Review of Relate Literature and Studies
Foreign Literature & Studies
The field of analytical chemistry is constantly evolving, and analytical chemists face
numerous challenges in their work. One of the most significant challenges is the need for
constant innovation in pre-treatment procedures and instrumental configurations to ensure
reliable, true, and reproducible information. Analytical chemists must also develop and
validate new materials, strategies, and procedures to meet the demand for rapid, sensitive,
selective, and eco-friendly methods. Furthermore, they must consider the regularly updated
international guidelines while dealing with these challenges. Analytical chemistry faces
forthcoming challenges and new goals to be achieved in the future, leading to the
development of more performing devices to meet the growing and often diverse needs of
analytical chemists (Merone et al., 2020). Analytical chemists also face the challenge of
developing new technology and innovations as security measures (Vuk, n.d.).
In addition, political uncertainties, violent situations, and ongoing changes pose current
challenges for analytical chemists in their work (Vuk, n.d.). Although not mentioned in this
review, the current challenges faced by analytical chemists are not limited to what is reported
here (Ju, 2013). The components of the genome can provide vital information about possible
genetic risks of environmental pollutants. However, chemical changes within the human
genome are a challenge because little is known about its components. Additionally, the
components of the genome can reveal therapies for certain epigenetic markers. Finally,
interdisciplinary challenges are faced by chemical biologists in their field of work (Murray,
2023). Overall, it is evident that analytical chemistry can be a challenging profession, and
analytical chemists must continually adapt to new challenges to ensure that they provide
reliable and accurate results.
Challenges in science have always existed and will continue to arise as the field evolves and
expands. As science has exerted an enormous influence on the world over the past few
hundred years, challenges have evolved alongside it. In the field of modern chemistry,
interlinking theoretical knowledge and experimental approaches, implementing sustainability
principles, defining science from a philosophical perspective, instigating interdisciplinary
research, and promoting inspiring education are all critical challenges that must be addressed
(Murray, 2023). The demand for fresh innovation and rapid evolution has increased over
time, resulting in speedy metamorphosis of novel ideas but also posing a steep cost to
pharmaceutical companies and research organizations (Ju, 2013).
In recent years, significant innovations and techniques have been developed in the field of
analytical chemistry to improve accuracy, sensitivity, and speed of analysis. One of the major
innovations in analytical chemistry is the use of advanced instruments such as mass
spectrometry, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, inductively coupled plasma, gas
chromatography, High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and more recently
Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC). (Murray, 2013)
In the study “Determination of organophosphorus flame retardants in fish by freezing-lipid
precipitation, solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry” by Liu et
al. (2017), an analytical method has been developed to measure 12 organophosphorus flame
retardants (PFRs) in fish tissue samples. Methanol was found to be a more effective solvent
than acetonitrile, and purification followed by Z-Sep and C18 dispersant. Quantification was
performed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and the recovery, precision, and
method detection limits (MDLs) were verified by spiking experiments. The results
demonstrated that the proposed method is highly effective for analyzing PFRs in fish
samples.
Another study entitled “Evidence of hydrothermal fluid migration pathways in pores and
microfractures based on nuclear magnetic resonance and electron microscopic analyses from
the Southwest Indian Ridge” by Li et al. (2022) They showed that multiple measurement
techniques could characterize the pores of rocks and the mineral fraction surrounding these
pores. NMR was used to measure the porosity of fresh basalt, altered basalt, massive sulfide,
and sulfide chimneys obtained from the Southwest Indian Ridge. Scanning electron
microscopy and polarizing light microscope images showed that the pores of altered basalts
are more developed than those of fresh basalts, and metallic minerals such as pyrite were
found to be precipitated in these pores. Altered basalt is closely related to the formation of
massive sulfide deposits and is an important ore-prospecting indicator.
On the other hand, in the study conducted by Wang et al. (2023) entitled “Quantification of
underivatized amino acids in solid beverages using high-performance liquid chromatography
and a potentiometric detector”, combined HPLC-potentiometric method was explored for
simultaneous quantification of amino acids in solid beverages without prior derivatization.
The potentiometric detector consisted of a copper (II)-selective electrode and had a minimum
lifetime of one month. The measurement results were in good agreement with those obtained
by the HPLC-mass spectrometry, suggesting it is a potential option for quantifying AAs.
Also, in a study entitled “Analysis of free amino acids with unified chromatography-mass
spectrometry—application to food supplements” by Raimbault et al. (2019) Amino acids are
analyzed in improved method using unified chromatography with a wide elution gradient
starting with SFC and ending with HPLC. The mobile phase composition was carefully
adjusted to permit the elution of 21 natural amino acids with good peak shapes. Detection
was achieved with ESI(+)-MS. The method was applied to the quantitation of amino acids in
food supplements. A standard addition method was examined for sensitivity, linearity,
repeatability and intermediate precision.
Ruckriem et al. (2014) in their study “Inverse gas chromatography (IGC) as a tool for an
energetic characterisation of porous materials” surface properties of controlled pore glass,
silica gel and ordered mesoporous silica SBA-15 were investigated by inverse gas
chromatography. The van Deemter equation was used to determine the optimum carrier gas
flow rate. The dispersive part of surface energy, free energy of adsorption, acceptor–donor
properties and heat of adsorption were determined from IGC experiments. Different surface
functional groups had an influence on dispersive interactions with n-alkanes and specific
interactions with polar molecules.
These instruments and innovations have made it possible to detect and quantify even the
smallest amounts of substances in complex samples, which has greatly improved analytical
chemistry's ability to identify unknown compounds and solve complex analytical problems.
Local Literature & Studies
Analytical chemistry plays a crucial role in the development and progress of various sectors
such as industries, agriculture, healthcare, and environmental science. However, despite its
importance, the field of analytical chemistry in the Philippines faces a number of
contemporary problems. One of the significant problems is the lack of funding, which leads
to inadequate resources for research and development. This lack of financial support makes it
difficult for analytical chemists in the Philippines to acquire access to modern and more
advanced equipment. As a result, the quality and scope of research suffer as compared to
other developed countries.
Another challenge is the shortage of skilled workforce in analytical chemistry. This is due to
the limited number of schools offering quality analytical chemistry education in the
Philippines. Additionally, many graduates opt to work abroad or in other sectors due to the
low salaries and lack of career opportunities. According to Sevilla & Binag (n.d.) in their
journal “The Teaching of Analytical Chemistry in the Philippines”, Analytical chemistry has
undergone a number of changes during the past decades. However, the teaching of
analytical chemistry in Philippine colleges and universities has not coped up with the
developments in this branch of chemistry. A survey of the curriculum for analytical chemistry
in sixteen major Philippine universities offering an undergraduate degree in chemistry
revealed that the course is still being taught in the traditional manner. Almost all of the
universities followed the traditional division and nomenclature for the courses. Even though
the instrumental methods have been incorporated in the curriculum, a major part of the course
is still devoted to the classical methods of chemical analysis. Very few universities are
equipped to provide an adequate training on the instrumental methods.
Though this field seems stagnant, there are still efforts for a development in the Philippines.
In the study “Development of experiments in analytical chemistry using alternative
laboratory glassware and readily available reagents” by Fuentes and Toretta (n.d.), it aimed to
modify experiments in Analytical Chemistry using alternative laboratory glassware and
readily available reagents. The results of the modified experiments did not differ significantly
compared to the results obtained using the standard method. Statistical analysis, specifically
F-test, further established that the variances of the two methods are the same. T-test showed
that there was no significant difference between the average results of the standard and that of
the modified experiments. The modified method is a feasible substitute for the standard
method and could be used for the analysis of real samples. Such studies are common as
schools and establishments are often lacked in funding and availability of laboratory
equipment are often challenged the field in the locality. Another study entitled “Development
and Evaluation of Context-Based Laboratory Activities in Chemistry Using Low-cost Kits for
Junior Public High School” by Sagcal et al. (2017), they developed and validated contextbased laboratory activities and low-cost kits for chemistry to improve the practical and
laboratory skills of Grade-10 students in a junior public high school. The materials were
assessed and quantified by teacher and student respondents using descriptive and quasiexperimental methods. A standardized multiple-choice pre-test and post-test were used to
measure students’ mean gain performances. Data showed that both the teacher and student
respondents evaluated the materials as effective and highly acceptable. Mean gain
performance in chemistry increased significantly in the experimental group compared to the
control group, with Hake’s mean gain scores of 0.63 and 0.25 respectively. The mean scores
and levels of mastery of students in the experimental group who used these materials were
also significantly higher than those in the control group. These kinds of study are also often
done to further increase the skill and competency of students who will be the future of the
field.
Other than that, the Philippines is known for its geography and due to this agriculture
constitute most of its economy. In this relation, most researches and studies by local scientists
or chemists mainly involved the development of technology, instrumentation, and equipment
used in agricultural sector which greatly limits the development of other sectors. Though it is
indeed the case, these development in agricultural sector still contributes to the field of
Analytical Chemistry, such studies involve;
1. Analysis of Pesticides; Chemicals called pesticides are used to control the quantity
and quality of crops by getting rid of pests, but they are exceedingly dangerous to the
environment and pose a risk to human health. High-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography (GC), which are usually paired
with mass spectrometry (MS), are used to evaluate pesticides. You can employ a
variety of extraction techniques, including GC-MS and pressurized liquid extraction
(PLE). Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and Soxhlet extraction are less effective
preparation techniques than PLE. Three regularly grown tuber crops were examined
for 150 pesticide residues using PLE GC-MS, which performed better than traditional
methods and met regulatory requirements.
2. Determination of toxic metals and nutrients in soil; Toxic metal pollution is a major
issue in agriculture. Metals can attach to the functional groups of many proteins and
other biological components, changing their chemistry and interfering with their
normal function. High amounts of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and
mercury (Hg) exposure can result in serious health concerns. Iron (Fe), boron (B), and
copper (Cu) are necessary micronutrients for plant growth. ICP-MS, ICP-OES, and
atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) are the most often used techniques for
analyzing such metals. Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is an intriguing
atomic spectroscopy technology that is rapidly evolving. A high-powered laser
focuses on a small area of the sample, heating and ionizing materials on the surface to
produce plasma.
3. Analysis of fungal contaminations in crops; Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is a quick and
non-destructive technology used in agriculture to evaluate the quality of fruits and
vegetables. It is also used to detect fungal contamination in crops, such as mycotoxins
(which filamentous fungi create). Mycotoxins modify crop carbohydrate and protein
composition, which can be examined by evaluating differences in the spectral bands
900-1200 cm-1 and 1200-1750 cm-1. Analytical chemistry can provide a diverse set
of techniques appropriate for a variety of substrates and applications. Infrared (IR)
spectroscopy is a quick and non-destructive technology used in agriculture to evaluate
the quality of fruits and vegetables. It is also used to detect fungal contamination in
crops, such as mycotoxins (which filamentous fungi create). Mycotoxins disrupt
glucose metabolism (Tommasonne, 2021).
Analysis of Pesticides
Pesticide Residue Analysis of the Isolated And Formulated Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) from
Overripe Mango (mangifera indica,linn. Anacardiceae)
The purpose of this study was to examine the amount of Vitamin C and the significant
difference in the Vitamin C content of designed syrup and commercial product using
pesticide residue analysis of isolated ascorbic acid from overripe mango (Mangifera indica).
Overripe mangoes were taken from Davao City's Bankerohan public market then extracted
and isolated. The isolate contained 23 to 24 milligrams of Vitamin C per milliliter. Pesticide
residues were found in no Vitamin C samples tested using the GLC technique. The vitamin C
concentration of the prepared syrup was 99.47%, and the granular powder was 100.21%,
above the USP limit of 99.5 to 100.5%.
When the vitamin C concentration of commercial and designed vitamin C syrups was
compared, there was a significant difference of 2.439. (Ribo et al., 2013)
Extent, Methods and Determining Factors of Pesticide Application in Irrigated Rice Areas of
the Philippines
This study was done in thirty irrigated rice fields in the Philippines to assess the volume and
frequency of pesticide application, as well as the active components of pesticides. A
questionnaire was used to collect information about farmers' usage of herbicides to control
birds, rats, golden apple snails (GAS), weeds, and fungal diseases. The majority of farmers
did not use pesticides to prevent perceived bird and rat damage in their rice fields, but instead
used chemicals to manage GAS and weeds that damaged or competed with rice. Molluscicide
use was more common in Bicol areas with temperature and soil features that support water
ponding, whereas herbicide application can be ascribed to crop establishment via direct
planting. Butachlor, niclosamide, and methaldehyde are the most commonly utilized active
components. They are somewhat dangerous and unlikely to cause harm (Magahud &
Dimaano, 2015).
Determination of toxic metals and nutrients in soil
Analysis of the Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil in Bantay, Ilocos Sur
The study was conducted to gauge the physical and chemical properties of the soil found in
Bantay, Ilocos Sur. Results showed that the soil has a dark color and saturated chroma, a
sandy clay loam texture, a relatively high percentage of sand, an adequate amount of silt, and
a low percentage of clay, and is slightly acidic. It also has a small amount of chloride, an
adequate amount of calcium, a high amount of iron, a low amount of aluminum, and a very
low ppm ammonia nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen. These results indicate that the soil is efficient
for plants that are acid tolerant (Astom, 2020).
Heavy Metals Concentration of Roadside Soil and Plants in Tuguegarao City, Cagayan
Valley, Philippines
The study looked into the concentration of heavy metals in roadside soil and plants in
Tuguegarao City. Six locations were chosen, ranging from Rizal Street (sites 1-3) to the
Cagayan River (sites 4-6). A Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer was used to
analyze Lead, Cadmium, Copper, and Zinc. Except for Cu, the results showed that the trace
metal profiles declined as one moved away from the metropolitan area. Heavy metal
concentrations in soils and plants are in decreasing order of concentration: Cu > Zn > Pb >
Cd. Te levels of the metals are higher than in control samples, indicating that these metals
accumulate in the soil and are then transferred to plants growing nearby (Chua & Capili,
2017)
Analysis of fungal contaminations in crops