaster,
journalists, script writer, columnist, photographer, book publisher/author, the duties
of these professionals are not automatic. One may think that media professionals
are naturally endowed or talented to do the job. Maybe some professionals
inherently but they must learn the ropes of the job through socialization with their
counterpart. Roles are however not static for media professionals as certain
situation may come up that require a professional to change role temporarily or
permanently. A news reporter can also function as a newscaster or even as a
program anchor. This substituting role can occur either due to inadequate personnel
or an emergency situation which requires prompt action.
Just as sociological roles are not static, the role of a media professional is
also dynamic. The expectation of a social group of an individual role is applicable
to the way professionals socialize among their peers. With frequent interaction
with his or her counterpart, a media practitioner learns new skills and adapts to
changing roles according to the situation in the environment. (Croteau et al 2003)
Consequently, every media professional must be proactive to learn more than one
skill in the line of his or her job as one cannot determine when the added skill will
become handy and save the day as well as the job of the professional.
Photography
There are two styles of photography in the media profession and they are:
news photography and advertising photography. The professionals in this field
have different expectations based on their role either as a news photographer or
rather a photojournalists or Ad photographer. The way a news photo is captured is
different from that of an Ad photo.
Being a photographer in the media industry is more than having the
technical knowledge of photography equipment. A photojournalists or Ad
photographer must learn how to see images differently from non-professional
persons as this is their platform to cover and report events using images. As it is
said, “a picture speaks a thousand word” a newly engaged photographer must learn
to see images in ways that are in line with their professional and organizational
roles.
A photojournalist must understand the kind of news his organization features
and more importantly be part of the photo selection process. The photojournalist
interchangeably takes up the role of a photo-editor. He or she takes several photos
at an event, then with the guidance of the editor selects the most suitable photo that
captures the event. In essence, as the photojournalist is part of the photo selection
process with the photo-editor, he or she gets to know the kind of photographs to
take at subsequent events. However, there are freelance photojournalists that
capture images and sell to publishing houses hence they may not be part of the
physical photo selection process but are conversant with the kind of images
needed.
In spite of being an encompassing genre in the media industry, photography
and photojournalism it is somehow “treated” as invisible. This position is further
buttressed by Gynnild et al while quoting Deuze and Witschge:
Not
only
are photographers and photojournalist contractual working
arrangements of newsroom colleagues under-represented in discussions
of
the
profession
(about itself) and, subsequently, in surveys and
ethnographies of news organizations, but also the myriad of additional
functions in the newsroom ranging from technical support staff, copy
editors, ombudsmen and reader representatives, designers, producers, and
programmers are often left out of the conversation. (2017,pp.7)
This is to state that the job of photographers is highly skilled and integral to the
smooth running of the media industry, yet they are relegated to the background. It
is imperative to state that not everyone can be a photojournalist and Ad
photographer even if they can operate a photo camera.
Capturing images at events is not a simple task. However a photojournalist through
socializing with his counterpart will learn to anticipate action and plan shots in
advance. For example, taking shots at a press conference involves setting up the
camera or being in a close range position to capture the principal news maker. For
an event done in an open and spacious venue like the Nigeria Independence Day
celebration at a stadium, the photographer should know what kind of cameras and
equipment to take like the tripod, different lens to zoom to capture from a far
distance etc. Some events are spontaneous and need the extra attention of the
photographer in order to capture defining moments! In doing his job, the
photojournalist is expected to get clear and concise photos, void of special effects
as obtainable in Ad photography.
Things are done a little different when it comes to Ad photography. The
practice and set norms in Ad Photography is different from that of
photojournalism. The photographer leaves nothing to chance as he or she is
responsible for the final outcome of the image and does so with the direction of art
directors and representatives of the advertisers. The photographer must use his
creative skills to create compelling stories both at the point of taking the shots and
final editing. Ad photography is staged hence the need to cover all details from
setting, props and lighting. Although, photography in advertising is staged, the end
product must reflect actions in natural form.
Photographers, then, are not all the same. They work in different kinds of
organizations that place different demands on them. The photojournalists is
expected to capture standard images to tally with news stories while the Ad
photographer follows the lead of the art director to take pictures that are
pre-scripted by the advertiser. Much of Ad photography is reduced to technical
work while that of the news photographer is done based on what is assigned to him
or her, thereby leaving not much room for the photographer’s independent
creativity as obtained in Ad photography.
Book Publishing
Books are published on a wide range of subjects, packaged in various
formats, sold in different settings and bought by many types of readers. Books are
media products that have existed overtime hence its increasing value. Information
stored in books is in permanent form and is considered one of the most vital media
consumable. The global book publishing industry accounts for over $100 billion of
annual revenue, or about 15% of the total media industry. (Wischenbart,2012).
There are different kinds of publishing firms, from large commercial houses
that sign prominent authors to those who pay authors in advance for their works as
well as small publishers that produce scholarly materials. All publishers have to go
through the process of the selection of manuscripts which is usually cumbersome,
only to select few ones with profit potential especially for works that end up as
films, drama etc There are two kinds of scripts submitted to publishers and they are
solicited and unsolicited manuscripts. The former being scripts created based on
request like manuscripts for journals while the latter are scripts sent to publisher
without being requested for by publishers. Examples of such manuscripts are
literary works however some publishers may solicit for books that can be
reproduced into movies/films.
Book Editors sometimes work as acquisition editors and they solicit,
evaluate and sign manuscripts. They work with those known as literary agents.
These agents collect unsolicited manuscripts from authors and then hand it over to
acquisition editors who will in turn present such manuscripts to the publisher.
There are also book sellers who are key decision makers in the book publishing
industry. Just as publishers follow a set of rules to determine which book gets
published, booksellers also follow set rules to decide which book to sell.
Booksellers make their choice on which book to sell based on past sales of works
of authors through reviews and publisher’s catalogue’s description, the genre or
subject matter. They also take into cognizance book quality, readers taste and
habits, book price, publisher’s budget or author’s plan to promote his works among
other consideration. Some booksellers focus greatly on customers taste and may
decide to sell only books by local authors or otherwise. The internet has brought
further development in the book publishing industry in the form of on-line
publishing where no physical books are produced. The ebook is created by the
author and uploaded to a website from where it can be downloaded and read by
anyone. Most authors employ niche marketing online to sell more books by
engaging with their readers online. (Rinzler, 2010).
Another aspect of book publishing that is of great importance is Academic or
Scholarly Publishing. This aspect of publishing works through similar process of
socialization as discussed about photography. Authors through socializing with
their counterpart are able to get visibility by collaborating with them. They form
pools of academic topics/research and send it for publishing in form of journals,
books, articles etc. Editors are willing to solicit manuscripts from authors that they
are familiar with hence the need for effective socialization and collaboration
among authors. Scholarly publishing however it is not meant for profitability but as
a general rule, scholarly books need to be able to sell enough copies to pay for the
cost of production and meet the criteria for scholarly quality.
New Form of Media-the Internet
The era of the internet has brought a reinforcement of what traditional media
stands for. With the tap of a key on a computer keyboard and internet services,
anyone can have access to tons of information within the shortest time. This new
form of media at inception appeared as a threat to traditional media of newspapers,
TV and Radio but in the long run, it has come to boost the existence of main
stream media.
Online radio, TV and newspapers have closed the gap of physical access to
these forms of medium. One does not necessarily have to visit the newspaper
vendor stand to buy the dailies, news stories are posted online daily by various
newspaper organizations likewise the broadcast media. Traditional Media
organizations have social media handles to promote their organizations and content
hence creating a symbiotic relationship with the internet.
Friedman and Friedman describe the internet as a hub for global
communication, collaboration, community, creativity, and convergence. (2008) The
dividend of this new form of media is encompassing to functioning of media
professionals and existence of media organizations in contemporary times. One of
the drawbacks of the internet is its non-regulatory, non-censored feature. Anyone
can post whatever they want on the internet and this has given rise to the
dissemination of fake news which invariably affects the society negatively. The
onus is now on the user to understand the norms of accessing the internet by
analysing information flow and how to identify authentic information. Various
groups are on the internet including news oriented ones and these group have
norms on how to behave, what to post and sanctions violators of these rules. In
essence the cyberspace can either boost or mar the works of media organizations
and professionals as it depends on following the set conventions of using this form
of new media.
Conclusion
The media industry is one with many opportunities to show case talents and
develop potential right from the entry level even while undertaking qualifying
studies. The industry avails professionals, the platform to reinvent themselves to
adapt to the dynamism of mass communication. The advent of the internet has
open up more option of expression to a global audience through social media,
online newspapers and magazines, live streaming of programs etc
A student of mass communication can look forward to a fulfilling career
either as public relations manager or a journalist to uphold the responsibility of the
media as the fourth estate of the realm. Much is expected of the 21st century media
professionals and organization as there is unending technological advancement
available to boost efficiency in information dissemination. The media industry is
one that cannot be replaced totally with artificial intelligence as envisaged in the
nearest future because it is people oriented. The reporter needs to ask the right
questions and get the right answers from people. That symbiotic relationship as
humans cannot be replaced totally. Therefore, regular training and re-training of
practitioners should remain a priority in the industry.
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