Plato. Timaeus, translated by Benjamin Jowett.
New York, C. Scribner's Sons 1871
Plato. Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vol. 9
translated by W.R.M. Lamb. Cambridge, MA,
Harvard University Press; London, William
Heinemann Ltd. 1925.
Plato. Platonis Opera, ed. John Burnet. Oxford
University Press. 1903.
[17a]
Socrates.
One, two, three; but where, my dear Timaeus,
is the fourth of those who were yesterday my
guests and are to be my entertainers to-day?
[17a]
Socrates
One, two, three,—but where, my dear Timaeus,
is the fourth1 of our guests of yesterday, our
hosts of today?
[17α]
Σωκράτης
εἷς, δύο, τρεῖς: ὁ δὲ δὴ τέταρτος ἡμῖν, ὦ φίλε
Τίμαιε, ποῦ τῶν χθὲς μὲν δαιτυμόνων, τὰ νῦν
δὲ ἑστιατόρων;
Timaeus.
He has been taken ill, Socrates; for he would
not willingly have been absent from this
gathering.
Timaeus
Some sickness has befallen him, Socrates; for
he would never have stayed away from our
gathering of his own free will.
Τίμαιος
ἀσθένειά τις αὐτῷ συνέπεσεν, ὦ Σώκρατες: οὐ
γὰρ ἂν ἑκὼν τῆσδε ἀπελείπετο τῆς συνουσίας.
Soc.
Then, if he is not coming, you and the two
others must supply his place.
Socrates
Then the task of filling the place of the absent
one falls upon you and our friends here, does it
not?
Σωκράτης
οὐκοῦν σὸν τῶνδέ τε ἔργον καὶ τὸ ὑπὲρ τοῦ
ἀπόντος ἀναπληροῦν μέρος; [17β]
Tim.
Certainly, and we will do all that we can; [17b]
having been handsomely entertained by you
yesterday, those of us who remain should be
only too glad to return your hospitality.
Timaeus
Undoubtedly, and we shall do our best not to
come short; [17b] for indeed it would not be at
all right, after the splendid hospitality we
received from you yesterday, if we—that is,
those who are left of us—failed to entertain
you cordially in return.
Τίμαιος
πάνυ μὲν οὖν, καὶ κατὰ δύναμίν γε οὐδὲν
ἐλλείψομεν: οὐδὲ γὰρ ἂν εἴη δίκαιον, χθὲς ὑπὸ
σοῦ ξενισθέντας οἷς ἦν πρέπον ξενίοις, μὴ οὐ
προθύμως σὲ τοὺς λοιποὺς ἡμῶν ἀνταφεστιᾶν.
Soc.
Do you remember what were the points of
Socrates
Well, then, do you remember the extent and
Σωκράτης
ἆρ᾽ οὖν μέμνησθε ὅσα ὑμῖν καὶ περὶ ὧν
1 This fourth guest cannot be identified. Some have supposed that Plato himself is intended.
which I required you to speak?
character of the subjects which I proposed for
your discussion?
ἐπέταξα εἰπεῖν;
Tim.
We remember some of them, and you will be
here to remind us of anything which we have
forgotten: or rather, if we are not troubling you,
will you briefly recapitulate the whole, and
then the particulars will be more firmly fixed
in our memories? [17c]
Timaeus
In part we do remember them; and of what we
have forgotten you are present to remind us. Or
rather, if it is not a trouble, recount them again
briefly from the beginning, so as to fix them
more firmly in our minds. [17c]
Τίμαιος
τὰ μὲν μεμνήμεθα, ὅσα δὲ μή, σὺ παρὼν
ὑπομνήσεις: μᾶλλον δέ, εἰ μή τί σοι χαλεπόν,
ἐξ ἀρχῆς διὰ βραχέων πάλιν ἐπάνελθε αὐτά,
ἵνα βεβαιωθῇ μᾶλλον παρ᾽ ἡμῖν. [17ξ]
Soc.
To be sure I will: the chief theme of my
yesterday’s discourse was the State — how
constituted and of what citizens composed it
would seem likely to be most perfect.
Socrates
It shall be done. The main part of the discourse
I delivered yesterday2 was concerned with the
kind of constitution which seemed to me likely
to prove the best, and the character of its
citizens.
Σωκράτης
ταῦτ᾽ ἔσται. χθές που τῶν ὑπ᾽ ἐμοῦ ῥηθέντων
λόγων περὶ πολιτείας ἦν τὸ κεφάλαιον οἵα τε
καὶ ἐξ οἵων ἀνδρῶν ἀρίστη κατεφαίνετ᾽ ἄν μοι
γενέσθαι.
Tim.
Yes, Socrates; and what you said of it was very
much to our mind.
Timaeus
And in truth, Socrates, the polity you described
was highly approved by us all.
Τίμαιος
καὶ μάλα γε ἡμῖν, ὦ Σώκρατες, ῥηθεῖσα πᾶσιν
κατὰ νοῦν.
Soc.
Did we not begin by separating the
husbandmen and the artisans from the class of
defenders of the State?
Socrates
Did we not begin by dividing off the class of
land-workers in it, and all other crafts, from the
class of its defenders?3
Σωκράτης
ἆρ᾽ οὖν οὐ τὸ τῶν γεωργῶν ὅσαι τε ἄλλαι
τέχναι πρῶτον ἐν αὐτῇ χωρὶς διειλόμεθα ἀπὸ
τοῦ γένους τοῦ τῶν προπολεμησόντων;
Tim.
Yes.
Timaeus
Yes.
Τίμαιος
ναί.
Soc.
Socrates
Σωκράτης
2 i.e., the Republic, of which the political part (books ii.-v.) is here briefly recapitulated.
3 See Rep. 369 E ff., 374 E ff.
And when we had given to each one [17d] that
single employment and particular art which
was suited to his nature, we spoke of those
who were intended to be our warriors, and said
that they were to be guardians of the city
against attacks from within as well as from
without, and to have no other employment;
they were to be merciful in judging their
subjects, of whom they were by nature friends,
[18a] but fierce to their enemies, when they
came across them in battle.
And when, in accordance with Nature, we had
assigned to each citizen [17d] his one proper
and peculiar occupation, we declared that those
whose duty it is to fight in defence of all must
act solely as guardians of the State, in case
anyone from without or any of those within
should go about to molest it; and that they
should judge leniently such as are under their
authority and their natural friends, [18a] but
show themselves stern in battle towards all the
enemies they encounter.4
καὶ κατὰ φύσιν δὴ δόντες τὸ καθ᾽ αὑτὸν
ἑκάστῳ [17δ] πρόσφορον ἓν
μόνον
ἐπιτήδευμα, μίαν ἑκάστῳ τέχνην, τούτους οὓς
πρὸ πάντων ἔδει πολεμεῖν, εἴπομεν ὡς ἄρ᾽
αὐτοὺς δέοι φύλακας εἶναι μόνον τῆς πόλεως,
εἴτε τις ἔξωθεν ἢ καὶ τῶν ἔνδοθεν ἴοι
κακουργήσων, δικάζοντας μὲν πρᾴως τοῖς
[18α] ἀρχομένοις ὑπ᾽ αὐτῶν καὶ φύσει φίλοις
οὖσιν, χαλεποὺς δὲ ἐν ταῖς μάχαις τοῖς
ἐντυγχάνουσιν τῶν ἐχθρῶν γιγνομένους.
Tim.
Exactly.
Timaeus
Very true.
Τίμαιος
παντάπασι μὲν οὖν.
Soc.
We said, if I am not mistaken, that the
guardians should be gifted with a temperament
in a high degree both passionate and
philosophical; and that then they would be as
they ought to be, gentle to their friends and
fierce with their enemies.
Socrates
For we said, as I think, that the soul of the
Guardians ought to be of a nature at once
spirited and philosophic in a superlative
degree, so that they might be able to treat their
friends rightly with leniency and their foes
with sternness.
Σωκράτης
φύσιν γὰρ οἶμαί τινα τῶν φυλάκων τῆς ψυχῆς
ἐλέγομεν ἅμα μὲν θυμοειδῆ, ἅμα δὲ φιλόσοφον
δεῖν εἶναι διαφερόντως, ἵνα πρὸς ἑκατέρους
δύναιντο ὀρθῶς πρᾷοι καὶ χαλεποὶ γίγνεσθαι.
Tim.
Certainly.
Timaeus
Yes.
Τίμαιος
ναί.
Soc.
And what did we say of their education? Were
they not to be trained in gymnastic, and music,
and all other sorts of knowledge which were
Socrates
And what of their training? Did we not say that
they were trained in gymnastic, in music, and
in all the studies proper for such men?5
Σωκράτης
τί δὲ τροφήν; ἆρ᾽ οὐ γυμναστικῇ καὶ μουσικῇ
μαθήμασίν τε ὅσα προσήκει τούτοις, ἐν ἅπασι
τεθράφθαι;
4 Cf. Rep. 375 B ff.
5 Cf. Rep. 376 D ff.
proper for them?
Tim.
Very true. [18b]
Timaeus
Certainly. [18b]
Τίμαιος
πάνυ μὲν οὖν. [18β]
Soc.
And being thus trained they were not to
consider gold or silver or anything else to be
their own private property; they were to be like
hired troops, receiving pay for keeping guard
from those who were protected by them — the
pay was to be no more than would suffice for
men of simple life; and they were to spend in
common, and to live together in the continual
practice of virtue, which was to be their sole
pursuit.
Socrates
And it was said, I believe, that the men thus
trained should never regard silver or gold or
anything else as their own private property; but
as auxiliaries, who in return for their guardwork receive from those whom they protect
such a moderate wage as suffices temperate
men, they should spend their wage in common
and live together in fellowship one with
another, devoting themselves unceasingly to
virtue, but keeping free from all other pursuits.6
Σωκράτης
τοὺς δέ γε οὕτω τραφέντας ἐλέχθη που μήτε
χρυσὸν μήτε ἄργυρον μήτε ἄλλο ποτὲ μηδὲν
κτῆμα ἑαυτῶν ἴδιον νομίζειν δεῖν, ἀλλ᾽ ὡς
ἐπικούρους μισθὸν λαμβάνοντας τῆς φυλακῆς
παρὰ τῶν σῳζομένων ὑπ᾽ αὐτῶν, ὅσος
σώφροσιν μέτριος, ἀναλίσκειν τε δὴ κοινῇ καὶ
συνδιαιτωμένους
μετὰ
ἀλλήλων
ζῆν,
ἐπιμέλειαν ἔχοντας ἀρετῆς διὰ παντός, τῶν
ἄλλων ἐπιτηδευμάτων ἄγοντας σχολήν.
Tim.
That was also said. [18c]
Timaeus
That too was stated as you say. [18c]
Τίμαιος
ἐλέχθη καὶ ταῦτα ταύτῃ. [18ξ]
Soc.
Neither did we forget the women; of whom we
declared, that their natures should be
assimilated and brought into harmony with
those of the men, and that common pursuits
should be assigned to them both in time of war
and in their ordinary life.
Socrates
Moreover, we went on to say about women 7
that their natures must be attuned into accord
with the men, and that the occupations
assigned to them, both in war and in all other
activities of life, should in every case be the
same for all alike.
Σωκράτης
καὶ μὲν δὴ καὶ περὶ γυναικῶν ἐπεμνήσθημεν,
ὡς τὰς φύσεις τοῖς ἀνδράσιν παραπλησίας εἴη
συναρμοστέον, καὶ τὰ ἐπιτηδεύματα πάντα
κοινὰ κατά τε πόλεμον καὶ κατὰ τὴν ἄλλην
δίαιταν δοτέον πάσαις.
Tim
That, again, was as you say.
Timaeus
This matter also was stated exactly so.
Τίμαιος
ταύτῃ καὶ ταῦτα ἐλέγετο.
6 Cf. Ref. 416 D ff.
7 Cf. Rep. 451 C ff
Soc.
And what about the procreation of children? Or
rather not the proposal too singular to be
forgotten? for all wives and children were to be
in common, to the intent that no one should
ever know his own child, but they were to
imagine that they were all one family; those
who were within a suitable limit of age were to
be brothers and sisters, those who were of an
elder generation parents and grandparents, and
those of a younger children and grandchildren.
Socrates
And what about the matter of childproduction? Or was this a thing easy to
recollect because of the strangeness of our
proposals? For we ordained that as regards
marriages and children all should have all in
common, so that no one should ever recognize
his own particular offspring, but all should
regard all [18d] as their actual kinsmen—as
brothers and sisters, if of a suitable age; as
parents and grandparents, if more advanced in
age; and as children and children's children, if
junior in age.8
Σωκράτης
τί δὲ δὴ τὸ περὶ τῆς παιδοποιίας; ἢ τοῦτο μὲν
διὰ
τὴν
ἀήθειαν
τῶν
λεχθέντων
εὐμνημόνευτον, ὅτι κοινὰ τὰ τῶν γάμων καὶ τὰ
τῶν παίδων πᾶσιν ἁπάντων ἐτίθεμεν,
μηχανωμένους ὅπως μηδείς ποτε τὸ
γεγενημένον αὐτῶν ἰδίᾳ γνώσοιτο, [18δ]
νομιοῦσιν δὲ πάντες πάντας αὐτοὺς ὁμογενεῖς,
ἀδελφὰς μὲν καὶ ἀδελφοὺς ὅσοιπερ ἂν τῆς
πρεπούσης ἐντὸς ἡλικίας γίγνωνται, τοὺς δ᾽
ἔμπροσθεν καὶ ἄνωθεν γονέας τε καὶ γονέων
προγόνους, τοὺς δ᾽ εἰς τὸ κάτωθεν ἐκγόνους
παῖδάς τε ἐκγόνων;
Tim.
Yes, and the proposal is easy to remember, as
you say.
Timaeus
Yes, this also, as you say, is easy to recollect.
Τίμαιος
ναί, καὶ ταῦτα εὐμνημόνευτα ᾗ λέγεις.
Soc.
And do you also remember how, with a view
of securing as far as we could the best breed,
we said that the chief magistrates, male and
female, should contrive secretly, by the use of
certain lots, so to arrange the nuptial meeting,
that the bad of either sex and the good of either
sex might pair with their like; and there was to
be no quarrelling on this account, for they
would imagine that the union was a mere
accident, and was to be attributed to the lot?
Socrates
And in order that, to the best of our power,
they might at once become as good as possible
in their natural characters, do we not recollect
how we said that the rulers, male and female,
in dealing with marriage-unions must contrive
to secure, by some secret method of allotment,
[18e] that the two classes of bad men and good
shall each be mated by lot with women of a
like nature, and that no enmity shall occur
amongst them because of this, seeing that they
will ascribe the allotment to chance?9
Σωκράτης
ὅπως δὲ δὴ κατὰ δύναμιν εὐθὺς γίγνοιντο ὡς
ἄριστοι τὰς φύσεις, ἆρ᾽ οὐ μεμνήμεθα ὡς τοὺς
ἄρχοντας ἔφαμεν καὶ τὰς ἀρχούσας δεῖν εἰς τὴν
τῶν γάμων σύνερξιν λάθρᾳ [18ε] μηχανᾶσθαι
κλήροις τισὶν ὅπως οἱ κακοὶ χωρὶς οἵ τ᾽ ἀγαθοὶ
ταῖς ὁμοίαις ἑκάτεροι συλλήξονται, καὶ μή τις
αὐτοῖς ἔχθρα διὰ ταῦτα γίγνηται, τύχην
ἡγουμένοις αἰτίαν τῆς συλλήξεως;
8 Cf. Rep. 457 ff.,461 D.
9 Cf. Rep. 458 ff.
Tim.
I remember.
Timaeus
We recollect.
Τίμαιος
μεμνήμεθα.
[19a] Soc.
And you remember how we said that the
children of the good parents were to be
educated, and the children of the bad secretly
dispersed among the inferior citizens; and
while they were all growing up the rulers were
to be on the look-out, and to bring up from
below in their turn those who were worthy, and
those among themselves who were unworthy
were to take the places of those who came up?
[19a] Socrates
And do you recollect further how we said that
the offspring of the good were to be reared, but
those of the bad were to be sent privily to
various other parts of the State; and as these
grew up the rulers should keep constantly on
the watch for the deserving amongst them and
bring them back again, and into the place of
those thus restored transplant the undeserving
among themselves?10
[19α] Σωκράτης
καὶ μὴν ὅτι γε τὰ μὲν τῶν ἀγαθῶν θρεπτέον
ἔφαμεν εἶναι, τὰ δὲ τῶν κακῶν εἰς τὴν ἄλλην
λάθρᾳ διαδοτέον πόλιν: ἐπαυξανομένων δὲ
σκοποῦντας ἀεὶ τοὺς ἀξίους πάλιν ἀνάγειν
δεῖν, τοὺς δὲ παρὰ σφίσιν ἀναξίους εἰς τὴν τῶν
ἐπανιόντων χώραν μεταλλάττειν;
Tim.
True.
Timaeus
So we said.
Τίμαιος
οὕτως.
Soc.
Then have I now given you all the heads of our
yesterday’s discussion? Or is there anything
more, my dear Timaeus, which has been
omitted? [19b]
Socrates
May we say then that we have now gone
through our discourse of yesterday, so far as is
requisite in a summary review; or is there any
point omitted, my dear, which we should like
to see added? [19b]
Σωκράτης
ἆρ᾽ οὖν δὴ διεληλύθαμεν ἤδη καθάπερ χθές,
ὡς ἐν κεφαλαίοις πάλιν ἐπανελθεῖν, ἢ
ποθοῦμεν ἔτι τι τῶν ῥηθέντων, ὦ φίλε Γίμαιε,
ὡς ἀπολειπόμενον; [19β]
Tim.
Nothing, Socrates; it was just as you have said.
Timaeus
Certainly not: this is precisely what was said,
Socrates.
Τίμαιος
οὐδαμῶς, ἀλλὰ αὐτὰ ταῦτ᾽ ἦν τὰ λεχθέντα, ὦ
Σώκρατες.
Soc.
I should like, before proceeding further, to tell
you how I feel about the State which we have
Socrates
And now, in the next place, listen to what my
feeling is with regard to the polity we have
Σωκράτης
ἀκούοιτ᾽ ἂν ἤδη τὰ μετὰ ταῦτα περὶ τῆς
πολιτείας ἣν διήλθομεν, οἷόν τι πρὸς αὐτὴν
10 Cf. Rep. 415 B.C., 459 D ff.
described. I might compare myself to a person
who, on beholding beautiful animals either
created by the painter’s art, or, better still, alive
but at rest, is seized with a desire of seeing
them in motion or engaged in some struggle or
conflict to which their forms appear suited;
[19c] this is my feeling about the State which
we have been describing. There are conflicts
which all cities undergo, and I should like to
hear some one tell of our own city carrying on
a struggle against her neighbours, and how she
went out to war in a becoming manner, and
when at war showed by the greatness of her
actions and the magnanimity of her words in
dealing with other cities a result worthy of her
training and education. Now I, Critias and
Hermocrates, [19d] am conscious that I myself
should never be able to celebrate the city and
her citizens in a befitting manner, and I am not
surprised at my own incapacity; to me the
wonder is rather that the poets present as well
as past are no better — not that I mean to
depreciate them; but every one can see that
they are a tribe of imitators, and will imitate
best and most easily the life in which they have
been brought up; while that which is beyond
the range of a man’s education he finds hard to
carry out in action, [19e] and still harder
adequately to represent in language. I am
aware that the Sophists have plenty of brave
words and fair conceits, but I am afraid that
being only wanderers from one city to another,
described. I may compare my feeling to
something of this kind: suppose, for instance,
that on seeing beautiful creatures, whether
works of art or actually alive but in repose, a
man should be moved with desire to behold
them in motion and vigorously engaged in
some such exercise as seemed suitable to their
physique; [19c] well, that is the very feeling I
have regarding the State we have described.
Gladly would I listen to anyone who should
depict in words our State contending against
others in those struggles which States wage; in
how proper a spirit it enters upon war, and how
in its warring it exhibits qualities such as befit
its education and training in its dealings with
each several State whether in respect of
military actions or in respect of verbal
negotiations. And herein, Critias and
Hermocrates, [19d] I am conscious of my own
inability ever to magnify sufficiently our
citizens and our State. Now in this inability of
mine there is nothing surprising; but I have
formed the same opinion about the poets also,
those of the present as well as those of the past;
not that I disparage in any way the poetic clan,
but it is plain to all that the imitative 11 tribe will
imitate with most ease and success the things
amidst which it has been reared, whereas it is
hard for any man to imitate well in action what
lies outside the range of his rearing, [19e] and
still harder in speech. Again, as to the class of
Sophists, although I esteem them highly versed
11 For poetry as an “imitative” art Cf. Rep. 392 D, 579 E ff.
πεπονθὼς τυγχάνω. προσέοικεν δὲ δή τινί μοι
τοιῷδε τὸ πάθος, οἷον εἴ τις ζῷα καλά που
θεασάμενος, εἴτε ὑπὸ γραφῆς εἰργασμένα εἴτε
καὶ ζῶντα ἀληθινῶς ἡσυχίαν δὲ ἄγοντα, εἰς
ἐπιθυμίαν ἀφίκοιτο θεάσασθαι κινούμενά τε
αὐτὰ καί τι τῶν τοῖς σώμασιν δοκούντων [19ξ]
προσήκειν κατὰ τὴν ἀγωνίαν ἀθλοῦντα: ταὐτὸν
καὶ ἐγὼ πέπονθα πρὸς τὴν πόλιν ἣν διήλθομεν.
ἡδέως γὰρ ἄν του λόγῳ διεξιόντος ἀκούσαιμ᾽
ἂν ἄθλους οὓς πόλις ἀθλεῖ, τούτους αὐτὴν
ἀγωνιζομένην πρὸς πόλεις ἄλλας, πρεπόντως
εἴς τε πόλεμον ἀφικομένην καὶ ἐν τῷ πολεμεῖν
τὰ προσήκοντα ἀποδιδοῦσαν τῇ παιδείᾳ καὶ
τροφῇ κατά τε τὰς ἐν τοῖς ἔργοις πράξεις καὶ
κατὰ τὰς ἐν τοῖς λόγοις διερμηνεύσεις πρὸς
ἑκάστας τῶν πόλεων. ταῦτ᾽ οὖν, ὦ Κριτία καὶ
Ἑρμόκρατες, [19δ] ἐμαυτοῦ μὲν αὐτὸς
κατέγνωκα μή ποτ᾽ ἂν δυνατὸς γενέσθαι τοὺς
ἄνδρας καὶ τὴν πόλιν ἱκανῶς ἐγκωμιάσαι. καὶ
τὸ μὲν ἐμὸν οὐδὲν θαυμαστόν: ἀλλὰ τὴν αὐτὴν
δόξαν εἴληφα καὶ περὶ τῶν πάλαι γεγονότων
καὶ περὶ τῶν νῦν ὄντων ποιητῶν, οὔτι τὸ
ποιητικὸν ἀτιμάζων γένος, ἀλλὰ παντὶ δῆλον
ὡς τὸ μιμητικὸν ἔθνος, οἷς ἂν ἐντραφῇ, ταῦτα
μιμήσεται ῥᾷστα καὶ ἄριστα, τὸ δ᾽ ἐκτὸς τῆς
τροφῆς ἑκάστοις [19ε] γιγνόμενον χαλεπὸν μὲν
ἔργοις, ἔτι δὲ χαλεπώτερον λόγοις εὖ
μιμεῖσθαι. τὸ δὲ τῶν σοφιστῶν γένος αὖ
πολλῶν μὲν λόγων καὶ καλῶν ἄλλων μάλ᾽
ἔμπειρον ἥγημαι, φοβοῦμαι δὲ μή πως, ἅτε
πλανητὸν ὂν κατὰ πόλεις οἰκήσεις τε ἰδίας
οὐδαμῇ διῳκηκός, ἄστοχον ἅμα φιλοσόφων
and having never had habitations of their own,
they may fail in their conception of
philosophers and statesmen, and may not know
what they do and say in time of war, when they
are fighting or holding parley with their
enemies. And thus people of your class [20a]
are the only ones remaining who are fitted by
nature and education to take part at once both
in politics and philosophy. Here is Timaeus, of
Locris in Italy, a city which has admirable
laws, and who is himself in wealth and rank
the equal of any of his fellow-citizens; he has
held the most important and honourable offices
in his own state, and, as I believe, has scaled
the heights of all philosophy; and here is
Critias, whom every Athenian knows to be no
novice in the matters of which we are
speaking; and as to, Hermocrates, I am assured
by many witnesses that his genius and
education [20b] qualify him to take part in any
speculation of the kind. And therefore
yesterday when I saw that you wanted me to
describe the formation of the State, I readily
assented, being very well aware, that, if you
only would, none were better qualified to carry
the discussion further, and that when you had
engaged our city in a suitable war, you of all
men living could best exhibit her playing a
fitting part. When I had completed my task, I
in return imposed this other task upon you. You
conferred together [20c] and agreed to
entertain me to-day, as I had entertained you,
in many fine discourses of other kinds, yet I
fear lest haply, seeing they are a class which
roams from city to city and has no settled
habitations of its own, they may go wide of the
mark in regard to men who are at once
philosophers and statesmen, and what they
would be likely to do and say, in their several
dealings with foemen in war and battle, both
by word and deed. Thus there remains only
that class which is of your complexion— [20a]
a class which, alike by nature and nurture,
shares the qualities of both the others. For our
friend is a native of a most well-governed
State, Italian Locris,12 and inferior to none of
its citizens either in property or in rank; and
not only has he occupied the highest offices
and posts of honor in his State, but he has also
attained, in my opinion, the very summit of
eminence in all branches of philosophy. As to
Critias, all of us here know that he is no novice
in any of the subjects we are discussing. As
regards Hermocrates, we must believe the
many witnesses who assert that both by nature
and by nurture [20b] he is competent for all
these inquiries. So, with this in my mind, when
you requested me yesterday to expound my
views of the polity I gratified you most
willingly, since I knew that none could deal
more adequately than you (if you were willing)
with the next subject of discourse; for you
alone, of men now living, could show our State
engaged in a suitable war and exhibiting all the
12 Cf. Laws638 B. The laws of Epizephyrian Locri were ascribed to Zaleucus (circa 650 B.C.).
ἀνδρῶν ᾖ καὶ πολιτικῶν, ὅσ᾽ ἂν οἷά τε ἐν
πολέμῳ καὶ μάχαις πράττοντες ἔργῳ καὶ λόγῳ
προσομιλοῦντες ἑκάστοις πράττοιεν καὶ
λέγοιεν. καταλέλειπται δὴ τὸ τῆς ὑμετέρας
ἕξεως γένος, [20α] ἅμα ἀμφοτέρων φύσει καὶ
τροφῇ μετέχον. Τίμαιός τε γὰρ ὅδε,
εὐνομωτάτης ὢν πόλεως τῆς ἐν Ἰταλίᾳ
Λοκρίδος, οὐσίᾳ καὶ γένει οὐδενὸς ὕστερος ὢν
τῶν ἐκεῖ, τὰς μεγίστας μὲν ἀρχάς τε καὶ τιμὰς
τῶν ἐν τῇ πόλει μετακεχείρισται, φιλοσοφίας
δ᾽ αὖ κατ᾽ ἐμὴν δόξαν ἐπ᾽ ἄκρον ἁπάσης
ἐλήλυθεν: Κριτίαν δέ που πάντες οἱ τῇδε ἴσμεν
οὐδενὸς ἰδιώτην ὄντα ὧν λέγομεν. τῆς δὲ
Ἑρμοκράτους αὖ περὶ φύσεως καὶ τροφῆς,
πρὸς ἅπαντα ταῦτ᾽ εἶναι ἱκανὴν πολλῶν
μαρτυρούντων [20β] πιστευτέον. διὸ καὶ χθὲς
ἐγὼ διανοούμενος, ὑμῶν δεομένων τὰ περὶ τῆς
πολιτείας διελθεῖν, προθύμως ἐχαριζόμην,
εἰδὼς ὅτι τὸν ἑξῆς λόγον οὐδένες ἂν ὑμῶν
ἐθελόντων ἱκανώτερον ἀποδοῖεν—εἰς γὰρ
πόλεμον πρέποντα καταστήσαντες τὴν πόλιν
ἅπαντ᾽ αὐτῇ τὰ προσήκοντα ἀποδοῖτ᾽ ἂν μόνοι
τῶν νῦν—εἰπὼν δὴ τἀπιταχθέντα ἀντεπέταξα
ὑμῖν ἃ καὶ νῦν λέγω. συνωμολογήσατ᾽ οὖν
κοινῇ σκεψάμενοι πρὸς ὑμᾶς [20ξ] αὐτοὺς εἰς
νῦν ἀνταποδώσειν μοι τὰ τῶν λόγων ξένια,
πάρειμί τε οὖν δὴ κεκοσμημένος ἐπ᾽ αὐτὰ καὶ
πάντων ἑτοιμότατος ὢν δέχεσθαι.
with a feast of discourse. Here am I in festive
array, and no man can be more ready for the
promised banquet.
qualities which belong to it. Accordingly, when
I had spoken upon my prescribed theme, I in
turn prescribed for you this theme which I am
now explaining. And you, after consulting
together among yourselves, [20c] agreed to pay
me back today with a feast of words; so here I
am, ready for that feast in festal garb, and
eager above all men to begin.
Hermocrates.
And we too, Socrates, as Timaeus says, will
not be wanting in enthusiasm; and there is no
excuse for not complying with your request. As
soon as we arrived yesterday at the guestchamber of Critias, with whom we are staying,
or rather on our way thither, we talked the
matter over, [20d] and he told us an ancient
tradition, which I wish, Critias, that you would
repeat to Socrates, so that he may help us to
judge whether it will satisfy his requirements
or not.
Hermocrates
Of a truth, Socrates, as our friend has said, we
will show no lack of zeal, nor have we any
excuse for refusing to do as you say. Yesterday,
in fact, immediately after our return from you
to the guest-chamber at Critias where we are
lodging—aye, and earlier still, on our way
there—we were considering these very
subjects. [20d] Critias here mentioned to us a
story derived from ancient tradition; and now,
Critias, pray tell it again to our friend here, so
that he may help us to decide whether or not it
is pertinent to our prescribed theme.
Ἑρμοκράτης
καὶ μὲν δή, καθάπερ εἶπεν Τίμαιος ὅδε, ὦ
Σώκρατες, οὔτε ἐλλείψομεν προθυμίας οὐδὲν
οὔτε ἔστιν οὐδεμία πρόφασις ἡμῖν τοῦ μὴ δρᾶν
ταῦτα: ὥστε καὶ χθές, εὐθὺς ἐνθένδε ἐπειδὴ
παρὰ Κριτίαν πρὸς τὸν ξενῶνα οὗ καὶ
καταλύομεν ἀφικόμεθα, καὶ ἔτι πρότερον καθ᾽
ὁδὸν αὐτὰ ταῦτ᾽ ἐσκοποῦμεν. [20δ] ὅδε οὖν
ἡμῖν λόγον εἰσηγήσατο ἐκ παλαιᾶς ἀκοῆς: ὃν
καὶ νῦν λέγε, ὦ Κριτία, τῷδε, ἵνα συνδοκιμάσῃ
πρὸς τὴν ἐπίταξιν εἴτ᾽ ἐπιτήδειος εἴτε
ἀνεπιτήδειός ἐστι.
Critias.
I will, if Timaeus, who is our other partner,
approves.
Critias
That I must certainly do, if our third partner,
also approves.
Κριτίας
ταῦτα χρὴ δρᾶν, εἰ καὶ τῷ τρίτῳ κοινωνῷ
Τιμαίῳ συνδοκεῖ.
Tim.
I quite approve.
Timaeus
Assuredly I approve.
Τίμαιος
δοκεῖ μήν.
Crit.
Then listen, Socrates, to a tale which, though
strange, is certainly true, having been attested
Critias
Listen then, Socrates, to a tale which, though
passing strange, is yet wholly true, as Solon,
Κριτίας
ἄκουε δή, ὦ Σώκρατες, λόγου μάλα μὲν
ἀτόπου, παντάπασί γε μὴν ἀληθοῦς, ὡς ὁ τῶν
by Solon, [20e] who was the wisest of the
seven sages. He was a relative and a dear
friend of my great-grandfather, Dropides, as he
himself says in many passages of his poems;
and he told the story to Critias, my grandfather,
who remembered and repeated it to us. There
were of old, he said, great and marvellous
actions of the Athenian city, which have passed
into oblivion through lapse of time and the
destruction of mankind, and one in particular,
greater than all the rest. This we will now
rehearse. It will be a fitting monument [21a] of
our gratitude to you, and a hymn of praise true
and worthy of the goddess, on this her day of
festival.
[20e] the wisest of the Seven, once upon a time
declared. Now Solon—as indeed he often says
himself in his poems—was a relative and very
dear friend of our great-grandfather Dropides;
and Dropides told our grandfather Critias as
the old man himself, in turn, related to us—that
the exploits of this city in olden days, the
record of which had perished through time and
the destruction of its inhabitants, were great
and marvellous, the greatest of all being one
which it would be proper [21a] for us now to
relate both as a payment of our debt of thanks
to you and also as a tribute of praise, chanted
as it were duly and truly, in honor of the
Goddess on this her day of Festival.13
ἑπτὰ σοφώτατος [20ε] Σόλων ποτ᾽ ἔφη. ἦν μὲν
οὖν οἰκεῖος καὶ σφόδρα φίλος ἡμῖν Δρωπίδου
τοῦ προπάππου, καθάπερ λέγει πολλαχοῦ καὶ
αὐτὸς ἐν τῇ ποιήσει: πρὸς δὲ Κριτίαν τὸν
ἡμέτερον πάππον εἶπεν, ὡς ἀπεμνημόνευεν αὖ
πρὸς ἡμᾶς ὁ γέρων, ὅτι μεγάλα καὶ θαυμαστὰ
τῆσδ᾽ εἴη παλαιὰ ἔργα τῆς πόλεως ὑπὸ χρόνου
καὶ φθορᾶς ἀνθρώπων ἠφανισμένα, πάντων δὲ
ἓν μέγιστον, [21α] οὗ νῦν ἐπιμνησθεῖσιν
πρέπον ἂν ἡμῖν εἴη σοί τε ἀποδοῦναι χάριν καὶ
τὴν θεὸν ἅμα ἐν τῇ πανηγύρει δικαίως τε καὶ
ἀληθῶς οἷόνπερ ὑμνοῦντας ἐγκωμιάζειν.
Soc.
Very good. And what is this ancient famous
action of the Athenians, which Critias declared,
on the authority of Solon, to be not a mere
legend, but an actual fact?
Socrates
Excellent! But come now, what was this
exploit described by Critias, following Solons
report, as a thing not verbally recorded,
although actually performed by this city long
ago?
Σωκράτης
εὖ λέγεις. ἀλλὰ δὴ ποῖον ἔργον τοῦτο Κριτίας
οὐ λεγόμενον μέν, ὡς δὲ πραχθὲν ὄντως ὑπὸ
τῆσδε τῆς πόλεως ἀρχαῖον διηγεῖτο κατὰ τὴν
Σόλωνος ἀκοήν;
Crit.
I will tell an old-world story which I heard
from an aged man; for Critias, at the time of
telling it, was as he said, nearly ninety years of
age, and I was about ten. Now the day was that
day of the Apaturia which is called the
Registration of Youth, at which, according to
custom, our parents gave prizes for recitations,
Critias
I will tell you: it is an old tale, and I heard it
from a man not young. For indeed at that time,
as he said himself, [21b] Critias was already
close upon ninety years of age, while I was
somewhere about ten; and it chanced to be that
day of the Apaturia which is called
“Cureotis.”14 The ceremony for boys which
Κριτίας
ἐγὼ φράσω, παλαιὸν ἀκηκοὼς λόγον οὐ νέου
ἀνδρός. ἦν μὲν γὰρ δὴ τότε Κριτίας, ὡς ἔφη,
σχεδὸν ἐγγὺς [21β] ἤδη τῶν ἐνενήκοντα ἐτῶν,
ἐγὼ δέ πῃ μάλιστα δεκέτης: ἡ δὲ Κουρεῶτις
ἡμῖν οὖσα ἐτύγχανεν Ἀπατουρίων. τὸ δὴ τῆς
ἑορτῆς σύνηθες ἑκάστοτε καὶ τότε συνέβη τοῖς
παισίν: ἆθλα γὰρ ἡμῖν οἱ πατέρες ἔθεσαν
13 i.e., the Lesser Panathenaea, held early in June, just after the Bendideia.
14 The Apaturia was a feast held in October in honor of Dionysus. On the third day of the feast the children born during the year were registered
and the poems of several poets were recited by
us boys, and many of us sang the poems of
Solon, which at that time had not gone out of
fashion. One of our tribe, either because he
thought so or [21c] to please Critias, said that
in his judgment Solon was not only the wisest
of men, but also the noblest of poets. The old
man, as I very well remember, brightened up at
hearing this and said, smiling: “Yes,
Amynander, if Solon had only, like other poets,
made poetry the business of his life, and had
completed the tale which he brought with him
from Egypt, and had not been compelled, by
reason of the factions and troubles which he
found stirring in his own country when he
came home, to attend to other matters, [21d] in
my opinion he would have been as famous as
Homer or Hesiod, or any poet.” “And what
was the tale about, Critias?” said Amynander.
“About the greatest action which the Athenians
ever did, and which ought to have been the
most famous, but, through the lapse of time
and the destruction of the actors, it has not
come down to us.” “Tell us, said the other, the
whole story, and how and from whom Solon
heard this veritable tradition.”
(hence the name Cureotis: κοῦροι=youths).
was always customary at the feast was held
also on that occasion, our fathers arranging
contests in recitation. So while many poems of
many poets were declaimed, since the poems
of Solon were at that time new, many of us
children chanted them. And one of our fellow
tribesmen—whether he really thought so at the
time or whether he was paying a compliment
[21c] to Critias—declared that in his opinion
Solon was not only the wisest of men in all
else, but in poetry also he was of all poets the
noblest. Whereat the old man (I remember the
scene well) was highly pleased and said with a
smile, “If only, Amynander, he had not taken
up poetry as a by-play but had worked hard at
it like others, and if he had completed the story
he brought here from Egypt, instead of being
forced to lay it aside owing to the seditions and
all the other evils he found here on his return,
— [21d] why then, I say, neither Hesiod nor
Homer nor any other poet would ever have
proved more famous than he.” “And what was
the story, Critias?” said the other. “Its subject,”
replied Critias, “was a very great exploit,
worthy indeed to be accounted the most
notable of all exploits, which was performed
by this city, although the record of it has not
endured until now owing to lapse of time and
the destruction of those who wrought it.” “Tell
us from the beginning,” said Amynander,
“what Solon related and how, and who were
the informants who vouched for its truth.”
ῥαψῳδίας. πολλῶν μὲν οὖν δὴ καὶ πολλὰ
ἐλέχθη ποιητῶν ποιήματα, ἅτε δὲ νέα κατ᾽
ἐκεῖνον τὸν χρόνον ὄντα τὰ Σόλωνος πολλοὶ
τῶν παίδων ᾔσαμεν. εἶπεν οὖν τις τῶν
φρατέρων, εἴτε δὴ δοκοῦν αὐτῷ τότε εἴτε καὶ
χάριν τινὰ τῷ Κριτίᾳ φέρων, δοκεῖν οἱ τά τε
[21ξ] ἄλλα σοφώτατον γεγονέναι Σόλωνα καὶ
κατὰ τὴν ποίησιν αὖ τῶν ποιητῶν πάντων
ἐλευθεριώτατον. ὁ δὴ γέρων— σφόδρα γὰρ
οὖν μέμνημαι—μάλα τε ἥσθη καὶ διαμειδιάσας
εἶπεν: “εἴ γε, ὦ Ἀμύνανδρε, μὴ παρέργῳ τῇ
ποιήσει κατεχρήσατο, ἀλλ᾽ ἐσπουδάκει
καθάπερ ἄλλοι, τόν τε λόγον ὃν ἀπ᾽ Αἰγύπτου
δεῦρο ἠνέγκατο ἀπετέλεσεν, καὶ μὴ διὰ τὰς
στάσεις ὑπὸ κακῶν τε ἄλλων ὅσα ηὗρεν
ἐνθάδε ἥκων ἠναγκάσθη [21δ] καταμελῆσαι,
κατά γε ἐμὴν δόξαν οὔτε Ἡσίοδος οὔτε
Ὅμηρος οὔτε ἄλλος οὐδεὶς ποιητὴς
εὐδοκιμώτερος ἐγένετο ἄν ποτε αὐτοῦ.” “τίς δ᾽
ἦν ὁ λόγος,” ἦ δ᾽ ὅς, “ὦ Κριτία;” “ἦ περὶ
μεγίστης,” ἔφη, “καὶ ὀνομαστοτάτης πασῶν
δικαιότατ᾽ ἂν πράξεως οὔσης, ἣν ἥδε ἡ πόλις
ἔπραξε μέν, διὰ δὲ χρόνον καὶ φθορὰν τῶν
ἐργασαμένων οὐ διήρκεσε δεῦρο ὁ λόγος.”
“λέγε ἐξ ἀρχῆς,” ἦ δ᾽ ὅς, “τί τε καὶ πῶς καὶ
παρὰ τίνων ὡς ἀληθῆ διακηκοὼς ἔλεγεν ὁ
Σόλων.”
[21e] He replied: — In the Egyptian Delta, at
the head of which the river Nile divides, there
is a certain district which is called the district
of Sais, and the great city of the district is also
called Sais, and is the city from which King
Amasis came. The citizens have a deity for
their foundress; she is called in the Egyptian
tongue Neith, and is asserted by them to be the
same whom the Hellenes call Athene; they are
great lovers of the Athenians, and say that they
are in some way related to them. To this city
came Solon, and was received there with great
honour; he asked the priests [22a] who were
most skilful in such matters, about antiquity,
and made the discovery that neither he nor any
other Hellene knew anything worth mentioning
about the times of old. On one occasion,
wishing to draw them on to speak of antiquity,
he began to tell about the most ancient things
in our part of the world — about Phoroneus,
who is called “the first man,” and about Niobe;
and after the Deluge, of the survival of
Deucalion and Pyrrha; and he traced the
genealogy of their descendants, [22b] and
reckoning up the dates, tried to compute how
many years ago the events of which he was
speaking happened. Thereupon one of the
priests, who was of a very great age, said: “O
Solon, Solon, you Hellenes are never anything
but children, and there is not an old man
[21e] “In the Delta of Egypt,” said Critias,
“where, at its head, the stream of the Nile parts
in two, there is a certain district called the
Saitic. The chief city in this district is Sais—
the home of King Amasis,15—the founder of
which, they say, is a goddess whose Egyptian
name is Neith,16 and in Greek, as they assert,
Athena. These people profess to be great lovers
of Athens and in a measure akin to our people
here. And Solon said that when he travelled
there he was held in great esteem amongst
them; moreover, when he was questioning such
of their priests [22a] as were most versed in
ancient lore about their early history, he
discovered that neither he himself nor any
other Greek knew anything at all, one might
say, about such matters. And on one occasion,
when he wished to draw them on to discourse
on ancient history, he attempted to tell them the
most ancient of our traditions, concerning
Phoroneus, who was said to be the first man,
and Niobe; and he went on to tell the legend
about Deucalion and Pyrrha after the Flood,
and how they survived it, and to give the
geneology of their descendants; [22b] and by
recounting the number of years occupied by
the events mentioned he tried to calculate the
periods of time. Whereupon one of the priests,
a prodigiously old man, said, “O Solon, Solon,
you Greeks are always children: there is not
15 Amasis (Aahmes) was king of Egypt 569-525 B.C., and a phil-Hellene; Cf. Hdt. ii. 162 ff.
16 Neith is identified by Plutarch with Isis; Cf. Hdt. ii. 28.
[21ε] “ἔστιν τις κατ᾽ Αἴγυπτον,” ἦ δ᾽ ὅς, “ἐν τῷ
Δέλτα, περὶ ὃν κατὰ κορυφὴν σχίζεται τὸ τοῦ
Νείλου ῥεῦμα Σαϊτικὸς ἐπικαλούμενος νομός,
τούτου δὲ τοῦ νομοῦ μεγίστη πόλις Σάις—ὅθεν
δὴ καὶ Ἄμασις ἦν ὁ βασιλεύς—οἷς τῆς πόλεως
θεὸς ἀρχηγός τίς ἐστιν, Αἰγυπτιστὶ μὲν
τοὔνομα Νηίθ, Ἑλληνιστὶ δέ, ὡς ὁ ἐκείνων
λόγος, Ἀθηνᾶ: μάλα δὲ φιλαθήναιοι καί τινα
τρόπον οἰκεῖοι τῶνδ᾽ εἶναί φασιν. οἷ δὴ Σόλων
ἔφη πορευθεὶς σφόδρα τε γενέσθαι παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς
ἔντιμος, [22α] καὶ δὴ καὶ τὰ παλαιὰ ἀνερωτῶν
ποτε τοὺς μάλιστα περὶ ταῦτα τῶν ἱερέων
ἐμπείρους, σχεδὸν οὔτε αὑτὸν οὔτε ἄλλον
Ἕλληνα οὐδένα οὐδὲν ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν εἰδότα
περὶ τῶν τοιούτων ἀνευρεῖν. καί ποτε
προαγαγεῖν βουληθεὶς αὐτοὺς περὶ τῶν
ἀρχαίων εἰς λόγους, τῶν τῇδε τὰ ἀρχαιότατα
λέγειν ἐπιχειρεῖν, περὶ Φορωνέως τε τοῦ
πρώτου λεχθέντος καὶ Νιόβης, καὶ μετὰ τὸν
κατακλυσμὸν αὖ περὶ Δευκαλίωνος [22β] καὶ
Πύρρας ὡς διεγένοντο μυθολογεῖν, καὶ τοὺς ἐξ
αὐτῶν γενεαλογεῖν, καὶ τὰ τῶν ἐτῶν ὅσα ἦν οἷς
ἔλεγεν πειρᾶσθαι διαμνημονεύων τοὺς χρόνους
ἀριθμεῖν: καί τινα εἰπεῖν τῶν ἱερέων εὖ μάλα
παλαιόν: ‘ὦ Σόλων, Σόλων, Ἕλληνες ἀεὶ
παῖδές ἐστε, γέρων δὲ Ἕλλην οὐκ ἔστιν.’
ἀκούσας οὖν, ‘πῶς τί τοῦτο λέγεις;’ φάναι.
‘νέοι ἐστέ,’ εἰπεῖν, ‘τὰς ψυχὰς πάντες:
οὐδεμίαν γὰρ ἐν αὐταῖς ἔχετε δι᾽ ἀρχαίαν
ἀκοὴν παλαιὰν δόξαν οὐδὲ μάθημα χρόνῳ
among you.” Solon in return asked him what
he meant. “I mean to say, he replied, that in
mind you are all young; there is no old opinion
handed down among you by ancient tradition,
nor any science which is hoary with age. [22c]
And I will tell you why. There have been, and
will be again, many destructions of mankind
arising out of many causes; the greatest have
been brought about by the agencies of fire and
water, and other lesser ones by innumerable
other causes. There is a story, which even you
have preserved, that once upon a time Paethon,
the son of Helios, having yoked the steeds in
his father’s chariot, because he was not able to
drive them in the path of his father, burnt up all
that was upon the earth, and was himself
destroyed by a thunderbolt. Now this has the
form of a myth, but really signifies [22d] a
declination of the bodies moving in the
heavens around the earth, and a great
conflagration of things upon the earth, which
recurs after long intervals; at such times those
who live upon the mountains and in dry and
lofty places are more liable to destruction than
those who dwell by rivers or on the seashore.
And from this calamity the Nile, who is our
never-failing saviour, delivers and preserves
us. When, on the other hand, the gods purge
the earth with a deluge of water, the survivors
in your country are herdsmen and shepherds
who dwell on the mountains, [22e] but those
such a thing as an old Greek.” And on hearing
this he asked, “What mean you by this
saying?” And the priest replied, “You are
young in soul, every one of you. For therein
you possess not a single belief that is ancient
and derived from old tradition, nor yet one
science that is hoary with age. [22c] And this is
the cause thereof: There have been and there
will be many and divers destructions of
mankind,17 of which the greatest are by fire and
water, and lesser ones by countless other
means. For in truth the story that is told in your
country as well as ours, how once upon a time
Phaethon, son of Helios,18 yoked his father's
chariot, and, because he was unable to drive it
along the course taken by his father, burnt up
all that was upon the earth and himself
perished by a thunderbolt,—that story, as it is
told, has the fashion of a legend, but the truth
of it lies in [22d] the occurrence of a shifting of
the bodies in the heavens which move round
the earth, and a destruction of the things on the
earth by fierce fire, which recurs at long
intervals. At such times all they that dwell on
the mountains and in high and dry places suffer
destruction more than those who dwell near to
rivers or the sea; and in our case the Nile, our
Saviour in other ways, saves us also at such
times from this calamity by rising high. And
when, on the other hand, the Gods purge the
earth with a flood of waters, all the herdsmen
17 Cf. Laws676 ff.
18 For the legend pf Phaethon see Ovid,Met. i. 751 ff.
πολιὸν οὐδέν. τὸ [22ξ] δὲ τούτων αἴτιον τόδε.
πολλαὶ κατὰ πολλὰ φθοραὶ γεγόνασιν
ἀνθρώπων καὶ ἔσονται, πυρὶ μὲν καὶ ὕδατι
μέγισται, μυρίοις δὲ ἄλλοις ἕτεραι βραχύτεραι.
τὸ γὰρ οὖν καὶ παρ᾽ ὑμῖν λεγόμενον, ὥς ποτε
Φαέθων Ἡλίου παῖς τὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἅρμα
ζεύξας διὰ τὸ μὴ δυνατὸς εἶναι κατὰ τὴν τοῦ
πατρὸς ὁδὸν ἐλαύνειν τά τ᾽ ἐπὶ γῆς
συνέκαυσεν καὶ αὐτὸς κεραυνωθεὶς διεφθάρη,
τοῦτο μύθου μὲν σχῆμα ἔχον λέγεται, τὸ δὲ
[22δ] ἀληθές ἐστι τῶν περὶ γῆν κατ᾽ οὐρανὸν
ἰόντων παράλλαξις καὶ διὰ μακρῶν χρόνων
γιγνομένη τῶν ἐπὶ γῆς πυρὶ πολλῷ φθορά. τότε
οὖν ὅσοι κατ᾽ ὄρη καὶ ἐν ὑψηλοῖς τόποις καὶ ἐν
ξηροῖς οἰκοῦσιν μᾶλλον διόλλυνται τῶν
ποταμοῖς καὶ θαλάττῃ προσοικούντων: ἡμῖν δὲ
ὁ Νεῖλος εἴς τε τἆλλα σωτὴρ καὶ τότε ἐκ
ταύτης τῆς ἀπορίας σῴζει λυόμενος. ὅταν δ᾽ αὖ
θεοὶ
τὴν
γῆν
ὕδασιν
καθαίροντες
κατακλύζωσιν, οἱ μὲν ἐν τοῖς ὄρεσιν
διασῴζονται βουκόλοι νομῆς τε, οἱ δ᾽ ἐν ταῖς
[22ε] παρ᾽ ὑμῖν πόλεσιν εἰς τὴν θάλατταν ὑπὸ
τῶν ποταμῶν φέρονται: κατὰ δὲ τήνδε χώραν
οὔτε τότε οὔτε ἄλλοτε ἄνωθεν ἐπὶ τὰς ἀρούρας
ὕδωρ ἐπιρρεῖ, τὸ δ᾽ ἐναντίον κάτωθεν πᾶν
ἐπανιέναι πέφυκεν. ὅθεν καὶ δι᾽ ἃς αἰτίας
τἀνθάδε σῳζόμενα λέγεται παλαιότατα: τὸ δὲ
ἀληθές, ἐν πᾶσιν τοῖς τόποις ὅπου μὴ χειμὼν
ἐξαίσιος ἢ καῦμα ἀπείργει, πλέον, [23α] τοτὲ
δὲ ἔλαττον ἀεὶ γένος ἐστὶν ἀνθρώπων. ὅσα δὲ ἢ
παρ᾽ ὑμῖν ἢ τῇδε ἢ καὶ κατ᾽ ἄλλον τόπον ὧν
who, like you, live in cities are carried by the
rivers into the sea. Whereas in this land, neither
then nor at any other time, does the water come
down from above on the fields, having always
a tendency to come up from below; for which
reason the traditions preserved here are the
most ancient. The fact is, that wherever the
extremity of winter frost or of summer does
not prevent, mankind exist, sometimes in
greater, sometimes in lesser numbers. [23a]
And whatever happened either in your country
or in ours, or in any other region of which we
are informed — if there were any actions noble
or great or in any other way remarkable, they
have all been written down by us of old, and
are preserved in our temples. Whereas just
when you and other nations are beginning to be
provided with letters and the other requisites of
civilized life, after the usual interval, the
stream from heaven, like a pestilence, comes
pouring down, [23b] and leaves only those of
you who are destitute of letters and education;
and so you have to begin all over again like
children, and know nothing of what happened
in ancient times, either among us or among
yourselves. As for those genealogies of yours
which you just now recounted to us, Solon,
they are no better than the tales of children. In
the first place you remember a single deluge
only, but there were many previous ones; in the
next place, you do not know that there
formerly dwelt in your land the fairest and
19 Cf. Laws677 B.
and shepherds that are in the mountains are
saved,19 [22e] but those in the cities of your
land are swept into the sea by the streams;
whereas In our country neither then nor at any
other time does the water pour down over our
fields from above, on the contrary it all tends
naturally to well up from below. Hence it is,
for these reasons, that what is here preserved is
reckoned to be most ancient; the truth being
that in every place where there is no excessive
heat or cold to prevent it there always exists
some human stock, now more, now less in
number. [23a] And if any event has occurred
that is noble or great or in any way
conspicuous, whether it be in your country or
in ours or in some other place of which we
know by report, all such events are recorded
from of old and preserved here in our temples;
whereas your people and the others are but
newly equipped, every time, with letters and all
such arts as civilized States require and when,
after the usual interval of years, like a plague,
the flood from heaven comes sweeping down
afresh upon your people, [23b] it leaves none
of you but the unlettered and uncultured, so
that you become young as ever, with no
knowledge of all that happened in old times in
this land or in your own. Certainly the
genealogies which you related just now, Solon,
concerning the people of your country, are little
better than children's tales; for, in the first
place, you remember but one deluge, though
ἀκοῇ ἴσμεν, εἴ πού τι καλὸν ἢ μέγα γέγονεν ἢ
καί τινα διαφορὰν ἄλλην ἔχον, πάντα
γεγραμμένα ἐκ παλαιοῦ τῇδ᾽ ἐστὶν ἐν τοῖς
ἱεροῖς καὶ σεσωσμένα: τὰ δὲ παρ᾽ ὑμῖν καὶ τοῖς
ἄλλοις ἄρτι κατεσκευασμένα ἑκάστοτε
τυγχάνει γράμμασι καὶ ἅπασιν ὁπόσων πόλεις
δέονται, καὶ πάλιν δι᾽ εἰωθότων ἐτῶν ὥσπερ
νόσημα ἥκει φερόμενον αὐτοῖς ῥεῦμα
οὐράνιον καὶ τοὺς ἀγραμμάτους [23β] τε καὶ
ἀμούσους ἔλιπεν ὑμῶν, ὥστε πάλιν ἐξ ἀρχῆς
οἷον νέοι γίγνεσθε, οὐδὲν εἰδότες οὔτε τῶν
τῇδε οὔτε τῶν παρ᾽ ὑμῖν, ὅσα ἦν ἐν τοῖς
παλαιοῖς
χρόνοις.
τὰ
γοῦν
νυνδὴ
γενεαλογηθέντα, ὦ Σόλων, περὶ τῶν παρ᾽ ὑμῖν
ἃ διῆλθες, παίδων βραχύ τι διαφέρει μύθων, οἳ
πρῶτον μὲν ἕνα γῆς κατακλυσμὸν μέμνησθε
πολλῶν ἔμπροσθεν γεγονότων, ἔτι δὲ τὸ
κάλλιστον καὶ ἄριστον γένος ἐπ᾽ ἀνθρώπους ἐν
τῇ χώρᾳ παρ᾽ ὑμῖν οὐκ ἴστε γεγονός, ἐξ ὧν σύ
τε καὶ πᾶσα ἡ [23ξ] πόλις ἔστιν τὰ νῦν ὑμῶν,
περιλειφθέντος ποτὲ σπέρματος βραχέος, ἀλλ᾽
ὑμᾶς λέληθεν διὰ τὸ τοὺς περιγενομένους ἐπὶ
πολλὰς γενεὰς γράμμασιν τελευτᾶν ἀφώνους.
ἦν γὰρ δή ποτε, ὦ Σόλων, ὑπὲρ τὴν μεγίστην
φθορὰν ὕδασιν ἡ νῦν Ἀθηναίων οὖσα πόλις
ἀρίστη πρός τε τὸν πόλεμον καὶ κατὰ πάντα
εὐνομωτάτη διαφερόντως: ᾗ κάλλιστα ἔργα καὶ
πολιτεῖαι γενέσθαι λέγονται κάλλισται πασῶν
ὁπόσων ὑπὸ [23δ] τὸν οὐρανὸν ἡμεῖς ἀκοὴν
παρεδεξάμεθα.’ ἀκούσας οὖν ὁ Σόλων ἔφη
θαυμάσαι καὶ πᾶσαν προθυμίαν σχεῖν δεόμενος
τῶν ἱερέων πάντα δι᾽ ἀκριβείας οἱ τὰ περὶ τῶν
noblest race of men which ever lived, and that
you and [23c] your whole city are descended
from a small seed or remnant of them which
survived. And this was unknown to you,
because, for many generations, the survivors of
that destruction died, leaving no written word.
For there was a time, Solon, before the great
deluge of all, when the city which now is
Athens was first in war and in every way the
best governed of all cities, is said to have
performed the noblest deeds and to have had
the fairest constitution of any of which
tradition tells, under the face of heaven.” [23d]
Solon marvelled at his words, and earnestly
requested the priests to inform him exactly and
in order about these former citizens. “You are
welcome to hear about them, Solon, said the
priest, both for your own sake and for that of
your city, and above all, for the sake of the
goddess who is the common patron and parent
and educator of both our cities. She founded
your city a thousand years before ours,
receiving from the Earth [23e] and Hephaestus
the seed of your race, and afterwards she
founded ours, of which the constitution is
recorded in our sacred registers to be eight
thousand years old. As touching your citizens
of nine thousand years ago, I will briefly
inform you of their laws and of their most
famous action; [24a] the exact particulars of
the whole we will hereafter go through at our
many had occurred previously; and next, you
are ignorant of the fact that the noblest and
most perfect race amongst men were born in
the land where you now dwell, and from them
both you yourself are sprung and the whole
[23c] of your existing city, out of some little
seed that chanced to be left over; but this has
escaped your notice because for many
generations the survivors died with no power
to express themselves in writing. For verily at
one time, Solon, before the greatest destruction
by water, what is now the Athenian State was
the bravest in war and supremely well
organized also in all other respects. It is said
that it possessed the most splendid works of art
and the noblest polity of any nation under
heaven of which we have heard tell.” [23d]
Upon hearing this, Solon said that he
marvelled, and with the utmost eagerness
requested the priest to recount for him in order
and exactly all the facts about those citizens of
old. The priest then said: “I begrudge you not
the story, Solon; nay, I will tell it, both for your
own sake and that of your city, and most of all
for the sake of the Goddess who has adopted
for her own both your land and this of ours,
and has nurtured and trained them,—yours first
by the space of a thousand years, when she had
received the seed of you from Ge [23e] and
Hephaestus,20 and after that ours. And the
duration of our civilization as set down in our
πάλαι πολιτῶν ἑξῆς διελθεῖν. τὸν οὖν ἱερέα
φάναι: ‘φθόνος οὐδείς, ὦ Σόλων, ἀλλὰ σοῦ τε
ἕνεκα ἐρῶ καὶ τῆς πόλεως ὑμῶν, μάλιστα δὲ
τῆς θεοῦ χάριν, ἣ τήν τε ὑμετέραν καὶ τήνδε
ἔλαχεν καὶ ἔθρεψεν καὶ ἐπαίδευσεν, προτέραν
μὲν τὴν παρ᾽ [23ε] ὑμῖν ἔτεσιν χιλίοις, ἐκ Γῆς
τε καὶ Ἡφαίστου τὸ σπέρμα παραλαβοῦσα
ὑμῶν, τήνδε δὲ ὑστέραν. τῆς δὲ ἐνθάδε
διακοσμήσεως παρ᾽ ἡμῖν ἐν τοῖς ἱεροῖς
γράμμασιν ὀκτακισχιλίων ἐτῶν ἀριθμὸς
γέγραπται. περὶ δὴ τῶν ἐνακισχίλια γεγονότων
ἔτη πολιτῶν σοι δηλώσω διὰ βραχέων νόμους,
καὶ τῶν ἔργων αὐτοῖς ὃ κάλλιστον ἐπράχθη: τὸ
δ᾽ ἀκριβὲς περὶ [24α] πάντων ἐφεξῆς εἰς αὖθις
κατὰ σχολὴν αὐτὰ τὰ γράμματα λαβόντες
διέξιμεν. τοὺς μὲν οὖν νόμους σκόπει πρὸς
τοὺς τῇδε: πολλὰ γὰρ παραδείγματα τῶν τότε
παρ᾽ ὑμῖν ὄντων ἐνθάδε νῦν ἀνευρήσεις,
πρῶτον μὲν τὸ τῶν ἱερέων γένος ἀπὸ τῶν
ἄλλων χωρὶς ἀφωρισμένον, μετὰ δὲ τοῦτο τὸ
τῶν δημιουργῶν, ὅτι καθ᾽ αὑτὸ ἕκαστον ἄλλῳ
δὲ οὐκ ἐπιμειγνύμενον δημιουργεῖ, τό τε τῶν
νομέων καὶ τὸ τῶν θηρευτῶν τό τε [24β] τῶν
γεωργῶν. καὶ δὴ καὶ τὸ μάχιμον γένος ᾔσθησαί
που τῇδε ἀπὸ πάντων τῶν γενῶν
κεχωρισμένον, οἷς οὐδὲν ἄλλο πλὴν τὰ περὶ
τὸν πόλεμον ὑπὸ τοῦ νόμου προσετάχθη
μέλειν: ἔτι δὲ ἡ τῆς ὁπλίσεως αὐτῶν σχέσις
ἀσπίδων καὶ δοράτων, οἷς ἡμεῖς πρῶτοι τῶν
περὶ τὴν Ἀσίαν ὡπλίσμεθα, τῆς θεοῦ καθάπερ
ἐν ἐκείνοις τοῖς τόποις παρ᾽ ὑμῖν πρώτοις
20 i.e., from the elements earth and fire, cf. 31 B. For the legend of Erechtheus, son of Ge and Hephaestus, and king of Athens (Hom. Il. ii. 547), see
Eurip.Ion.
leisure in the sacred registers themselves. If
you compare these very laws with ours you
will find that many of ours are the counterpart
of yours as they were in the olden time. In the
first place, there is the caste of priests, which is
separated from all the others; next, there are
the artificers, who ply their several crafts by
themselves and do not intermix; and also there
is the class of shepherds and of hunters, as well
as that of husbandmen; and you will observe,
too, that the warriors in Egypt [24b] are
distinct from all the other classes, and are
commanded by the law to devote themselves
solely to military pursuits; moreover, the
weapons which they carry are shields and
spears, a style of equipment which the goddess
taught of Asiatics first to us, as in your part of
the world first to you. Then as to wisdom, do
you observe how our law [24c] from the very
first made a study of the whole order of things,
extending even to prophecy and medicine
which gives health, out of these divine
elements deriving what was needful for human
life, and adding every sort of knowledge which
was akin to them. All this order and
arrangement the goddess first imparted to you
when establishing your city; and she chose the
spot of earth in which you were born, because
she saw that the happy temperament of the
seasons in that land would produce the wisest
of men. [24d] Wherefore the goddess, who was
a lover both of war and of wisdom, selected
21 Egypt being reckoned part of Asia.
sacred writings is 8000 years. Of the citizens,
then, who lived 9000 years ago, I will declare
to you briefly certain of their laws and the
noblest of the deeds they performed: [24a] the
full account in precise order and detail we shall
go through later at our leisure, taking the actual
writings. To get a view of their laws, look at
the laws here; for you will find existing here at
the present time many examples of the laws
which then existed in your city. You see, first,
how the priestly class is separated off from the
rest; next, the class of craftsmen, of which each
sort works by itself without mixing with any
other; then the classes of shepherds, hunters,
and farmers, each distinct and separate.
Moreover, the military class here, [24b] as no
doubt you have noticed, is kept apart from all
the other classes, being enjoined by the law to
devote itself solely to the work of training for
war. A further feature is the character of their
equipment with shields and spears; for we were
the first of the peoples of Asia 21 to adopt these
weapons, it being the Goddess who instructed
us, even as she instructed you first of all the
dwellers in yonder lands. Again, with regard to
wisdom, you perceive, no doubt, the law here
—how much attention [24c] it has devoted
from the very beginning to the Cosmic Order,
by discovering all the effects which the divine
causes produce upon human life, down to
divination and the art of medicine which aims
at health, and by its mastery also of all the
ἐνδειξαμένης. τὸ δ᾽ αὖ περὶ τῆς φρονήσεως,
ὁρᾷς που τὸν νόμον τῇδε ὅσην ἐπιμέλειαν
ἐποιήσατο εὐθὺς κατ᾽ ἀρχὰς περί τε [24ξ] τὸν
κόσμον, ἅπαντα μέχρι μαντικῆς καὶ ἰατρικῆς
πρὸς ὑγίειαν ἐκ τούτων θείων ὄντων εἰς τὰ
ἀνθρώπινα ἀνευρών, ὅσα τε ἄλλα τούτοις
ἕπεται μαθήματα πάντα κτησάμενος. ταύτην
οὖν δὴ τότε σύμπασαν τὴν διακόσμησιν καὶ
σύνταξιν
ἡ
θεὸς
προτέρους
ὑμᾶς
διακοσμήσασα κατῴκισεν, ἐκλεξαμένη τὸν
τόπον ἐν ᾧ γεγένησθε, τὴν εὐκρασίαν τῶν
ὡρῶν ἐν αὐτῷ κατιδοῦσα, ὅτι φρονιμωτάτους
ἄνδρας οἴσοι: ἅτε οὖν φιλοπόλεμός [24δ] τε
καὶ
φιλόσοφος
ἡ
θεὸς
οὖσα
τὸν
προσφερεστάτους αὐτῇ μέλλοντα οἴσειν τόπον
ἄνδρας,
τοῦτον
ἐκλεξαμένη
πρῶτον
κατῴκισεν. ᾠκεῖτε δὴ οὖν νόμοις τε τοιούτοις
χρώμενοι καὶ ἔτι μᾶλλον εὐνομούμενοι πάσῃ
τε παρὰ πάντας ἀνθρώπους ὑπερβεβληκότες
ἀρετῇ, καθάπερ εἰκὸς γεννήματα καὶ
παιδεύματα θεῶν ὄντας. πολλὰ μὲν οὖν ὑμῶν
καὶ μεγάλα ἔργα τῆς πόλεως τῇδε γεγραμμένα
θαυμάζεται, πάντων μὴν [24ε] ἓν ὑπερέχει
μεγέθει καὶ ἀρετῇ: λέγει γὰρ τὰ γεγραμμένα
ὅσην ἡ πόλις ὑμῶν ἔπαυσέν ποτε δύναμιν
ὕβρει πορευομένην ἅμα ἐπὶ πᾶσαν Εὐρώπην
καὶ Ἀσίαν, ἔξωθεν ὁρμηθεῖσαν ἐκ τοῦ
Ἀτλαντικοῦ πελάγους. τότε γὰρ πορεύσιμον ἦν
τὸ ἐκεῖ πέλαγος: νῆσον γὰρ πρὸ τοῦ στόματος
εἶχεν ὃ καλεῖτε, ὥς φατε, ὑμεῖς Ἡρακλέους
στήλας, ἡ δὲ νῆσος ἅμα Λιβύης ἦν καὶ Ἀσίας
μείζων, ἐξ ἧς ἐπιβατὸν ἐπὶ τὰς ἄλλας νήσους
and first of all settled that spot which was the
most likely to produce men likest herself. And
there you dwelt, having such laws as these and
still better ones, and excelled all mankind in all
virtue, as became the children and disciples of
the gods. Many great and wonderful deeds are
recorded of your state in our histories. But one
of them [24e] exceeds all the rest in greatness
and valour. For these histories tell of a mighty
power which unprovoked made an expedition
against the whole of Europe and Asia, and to
which your city put an end. This power came
forth out of the Atlantic Ocean, for in those
days the Atlantic was navigable; and there was
an island situated in front of the straits which
are by you called the Pillars of Heracles; the
island was larger than Libya and Asia put
together, and was the way to other islands, and
from these you might pass to the whole of the
opposite continent [25a] which surrounded the
true ocean; for this sea which is within the
Straits of Heracles is only a harbour, having a
narrow entrance, but that other is a real sea,
and the surrounding land may be most truly
called a boundless continent. Now in this
island of Atlantis there was a great and
wonderful empire which had rule over the
whole island and several others, and over parts
of the continent, and, furthermore, [25b] the
men of Atlantis had subjected the parts of
Libya within the columns of Heracles as far as
22 i.e., the Straits of Gibraltar.
23 i.e., Africa.
other subsidiary studies. So when, at that time,
the Goddess had furnished you, before all
others, with all this orderly and regular system,
she established your State, choosing the spot
wherein you were born since she perceived
therein a climate duly blended, and how that it
would bring forth men of supreme wisdom.
[24d] So it was that the Goddess, being herself
both a lover of war and a lover of wisdom,
chose the spot which was likely to bring forth
men most like unto herself, and this first she
established. Wherefore you lived under the rule
of such laws as these,—yea, and laws still
better,—and you surpassed all men in every
virtue, as became those who were the offspring
and nurslings of gods. Many, in truth, and great
are the achievements of your State, which are a
marvel to men as they are here recorded; but
there is one which stands out above all [24e]
both for magnitude and for nobleness. For it is
related in our records how once upon a time
your State stayed the course of a mighty host,
which, starting from a distant point in the
Atlantic ocean, was insolently advancing to
attack the whole of Europe, and Asia to boot.
For the ocean there was at that time navigable;
for in front of the mouth which you Greeks
call, as you say, 'the pillars of Heracles,' 22 there
lay an island which was larger than Libya 23 and
Asia together; and it was possible for the
travellers of that time to cross from it to the
τοῖς τότε ἐγίγνετο πορευομένοις, ἐκ δὲ τῶν
νήσων [25α] ἐπὶ τὴν καταντικρὺ πᾶσαν
ἤπειρον τὴν περὶ τὸν ἀληθινὸν ἐκεῖνον πόντον.
τάδε μὲν γάρ, ὅσα ἐντὸς τοῦ στόματος οὗ
λέγομεν, φαίνεται λιμὴν στενόν τινα ἔχων
εἴσπλουν: ἐκεῖνο δὲ πέλαγος ὄντως ἥ τε
περιέχουσα αὐτὸ γῆ παντελῶς ἀληθῶς
ὀρθότατ᾽ ἂν λέγοιτο ἤπειρος. ἐν δὲ δὴ τῇ
Ἀτλαντίδι νήσῳ ταύτῃ μεγάλη συνέστη καὶ
θαυμαστὴ δύναμις βασιλέων, κρατοῦσα μὲν
ἁπάσης τῆς νήσου, πολλῶν δὲ ἄλλων νήσων
καὶ μερῶν τῆς ἠπείρου: πρὸς δὲ τούτοις ἔτι τῶν
ἐντὸς τῇδε [25β] Λιβύης μὲν ἦρχον μέχρι πρὸς
Αἴγυπτον, τῆς δὲ Εὐρώπης μέχρι Τυρρηνίας.
αὕτη δὴ πᾶσα συναθροισθεῖσα εἰς ἓν ἡ δύναμις
τόν τε παρ᾽ ὑμῖν καὶ τὸν παρ᾽ ἡμῖν καὶ τὸν
ἐντὸς τοῦ στόματος πάντα τόπον μιᾷ ποτὲ
ἐπεχείρησεν ὁρμῇ δουλοῦσθαι. τότε οὖν ὑμῶν,
ὦ Σόλων, τῆς πόλεως ἡ δύναμις εἰς ἅπαντας
ἀνθρώπους διαφανὴς ἀρετῇ τε καὶ ῥώμῃ
ἐγένετο: πάντων γὰρ προστᾶσα εὐψυχίᾳ καὶ
τέχναις ὅσαι κατὰ πόλεμον, [25ξ] τὰ μὲν τῶν
Ἑλλήνων ἡγουμένη, τὰ δ᾽ αὐτὴ μονωθεῖσα ἐξ
ἀνάγκης τῶν ἄλλων ἀποστάντων, ἐπὶ τοὺς
ἐσχάτους ἀφικομένη κινδύνους, κρατήσασα
μὲν τῶν ἐπιόντων τρόπαιον ἔστησεν, τοὺς δὲ
μήπω
δεδουλωμένους
διεκώλυσεν
δουλωθῆναι, τοὺς δ᾽ ἄλλους, ὅσοι κατοικοῦμεν
ἐντὸς ὅρων Ἡρακλείων, ἀφθόνως ἅπαντας
ἠλευθέρωσεν. ὑστέρῳ δὲ χρόνῳ σεισμῶν
ἐξαισίων καὶ κατακλυσμῶν γενομένων, μιᾶς
Egypt, and of Europe as far as Tyrrhenia. This
vast power, gathered into one, endeavoured to
subdue at a blow our country and yours and the
whole of the region within the straits; and then,
Solon, your country shone forth, in the
excellence of her virtue and strength, among
all mankind. She was pre-eminent [25c] in
courage and military skill, and was the leader
of the Hellenes. And when the rest fell off from
her, being compelled to stand alone, after
having undergone the very extremity of danger,
she defeated and triumphed over the invaders,
and preserved from slavery those who were not
yet subjugated, and generously liberated all the
rest of us who dwell within the pillars. But
afterwards there occurred violent earthquakes
and floods; [25d] and in a single day and night
of misfortune all your warlike men in a body
sank into the earth, and the island of Atlantis in
like manner disappeared in the depths of the
sea. For which reason the sea in those parts is
impassable and impenetrable, because there is
a shoal of mud in the way; and this was caused
by the subsidence of the island.”
other islands, and from the islands to the whole
of the continent [25a] over against them which
encompasses that veritable ocean. For all that
we have here, lying within the mouth of which
we speak,24 is evidently a haven having a
narrow entrance; but that yonder is a real
ocean, and the land surrounding it may most
rightly be called, in the fullest and truest sense,
a continent. Now in this island of Atlantis there
existed a confederation of kings, of great and
marvellous power, which held sway over all
the island, and over many other islands also
and parts of the continent; and, moreover,
[25b] of the lands here within the Straits they
ruled over Libya as far as Egypt, and over
Europe as far as Tuscany. So this host, being
all gathered together, made an attempt one time
to enslave by one single onslaught both your
country and ours and the whole of the territory
within the Straits. And then it was, Solon, that
the manhood of your State showed itself
conspicuous for valor and might in the sight of
all the world. For it stood pre-eminent above
all [25c] in gallantry and all warlike arts, and
acting partly as leader of the Greeks, and partly
standing alone by itself when deserted by all
others, after encountering the deadliest perils, it
defeated the invaders and reared a trophy;
whereby it saved from slavery such as were not
as yet enslaved, and all the rest of us who
dwell within the bounds of Heracles it
ungrudgingly set free. But at a later time there
24 i.e., the Mediterranean Sea, contrasted with the Atlantic Ocean.
[25δ] ἡμέρας καὶ νυκτὸς χαλεπῆς ἐπελθούσης,
τό τε παρ᾽ ὑμῖν μάχιμον πᾶν ἁθρόον ἔδυ κατὰ
γῆς, ἥ τε Ἀτλαντὶς νῆσος ὡσαύτως κατὰ τῆς
θαλάττης δῦσα ἠφανίσθη: διὸ καὶ νῦν ἄπορον
καὶ ἀδιερεύνητον γέγονεν τοὐκεῖ πέλαγος,
πηλοῦ κάρτα βραχέος ἐμποδὼν ὄντος, ὃν ἡ
νῆσος ἱζομένη παρέσχετο.”
occurred portentous earthquakes and floods,
[25d] and one grievous day and night befell
them, when the whole body of your warriors
was swallowed up by the earth, and the island
of Atlantis in like manner was swallowed up by
the sea and vanished; wherefore also the ocean
at that spot has now become impassable and
unsearchable, being blocked up by the shoal
mud which the island created as it settled
down.”
I have told you briefly, Socrates, what the aged
Critias heard from Solon [25e] and related to
us. And when you were speaking yesterday
about your city and citizens, the tale which I
have just been repeating to you came into my
mind, and I remarked with astonishment how,
by some mysterious coincidence, you agreed in
almost every particular with the narrative of
Solon; but I did not like to speak [26a] at the
moment. For a long time had elapsed, and I
had forgotten too much; I thought that I must
first of all run over the narrative in my own
mind, and then I would speak. And so I readily
assented to your request yesterday, considering
that in all such cases the chief difficulty is to
find a tale suitable to our purpose, and that
with such a tale we should be fairly well
provided. And therefore, as Hermocrates has
told you, on my way home yesterday I at once
communicated the tale to my companions as I
remembered it; [26b] and after I left them,
during the night by thinking I recovered nearly
You have now heard, Socrates, in brief outline,
the account given by the elder Critias of what
he heard from Solon; [25e] and when you were
speaking yesterday about the State and the
citizens you were describing, I marvelled as I
called to mind the facts I am now relating,
reflecting what a strange piece of fortune it was
that your description coincided so exactly for
the most part with Solon's account. I was loath,
however, [26a] to speak on the instant; for
owing to lapse of time my recollection of his
account was not sufficiently clear. So I decided
that I ought not to relate it until I had first gone
over it all carefully in my own mind.
Consequently, I readily consented to the theme
you proposed yesterday, since I thought that we
should be reasonably well provided for the task
of furnishing a satisfactory discourse—which
in all such cases is the greatest task. So it was
that, as Hermocrates has said, the moment I left
your place yesterday I began to relate to them
the story as I recollected it, [26b] and after I
τὰ μὲν δὴ ῥηθέντα, ὦ Σώκρατες, ὑπὸ τοῦ
παλαιοῦ [25ε] Κριτίου κατ᾽ ἀκοὴν τὴν
Σόλωνος, ὡς συντόμως εἰπεῖν, ἀκήκοας:
λέγοντος δὲ δὴ χθὲς σοῦ περὶ πολιτείας τε καὶ
τῶν ἀνδρῶν οὓς ἔλεγες, ἐθαύμαζον
ἀναμιμνῃσκόμενος αὐτὰ ἃ νῦν λέγω, κατανοῶν
ὡς δαιμονίως ἔκ τινος τύχης οὐκ ἄπο σκοποῦ
συνηνέχθης τὰ πολλὰ οἷς Σόλων εἶπεν. οὐ μὴν
[26α] ἐβουλήθην παραχρῆμα εἰπεῖν: διὰ
χρόνου γὰρ οὐχ ἱκανῶς ἐμεμνήμην. ἐνενόησα
οὖν ὅτι χρεὼν εἴη με πρὸς ἐμαυτὸν πρῶτον
ἱκανῶς πάντα ἀναλαβόντα λέγειν οὕτως. ὅθεν
ταχὺ συνωμολόγησά σοι τὰ ἐπιταχθέντα χθές,
ἡγούμενος, ὅπερ ἐν ἅπασι τοῖς τοιοῖσδε
μέγιστον ἔργον, λόγον τινὰ πρέποντα τοῖς
βουλήμασιν ὑποθέσθαι, τούτου μετρίως ἡμᾶς
εὐπορήσειν. οὕτω δή, καθάπερ ὅδ᾽ εἶπεν, χθές
τε εὐθὺς ἐνθένδε ἀπιὼν [26β] πρὸς τούσδε
ἀνέφερον αὐτὰ ἀναμιμνῃσκόμενος, ἀπελθών τε
σχεδόν τι πάντα ἐπισκοπῶν τῆς νυκτὸς
ἀνέλαβον. ὡς δή τοι, τὸ λεγόμενον, τὰ παίδων
μαθήματα θαυμαστὸν ἔχει τι μνημεῖον. ἐγὼ
the whole it. Truly, as is often said, the lessons
of our childhood make wonderful impression
on our memories; for I am not sure that I could
remember all the discourse of yesterday, but I
should be much surprised if I forgot any of
these things which I have heard very long ago.
I listened at the time with childlike interest
[26c] to the old man’s narrative; he was very
ready to teach me, and I asked him again and
again to repeat his words, so that like an
indelible picture they were branded into my
mind. As soon as the day broke, I rehearsed
them as he spoke them to my companions, that
they, as well as myself, might have something
to say. And now, Socrates, to make an end my
preface, I am ready to tell you the whole tale. I
will give you not only the general heads, but
the particulars, as they were told to me. The
city and citizens, which you yesterday
described to us in fiction, [26d] we will now
transfer to the world of reality. It shall be the
ancient city of Athens, and we will suppose
that the citizens whom you imagined, were our
veritable ancestors, of whom the priest spoke;
they will perfectly harmonise, and there will be
no inconsistency in saying that the citizens of
your republic are these ancient Athenians. Let
us divide the subject among us, and all
endeavour according to our ability gracefully
to execute the task which you have imposed
upon us. Consider then, Socrates, if this
narrative is suited to the purpose, or [26e]
whether we should seek for some other instead.
parted from them I pondered it over during the
night and recovered, as I may say, the whole
story. Marvellous, indeed, is the way in which
the lessons of one's childhood “grip the mind,”
as the saying is. For myself, I know not
whether I could recall to mind all that I heard
yesterday; but as to the account I heard such a
great time ago, I should be immensely
surprised if a single detail of it has escaped me.
I had then the greatest pleasure and amusement
in hearing it, [26c] and the old man was eager
to tell me, since I kept questioning him
repeatedly, so that the story is stamped firmly
on my mind like the encaustic designs of an
indelible painting. Moreover, immediately after
daybreak I related this same story to our
friends here, so that they might share in my
rich provision of discourse. Now, therefore,—
and this is the purpose of all that I have been
saying,—I am ready to tell my tale, not in
summary outline only but in full detail just as I
heard it. And the city with its citizens which
you described to us yesterday, as it were in a
fable, [26d] we will now transport hither into
the realm of fact; for we will assume that the
city is that ancient city of ours, and declare that
the citizens you conceived are in truth those
actual progenitors of ours, of whom the priest
told. In all ways they will correspond, nor shall
we be out of tune if we affirm that those
citizens of yours are the very men who lived in
that age. Thus, with united effort, each taking
his part, we will endeavor to the best of our
γὰρ ἃ μὲν χθὲς ἤκουσα, οὐκ ἂν οἶδ᾽ εἰ
δυναίμην ἅπαντα ἐν μνήμῃ πάλιν λαβεῖν:
ταῦτα δὲ ἃ πάμπολυν χρόνον διακήκοα,
παντάπασι θαυμάσαιμ᾽ ἂν εἴ τί με αὐτῶν
διαπέφευγεν. ἦν μὲν οὖν μετὰ πολλῆς ἡδονῆς
καὶ [26ξ] παιδιᾶς τότε ἀκουόμενα, καὶ τοῦ
πρεσβύτου προθύμως με διδάσκοντος, ἅτ᾽
ἐμοῦ πολλάκις ἐπανερωτῶντος, ὥστε οἷον
ἐγκαύματα ἀνεκπλύτου γραφῆς ἔμμονά μοι
γέγονεν: καὶ δὴ καὶ τοῖσδε εὐθὺς ἔλεγον ἕωθεν
αὐτὰ ταῦτα, ἵνα εὐποροῖεν λόγων μετ᾽ ἐμοῦ.
νῦν οὖν, οὗπερ ἕνεκα πάντα ταῦτα εἴρηται,
λέγειν εἰμὶ ἕτοιμος, ὦ Σώκρατες, μὴ μόνον ἐν
κεφαλαίοις ἀλλ᾽ ὥσπερ ἤκουσα καθ᾽ ἕκαστον:
τοὺς δὲ πολίτας καὶ τὴν πόλιν ἣν χθὲς ἡμῖν ὡς
ἐν μύθῳ διῄεισθα σύ, νῦν μετενεγκόντες [26δ]
ἐπὶ τἀληθὲς δεῦρο θήσομεν ὡς ἐκείνην τήνδε
οὖσαν, καὶ τοὺς πολίτας οὓς διενοοῦ φήσομεν
ἐκείνους τοὺς ἀληθινοὺς εἶναι προγόνους
ἡμῶν, οὓς ἔλεγεν ὁ ἱερεύς. πάντως ἁρμόσουσι
καὶ οὐκ ἀπᾳσόμεθα λέγοντες αὐτοὺς εἶναι τοὺς
ἐν τῷ τότε ὄντας χρόνῳ. κοινῇ δὲ
διαλαμβάνοντες ἅπαντες πειρασόμεθα τὸ
πρέπον εἰς δύναμιν οἷς ἐπέταξας ἀποδοῦναι.
σκοπεῖν οὖν δὴ χρή, ὦ Σώκρατες, εἰ κατὰ νοῦν
ὁ λόγος ἡμῖν [26ε] οὗτος, ἤ τινα ἔτ᾽ ἄλλον ἀντ᾽
αὐτοῦ ζητητέον.
powers to do justice to the theme you have
prescribed. Wherefore, Socrates, we must
consider whether this story is to our mind, or
[26e] we have still to look for some other to
take its place.
Soc.
And what other, Critias, can we find that will
be better than this, which is natural and
suitable to the festival of the goddess, and has
the very great advantage of being a fact and not
a fiction? How or where shall we find another
if we abandon this? We cannot, and therefore
you must tell the tale, and good luck to you;
and I in return for my yesterday’s discourse
will now [27a] rest and be a listener.
Socrates
What story should we adopt, Critias, in
preference to this? For this story will be
admirably suited to the festival of the Goddess
which is now being held, because of its
connection with her; and the fact that it is no
invented fable but genuine history is allimportant. How, indeed, and where shall we
discover other stories if we let these slip? Nay,
it is impossible. You, therefore, must now
deliver your discourse (and may Good Fortune
attend you!), while I, in requital for my speech
of yesterday, must now [27a] keep silence in
my turn and hearken.
Σωκράτης
καὶ τίν᾽ ἄν, ὦ Κριτία, μᾶλλον ἀντὶ τούτου
μεταλάβοιμεν, ὃς τῇ τε παρούσῃ τῆς θεοῦ
θυσίᾳ διὰ τὴν οἰκειότητ᾽ ἂν πρέποι μάλιστα, τό
τε μὴ πλασθέντα μῦθον ἀλλ᾽ ἀληθινὸν λόγον
εἶναι πάμμεγά που. πῶς γὰρ καὶ πόθεν ἄλλους
ἀνευρήσομεν ἀφέμενοι τούτων; οὐκ ἔστιν,
ἀλλ᾽ ἀγαθῇ τύχῃ χρὴ λέγειν μὲν ὑμᾶς, ἐμὲ δὲ
ἀντὶ τῶν χθὲς λόγων νῦν [27α] ἡσυχίαν ἄγοντα
ἀντακούειν.
Crit.
Let me proceed to explain to you, Socrates, the
order in which we have arranged our
entertainment. Our intention is, that Timaeus,
who is the most of an astronomer amongst us,
and has made the nature of the universe his
special study, should speak first, beginning
with the generation of the world and going
down to the creation of man; next, I am to
receive the men whom he has created [27b] of
whom some will have profited by the excellent
education which you have given them; and
Critias
Consider now, Socrates, the order of the feast
as we have arranged it. Seeing that Timaeus is
our best astronomer and has made it his special
task to learn about the nature of the Universe, it
seemed good to us that he should speak first,
beginning with the origin of the Cosmos and
ending with the generation of mankind. After
him I am to follow, taking over from him
mankind, already as it were created by his
speech, and taking over from you [27b] a select
number of men superlatively well trained.
Κριτίας
σκόπει δὴ τὴν τῶν ξενίων σοι διάθεσιν, ὦ
Σώκρατες, ᾗ διέθεμεν. ἔδοξεν γὰρ ἡμῖν
Τίμαιον μέν, ἅτε ὄντα ἀστρονομικώτατον
ἡμῶν καὶ περὶ φύσεως τοῦ παντὸς εἰδέναι
μάλιστα ἔργον πεποιημένον, πρῶτον λέγειν
ἀρχόμενον ἀπὸ τῆς τοῦ κόσμου γενέσεως,
τελευτᾶν δὲ εἰς ἀνθρώπων φύσιν: ἐμὲ δὲ μετὰ
τοῦτον, ὡς παρὰ μὲν τούτου δεδεγμένον
ἀνθρώπους τῷ λόγῳ γεγονότας, παρὰ σοῦ δὲ
πεπαιδευμένους διαφερόντως [27β] αὐτῶν
τινας, κατὰ δὲ τὸν Σόλωνος λόγον τε καὶ νόμον
then, in accordance with the tale of Solon, and
equally with his law, we will bring them into
court and make them citizens, as if they were
those very Athenians whom the sacred
Egyptian record has recovered from oblivion,
and thenceforward we will speak of them as
Athenians and fellow-citizens.
Then, in accordance with the word and law of
Solon, I am to bring these before ourselves, as
before a court of judges, and make them
citizens of this State of ours, regarding them as
Athenians of that bygone age whose existence,
so long forgotten, has been revealed to us by
the record of the sacred writings; and
thenceforward I am to proceed with my
discourse as if I were speaking of men who
already are citizens and men of Athens.
εἰσαγαγόντα αὐτοὺς ὡς εἰς δικαστὰς ἡμᾶς
ποιῆσαι πολίτας τῆς πόλεως τῆσδε ὡς ὄντας
τοὺς τότε Ἀθηναίους, οὓς ἐμήνυσεν ἀφανεῖς
ὄντας ἡ τῶν ἱερῶν γραμμάτων φήμη, τὰ λοιπὰ
δὲ ὡς περὶ πολιτῶν καὶ Ἀθηναίων ὄντων ἤδη
ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς λόγους.
Soc.
I see that I shall receive in my turn a perfect
and splendid feast of reason. And now,
Timaeus, you, I suppose, should speak next,
after duly calling upon the Gods. [27c]
Socrates
Bounteous and magnificent, methinks, is the
feast of speech with which I am to be requited.
So then, it will be your task, it seems, to speak
next, when you have duly invoked the gods.
[27c]
Σωκράτης
ελέως τε καὶ λαμπρῶς ἔοικα ἀνταπολήψεσθαι
τὴν τῶν λόγων ἑστίασιν. σὸν οὖν ἔργον λέγειν
ἄν, ὦ Τίμαιε, τὸ μετὰ τοῦτο, ὡς ἔοικεν, εἴη
καλέσαντα κατὰ νόμον θεούς. [27ξ]
Tim.
All men, Socrates, who have any degree of
right feeling, at the beginning of every
enterprise, whether small or great, always call
upon God. And we, too, who are going to
discourse of the nature of the universe, how
created or how existing without creation, if we
be not altogether out of our wits, must invoke
the aid of Gods and Goddesses and pray that
our words may be acceptable to them and
consistent with themselves. Let this, then, be
our invocation of the Gods, [27d] to which I
add an exhortation of myself to speak in such
manner as will be most intelligible to you, and
will most accord with my own intent.
Timaeus
Nay, as to that, Socrates, all men who possess
even a small share of good sense call upon God
always at the outset of every undertaking, be it
small or great; we therefore who are purposing
to deliver a discourse concerning the Universe,
how it was created or haply is uncreate, must
needs invoke Gods and Goddesses (if so be
that we are not utterly demented), praying that
all we say may be approved by them in the first
place, and secondly by ourselves. Grant, then,
that we have thus duly invoked the deities;
[27d] ourselves we must also invoke so to
proceed, that you may most easily learn and I
may most clearly expound my views regarding
Τίμαιος
ἀλλ᾽, ὦ Σώκρατες, τοῦτό γε δὴ πάντες ὅσοι καὶ
κατὰ βραχὺ σωφροσύνης μετέχουσιν, ἐπὶ
παντὸς ὁρμῇ καὶ σμικροῦ καὶ μεγάλου
πράγματος θεὸν ἀεί που καλοῦσιν: ἡμᾶς δὲ
τοὺς περὶ τοῦ παντὸς λόγους ποιεῖσθαί πῃ
μέλλοντας, ᾗ γέγονεν ἢ καὶ ἀγενές ἐστιν, εἰ μὴ
παντάπασι παραλλάττομεν, ἀνάγκη θεούς τε
καὶ θεὰς ἐπικαλουμένους εὔχεσθαι πάντα κατὰ
νοῦν ἐκείνοις μὲν μάλιστα, ἑπομένως [27δ] δὲ
ἡμῖν εἰπεῖν. καὶ τὰ μὲν περὶ θεῶν ταύτῃ
παρακεκλήσθω: τὸ δ᾽ ἡμέτερον παρακλητέον,
ᾗ ῥᾷστ᾽ ἂν ὑμεῖς μὲν μάθοιτε, ἐγὼ δὲ ᾗ
διανοοῦμαι μάλιστ᾽ ἂν περὶ τῶν προκειμένων
ἐνδειξαίμην.
the subject before us.
First then, in my judgment, we must make a
distinction and ask, What is that which always
is [28a] and has no becoming; and what is that
which is always becoming and never is? That
which is apprehended by intelligence and
reason is always in the same state; but that
which is conceived by opinion with the help of
sensation and without reason, is always in a
process of becoming and perishing and never
really is. Now everything that becomes or is
created must of necessity be created by some
cause, for without a cause nothing can be
created. The work of the creator, whenever he
looks to the unchangeable and fashions the
form and nature of his work after an
unchangeable pattern, must necessarily [28b]
be made fair and perfect; but when he looks to
the created only, and uses a created pattern, it
is not fair or perfect. Was the heaven then or
the world, whether called by this or by any
other more appropriate name — assuming the
name, I am asking a question which has to be
asked at the beginning of an enquiry about
anything — was the world, I say, always in
existence and without beginning? or created,
and had it a beginning? Created, I reply, being
visible and tangible and having a body, and
therefore sensible; [28c] and all sensible things
are apprehended by opinion and sense and are
in a process of creation and created. Now that
which is created must, as we affirm, of
Now first of all we must, in my judgement,
make the following distinction. What is that
which is Existent always [28a] and has no
Becoming? And what is that which is
Becoming always and never is Existent? Now
the one of these is apprehensible by thought
with the aid of reasoning, since it is ever
uniformly existent; whereas the other is an
object of opinion with the aid of unreasoning
sensation, since it becomes and perishes and is
never really existent. Again, everything which
becomes must of necessity become owing to
some Cause; for without a cause it is
impossible for anything to attain becoming.
But when the artificer of any object, in forming
its shape and quality, keeps his gaze fixed on
that which is uniform, using a model of this
kind, that object, executed in this way, must of
necessity [28b] be beautiful; but whenever he
gazes at that which has come into existence
and uses a created model, the object thus
executed is not beautiful. Now the whole
Heaven, or Cosmos, or if there is any other
name which it specially prefers, by that let us
call it,—so, be its name what it may, we must
first investigate concerning it that primary
question which has to be investigated at the
outset in every case,—namely, whether it has
existed always, having no beginning of
generation, or whether it has come into
existence, having begun from some beginning.
ἔστιν οὖν δὴ κατ᾽ ἐμὴν δόξαν πρῶτον
διαιρετέον τάδε: τί τὸ ὂν ἀεί, γένεσιν δὲ οὐκ
ἔχον, καὶ τί τὸ γιγνόμενον μὲν [28α] ἀεί, ὂν δὲ
οὐδέποτε; τὸ μὲν δὴ νοήσει μετὰ λόγου
περιληπτόν, ἀεὶ κατὰ ταὐτὰ ὄν, τὸ δ᾽ αὖ δόξῃ
μετ᾽ αἰσθήσεως ἀλόγου δοξαστόν, γιγνόμενον
καὶ ἀπολλύμενον, ὄντως δὲ οὐδέποτε ὄν. πᾶν
δὲ αὖ τὸ γιγνόμενον ὑπ᾽ αἰτίου τινὸς ἐξ
ἀνάγκης γίγνεσθαι: παντὶ γὰρ ἀδύνατον χωρὶς
αἰτίου γένεσιν σχεῖν. ὅτου μὲν οὖν ἂν ὁ
δημιουργὸς πρὸς τὸ κατὰ ταὐτὰ ἔχον βλέπων
ἀεί, τοιούτῳ τινὶ προσχρώμενος παραδείγματι,
τὴν ἰδέαν καὶ δύναμιν αὐτοῦ ἀπεργάζηται,
καλὸν ἐξ ἀνάγκης [28β] οὕτως ἀποτελεῖσθαι
πᾶν: οὗ δ᾽ ἂν εἰς γεγονός, γεννητῷ
παραδείγματι προσχρώμενος, οὐ καλόν. ὁ δὴ
πᾶς οὐρανὸς —ἢ κόσμος ἢ καὶ ἄλλο ὅτι ποτὲ
ὀνομαζόμενος μάλιστ᾽ ἂν δέχοιτο, τοῦθ᾽ ἡμῖν
ὠνομάσθω—σκεπτέον δ᾽ οὖν περὶ αὐτοῦ
πρῶτον, ὅπερ ὑπόκειται περὶ παντὸς ἐν ἀρχῇ
δεῖν σκοπεῖν, πότερον ἦν ἀεί, γενέσεως ἀρχὴν
ἔχων οὐδεμίαν, ἢ γέγονεν, ἀπ᾽ ἀρχῆς τινος
ἀρξάμενος. γέγονεν: ὁρατὸς γὰρ ἁπτός τέ ἐστιν
καὶ σῶμα ἔχων, πάντα δὲ τὰ τοιαῦτα αἰσθητά,
τὰ [28ξ] δ᾽ αἰσθητά, δόξῃ περιληπτὰ μετ᾽
αἰσθήσεως, γιγνόμενα καὶ γεννητὰ ἐφάνη. τῷ
δ᾽ αὖ γενομένῳ φαμὲν ὑπ᾽ αἰτίου τινὸς
ἀνάγκην εἶναι γενέσθαι. τὸν μὲν οὖν ποιητὴν
καὶ πατέρα τοῦδε τοῦ παντὸς εὑρεῖν τε ἔργον
καὶ εὑρόντα εἰς πάντας ἀδύνατον λέγειν: τόδε
δ᾽ οὖν πάλιν ἐπισκεπτέον περὶ αὐτοῦ, πρὸς
necessity be created by a cause. But the father
and maker of all this universe is past finding
out; and even if we found him, to tell of him to
all men would be impossible. And there is still
a question to be asked about him: Which of the
patterns had the artificer in view when he made
the world [29a] — the pattern of the
unchangeable, or of that which is created? If
the world be indeed fair and the artificer good,
it is manifest that he must have looked to that
which is eternal; but if what cannot be said
without blasphemy is true, then to the created
pattern. Every one will see that he must have
looked to, the eternal; for the world is the
fairest of creations and he is the best of causes.
And having been created in this way, the world
has been framed in the likeness of that which is
apprehended by reason and mind and is
unchangeable, [29b] and must therefore of
necessity, if this is admitted, be a copy of
something. Now it is all-important that the
beginning of everything should be according to
nature. And in speaking of the copy and the
original we may assume that words are akin to
the matter which they describe; when they
relate to the lasting and permanent and
intelligible, they ought to be lasting and
unalterable, and, as far as their nature allows,
irrefutable and immovable [29c] — nothing
less. But when they express only the copy or
likeness and not the eternal things themselves,
they need only be likely and analogous to the
25 Cf. 28 A.
It has come into existence; for it is visible and
tangible and possessed of a body; and all such
things are sensible, [28c] and things sensible,
being apprehensible by opinion with the aid of
sensation, come into existence, as we saw,25
and are generated. And that which has come
into existence must necessarily, as we say, have
come into existence by reason of some Cause.
Now to discover the Maker and Father of this
Universe were a task indeed; and having
discovered Him, to declare Him unto all men
were a thing impossible. However, let us return
and inquire further concerning the Cosmos,—
after which of the Models did its Architect
construct it? [29a] Was it after that which is
self-identical and uniform, or after that which
has come into existence; Now if so be that this
Cosmos is beautiful and its Constructor good,
it is plain that he fixed his gaze on the Eternal;
but if otherwise (which is an impious
supposition), his gaze was on that which has
come into existence. But it is clear to everyone
that his gaze was on the Eternal; for the
Cosmos is the fairest of all that has come into
existence, and He the best of all the Causes. So
having in this wise come into existence, it has
been constructed after the pattern of that which
is apprehensible by reason and thought and is
self-identical. [29b] Again, if these premisses
be granted, it is wholly necessary that this
Cosmos should be a Copy of something. Now
in regard to every matter it is most important to
πότερον τῶν παραδειγμάτων ὁ τεκταινόμενος
αὐτὸν [29α] ἀπηργάζετο, πότερον πρὸς τὸ
κατὰ ταὐτὰ καὶ ὡσαύτως ἔχον ἢ πρὸς τὸ
γεγονός. εἰ μὲν δὴ καλός ἐστιν ὅδε ὁ κόσμος ὅ
τε δημιουργὸς ἀγαθός, δῆλον ὡς πρὸς τὸ
ἀίδιον ἔβλεπεν: εἰ δὲ ὃ μηδ᾽ εἰπεῖν τινι θέμις,
πρὸς γεγονός. παντὶ δὴ σαφὲς ὅτι πρὸς τὸ
ἀίδιον: ὁ μὲν γὰρ κάλλιστος τῶν γεγονότων, ὁ
δ᾽ ἄριστος τῶν αἰτίων. οὕτω δὴ γεγενημένος
πρὸς τὸ λόγῳ καὶ φρονήσει περιληπτὸν καὶ
κατὰ ταὐτὰ ἔχον δεδημιούργηται: [29β] τούτων
δὲ ὑπαρχόντων αὖ πᾶσα ἀνάγκη τόνδε τὸν
κόσμον εἰκόνα τινὸς εἶναι. μέγιστον δὴ παντὸς
ἄρξασθαι κατὰ φύσιν ἀρχήν. ὧδε οὖν περί τε
εἰκόνος καὶ περὶ τοῦ παραδείγματος αὐτῆς
διοριστέον, ὡς ἄρα τοὺς λόγους, ὧνπέρ εἰσιν
ἐξηγηταί, τούτων αὐτῶν καὶ συγγενεῖς ὄντας:
τοῦ μὲν οὖν μονίμου καὶ βεβαίου καὶ μετὰ νοῦ
καταφανοῦς μονίμους καὶ ἀμεταπτώτους—
καθ᾽ ὅσον οἷόν τε καὶ ἀνελέγκτοις προσήκει
λόγοις εἶναι καὶ ἀνικήτοις, τούτου δεῖ [29ξ]
μηδὲν ἐλλείπειν—τοὺς δὲ τοῦ πρὸς μὲν ἐκεῖνο
ἀπεικασθέντος, ὄντος δὲ εἰκόνος εἰκότας ἀνὰ
λόγον τε ἐκείνων ὄντας: ὅτιπερ πρὸς γένεσιν
οὐσία, τοῦτο πρὸς πίστιν ἀλήθεια. ἐὰν οὖν, ὦ
Σώκρατες, πολλὰ πολλῶν πέρι, θεῶν καὶ τῆς
τοῦ παντὸς γενέσεως, μὴ δυνατοὶ γιγνώμεθα
πάντῃ πάντως αὐτοὺς ἑαυτοῖς ὁμολογουμένους
λόγους καὶ ἀπηκριβωμένους ἀποδοῦναι, μὴ
θαυμάσῃς: ἀλλ᾽ ἐὰν ἄρα μηδενὸς ἧττον
παρεχώμεθα
εἰκότας,
ἀγαπᾶν
χρή,
μεμνημένους ὡς ὁ λέγων ἐγὼ [29δ] ὑμεῖς τε οἱ
real words. As being is to becoming, so is truth
to belief. If then, Socrates, amid the many
opinions about the gods and the generation of
the universe, we are not able to give notions
which are altogether and in every respect exact
and consistent with one another, do not be
surprised. Enough, if we adduce probabilities
as likely as any others; for we must remember
that I who am the speaker, [29d] and you who
are the judges, are only mortal men, and we
ought to accept the tale which is probable and
enquire no further.
begin at the natural beginning. Accordingly, in
dealing with a copy and its model, we must
affirm that the accounts given will themselves
be akin to the diverse objects which they serve
to explain; those which deal with what is
abiding and firm and discernible by the aid of
thought will be abiding and unshakable; and in
so far as it is possible and fitting for statements
to be irrefutable and invincible, [29c] they
must in no wise fall short thereof; whereas the
accounts of that which is copied after the
likeness of that Model, and is itself a likeness,
will be analogous thereto and possess
likelihood; for I as Being is to Becoming, so is
Truth to Belief. Wherefore, Socrates, if in our
treatment of a great host of matters regarding
the Gods and the generation of the Universe we
prove unable to give accounts that are always
in all respects self-consistent and perfectly
exact, be not thou surprised; rather we should
be content if we can furnish accounts that are
inferior to none in likelihood, remembering
that both I who speak [29d] and you who judge
are but human creatures, so that it becomes us
to accept the likely account of these matters
and forbear to search beyond it.
κριταὶ φύσιν ἀνθρωπίνην ἔχομεν, ὥστε περὶ
τούτων τὸν εἰκότα μῦθον ἀποδεχομένους
πρέπει τούτου μηδὲν ἔτι πέρα ζητεῖν.
Soc.
Excellent, Timaeus; and we will do precisely
as you bid us. The prelude is charming, and is
already accepted by us — may we beg of you
to proceed to the strain?
Socrates
Excellent, Timaeus! We must by all means
accept it, as you suggest; and certainly we have
most cordially accepted your prelude; so now,
we beg of you, proceed straight on with the
main theme.
Σωκράτης
ἄριστα, ὦ Τίμαιε, παντάπασί τε ὡς κελεύεις
ἀποδεκτέον: τὸ μὲν οὖν προοίμιον θαυμασίως
ἀπεδεξάμεθά σου, τὸν δὲ δὴ νόμον ἡμῖν ἐφεξῆς
πέραινε.
Tim.
Let me tell you then why the creator made
[29e] this world of generation. He was good,
and the good can never have any jealousy of
anything. And being free from jealousy, he
desired that all things should be as like himself
as they could be. This is in the truest sense the
origin of creation and of the world, as we shall
do well in believing on the testimony of wise
men: [30a] God desired that all things should
be good and nothing bad, so far as this was
attainable. Wherefore also finding the whole
visible sphere not at rest, but moving in an
irregular and disorderly fashion, out of disorder
he brought order, considering that this was in
every way better than the other. Now the deeds
of the best could never be or have been other
than the fairest; and the creator, reflecting on
the things which are by nature visible, [30b]
found that no unintelligent creature taken as a
whole was fairer than the intelligent taken as a
whole; and that intelligence could not be
present in anything which was devoid of soul.
For which reason, when he was framing the
universe, he put intelligence in soul, and soul
in body, that he might be the creator of a work
which was by nature fairest and best.
Wherefore, using the language of probability,
we may say that the world became a living
creature truly endowed with soul and
intelligence by the providence of God. [30c]
Timaeus
Let us now state the Cause wherefore He that
constructed it [29e] constructed Becoming and
the All. He was good, and in him that is good
no envy ariseth ever concerning anything; and
being devoid of envy He desired that all should
be, so far as possible, like unto Himself. This
principle, then, we shall be wholly right in
accepting from men of wisdom as being above
all the supreme originating principle of
Becoming and the Cosmos. [30a] For God
desired that, so far as possible, all things
should be good and nothing evil; wherefore,
when He took over all that was visible, seeing
that it was not in a state of rest but in a state of
discordant and disorderly motion, He brought
it into order out of disorder, deeming that the
former state is in all ways better than the latter.
For Him who is most good it neither was nor is
permissible to perform any action save what is
most fair. As He reflected, therefore, He
perceived that of such creatures as are by
nature visible, [30b] none that is irrational will
be fairer, comparing wholes with wholes, than
the rational; and further, that reason cannot
possibly belong to any apart from Soul. So
because of this reflection He constructed
reason within soul and soul within body as He
fashioned the All, that so the work He was
executing might be of its nature most fair and
most good. Thus, then, in accordance with the
likely account, we must declare that this
Τίμαιος
λέγωμεν δὴ δι᾽ ἥντινα αἰτίαν γένεσιν καὶ τὸ
πᾶν [29ε] τόδε ὁ συνιστὰς συνέστησεν. ἀγαθὸς
ἦν, ἀγαθῷ δὲ οὐδεὶς περὶ οὐδενὸς οὐδέποτε
ἐγγίγνεται φθόνος: τούτου δ᾽ ἐκτὸς ὢν πάντα
ὅτι μάλιστα ἐβουλήθη γενέσθαι παραπλήσια
ἑαυτῷ. ταύτην δὴ γενέσεως καὶ κόσμου
μάλιστ᾽ ἄν τις ἀρχὴν κυριωτάτην [30α] παρ᾽
ἀνδρῶν φρονίμων ἀποδεχόμενος ὀρθότατα
ἀποδέχοιτ᾽ ἄν. βουληθεὶς γὰρ ὁ θεὸς ἀγαθὰ μὲν
πάντα, φλαῦρον δὲ μηδὲν εἶναι κατὰ δύναμιν,
οὕτω δὴ πᾶν ὅσον ἦν ὁρατὸν παραλαβὼν οὐχ
ἡσυχίαν ἄγον ἀλλὰ κινούμενον πλημμελῶς καὶ
ἀτάκτως, εἰς τάξιν αὐτὸ ἤγαγεν ἐκ τῆς ἀταξίας,
ἡγησάμενος ἐκεῖνο τούτου πάντως ἄμεινον.
θέμις δ᾽ οὔτ᾽ ἦν οὔτ᾽ ἔστιν τῷ ἀρίστῳ δρᾶν
ἄλλο πλὴν τὸ κάλλιστον: [30β] λογισάμενος
οὖν ηὕρισκεν ἐκ τῶν κατὰ φύσιν ὁρατῶν οὐδὲν
ἀνόητον τοῦ νοῦν ἔχοντος ὅλον ὅλου κάλλιον
ἔσεσθαί ποτε ἔργον, νοῦν δ᾽ αὖ χωρὶς ψυχῆς
ἀδύνατον παραγενέσθαι τῳ. διὰ δὴ τὸν
λογισμὸν τόνδε νοῦν μὲν ἐν ψυχῇ, ψυχὴν δ᾽ ἐν
σώματι συνιστὰς τὸ πᾶν συνετεκταίνετο, ὅπως
ὅτι κάλλιστον εἴη κατὰ φύσιν ἄριστόν τε ἔργον
ἀπειργασμένος. οὕτως οὖν δὴ κατὰ λόγον τὸν
εἰκότα δεῖ λέγειν τόνδε τὸν κόσμον ζῷον
ἔμψυχον ἔννουν τε τῇ ἀληθείᾳ διὰ τὴν τοῦ
θεοῦ [30ξ] γενέσθαι πρόνοιαν.
Cosmos has verily come into existence as a
Living Creature endowed with soul and reason
owing to the providence of God. [30c]
This being supposed, let us proceed to the next
stage: In the likeness of what animal did the
Creator make the world? It would be an
unworthy thing to liken it to any nature which
exists as a part only; for nothing can be
beautiful which is like any imperfect thing; but
let us suppose the world to be the very image
of that whole of which all other animals both
individually and in their tribes are portions. For
the original of the universe contains in itself all
intelligible beings, just as this world
comprehends us and all other visible creatures.
[30d] For the Deity, intending to make this
world like the fairest and most perfect of
intelligible beings, framed one visible animal
comprehending within itself all other animals
of a kindred nature.
This being established, we must declare that
which comes next in order. In the semblance of
which of the living Creatures did the
Constructor of the cosmos construct it? We
shall not deign to accept any of those which
belong by nature to the category of “parts”; for
nothing that resembles the imperfect would
ever become fair. But we shall affirm that the
Cosmos, more than aught else, resembles most
closely that Living Creature of which all other
living creatures, severally and generically, are
portions. For that Living Creature embraces
and contains within itself all the intelligible
Living Creatures, just as this Universe contains
us and all the other visible living creatures
[30d] that have been fashioned. For since God
desired to make it resemble most closely that
intelligible Creature which is fairest of all and
in all ways most perfect, He constructed it as a
Living Creature, one and visible, containing
within itself all the living creatures which are
by nature akin to itself.
τούτου δ᾽ ὑπάρχοντος αὖ τὰ τούτοις ἐφεξῆς
ἡμῖν λεκτέον, τίνι τῶν ζῴων αὐτὸν εἰς
ὁμοιότητα ὁ συνιστὰς συνέστησεν. τῶν μὲν
οὖν ἐν μέρους εἴδει πεφυκότων μηδενὶ
καταξιώσωμεν —ἀτελεῖ γὰρ ἐοικὸς οὐδέν ποτ᾽
ἂν γένοιτο καλόν—οὗ δ᾽ ἔστιν τἆλλα ζῷα καθ᾽
ἓν καὶ κατὰ γένη μόρια, τούτῳ πάντων
ὁμοιότατον αὐτὸν εἶναι τιθῶμεν. τὰ γὰρ δὴ
νοητὰ ζῷα πάντα ἐκεῖνο ἐν ἑαυτῷ περιλαβὸν
ἔχει, καθάπερ ὅδε ὁ [30δ] κόσμος ἡμᾶς ὅσα τε
ἄλλα θρέμματα συνέστηκεν ὁρατά. τῷ γὰρ τῶν
νοουμένων καλλίστῳ καὶ κατὰ πάντα τελέῳ
μάλιστα αὐτὸν ὁ θεὸς ὁμοιῶσαι βουληθεὶς
ζῷον ἓν ὁρατόν, πάνθ᾽ ὅσα
[31a] Are we right in saying that there is one
world, or that they are many and infinite?
There must be one only, if the created copy is
to accord with the original. For that which
includes all other intelligible creatures cannot
[31a] Are we right, then, in describing the
Heaven as one, or would it be more correct to
speak of heavens as many or infinite26 in
number? One it must be termed, if it is to be
framed after its Pattern. For that which
[31α] αὐτοῦ κατὰ φύσιν συγγενῆ ζῷα ἐντὸς
ἔχον ἑαυτοῦ, συνέστησε. πότερον οὖν ὀρθῶς
ἕνα οὐρανὸν προσειρήκαμεν, ἢ πολλοὺς καὶ
ἀπείρους λέγειν ἦν ὀρθότερον; ἕνα, εἴπερ κατὰ
τὸ παράδειγμα δεδημιουργημένος ἔσται. τὸ
26 Cf. 55 C ff. The Atomists held that there is an infinite number of worlds.
have a second or companion; in that case there
would be need of another living being which
would include both, and of which they would
be parts, and the likeness would be more truly
said to resemble not them, but that other which
included them. [31b] In order then that the
world might be solitary, like the perfect animal,
the creator made not two worlds or an infinite
number of them; but there is and ever will be
one only-begotten and created heaven. Now
that which is created is of necessity corporeal,
and also visible and tangible. And nothing is
visible where there is no fire, or tangible which
has no solidity, and nothing is solid without
earth. Wherefore also God in the beginning of
creation made the body of the universe to
consist of fire and earth. But two things cannot
be rightly put together without a third; [31c]
there must be some bond of union between
them. And the fairest bond is that which makes
the most complete fusion of itself and the
things which it combines; and proportion is
best adapted to effect such a union. For
whenever in any three numbers, whether cube
or square, [32a] there is a mean, which is to the
last term what the first term is to it; and again,
when the mean is to the first term as the last
term is to the mean — then the mean becoming
first and last, and the first and last both
becoming means, they will all of them of
necessity come to be the same, and having
embraces all intelligible Living Creatures
could never be second, with another beside it;
for if so, there must needs exist yet another
Living Creature, which should embrace them
both, and of which they two would each be a
part; in which case this Universe could no
longer be rightly described as modelled on
these two, but rather on that third Creature
which contains them both. [31b] Wherefore, in
order that this Creature might resemble the all
perfect Living Creature in respect of its
uniqueness, for this reason its Maker made
neither two Universes nor an infinite number,
but there is and will continue to be this one
generated Heaven, unique of its kind. 27 Now
that which has come into existence must needs
be of bodily form, visible and tangible; yet
without fire nothing could ever become visible,
nor tangible without some solidity, nor solid
without earth. Hence, in beginning to construct
the body of the All, God was making it of fire
and earth. But it is not possible that two things
alone should be conjoined without a third;
[31c] for there must needs be some
intermediary bond to connect the two. And the
fairest of bonds is that which most perfectly
unites into one both itself and the things which
it binds together; and to effect this in the fairest
manner is the natural property of proportion.
For whenever the middle term of any three
numbers, cubic or square,28 [32a] is such that
γὰρ περιέχον πάντα ὁπόσα νοητὰ ζῷα μεθ᾽
ἑτέρου δεύτερον οὐκ ἄν ποτ᾽ εἴη: πάλιν γὰρ ἂν
ἕτερον εἶναι τὸ περὶ ἐκείνω δέοι ζῷον, οὗ
μέρος ἂν εἴτην ἐκείνω, καὶ οὐκ ἂν ἔτι ἐκείνοιν
ἀλλ᾽ ἐκείνῳ τῷ περιέχοντι τόδ᾽ ἂν
ἀφωμοιωμένον λέγοιτο ὀρθότερον. ἵνα [31β]
οὖν τόδε κατὰ τὴν μόνωσιν ὅμοιον ᾖ τῷ
παντελεῖ ζῴῳ, διὰ ταῦτα οὔτε δύο οὔτ᾽
ἀπείρους ἐποίησεν ὁ ποιῶν κόσμους, ἀλλ᾽ εἷς
ὅδε μονογενὴς οὐρανὸς γεγονὼς ἔστιν καὶ ἔτ᾽
ἔσται. σωματοειδὲς δὲ δὴ καὶ ὁρατὸν ἁπτόν τε
δεῖ τὸ γενόμενον εἶναι, χωρισθὲν δὲ πυρὸς
οὐδὲν ἄν ποτε ὁρατὸν γένοιτο, οὐδὲ ἁπτὸν
ἄνευ τινὸς στερεοῦ, στερεὸν δὲ οὐκ ἄνευ γῆς:
ὅθεν ἐκ πυρὸς καὶ γῆς τὸ τοῦ παντὸς
ἀρχόμενος συνιστάναι σῶμα ὁ θεὸς ἐποίει. δύο
δὲ μόνω καλῶς συνίστασθαι τρίτου χωρὶς [31ξ]
οὐ δυνατόν: δεσμὸν γὰρ ἐν μέσῳ δεῖ τινα
ἀμφοῖν συναγωγὸν γίγνεσθαι. δεσμῶν δὲ
κάλλιστος ὃς ἂν αὑτὸν καὶ τὰ συνδούμενα ὅτι
μάλιστα ἓν ποιῇ, τοῦτο δὲ πέφυκεν ἀναλογία
κάλλιστα ἀποτελεῖν. ὁπόταν γὰρ ἀριθμῶν
τριῶν εἴτε ὄγκων [32α] εἴτε δυνάμεων
ὡντινωνοῦν ᾖ τὸ μέσον, ὅτιπερ τὸ πρῶτον
πρὸς αὐτό, τοῦτο αὐτὸ πρὸς τὸ ἔσχατον, καὶ
πάλιν αὖθις, ὅτι τὸ ἔσχατον πρὸς τὸ μέσον, τὸ
μέσον πρὸς τὸ πρῶτον, τότε τὸ μέσον μὲν
πρῶτον καὶ ἔσχατον γιγνόμενον, τὸ δ᾽ ἔσχατον
καὶ τὸ πρῶτον αὖ μέσα ἀμφότερα, πάνθ᾽ οὕτως
ἐξ ἀνάγκης τὰ αὐτὰ εἶναι συμβήσεται, τὰ αὐτὰ
δὲ γενόμενα ἀλλήλοις ἓν πάντα ἔσται. εἰ μὲν
27 Cf. 92 C.
28 Dealing first with “square” numbers, the proportion here indicated is—a2 : ab :: ab :: b2; conversely, b2 : ab :: ab :: a2; alternately, ab : a2 :: b2 : ab.
become the same with one another will be all
one. If the universal frame [32b] had been
created a surface only and having no depth, a
single mean would have sufficed to bind
together itself and the other terms; but now, as
the world must be solid, and solid bodies are
always compacted not by one mean but by two,
God placed water and air in the mean between
fire and earth, and made them to have the same
proportion so far as was possible (as fire is to
air so is air to water, and as air is to water so is
water to earth); and thus he bound and put
together a visible and tangible heaven. And for
these reasons, [32c] and out of such elements
which are in number four, the body of the
world was created, and it was harmonised by
proportion, and therefore has the spirit of
friendship; and having been reconciled to
itself, it was indissoluble by the hand of any
other than the framer.
as the first term is to it, so is it to the last term,
and again, conversely, as the last term is to the
middle, so is the middle to the first,—then the
middle term becomes in turn the first and the
last, while the first and last become in turn
middle terms, and the necessary consequence
will be that all the terms are interchangeable,
and being interchangeable they all form a
unity. Now if the body of the All [32b] had had
to come into existence as a plane surface,
having no depth, one middle term would have
sufficed to bind together both itself and its
fellow-terms; but now it is otherwise: for it
behoved it to be solid of shape, and what
brings solids into unison is never one middle
term alone but always two.29 Thus it was that in
the midst between fire and earth God set water
and air, and having bestowed upon them so far
as possible a like ratio one towards another—
air being to water as fire to air, and water being
to earth as air to water, —he joined together
and constructed a Heaven visible and tangible.
For these reasons [32c] and out of these
materials, such in kind and four in number, the
body of the Cosmos was harmonized by
proportion and brought into existence. These
conditions secured for it Amity, so that being
united in identity with itself it became
indissoluble by any agent other than Him who
had bound it together.
οὖν ἐπίπεδον μέν, βάθος δὲ μηδὲν ἔχον ἔδει
γίγνεσθαι τὸ τοῦ παντὸς σῶμα, μία μεσότης ἂν
ἐξήρκει [32β] τά τε μεθ᾽ αὑτῆς συνδεῖν καὶ
ἑαυτήν, νῦν δὲ στερεοειδῆ γὰρ αὐτὸν
προσῆκεν εἶναι, τὰ δὲ στερεὰ μία μὲν
οὐδέποτε,
δύο
δὲ
ἀεὶ
μεσότητες
συναρμόττουσιν: οὕτω δὴ πυρός τε καὶ γῆς
ὕδωρ ἀέρα τε ὁ θεὸς ἐν μέσῳ θείς, καὶ πρὸς
ἄλληλα καθ᾽ ὅσον ἦν δυνατὸν ἀνὰ τὸν αὐτὸν
λόγον ἀπεργασάμενος, ὅτιπερ πῦρ πρὸς ἀέρα,
τοῦτο ἀέρα πρὸς ὕδωρ, καὶ ὅτι ἀὴρ πρὸς ὕδωρ,
ὕδωρ πρὸς γῆν, συνέδησεν καὶ συνεστήσατο
οὐρανὸν ὁρατὸν καὶ ἁπτόν. καὶ διὰ ταῦτα ἔκ τε
δὴ τούτων τοιούτων [32ξ] καὶ τὸν ἀριθμὸν
τεττάρων τὸ τοῦ κόσμου σῶμα ἐγεννήθη δι᾽
ἀναλογίας ὁμολογῆσαν, φιλίαν τε ἔσχεν ἐκ
τούτων, ὥστε εἰς ταὐτὸν αὑτῷ συνελθὸν
ἄλυτον ὑπό του ἄλλου πλὴν ὑπὸ τοῦ
συνδήσαντος γενέσθαι.
Now the creation took up the whole of each of
Now of the four elements the construction of
τῶν δὲ δὴ τεττάρων ἓν ὅλον ἕκαστον εἴληφεν ἡ
29 Two mean terms are required for a continuous proportion of “solid” (or cubic) numbers, e.g. a3 :a2b :: a2b : ab2 :: ab2 : b3.
the four elements; for the Creator compounded
the world out of all the fire and all the water
and all the air and all the earth, leaving no part
of any of them nor any power of them outside.
His intention was, [32d] in the first place, that
the animal should be as far as possible a
perfect whole and of perfect parts: secondly,
that it should be one, [33a] leaving no
remnants out of which another such world
might be created: and also that it should be free
from old age and unaffected by disease.
Considering that if heat and cold and other
powerful forces which unite bodies surround
and attack them from without when they are
unprepared, they decompose them, and by
bringing diseases and old age upon them, make
them waste away — for this cause and on these
grounds he made the world one whole, having
every part entire, and being therefore perfect
and not liable to old age and disease. [34b]
And he gave to the world the figure which was
suitable and also natural. Now to the animal
which was to comprehend all animals, that
figure was suitable which comprehends within
itself all other figures. Wherefore he made the
world in the form of a globe, round as from a
lathe, having its extremes in every direction
equidistant from the centre, the most perfect
and the most like itself of all figures; for he
considered that the like is infinitely fairer than
the unlike. This he finished off, making the
surface smooth all around for many reasons;
[33c] in the first place, because the living being
the Cosmos had taken up the whole of every
one. For its Constructor had constructed it of
all the fire and water and air and earth that
existed, leaving over, outside it, no single
particle or potency of any one of these
elements. And these were his intentions: [32d]
first, that it might be, so far as possible, a
Living Creature, perfect and whole, with all its
parts perfect; and next, that it might be One,
[33a] inasmuch as there was nothing left over
out of which another like Creature might come
into existence; and further, that it might be
secure from age and ailment, since He
perceived that when heat and cold, and all
things which have violent potencies, surround
a composite body from without and collide
with it they dissolve it unduly and make it to
waste away by bringing upon it ailments and
age. Wherefore, because of this reasoning, He
fashioned it to be One single Whole,
compounded of all wholes, perfect and ageless
and unailing. [33b] And he bestowed on it the
shape which was befitting and akin. Now for
that Living Creature which is designed to
embrace within itself all living creatures the
fitting shape will be that which comprises
within itself all the shapes there are; wherefore
He wrought it into a round, in the shape of a
sphere, equidistant in all directions from the
center to the extremities, which of all shapes is
the most perfect and the most self-similar,
since He deemed that the similar is infinitely
fairer than the dissimilar. And on the outside
τοῦ κόσμου σύστασις. ἐκ γὰρ πυρὸς παντὸς
ὕδατός τε καὶ ἀέρος καὶ γῆς συνέστησεν αὐτὸν
ὁ συνιστάς, μέρος οὐδὲν οὐδενὸς οὐδὲ δύναμιν
ἔξωθεν ὑπολιπών, τάδε διανοηθείς, [32δ]
πρῶτον μὲν ἵνα ὅλον ὅτι μάλιστα ζῷον τέλεον
ἐκ τελέων [33α] τῶν μερῶν εἴη, πρὸς δὲ
τούτοις ἕν, ἅτε οὐχ ὑπολελειμμένων ἐξ ὧν
ἄλλο τοιοῦτον γένοιτ᾽ ἄν, ἔτι δὲ ἵν᾽ ἀγήρων καὶ
ἄνοσον ᾖ, κατανοῶν ὡς συστάτῳ σώματι
θερμὰ καὶ ψυχρὰ καὶ πάνθ᾽ ὅσα δυνάμεις
ἰσχυρὰς ἔχει περιιστάμενα ἔξωθεν καὶ
προσπίπτοντα ἀκαίρως λύει καὶ νόσους γῆράς
τε ἐπάγοντα φθίνειν ποιεῖ. διὰ δὴ τὴν αἰτίαν
καὶ τὸν λογισμὸν τόνδε ἕνα ὅλον ὅλων ἐξ
ἁπάντων τέλεον καὶ ἀγήρων καὶ ἄνοσον [33β]
αὐτὸν ἐτεκτήνατο. σχῆμα δὲ ἔδωκεν αὐτῷ τὸ
πρέπον καὶ τὸ συγγενές. τῷ δὲ τὰ πάντα ἐν
αὑτῷ ζῷα περιέχειν μέλλοντι ζῴῳ πρέπον ἂν
εἴη σχῆμα τὸ περιειληφὸς ἐν αὑτῷ πάντα
ὁπόσα σχήματα: διὸ καὶ σφαιροειδές, ἐκ μέσου
πάντῃ πρὸς τὰς τελευτὰς ἴσον ἀπέχον,
κυκλοτερὲς αὐτὸ ἐτορνεύσατο, πάντων
τελεώτατον ὁμοιότατόν τε αὐτὸ ἑαυτῷ
σχημάτων, νομίσας μυρίῳ κάλλιον ὅμοιον
ἀνομοίου. λεῖον δὲ δὴ κύκλῳ [33ξ] πᾶν ἔξωθεν
αὐτὸ ἀπηκριβοῦτο πολλῶν χάριν. ὀμμάτων τε
γὰρ ἐπεδεῖτο οὐδέν, ὁρατὸν γὰρ οὐδὲν
ὑπελείπετο ἔξωθεν, οὐδ᾽ ἀκοῆς, οὐδὲ γὰρ
ἀκουστόν: πνεῦμά τε οὐκ ἦν περιεστὸς
δεόμενον ἀναπνοῆς, οὐδ᾽ αὖ τινος ἐπιδεὲς ἦν
ὀργάνου σχεῖν ᾧ τὴν μὲν εἰς ἑαυτὸ τροφὴν
δέξοιτο, τὴν δὲ πρότερον ἐξικμασμένην
ἀποπέμψοι πάλιν. ἀπῄει τε γὰρ οὐδὲν οὐδὲ
had no need of eyes when there was nothing
remaining outside him to be seen; nor of ears
when there was nothing to be heard; and there
was no surrounding atmosphere to be breathed;
nor would there have been any use of organs
by the help of which he might receive his food
or get rid of what he had already digested,
since there was nothing which went from him
or came into him: for there was nothing beside
him. Of design he was created thus, his own
waste providing his own food, [33d] and all
that he did or suffered taking place in and by
himself. For the Creator conceived that a being
which was self-sufficient would be far more
excellent than one which lacked anything; and,
as he had no need to take anything or defend
himself against any one, the Creator did not
think it necessary to bestow upon him hands:
nor had he any need of feet, nor of the whole
apparatus of walking; [34a] but the movement
suited to his spherical form was assigned to
him, being of all the seven that which is most
appropriate to mind and intelligence; and he
was made to move in the same manner and on
the same spot, within his own limits revolving
in a circle. All the other six motions were taken
away from him, and he was made not to
partake of their deviations. And as this circular
movement required no feet, the universe was
created without legs and without feet.
round about, it was all made smooth with great
exactness, and that for many reasons. [33c] For
of eyes it had no need, since outside of it there
was nothing visible left over; nor yet of
hearing, since neither was there anything
audible; nor was there any air surrounding it
which called for respiration; nor, again, did it
need any organ whereby it might receive the
food that entered and evacuate what remained
undigested. For nothing went out from it or
came into it from any side, since nothing
existed; for it was so designed as to supply its
own wastage as food for itself, [33d] and to
experience by its own agency and within itself
all actions and passions, since He that had
constructed it deemed that it would be better if
it were self-sufficing rather than in need of
other things. Hands, too, He thought He ought
not to attach unto it uselessly, seeing they were
not required either for grasping or for repelling
anyone; nor yet feet, nor any instruments of
locomotion whatsoever. [34a] For movement
He assigned unto it that which is proper to its
body, namely, that one of the seven motions 30
which specially belongs to reason and
intelligence; wherefore He spun it round
uniformly in the same spot and within itself
and made it move revolving in a circle; and all
the other six motions He took away and
fashioned it free from their aberrations. And
seeing that for this revolving motion it had no
need of feet, He begat it legless and footless.
προσῄειν αὐτῷ ποθεν—οὐδὲ γὰρ ἦν—αὐτὸ
γὰρ ἑαυτῷ τροφὴν τὴν ἑαυτοῦ φθίσιν παρέχον
καὶ πάντα ἐν ἑαυτῷ καὶ ὑφ᾽ [33δ] ἑαυτοῦ
πάσχον καὶ δρῶν ἐκ τέχνης γέγονεν: ἡγήσατο
γὰρ αὐτὸ ὁ συνθεὶς αὔταρκες ὂν ἄμεινον
ἔσεσθαι μᾶλλον ἢ προσδεὲς ἄλλων. χειρῶν δέ,
αἷς οὔτε λαβεῖν οὔτε αὖ τινα ἀμύνασθαι χρεία
τις ἦν, μάτην οὐκ ᾤετο δεῖν αὐτῷ προσάπτειν,
οὐδὲ ποδῶν οὐδὲ ὅλως τῆς περὶ τὴν βάσιν
[34α] ὑπηρεσίας. κίνησιν γὰρ ἀπένειμεν αὐτῷ
τὴν τοῦ σώματος οἰκείαν, τῶν ἑπτὰ τὴν περὶ
νοῦν καὶ φρόνησιν μάλιστα οὖσαν: διὸ δὴ κατὰ
ταὐτὰ ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ καὶ ἐν ἑαυτῷ περιαγαγὼν
αὐτὸ ἐποίησε κύκλῳ κινεῖσθαι στρεφόμενον,
τὰς δὲ ἓξ ἁπάσας κινήσεις ἀφεῖλεν καὶ ἀπλανὲς
ἀπηργάσατο ἐκείνων. ἐπὶ δὲ τὴν περίοδον
ταύτην ἅτ᾽ οὐδὲν ποδῶν δέον ἀσκελὲς καὶ
ἄπουν αὐτὸ ἐγέννησεν.
30 For “the seven motions” see 43 B; and for the (rotary) “motion of reason” Cf. Laws898 A. Cf. also 37 A ff., 42 C, 47 D, 77 B.
Such was the whole plan of the eternal God
about the god [34b] that was to be, to whom
for this reason he gave a body, smooth and
even, having a surface in every direction
equidistant from the centre, a body entire and
perfect, and formed out of perfect bodies. And
in the centre he put the soul, which he diffused
throughout the body, making it also to be the
exterior environment of it; and he made the
universe a circle moving in a circle, one and
solitary, yet by reason of its excellence able to
converse with itself, and needing no other
friendship or acquaintance. Having these
purposes in view he created the world a
blessed god.
Such, then, was the sum of the reasoning of the
ever-existing God concerning the god [34b]
which was one day to be existent, whereby He
made it smooth and even and equal on all sides
from the center, a whole and perfect body
compounded of perfect bodies, And in the
midst thereof He set Soul, which He stretched
throughout the whole of it, and therewith He
enveloped also the exterior of its body; and as
a Circle revolving in a circle He established
one sole and solitary Heaven, able of itself
because of its excellence to company with
itself and needing none other beside, sufficing
unto itself as acquaintance and friend. And
because of all this He generated it to be a
blessed God.
οὗτος δὴ πᾶς ὄντος ἀεὶ λογισμὸς θεοῦ περὶ τὸν
ποτὲ [34β] ἐσόμενον θεὸν λογισθεὶς λεῖον καὶ
ὁμαλὸν πανταχῇ τε ἐκ μέσου ἴσον καὶ ὅλον καὶ
τέλεον ἐκ τελέων σωμάτων σῶμα ἐποίησεν:
ψυχὴν δὲ εἰς τὸ μέσον αὐτοῦ θεὶς διὰ παντός τε
ἔτεινεν καὶ ἔτι ἔξωθεν τὸ σῶμα αὐτῇ
περιεκάλυψεν, καὶ κύκλῳ δὴ κύκλον
στρεφόμενον οὐρανὸν ἕνα μόνον ἔρημον
κατέστησεν, δι᾽ ἀρετὴν δὲ αὐτὸν αὑτῷ
δυνάμενον συγγίγνεσθαι καὶ οὐδενὸς ἑτέρου
προσδεόμενον, γνώριμον δὲ καὶ φίλον ἱκανῶς
αὐτὸν αὑτῷ. διὰ πάντα δὴ ταῦτα εὐδαίμονα
θεὸν αὐτὸν ἐγεννήσατο.
Now God did not make the soul after the body,
[34c] although we are speaking of them in this
order; for having brought them together he
would never have allowed that the elder should
be ruled by the younger; but this is a random
manner of speaking which we have, because
somehow we ourselves too are very much
under the dominion of chance. Whereas he
made the soul in origin and excellence prior to
and older than the body, to be the ruler and
mistress, of whom the body was to be the
subject. And he made her out of the following
elements [35a]and on this wise:
Now as regards the Soul, although we are
essaying to describe it after the body, [34c]
God did not likewise plan it to be younger than
the body31; for, when uniting them, He would
not have permitted the elder to be ruled by the
younger; but as for us men, even as we
ourselves partake largely of the accidental and
casual, so also do our words. God, however,
constructed Soul to be older than Body and
prior in birth and excellence, since she was to
be the mistress and ruler and it the ruled; and,
He made her of the materials [35a] and in the
fashion which I shall now describe.
τὴν δὲ δὴ ψυχὴν οὐχ ὡς νῦν ὑστέραν
ἐπιχειροῦμεν λέγειν, [34ξ] οὕτως ἐμηχανήσατο
καὶ ὁ θεὸς νεωτέραν—οὐ γὰρ ἂν ἄρχεσθαι
πρεσβύτερον ὑπὸ νεωτέρου συνέρξας εἴασεν—
ἀλλά πως ἡμεῖς πολὺ μετέχοντες τοῦ
προστυχόντος τε καὶ εἰκῇ ταύτῃ πῃ καὶ
λέγομεν, ὁ δὲ καὶ γενέσει καὶ ἀρετῇ προτέραν
καὶ πρεσβυτέραν ψυχὴν σώματος ὡς δεσπότιν
καὶ ἄρξουσαν ἀρξομένου [35α] συνεστήσατο
ἐκ τῶνδέ τε καὶ τοιῷδε τρόπῳ.
31 For the priority of Soul Cf. Laws892 A, B, 896 C ff.; and for the right of the elder to rule Cf. Laws714 E.
Out of the indivisible and unchangeable, and
also out of that which is divisible and has to do
with material bodies, he compounded a third
and intermediate kind of essence, partaking of
the nature of the same and of the other, and this
compound he placed accordingly in a mean
between the indivisible, and the divisible and
material. He took the three elements of the
same, the other, and the essence, and mingled
them into one form, compressing by force the
reluctant and unsociable nature of the other
into the same. [35b] When he had mingled
them with the essence and out of three made
one, he again divided this whole into as many
portions as was fitting, each portion being a
compound of the same, the other, and the
essence. And he proceeded to divide after this
manner: — First of all, he took away one part
of the whole [1], and then he separated a
second part which was double the first [2], and
then he took away a third part which was half
as much again as the second and three times as
much as the first [3], and then he took a fourth
part which was twice as much as the second
[4], and a fifth part which was three times the
third [9], and a sixth part which was eight
times the first [36a] [8], and a seventh part
which was twenty-seven times the first [27].
Midway between the Being which is
indivisible and remains always the same and
the Being which is transient and divisible in
bodies, He blended a third form of Being
compounded out of the twain, that is to say, out
of the Same and the Other; and in like manner
He compounded it midway between that one of
them which is indivisible and that one which is
divisible in bodies. And He took the three of
them, and blent them all together into one
form, by forcing the Other into union with the
Same, in spite of its being naturally difficult to
mix. [35b] And when with the aid of Being He
had mixed them, and had made of them one out
of three, straightway He began to distribute the
whole thereof into so many portions as was
meet; and each portion was a mixture of the
Same, of the Other, and of Being. 32 And He
began making the division thus: First He took
one portion from the whole; then He took a
portion double of this; then a third portion, half
as much again as the second portion, that is,
three times as much as the first; he fourth
portion He took was twice as much as the
second; the fifth three times as much as the
third; [35c] the sixth eight times as much as the
first; and the seventh twenty-seven times as
much as the first.33 [36a] After that He went on
τῆς ἀμερίστου καὶ ἀεὶ κατὰ ταὐτὰ ἐχούσης
οὐσίας καὶ τῆς αὖ περὶ τὰ σώματα γιγνομένης
μεριστῆς τρίτον ἐξ ἀμφοῖν ἐν μέσῳ
συνεκεράσατο οὐσίας εἶδος, τῆς τε ταὐτοῦ
φύσεως [αὖ πέρι] καὶ τῆς τοῦ ἑτέρου, καὶ κατὰ
ταὐτὰ συνέστησεν ἐν μέσῳ τοῦ τε ἀμεροῦς
αὐτῶν καὶ τοῦ κατὰ τὰ σώματα μεριστοῦ: καὶ
τρία λαβὼν αὐτὰ ὄντα συνεκεράσατο εἰς μίαν
πάντα ἰδέαν, τὴν θατέρου φύσιν δύσμεικτον
οὖσαν εἰς ταὐτὸν συναρμόττων βίᾳ. [35β]
μειγνὺς δὲ μετὰ τῆς οὐσίας καὶ ἐκ τριῶν
ποιησάμενος ἕν, πάλιν ὅλον τοῦτο μοίρας ὅσας
προσῆκεν διένειμεν, ἑκάστην δὲ ἔκ τε ταὐτοῦ
καὶ θατέρου καὶ τῆς οὐσίας μεμειγμένην.
ἤρχετο δὲ διαιρεῖν ὧδε. μίαν ἀφεῖλεν τὸ
πρῶτον ἀπὸ παντὸς μοῖραν, μετὰ δὲ ταύτην
ἀφῄρει διπλασίαν ταύτης, τὴν δ᾽ αὖ τρίτην
ἡμιολίαν μὲν τῆς δευτέρας, τριπλασίαν δὲ τῆς
πρώτης, τετάρτην δὲ τῆς δευτέρας διπλῆν,
πέμπτην δὲ τριπλῆν τῆς [35ξ] τρίτης, τὴν δ᾽
ἕκτην τῆς πρώτης ὀκταπλασίαν, ἑβδόμην δ᾽
ἑπτακαιεικοσιπλασίαν τῆς πρώτης: μετὰ δὲ
ταῦτα συνεπληροῦτο [36α] τά τε διπλάσια καὶ
τριπλάσια διαστήματα, μοίρας ἔτι ἐκεῖθεν
ἀποτέμνων καὶ τιθεὶς εἰς τὸ μεταξὺ τούτων,
ὥστε ἐν ἑκάστῳ διαστήματι δύο εἶναι
μεσότητας, τὴν μὲν ταὐτῷ μέρει τῶν ἄκρων
αὐτῶν ὑπερέχουσαν καὶ ὑπερεχομένην, τὴν δὲ
32 The choice of these three as constituents of the Soul is explained by the use of the same terms in the Sophist(244-245) to denote certain “Greatest
Kinds” or main categories. As Professor Paul Shorey has aptly observed (Amer. Journ. Philol. ix. p. 298), “It is necessary that the Soul should
recognize everywhere . . . the same, the other and essence, those three μέγιστα γένηof the . . .Sophist. Hence on the Greek principle that like is known
by like, Plato makes real substances out of these three abstractions and puts them as plastic material into the hands of the Demiurgus for the formation
of the Soul.”
After this he filled up the double intervals [i.e.
between 1, 2, 4, 8] and the triple [i.e. between
1, 3, 9, 27] cutting off yet other portions from
the mixture and placing them in the intervals,
so that in each interval there were two kinds of
means, the one exceeding and exceeded by
equal parts of its extremes [as for example 1,
4/3, 2, in which the mean 4/3 is one-third of 1
more than 1, and one-third of 2 less than 2], the
other being that kind of mean which exceeds
and is exceeded by an equal number. Where
there were intervals of 3/2 and of 4/3 and of
9/8, made by the connecting terms in the
former intervals, he filled up all the intervals of
4/3 with the interval of 9/8, [36b] leaving a
fraction over; and the interval which this
fraction expressed was in the ratio of 256 to
243. And thus the whole mixture out of which
he cut these portions was all exhausted by him.
This entire compound he divided lengthways
into two parts, which he joined to one another
at the centre like the letter X, [36c] and bent
them into a circular form, connecting them
with themselves and each other at the point
opposite to their original meeting-point; and,
comprehending them in a uniform revolution
upon the same axis, he made the one the outer
and the other the inner circle. Now the motion
to fill up the intervals in the series of the
powers of 2 and the intervals in the series of
powers of 3 in the following manner34: He cut
off yet further portions from the original
mixture, and set them in between the portions
above rehearsed, so as to place two Means in
each interval, —one a Mean which exceeded
its Extremes and was by them exceeded by the
same proportional part or fraction of each of
the Extremes respectively35; the other a Mean
which exceeded one Extreme by the same
number or integer as it was exceeded by its
other Extreme. And whereas the insertion of
these links formed fresh intervals in the former
intervals, that is to say, intervals of 3:2 and 4:3
and 9:8, He went on to fill up the 4:3 intervals
with 9:8 intervals. [36b] This still left over in
each case a fraction, which is represented by
the terms of the numerical ratio 256:243. And
thus the mixture, from which He had been
cutting these portions off, was now all spent.
Next, He split all this that He had put together
into two parts lengthwise; and then He laid the
twain one against the other, the middle of one
to the middle of the other, like a great cross;
[36c] and bent either of them into a circle, and
join them, each to itself and also to the other, at
a point opposite to where they had first been
ἴσῳ μὲν κατ᾽ ἀριθμὸν ὑπερέχουσαν, ἴσῳ δὲ
ὑπερεχομένην. ἡμιολίων δὲ διαστάσεων καὶ
ἐπιτρίτων καὶ ἐπογδόων γενομένων ἐκ τούτων
τῶν δεσμῶν ἐν ταῖς πρόσθεν διαστάσεσιν,
[36β] τῷ τοῦ ἐπογδόου διαστήματι τὰ ἐπίτριτα
πάντα συνεπληροῦτο, λείπων αὐτῶν ἑκάστου
μόριον, τῆς τοῦ μορίου ταύτης διαστάσεως
λειφθείσης ἀριθμοῦ πρὸς ἀριθμὸν ἐχούσης
τοὺς ὅρους ἓξ καὶ πεντήκοντα καὶ διακοσίων
πρὸς τρία καὶ τετταράκοντα καὶ διακόσια. καὶ
δὴ καὶ τὸ μειχθέν, ἐξ οὗ ταῦτα κατέτεμνεν,
οὕτως ἤδη πᾶν κατανηλώκει. ταύτην οὖν τὴν
σύστασιν πᾶσαν διπλῆν κατὰ μῆκος σχίσας,
μέσην πρὸς μέσην ἑκατέραν ἀλλήλαις οἷον χεῖ
προσβαλὼν κατέκαμψεν [36ξ] εἰς ἓν κύκλῳ,
συνάψας αὑταῖς τε καὶ ἀλλήλαις ἐν τῷ
καταντικρὺ τῆς προσβολῆς, καὶ τῇ κατὰ ταὐτὰ
ἐν ταὐτῷ περιαγομένῃ κινήσει πέριξ αὐτὰς
ἔλαβεν, καὶ τὸν μὲν ἔξω, τὸν δ᾽ ἐντὸς ἐποιεῖτο
τῶν κύκλων. τὴν μὲν οὖν ἔξω φορὰν
ἐπεφήμισεν εἶναι τῆς ταὐτοῦ φύσεως, τὴν δ᾽
ἐντὸς τῆς θατέρου. τὴν μὲν δὴ ταὐτοῦ κατὰ
πλευρὰν ἐπὶ δεξιὰ περιήγαγεν, τὴν δὲ θατέρου
κατὰ διάμετρον ἐπ᾽ ἀριστερά, κράτος δ᾽
ἔδωκεν τῇ [36δ] ταὐτοῦ καὶ ὁμοίου περιφορᾷ:
μίαν γὰρ αὐτὴν ἄσχιστον εἴασεν, τὴν δ᾽ ἐντὸς
σχίσας ἑξαχῇ ἑπτὰ κύκλους ἀνίσους κατὰ τὴν
τοῦ διπλασίου καὶ τριπλασίου διάστασιν
33 These seven numbers may be arranged in two branches, in order to show the two series of which Timaeus immediately goes on the speak:
1(the 1st), 2(the 2nd), 4(the 4th), 8(the 6th); 3(the 3rd), 9(the 5th), 27(the 7th). The former branch contains the “double intervals,” i.e., the powers of 2;
the latter one the “triple intervals,” i.e., the powers of 3.
34 Lit. “the double intervals and the triple intervals.” See the preceding note.
35 The “harmonic Mean.”
of the outer circle he called the motion of the
same, and the motion of the inner circle the
motion of the other or diverse. The motion of
the same he carried round by the side to the
right, and the motion of the diverse diagonally
to the left. And he gave dominion [36d] to the
motion of the same and like, for that he left
single and undivided; but the inner motion he
divided in six places and made seven unequal
circles having their intervals in ratios of two
and three, three of each, and bade the orbits
proceed in a direction opposite to one another;
and three [Sun, Mercury, Venus] he made to
move with equal swiftness, and the remaining
four [Moon, Saturn, Mars, Jupiter] to move
with unequal swiftness to the three and to one
another, but in due proportion.
laid together. And He compassed them about
with the motion that revolves in the same spot
continually, and He made the one circle outer
and the other inner. And the outer motion He
ordained to be the Motion of the Same, and the
inner motion the Motion of the Other. And He
made the Motion of the Same to be toward the
right along the side, and the Motion of the
Other to be toward the left along the
diagonal36; and He gave the sovranty [36d] to
the Revolution of the Same and of the
Uniform. For this alone He suffered to remain
uncloven, whereas He split the inner
Revolution in six places into seven unequal
circles, according to each of the intervals of the
double and triple intervals,37 three double and
three triple38. These two circles then He
appointed to go in contrary directions; and of
the seven circles into which He split the inner
circle, He appointed three to revolve at an
equal speed, the other four39 to go at speeds
equal neither with each other nor with the
speed of the aforesaid three, yet moving at
speeds the ratios of which one to another are
those of natural integers.
ἑκάστην, οὐσῶν ἑκατέρων τριῶν, κατὰ
τἀναντία μὲν ἀλλήλοις προσέταξεν ἰέναι τοὺς
κύκλους, τάχει δὲ τρεῖς μὲν ὁμοίως, τοὺς δὲ
τέτταρας ἀλλήλοις καὶ τοῖς τρισὶν ἀνομοίως, ἐν
λόγῳ δὲ φερομένους.
36He now tilts the inner band, so that it makes an oblique angle with the outer, which is set at the horizontal; from which we see that the Revolution of
the Same represents the celestial Equator, moving “horizontally to the right” (from East to West), and the Revolution of the Other represents the
Ecliptic, which moves in a contrary direction to the Equator (from West to East), and at an angle to it. The Ecliptic He divides into seven, to represent
the seven planets
37 Viz. 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 27
38 Viz. 2, 4, 8 double; 3, 9, 27 triple.
39 The three are Sun, Venus, Mercury; the four Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn.
Now when the Creator had framed the soul
according to his will, he formed within her the
corporeal universe, [36e] and brought the two
together, and united them centre to centre. The
soul, interfused everywhere from the centre to
the circumference of heaven, of which also she
is the external envelopment, herself turning in
herself, began a divine beginning of never
ceasing and rational life enduring throughout
all time. The body of heaven is visible, but the
soul is invisible, and partakes of reason and
harmony, [37a] and being made by the best of
intellectual and everlasting natures, is the best
of things created. And because she is
composed of the same and of the other and of
the essence, these three, and is divided and
united in due proportion, and in her revolutions
returns upon herself, the soul, when touching
anything which has essence, whether dispersed
in parts or undivided, is stirred through all her
powers, to declare the sameness [37b] or
difference of that thing and some other; and to
what individuals are related, and by what
affected, and in what way and how and when,
both in the world of generation and in the
world of immutable being. And when reason,
which works with equal truth, whether she be
in the circle of the diverse or of the same — in
voiceless silence holding her onward course in
the sphere of the self-moved — when reason, I
say, is hovering around the sensible world and
when the circle of the diverse also moving
truly imparts the intimations of sense to the
And when the construction of the Soul had all
been completed to the satisfaction of its
Constructor, then He fabricated within it all the
Corporeal, [36e] and uniting them center to
center He made them fit together. And the
Soul, being woven throughout the Heaven
every way from the center to the extremity, and
enveloping it in a circle from without, and
herself revolving within herself, began a divine
beginning of unceasing and intelligent life
lasting throughout all time. And whereas the
body of the Heaven is visible, the Soul is
herself invisible but partakes in reasoning and
in harmony, [37a] having come into existence
by the agency of the best of things intelligible
and ever-existing as the best of things
generated. Inasmuch, then, as she is a
compound, blended of the natures of the Same
and the Other and Being, these three portions,
and is proportionately divided and bound
together, and revolves back upon herself,
whenever she touches anything which has its
substance dispersed or anything which has its
substance undivided she is moved throughout
her whole being and announces what the object
is identical with [37b] and from what it is
different, and in what relation, where and how
and when, it comes about that each thing exists
and is acted upon by others both in the sphere
of the Becoming and in that of the everuniform. And her announcement, being
identically true concerning both the Other and
the Same, is borne through the self-moved
ἐπεὶ δὲ κατὰ νοῦν τῷ συνιστάντι πᾶσα ἡ τῆς
ψυχῆς σύστασις ἐγεγένητο, μετὰ τοῦτο πᾶν τὸ
σωματοειδὲς ἐντὸς [36ε] αὐτῆς ἐτεκταίνετο καὶ
μέσον μέσῃ συναγαγὼν προσήρμοττεν: ἡ δ᾽ ἐκ
μέσου πρὸς τὸν ἔσχατον οὐρανὸν πάντῃ
διαπλακεῖσα κύκλῳ τε αὐτὸν ἔξωθεν
περικαλύψασα, αὐτὴ ἐν αὑτῇ στρεφομένη,
θείαν ἀρχὴν ἤρξατο ἀπαύστου καὶ ἔμφρονος
βίου πρὸς τὸν σύμπαντα χρόνον. καὶ τὸ μὲν δὴ
σῶμα ὁρατὸν οὐρανοῦ γέγονεν, αὐτὴ δὲ
ἀόρατος μέν, λογισμοῦ δὲ μετέχουσα καὶ
[37α] ἁρμονίας ψυχή, τῶν νοητῶν ἀεί τε ὄντων
ὑπὸ τοῦ ἀρίστου ἀρίστη γενομένη τῶν
γεννηθέντων. ἅτε οὖν ἐκ τῆς ταὐτοῦ καὶ τῆς
θατέρου φύσεως ἔκ τε οὐσίας τριῶν τούτων
συγκραθεῖσα μοιρῶν, καὶ ἀνὰ λόγον
μερισθεῖσα καὶ συνδεθεῖσα, αὐτή τε
ἀνακυκλουμένη πρὸς αὑτήν, ὅταν οὐσίαν
σκεδαστὴν ἔχοντός τινος ἐφάπτηται καὶ ὅταν
ἀμέριστον, λέγει κινουμένη διὰ πάσης ἑαυτῆς
ὅτῳ τ᾽ ἄν τι ταὐτὸν ᾖ καὶ ὅτου ἂν [37β] ἕτερον,
πρὸς ὅτι τε μάλιστα καὶ ὅπῃ καὶ ὅπως καὶ
ὁπότε συμβαίνει κατὰ τὰ γιγνόμενά τε πρὸς
ἕκαστον ἕκαστα εἶναι καὶ πάσχειν καὶ πρὸς τὰ
κατὰ ταὐτὰ ἔχοντα ἀεί. λόγος δὲ ὁ κατὰ ταὐτὸν
ἀληθὴς γιγνόμενος περί τε θάτερον ὂν καὶ περὶ
τὸ ταὐτόν, ἐν τῷ κινουμένῳ ὑφ᾽ αὑτοῦ
φερόμενος ἄνευ φθόγγου καὶ ἠχῆς, ὅταν μὲν
περὶ τὸ αἰσθητὸν γίγνηται καὶ ὁ τοῦ θατέρου
κύκλος ὀρθὸς ἰὼν εἰς πᾶσαν αὐτοῦ τὴν ψυχὴν
διαγγείλῃ, δόξαι καὶ πίστεις γίγνονται βέβαιοι
καὶ ἀληθεῖς, [37ξ] ὅταν δὲ αὖ περὶ τὸ
λογιστικὸν ᾖ καὶ ὁ τοῦ ταὐτοῦ κύκλος
whole soul, then arise opinions and beliefs sure
and certain. But when reason is concerned with
the rational, [37c] and the circle of the same
moving smoothly declares it, then intelligence
and knowledge are necessarily perfected. And
if any one affirms that in which these two are
found to be other than the soul, he will say the
very opposite of the truth.
without speech or sound; and whenever it is
concerned with the sensible, and the circle of
the Other moving in straight course proclaims
it to the whole of its Soul, opinions and beliefs
arise which are firm and true; and again, when
it is concerned with the rational, [37c] and the
circle of the Same, spinning truly, declares the
facts, reason and knowledge of necessity result.
But should anyone assert that the substance in
which these two states arise is something other
than Soul, his assertion will be anything rather
than the truth.
εὔτροχος ὢν αὐτὰ μηνύσῃ, νοῦς ἐπιστήμη τε ἐξ
ἀνάγκης ἀποτελεῖται: τούτω δὲ ἐν ᾧ τῶν ὄντων
ἐγγίγνεσθον, ἄν ποτέ τις αὐτὸ ἄλλο πλὴν
ψυχὴν εἴπῃ, πᾶν μᾶλλον ἢ τἀληθὲς ἐρεῖ.
When the father creator saw the creature which
he had made moving and living, the created
image of the eternal gods, he rejoiced, and in
his joy determined to make the copy [37d] still
more like the original; and as this was eternal,
he sought to make the universe eternal, so far
as might be. Now the nature of the ideal being
was everlasting, but to bestow this attribute in
its fulness upon a creature was impossible.
Wherefore he resolved to have a moving image
of eternity, and when he set in order the
heaven, he made this image eternal but moving
according to number, while eternity itself rests
in unity; and this image we call time. [37e] For
there were no days and nights and months and
years before the heaven was created, but when
he constructed the heaven he created them
also. They are all parts of time, and the past
and future are created species of time, which
And when the Father that engendered it
perceived it in motion and alive, a thing of joy
to the eternal gods, He too rejoiced40; and being
well-pleased He designed to make it resemble
its Model [37d] still more closely. Accordingly,
seeing that that Model is an eternal Living
Creature, He set about making this Universe,
so far as He could, of a like kind. But inasmuch
as the nature of the Living Creature was
eternal, this quality it was impossible to attach
in its entirety to what is generated; wherefore
He planned to make a movable image of
Eternity, and, as He set in order the Heaven, of
that Eternity which abides in unity He made an
eternal image, moving according to number,
even that which we have named Time. [37e]
For simultaneously with the construction of the
Heaven He contrived the production of days
and nights and months and years, which
ὡς δὲ κινηθὲν αὐτὸ καὶ ζῶν ἐνόησεν τῶν
ἀιδίων θεῶν γεγονὸς ἄγαλμα ὁ γεννήσας
πατήρ, ἠγάσθη τε καὶ εὐφρανθεὶς ἔτι δὴ
μᾶλλον ὅμοιον πρὸς τὸ παράδειγμα ἐπενόησεν
ἀπεργάσασθαι. [37δ] καθάπερ οὖν αὐτὸ
τυγχάνει ζῷον ἀίδιον ὄν, καὶ τόδε τὸ πᾶν οὕτως
εἰς δύναμιν ἐπεχείρησε τοιοῦτον ἀποτελεῖν. ἡ
μὲν οὖν τοῦ ζῴου φύσις ἐτύγχανεν οὖσα
αἰώνιος, καὶ τοῦτο μὲν δὴ τῷ γεννητῷ
παντελῶς προσάπτειν οὐκ ἦν δυνατόν: εἰκὼ δ᾽
ἐπενόει κινητόν τινα αἰῶνος ποιῆσαι, καὶ
διακοσμῶν ἅμα οὐρανὸν ποιεῖ μένοντος
αἰῶνος ἐν ἑνὶ κατ᾽ ἀριθμὸν ἰοῦσαν αἰώνιον
εἰκόνα, τοῦτον ὃν δὴ χρόνον ὠνομάκαμεν.
[37ε] ἡμέρας γὰρ καὶ νύκτας καὶ μῆνας καὶ
ἐνιαυτούς, οὐκ ὄντας πρὶν οὐρανὸν γενέσθαι,
τότε ἅμα ἐκείνῳ συνισταμένῳ τὴν γένεσιν
αὐτῶν μηχανᾶται: ταῦτα δὲ πάντα μέρη
χρόνου, καὶ τό τ᾽ ἦν τό τ᾽ ἔσται χρόνου
40Note the play on ἄγαλμα “thing of joy” or “statue” and ἠγάσθη “rejoiced”.
we unconsciously but wrongly transfer to the
eternal essence; for we say that he “was,” he
“is,” he “will be,” but the truth is that “is”
alone [38a] is properly attributed to him, and
that “was” and “will be” only to be spoken of
becoming in time, for they are motions, but
that which is immovably the same cannot
become older or younger by time, nor ever did
or has become, or hereafter will be, older or
younger, nor is subject at all to any of those
states which affect moving and sensible things
and of which generation is the cause. These are
the forms of time, which imitates eternity and
revolves according to a law of number.
Moreover, when we say [38b] that what has
become is become and what becomes is
becoming, and that what will become is about
to become and that the non-existent is nonexistent — all these are inaccurate modes of
expression. But perhaps this whole subject will
be more suitably discussed on some other
occasion.
existed not before the Heaven came into being.
And these are all portions of Time; even as
“Was” and “Shall be” are generated forms of
Time, although we apply them wrongly,
without noticing, to Eternal Being. For we say
that it “is” or “was” or “will be,” whereas, in
truth of speech, “is” alone [38a] is the
appropriate term; “was” and “will be,” on the
other hand, are terms properly applicable to the
Becoming which proceeds in Time, since both
of these are motions; but it belongs not to that
which is ever changeless in its uniformity to
become either older or younger through time,
nor ever to have become so, nor to be so now,
nor to be about to be so hereafter, nor in
general to be subject to any of the conditions
which Becoming has attached to the things
which move in the world of Sense, these being
generated forms of Time, which imitates
Eternity and circles round according to
number. And besides these we make use of the
following expressions,— [38b] that what is
become is become, and what is becoming is
becoming, and what is about to become is
about to become, and what is non-existent is
non-existent; but none of these expressions is
accurate.41 But the present is not, perhaps, a
fitting occasion for an exact discussion of these
matters.
γεγονότα εἴδη, ἃ δὴ φέροντες λανθάνομεν ἐπὶ
τὴν ἀίδιον οὐσίαν οὐκ ὀρθῶς. λέγομεν γὰρ δὴ
ὡς ἦν ἔστιν τε καὶ ἔσται, τῇ δὲ τὸ ἔστιν μόνον
κατὰ τὸν [38α] ἀληθῆ λόγον προσήκει, τὸ δὲ
ἦν τό τ᾽ ἔσται περὶ τὴν ἐν χρόνῳ γένεσιν
ἰοῦσαν πρέπει λέγεσθαι—κινήσεις γάρ ἐστον,
τὸ δὲ ἀεὶ κατὰ ταὐτὰ ἔχον ἀκινήτως οὔτε
πρεσβύτερον οὔτε νεώτερον προσήκει
γίγνεσθαι διὰ χρόνου οὐδὲ γενέσθαι ποτὲ οὐδὲ
γεγονέναι νῦν οὐδ᾽ εἰς αὖθις ἔσεσθαι, τὸ
παράπαν τε οὐδὲν ὅσα γένεσις τοῖς ἐν αἰσθήσει
φερομένοις προσῆψεν, ἀλλὰ χρόνου ταῦτα
αἰῶνα μιμουμένου καὶ κατ᾽ ἀριθμὸν
κυκλουμένου γέγονεν εἴδη—καὶ πρὸς τούτοις
ἔτι τὰ τοιάδε, [38β] τό τε γεγονὸς εἶναι γεγονὸς
καὶ τὸ γιγνόμενον εἶναι γιγνόμενον, ἔτι τε τὸ
γενησόμενον εἶναι γενησόμενον καὶ τὸ μὴ ὂν
μὴ ὂν εἶναι, ὧν οὐδὲν ἀκριβὲς λέγομεν. περὶ
μὲν οὖν τούτων τάχ᾽ ἂν οὐκ εἴη καιρὸς πρέπων
ἐν τῷ παρόντι διακριβολογεῖσθαι.
Time then, and the heaven came into being at
the same instant in order that, having been
Time, then, came into existence along with the
Heaven, to the end that having been generated
χρόνος δ᾽ οὖν μετ᾽ οὐρανοῦ γέγονεν, ἵνα ἅμα
γεννηθέντες ἅμα καὶ λυθῶσιν, ἄν ποτε λύσις
41 i.e.it is incorrect to use the term “is” (ἐστί) both as a mere copula and in the sense of “exists.”
created together, if ever there was to be a
dissolution of them, they might be dissolved
together. It was framed after the pattern of the
eternal nature, that it might resemble this as far
as was possible; for the pattern exists from
eternity, [38c] and the created heaven has been,
and is, and will be, in all time. Such was the
mind and thought of God in the creation of
time. The sun and moon and five other stars,
which are called the planets, were created by
him in order to distinguish and preserve the
numbers of time; and when he had made their
several bodies, he placed them in the orbits in
which the circle of the other was revolving —
in seven orbits seven stars. [38d] First, there
was the moon in the orbit nearest the earth, and
next the sun, in the second orbit above the
earth; then came the morning star and the star
sacred to Hermes, moving in orbits which have
an equal swiftness with the sun, but in an
opposite direction; and this is the reason why
the sun and Hermes and Lucifer overtake and
are overtaken by each other. To enumerate the
places which he assigned to the other stars, and
to give all the reasons why he assigned them,
[38e] although a secondary matter, would give
more trouble than the primary. These things at
some future time, when we are at leisure, may
have the consideration which they deserve, but
not at present. Now, when all the stars which
42 Cf. 36 D.
43 i.e., a tendency as to direction.
44 i.e., a tendency as to direction.
together they might also be dissolved together,
if ever a dissolution of them should take place;
and it was made after the pattern of the Eternal
Nature, to the end that it might be as like
thereto as possible; for whereas the pattern is
existent through all eternity, [38c] the copy, on
the other hand, is through all time, continually
having existed, existing, and being about to
exist. Wherefore, as a consequence of this
reasoning and design on the part of God, with a
view to the generation of Time, the sun and
moon and five other stars, which bear the
appellation of “planets,” came into existence
for the determining and preserving of the
numbers of Time. And when God had made the
bodies of each of them He placed them in the
orbits along which the revolution of the Other
was moving, seven orbits for the seven
bodies.42 [38d] The Moon He placed in the first
circle around the Earth, the Sun in the second
above the Earth; and the Morning Star 43 and
the Star called Sacred to Hermes He placed in
those circles which move in an orbit equal to
the Sun in velocity, but endowed with a
power44 contrary thereto; whence it is that the
Sun and the Star of Hermes and the Morning
Star regularly overtake and are overtaken by
one another. As to the rest of the stars, were
one to describe in detail the positions in which
He set them, and all the reasons therefor, [38e]
τις αὐτῶν γίγνηται, καὶ κατὰ τὸ παράδειγμα
τῆς διαιωνίας φύσεως, ἵν᾽ ὡς ὁμοιότατος [38ξ]
αὐτῷ κατὰ δύναμιν ᾖ: τὸ μὲν γὰρ δὴ
παράδειγμα πάντα αἰῶνά ἐστιν ὄν, ὁ δ᾽ αὖ διὰ
τέλους τὸν ἅπαντα χρόνον γεγονώς τε καὶ ὢν
καὶ ἐσόμενος. ἐξ οὖν λόγου καὶ διανοίας θεοῦ
τοιαύτης πρὸς χρόνου γένεσιν, ἵνα γεννηθῇ
χρόνος, ἥλιος καὶ σελήνη καὶ πέντε ἄλλα
ἄστρα, ἐπίκλην ἔχοντα πλανητά, εἰς διορισμὸν
καὶ φυλακὴν ἀριθμῶν χρόνου γέγονεν: σώματα
δὲ αὐτῶν ἑκάστων ποιήσας ὁ θεὸς ἔθηκεν εἰς
τὰς περιφορὰς ἃς ἡ θατέρου περίοδος ᾔειν,
ἑπτὰ οὔσας ὄντα [38δ] ἑπτά, σελήνην μὲν εἰς
τὸν περὶ γῆν πρῶτον, ἥλιον δὲ εἰς τὸν δεύτερον
ὑπὲρ γῆς, ἑωσφόρον δὲ καὶ τὸν ἱερὸν Ἑρμοῦ
λεγόμενον εἰς [τὸν] τάχει μὲν ἰσόδρομον ἡλίῳ
κύκλον ἰόντας, τὴν δὲ ἐναντίαν εἰληχότας αὐτῷ
δύναμιν: ὅθεν καταλαμβάνουσίν τε καὶ
καταλαμβάνονται κατὰ ταὐτὰ ὑπ᾽ ἀλλήλων
ἥλιός τε καὶ ὁ τοῦ Ἑρμοῦ καὶ ἑωσφόρος. τὰ δ᾽
ἄλλα οἷ δὴ καὶ δι᾽ ἃς αἰτίας ἱδρύσατο, εἴ τις
ἐπεξίοι πάσας, ὁ λόγος [38ε] πάρεργος ὢν
πλέον ἂν ἔργον ὧν ἕνεκα λέγεται παράσχοι.
ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἴσως τάχ᾽ ἂν κατὰ σχολὴν
ὕστερον τῆς ἀξίας τύχοι διηγήσεως: ἐπειδὴ δὲ
οὖν εἰς τὴν ἑαυτῷ πρέπουσαν ἕκαστον ἀφίκετο
φορὰν τῶν ὅσα ἔδει συναπεργάζεσθαι χρόνον,
δεσμοῖς τε ἐμψύχοις σώματα δεθέντα ζῷα
ἐγεννήθη τό τε προσταχθὲν ἔμαθεν, κατὰ δὴ
τὴν θατέρου φορὰν [39α] πλαγίαν οὖσαν, διὰ
were necessary to the creation of time had
attained a motion suitable to them, — and had
become living creatures having bodies fastened
by vital chains, [39a] and learnt their appointed
task, moving in the motion of the diverse,
which is diagonal, and passes through and is
governed by the motion of the same, they
revolved, some in a larger and some in a lesser
orbit — those which had the lesser orbit
revolving faster, and those which had the larger
more slowly. Now by reason of the motion of
the same, those which revolved fastest
appeared to be overtaken by those which
moved slower although they really overtook
them; [39b] for the motion of the same made
them all turn in a spiral, and, because some
went one way and some another, that which
receded most slowly from the sphere of the
same, which was the swiftest, appeared to
follow it most nearly. That there might be some
visible measure of their relative swiftness and
slowness as they proceeded in their eight
courses, God lighted a fire, which we now call
the sun, in the second from the earth of these
orbits, that it might give light to the whole of
heaven, and that the animals, as many as nature
intended, might participate in number, learning
arithmetic from the revolution of the same and
the like. [39c] Thus then, and for this reason
the night and the day were created, being the
the description, though but subsidiary, would
prove a heavier task than the main argument
which it subserves. Later on, perhaps, at our
leisure these points may receive the attention
they merit. So when each of the bodies whose
co-operation was required for the making of
Time had arrived in its proper orbit; and when
they had been generated as living creatures,
having their bodies bound with living bonds,
[39a] and had learnt their appointed duties;
then they kept revolving around the circuit of
the Other, which is transverse and passes
through the circuit of the Same and is
dominated thereby; and part of them moved in
a greater, part in a smaller circle, those in the
smaller moving more quickly and those in the
greater more slowly. And because of the
motion of the Same, the stars which revolved
most quickly appeared to be overtaken by
those which moved most slowly, although in
truth they overtook them; [39b] for, because of
their simultaneous progress in two opposite
directions,45 the motion of the Same, which is
the swiftest of all motions, twisted all their
circles into spirals and thus caused the body
which moves away from it most slowly to
appear the nearest.46 And in order that there
might be a clear measure of the relative speeds,
slow and quick, with which they travelled
round their eight orbits, in that circle which is
τῆς ταὐτοῦ φορᾶς ἰούσης τε καὶ κρατουμένης,
τὸ μὲν μείζονα αὐτῶν, τὸ δ᾽ ἐλάττω κύκλον
ἰόν, θᾶττον μὲν τὰ τὸν ἐλάττω, τὰ δὲ τὸν μείζω
βραδύτερον περιῄειν. τῇ δὴ ταὐτοῦ φορᾷ τὰ
τάχιστα περιιόντα ὑπὸ τῶν βραδύτερον ἰόντων
ἐφαίνετο καταλαμβάνοντα καταλαμβάνεσθαι:
πάντας γὰρ τοὺς κύκλους αὐτῶν στρέφουσα
ἕλικα διὰ τὸ διχῇ κατὰ [39β] τὰ ἐναντία ἅμα
προϊέναι τὸ βραδύτατα ἀπιὸν ἀφ᾽ αὑτῆς οὔσης
ταχίστης ἐγγύτατα ἀπέφαινεν. ἵνα δ᾽ εἴη
μέτρον ἐναργές τι πρὸς ἄλληλα βραδυτῆτι καὶ
τάχει καὶ τὰ περὶ τὰς ὀκτὼ φορὰς πορεύοιτο,
φῶς ὁ θεὸς ἀνῆψεν ἐν τῇ πρὸς γῆν δευτέρᾳ τῶν
περιόδων, ὃ δὴ νῦν κεκλήκαμεν ἥλιον, ἵνα ὅτι
μάλιστα εἰς ἅπαντα φαίνοι τὸν οὐρανὸν
μετάσχοι τε ἀριθμοῦ τὰ ζῷα ὅσοις ἦν
προσῆκον, μαθόντα παρὰ τῆς ταὐτοῦ καὶ
ὁμοίου [39ξ] περιφορᾶς. νὺξ μὲν οὖν ἡμέρα τε
γέγονεν οὕτως καὶ διὰ ταῦτα, ἡ τῆς μιᾶς καὶ
φρονιμωτάτης κυκλήσεως περίοδος: μεὶς δὲ
ἐπειδὰν σελήνη περιελθοῦσα τὸν ἑαυτῆς
κύκλον ἥλιον ἐπικαταλάβῃ, ἐνιαυτὸς δὲ
ὁπόταν ἥλιος τὸν ἑαυτοῦ περιέλθῃ κύκλον. τῶν
δ᾽ ἄλλων τὰς περιόδους οὐκ ἐννενοηκότες
ἄνθρωποι, πλὴν ὀλίγοι τῶν πολλῶν, οὔτε
ὀνομάζουσιν οὔτε πρὸς ἄλληλα συμμετροῦνται
σκοποῦντες ἀριθμοῖς, ὥστε ὡς ἔπος [39δ]
εἰπεῖν οὐκ ἴσασιν χρόνον ὄντα τὰς τούτων
πλάνας, πλήθει μὲν ἀμηχάνῳ χρωμένας,
πεποικιλμένας δὲ θαυμαστῶς: ἔστιν δ᾽ ὅμως
45 i.e., a planet moving along the Ecliptic from W. to E. is at the same time drawn from E. to W. (in the plane of the Equator) by the regular motion of
the sphere of the fixed stars (the circle of “the same” which moves at a higher velocity than that of “the other”).
46 i.e.Saturn appears to be nearest to the sphere of the fixed stars in point of velocity. Cf. Laws822 A ff.
period of the one most intelligent revolution.
And the month is accomplished when the
moon has completed her orbit and overtaken
the sun, and the year when the sun has
completed his own orbit. Mankind, with hardly
an exception, have not remarked the periods of
the other stars, and they have no name for
them, and do not measure them against one
another by the help of number, and hence they
can scarcely be said to know [39d] that their
wanderings, being infinite in number and
admirable for their variety, make up time. And
yet there is no difficulty in seeing that the
perfect number of time fulfils the perfect year
when all the eight revolutions, having their
relative degrees of swiftness, are accomplished
together and attain their completion at the same
time, measured by the rotation of the same and
equally moving. After this manner, and for
these reasons, came into being such of the stars
as in their heavenly progress received reversals
of motion, to the end that the created heaven
might imitate the eternal [39e] nature, and be
as like as possible to the perfect and intelligible
animal.
second from the earth God kindled a light
which now we call the Sun, to the end that it
might shine, so far as possible, throughout the
whole Heaven, and that all the living creatures
entitled thereto might participate in number,
learning it from the revolution of the Same and
Similar. [39c] In this wise and for these reasons
were generated Night and Day, which are the
revolution of the one and most intelligent
circuit; and Month, every time that the Moon
having completed her own orbit overtakes the
Sun; and Year, as often as the Sun has
completed his own orbit. Of the other stars the
revolutions have not been discovered by men
(save for a few out of the many); wherefore
they have no names for them, nor do they
compute and compare their relative
measurements, so that they are not aware, as a
rule, [39d] that the “wanderings“47 of these
bodies, which are hard to calculate and of
wondrous complexity, constitute Time.
Nevertheless, it is still quite possible to
perceive that the complete number of Time
fulfils the Complete Year48 when all the eight
circuits, with their relative speeds, finish
together and come to a head, when measured
by the revolution of the Same and Similarlymoving. In this wise and for these reasons were
generated all those stars which turn themselves
about as they travel through Heaven, to the end
οὐδὲν ἧττον κατανοῆσαι δυνατὸν ὡς ὅ γε
τέλεος ἀριθμὸς χρόνου τὸν τέλεον ἐνιαυτὸν
πληροῖ τότε, ὅταν ἁπασῶν τῶν ὀκτὼ περιόδων
τὰ πρὸς ἄλληλα συμπερανθέντα τάχη σχῇ
κεφαλὴν τῷ τοῦ ταὐτοῦ καὶ ὁμοίως ἰόντος
ἀναμετρηθέντα κύκλῳ. κατὰ ταῦτα δὴ καὶ
τούτων ἕνεκα ἐγεννήθη τῶν ἄστρων ὅσα δι᾽
οὐρανοῦ πορευόμενα ἔσχεν τροπάς, ἵνα τόδε
[39ε] ὡς ὁμοιότατον ᾖ τῷ τελέῳ καὶ νοητῷ
ζῴῳ πρὸς τὴν τῆς διαιωνίας μίμησιν φύσεως.
47 An allusion to the name “planets,” i.e. “wanderers”; Cf. 38 c.
48 i.e., the Great World-Year, which is completed when all the planets return simultaneously to their original starting points. Its length was variously
computed: Plato seems to have put it at 36,000 years (Cf. Rep. 546 B ff.).
that this Universe might be as similar as
possible to the perfect and intelligible Living
Creature in respect of its imitation of the
Eternal [39e] Nature thereof.
Thus far and until the birth of time the created
universe was made in the likeness of the
original, but inasmuch as all animals were not
yet comprehended therein, it was still unlike.
What remained, the creator then proceeded to
fashion after the nature of the pattern. Now as
in the ideal animal the mind perceives ideas or
species of a certain nature and number, he
thought that this created animal ought to have
species of a like nature and number. There are
four such; one of them is the heavenly race of
the gods; [40a] another, the race of birds whose
way is in the air; the third, the watery species;
and the fourth, the pedestrian and land
creatures. Of the heavenly and divine, he
created the greater part out of fire, that they
might be the brightest of all things and fairest
to behold, and he fashioned them after the
likeness of the universe in the figure of a
circle, and made them follow the intelligent
motion of the supreme, distributing them over
the whole circumference of heaven, which was
to be a true cosmos or glorious world spangled
with them all over. And he gave to each of
Now in all other respects this World had
already, with the birth of Time, been wrought
in the similitude of that whereunto it was being
likened, but inasmuch as it did not as yet
contain generated within it the whole range of
living creatures, therein it was still dissimilar.
So this part of the work which was still undone
He completed by molding it after the nature of
the Model. According, then, as Reason
perceives Forms existing in the Absolute
Living Creature, such and so many as exist
therein did He deem that this World also
should possess. And these Forms are four,—
one the heavenly kind of gods49; [40a] another
the winged kind which traverses the air;
thirdly, the class which inhabits the waters; and
fourthly, that which goes on foot on dry land.
The form of the divine class 50 He wrought for
the most part out of fire, that this kind might be
as bright as possible to behold and as fair; and
likening it to the All He made it truly spherical;
and He placed it in the intelligence51 of the
Supreme to follow therewith, distributing it
rou/nd about over all the Heaven, to be unto it
καὶ τὰ μὲν ἄλλα ἤδη μέχρι χρόνου γενέσεως
ἀπείργαστο εἰς ὁμοιότητα ᾧπερ ἀπεικάζετο, τὸ
δὲ μήπω τὰ πάντα ζῷα ἐντὸς αὑτοῦ γεγενημένα
περιειληφέναι, ταύτῃ ἔτι εἶχεν ἀνομοίως. τοῦτο
δὴ τὸ κατάλοιπον ἀπηργάζετο αὐτοῦ πρὸς τὴν
τοῦ παραδείγματος ἀποτυπούμενος φύσιν.
ᾗπερ οὖν νοῦς ἐνούσας ἰδέας τῷ ὃ ἔστιν ζῷον,
οἷαί τε ἔνεισι καὶ ὅσαι, καθορᾷ, τοιαύτας καὶ
τοσαύτας διενοήθη δεῖν καὶ τόδε σχεῖν. εἰσὶν
δὴ τέτταρες, μία μὲν οὐράνιον θεῶν γένος,
ἄλλη δὲ [40α] πτηνὸν καὶ ἀεροπόρον, τρίτη δὲ
ἔνυδρον εἶδος, πεζὸν δὲ καὶ χερσαῖον
τέταρτον. τοῦ μὲν οὖν θείου τὴν πλείστην
ἰδέαν ἐκ πυρὸς ἀπηργάζετο, ὅπως ὅτι
λαμπρότατον ἰδεῖν τε κάλλιστον εἴη, τῷ δὲ
παντὶ προσεικάζων εὔκυκλον ἐποίει, τίθησίν τε
εἰς τὴν τοῦ κρατίστου φρόνησιν ἐκείνῳ
συνεπόμενον, νείμας περὶ πάντα κύκλῳ τὸν
οὐρανόν,
κόσμον
ἀληθινὸν
αὐτῷ
πεποικιλμένον εἶναι καθ᾽ ὅλον. κινήσεις δὲ δύο
προσῆψεν ἑκάστῳ, τὴν μὲν ἐν ταὐτῷ κατὰ
ταὐτά, περὶ τῶν αὐτῶν ἀεὶ [40β] τὰ αὐτὰ
ἑαυτῷ διανοουμένῳ, τὴν δὲ εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν,
ὑπὸ τῆς ταὐτοῦ καὶ ὁμοίου περιφορᾶς
49 i.e., the stars.
50 i.e., the fixed stars, and their sphere which moves with the daily rotation of the spherical Cosmos (the motion proper to “intelligence,” Cf. 36
C,Cratyl. 411 D).
51 i.e., the “intelligent” outermost sphere of “the same” (cf. the derivation of φρόνησις from φορά in Cratyl. 411 D).
them two movements: the first, a movement on
the same spot after the same manner, whereby
they ever continue to think consistently the
same thoughts about the same things; [40b] the
second, a forward movement, in which they are
controlled by the revolution of the same and
the like; but by the other five motions they
were unaffected, in order that each of them
might attain the highest perfection. And for this
reason the fixed stars were created, to be divine
and eternal animals, ever-abiding and
revolving after the same manner and on the
same spot; and the other stars which reverse
their motion and are subject to deviations of
this kind, were created in the manner already
described. The earth, which is our nurse,
clinging around [40c] the pole which is
extended through the universe, he framed to be
the guardian and artificer of night and day, first
and eldest of gods that are in the interior of
heaven. Vain would be the attempt to tell all
the figures of them circling as in dance, and
their juxtapositions, and the return of them in
their revolutions upon themselves, and their
approximations, and to say which of these
deities in their conjunctions meet, and which of
them are in opposition, and in what order they
a veritable adornment52 cunningly traced over
the whole. And each member of this class He
endowed with two motions,53 whereof the one
is uniform motion in the same spot, whereby it
conceives always identical thoughts about the
same objects, [40b] and the other is a forward
motion due to its being dominated by the
revolution of the Same and Similar; but in
respect of the other five motions54 they are at
rest and move not, so that each of them may
attain the greatest possible perfection. From
this cause, then, came into existence all those
unwandering stars which are living creatures
divine and eternal and abide for ever revolving
uniformly in the same spot; and those which
keep swerving and wandering have been
generated in the fashion previously described.
And Earth, our nurse, which is globed around55
the pole that stretches through all, [40c] He
framed to be the wardress and fashioner of
night and day, she being the first and eldest of
all the gods which have come into existence
within the Heaven. But the choric dances of
these same stars and their crossings one of
another, and the relative reversals and
progressions of their orbits, and which of the
gods meet in their conjunctions, and how many
κρατουμένῳ: τὰς δὲ πέντε κινήσεις ἀκίνητον
καὶ ἑστός, ἵνα ὅτι μάλιστα αὐτῶν ἕκαστον
γένοιτο ὡς ἄριστον. ἐξ ἧς δὴ τῆς αἰτίας
γέγονεν ὅσ᾽ ἀπλανῆ τῶν ἄστρων ζῷα θεῖα ὄντα
καὶ ἀίδια καὶ κατὰ ταὐτὰ ἐν ταὐτῷ στρεφόμενα
ἀεὶ μένει: τὰ δὲ τρεπόμενα καὶ πλάνην
τοιαύτην ἴσχοντα, καθάπερ ἐν τοῖς πρόσθεν
ἐρρήθη, κατ᾽ ἐκεῖνα γέγονεν. γῆν δὲ τροφὸν
μὲν ἡμετέραν, ἰλλομένην δὲ [40ξ] τὴν περὶ τὸν
διὰ παντὸς πόλον τεταμένον, φύλακα καὶ
δημιουργὸν
νυκτός
τε
καὶ
ἡμέρας
ἐμηχανήσατο, πρώτην καὶ πρεσβυτάτην θεῶν
ὅσοι ἐντὸς οὐρανοῦ γεγόνασιν. χορείας δὲ
τούτων αὐτῶν καὶ παραβολὰς ἀλλήλων, καὶ
[περὶ] τὰς τῶν κύκλων πρὸς ἑαυτοὺς
ἐπανακυκλήσεις καὶ προχωρήσεις, ἔν τε ταῖς
συνάψεσιν ὁποῖοι τῶν θεῶν κατ᾽ ἀλλήλους
γιγνόμενοι καὶ ὅσοι καταντικρύ, μεθ᾽ οὕστινάς
τε ἐπίπροσθεν ἀλλήλοις ἡμῖν τε κατὰ χρόνους
οὕστινας ἕκαστοι κατακαλύπτονται καὶ πάλιν
ἀναφαινόμενοι φόβους καὶ σημεῖα τῶν [40δ]
μετὰ ταῦτα γενησομένων τοῖς οὐ δυναμένοις
λογίζεσθαι πέμπουσιν, τὸ λέγειν ἄνευ δι᾽
ὄψεως τούτων αὖ τῶν μιμημάτων μάταιος ἂν
εἴη πόνος: ἀλλὰ ταῦτά τε ἱκανῶς ἡμῖν ταύτῃ
καὶ τὰ περὶ θεῶν ὁρατῶν καὶ γεννητῶν
εἰρημένα φύσεως ἐχέτω τέλος.
52 There is a play here on the word κόσμος, as meaning (1) “adornment,” (2) “universe.”
53 i.e.(1) the rotation of the star on its own axis; (2) the diurnal revolution of the sphere of fixed stars.
54 Cf. 34 A, 43 B.
55 The Word εἴλλεσθαι (or ἴλλεσθαι) is taken by some to imply “oscillation” or “rotation” (Cf. Aristot.De caeloii. 293 b 30); but it seems best to
suppose that Plato is here regarding the Earth as stationary. Her potential motion (we may assume) is equal and opposite to that of the Universe, of
which she is the center, and by thus neutralizing it she remains at rest.
get behind and before one another, and when
they are severally eclipsed to our sight and
again reappear, [40d] sending terrors and
intimations of the future to those who cannot
calculate their movements — to attempt to tell
of all this without a visible representation of
the heavenly system would be labour in vain.
Enough on this head; and now let what we
have said about the nature of the created and
visible gods have an end.
are in opposition, and behind which and at
what times they severally pass before one
another and are hidden from our view, and
again re-appearing [40d] send upon men
unable to calculate alarming portents of the
things which shall come to pass hereafter,—to
describe all this without an inspection of
models56 of these movements would be labor in
vain. Wherefore, let this account suffice us,
and let our discourse concerning the nature of
the visible and generated gods have an end.
To know or tell the origin of the other
divinities is beyond us, and we must accept the
traditions of the men of old time who affirm
themselves to be the offspring of the gods —
that is what they say — and they must surely
have known their own ancestors. [40e] How
can we doubt the word of the children of the
gods? Although they give no probable or
certain proofs, still, as they declare that they
are speaking of what took place in their own
family, we must conform to custom and believe
them. In this manner, then, according to them,
the genealogy of these gods is to be received
and set forth. Oceanus and Tethys were the
children of Earth and Heaven, and from these
sprang Phorcys and Cronos and Rhea, and all
that generation; and from Cronos and Rhea
sprang Zeus and Here, and all those who are
said to be their brethren, and others who were
Concerning the other divinities, to discover and
declare their origin is too great a task for us,
and we must trust to those who have declared it
aforetime, they being, as they affirmed,
descendants of gods and knowing well, no
doubt, their own forefathers.57 [40e] It is, as I
say, impossible to disbelieve the children of
gods, even though their statements lack either
probable or necessary demonstration; and
inasmuch as they profess to speak of family
matters, we must follow custom and believe
them. Therefore let the generation of these
gods be stated by us, following their account,
in this wise: Of Ge and Uranus were born the
children Oceanus and Tethys; and of these,
Phorkys, Cronos, Rhea, and all that go with
them; [41a] and of Cronos and Rhea were born
Zeus and Hera and all those who are, as we
know, called their brethren; and of these again,
56 i.e.such instruments as a celestial globe or planetarium.
57 This is, obviously, ironical; Cf. Cratyl. 402 B,Phileb. 66 C.
περὶ δὲ τῶν ἄλλων δαιμόνων εἰπεῖν καὶ γνῶναι
τὴν γένεσιν μεῖζον ἢ καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς, πειστέον δὲ
τοῖς εἰρηκόσιν ἔμπροσθεν, ἐκγόνοις μὲν θεῶν
οὖσιν, ὡς ἔφασαν, σαφῶς δέ που τούς γε
αὑτῶν προγόνους εἰδόσιν: ἀδύνατον οὖν θεῶν
[40ε] παισὶν ἀπιστεῖν, καίπερ ἄνευ τε εἰκότων
καὶ ἀναγκαίων ἀποδείξεων λέγουσιν, ἀλλ᾽ ὡς
οἰκεῖα φασκόντων ἀπαγγέλλειν ἑπομένους τῷ
νόμῳ πιστευτέον. οὕτως οὖν κατ᾽ ἐκείνους
ἡμῖν ἡ γένεσις περὶ τούτων τῶν θεῶν ἐχέτω καὶ
λεγέσθω. Γῆς τε καὶ Οὐρανοῦ παῖδες Ὠκεανός
τε καὶ Τηθὺς ἐγενέσθην, τούτων δὲ Φόρκυς
Κρόνος τε καὶ Ῥέα καὶ ὅσοι μετὰ [41α]
τούτων, ἐκ δὲ Κρόνου καὶ Ῥέας Ζεὺς Ἥρα τε
καὶ πάντες ὅσους ἴσμεν ἀδελφοὺς λεγομένους
αὐτῶν, ἔτι τε τούτων ἄλλους ἐκγόνους: ἐπεὶ δ᾽
οὖν πάντες ὅσοι τε περιπολοῦσιν φανερῶς καὶ
ὅσοι φαίνονται καθ᾽ ὅσον ἂν ἐθέλωσιν θεοὶ
γένεσιν ἔσχον, λέγει πρὸς αὐτοὺς ὁ τόδε τὸ πᾶν
the children of these. Now, when all of them,
both those who visibly appear in their
revolutions as well as those other gods who are
of a more retiring nature, had come into being,
the creator of the universe addressed them in
these words:
other descendants. Now when all the gods,
both those who revolve manifestly58 and those
who manifest themselves so far as they choose,
had come to birth, He that generated this All
addressed them thus:
γεννήσας τάδε—
“Gods, children of gods, who are my works,
and of whom I am the artificer and father, my
creations are indissoluble, if so I will. All that
is bound may be undone, [41b] but only an evil
being would wish to undo that which is
harmonious and happy. Wherefore, since ye are
but creatures, ye are not altogether immortal
and indissoluble, but ye shall certainly not be
dissolved, nor be liable to the fate of death,
having in my will a greater and mightier bond
than those with which ye were bound at the
time of your birth. And now listen to my
instructions: — Three tribes of mortal beings
remain to be created — without them the
universe will be incomplete, for it will not
contain every kind of animal which it ought to
contain, [41c] if it is to be perfect. On the other
hand, if they were created by me and received
life at my hands, they would be on an equality
with the gods. In order then that they may be
mortal, and that this universe may be truly
universal, do ye, according to your natures,
betake yourselves to the formation of animals,
“Gods of gods,59 those works whereof I am
framer and father are indissoluble save by my
will. For though all that is bound may be
dissolved, [41b] yet to will to dissolve that
which is fairly joined together and in good case
were the deed of a wicked one. Wherefore ye
also, seeing that ye were generated, are not
wholly immortal or indissoluble, yet in no wise
shall ye be dissolved nor incur the doom of
death, seeing that in my will ye possess a bond
greater and more sovereign than the bonds
wherewith, at your birth, ye were bound
together. Now, therefore, what I manifest and
declare unto you do ye learn. Three mortal
kinds60 still remain ungenerated; but if these
come not into being the Heaven will be
imperfect; for it will not contain within itself
the whole sum of the hinds of living creatures,
yet contain them it must if [41c] it is to be fully
perfect. But if by my doing these creatures
came into existence and partook of life, they
would be made equal unto gods; in order,
therefore, that they may be mortal and that this
“θεοὶ θεῶν, ὧν ἐγὼ δημιουργὸς πατήρ τε
ἔργων, δι᾽ ἐμοῦ γενόμενα ἄλυτα ἐμοῦ γε μὴ
ἐθέλοντος. τὸ μὲν οὖν δὴ [41β] δεθὲν πᾶν
λυτόν, τό γε μὴν καλῶς ἁρμοσθὲν καὶ ἔχον εὖ
λύειν ἐθέλειν κακοῦ: δι᾽ ἃ καὶ ἐπείπερ
γεγένησθε, ἀθάνατοι μὲν οὐκ ἐστὲ οὐδ᾽ ἄλυτοι
τὸ πάμπαν, οὔτι μὲν δὴ λυθήσεσθέ γε οὐδὲ
τεύξεσθε θανάτου μοίρας, τῆς ἐμῆς βουλήσεως
μείζονος ἔτι δεσμοῦ καὶ κυριωτέρου λαχόντες
ἐκείνων οἷς ὅτ᾽ ἐγίγνεσθε συνεδεῖσθε. νῦν οὖν
ὃ λέγω πρὸς ὑμᾶς ἐνδεικνύμενος, μάθετε.
θνητὰ ἔτι γένη λοιπὰ τρία ἀγέννητα: τούτων δὲ
μὴ γενομένων οὐρανὸς ἀτελὴς ἔσται: τὰ γὰρ
ἅπαντ᾽ ἐν [41ξ] αὑτῷ γένη ζῴων οὐχ ἕξει, δεῖ
δέ, εἰ μέλλει τέλεος ἱκανῶς εἶναι. δι᾽ ἐμοῦ δὲ
ταῦτα γενόμενα καὶ βίου μετασχόντα θεοῖς
ἰσάζοιτ᾽ ἄν: ἵνα οὖν θνητά τε ᾖ τό τε πᾶν τόδε
ὄντως ἅπαν ᾖ, τρέπεσθε κατὰ φύσιν ὑμεῖς ἐπὶ
τὴν τῶν ζῴων δημιουργίαν, μιμούμενοι τὴν
ἐμὴν δύναμιν περὶ τὴν ὑμετέραν γένεσιν. καὶ
καθ᾽ ὅσον μὲν αὐτῶν ἀθανάτοις ὁμώνυμον
εἶναι προσήκει, θεῖον λεγόμενον ἡγεμονοῦν τε
ἐν αὐτοῖς τῶν ἀεὶ δίκῃ καὶ ὑμῖν ἐθελόντων
58 i.e.the Stars; the others are the deities of popular belief (such as Homer depicts).
59 An intensive form of expression, like the Biblical “King of kings and Lord of lords.”
60 Viz. the inhabitants of air, of water, and of earth.
imitating the power which was shown by me in
creating you. The part of them worthy of the
name immortal, which is called divine and is
the guiding principle of those who are willing
to follow justice and you — of that divine part
I will myself sow the seed, and having made a
beginning, I will hand the work over to you.
[41d] And do ye then interweave the mortal
with the immortal, and make and beget living
creatures, and give them food, and make them
to grow, and receive them again in death.”
World-all may be truly All, do ye turn
yourselves, as Nature directs, to the work of
fashioning these living creatures, imitating the
power showed by me in my generating of you.
Now so much of them as it is proper to
designate 'immortal,' the part we call divine
which rules supreme in those who are fain to
follow justice always and yourselves, that part
I will deliver unto you when I have sown it and
given it origin. [41d] For the rest, do ye weave
together the mortal with the immortal, and
thereby fashion and generate living creatures,
and give them food that they may grow, and
when they waste away receive them to
yourselves again.”
ἕπεσθαι, σπείρας καὶ ὑπαρξάμενος [41δ] ἐγὼ
παραδώσω: τὸ δὲ λοιπὸν ὑμεῖς, ἀθανάτῳ
θνητὸν προσυφαίνοντες, ἀπεργάζεσθε ζῷα καὶ
γεννᾶτε τροφήν τε διδόντες αὐξάνετε καὶ
φθίνοντα πάλιν δέχεσθε.”
Thus he spake, and once more into the cup in
which he had previously mingled the soul of
the universe he poured the remains of the
elements, and mingled them in much the same
manner; they were not, however, pure as
before, but diluted to the second and third
degree. And having made it he divided the
whole mixture into souls equal in number to
the stars, and assigned each soul to a star; [41e]
and having there placed them as in a chariot,
he showed them the nature of the universe, and
declared to them the laws of destiny, according
to which their first birth would be one and the
same for all, — no one should suffer a
disadvantage at his hands; they were to be
sown in the instruments of time severally
Thus He spake, and once more into the former
bowl, wherein He had blended and mixed the
Soul of the Universe, He poured the residue of
the previous material, mixing it in somewhat
the same manner, yet no longer with a uniform
and invariable purity, but second and third in
degree of purity. And when He had
compounded the whole He divided it into souls
equal in number to the stars, and each several
soul He assigned to one star, [41e] and setting
them each as it were in a chariot 61 He showed
them the nature of the Universe, and declared
unto them the laws of destiny,—namely, how
that the first birth should be one and the same
ordained for all, in order that none might be
slighted by Him; and how it was needful that
ταῦτ᾽ εἶπε, καὶ πάλιν ἐπὶ τὸν πρότερον
κρατῆρα, ἐν ᾧ τὴν τοῦ παντὸς ψυχὴν κεραννὺς
ἔμισγεν, τὰ τῶν πρόσθεν ὑπόλοιπα κατεχεῖτο
μίσγων τρόπον μέν τινα τὸν αὐτόν, ἀκήρατα δὲ
οὐκέτι κατὰ ταὐτὰ ὡσαύτως, ἀλλὰ δεύτερα καὶ
τρίτα. συστήσας δὲ τὸ πᾶν διεῖλεν ψυχὰς
ἰσαρίθμους τοῖς ἄστροις, [41ε] ἔνειμέν θ᾽
ἑκάστην πρὸς ἕκαστον, καὶ ἐμβιβάσας ὡς ἐς
ὄχημα τὴν τοῦ παντὸς φύσιν ἔδειξεν, νόμους τε
τοὺς εἱμαρμένους εἶπεν αὐταῖς, ὅτι γένεσις
πρώτη μὲν ἔσοιτο τεταγμένη μία πᾶσιν, ἵνα
μήτις ἐλαττοῖτο ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ, δέοι δὲ σπαρείσας
αὐτὰς εἰς τὰ προσήκοντα ἑκάσταις ἕκαστα
ὄργανα χρόνων [42α] φῦναι ζῴων τὸ
θεοσεβέστατον, διπλῆς δὲ οὔσης τῆς
ἀνθρωπίνης φύσεως, τὸ κρεῖττον τοιοῦτον εἴη
61 Cf. Laws899 A.
adapted to them, and to come forth the most
religious of animals; [42a] and as human
nature was of two kinds, the superior race
would here after be called man. Now, when
they should be implanted in bodies by
necessity, and be always gaining or losing
some part of their bodily substance, then in the
first place it would be necessary that they
should all have in them one and the same
faculty of sensation, arising out of irresistible
impressions; in the second place, they must
have love, in which pleasure and pain mingle;
also fear and anger, [42b] and the feelings
which are akin or opposite to them; if they
conquered these they would live righteously,
and if they were conquered by them,
unrighteously. He who lived well during his
appointed time was to return and dwell in his
native star, and there he would have a blessed
and congenial existence. But if he failed in
attaining this, at the second birth he would pass
into a woman, and if, when in that state of
being, he did not desist from evil, [42c] he
would continually be changed into some brute
who resembled him in the evil nature which he
had acquired, and would not cease from his
toils and transformations until he followed the
revolution of the same and the like within him,
and overcame by the help of reason the
turbulent and irrational mob of later accretions,
made up of fire and air and water [42d] and
62 i.e.star.
63 Cf. 90 E.
they, when sown each into his own proper
organ of time,62 should grow into the most godfearing of living creatures; [42a] and that, since
human nature is two-fold, the superior sex is
that which hereafter should be designated
“man.” And when, by virtue of Necessity, they
should be implanted in bodies, and their bodies
are subject to influx and efflux, these results
would necessarily follow,—firstly, sensation
that is innate and common to all proceeding
from violent affections; secondly, desire
mingled with pleasure and pain; and besides
these, fear and anger [42b] and all such
emotions as are naturally allied thereto, and all
such as are of a different and opposite
character. And if they shall master these they
will live justly, but if they are mastered,
unjustly. And he that has lived his appointed
time well shall return again to his abode in his
native star, and shall gain a life that is blessed
and congenial but whoso has failed therein
shall be changed into woman's nature at the
second birth;63 and if, in that shape, he still
refraineth not from wickedness [42c] he shall
be changed every time, according to the nature
of his wickedness, into some bestial form after
the similitude of his own nature; nor in his
changings shall he cease from woes until he
yields himself to the revolution of the Same
and Similar that is within him, and dominating
by force of reason that burdensome mass
γένος ὃ καὶ ἔπειτα κεκλήσοιτο ἀνήρ. ὁπότε δὴ
σώμασιν ἐμφυτευθεῖεν ἐξ ἀνάγκης, καὶ τὸ μὲν
προσίοι, τὸ δ᾽ ἀπίοι τοῦ σώματος αὐτῶν,
πρῶτον μὲν αἴσθησιν ἀναγκαῖον εἴη μίαν πᾶσιν
ἐκ βιαίων παθημάτων σύμφυτον γίγνεσθαι,
δεύτερον δὲ ἡδονῇ καὶ λύπῃ μεμειγμένον
ἔρωτα, πρὸς δὲ τούτοις φόβον καὶ θυμὸν ὅσα
[42β] τε ἑπόμενα αὐτοῖς καὶ ὁπόσα ἐναντίως
πέφυκε διεστηκότα: ὧν εἰ μὲν κρατήσοιεν,
δίκῃ βιώσοιντο, κρατηθέντες δὲ ἀδικίᾳ. καὶ ὁ
μὲν εὖ τὸν προσήκοντα χρόνον βιούς, πάλιν εἰς
τὴν τοῦ συννόμου πορευθεὶς οἴκησιν ἄστρου,
βίον εὐδαίμονα καὶ συνήθη ἕξοι, σφαλεὶς δὲ
τούτων εἰς γυναικὸς φύσιν ἐν τῇ [42ξ] δευτέρᾳ
γενέσει μεταβαλοῖ: μὴ παυόμενός τε ἐν τούτοις
ἔτι κακίας, τρόπον ὃν κακύνοιτο, κατὰ τὴν
ὁμοιότητα τῆς τοῦ τρόπου γενέσεως εἴς τινα
τοιαύτην ἀεὶ μεταβαλοῖ θήρειον φύσιν,
ἀλλάττων τε οὐ πρότερον πόνων λήξοι, πρὶν τῇ
ταὐτοῦ καὶ ὁμοίου περιόδῳ τῇ ἐν αὑτῷ
συνεπισπώμενος τὸν πολὺν ὄχλον καὶ ὕστερον
προσφύντα ἐκ πυρὸς καὶ ὕδατος καὶ ἀέρος
[42δ] καὶ γῆς, θορυβώδη καὶ ἄλογον ὄντα,
λόγῳ κρατήσας εἰς τὸ τῆς πρώτης καὶ ἀρίστης
ἀφίκοιτο εἶδος ἕξεως.
earth, and returned to the form of his first and
better state.
which afterwards adhered to him of fire and
water [42d] and earth and air, a mass
tumultuous and irrational, returns again to the
semblance of his first and best state.
Having given all these laws to his creatures,
that he might be guiltless of future evil in any
of them, the creator sowed some of them in the
earth, and some in the moon, and some in the
other instruments of time; and when he had
sown them he committed to the younger gods
the fashioning of their mortal bodies, and
desired them to furnish what was still lacking
to the human soul, and having made all the
suitable additions, [42e] to rule over them, and
to pilot the mortal animal in the best and wisest
manner which they could, and avert from him
all but self-inflicted evils.
When He had fully declared unto them all
these ordinances, to the end that He might be
blameless in respect of the future wickedness
of any one of them, He proceeded to sow them,
some in the Earth, some in the Moon, others in
the rest of the organs of Time. Following upon
this sowing, He delivered over to the young
gods the task of molding mortal bodies, and of
framing and controlling all the rest of the
human soul which it was still necessary to add,
together with all that belonged thereto, [42e]
and of governing this mortal creature in the
fairest and best way possible, to the utmost of
their power, except in so far as it might itself
become the cause of its own evils.
διαθεσμοθετήσας δὲ πάντα αὐτοῖς ταῦτα, ἵνα
τῆς ἔπειτα εἴη κακίας ἑκάστων ἀναίτιος,
ἔσπειρεν τοὺς μὲν εἰς γῆν, τοὺς δ᾽ εἰς σελήνην,
τοὺς δ᾽ εἰς τἆλλα ὅσα ὄργανα χρόνου: τὸ δὲ
μετὰ τὸν σπόρον τοῖς νέοις παρέδωκεν θεοῖς
σώματα πλάττειν θνητά, τό τ᾽ ἐπίλοιπον, ὅσον
ἔτι ἦν ψυχῆς ἀνθρωπίνης δέον [42ε]
προσγενέσθαι, τοῦτο καὶ πάνθ᾽ ὅσα ἀκόλουθα
ἐκείνοις ἀπεργασαμένους ἄρχειν, καὶ κατὰ
δύναμιν ὅτι κάλλιστα καὶ ἄριστα τὸ θνητὸν
διακυβερνᾶν ζῷον, ὅτι μὴ κακῶν αὐτὸ ἑαυτῷ
γίγνοιτο αἴτιον.
When the creator had made all these
ordinances he remained in his own accustomed
nature, and his children heard and were
obedient to their father’s word, and receiving
from him the immortal principle of a mortal
creature, in imitation of their own creator they
borrowed portions of fire, and earth, and water,
and air from the world, [43a] which were
hereafter to be restored — these they took and
welded them together, not with the indissoluble
chains by which they were themselves bound,
but with little pegs too small to be visible,
So He, then, having given all these commands,
was abiding in His own proper and wonted
state. And as He thus abode, His children gave
heed to their Father's command and obeyed it.
They took the immortal principle of the mortal
living creature, and imitating their own Maker,
they borrowed from the Cosmos portions of
fire and earth and water and air, [43a] as if
meaning to pay them back, and the portions so
taken they cemented together; but it was not
with those indissoluble bonds wherewith they
themselves were joined that they fastened
καὶ ὁ μὲν δὴ ἅπαντα ταῦτα διατάξας ἔμενεν ἐν
τῷ ἑαυτοῦ κατὰ τρόπον ἤθει: μένοντος δὲ
νοήσαντες οἱ παῖδες τὴν τοῦ πατρὸς τάξιν
ἐπείθοντο αὐτῇ, καὶ λαβόντες ἀθάνατον ἀρχὴν
θνητοῦ ζῴου, μιμούμενοι τὸν σφέτερον
δημιουργόν, πυρὸς καὶ γῆς ὕδατός τε καὶ ἀέρος
ἀπὸ τοῦ κόσμου δανειζόμενοι [43α] μόρια ὡς
ἀποδοθησόμενα πάλιν, εἰς ταὐτὸν τὰ
λαμβανόμενα συνεκόλλων, οὐ τοῖς ἀλύτοις οἷς
αὐτοὶ συνείχοντο δεσμοῖς, ἀλλὰ διὰ
σμικρότητα ἀοράτοις πυκνοῖς γόμφοις
συντήκοντες, ἓν ἐξ ἁπάντων ἀπεργαζόμενοι
making up out of all the four elements each
separate body, and fastening the courses of the
immortal soul in a body which was in a state of
perpetual influx and efflux. Now these courses,
detained as in a vast river, neither overcame
nor were overcome; but were hurrying and
hurried to and fro, [43b] so that the whole
animal was moved and progressed, irregularly
however and irrationally and anyhow, in all the
six directions of motion, wandering backwards
and forwards, and right and left, and up and
down, and in all the six directions. For great as
was the advancing and retiring flood which
provided nourishment, the affections produced
by external contact caused still greater tumult
[43c] — when the body of any one met and
came into collision with some external fire, or
with the solid earth or the gliding waters, or
was caught in the tempest borne on the air, and
the motions produced by any of these impulses
were carried through the body to the soul. All
such motions have consequently received the
general name of “sensations,” which they still
retain. And they did in fact at that time create a
very great and mighty movement; uniting with
the ever flowing stream [43d] in stirring up and
violently shaking the courses of the soul, they
completely stopped the revolution of the same
by their opposing current, and hindered it from
predominating and advancing; and they so
disturbed the nature of the other or diverse, that
together the portions but with numerous pegs,
invisible for smallness; and thus they
constructed out of them all each several body,
and within bodies subject to inflow and
outflow they bound the revolutions of the
immortal Soul. The souls, then, being thus
bound within a mighty river neither mastered it
nor were mastered, but with violence they
rolled along and were rolled along themselves,
[43b] so that the whole of the living creature
was moved, but in such a random way that its
progress was disorderly and irrational, since it
partook of all the six motions64: for it
progressed forwards and backwards, and again
to right and to left, and upwards and
downwards, wandering every way in all the six
directions. For while the flood which foamed
in and streamed out, as it supplied the food,
was immense, still greater was the tumult
produced [43c] within each creature as a result
of the colliding bodies, when the body of a
creature happened to meet and collide with
alien fire from without, or with a solid lump of
earth or liquid glidings of waters, or when it
was overtaken by a tempest of winds driven by
air, and when the motions due to all these
causes rushing through the body impinged
upon the Soul. And for these reasons all such
motions were then termed “Sensations,”65 and
are still so termed today. Moreover, since at
that time they were causing, for the moment,
64 i.e.omitting the seventh motion (“rotation”), Cf. 34 A.
65 i.e., αἴσθησις (“sensation”) is here derived from ἀίσσω (“dart,” “rush”).
σῶμα ἕκαστον, τὰς τῆς ἀθανάτου ψυχῆς
περιόδους ἐνέδουν εἰς ἐπίρρυτον σῶμα καὶ
ἀπόρρυτον. αἱ δ᾽ εἰς ποταμὸν ἐνδεθεῖσαι πολὺν
οὔτ᾽ ἐκράτουν οὔτ᾽ ἐκρατοῦντο, βίᾳ δὲ
ἐφέροντο καὶ ἔφερον, ὥστε τὸ [43β] μὲν ὅλον
κινεῖσθαι ζῷον, ἀτάκτως μὴν ὅπῃ τύχοι
προϊέναι καὶ ἀλόγως, τὰς ἓξ ἁπάσας κινήσεις
ἔχον: εἴς τε γὰρ τὸ πρόσθε καὶ ὄπισθεν καὶ
πάλιν εἰς δεξιὰ καὶ ἀριστερὰ κάτω τε καὶ ἄνω
καὶ πάντῃ κατὰ τοὺς ἓξ τόπους πλανώμενα
προῄειν. πολλοῦ γὰρ ὄντος τοῦ κατακλύζοντος
καὶ ἀπορρέοντος κύματος ὃ τὴν τροφὴν
παρεῖχεν, ἔτι μείζω θόρυβον ἀπηργάζετο τὰ
τῶν προσπιπτόντων παθήματα ἑκάστοις, ὅτε
[43ξ] πυρὶ προσκρούσειε τὸ σῶμά τινος
ἔξωθεν ἀλλοτρίῳ περιτυχὸν ἢ καὶ στερεῷ γῆς
πάγῳ ὑγροῖς τε ὀλισθήμασιν ὑδάτων, εἴτε ζάλῃ
πνευμάτων
ὑπὸ
ἀέρος
φερομένων
καταληφθείη, καὶ ὑπὸ πάντων τούτων διὰ τοῦ
σώματος αἱ κινήσεις ἐπὶ τὴν ψυχὴν φερόμεναι
προσπίπτοιεν: αἳ δὴ καὶ ἔπειτα διὰ ταῦτα
ἐκλήθησάν τε καὶ νῦν ἔτι αἰσθήσεις συνάπασαι
κέκληνται. καὶ δὴ καὶ τότε ἐν τῷ παρόντι
πλείστην καὶ μεγίστην παρεχόμεναι κίνησιν,
μετὰ τοῦ ῥέοντος ἐνδελεχῶς [43δ] ὀχετοῦ
κινοῦσαι καὶ σφοδρῶς σείουσαι τὰς τῆς ψυχῆς
περιόδους, τὴν μὲν ταὐτοῦ παντάπασιν
ἐπέδησαν ἐναντία αὐτῇ ῥέουσαι καὶ ἐπέσχον
ἄρχουσαν καὶ ἰοῦσαν, τὴν δ᾽ αὖ θατέρου
διέσεισαν, ὥστε τὰς τοῦ διπλασίου καὶ
τριπλασίου τρεῖς ἑκατέρας ἀποστάσεις καὶ τὰς
the three double intervals [i.e. between 1, 2, 4,
8], and the three triple intervals [i.e. between 1,
3, 9, 27], together with the mean terms and
connecting links which are expressed by the
ratios of 3 : 2, and 4 : 3, and of 9 : 8 — these,
although they cannot be wholly undone except
by him who united them, were twisted by them
in all sorts of ways, [43e] and the circles were
broken and disordered in every possible
manner, so that when they moved they were
tumbling to pieces, and moved irrationally, at
one time in a reverse direction, and then again
obliquely, and then upside down, as you might
imagine a person who is upside down and has
his head leaning upon the ground and his feet
up against something in the air; and when he is
in such a position, both he and the spectator
fancy that the right of either is his left, and left
right. If, when powerfully experiencing these
and similar effects, the revolutions of the soul
[44a] come in contact with some external
thing, either of the class of the same or of the
other, they speak of the same or of the other in
a manner the very opposite of the truth; and
they become false and foolish, and there is no
course or revolution in them which has a
guiding or directing power; and if again any
sensations enter in violently from without and
drag after them the whole vessel of the soul,
then the courses of the soul, though they seem
to conquer, are really conquered. And by
66 Cf. 35 B.
67 Cf. 37 A.
constant and widespread motion, joining with
the perpetually flowing stream [43d] in moving
and violently shaking the revolutions of the
Soul, they totally blocked the course of the
Same by flowing contrary thereto, and
hindered it thereby in its ruling and its going;
while, on the other hand, they so shook up the
course of the Other that in the three several
intervals of the double and the triple, 66 and in
the mean terms and binding links of the 3/2,
4/3 and 9/8,—these being not wholly
dissoluble save by Him who had bound them
together,—they produced all manner of
twistings, and caused [43e] in their circles
fractures and disruptions of every possible
kind, with the result that, as they barely held
together one with another, they moved indeed
but moved irrationally, being at one time
reversed, at another oblique, and again upside
down. Suppose, for example, that a man is in
an upside down position, with his head resting
on the earth and his feet touching something
above, then, in this position of the man relative
to that of the onlookers, his right will appear
left to them, and his left right, and so will theirs
to him. This, and such like, are just what the
revolutions of the Soul experience with
intensity; [44a] and every time they happen
upon any external object, whether it be of the
class of the Same or of the Other, 67 they
proclaim it to be the same as something or
τῶν ἡμιολίων καὶ ἐπιτρίτων καὶ ἐπογδόων
μεσότητας καὶ συνδέσεις, ἐπειδὴ παντελῶς
λυταὶ οὐκ ἦσαν πλὴν ὑπὸ τοῦ συνδήσαντος,
πάσας μὲν [43ε] στρέψαι στροφάς, πάσας δὲ
κλάσεις καὶ διαφθορὰς τῶν κύκλων ἐμποιεῖν,
ὁσαχῇπερ ἦν δυνατόν, ὥστε μετ᾽ ἀλλήλων
μόγις συνεχομένας φέρεσθαι μέν, ἀλόγως δὲ
φέρεσθαι, τοτὲ μὲν ἀντίας, ἄλλοτε δὲ πλαγίας,
τοτὲ δὲ ὑπτίας: οἷον ὅταν τις ὕπτιος ἐρείσας
τὴν κεφαλὴν μὲν ἐπὶ γῆς, τοὺς δὲ πόδας ἄνω
προσβαλὼν ἔχῃ πρός τινι, τότε ἐν τούτῳ τῷ
πάθει τοῦ τε πάσχοντος καὶ τῶν ὁρώντων τά τε
δεξιὰ ἀριστερὰ καὶ τὰ ἀριστερὰ δεξιὰ
ἑκατέροις τὰ ἑκατέρων φαντάζεται. ταὐτὸν δὴ
τοῦτο καὶ τοιαῦτα ἕτερα αἱ περιφοραὶ
πάσχουσαι σφοδρῶς, [44α] ὅταν τέ τῳ τῶν
ἔξωθεν τοῦ ταὐτοῦ γένους ἢ τοῦ θατέρου
περιτύχωσιν, τότε ταὐτόν τῳ καὶ θάτερόν του
τἀναντία τῶν ἀληθῶν προσαγορεύουσαι
ψευδεῖς καὶ ἀνόητοι γεγόνασιν, οὐδεμία τε ἐν
αὐταῖς τότε περίοδος ἄρχουσα οὐδ᾽ ἡγεμών
ἐστιν: αἷς δ᾽ ἂν ἔξωθεν αἰσθήσεις τινὲς
φερόμεναι
καὶ
προσπεσοῦσαι
συνεπισπάσωνται καὶ τὸ τῆς ψυχῆς ἅπαν
κύτος, τόθ᾽ αὗται κρατούμεναι κρατεῖν
δοκοῦσι. καὶ διὰ δὴ ταῦτα πάντα τὰ παθήματα
νῦν κατ᾽ ἀρχάς τε ἄνους ψυχὴ γίγνεται [44β]
τὸ πρῶτον, ὅταν εἰς σῶμα ἐνδεθῇ θνητόν. ὅταν
δὲ τὸ τῆς αὔξης καὶ τροφῆς ἔλαττον ἐπίῃ
ῥεῦμα, πάλιν δὲ αἱ περίοδοι λαμβανόμεναι
γαλήνης τὴν ἑαυτῶν ὁδὸν ἴωσι καὶ
reason of all these affections, [44b] the soul,
when encased in a mortal body, now, as in the
beginning, is at first without intelligence; but
when the flood of growth and nutriment abates,
and the courses of the soul, calming down, go
their own way and become steadier as time
goes on, then the several circles return to their
natural form, and their revolutions are
corrected, and they call the same and the other
by their right names, and make the possessor of
them to become a rational being. And if these
[44c] combine in him with any true nurture or
education, he attains the fulness and health of
the perfect man, and escapes the worst disease
of all; but if he neglects education he walks
lame to the end of his life, and returns
imperfect and good for nothing to the world
below. This, however, is a later stage; at
present we must treat more exactly the subject
before us, which involves a preliminary
enquiry into the generation of the body and its
members, and as to how the soul was created
— for what reason and by what providence of
the gods; and holding fast to probability, [44d]
we must pursue our way. First, then, the gods,
imitating the spherical shape of the universe,
enclosed the two divine courses in a spherical
body, that, namely, which we now term the
head, being the most divine part of us and the
lord of all that is in us: to this the gods, when
68 Cf. 86 E;Phaedo81 C, 83 D.
69 i.e.ignorance; Cf. 86 B ff.,Laws863 C ff.
70 Cf. 86 B ff.
other than something contrary to the truth, and
thereby prove themselves false and foolish, and
devoid, at such times, of any revolution that
rules and guides. And whenever external
sensations in their movement collide with these
revolutions and sweep along with them also the
whole vessel of the Soul, then the revolutions,
though actually mastered, appear to have the
mastery. Hence it comes about that, because of
all these affections, now as in the beginning,
[44b] so often as the Soul is bound within a
mortal body it becomes at the first irrational. 68
But as soon as the stream of increase and
nutriment enters in less volume, and the
revolutions calm down and pursue their own
path, becoming more stable as time proceeds,
then at length, as the several circles move each
according to its natural track, their revolutions
are straightened out and they announce the
Same and the Other aright, and thereby they
render their possessor intelligent. And if so be
[44c] that this state of his soul be reinforced by
right educational training, the man becomes
wholly sound and faultless, having escaped the
worst of maladies;69 but if he has been wholly
negligent therein, after passing a lame
existence in life he returns again unperfected
and unreasoning to Hades. These results,
however, come about at a later time. 70
Regarding the subjects now before us, we must
καθιστῶνται μᾶλλον ἐπιόντος τοῦ χρόνου, τότε
ἤδη πρὸς τὸ κατὰ φύσιν ἰόντων σχῆμα
ἑκάστων
τῶν
κύκλων
αἱ
περιφοραὶ
κατευθυνόμεναι, τό τε θάτερον καὶ τὸ ταὐτὸν
προσαγορεύουσαι κατ᾽ ὀρθόν, ἔμφρονα τὸν
ἔχοντα αὐτὰς γιγνόμενον ἀποτελοῦσιν. ἂν μὲν
οὖν δὴ καὶ συνεπιλαμβάνηταί τις ὀρθὴ τροφὴ
παιδεύσεως, [44ξ] ὁλόκληρος ὑγιής τε
παντελῶς, τὴν μεγίστην ἀποφυγὼν νόσον,
γίγνεται: καταμελήσας δέ, χωλὴν τοῦ βίου
διαπορευθεὶς ζωήν, ἀτελὴς καὶ ἀνόητος εἰς
Ἅιδου πάλιν ἔρχεται. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ὕστερά
ποτε γίγνεται: περὶ δὲ τῶν νῦν προτεθέντων δεῖ
διελθεῖν ἀκριβέστερον, τὰ δὲ πρὸ τούτων, περὶ
σωμάτων κατὰ μέρη τῆς γενέσεως καὶ περὶ
ψυχῆς, δι᾽ ἅς τε αἰτίας καὶ προνοίας γέγονε
θεῶν, τοῦ μάλιστα [44δ] εἰκότος ἀντεχομένοις,
οὕτω καὶ κατὰ ταῦτα πορευομένοις διεξιτέον.
τὰς μὲν δὴ θείας περιόδους δύο οὔσας, τὸ τοῦ
παντὸς σχῆμα ἀπομιμησάμενοι περιφερὲς ὄν,
εἰς σφαιροειδὲς σῶμα ἐνέδησαν, τοῦτο ὃ νῦν
κεφαλὴν ἐπονομάζομεν, ὃ θειότατόν τέ ἐστιν
καὶ τῶν ἐν ἡμῖν πάντων δεσποτοῦν: ᾧ καὶ πᾶν
τὸ σῶμα παρέδοσαν ὑπηρεσίαν αὐτῷ
συναθροίσαντες θεοί, κατανοήσαντες ὅτι
πασῶν ὅσαι κινήσεις ἔσοιντο μετέχοι. ἵν᾽ οὖν
μὴ κυλινδούμενον ἐπὶ γῆς ὕψη τε καὶ βάθη
παντοδαπὰ [44ε] ἐχούσης ἀποροῖ τὰ μὲν
ὑπερβαίνειν, ἔνθεν δὲ ἐκβαίνειν, ὄχημα αὐτῷ
τοῦτο καὶ εὐπορίαν ἔδοσαν: ὅθεν δὴ μῆκος τὸ
they put together the body, gave all the other
members to be servants, considering that it
partook of every sort of motion. [44e] In order
then that it might not tumble about among the
high and deep places of the earth, but might be
able to get over the one and out of the other,
they provided the body to be its vehicle and
means of locomotion; which consequently had
length and was furnished with four limbs
extended and flexible; these God contrived to
be instruments of locomotion with which it
might take hold and find support, [45a] and so
be able to pass through all places, carrying on
high the dwelling-place of the most sacred and
divine part of us. Such was the origin of legs
and hands, which for this reason were attached
to every man; and the gods, deeming the front
part of man to be more honourable and more fit
to command than the hinder part, made us to
move mostly in a forward direction. Wherefore
man must needs have his front part unlike and
distinguished from the rest of his body. And so
in the vessel of the head, they first of all put a
face in which they inserted organs to minister
in all things to the providence of the soul, and
they appointed this part, which has authority, to
be by nature the part which is in front. [45b]
And of the organs they first contrived the eyes
to give light, and the principle according to
which they were inserted was as follows: So
much of fire as would not burn, but gave a
71 Cf. 29 C, D.
72 Cf. 73 C, 81 D.
give a more exact exposition; and also
regarding the subjects anterior to these,
namely, the generation of bodies in their
several parts, and the causes and divine
counsels whereby the Soul has come into
existence, we must hold fast to the most
probable71 account, [44d] and proceed
accordingly, in the exposition now to be given.
The divine revolutions, which are two, they
bound within a sphere-shaped body, in
imitation of the spherical form72 of the All,
which body we now call the “head,” it being
the most divine part and reigning over all the
parts within us. To it the gods delivered over
the whole of the body they had assembled to be
its servant, having formed the notion that it
should partake in all the motions which were to
be. [44e] In order, then, that it should not go
rolling upon the earth, which has all manner of
heights and hollows, and be at a loss how to
climb over the one and climb out of the other,
they bestowed upon it the body as a vehicle
and means of transport. And for this reason the
body acquired length, and, by God's contriving,
shot forth four limbs, extensible and flexible,
[45a] to serve as instruments of transport, so
that grasping with these and' supported thereon
it was enabled to travel through all places,
bearing aloft the chamber of our most divine
and holy part. In this wise and for these reasons
were legs and hands attached to all men; and
σῶμα ἔσχεν, ἐκτατά τε κῶλα καὶ καμπτὰ
ἔφυσεν τέτταρα θεοῦ μηχανησαμένου πορείαν,
οἷς ἀντιλαμβανόμενον καὶ ἀπερειδόμενον διὰ
πάντων τόπων πορεύεσθαι δυνατὸν γέγονε,
[45α] τὴν τοῦ θειοτάτου καὶ ἱερωτάτου φέρον
οἴκησιν ἐπάνωθεν ἡμῶν. σκέλη μὲν οὖν χεῖρές
τε ταύτῃ καὶ διὰ ταῦτα προσέφυ πᾶσιν: τοῦ δ᾽
ὄπισθεν τὸ πρόσθεν τιμιώτερον καὶ
ἀρχικώτερον νομίζοντες θεοὶ ταύτῃ τὸ πολὺ
τῆς πορείας ἡμῖν ἔδοσαν. ἔδει δὴ διωρισμένον
ἔχειν καὶ ἀνόμοιον τοῦ σώματος τὸ πρόσθεν
ἄνθρωπον. διὸ πρῶτον μὲν περὶ τὸ τῆς
κεφαλῆς κύτος, ὑποθέντες αὐτόσε τὸ
πρόσωπον, ὄργανα ἐνέδησαν [45β] τούτῳ
πάσῃ τῇ τῆς ψυχῆς προνοίᾳ, καὶ διέταξαν τὸ
μετέχον ἡγεμονίας τοῦτ᾽ εἶναι, τὸ κατὰ φύσιν
πρόσθεν: τῶν δὲ ὀργάνων πρῶτον μὲν
φωσφόρα συνετεκτήναντο ὄμματα, τοιᾷδε
ἐνδήσαντες αἰτίᾳ. τοῦ πυρὸς ὅσον τὸ μὲν κάειν
οὐκ ἔσχε, τὸ δὲ παρέχειν φῶς ἥμερον, οἰκεῖον
ἑκάστης
ἡμέρας,
σῶμα
ἐμηχανήσαντο
γίγνεσθαι. τὸ γὰρ ἐντὸς ἡμῶν ἀδελφὸν ὂν
τούτου πῦρ εἰλικρινὲς ἐποίησαν διὰ τῶν
ὀμμάτων ῥεῖν λεῖον καὶ πυκνὸν ὅλον μέν,
μάλιστα δὲ τὸ μέσον συμπιλήσαντες [45ξ] τῶν
ὀμμάτων, ὥστε τὸ μὲν ἄλλο ὅσον παχύτερον
στέγειν πᾶν, τὸ τοιοῦτον δὲ μόνον αὐτὸ
καθαρὸν διηθεῖν. ὅταν οὖν μεθημερινὸν ᾖ φῶς
περὶ τὸ τῆς ὄψεως ῥεῦμα, τότε ἐκπῖπτον ὅμοιον
πρὸς ὅμοιον, συμπαγὲς γενόμενον, ἓν σῶμα
οἰκειωθὲν συνέστη κατὰ τὴν τῶν ὀμμάτων
gentle light, they formed into a substance akin
to the light of every-day life; and the pure fire
which is within us and related thereto they
made to flow through the eyes in a stream
smooth and dense, [45c] compressing the
whole eye, and especially the centre part, so
that it kept out everything of a coarser nature,
and allowed to pass only this pure element.
When the light of day surrounds the stream of
vision, then like falls upon like, and they
coalesce, and one body is formed by natural
affinity in the line of vision, wherever the light
that falls from within meets with an external
object. And the whole stream of vision, being
similarly affected in virtue of similarity, [45d]
diffuses the motions of what it touches or what
touches it over the whole body, until they reach
the soul, causing that perception which we call
sight. But when night comes on and the
external and kindred fire departs, then the
stream of vision is cut off; for going forth to an
unlike element it is changed and extinguished,
being no longer of one nature with the
surrounding atmosphere which is now deprived
of fire: and so the eye no longer sees, and we
feel disposed to sleep. For when the eyelids,
which the gods invented [45e] for the
preservation of sight, are closed, they keep in
the internal fire; and the power of the fire
diffuses and equalises the inward motions;
inasmuch as they demand the forepart superior
to the hinder part in honor and dignity, the
Gods gave us the most part of our going in this
direction. Thus it was necessary that man
should have the forepart of his body distinct
and dissimilar. Wherefore, dealing first with
the vessel of the head, they set the face in the
front thereof [45b] and bound within it organs
for all the forethought of the Soul; and they
ordained that this, which is the natural front,
should be the leading part. And of the organs
they constructed first light-bearing eyes, and
these they fixed in the face for the reason
following. They contrived that all such fire as
had the property not of burning but of giving a
mild light should form a body akin to the light
of every day.73 For they caused the pure fire
within us, which is akin to that of day, to flow
through the eyes in a smooth and dense stream;
[45c] and they compressed the whole
substance, and especially the center, of the
eyes, so that they occluded all other fire that
was coarser and allowed only this pure kind of
fire to filter through. So whenever the stream
of vision is surrounded by midday light, it
flows out like unto like,74 and coalescing
therewith it forms one kindred substance along
the path of the eyes' vision, wheresoever the
fire which streams from within collides with an
obstructing object without. And this substance,
εὐθυωρίαν, ὅπῃπερ ἂν ἀντερείδῃ τὸ
προσπῖπτον ἔνδοθεν πρὸς ὃ τῶν ἔξω
συνέπεσεν. ὁμοιοπαθὲς δὴ δι᾽ ὁμοιότητα πᾶν
γενόμενον, ὅτου τε ἂν αὐτό [45δ] ποτε
ἐφάπτηται καὶ ὃ ἂν ἄλλο ἐκείνου, τούτων τὰς
κινήσεις διαδιδὸν εἰς ἅπαν τὸ σῶμα μέχρι τῆς
ψυχῆς αἴσθησιν παρέσχετο ταύτην ᾗ δὴ ὁρᾶν
φαμεν. ἀπελθόντος δὲ εἰς νύκτα τοῦ συγγενοῦς
πυρὸς ἀποτέτμηται: πρὸς γὰρ ἀνόμοιον ἐξιὸν
ἀλλοιοῦταί τε αὐτὸ καὶ κατασβέννυται,
συμφυὲς οὐκέτι τῷ πλησίον ἀέρι γιγνόμενον,
ἅτε πῦρ οὐκ ἔχοντι. παύεταί τε οὖν ὁρῶν, ἔτι τε
ἐπαγωγὸν ὕπνου γίγνεται: σωτηρίαν γὰρ ἣν οἱ
θεοὶ τῆς ὄψεως ἐμηχανήσαντο, τὴν τῶν
βλεφάρων [45ε] φύσιν, ὅταν ταῦτα συμμύσῃ,
καθείργνυσι τὴν τοῦ πυρὸς ἐντὸς δύναμιν, ἡ δὲ
διαχεῖ τε καὶ ὁμαλύνει τὰς ἐντὸς κινήσεις,
ὁμαλυνθεισῶν δὲ ἡσυχία γίγνεται, γενομένης
δὲ πολλῆς μὲν ἡσυχίας βραχυόνειρος ὕπνος
ἐμπίπτει, καταλειφθεισῶν δέ τινων κινήσεων
μειζόνων, οἷαι καὶ ἐν οἵοις ἂν τόποις
λείπωνται, [46α] τοιαῦτα καὶ τοσαῦτα
παρέσχοντο ἀφομοιωθέντα ἐντὸς ἔξω τε
ἐγερθεῖσιν ἀπομνημονευόμενα φαντάσματα. τὸ
δὲ περὶ τὴν τῶν κατόπτρων εἰδωλοποιίαν καὶ
πάντα ὅσα ἐμφανῆ καὶ λεῖα, κατιδεῖν οὐδὲν ἔτι
χαλεπόν. ἐκ γὰρ τῆς ἐντὸς ἐκτός τε τοῦ πυρὸς
ἑκατέρου κοινωνίας ἀλλήλοις, ἑνός τε αὖ περὶ
τὴν λειότητα ἑκάστοτε γενομένου καὶ πολλαχῇ
μεταρρυθμισθέντος, [46β] πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα ἐξ
73 There is a play here on the words ἥμερον (“mild”)... ἡμέρας (“day”); Cf. Cratyl. 418 C.
74 Vision is explained on the principle that “like is known by like”: a fire-stream issuing from the eye meets a fire-stream coming from the object of
vision ( Cf. the view of Empedocles).
when they are equalised, there is rest, and
when the rest is profound, sleep comes over us
scarce disturbed by dreams; but where the
greater motions still remain, of whatever nature
and in whatever locality, [46a] they engender
corresponding visions in dreams, which are
remembered by us when we are awake and in
the external world. And now there is no longer
any difficulty in understanding the creation of
images in mirrors and all smooth and bright
surfaces. For from the communion of the
internal and external fires, and again from the
union of them and their numerous
transformations when they meet in the mirror,
[46b] all these appearances of necessity arise,
when the fire from the face coalesces with the
fire from the eye on the bright and smooth
surface. And right appears left and left right,
because the visual rays come into contact with
the rays emitted by the object in a manner
contrary to the usual mode of meeting; but the
right appears right, and the left left, [46c] when
the position of one of the two concurring lights
is reversed; and this happens when the mirror
is concave and its smooth surface repels the
right stream of vision to the left side, and the
left to the right. Or if the mirror be turned
vertically, then the concavity makes the
countenance appear to be all upside down, and
the lower rays are driven upwards and the
upper downwards.
having all become similar in its properties
because of its similar nature, [45d] distributes
the motions of every object it touches, or
whereby it is touched, throughout all the body
even unto the Soul, and brings about that
sensation which we now term “seeing.” But
when the kindred fire vanishes into night, the
inner fire is cut off; for when it issues forth into
what is dissimilar it becomes altered in itself
and is quenched, seeing that it is no longer of
like nature with the adjoining air, since that air
is devoid of fire. Wherefore it leaves off
seeing, and becomes also an inducement to
sleep. For the eyelids —whose structure the
Gods devised [45e] as a safeguard for the
vision,—when they are shut close, curb the
power of the inner fire; which power dissipates
and allays the inward motions, and upon their
allaying quiet ensues; and when this quiet has
become intense there falls upon us a sleep that
is well-nigh dreamless; but when some greater
motions are still left behind, according to their
nature and the positions they occupy [46a]
such and so great are the images they produce,
which images are copied within and are
remembered by the sleepers when they awake
out of the dream. And it is no longer difficult to
perceive the truth about the formation of
images in mirrors and in bright and smooth
surfaces of every kind. It is from the
combination with each other of the inner and
the outer fires, every time that they unite on the
smooth surface and are variously deflected,
ἀνάγκης ἐμφαίνεται, τοῦ περὶ τὸ πρόσωπον
πυρὸς τῷ περὶ τὴν ὄψιν πυρὶ περὶ τὸ λεῖον καὶ
λαμπρὸν συμπαγοῦς γιγνομένου. δεξιὰ δὲ
φαντάζεται τὰ ἀριστερά, ὅτι τοῖς ἐναντίοις
μέρεσιν τῆς ὄψεως περὶ τἀναντία μέρη γίγνεται
ἐπαφὴ παρὰ τὸ καθεστὸς ἔθος τῆς προσβολῆς:
δεξιὰ δὲ τὰ δεξιὰ καὶ τὰ ἀριστερὰ ἀριστερὰ
τοὐναντίον, ὅταν μεταπέσῃ συμπηγνύμενον ᾧ
συμπήγνυται φῶς, [46ξ] τοῦτο δέ, ὅταν ἡ τῶν
κατόπτρων λειότης, ἔνθεν καὶ ἔνθεν ὕψη
λαβοῦσα, τὸ δεξιὸν εἰς τὸ ἀριστερὸν μέρος
ἀπώσῃ τῆς ὄψεως καὶ θάτερον ἐπὶ θάτερον.
κατὰ δὲ τὸ μῆκος στραφὲν τοῦ προσώπου
ταὐτὸν τοῦτο ὕπτιον ἐποίησεν πᾶν φαίνεσθαι,
τὸ κάτω πρὸς τὸ ἄνω τῆς αὐγῆς τό τ᾽ ἄνω πρὸς
τὸ κάτω πάλιν ἀπῶσαν.
[46b] that all such reflections necessarily
result, owing to the fire of the reflected face
coalescing with the fire of the vision on the
smooth and bright surface.75 And left appears
as right, because contact takes place between
opposite portions of the visual stream and
opposite portions of the object, contrary to the
regular mode of collision. Contrariwise, right
appears as right and left as left whenever the
fire changes sides on coalescing with the object
[46c] wherewith it coalesces; and this occurs
whenever the smooth surface of the mirrors,
being elevated on this side and on that, 76 repels
the right portion of the visual stream to the left
and the left to the right. And when this same
mirror is turned lengthwise to the face it makes
the whole face appear upside down, since it
repels the bottom of the ray to the top, and
conversely the top to the bottom.
All these are to be reckoned among the second
and co-operative causes which God, carrying
into execution the idea of the best as far as
possible, [46d] uses as his ministers. They are
thought by most men not to be the second, but
the prime causes of all things, because they
freeze and heat, and contract and dilate, and
the like. But they are not so, for they are
Now all these are among the auxiliary Causes77
which God employs as his ministers in
perfecting, so far as possible, [46d] the Form of
the Most Good; but by the most of men 78 they
are supposed to be not auxiliary but primary
causes of all things—cooling and heating,
solidifying and dissolving, and producing all
such effects. Yet they are incapable of
ταῦτ᾽ οὖν πάντα ἔστιν τῶν συναιτίων οἷς θεὸς
ὑπηρετοῦσιν χρῆται τὴν τοῦ ἀρίστου κατὰ τὸ
δυνατὸν ἰδέαν [46δ] ἀποτελῶν: δοξάζεται δὲ
ὑπὸ τῶν πλείστων οὐ συναίτια ἀλλὰ αἴτια εἶναι
τῶν πάντων, ψύχοντα καὶ θερμαίνοντα
πηγνύντα τε καὶ διαχέοντα καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα
ἀπεργαζόμενα. λόγον δὲ οὐδένα οὐδὲ νοῦν εἰς
οὐδὲν δυνατὰ ἔχειν ἐστίν. τῶν γὰρ ὄντων ᾧ
75 e.g.when a man looks at his own face reflected in a mirror. Cf. Soph.266 C.
76 i.e., concave (and hemi-cylindrical).
77 These causes are “secondary,” as contrasted with the “primary” or First Cause (which is also the “final Cause”), “the Good”; Cf. 29 E, 68
E,Phaedo99 B.
78 e.g. Anaxagoras and the Atomists.
incapable of reason or intellect; the only being
which can properly have mind is the invisible
soul, whereas fire and water, and earth and air,
are all of them visible bodies. The lover of
intellect and knowledge ought to explore
causes of intelligent nature first of all, [46e]
and, secondly, of those things which, being
moved by others, are compelled to move
others. And this is what we too must do. Both
kinds of causes should be acknowledged by us,
but a distinction should be made between those
which are endowed with mind and are the
workers of things fair and good, and those
which are deprived of intelligence and always
produce chance effects without order or design.
possessing reason and thought for any purpose.
For, as we must affirm, the one and only
existing thing which has the property of
acquiring thought is Soul; and Soul is invisible,
whereas fire and water and earth and air are all
visible bodies; and the lover of thought and
knowledge must needs pursue first [46e] the
causes which belong to the Intelligent Nature,
and put second all such as are of the class of
things which are moved by others, and
themselves, in turn, move others because they
cannot help it. And we also must act likewise.
We must declare both kinds of Causes, but
keep distinct those which, with the aid of
thought, are artificers of things fair and good,
and all those which are devoid of intelligence
and produce always accidental and irregular
effects.
νοῦν μόνῳ κτᾶσθαι προσήκει, λεκτέον ψυχήν
—τοῦτο δὲ ἀόρατον, πῦρ δὲ καὶ ὕδωρ καὶ γῆ
καὶ ἀὴρ σώματα πάντα ὁρατὰ γέγονεν—τὸν δὲ
νοῦ καὶ ἐπιστήμης ἐραστὴν ἀνάγκη τὰς τῆς
ἔμφρονος φύσεως αἰτίας πρώτας [46ε]
μεταδιώκειν, ὅσαι δὲ ὑπ᾽ ἄλλων μὲν
κινουμένων, ἕτερα δὲ κατὰ ἀνάγκης κινούντων
γίγνονται, δευτέρας. ποιητέον δὴ κατὰ ταῦτα
καὶ ἡμῖν: λεκτέα μὲν ἀμφότερα τὰ τῶν αἰτιῶν
γένη, χωρὶς δὲ ὅσαι μετὰ νοῦ καλῶν καὶ
ἀγαθῶν δημιουργοὶ καὶ ὅσαι μονωθεῖσαι
φρονήσεως τὸ τυχὸν ἄτακτον ἑκάστοτε
ἐξεργάζονται.
Of the second or co-operative causes of sight,
which help to give to the eyes the power which
they now possess, enough has been said. I will
therefore now proceed to speak of the higher
[47a] use and purpose for which God has given
them to us. The sight in my opinion is the
source of the greatest benefit to us, for had we
never seen the stars, and the sun, and the
heaven, none of the words which we have
spoken about the universe would ever have
been uttered. But now the sight of day and
night, and the months and the revolutions of
the years, have created number, and have given
us a conception of time, and the power of
Now regarding the auxiliary causes which have
helped the eyes to acquire the power which
they now possess, let this statement suffice.
Next we must declare the most important [47a]
benefit effected by them, for the sake of which
God bestowed them upon us. Vision, in my
view, is the cause of the greatest benefit to us,
inasmuch as none of the accounts now given
concerning the Universe would ever have been
given if men had not seen the stars or the sun
or the heaven. But as it is, the vision of day and
night and of months and circling years has
created the art of number and has given us not
only the notion of Time 79 but also means of
τὰ μὲν οὖν τῶν ὀμμάτων συμμεταίτια πρὸς τὸ
σχεῖν τὴν δύναμιν ἣν νῦν εἴληχεν εἰρήσθω: τὸ
δὲ μέγιστον αὐτῶν εἰς ὠφελίαν ἔργον, δι᾽ ὃ
θεὸς αὔθ᾽ ἡμῖν [47α] δεδώρηται, μετὰ τοῦτο
ῥητέον. ὄψις δὴ κατὰ τὸν ἐμὸν λόγον αἰτία τῆς
μεγίστης ὠφελίας γέγονεν ἡμῖν, ὅτι τῶν νῦν
λόγων περὶ τοῦ παντὸς λεγομένων οὐδεὶς ἄν
ποτε ἐρρήθη μήτε ἄστρα μήτε ἥλιον μήτε
οὐρανὸν ἰδόντων. νῦν δ᾽ ἡμέρα τε καὶ νὺξ
ὀφθεῖσαι μῆνές τε καὶ ἐνιαυτῶν περίοδοι καὶ
ἰσημερίαι καὶ τροπαὶ μεμηχάνηνται μὲν
ἀριθμόν, χρόνου δὲ ἔννοιαν περί τε τῆς τοῦ
παντὸς φύσεως ζήτησιν ἔδοσαν: ἐξ ὧν [47β]
ἐπορισάμεθα φιλοσοφίας γένος, οὗ μεῖζον
enquiring about the nature of the universe; and
from this source we have derived philosophy,
[47b] than which no greater good ever was or
will be given by the gods to mortal man. This
is the greatest boon of sight: and of the lesser
benefits why should I speak? even the ordinary
man if he were deprived of them would bewail
his loss, but in vain. Thus much let me say
however: God invented and gave us sight to
the end that we might behold the courses of
intelligence in the heaven, and apply them to
the courses of our own intelligence which are
akin to them, [47c] the unperturbed to the
perturbed; and that we, learning them and
partaking of the natural truth of reason, might
imitate the absolutely unerring courses of God
and regulate our own vagaries.
research into the nature of the Universe. From
these we have procured Philosophy in all its
range, [47b] than which no greater boon ever
has come or will come, by divine bestowal,
unto the race of mortals.80 This I affirm to be
the greatest good of eyesight. As for all the
lesser goods, why should we celebrate them?
He that is no philosopher when deprived of the
sight thereof may utter vain lamentations!81 But
the cause and purpose of that best good, as we
must maintain, is this,—that God devised and
bestowed upon us vision to the end that we
might behold the revolutions of Reason in the
Heaven and use them for the revolvings of the
reasoning that is within us, these being akin to
those, [47c] the perturbable to the
imperturbable; and that, through learning and
sharing in calculations which are correct by
their nature, by imitation of the absolutely
unvarying revolutions of the God we might
stabilize the variable revolutions within
ourselves.
ἀγαθὸν οὔτ᾽ ἦλθεν οὔτε ἥξει ποτὲ τῷ θνητῷ
γένει δωρηθὲν ἐκ θεῶν. λέγω δὴ τοῦτο
ὀμμάτων μέγιστον ἀγαθόν: τἆλλα δὲ ὅσα
ἐλάττω τί ἂν ὑμνοῖμεν, ὧν ὁ μὴ φιλόσοφος
τυφλωθεὶς ὀδυρόμενος ἂν θρηνοῖ μάτην; ἀλλὰ
τούτου λεγέσθω παρ᾽ ἡμῶν αὕτη ἐπὶ ταῦτα
αἰτία, θεὸν ἡμῖν ἀνευρεῖν δωρήσασθαί τε ὄψιν,
ἵνα τὰς ἐν οὐρανῷ τοῦ νοῦ κατιδόντες
περιόδους χρησαίμεθα ἐπὶ τὰς περιφορὰς τὰς
τῆς παρ᾽ ἡμῖν διανοήσεως, συγγενεῖς [47ξ]
ἐκείναις οὔσας, ἀταράκτοις τεταραγμένας,
ἐκμαθόντες δὲ καὶ λογισμῶν κατὰ φύσιν
ὀρθότητος μετασχόντες, μιμούμενοι τὰς τοῦ
θεοῦ πάντως ἀπλανεῖς οὔσας, τὰς ἐν ἡμῖν
πεπλανημένας καταστησαίμεθα.
The same may be affirmed of speech and
hearing: they have been given by the gods to
the same end and for a like reason. For this is
the principal end of speech, whereto it most
contributes. Moreover, so much of music as is
adapted to the sound of the voice and to the
sense of hearing is granted to us for the sake of
Concerning sound also and hearing, once more
we make the same declaration, that they were
bestowed by the Gods with the same object and
for the same reasons; for it was for these same
purposes that speech was ordained, and it
makes the greatest contribution thereto; music
too, in so far as it uses audible sound, [47d]
φωνῆς τε δὴ καὶ ἀκοῆς πέρι πάλιν ὁ αὐτὸς
λόγος, ἐπὶ ταὐτὰ τῶν αὐτῶν ἕνεκα παρὰ θεῶν
δεδωρῆσθαι. λόγος τε γὰρ ἐπ᾽ αὐτὰ ταῦτα
τέτακται, τὴν μεγίστην συμβαλλόμενος εἰς
αὐτὰ μοῖραν, ὅσον τ᾽ αὖ μουσικῆς [47δ] φωνῇ
χρήσιμον πρὸς ἀκοὴν ἕνεκα ἁρμονίας ἐστὶ
δοθέν. ἡ δὲ ἁρμονία, συγγενεῖς ἔχουσα φορὰς
79 Cf. 37 D ff.
80 Cf. Phileb. 16 C ff.
81 An echo of Eurip.Phoenissae1762 ἀλλὰ γὰρ τί ταῦτα θρηνῶ καὶ μάτην ὀδύρομαι;
harmony; and harmony, which has motions
akin to the revolutions of our souls, is not
regarded by the intelligent votary of the Muses
as given by them with a view to irrational
pleasure, which is deemed to be the purpose of
it in our day, but as meant to correct any
discord which may have arisen in the courses
of the soul, and to be our ally in bringing her
into harmony and agreement with herself;
[47e] and rhythm too was given by them for
the same reason, on account of the irregular
and graceless ways which prevail among
mankind generally, and to help us against
them.
was bestowed for the sake of harmony. 82 And
harmony, which has motions akin to the
revolutions of the Soul within us, was given by
the Muses to him who makes intelligent use of
the Muses, not as an aid to irrational pleasure,
as is now supposed, but as an auxiliary to the
inner revolution of the Soul, when it has lost its
harmony, to assist in restoring it to order and
concord with itself. And because of the
unmodulated condition, [47e] deficient in
grace, which exists in most of us, Rhythm also
was bestowed upon us to be our helper by the
same deities and for the same ends.
ταῖς ἐν ἡμῖν τῆς ψυχῆς περιόδοις, τῷ μετὰ νοῦ
προσχρωμένῳ Μούσαις οὐκ ἐφ᾽ ἡδονὴν
ἄλογον καθάπερ νῦν εἶναι δοκεῖ χρήσιμος,
ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ τὴν γεγονυῖαν ἐν ἡμῖν ἀνάρμοστον
ψυχῆς περίοδον εἰς κατακόσμησιν καὶ
συμφωνίαν ἑαυτῇ σύμμαχος ὑπὸ Μουσῶν
δέδοται: καὶ ῥυθμὸς αὖ διὰ τὴν ἄμετρον ἐν
ἡμῖν καὶ χαρίτων [47ε] ἐπιδεᾶ γιγνομένην ἐν
τοῖς πλείστοις ἕξιν ἐπίκουρος ἐπὶ ταὐτὰ ὑπὸ
τῶν αὐτῶν ἐδόθη.
Thus far in what we have been saying, with
small exception, the works of intelligence have
been set forth; and now we must place by the
side of them in our discourse the things which
come into being through necessity [48a] — for
the creation is mixed, being made up of
necessity and mind. Mind, the ruling power,
persuaded necessity to bring the greater part of
created things to perfection, and thus and after
this manner in the beginning, when the
influence of reason got the better of necessity,
the universe was created. But if a person will
truly tell of the way in which the work was
accomplished, he must include the other
influence of the variable cause as well.
Wherefore, we must return again [48b] and
The foregoing part of our discourse, save for a
small portion, has been an exposition of the
operations of Reason; but we must also furnish
an account of what comes into existence
through Necessity.83 [48a] For, in truth, this
Cosmos in its origin was generated as a
compound, from the combination of Necessity
and Reason. And inasmuch as Reason was
controlling Necessity by persuading her to
conduct to the best end the most part of the
things coming into existence, thus and thereby
it came about, through Necessity yielding to
intelligent persuasion, that this Universe of
ours was being in this wise constructed at the
beginning. Wherefore if one is to declare how
it actually came into being on this wise, he
τὰ μὲν οὖν παρεληλυθότα τῶν εἰρημένων πλὴν
βραχέων
ἐπιδέδεικται
τὰ
διὰ
νοῦ
δεδημιουργημένα: δεῖ δὲ καὶ τὰ δι᾽ ἀνάγκης
γιγνόμενα τῷ λόγῳ παραθέσθαι. μεμειγμένη
γὰρ [48α] οὖν ἡ τοῦδε τοῦ κόσμου γένεσις ἐξ
ἀνάγκης τε καὶ νοῦ συστάσεως ἐγεννήθη: νοῦ
δὲ ἀνάγκης ἄρχοντος τῷ πείθειν αὐτὴν τῶν
γιγνομένων τὰ πλεῖστα ἐπὶ τὸ βέλτιστον ἄγειν,
ταύτῃ κατὰ ταῦτά τε δι᾽ ἀνάγκης ἡττωμένης
ὑπὸ πειθοῦς ἔμφρονος οὕτω κατ᾽ ἀρχὰς
συνίστατο τόδε τὸ πᾶν. εἴ τις οὖν ᾗ γέγονεν
κατὰ ταῦτα ὄντως ἐρεῖ, μεικτέον καὶ τὸ τῆς
πλανωμένης εἶδος αἰτίας, ᾗ φέρειν πέφυκεν:
ὧδε οὖν πάλιν [48β] ἀναχωρητέον, καὶ
λαβοῦσιν αὐτῶν τούτων προσήκουσαν ἑτέραν
ἀρχὴν αὖθις αὖ, καθάπερ περὶ τῶν τότε νῦν
82 For the importance of music in education Cf. Rep.401 D,Laws666 D ff.; also Tim.80 B.
83 i.e., the sphere of mechanical causation, physical and physiological processes and results.
find another suitable beginning, as about the
former matters, so also about these. To which
end we must consider the nature of fire, and
water, and air, and earth, such as they were
prior to the creation of the heaven, and what
was happening to them in this previous state;
for no one has as yet explained the manner of
their generation, but we speak of fire and the
rest of them, whatever they mean, as though
men knew their natures, and we maintain them
to be the first principles and letters or elements
of the whole, when they cannot reasonably be
compared [48c] by a man of any sense even to
syllables or first compounds. And let me say
thus much: I will not now speak of the first
principle or principles of all things, or by
whatever name they are to be called, for this
reason — because it is difficult to set forth my
opinion according to the method of discussion
which we are at present employing. Do not
imagine, any more than I can bring myself to
imagine, that I should be right in undertaking
so great and difficult a task. Remembering
[48d] what I said at first about probability, I
will do my best to give as probable an
explanation as any other — or rather, more
probable; and I will first go back to the
beginning and try to speak of each thing and of
all. Once more, then, at the commencement of
my discourse, I call upon God, and beg him to
be our saviour out of a strange and unwonted
must include also the form of the Errant Cause,
in the way that it really acts. To this point,
therefore, we must return, [48b] and taking
once again a fresh starting point suitable to the
matter we must make a fresh start in dealing
therewith, just as we did with our previous
subjects. We must gain a view of the real
nature of fire and water, air and earth, as it was
before the birth of Heaven, and the properties
they had before that time; for at present no one
has as yet declared their generation, but we
assume that men know what fire is, and each of
these things, and we call them principles and
presume that they are elements84 of the
Universe, although in truth they do not so
much as deserve to be likened with any
likelihood, [48c] by the man who has even a
grain of sense, to the class of syllables. For the
present, however, let our procedure be as
follows. We shall not now expound the
principle of all things—or their principles, or
whatever term we use concerning them; and
that solely for this reason, that it is difficult for
us to explain our views while keeping to our
present method of exposition.85 You, therefore,
ought not to suppose that I should expound
them, while as for me—I should never be able
to convince myself that I should be right in
attempting to undertake so great a task. Strictly
adhering, then, [48d] to what we previously
affirmed, the import of the “likely” account, I
οὕτω περὶ τούτων πάλιν ἀρκτέον ἀπ᾽ ἀρχῆς.
τὴν δὴ πρὸ τῆς οὐρανοῦ γενέσεως πυρὸς
ὕδατός τε καὶ ἀέρος καὶ γῆς φύσιν θεατέον
αὐτὴν καὶ τὰ πρὸ τούτου πάθη: νῦν γὰρ οὐδείς
πω γένεσιν αὐτῶν μεμήνυκεν, ἀλλ᾽ ὡς εἰδόσιν
πῦρ ὅτι ποτέ ἐστιν καὶ ἕκαστον αὐτῶν λέγομεν
ἀρχὰς αὐτὰ τιθέμενοι στοιχεῖα τοῦ παντός,
προσῆκον αὐτοῖς οὐδ᾽ ἂν ὡς ἐν συλλαβῆς
[48ξ] εἴδεσιν μόνον εἰκότως ὑπὸ τοῦ καὶ βραχὺ
φρονοῦντος ἀπεικασθῆναι. νῦν δὲ οὖν τό γε
παρ᾽ ἡμῶν ὧδε ἐχέτω: τὴν μὲν περὶ ἁπάντων
εἴτε ἀρχὴν εἴτε ἀρχὰς εἴτε ὅπῃ δοκεῖ τούτων
πέρι τὸ νῦν οὐ ῥητέον, δι᾽ ἄλλο μὲν οὐδέν, διὰ
δὲ τὸ χαλεπὸν εἶναι κατὰ τὸν παρόντα τρόπον
τῆς διεξόδου δηλῶσαι τὰ δοκοῦντα, μήτ᾽ οὖν
ὑμεῖς οἴεσθε δεῖν ἐμὲ λέγειν, οὔτ᾽ αὐτὸς αὖ
πείθειν ἐμαυτὸν εἴην ἂν δυνατὸς ὡς ὀρθῶς
ἐγχειροῖμ᾽ [48δ] ἂν τοσοῦτον ἐπιβαλλόμενος
ἔργον: τὸ δὲ κατ᾽ ἀρχὰς ῥηθὲν διαφυλάττων,
τὴν τῶν εἰκότων λόγων δύναμιν, πειράσομαι
μηδενὸς ἧττον εἰκότα, μᾶλλον δέ, καὶ
ἔμπροσθεν ἀπ᾽ ἀρχῆς περὶ ἑκάστων καὶ
συμπάντων λέγειν. θεὸν δὴ καὶ νῦν ἐπ᾽ ἀρχῇ
τῶν λεγομένων σωτῆρα ἐξ ἀτόπου καὶ ἀήθους
διηγήσεως πρὸς τὸ τῶν εἰκότων δόγμα
διασῴζειν ἡμᾶς [48ε] ἐπικαλεσάμενοι πάλιν
ἀρχώμεθα λέγειν.
84 στοιχεῖα, here applied to physical “elements,” was the regular term for “letters” of the alphabet; Cf. Theaet. 203 B ff.,Rep.402 A ff.
85 i.e., a method which aims only at “probability” or “likelihood”: to attain to “first principles” we should need to employ the “dialectic” method.
enquiry, [48e] and to bring us to the haven of
probability. So now let us begin again.
will essay (as I did before) to give as “likely”
an exposition as any other (nay, more so),
regarding both particular things and the totality
of things from the very beginning. And as
before,86 so now, at the commencement of our
account, we must call upon God the Saviour to
bring us safe through a novel and unwonted
exposition [48e] to a conclusion based on
likelihood, and thus begin our account once
more.
This new beginning of our discussion of the
universe requires a fuller division than the
former; for then we made two classes, now a
third must be revealed. The two sufficed for the
former discussion: one, which we assumed,
was a pattern intelligible and always the same;
[49a] and the second was only the imitation of
the pattern, generated and visible. There is also
a third kind which we did not distinguish at the
time, conceiving that the two would be enough.
But now the argument seems to require that we
should set forth in words another kind, which
is difficult of explanation and dimly seen.
What nature are we to attribute to this new
kind of being? We reply, that it is the
receptacle, and in a manner the nurse, of all
generation. I have spoken the truth; but I must
express myself in clearer language, [49b] and
this will be an arduous task for many reasons,
and in particular because I must first raise
We must, however, in beginning our fresh
account of the Universe make more
distinctions than we did before; for whereas
then we distinguished two Forms, 87 we must
now declare another third kind. For our former
exposition those two were sufficient, one of
them being assumed as a Model Form,
intelligible and ever uniformly existent, [49a]
and the second as the model's Copy, subject to
becoming and visible. A third kind we did not
at that time distinguish, considering that those
two were sufficient; but now the argument
seems to compel us to try to reveal by words a
Form that is baffling and obscure. What
essential property, then, are we to conceive it to
possess? This in particular,—that it should be
the receptacle, and as it were the nurse, of all
Becoming. Yet true though this statement is,
we must needs describe it more plainly. [49b]
That, however, is a difficult task, especially
86 Cf. 27 C.
87 Cf. 28 A.
ἡ δ᾽ οὖν αὖθις ἀρχὴ περὶ τοῦ παντὸς ἔστω
μειζόνως τῆς πρόσθεν διῃρημένη: τότε μὲν γὰρ
δύο εἴδη διειλόμεθα, νῦν δὲ τρίτον ἄλλο γένος
ἡμῖν δηλωτέον. τὰ μὲν γὰρ δύο ἱκανὰ ἦν ἐπὶ
τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν λεχθεῖσιν, ἓν μὲν ὡς
παραδείγματος εἶδος ὑποτεθέν, νοητὸν καὶ ἀεὶ
κατὰ ταὐτὰ ὄν, μίμημα δὲ [49α] παραδείγματος
δεύτερον, γένεσιν ἔχον καὶ ὁρατόν. τρίτον δὲ
τότε μὲν οὐ διειλόμεθα, νομίσαντες τὰ δύο
ἕξειν ἱκανῶς: νῦν δὲ ὁ λόγος ἔοικεν
εἰσαναγκάζειν χαλεπὸν καὶ ἀμυδρὸν εἶδος
ἐπιχειρεῖν λόγοις ἐμφανίσαι. τίν᾽ οὖν ἔχον
δύναμιν καὶ φύσιν αὐτὸ ὑποληπτέον; τοιάνδε
μάλιστα: πάσης εἶναι γενέσεως ὑποδοχὴν
αὐτὴν οἷον τιθήνην. εἴρηται μὲν οὖν τἀληθές,
δεῖ δὲ ἐναργέστερον εἰπεῖν περὶ αὐτοῦ,
χαλεπὸν [49β] δὲ ἄλλως τε καὶ διότι
προαπορηθῆναι περὶ πυρὸς καὶ τῶν μετὰ πυρὸς
ἀναγκαῖον τούτου χάριν: τούτων γὰρ εἰπεῖν
ἕκαστον ὁποῖον ὄντως ὕδωρ χρὴ λέγειν μᾶλλον
questions concerning fire and the other
elements, and determine what each of them is;
for to say, with any probability or certitude,
which of them should be called water rather
than fire, and which should be called any of
them rather than all or some one of them, is a
difficult matter. How, then, shall we settle this
point, and what questions about the elements
may be fairly raised? In the first place, we see
that what we just now called water, by
condensation, [49c] I suppose, becomes stone
and earth; and this same element, when melted
and dispersed, passes into vapour and air. Air,
again, when inflamed, becomes fire; and again
fire, when condensed and extinguished, passes
once more into the form of air; and once more,
air, when collected and condensed, produces
cloud and mist; and from these, when still
more compressed, comes flowing water, and
from water comes earth and stones once more;
and thus generation appears to be transmitted
from one to the other [49d] in a circle. Thus,
then, as the several elements never present
themselves in the same form, how can any one
have the assurance to assert positively that any
of them, whatever it may be, is one thing rather
than another? No one can. But much the safest
plan is to speak of them as follows: —
Anything which we see to be continually
changing, as, for example, fire, we must not
call “this” or “that,” but rather say that it is “of
such a nature”; nor let us speak of water as
“this”; but always as “such”; nor must we
because it is necessary, for its sake, to discuss
first the problem of fire and its fellow
elements. For in regard to these it is hard to say
which particular element we ought really to
term water rather than fire, and which we
ought to term any one element rather than each
and all of them, while still employing a
terminology that is reliable and stable. How,
then, shall we handle this problem, and what
likely solution can we offer? First of all, we see
that which we now call “water” becoming by
condensation, [49c] as we believe, stones and
earth; and again, this same substance, by
dissolving and dilating, becoming breath and
air; and air through combustion becoming fire;
and conversely, fire when contracted and
quenched returning back to the form of air and
air once more uniting and condensing into
cloud and mist; and issuing from these, when
still further compressed, flowing water; and
from water earth and stones again: thus we see
the elements passing on to one another, as it
would seem, [49d] in an unbroken circle the
gift of birth. Accordingly, since no one of these
ever remains identical in appearance, which of
them shall a man definitely affirm to be any
one particular element and no other without
incurring ridicule? None such exists. On the
contrary, by far the safest plan in treating of
these elements is to proceed thus: Whatsoever
object we perceive to be constantly changing
from one state to another, like fire, that object,
be it fire, we must never describe as “this” but
ἢ πῦρ, καὶ ὁποῖον ὁτιοῦν μᾶλλον ἢ καὶ ἅπαντα
καθ᾽ ἕκαστόν τε, οὕτως ὥστε τινὶ πιστῷ καὶ
βεβαίῳ χρήσασθαι λόγῳ, χαλεπόν. πῶς οὖν δὴ
τοῦτ᾽ αὐτὸ καὶ πῇ καὶ τί περὶ αὐτῶν εἰκότως
διαπορηθέντες ἂν λέγοιμεν; πρῶτον μέν, ὃ δὴ
νῦν ὕδωρ ὠνομάκαμεν, πηγνύμενον ὡς
δοκοῦμεν λίθους καὶ γῆν γιγνόμενον [49ξ]
ὁρῶμεν, τηκόμενον δὲ καὶ διακρινόμενον αὖ
ταὐτὸν τοῦτο πνεῦμα καὶ ἀέρα, συγκαυθέντα
δὲ ἀέρα πῦρ, ἀνάπαλιν δὲ συγκριθὲν καὶ
κατασβεσθὲν εἰς ἰδέαν τε ἀπιὸν αὖθις ἀέρος
πῦρ, καὶ πάλιν ἀέρα συνιόντα καὶ πυκνούμενον
νέφος καὶ ὁμίχλην, ἐκ δὲ τούτων ἔτι μᾶλλον
συμπιλουμένων ῥέον ὕδωρ, ἐξ ὕδατος δὲ γῆν
καὶ λίθους αὖθις, κύκλον τε οὕτω διαδιδόντα
εἰς ἄλληλα, ὡς φαίνεται, τὴν γένεσιν. οὕτω δὴ
τούτων οὐδέποτε [49δ] τῶν αὐτῶν ἑκάστων
φανταζομένων, ποῖον αὐτῶν ὡς ὂν ὁτιοῦν
τοῦτο καὶ οὐκ ἄλλο παγίως διισχυριζόμενος
οὐκ αἰσχυνεῖταί τις ἑαυτόν; οὐκ ἔστιν, ἀλλ᾽
ἀσφαλέστατα μακρῷ περὶ τούτων τιθεμένους
ὧδε λέγειν: ἀεὶ ὃ καθορῶμεν ἄλλοτε ἄλλῃ
γιγνόμενον, ὡς πῦρ, μὴ τοῦτο ἀλλὰ τὸ
τοιοῦτον ἑκάστοτε προσαγορεύειν πῦρ, μηδὲ
ὕδωρ τοῦτο ἀλλὰ τὸ τοιοῦτον ἀεί, μηδὲ ἄλλο
ποτὲ μηδὲν ὥς τινα ἔχον βεβαιότητα, ὅσα [49ε]
δεικνύντες τῷ ῥήματι τῷ τόδε καὶ τοῦτο
προσχρώμενοι δηλοῦν ἡγούμεθά τι: φεύγει γὰρ
οὐχ ὑπομένον τὴν τοῦ τόδε καὶ τοῦτο καὶ τὴν
τῷδε καὶ πᾶσαν ὅση μόνιμα ὡς ὄντα αὐτὰ
ἐνδείκνυται φάσις. ἀλλὰ ταῦτα μὲν ἕκαστα μὴ
λέγειν, τὸ δὲ τοιοῦτον ἀεὶ περιφερόμενον
ὅμοιον ἑκάστου πέρι καὶ συμπάντων οὕτω
imply that there is any stability [49e] in any of
those things which we indicate by the use of
the words “this” and “that,” supposing
ourselves to signify something thereby; for
they are too volatile to be detained in any such
expressions as “this,” or “that,” or “relative to
this,” or any other mode of speaking which
represents them as permanent. We ought not to
apply “this” to any of them, but rather the word
“such”; which expresses the similar principle
circulating in each and all of them; for
example, that should be called “fire” which is
of such a nature always, and so of everything
that has generation. That in which the elements
[50a] severally grow up, and appear, and
decay, is alone to be called by the name “this”
or “that”; but that which is of a certain nature,
hot or white, or anything which admits of
opposite equalities, and all things that are
compounded of them, ought not to be so
denominated.
as “suchlike,” nor should we ever call water
“this” but “suchlike” nor should we describe
any other element, as though it possessed
stability, [49e] of all those which we indicate
by using the terms “this” and “that” and
suppose ourselves to refer to a definite object.
For such an object shuns and eludes the names
“this” and “that” and every name which
indicates that they are stable. Thus we must not
call the several elements “these,” but in regard
to each of them and all together we must apply
the term “suchlike” to represent what is always
circling round: thus we shall call that which is
constantly “suchlike” by the name of fire, and
so with everything else that is generated. But
that “wherein” they are always, in appearance,
[50a] coming severally into existence, and
“wherefrom” in turn they perish, in describing
that and that alone should we employ the terms
“this” and “that”; whereas, in describing what
is “suchlike”—hot, for instance, or white, or
any of the opposite qualities, or any
compounds thereof—we ought never to apply
to it any of these terms.
καλεῖν, καὶ δὴ καὶ πῦρ τὸ διὰ παντὸς τοιοῦτον,
καὶ ἅπαν ὅσονπερ ἂν ἔχῃ γένεσιν: ἐν ᾧ δὲ
ἐγγιγνόμενα ἀεὶ ἕκαστα αὐτῶν φαντάζεται καὶ
πάλιν ἐκεῖθεν ἀπόλλυται, [50α] μόνον ἐκεῖνο
αὖ προσαγορεύειν τῷ τε τοῦτο καὶ τῷ τόδε
προσχρωμένους ὀνόματι, τὸ δὲ ὁποιονοῦν τι,
θερμὸν ἢ λευκὸν ἢ καὶ ὁτιοῦν τῶν ἐναντίων,
καὶ πάνθ᾽ ὅσα ἐκ τούτων, μηδὲν ἐκεῖνο αὖ
τούτων καλεῖν.
Let me make another attempt to explain my
meaning more clearly. Suppose a person to
make all kinds of figures of gold and to be
always transmuting one form into all the rest
— somebody points to one of them and asks
what it is. [50b] By far the safest and truest
answer is, That is gold; and not to call the
triangle or any other figures which are formed
But we must bestir ourselves to explain this
matter again yet more clearly. Now imagine
that a man were to model all possible figures
out of gold, and were then to proceed without
cessation to remodel each of these into every
other, then, if someone were to point to one of
the figures and ask what it is, [50b] by far the
safest reply, in point of truth, would be that it is
ἔτι δὲ σαφέστερον αὐτοῦ πέρι προθυμητέον
αὖθις εἰπεῖν. εἰ γὰρ πάντα τις σχήματα πλάσας
ἐκ χρυσοῦ μηδὲν μεταπλάττων παύοιτο ἕκαστα
εἰς ἅπαντα, δεικνύντος δή τινος αὐτῶν ἓν καὶ
ἐρομένου [50β] τί ποτ᾽ ἐστί, μακρῷ πρὸς
ἀλήθειαν ἀσφαλέστατον εἰπεῖν ὅτι χρυσός, τὸ
δὲ τρίγωνον ὅσα τε ἄλλα σχήματα ἐνεγίγνετο,
μηδέποτε λέγειν ταῦτα ὡς ὄντα, ἅ γε μεταξὺ
in the gold “these,” as though they had
existence, since they are in process of change
while he is making the assertion; but if the
questioner be willing to take the safe and
indefinite expression, “such,” we should be
satisfied. And the same argument applies to the
universal nature which receives all bodies —
[50c] that must be always called the same; for,
while receiving all things, she never departs at
all from her own nature, and never in any way,
or at any time, assumes a form like that of any
of the things which enter into her; she is the
natural recipient of all impressions, and is
stirred and informed by them, and appears
different from time to time by reason of them.
But the forms which enter into and go out of
her are the likenesses of real existences
modelled after their patterns in wonderful and
inexplicable manner, which we will hereafter
investigate.
gold; but as for the triangle and all the other
figures which were formed in it, one should
never describe them as “being” seeing that they
change even while one is mentioning them;
rather one should be content if the figure
admits of even the title “suchlike” being
applied to it with any safety. And of the
substance which receives all bodies [50c] the
same account must be given. It must be called
always by the same name; for from its own
proper quality it never departs at all for while it
is always receiving all things, nowhere and in
no wise does it assume any shape similar to
any of the things that enter into it. For it is laid
down by nature as a molding-stuff for
everything, being moved and marked by the
entering figures, and because of them it
appears different at different times. And the
figures that enter and depart are copies of those
that are always existent, being stamped from
them in a fashion marvellous and hard to
describe, which we shall investigate hereafter.88
τιθεμένου μεταπίπτει, ἀλλ᾽ ἐὰν ἄρα καὶ τὸ
τοιοῦτον μετ᾽ ἀσφαλείας ἐθέλῃ δέχεσθαί τινος,
ἀγαπᾶν. ὁ αὐτὸς δὴ λόγος καὶ περὶ τῆς τὰ
πάντα δεχομένης σώματα φύσεως. ταὐτὸν
αὐτὴν ἀεὶ προσρητέον: ἐκ γὰρ τῆς ἑαυτῆς τὸ
παράπαν οὐκ ἐξίσταται δυνάμεως—δέχεταί τε
γὰρ ἀεὶ τὰ πάντα, καὶ [50ξ] μορφὴν οὐδεμίαν
ποτὲ οὐδενὶ τῶν εἰσιόντων ὁμοίαν εἴληφεν
οὐδαμῇ οὐδαμῶς: ἐκμαγεῖον γὰρ φύσει παντὶ
κεῖται, κινούμενόν τε καὶ διασχηματιζόμενον
ὑπὸ τῶν εἰσιόντων, φαίνεται δὲ δι᾽ ἐκεῖνα
ἄλλοτε ἀλλοῖον—τὰ δὲ εἰσιόντα καὶ ἐξιόντα
τῶν ὄντων ἀεὶ μιμήματα, τυπωθέντα ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν
τρόπον τινὰ δύσφραστον καὶ θαυμαστόν, ὃν εἰς
αὖθις μέτιμεν.
For the present we have only to conceive of
three natures: first, that which is in process of
generation; secondly, that in which the
generation takes place; and thirdly, that of
which the thing generated is a resemblance.
And we may liken the receiving principle to a
mother, and the source or spring to a father,
and the intermediate nature to a child; and may
remark further, that if the model is to take
For the present, then, we must conceive of
three kinds,—the Becoming, that “Wherein” it
becomes, and the source” Wherefrom” the
Becoming [50d] is copied and produced.
Moreover, it is proper to liken the Recipient to
the Mother, the Source to the Father, and what
is engendered between these two to the
Offspring; and also to perceive that, if the
stamped copy is to assume diverse appearances
ἐν δ᾽ οὖν τῷ παρόντι χρὴ γένη διανοηθῆναι
τριττά, τὸ μὲν [50δ] γιγνόμενον, τὸ δ᾽ ἐν ᾧ
γίγνεται, τὸ δ᾽ ὅθεν ἀφομοιούμενον φύεται τὸ
γιγνόμενον. καὶ δὴ καὶ προσεικάσαι πρέπει τὸ
μὲν δεχόμενον μητρί, τὸ δ᾽ ὅθεν πατρί, τὴν δὲ
μεταξὺ τούτων φύσιν ἐκγόνῳ, νοῆσαί τε ὡς
οὐκ ἂν ἄλλως, ἐκτυπώματος ἔσεσθαι
μέλλοντος ἰδεῖν ποικίλου πάσας ποικιλίας,
τοῦτ᾽ αὐτὸ ἐν ᾧ ἐκτυπούμενον ἐνίσταται
88 Cf. 53 C.
every variety of form, then the matter in which
the model is fashioned will not be duly
prepared, unless it is formless, and free from
the impress of any of these shapes which it is
hereafter to receive from without. [50e] For if
the matter were like any of the supervening
forms, then whenever any opposite or entirely
different nature was stamped upon its surface,
it would take the impression badly, because it
would intrude its own shape. Wherefore, that
which is to receive all forms should have no
form; as in making perfumes they first contrive
that the liquid substance which is to receive the
scent shall be as inodorous as possible; or as
those who wish to impress figures on soft
substances do not allow any previous
impression to remain, but begin by making the
surface as even and smooth as possible. [51a]
In the same way that which is to receive
perpetually and through its whole extent the
resemblances of all eternal beings ought to be
devoid of any particular form. Wherefore, the
mother and receptacle of all created and visible
and in any way sensible things, is not to be
termed earth, or air, or fire, or water, or any of
their compounds or any of the elements from
which these are derived, but is an invisible and
formless being which receives all things and in
some mysterious way partakes of the
intelligible, and is most incomprehensible. In
saying this [51b] we shall not be far wrong; as
far, however, as we can attain to a knowledge
of her from the previous considerations, we
of all sorts, that substance wherein it is set and
stamped could not possibly be suited to its
purpose unless it were itself devoid of all those
forms which it is about to receive from any
quarter. [50e] For were it similar to any of the
entering forms, on receiving forms of an
opposite or wholly different kind, as they
arrived, it would copy them badly, through
obtruding its own visible shape. Wherefore it is
right that the substance which is to receive
within itself all the kinds should be void of all
forms; just as with all fragrant ointments, men
bring about this condition by artistic
contrivance and make the liquids which are to
receive the odors as odorless as possible; and
all who essay to mold figures in any soft
material utterly refuse to allow any previous
figure to remain visible therein, and begin by
making it even and as smooth as possible
before they execute the work. [51a] So
likewise it is right that the substance which is
to be fitted to receive frequently over its whole
extent the copies of all things intelligible and
eternal should itself, of its own nature, be void
of all the forms. Wherefore, let us not speak of
her that is the Mother and Receptacle of this
generated world, which is perceptible by sight
and all the senses, by the name of earth or air
or fire or water, or any aggregates or
constituents thereof: rather, if we describe her
as a Kind invisible and unshaped, all-receptive,
and in some most perplexing and most baffling
way partaking of the intelligible, [51b] we shall
γένοιτ᾽ ἂν παρεσκευασμένον εὖ, πλὴν
ἄμορφον ὂν ἐκείνων ἁπασῶν τῶν ἰδεῶν ὅσας
[50ε] μέλλοι δέχεσθαί ποθεν. ὅμοιον γὰρ ὂν
τῶν ἐπεισιόντων τινὶ τὰ τῆς ἐναντίας τά τε τῆς
τὸ παράπαν ἄλλης φύσεως ὁπότ᾽ ἔλθοι
δεχόμενον κακῶς ἂν ἀφομοιοῖ, τὴν αὑτοῦ
παρεμφαῖνον ὄψιν. διὸ καὶ πάντων ἐκτὸς εἰδῶν
εἶναι χρεὼν τὸ τὰ πάντα ἐκδεξόμενον ἐν αὑτῷ
γένη, καθάπερ περὶ τὰ ἀλείμματα ὁπόσα εὐώδη
τέχνῃ μηχανῶνται πρῶτον τοῦτ᾽ αὐτὸ ὑπάρχον,
ποιοῦσιν ὅτι μάλιστα ἀώδη τὰ δεξόμενα ὑγρὰ
τὰς ὀσμάς: ὅσοι τε ἔν τισιν τῶν μαλακῶν
σχήματα ἀπομάττειν ἐπιχειροῦσι, τὸ παράπαν
σχῆμα οὐδὲν ἔνδηλον ὑπάρχειν ἐῶσι,
προομαλύναντες
δὲ
ὅτι
λειότατον
ἀπεργάζονται. [51α] ταὐτὸν οὖν καὶ τῷ τὰ τῶν
πάντων ἀεί τε ὄντων κατὰ πᾶν ἑαυτοῦ
πολλάκις ἀφομοιώματα καλῶς μέλλοντι
δέχεσθαι πάντων ἐκτὸς αὐτῷ προσήκει
πεφυκέναι τῶν εἰδῶν. διὸ δὴ τὴν τοῦ γεγονότος
ὁρατοῦ καὶ πάντως αἰσθητοῦ μητέρα καὶ
ὑποδοχὴν μήτε γῆν μήτε ἀέρα μήτε πῦρ μήτε
ὕδωρ λέγωμεν, μήτε ὅσα ἐκ τούτων μήτε ἐξ ὧν
ταῦτα γέγονεν: ἀλλ᾽ ἀνόρατον εἶδός τι καὶ
ἄμορφον, πανδεχές, μεταλαμβάνον [51β] δὲ
ἀπορώτατά πῃ τοῦ νοητοῦ καὶ δυσαλωτότατον
αὐτὸ λέγοντες οὐ ψευσόμεθα. καθ᾽ ὅσον δ᾽ ἐκ
τῶν προειρημένων δυνατὸν ἐφικνεῖσθαι τῆς
φύσεως αὐτοῦ, τῇδ᾽ ἄν τις ὀρθότατα λέγοι: πῦρ
μὲν ἑκάστοτε αὐτοῦ τὸ πεπυρωμένον μέρος
φαίνεσθαι, τὸ δὲ ὑγρανθὲν ὕδωρ, γῆν τε καὶ
ἀέρα καθ᾽ ὅσον ἂν μιμήματα τούτων δέχηται.
λόγῳ δὲ δὴ μᾶλλον τὸ τοιόνδε διοριζομένους
may truly say that fire is that part of her nature
which from time to time is inflamed, and water
that which is moistened, and that the mother
substance becomes earth and air, in so far as
she receives the impressions of them. Let us
consider this question more precisely. Is there
any self-existent fire? [51c] and do all those
things which we call self-existent exist? or are
only those things which we see, or in some
way perceive through the bodily organs, truly
existent, and nothing whatever besides them?
And is all that which, we call an intelligible
essence nothing at all, and only a name? Here
is a question which we must not leave
unexamined or undetermined, nor must we
affirm too confidently that there can be no
decision; neither must we interpolate in our
present long discourse a digression equally
long, [51d] but if it is possible to set forth a
great principle in a few words, that is just what
we want.
describe her truly. In so far as it is possible to
arrive at the nature of this kind from the
foregoing account, one may state it most
correctly in this way. That part of it which is
made fiery appears each time as fire, that
which has been liquefied as water; and it
appears as earth and air in so far as it receives
copies of these. But let us investigate the
matter by more exact reasoning, and consider
this question. Does there exist any selfsubsisting fire [51c] or any of those other
objects which we likewise term “selfsubsisting realities”? Or is it only these things
which we see, or otherwise perceive by means
of bodily senses, that exist, possessed of
sensible reality; beside which no other things
exist anywhere or anyhow, and it is merely an
idle assertion of ours that there always exists
an intelligible Form of every object, whereas it
is really nothing more than a verbal phrase?
Now, on the one hand, it would be improper to
dismiss the question before us without a trial
and a verdict, and simply to asseverate that the
fact is so; while, on the other hand, we ought
not to burden a lengthy discourse with another
subsidiary argument. [51d] If, however, it were
possible to disclose briefly some main
determining principle, that would best serve
our purpose.
περὶ αὐτῶν διασκεπτέον: ἆρα ἔστιν τι πῦρ αὐτὸ
ἐφ᾽ ἑαυτοῦ καὶ πάντα περὶ ὧν ἀεὶ λέγομεν
οὕτως [51ξ] αὐτὰ καθ᾽ αὑτὰ ὄντα ἕκαστα, ἢ
ταῦτα ἅπερ καὶ βλέπομεν, ὅσα τε ἄλλα διὰ τοῦ
σώματος αἰσθανόμεθα, μόνα ἐστὶν τοιαύτην
ἔχοντα ἀλήθειαν, ἄλλα δὲ οὐκ ἔστι παρὰ ταῦτα
οὐδαμῇ οὐδαμῶς, ἀλλὰ μάτην ἑκάστοτε εἶναί
τί φαμεν εἶδος ἑκάστου νοητόν, τὸ δ᾽ οὐδὲν
ἄρ᾽ ἦν πλὴν λόγος; οὔτε οὖν δὴ τὸ παρὸν
ἄκριτον καὶ ἀδίκαστον ἀφέντα ἄξιον φάναι
διισχυριζόμενον ἔχειν οὕτως, οὔτ᾽ ἐπὶ λόγου
μήκει
πάρεργον
[51δ]
ἄλλο
μῆκος
ἐπεμβλητέον: εἰ δέ τις ὅρος ὁρισθεὶς μέγας διὰ
βραχέων φανείη, τοῦτο μάλιστα ἐγκαιριώτατον
γένοιτ᾽ ἄν. ὧδε οὖν τήν γ᾽ ἐμὴν αὐτὸς τίθεμαι
ψῆφον.
Thus I state my view: — If mind and true
opinion are two distinct classes, then I say that
there certainly are these self-existent ideas
This, then, is the view for which I, for my part,
cast my vote. If Reason and True Opinion are
two distinct Kinds, most certainly these self-
εἰ μὲν νοῦς καὶ δόξα ἀληθής ἐστον δύο γένη,
παντάπασιν εἶναι καθ᾽ αὑτὰ ταῦτα, ἀναίσθητα
ὑφ᾽ ἡμῶν εἴδη, νοούμενα μόνον: εἰ δ᾽, ὥς τισιν
unperceived by sense, and apprehended only
by the mind; if, however, as some say, true
opinion differs in no respect from mind, then
everything that we perceive through the body
is to be regarded as most real and certain. [51e]
But we must affirm that to be distinct, for they
have a distinct origin and are of a different
nature; the one is implanted in us by
instruction, the other by persuasion; the one is
always accompanied by true reason, the other
is without reason; the one cannot be overcome
by persuasion, but the other can: and lastly,
every man may be said to share in true opinion,
but mind is the attribute of the gods and of
very few men. Wherefore also we must
acknowledge that there is one kind [52a] of
being which is always the same, uncreated and
indestructible, never receiving anything into
itself from without, nor itself going out to any
other, but invisible and imperceptible by any
sense, and of which the contemplation is
granted to intelligence only. And there is
another nature of the same name with it, and
like to it, perceived by sense, created, always
in motion, becoming in place and again
vanishing out of place, which is apprehended
by opinion and sense. And there is a third
nature, which is space, [52b] and is eternal, and
admits not of destruction and provides a home
for all created things, and is apprehended
without the help of sense, by a kind of spurious
reason, and is hardly real; which we beholding
as in a dream, say of all existence that it must
subsisting Forms do exist, imperceptible by our
senses, and objects of Reason only; whereas if,
as appears to some, True Opinion differs in
naught from Reason, then, on the contrary, all
the things which we perceive by our bodily
senses must be judged to be most stable. [51e]
Now these two Kinds must be declared to be
two, because they have come into existence
separately and are unlike in condition. For the
one of them arises in us by teaching, the other
by persuasion; and the one is always in
company with true reasoning, whereas the
other is irrational; and the one is immovable by
persuasion, whereas the other is alterable by
persuasion; and of the one we must assert that
every man partakes, but of Reason only the
gods and but a small class of men. This being
so, we must agree that One Kind [52a] is the
self-identical
Form,
ungenerated
and
indestructible, neither receiving into itself any
other from any quarter nor itself passing
anywhither into another, invisible and in all
ways imperceptible by sense, it being the
object which it is the province of Reason to
contemplate; and a second Kind is that which
is named after the former and similar thereto,
an object perceptible by sense, generated, ever
carried about, becoming in a place and out of it
again perishing, apprehensible by Opinion with
the aid of Sensation; and a third Kind is everexisting Place, [52b] which admits not of
destruction, and provides room for all things
that have birth, itself being apprehensible by a
φαίνεται, δόξα ἀληθὴς νοῦ διαφέρει τὸ μηδέν,
πάνθ᾽ ὁπόσ᾽ αὖ διὰ τοῦ σώματος αἰσθανόμεθα
θετέον βεβαιότατα. [51ε] δύο δὴ λεκτέον
ἐκείνω, διότι χωρὶς γεγόνατον ἀνομοίως τε
ἔχετον. τὸ μὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν διὰ διδαχῆς, τὸ δ᾽
ὑπὸ πειθοῦς ἡμῖν ἐγγίγνεται: καὶ τὸ μὲν ἀεὶ
μετ᾽ ἀληθοῦς λόγου, τὸ δὲ ἄλογον: καὶ τὸ μὲν
ἀκίνητον πειθοῖ, τὸ δὲ μεταπειστόν: καὶ τοῦ
μὲν πάντα ἄνδρα μετέχειν φατέον, νοῦ δὲ
θεούς, ἀνθρώπων δὲ γένος βραχύ τι. τούτων δὲ
οὕτως ἐχόντων [52α] ὁμολογητέον ἓν μὲν εἶναι
τὸ κατὰ ταὐτὰ εἶδος ἔχον, ἀγέννητον καὶ
ἀνώλεθρον, οὔτε εἰς ἑαυτὸ εἰσδεχόμενον ἄλλο
ἄλλοθεν οὔτε αὐτὸ εἰς ἄλλο ποι ἰόν, ἀόρατον
δὲ καὶ ἄλλως ἀναίσθητον, τοῦτο ὃ δὴ νόησις
εἴληχεν ἐπισκοπεῖν: τὸ δὲ ὁμώνυμον ὅμοιόν τε
ἐκείνῳ
δεύτερον,
αἰσθητόν,
γεννητόν,
πεφορημένον ἀεί, γιγνόμενόν τε ἔν τινι τόπῳ
καὶ πάλιν ἐκεῖθεν ἀπολλύμενον, δόξῃ μετ᾽
αἰσθήσεως περιληπτόν: τρίτον δὲ αὖ γένος ὂν
τὸ τῆς χώρας ἀεί, φθορὰν οὐ προσδεχόμενον,
[52β] ἕδραν δὲ παρέχον ὅσα ἔχει γένεσιν
πᾶσιν, αὐτὸ δὲ μετ᾽ ἀναισθησίας ἁπτὸν
λογισμῷ τινι νόθῳ, μόγις πιστόν, πρὸς ὃ δὴ καὶ
ὀνειροπολοῦμεν
βλέποντες
καί
φαμεν
ἀναγκαῖον εἶναί που τὸ ὂν ἅπαν ἔν τινι τόπῳ
καὶ κατέχον χώραν τινά, τὸ δὲ μήτ᾽ ἐν γῇ μήτε
που κατ᾽ οὐρανὸν οὐδὲν εἶναι. ταῦτα δὴ πάντα
καὶ τούτων ἄλλα ἀδελφὰ καὶ περὶ τὴν ἄυπνον
καὶ ἀληθῶς φύσιν ὑπάρχουσαν ὑπὸ ταύτης τῆς
ὀνειρώξεως [52ξ] οὐ δυνατοὶ γιγνόμεθα
ἐγερθέντες διοριζόμενοι τἀληθὲς λέγειν, ὡς
εἰκόνι μέν, ἐπείπερ οὐδ᾽ αὐτὸ τοῦτο ἐφ᾽ ᾧ
of necessity be in some place and occupy a
space, but that what is neither in heaven nor in
earth has no existence. Of these and other
things of the same kind, relating to the true and
waking reality of nature, we have only this
dreamlike sense, [52c] and we are unable to
cast off sleep and determine the truth about
them. For an image, since the reality, after
which it is modelled, does not belong to it, and
it exists ever as the fleeting shadow of some
other, must be inferred to be in another [i.e. in
space ], grasping existence in some way or
other, or it could not be at all. But true and
exact reason, vindicating the nature of true
being, maintains that while two things [i.e. the
image and space] are different they cannot
exist one of them in the other [52d] and so be
one and also two at the same time.
kind of bastard reasoning by the aid of nonsensation, barely an object of belief; for when
we regard this we dimly dream and affirm that
it is somehow necessary that all that exists
should exist in some spot and occupying some
place, and that that which is neither on earth
nor anywhere in the Heaven is nothing. So
because of all these and other kindred notions,
we are unable also on waking up to distinguish
clearly the unsleeping and truly subsisting
substance, owing to our dreamy condition,
[52c] or to state the truth—how that it belongs
to a copy—seeing that it has not for its own
even that substance for which it came into
being, but fleets ever as a phantom of
something else—to come into existence in
some other thing, clinging to existence as best
it may, on pain of being nothing at all; whereas
to the aid of the really existent there comes the
accurately true argument, that so long as one
thing is one thing, and another something
different, neither of the two will ever come to
exist in the other so that the same thing
becomes simultaneously [52d] both one and
two.
γέγονεν ἑαυτῆς ἐστιν, ἑτέρου δέ τινος ἀεὶ
φέρεται φάντασμα, διὰ ταῦτα ἐν ἑτέρῳ
προσήκει τινὶ γίγνεσθαι, οὐσίας ἁμωσγέπως
ἀντεχομένην, ἢ μηδὲν τὸ παράπαν αὐτὴν εἶναι,
τῷ δὲ ὄντως ὄντι βοηθὸς ὁ δι᾽ ἀκριβείας
ἀληθὴς λόγος, ὡς ἕως ἄν τι τὸ μὲν ἄλλο ᾖ, τὸ
δὲ ἄλλο, οὐδέτερον ἐν οὐδετέρῳ ποτὲ
γενόμενον [52δ] ἓν ἅμα ταὐτὸν καὶ δύο
γενήσεσθον.
Thus have I concisely given the result of my
thoughts; and my verdict is that being and
space and generation, these three, existed in
their three ways before the heaven; and that the
nurse of generation, moistened by water and
inflamed by fire, and receiving the forms of
earth and air, and experiencing all the
Let this, then, be, according to my verdict, a
reasoned account of the matter summarily
stated,—that Being and Place and Becoming
were existing, three distinct things, even before
the Heaven came into existence; and that the
Nurse of Becoming, being liquefied and
ignified and receiving also the forms of earth
οὗτος μὲν οὖν δὴ παρὰ τῆς ἐμῆς ψήφου
λογισθεὶς ἐν κεφαλαίῳ δεδόσθω λόγος, ὄν τε
καὶ χώραν καὶ γένεσιν εἶναι, τρία τριχῇ, καὶ
πρὶν οὐρανὸν γενέσθαι: τὴν δὲ δὴ γενέσεως
τιθήνην ὑγραινομένην καὶ πυρουμένην καὶ τὰς
γῆς τε καὶ ἀέρος μορφὰς δεχομένην, καὶ ὅσα
ἄλλα τούτοις πάθη συνέπεται [52ε]
affections which accompany these, [52e]
presented a strange variety of appearances; and
being full of powers which were neither similar
nor equally balanced, was never in any part in
a state of equipoise, but swaying unevenly
hither and thither, was shaken by them, and by
its motion again shook them; and the elements
when moved were separated and carried
continually, some one way, some another; as,
when rain is shaken and winnowed by fans and
other instruments used in the threshing of corn,
the close and heavy particles are borne away
and settle in one direction, [53a] and the loose
and light particles in another. In this manner,
the four kinds or elements were then shaken by
the receiving vessel, which, moving like a
winnowing machine, scattered far away from
one another the elements most unlike, and
forced the most similar elements into dose
contact. Wherefore also the various elements
had different places before they were arranged
so as to form the universe.
and of air, and submitting to all the other
affections which accompany these, [52e]
exhibits every variety of appearance; but owing
to being filled with potencies that are neither
similar nor balanced, in no part of herself is she
equally balanced, but sways unevenly in every
part, and is herself shaken by these forms and
shakes them in turn as she is moved. And the
forms, as they are moved, fly continually in
various directions and are dissipated; just as
the particles that are shaken and winnowed by
the sieves and other instruments used for the
cleansing of corn fall in one place if they are
solid and heavy, [53a] but fly off and settle
elsewhere if they are spongy and light. So it
was also with the Four Kinds when shaken by
the Recipient: her motion, like an instrument
which causes shaking, was separating farthest
from one another the dissimilar, and pushing
most closely together the similar; wherefore
also these Kinds occupied different places even
before that the Universe was organized and
generated out of them.
πάσχουσαν, παντοδαπὴν μὲν ἰδεῖν φαίνεσθαι,
διὰ δὲ τὸ μήθ᾽ ὁμοίων δυνάμεων μήτε
ἰσορρόπων ἐμπίμπλασθαι κατ᾽ οὐδὲν αὐτῆς
ἰσορροπεῖν,
ἀλλ᾽
ἀνωμάλως
πάντῃ
ταλαντουμένην σείεσθαι μὲν ὑπ᾽ ἐκείνων
αὐτήν, κινουμένην δ᾽ αὖ πάλιν ἐκεῖνα σείειν:
τὰ δὲ κινούμενα ἄλλα ἄλλοσε ἀεὶ φέρεσθαι
διακρινόμενα, ὥσπερ τὰ ὑπὸ τῶν πλοκάνων τε
καὶ ὀργάνων τῶν περὶ τὴν τοῦ σίτου κάθαρσιν
σειόμενα καὶ [53α] ἀνικμώμενα τὰ μὲν πυκνὰ
καὶ βαρέα ἄλλῃ, τὰ δὲ μανὰ καὶ κοῦφα εἰς
ἑτέραν ἵζει φερόμενα ἕδραν: τότε οὕτω τὰ
τέτταρα γένη σειόμενα ὑπὸ τῆς δεξαμενῆς,
κινουμένης αὐτῆς οἷον ὀργάνου σεισμὸν
παρέχοντος, τὰ μὲν ἀνομοιότατα πλεῖστον
αὐτὰ ἀφ᾽ αὑτῶν ὁρίζειν, τὰ δὲ ὁμοιότατα
μάλιστα εἰς ταὐτὸν συνωθεῖν, διὸ δὴ καὶ χώραν
ταῦτα ἄλλα ἄλλην ἴσχειν, πρὶν καὶ τὸ πᾶν ἐξ
αὐτῶν διακοσμηθὲν γενέσθαι.
At first, they were all without reason and
measure. But when the world began to get into
order, [53b] fire and water and earth and air
had only certain faint traces of themselves, and
were altogether such as everything might be
expected to be in the absence of God; this, I
say, was their nature at that time, and God
fashioned them by form and number. Let it be
consistently maintained by us in all that we say
Before that time, in truth, all these things were
in a state devoid of reason or measure, but
when the work of setting in order this Universe
was being undertaken, [53b] fire and water and
earth and air, although possessing some traces
of their own nature, were yet so disposed as
everything is likely to be in the absence of
God; and inasmuch as this was then their
natural condition, God began by first marking
καὶ τὸ μὲν δὴ πρὸ τούτου πάντα ταῦτ᾽ εἶχεν
ἀλόγως καὶ ἀμέτρως: [53β] ὅτε δ᾽ ἐπεχειρεῖτο
κοσμεῖσθαι τὸ πᾶν, πῦρ πρῶτον καὶ ὕδωρ καὶ
γῆν καὶ ἀέρα, ἴχνη μὲν ἔχοντα αὑτῶν ἄττα,
παντάπασί γε μὴν διακείμενα ὥσπερ εἰκὸς
ἔχειν ἅπαν ὅταν ἀπῇ τινος θεός, οὕτω δὴ τότε
πεφυκότα ταῦτα πρῶτον διεσχηματίσατο εἴδεσί
τε καὶ ἀριθμοῖς. τὸ δὲ ᾗ δυνατὸν ὡς κάλλιστα
ἄριστά τε ἐξ οὐχ οὕτως ἐχόντων τὸν θεὸν αὐτὰ
that God made them as far as possible the
fairest and best, out of things which were not
fair and good. And now I will endeavour to
show you the disposition and generation [53c]
of them by an unaccustomed argument, which
am compelled to use; but I believe that you
will be able to follow me, for your education
has made you familiar with the methods of
science.
them out into shapes by means of forms and
numbers. And that God constructed them, so
far as He could, to be as fair and good as
possible, whereas they had been otherwise,—
this above all else must always be postulated in
our account. Now, however, it is the
disposition and origin [53c] of each of these
Kinds which I must endeavor to explain to you
in an exposition of an unusual type; yet,
inasmuch as you have some acquaintance with
the technical method which I must necessarily
employ in my exposition, you will follow me.
συνιστάναι, παρὰ πάντα ἡμῖν ὡς ἀεὶ τοῦτο
λεγόμενον ὑπαρχέτω: νῦν δ᾽ οὖν τὴν διάταξιν
αὐτῶν ἐπιχειρητέον ἑκάστων καὶ γένεσιν [53ξ]
ἀήθει λόγῳ πρὸς ὑμᾶς δηλοῦν, ἀλλὰ γὰρ ἐπεὶ
μετέχετε τῶν κατὰ παίδευσιν ὁδῶν δι᾽ ὧν
ἐνδείκνυσθαι τὰ λεγόμενα ἀνάγκη, συνέψεσθε.
In the first place, then, as is evident to all, fire
and earth and water and air are bodies. And
every sort of body possesses solidity, and every
solid must necessarily be contained in planes;
and every plane rectilinear figure is composed
of triangles; [53d] and all triangles are
originally of two kinds, both of which are
made up of one right and two acute angles; one
of them has at either end of the base the half of
a divided right angle, having equal sides, while
in the other the right angle is divided into
unequal parts, having unequal sides. These,
then, proceeding by a combination of
probability with demonstration, we assume to
be the original elements of fire and the other
bodies; but the principles which are prior to
these God only knows, and he of men who is
the friend God. [53e] And next we have to
determine what are the four most beautiful
In the first place, then, it is plain I presume to
everyone that fire and earth and water and air
are solid bodies; and the form of a body, in
every case, possesses depth also. Further, it is
absolutely necessary that depth should be
bounded by a plane surface; and the rectilinear
plane is composed of triangles. [53d] Now all
triangles derive their origin from two triangles,
each having one angle right and the others
acute89; and the one of these triangles has on
each side half a right angle marked off by
equal sides, while the other has the right angle
divided into unequal parts by unequal sides.
These we lay down as the principles of fire and
all the other bodies, proceeding according to a
method in which the probable is combined
with the necessary; but the principles which are
still higher than these are known only to God
and the man who is dear to God. [53e] We
πρῶτον μὲν δὴ πῦρ καὶ γῆ καὶ ὕδωρ καὶ ἀὴρ
ὅτι σώματά ἐστι, δῆλόν που καὶ παντί: τὸ δὲ
τοῦ σώματος εἶδος πᾶν καὶ βάθος ἔχει. τὸ δὲ
βάθος αὖ πᾶσα ἀνάγκη τὴν ἐπίπεδον
περιειληφέναι φύσιν: ἡ δὲ ὀρθὴ τῆς ἐπιπέδου
βάσεως ἐκ τριγώνων συνέστηκεν. τὰ δὲ
τρίγωνα πάντα ἐκ δυοῖν ἄρχεται [53δ]
τριγώνοιν, μίαν μὲν ὀρθὴν ἔχοντος ἑκατέρου
γωνίαν, τὰς δὲ ὀξείας: ὧν τὸ μὲν ἕτερον
ἑκατέρωθεν ἔχει μέρος γωνίας ὀρθῆς πλευραῖς
ἴσαις διῃρημένης, τὸ δ᾽ ἕτερον ἀνίσοις ἄνισα
μέρη νενεμημένης. ταύτην δὴ πυρὸς ἀρχὴν καὶ
τῶν ἄλλων σωμάτων ὑποτιθέμεθα κατὰ τὸν
μετ᾽ ἀνάγκης εἰκότα λόγον πορευόμενοι: τὰς δ᾽
ἔτι τούτων ἀρχὰς ἄνωθεν θεὸς οἶδεν καὶ
ἀνδρῶν ὃς ἂν ἐκείνῳ φίλος ᾖ. δεῖ δὴ λέγειν
ποῖα [53ε] κάλλιστα σώματα γένοιτ᾽ ἂν
τέτταρα, ἀνόμοια μὲν ἑαυτοῖς, δυνατὰ δὲ ἐξ
ἀλλήλων αὐτῶν ἄττα διαλυόμενα γίγνεσθαι:
89 i.e., the rectangular isosceles triangle and the rectangular scalene; all other triangles can be built up from these two (e.g. see 54 E N.).
bodies which are unlike one another, and of
which some are capable of resolution into one
another; for having discovered thus much, we
shall know the true origin of earth and fire and
of the proportionate and intermediate elements.
And then we shall not be willing to allow that
there are any distinct kinds of visible bodies
fairer than these. Wherefore we must
endeavour to construct the four forms of bodies
which excel in beauty, and then we shall be
able to say that we have sufficiently
apprehended [54a] their nature. Now of the
two triangles, the isosceles has one form only;
the scalene or unequal-sided has an infinite
number. Of the infinite forms we must select
the most beautiful, if we are to proceed in due
order, and any one who can point out a more
beautiful form than ours for the construction of
these bodies, shall carry off the palm, not as an
enemy, but as a friend. Now, the one which we
maintain to be the most beautiful of all the
many triangles (and we need not speak of the
others) is that of which the double [54b] forms
a third triangle which is equilateral; the reason
of this would be long to tell; he who disproves
what we are saying, and shows that we are
mistaken, may claim a friendly victory. Then
let us choose two triangles, out of which fire
and the other elements have been constructed,
one isosceles, the other having the square of
the longer side equal to three times the square
of the lesser side.
must now declare what will be the four fairest
bodies, dissimilar to one another, but capable
in part of being produced out of one another by
means of dissolution; for if we succeed herein
we shall grasp the truth concerning the
generation of earth and fire and the mean
proportionals. For to no one will we concede
that fairer bodies than these, each distinct of its
kind, are anywhere to be seen. Wherefore we
must earnestly endeavor to frame together
these four kinds of bodies which excel in
beauty, and to maintain that we have
apprehended [54a] their nature adequately.
Now of the two triangles, the isosceles
possesses one single nature, but the scalene an
infinite number; and of these infinite natures
we must select the fairest, if we mean to make
a suitable beginning. If, then, anyone can claim
that he has chosen one that is fairer for the
construction of these bodies, he, as friend
rather than foe, is the victor. We, however,
shall pass over all the rest and postulate as the
fairest of the triangles that triangle out of
which, when two are conjoined, [54b] the
equilateral triangle is constructed as a third. 90
The reason why is a longer story; but should
anyone refute us and discover that it is not so,
we begrudge him not the prize. Accordingly,
let these two triangles be selected as those
wherefrom are contrived the bodies of fire and
of the other elements,— one being the
isosceles, and the other that which always has
τούτου γὰρ τυχόντες ἔχομεν τὴν ἀλήθειαν
γενέσεως πέρι γῆς τε καὶ πυρὸς τῶν τε ἀνὰ
λόγον
ἐν
μέσῳ.
τόδε
γὰρ
οὐδενὶ
συγχωρησόμεθα, καλλίω τούτων ὁρώμενα
σώματα εἶναί που καθ᾽ ἓν γένος ἕκαστον ὄν.
τοῦτ᾽ οὖν προθυμητέον, τὰ διαφέροντα κάλλει
σωμάτων τέτταρα γένη συναρμόσασθαι καὶ
φάναι τὴν τούτων ἡμᾶς φύσιν ἱκανῶς
εἰληφέναι. [54α] τοῖν δὴ δυοῖν τριγώνοιν τὸ
μὲν ἰσοσκελὲς μίαν εἴληχεν φύσιν, τὸ δὲ
πρόμηκες ἀπεράντους: προαιρετέον οὖν αὖ
τῶν ἀπείρων τὸ κάλλιστον, εἰ μέλλομεν
ἄρξεσθαι κατὰ τρόπον. ἂν οὖν τις ἔχῃ κάλλιον
ἐκλεξάμενος εἰπεῖν εἰς τὴν τούτων σύστασιν,
ἐκεῖνος οὐκ ἐχθρὸς ὢν ἀλλὰ φίλος κρατεῖ:
τιθέμεθα δ᾽ οὖν τῶν πολλῶν τριγώνων
κάλλιστον ἕν, ὑπερβάντες τἆλλα, ἐξ οὗ τὸ
ἰσόπλευρον τρίγωνον ἐκ τρίτου συνέστηκεν.
[54β] διότι δέ, λόγος πλείων: ἀλλὰ τῷ τοῦτο
ἐλέγξαντι καὶ ἀνευρόντι δὴ οὕτως ἔχον κεῖται
φίλια τὰ ἆθλα. προῃρήσθω δὴ δύο τρίγωνα ἐξ
ὧν τό τε τοῦ πυρὸς καὶ τὰ τῶν ἄλλων σώματα
μεμηχάνηται, τὸ μὲν ἰσοσκελές, τὸ δὲ τριπλῆν
κατὰ δύναμιν ἔχον τῆς ἐλάττονος τὴν μείζω
πλευρὰν ἀεί.
90 i.e., the half of an equilateral triangle; e.g. if the triangle ABC is bisected by the line AD, we have two such triangles in ADB and ADC.
the square on its greater side three times the
square on the lesser side.91
Now is the time to explain what was before
obscurely said: there was an error in imagining
that all the four elements [54c] might be
generated by and into one another; this, I say,
was an erroneous supposition, for there are
generated from the triangles which we have
selected four kinds — three from the one
which has the sides unequal; the fourth alone is
framed out of the isosceles triangle. Hence
they cannot all be resolved into one another, a
great number of small bodies being combined
into a few large ones, or the converse. But
three of them can be thus resolved and
compounded, for they all spring from one, and
when the greater bodies are broken up, many
small bodies will spring up out of them and
take their own proper figures; [54d] or, again,
when many small bodies are dissolved into
their triangles, if they become one, they will
form one large mass of another kind. So much
for their passage into one another.
Moreover, a point about which our previous
statement was obscure must now be defined
more clearly. It appeared as if the four Kinds,
[54c] in being generated, all passed through
one another into one another, but this
appearance was deceptive. For out of the
triangles which we have selected four Kinds
are generated, three of them out of that one
triangle which has its sides unequal, and the
fourth Kind alone composed of the isosceles
triangle. Consequently, they are not all capable
of being dissolved into one another so as to
form a few large bodies composed of many
small ones, or the converse; but three of them
do admit of this process. For these three are all
naturally compounded of one triangle, so that
when the larger bodies are dissolved many
small ones will form themselves from these
same bodies, receiving the shapes that befit
them; [54d] and conversely, when many small
bodies are resolved into their triangles they
will produce, when unified, one single large
mass of another Kind. So let thus much be
declared concerning their generation into one
another.
τὸ δὴ πρόσθεν ἀσαφῶς ῥηθὲν νῦν μᾶλλον
διοριστέον. τὰ γὰρ τέτταρα γένη δι᾽ ἀλλήλων
εἰς ἄλληλα ἐφαίνετο πάντα γένεσιν ἔχειν, οὐκ
ὀρθῶς φανταζόμενα: γίγνεται μὲν γὰρ ἐκ [54ξ]
τῶν τριγώνων ὧν προῃρήμεθα γένη τέτταρα,
τρία μὲν ἐξ ἑνὸς τοῦ τὰς πλευρὰς ἀνίσους
ἔχοντος, τὸ δὲ τέταρτον ἓν μόνον ἐκ τοῦ
ἰσοσκελοῦς τριγώνου συναρμοσθέν. οὔκουν
δυνατὰ πάντα εἰς ἄλληλα διαλυόμενα ἐκ
πολλῶν σμικρῶν ὀλίγα μεγάλα καὶ τοὐναντίον
γίγνεσθαι, τὰ δὲ τρία οἷόν τε: ἐκ γὰρ ἑνὸς
ἅπαντα πεφυκότα λυθέντων τε τῶν μειζόνων
πολλὰ σμικρὰ ἐκ τῶν αὐτῶν συστήσεται,
δεχόμενα τὰ προσήκοντα ἑαυτοῖς σχήματα, καὶ
σμικρὰ ὅταν αὖ πολλὰ κατὰ [54δ] τὰ τρίγωνα
διασπαρῇ, γενόμενος εἷς ἀριθμὸς ἑνὸς ὄγκου
μέγα ἀποτελέσειεν ἂν ἄλλο εἶδος ἕν.
I have now to speak of their several kinds, and
show out of what combinations of numbers
In the next place we have to explain the form
in which each Kind has come to exist and the
ταῦτα μὲν οὖν λελέχθω περὶ τῆς εἰς ἄλληλα
γενέσεως: οἷον δὲ ἕκαστον αὐτῶν γέγονεν
91 i.e., in the triangle ADB (see last note) AB = 2Bsquared, and (AB)squared = (BD)squared + (AD)squared; therefore 4(BD)squared = (BD)squared +
(AD)squared, and so 3(BD)squared = (AD)squared.
each of them was formed. The first will be the
simplest and smallest construction, and its
element is that triangle which has its
hypotenuse twice the lesser side. When two
such triangles are joined at the diagonal, and
this is repeated three times, [54e] and the
triangles rest their diagonals and shorter sides
on the same point as a centre, a single
equilateral triangle is formed out of six
triangles; and four equilateral triangles, if put
together, make out of every three plane angles
[55a] one solid angle, being that which is
nearest to the most obtuse of plane angles; and
out of the combination of these four angles
arises the first solid form which distributes into
equal and similar parts the whole circle in
which it is inscribed. The second species of
solid is formed out of the same triangles, which
unite as eight equilateral triangles and form
one solid angle out of four plane angles, and
out of six such angles the second body is
completed. [55b] And the third body is made
up of 120 triangular elements, forming twelve
solid angles, each of them included in five
plane equilateral triangles, having altogether
twenty bases, each of which is an equilateral
numbers from which it is compounded. First
will come that form which is primary and has
the smallest components, and the element
thereof is that triangle which has its
hypotenuse twice as long as its lesser side. And
when a pair of such triangles are joined along
the line of the hypotenuse, and this is done
thrice, by drawing the hypotenuses [54e] and
the short sides together as to a center, there is
produced from those triangles, six in number,
one equilateral triangle.92 And when four
equilateral triangles are combined so that three
plane angles [55a] meet in a point, they form
one solid angle, which comes next in order to
the most obtuse of the plane angles. And when
four such angles are produced, the first solid
figure93 is constructed, which divides the whole
of the circumscribed sphere into equal and
similar parts. And the second solid94 is formed
from the same triangles, but constructed out of
eight equilateral triangles, which produce one
solid angle out of four planes; and when six
such solid angles have been formed, the second
body in turn is completed. [55b] And the third
solid95 is composed of twice sixty of the
elemental triangles conjoined, and of twelve
εἶδος καὶ ἐξ ὅσων συμπεσόντων ἀριθμῶν,
λέγειν ἂν ἑπόμενον εἴη. ἄρξει δὴ τό τε πρῶτον
εἶδος
καὶ
σμικρότατον
συνιστάμενον,
στοιχεῖον δ᾽ αὐτοῦ τὸ τὴν ὑποτείνουσαν τῆς
ἐλάττονος πλευρᾶς διπλασίαν ἔχον μήκει:
σύνδυο δὲ τοιούτων κατὰ διάμετρον
συντιθεμένων καὶ τρὶς τούτου [54ε] γενομένου,
τὰς διαμέτρους καὶ τὰς βραχείας πλευρὰς εἰς
ταὐτὸν ὡς κέντρον ἐρεισάντων, ἓν ἰσόπλευρον
τρίγωνον ἐξ ἓξ τὸν ἀριθμὸν ὄντων γέγονεν.
τρίγωνα δὲ ἰσόπλευρα συνιστάμενα τέτταρα
κατὰ σύντρεις ἐπιπέδους γωνίας μίαν στερεὰν
[55α] γωνίαν ποιεῖ, τῆς ἀμβλυτάτης τῶν
ἐπιπέδων γωνιῶν ἐφεξῆς γεγονυῖαν: τοιούτων
δὲ ἀποτελεσθεισῶν τεττάρων πρῶτον εἶδος
στερεόν, ὅλου περιφεροῦς διανεμητικὸν εἰς ἴσα
μέρη καὶ ὅμοια, συνίσταται. δεύτερον δὲ ἐκ
μὲν τῶν αὐτῶν τριγώνων, κατὰ δὲ ἰσόπλευρα
τρίγωνα
ὀκτὼ
συστάντων,
μίαν
ἀπεργασαμένων στερεὰν γωνίαν ἐκ τεττάρων
ἐπιπέδων: καὶ γενομένων ἓξ τοιούτων τὸ
δεύτερον αὖ σῶμα οὕτως ἔσχεν τέλος. τὸ δὲ
τρίτον ἐκ δὶς ἑξήκοντα τῶν στοιχείων
συμπαγέντων, [55β] στερεῶν δὲ γωνιῶν
δώδεκα, ὑπὸ πέντε ἐπιπέδων τριγώνων
ἰσοπλεύρων περιεχομένης ἑκάστης, εἴκοσι
92 As in the figure the equilateral triangle ABC is divided into 6 triangles of unequal sides by joining the vertical points A, B, C to the points of
bisection of the opposite sides, viz. D, E, F. Then the hypotenuse in each such triangle is double the shortest side (e.g. AO = 2FO). And FAO = 1/3 right
angle; while FOA = 2/3 right angle. The “three plane edges” are thus of 60degrees each = 180degrees = “the most obtuse” plane angle; so that the solid
angle is one degree less, i.e., 179degrees.
93 i.e., the tetrahedron or pyramid (molecule of fire).
94 i.e., the octahedron (molecule of air).
95 i.e., the icosahedron (molecule of water).
triangle.
solid angles, each contained by five plane
equilateral triangles, and it has, by its
production, twenty equilateral triangular bases.
βάσεις ἔχον ἰσοπλεύρους τριγώνους γέγονεν.
The one element [that is, the triangle which has
its hypotenuse twice the lesser side] having
generated these figures, generated no more; but
the isosceles triangle produced the fourth
elementary figure, which is compounded of
four such triangles, joining their right angles in
a centre, and forming one equilateral
quadrangle. [55c] Six of these united form
eight solid angles, each of which is made by
the combination of three plane right angles; the
figure of the body thus composed is a cube,
having six plane quadrangular equilateral
bases. There was yet a fifth combination which
God used in the delineation of the universe.
Now the first of the elemental triangles ceased
acting when it had generated these three solids,
the substance of the fourth Kind96 being
generated by the isosceles triangle. Four of
these combined, with their right angles drawn
together to the center, produced one equilateral
quadrangle; and six such quadrangles, [55c]
when joined together, formed eight solid
angles, each composed of three plane right
angles; and the shape of the body thus
constructed was cubic, having six plane
equilateral quadrangular bases. And seeing that
there still remained one other compound
figure, the fifth,97 God used it up for the
Universe in his decoration thereof.
καὶ τὸ μὲν ἕτερον ἀπήλλακτο τῶν στοιχείων
ταῦτα γεννῆσαν, τὸ δὲ ἰσοσκελὲς τρίγωνον
ἐγέννα τὴν τοῦ τετάρτου φύσιν, κατὰ τέτταρα
συνιστάμενον, εἰς τὸ κέντρον τὰς ὀρθὰς γωνίας
συνάγον,
ἓν
ἰσόπλευρον
τετράγωνον
ἀπεργασάμενον: ἓξ δὲ τοιαῦτα [55ξ]
συμπαγέντα γωνίας ὀκτὼ στερεὰς ἀπετέλεσεν,
κατὰ τρεῖς ἐπιπέδους ὀρθὰς συναρμοσθείσης
ἑκάστης: τὸ δὲ σχῆμα τοῦ συστάντος σώματος
γέγονεν κυβικόν, ἓξ ἐπιπέδους τετραγώνους
ἰσοπλεύρους βάσεις ἔχον. ἔτι δὲ οὔσης
συστάσεως μιᾶς πέμπτης, ἐπὶ τὸ πᾶν ὁ θεὸς
αὐτῇ κατεχρήσατο ἐκεῖνο διαζωγραφῶν.
Now, he who, duly reflecting on all this,
enquires whether the worlds are to be regarded
as indefinite or definite in number, will be of
opinion that the notion of their indefiniteness is
characteristic of a sadly [55d] indefinite and
ignorant mind. He, however, who raises the
question whether they are to be truly regarded
as one or five, takes up a more reasonable
position. Arguing from probabilities, I am of
Now in reasoning about all these things, a man
might question whether he ought to affirm the
existence of an infinite diversity of Universes
or a limited number; and if he questioned
aright he would conclude that the doctrine of
an infinite diversity is that of a man unversed 98
[55d] in matters wherein he ought to be versed;
but the question whether they ought really to
be described as one Universe or five is one
ἃ δή τις εἰ πάντα λογιζόμενος ἐμμελῶς ἀποροῖ
πότερον ἀπείρους χρὴ κόσμους εἶναι λέγειν ἢ
πέρας ἔχοντας, τὸ μὲν [55δ] ἀπείρους ἡγήσαιτ᾽
ἂν ὄντως ἀπείρου τινὸς εἶναι δόγμα ὧν
ἔμπειρον χρεὼν εἶναι, πότερον δὲ ἕνα ἢ πέντε
αὐτοὺς ἀληθείᾳ πεφυκότας λέγειν ποτὲ
προσήκει, μᾶλλον ἂν ταύτῃ στὰς εἰκότως
διαπορήσαι. τὸ μὲν οὖν δὴ παρ᾽ ἡμῶν ἕνα
αὐτὸν κατὰ τὸν εἰκότα λόγον πεφυκότα μηνύει
96 i.e., the cube, composed of 6x4 rectangular isosceles triangles (molecule of earth).
97 i.e., the dodecahedron. How God “used it up” is obscure: the reference may be to the 12 signs of the Zodiac.
98 There is a play here on the two senses of ἄπειρος, “unlimited” and “unskilled”; Cf. Phileb. 17 E. The doctrine of an infinite number of worlds was
held by the Atomists.
opinion that they are one; another, regarding
the question from another point of view, will
be of another mind. But, leaving this enquiry,
let us proceed to distribute the elementary
forms, which have now been created in idea,
among the four elements. To earth, then, let us
assign the cubical form; for earth is the most
immoveable [55e] of the four and the most
plastic of all bodies, and that which has the
most stable bases must of necessity be of such
a nature. Now, of the triangles which we
assumed at first, that which has two equal sides
is by nature more firmly based than that which
has unequal sides; and of the compound figures
which are formed out of either, the plane
equilateral quadrangle has necessarily, a more
stable basis than the equilateral triangle, both
in the whole and in the parts. Wherefore, in
assigning this figure to earth, we adhere to
probability; and to water we assign that one of
the remaining forms which is the least
moveable; and the most moveable of them to
fire; and to air that which is intermediate. Also
we assign the smallest body to fire, and the
greatest to water, and the intermediate in size
to air; and, again, the acutest body to fire, and
the next in acuteness to, air, and the third to
water. Of all these elements, that which has the
fewest bases must necessarily be the most
moveable, [56b] for it must be the acutest and
most penetrating in every way, and also the
lightest as being composed of the smallest
number of similar particles: and the second
which might with more reason give us pause.
Now our view declares the Universe to be
essentially one, in accordance with the
probable account; but another man, considering
other facts, will hold a different opinion. Him,
however, we must let pass. But as for the Kinds
which have now been generated by our
argument, let us assign them severally to fire
and earth and water and air. To earth let us give
the cubic form; for of the four Kinds earth is
the most immobile [55e] and the most plastic
body, and of necessity the body which has the
most stable bases must be pre-eminently of this
character. Now of the triangles we originally
assumed, the basis formed by equal sides is of
its nature more stable than that formed by
unequal sides; and of the plane surfaces which
are compounded of these several triangles, the
equilateral quadrangle, both in its parts and as
a whole, has a more stable base than the
equilateral triangle. [56a] Wherefore, we are
preserving the probable account when we
assign this figure to earth, and of the remaining
figures the least mobile to water, and the most
mobile to fire, and the intermediate figure to
air; and, further, when we assign the smallest
body to fire, and the greatest to water, and the
intermediate to air; and again, the first in point
of sharpness to fire, the second to air, and the
third to water. As regards all these forms, that
which has the fewest bases must necessarily be
the most mobile, [56b] since it is in all ways
the sharpest and most acute of all; and it must
θεόν, ἄλλος δὲ εἰς ἄλλα πῃ βλέψας ἕτερα
δοξάσει. καὶ τοῦτον μὲν μεθετέον, τὰ δὲ
γεγονότα νῦν τῷ λόγῳ γένη διανείμωμεν εἰς
πῦρ καὶ γῆν καὶ ὕδωρ καὶ ἀέρα. γῇ μὲν δὴ τὸ
κυβικὸν εἶδος δῶμεν: [55ε] ἀκινητοτάτη γὰρ
τῶν τεττάρων γενῶν γῆ καὶ τῶν σωμάτων
πλαστικωτάτη, μάλιστα δὲ ἀνάγκη γεγονέναι
τοιοῦτον τὸ τὰς βάσεις ἀσφαλεστάτας ἔχον:
βάσις δὲ ἥ τε τῶν κατ᾽ ἀρχὰς τριγώνων
ὑποτεθέντων ἀσφαλεστέρα κατὰ φύσιν ἡ τῶν
ἴσων πλευρῶν τῆς τῶν ἀνίσων, τό τε ἐξ
ἑκατέρου συντεθὲν ἐπίπεδον ἰσόπλευρον
ἰσοπλεύρου τετράγωνον τριγώνου κατά τε
μέρη καὶ καθ᾽ ὅλον στασιμωτέρως ἐξ ἀνάγκης
βέβηκεν. διὸ [56α] γῇ μὲν τοῦτο ἀπονέμοντες
τὸν εἰκότα λόγον διασῴζομεν, ὕδατι δ᾽ αὖ τῶν
λοιπῶν τὸ δυσκινητότατον εἶδος, τὸ δ᾽
εὐκινητότατον πυρί, τὸ δὲ μέσον ἀέρι: καὶ τὸ
μὲν σμικρότατον σῶμα πυρί, τὸ δ᾽ αὖ μέγιστον
ὕδατι, τὸ δὲ μέσον ἀέρι: καὶ τὸ μὲν ὀξύτατον
αὖ πυρί, τὸ δὲ δεύτερον ἀέρι, τὸ δὲ τρίτον
ὕδατι. ταῦτ᾽ οὖν δὴ πάντα, τὸ μὲν ἔχον
ὀλιγίστας βάσεις εὐκινητότατον ἀνάγκη
πεφυκέναι, τμητικώτατόν τε [56β] καὶ
ὀξύτατον ὂν πάντῃ πάντων, ἔτι τε
ἐλαφρότατον, ἐξ ὀλιγίστων συνεστὸς τῶν
αὐτῶν μερῶν: τὸ δὲ δεύτερον δευτέρως τὰ
αὐτὰ ταῦτ᾽ ἔχειν, τρίτως δὲ τὸ τρίτον.
body has similar properties in a second degree,
and the third body in the third degree.
also be the lightest, since it is composed of the
fewest identical parts; and the second comes
second in point of these same qualities, and the
third third.
Let it be agreed, then, both according to strict
reason and according to probability, that the
pyramid is the solid which is the original
element and seed of fire; and let us assign the
element which was next in the order of
generation to air, and the third to water. We
must imagine all these to be so small that no
single particle [56c] of any of the four kinds is
seen by us on account of their smallness: but
when many of them are collected together their
aggregates are seen. And the ratios of their
numbers, motions, and other properties,
everywhere God, as far as necessity allowed or
gave consent, has exactly perfected, and
harmonised in due proportion.
Thus, in accordance with the right account and
the probable, that solid which has taken the
form of a pyramid shall be the element and
seed of fire; the second in order of generation
we shall affirm to be air, and the third water.
Now one must conceive all these to be so small
that none of them, [56c] when taken singly
each in its several kind, is seen by us, but when
many are collected together their masses are
seen. And, moreover, as regards the numerical
proportions which govern their masses and
motions and their other qualities, we must
conceive that God realized these everywhere
with exactness, in so far as the nature of
Necessity submitted voluntarily or under
persuasion, and thus ordered all in harmonious
proportion.
ἔστω δὴ κατὰ τὸν ὀρθὸν λόγον καὶ κατὰ τὸν
εἰκότα τὸ μὲν τῆς πυραμίδος στερεὸν γεγονὸς
εἶδος πυρὸς στοιχεῖον καὶ σπέρμα: τὸ δὲ
δεύτερον κατὰ γένεσιν εἴπωμεν ἀέρος, τὸ δὲ
τρίτον ὕδατος. πάντα οὖν δὴ ταῦτα δεῖ
διανοεῖσθαι σμικρὰ οὕτως, ὡς καθ᾽ [56ξ] ἓν
ἕκαστον μὲν τοῦ γένους ἑκάστου διὰ
σμικρότητα οὐδὲν ὁρώμενον ὑφ᾽ ἡμῶν,
συναθροισθέντων δὲ πολλῶν τοὺς ὄγκους
αὐτῶν ὁρᾶσθαι: καὶ δὴ καὶ τὸ τῶν ἀναλογιῶν
περί τε τὰ πλήθη καὶ τὰς κινήσεις καὶ τὰς
ἄλλας δυνάμεις πανταχῇ τὸν θεόν, ὅπῃπερ ἡ
τῆς ἀνάγκης ἑκοῦσα πεισθεῖσά τε φύσις
ὑπεῖκεν, ταύτῃ
πάντῃ
δι᾽ ἀκριβείας
ἀποτελεσθεισῶν ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ συνηρμόσθαι
ταῦτα ἀνὰ λόγον.
From all that we have just been saying about
the elements or kinds, [56d] the most probable
conclusion is as follows: — earth, when
meeting with fire and dissolved by its
sharpness, whether the dissolution take place in
the fire itself or perhaps in some mass of air or
water, is borne hither and thither, until its parts,
meeting together and mutually harmonising,
again become earth; for they can never take
any other form. But water, when divided by
From all that we have hitherto said about these
Kinds, [56d] they will, in all likelihood, behave
themselves as follows. Earth will keep moving
when it happens to meet with fire and has been
dissolved by its acuteness, whether this
dissolution takes place in pure fire or in a mass
of air or of water; and this motion will continue
until the particles of earth happen to meet
together somewhere and reunite one with
another, when they become earth again; for
ἐκ δὴ πάντων ὧνπερ τὰ γένη προειρήκαμεν
ὧδ᾽ ἂν κατὰ [56δ] τὸ εἰκὸς μάλιστ᾽ ἂν ἔχοι. γῆ
μὲν συντυγχάνουσα πυρὶ διαλυθεῖσά τε ὑπὸ τῆς
ὀξύτητος αὐτοῦ φέροιτ᾽ ἄν, εἴτ᾽ ἐν αὐτῷ πυρὶ
λυθεῖσα εἴτ᾽ ἐν ἀέρος εἴτ᾽ ἐν ὕδατος ὄγκῳ
τύχοι, μέχριπερ ἂν αὐτῆς πῃ συντυχόντα τὰ
μέρη, πάλιν συναρμοσθέντα αὐτὰ αὑτοῖς, γῆ
γένοιτο—οὐ γὰρ εἰς ἄλλο γε εἶδος ἔλθοι ποτ᾽
ἄν—ὕδωρ δὲ ὑπὸ πυρὸς μερισθέν, εἴτε καὶ ὑπ᾽
ἀέρος, ἐγχωρεῖ γίγνεσθαι συστάντα ἓν μὲν
fire or by air, on reforming, may become one
part fire and two parts air; [56e] and a single
volume of air divided becomes two of fire.
Again, when a small body of fire is contained
in a larger body of air or water or earth, and
both are moving, and the fire struggling is
overcome and broken up, then two volumes of
fire form one volume of air; and when air is
overcome and cut up into small pieces, two and
a half parts of air are condensed into one part
of water.
assuredly earth will never change into another
form. But water, when broken up by fire or
even by air, is capable of becoming a
compound of one corpuscle of fire with two of
air; [56e] and the fractions of air which come
from the dissolving of one particle will form
two corpuscles of fire. And again, when a small
quantity of fire is enclosed by a large quantity
of air and water, or of earth, and moves within
them as they rush along, and is defeated in its
struggle and broken up, then two corpuscles of
fire unite to make one form of air. And when
air is defeated and disintegrated, from two
whole forms of air and a half, one whole form
of water will be compounded.
πυρὸς σῶμα, δύο [56ε] δὲ ἀέρος: τὰ δὲ ἀέρος
τμήματα ἐξ ἑνὸς μέρους διαλυθέντος δύ᾽ ἂν
γενοίσθην σώματα πυρός. καὶ πάλιν, ὅταν ἀέρι
πῦρ ὕδασίν τε ἤ τινι γῇ περιλαμβανόμενον ἐν
πολλοῖς ὀλίγον, κινούμενον ἐν φερομένοις,
μαχόμενον καὶ νικηθὲν καταθραυσθῇ, δύο
πυρὸς σώματα εἰς ἓν συνίστασθον εἶδος ἀέρος:
καὶ κρατηθέντος ἀέρος κερματισθέντος τε ἐκ
δυοῖν ὅλοιν καὶ ἡμίσεος ὕδατος εἶδος ἓν ὅλον
ἔσται συμπαγές. ὧδε γὰρ δὴ λογισώμεθα αὐτὰ
πάλιν, ὡς ὅταν ἐν πυρὶ λαμβανόμενον τῶν
[57a] Let us consider the matter in another
way. When one of the other elements is
fastened upon by fire, and is cut by the
sharpness of its angles and sides, it coalesces
with the fire, and then ceases to be cut by them
any longer. For no element which is one and
the same with itself can be changed by or
change another of the same kind and in the
same state. But so long as in the process of
transition the weaker is fighting against the
stronger, the dissolution continues. [57b]
Again, when a few small particles, enclosed in
many larger ones, are in process of
decomposition and extinction, they only cease
from their tendency to extinction when they
consent to pass into the conquering nature, and
[57a] Once again let us reason out their
character in this way. Whenever any of the
other Kinds is caught within fire it is cut up
thereby, owing to the acuteness of its angles
and of the line of its sides, but when it has been
re-composed into the substance of fire it ceases
to be cut; for the Kind that is similar and
uniform is in no case able either to cause any
change in, or to suffer any affection from, a
Kind which is in a uniform and similar state 99;
but so long as, in the course of its passage into
another form, it is a weaker body fighting
against a stronger, it is continually being
dissolved. And again, [57b] whenever a few of
the smaller corpuscles, being caught within a
great number of larger corpuscles, are broken
[57α] ἄλλων ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ τι γένος τῇ τῶν γωνιῶν
καὶ κατὰ τὰς πλευρὰς ὀξύτητι τέμνηται,
συστὰν μὲν εἰς τὴν ἐκείνου φύσιν πέπαυται
τεμνόμενον—τὸ γὰρ ὅμοιον καὶ ταὐτὸν αὑτῷ
γένος ἕκαστον οὔτε τινὰ μεταβολὴν ἐμποιῆσαι
δυνατὸν οὔτε τι παθεῖν ὑπὸ τοῦ κατὰ ταὐτὰ
ὁμοίως τε ἔχοντος—ἕως δ᾽ ἂν εἰς ἄλλο τι
γιγνόμενον ἧττον ὂν κρείττονι μάχηται,
λυόμενον οὐ παύεται. τά τε αὖ σμικρότερα
ὅταν
ἐν
τοῖς
μείζοσιν
πολλοῖς
περιλαμβανόμενα [57β] ὀλίγα διαθραυόμενα
κατασβεννύηται, συνίστασθαι μὲν ἐθέλοντα εἰς
τὴν τοῦ κρατοῦντος ἰδέαν πέπαυται
κατασβεννύμενα γίγνεταί τε ἐκ πυρὸς ἀήρ, ἐξ
ἀέρος ὕδωρ: ἐὰν δ᾽ εἰς ταὐτὰ ἴῃ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων
τι συνιὸν γενῶν μάχηται, λυόμενα οὐ παύεται,
99 The affinity of “like to like” was an axiom in early Greek thought; Cf. Lysis215 C ff.,Sympos. 186 A ff.
fire becomes air and air water. But if bodies of
another kind go and attack them [i.e. the small
particles], the latter continue to be dissolved
until, being completely forced back and
dispersed, they make their escape to their own
kindred, or else, being overcome and
assimilated to the conquering power, they
remain where they are and dwell with their
victors, and from being many become one. And
owing to these affections, [57c] all things are
changing their place, for by the motion of the
receiving vessel the bulk of each class is
distributed into its proper place; but those
things which become unlike themselves and
like other things, are hurried by the shaking
into the place of the things to which they grow
like.
up and quenched, then, if they consent to be recompounded into the shape of the victorious
Kind, they cease to be quenched, and air is
produced out of fire, and out of air water; but if
they fight against combining with these or with
any of the other Kinds, they do not cease from
dissolution until either they are driven out to
their own kindred, by means of this impact and
dissolution, or else they are defeated and,
instead of many forms, assume one form
similar to the victorious Kind, and continue
dwelling therewith as a united family.
Moreover, it is owing to these affections [57c]
that they all interchange their places; for while
the bulk of each Kind keeps apart in a region of
its own100 because of the motion of the
Recipient, yet those corpuscles which from
time to time become dissimilar to themselves
and similar to others are carried, because of the
shaking, towards the region which belongs to
those corpuscles whereto they have been
assimilated.
πρὶν ἢ παντάπασιν ὠθούμενα καὶ διαλυθέντα
ἐκφύγῃ πρὸς τὸ συγγενές, ἢ νικηθέντα, ἓν ἐκ
πολλῶν ὅμοιον τῷ κρατήσαντι γενόμενον,
αὐτοῦ σύνοικον μείνῃ. καὶ [57ξ] δὴ καὶ κατὰ
ταῦτα τὰ παθήματα διαμείβεται τὰς χώρας
ἅπαντα: διέστηκεν μὲν γὰρ τοῦ γένους ἑκάστου
τὰ πλήθη κατὰ τόπον ἴδιον διὰ τὴν τῆς
δεχομένης κίνησιν, τὰ δὲ ἀνομοιούμενα
ἑκάστοτε ἑαυτοῖς, ἄλλοις δὲ ὁμοιούμενα,
φέρεται διὰ τὸν σεισμὸν πρὸς τὸν ἐκείνων οἷς
ἂν ὁμοιωθῇ τόπον.
Now all unmixed and primary bodies are
produced by such causes as these. As to the
subordinate species which are included in the
greater kinds, they are to be attributed to the
varieties in the structure of the two original
triangles. For either structure did not originally
produce [57d] the triangle of one size only, but
some larger and some smaller, and there are as
Such are the causes which account for the
generation of all the unmixed and primary
bodies. But within these four Kinds other
classes exist, whereof the cause must be sought
in the construction of each of the two elemental
triangles, each such construction having
originally produced [57d] not merely a triangle
of one definite size, but larger and smaller
ὅσα μὲν οὖν ἄκρατα καὶ πρῶτα σώματα διὰ
τοιούτων αἰτιῶν γέγονεν: τὸ δ᾽ ἐν τοῖς εἴδεσιν
αὐτῶν ἕτερα ἐμπεφυκέναι γένη τὴν ἑκατέρου
τῶν στοιχείων αἰτιατέον σύστασιν, [57δ] μὴ
μόνον ἓν ἑκατέραν μέγεθος ἔχον τὸ τρίγωνον
φυτεῦσαι κατ᾽ ἀρχάς, ἀλλ᾽ ἐλάττω τε καὶ
μείζω, τὸν ἀριθμὸν δὲ ἔχοντα τοσοῦτον ὅσαπερ
ἂν ᾖ τἀν τοῖς εἴδεσι γένη. διὸ δὴ
100 The elements are conceived as having their proper abodes in concentric strata of space, one above another—earth in the center, water next, then air,
and fire at the circumference of the World-Sphere.
many sizes as there are species of the four
elements. Hence when they are mingled with
themselves and with one another there is an
endless variety of them, which those who
would arrive at the probable truth of nature
ought duly to consider.
triangles of sizes as numerous as are the classes
within the Kinds. Consequently, when these are
combined amongst themselves and with one
another they are infinite in their variety; and
this variety must be kept in view by those who
purpose to employ probable reasoning
concerning Nature.
συμμειγνύμενα αὐτά τε πρὸς αὑτὰ καὶ πρὸς
ἄλληλα τὴν ποικιλίαν ἐστὶν ἄπειρα: ἧς δὴ δεῖ
θεωροὺς γίγνεσθαι τοὺς μέλλοντας περὶ
φύσεως εἰκότι λόγῳ χρήσεσθαι.
Unless a person comes to an understanding
about the nature and conditions of rest and
motion, [57e] he will meet with many
difficulties in the discussion which follows.
Something has been said of this matter already,
and something more remains to be said, which
is, that motion never exists in what is uniform.
For to conceive that anything can be moved
without a mover is hard or indeed impossible,
and equally impossible to conceive that there
can be a mover unless there be something
which can be moved — motion cannot exist
where either of these are wanting, and for these
to be uniform is impossible; wherefore we
must assign rest to uniformity [58a] and
motion to the want of uniformity. Now
inequality is the cause of the nature which is
wanting in uniformity; and of this we have
already described the origin. But there still
remains the further point — why things when
divided after their kinds do not cease to pass
through one another and to change their place
— which we will now proceed to explain. In
the revolution of the universe are
Now, unless we can arrive at some agreed
conclusion concerning Motion and Rest, as to
how and under what conditions they come
about, [57e] our subsequent argument will be
greatly hampered. The facts about them have
already been stated in part; but in addition
thereto we must state further that motion never
consents to exist within uniformity. For it is
difficult, or rather impossible, for that which is
to be moved to exist without that which is to
move, or that which is to move without that
which is to be moved; but in the absence of
these there is no motion, and that these should
ever be uniform is a thing impossible.
Accordingly, we must always place rest in
uniformity, [58a] and motion in nonuniformity; and the cause of the non-uniform
nature lies in inequality. Now we have
explained the origin of inequality101; but we
have not declared how it is that these bodies
are not separated according to their several
Kinds, and cease not from their motion and
passage one through another. Wherefore, we
shall once more expound the matter as follows.
κινήσεως οὖν στάσεώς τε πέρι, τίνα τρόπον καὶ
μεθ᾽ ὧντινων γίγνεσθον, εἰ μή τις
διομολογήσεται, πόλλ᾽ ἂν εἴη [57ε] ἐμποδὼν
τῷ κατόπισθεν λογισμῷ. τὰ μὲν οὖν ἤδη περὶ
αὐτῶν εἴρηται, πρὸς δ᾽ ἐκείνοις ἔτι τάδε, ἐν μὲν
ὁμαλότητι μηδέποτε ἐθέλειν κίνησιν ἐνεῖναι.
τὸ γὰρ κινησόμενον ἄνευ τοῦ κινήσοντος ἢ τὸ
κινῆσον ἄνευ τοῦ κινησομένου χαλεπόν,
μᾶλλον δὲ ἀδύνατον, εἶναι: κίνησις δὲ οὐκ
ἔστιν τούτων ἀπόντων, ταῦτα δὲ ὁμαλὰ εἶναί
ποτε ἀδύνατον. οὕτω δὴ στάσιν μὲν ἐν
ὁμαλότητι, κίνησιν δὲ εἰς ἀνωμαλότητα ἀεὶ
[58α] τιθῶμεν: αἰτία δὲ ἀνισότης αὖ τῆς
ἀνωμάλου φύσεως. ἀνισότητος δὲ γένεσιν μὲν
διεληλύθαμεν: πῶς δέ ποτε οὐ κατὰ γένη
διαχωρισθέντα ἕκαστα πέπαυται τῆς δι᾽
ἀλλήλων κινήσεως καὶ φορᾶς, οὐκ εἴπομεν.
ὧδε οὖν πάλιν ἐροῦμεν. ἡ τοῦ παντὸς περίοδος,
ἐπειδὴ συμπεριέλαβεν τὰ γένη, κυκλοτερὴς
οὖσα καὶ πρὸς αὑτὴν πεφυκυῖα βούλεσθαι
συνιέναι, σφίγγει πάντα καὶ κενὴν χώραν
οὐδεμίαν ἐᾷ λείπεσθαι. διὸ [58β] δὴ πῦρ μὲν
εἰς ἅπαντα διελήλυθε μάλιστα, ἀὴρ δὲ
δεύτερον, ὡς λεπτότητι δεύτερον ἔφυ, καὶ
101 Cf. 53 C ff.: the varying shapes and sizes of the primary triangles account for the “inequality.”
comprehended all the four elements, and this
being circular and having a tendency to come
together, compresses everything and will not
allow any place to be left void. [58b]
Wherefore, also, fire above all things
penetrates everywhere, and air next, as being
next in rarity of the elements; and the two other
elements in like manner penetrate according to
their degrees of rarity. For those things which
are composed of the largest particles have the
largest void left in their compositions, and
those which are composed of the smallest
particles have the least. And the contraction
caused by the compression thrusts the smaller
particles into the interstices of the larger. And
thus, when the small parts are placed side by
side with the larger, and the lesser divide the
greater and the greater unite the lesser, all the
elements are borne up and down [58c] and
hither and thither towards their own places; for
the change in the size of each changes its
position in space. And these causes generate an
inequality which is always maintained, and is
continually creating a perpetual motion of the
elements in all time.
The revolution of the All, since it comprehends
the Kinds, compresses them all, seeing that it is
circular and tends naturally to come together to
itself102; and thus it suffers no void place to be
left. [58b] Wherefore, fire most of all has
permeated all things, and in a second degree
air, as it is by nature second in fineness; and so
with the rest; for those that have the largest
constituent parts have the largest void left in
their construction, and those that have the
smallest the least. Thus the tightening of the
compression forces together the small bodies
into the void intervals of the large. Therefore,
when small bodies are placed beside large, and
the smaller disintegrate the larger while the
larger unite the smaller, they all shift up and
down [58c] towards their own proper regions;
for the change in their several sizes causes their
position in space also to change. And since in
this way and for these reasons the production
of non-uniformity is perpetually maintained, it
brings about unceasingly, both now and for the
future, the perpetual motion of these bodies.
τἆλλα ταύτῃ: τὰ γὰρ ἐκ μεγίστων μερῶν
γεγονότα μεγίστην κενότητα ἐν τῇ συστάσει
παραλέλοιπεν, τὰ δὲ σμικρότατα ἐλαχίστην. ἡ
δὴ τῆς πιλήσεως σύνοδος τὰ σμικρὰ εἰς τὰ τῶν
μεγάλων διάκενα συνωθεῖ. σμικρῶν οὖν παρὰ
μεγάλα τιθεμένων καὶ τῶν ἐλαττόνων τὰ
μείζονα διακρινόντων, τῶν δὲ μειζόνων ἐκεῖνα
συγκρινόντων, πάντ᾽ ἄνω κάτω μεταφέρεται
πρὸς τοὺς ἑαυτῶν τόπους: [58ξ] μεταβάλλον
γὰρ τὸ μέγεθος ἕκαστον καὶ τὴν τόπων
μεταβάλλει στάσιν. οὕτω δὴ διὰ ταῦτά τε ἡ τῆς
ἀνωμαλότητος διασῳζομένη γένεσις ἀεὶ τὴν
ἀεὶ κίνησιν τούτων οὖσαν ἐσομένην τε
ἐνδελεχῶς παρέχεται.
In the next place we have to consider that there
are divers kinds of fire. There are, for example,
first, flame; and secondly, those emanations of
flame which do not burn but only give light to
the eyes; thirdly, the remains of fire, which are
seen in red-hot embers after the flame has been
In the next place, we must observe that there
are many kinds of fire: for example, there is
flame; and the kind issuing from flame, which
does not burn but supplies light to the eyes;
and the kind which, when the flame is
quenched, is left behind among the embers.
μετὰ δὴ ταῦτα δεῖ νοεῖν ὅτι πυρός τε γένη
πολλὰ γέγονεν, οἷον φλὸξ τό τε ἀπὸ τῆς
φλογὸς ἀπιόν, ὃ κάει μὲν οὔ, φῶς δὲ τοῖς
ὄμμασιν παρέχει, τό τε φλογὸς ἀποσβεσθείσης
ἐν [58δ] τοῖς διαπύροις καταλειπόμενον αὐτοῦ:
κατὰ ταὐτὰ δὲ ἀέρος, τὸ μὲν εὐαγέστατον
102 i.e., exerts a centripetal force. For this “compression” cf. Emped. Frag. 185 Τιτὰν ἠδ᾽ αἰθὴρ σφίγγων περὶ κύκλον ἅπαντα.
extinguished. [58d] There are similar
differences in the air; of which the brightest
part is called the aether, and the most turbid
sort mist and darkness; and there are various
other nameless kinds which arise from the
inequality of the triangles. Water, again, admits
in the first place of a division into two kinds;
the one liquid and the other fusile. The liquid
kind is composed of the small and unequal
particles of water; and moves itself and is
moved by other bodies owing to the want of
uniformity and the shape of its particles;
whereas the fusile kind, being formed of large
and uniform particles, is more stable than the
other, and is heavy and compact by reason of
its uniformity. But when fire gets in and
dissolves the particles and destroys the
uniformity, it has greater mobility, and
becoming fluid is thrust forth by the
neighbouring air and spreads upon the earth;
and this dissolution of the solid masses is
called melting, and their spreading out upon
the earth flowing. Again, when the fire goes
out of the fusile substance, [59a] it does not
pass into vacuum, but into the neighbouring
air; and the air which is displaced forces
together the liquid and still moveable mass into
the place which was occupied by the fire, and
unites it with itself. Thus compressed the mass
resumes its equability, and is again at unity
with itself, because the fire which was the
author of the inequality has retreated; and this
103 i.e., metals are classes as “water,” cf. 59 B ff.
[58d] So likewise of air, there is the most
translucent kind which is called by the name of
aether, and the most opaque which is mist and
darkness, and other species without a name,
which are produced by reason of the inequality
of the triangles. The kinds of water are,
primarily, two, the one being the liquid, the
other the fusible103 kind. Now the liquid kind,
inasmuch as it partakes of those small particles
of water which are unequal, is mobile both in
itself and by external force owing to its nonuniformity and the shape of its figure. But the
other kind, which is composed of large [58e]
and uniform particles, is more stable than the
first and is heavy, being solidified by its
uniformity; but when fire enters and dissolves
it, this causes it to abandon its uniformity, and
this being lost it partakes more largely in
motion; and when it has become mobile it is
pushed by the adjacent air and extended upon
the earth; and for each of these modifications it
has received a descriptive name—“melting”
for the disintegration of its masses, and for its
extension over the earth “fluidity.” Again, since
the fire on issuing from the water [59a] does
not pass into a void but presses on the adjacent
air, this in turn compresses the liquid mass
which is still mobile into the abodes of the fire
and combines it with itself; and the mass, being
this, is compressed and recovering again its
uniformity, because of the departure of the fire,
the author of its non-uniformity, returns to its
ἐπίκλην αἰθὴρ καλούμενος, ὁ δὲ θολερώτατος
ὁμίχλη τε καὶ σκότος, ἕτερά τε ἀνώνυμα εἴδη,
γεγονότα διὰ τὴν τῶν τριγώνων ἀνισότητα. τὰ
δὲ ὕδατος διχῇ μὲν πρῶτον, τὸ μὲν ὑγρόν, τὸ δὲ
χυτὸν γένος αὐτοῦ. τὸ μὲν οὖν ὑγρὸν διὰ τὸ
μετέχον εἶναι τῶν γενῶν τῶν ὕδατος ὅσα
σμικρά, ἀνίσων ὄντων, κινητικὸν αὐτό τε καθ᾽
αὑτὸ καὶ ὑπ᾽ ἄλλου διὰ τὴν ἀνωμαλότητα καὶ
τὴν τοῦ σχήματος ἰδέαν γέγονεν: τὸ [58ε] δὲ ἐκ
μεγάλων καὶ ὁμαλῶν στασιμώτερον μὲν
ἐκείνου καὶ βαρὺ πεπηγὸς ὑπὸ ὁμαλότητός
ἐστιν, ὑπὸ δὲ πυρὸς εἰσιόντος καὶ διαλύοντος
αὐτὸ τὴν ὁμαλότητα ἀποβάλλει, ταύτην δὲ
ἀπολέσαν
μετίσχει
μᾶλλον
κινήσεως,
γενόμενον δὲ εὐκίνητον, ὑπὸ τοῦ πλησίον
ἀέρος ὠθούμενον καὶ κατατεινόμενον ἐπὶ γῆν,
τήκεσθαι μὲν τὴν τῶν ὄγκων καθαίρεσιν, ῥοὴν
δὲ τὴν κατάτασιν ἐπὶ γῆν ἐπωνυμίαν ἑκατέρου
τοῦ πάθους ἔλαβεν. [59α] πάλιν δ᾽ ἐκπίπτοντος
αὐτόθεν τοῦ πυρός, ἅτε οὐκ εἰς κενὸν ἐξιόντος,
ὠθούμενος ὁ πλησίον ἀὴρ εὐκίνητον ὄντα ἔτι
τὸν ὑγρὸν ὄγκον εἰς τὰς τοῦ πυρὸς ἕδρας
συνωθῶν αὐτὸν αὑτῷ συμμείγνυσιν: ὁ δὲ
συνωθούμενος
ἀπολαμβάνων
τε
τὴν
ὁμαλότητα πάλιν, ἅτε τοῦ τῆς ἀνωμαλότητος
δημιουργοῦ πυρὸς ἀπιόντος, εἰς ταὐτὸν αὑτῷ
καθίσταται. καὶ τὴν μὲν τοῦ πυρὸς ἀπαλλαγὴν
ψῦξιν, τὴν δὲ σύνοδον ἀπελθόντος ἐκείνου
πεπηγὸς εἶναι γένος προσερρήθη. τούτων δὴ
πάντων
departure of the fire is called cooling, and the
coming together which follows upon it is
termed congealment.
state of self-identity. And this cessation of the
fire is termed “cooling,” and the combination
which follows on its departure “solidification.”
[59b] Of all the kinds termed fusile, that which
is the densest and is formed out of the finest
and most uniform parts is that most precious
possession called gold, which is hardened by
filtration through rock; this is unique in kind,
and has both a glittering and a yellow colour. A
shoot of gold, which is so dense as to be very
hard, and takes a black colour, is termed
adamant. There is also another kind which has
parts nearly like gold, and of which there are
several species; it is denser than gold, and it
contains a small and fine portion of earth, and
is therefore harder, yet also lighter [59c]
because of the great interstices which it has
within itself; and this substance, which is one
of the bright and denser kinds of water, when
solidified is called copper. There is an alloy of
earth mingled with it, which, when the two
parts grow old and are disunited, shows itself
separately and is called rust. The remaining
phenomena of the same kind there will be no
difficulty in reasoning out by the method of
probabilities. A man may sometimes set aside
meditations about eternal things, and for
recreation turn to consider the truths of
generation which are probable only; [59d] he
will thus gain a pleasure not to be repented of,
[59b] Of all the kinds of water which we have
termed “fusible,” the densest is produced from
the finest and most uniform particles: this is a
kind of unique form, tinged with a glittering
and yellow hue, even that most precious of
possessions, “gold,” which has been strained
through stones and solidified. And the offshoot of gold, which is very hard because of its
density and black in color, is called
“adamant.”104 And the kind which closely
resembles gold in its particles but has more
forms than one, and in density is more dense
than gold, and partakes of small and fine
portions of earth so that it is harder, while it is
also lighter [59c] owing to its having large
interstices within it,—this particular kind of the
bright and solid waters, being compounded
thus, is termed “bronze.” And the portion of
earth that is mixed therewith becomes distinct
by itself, when both grow old and separate
again-each from the other; and then it is named
“rust.” And the rest of such phenomena it is no
longer difficult to explain in full, if one aims at
framing a description that is probable.105 For as
regards this, whenever for the sake of
recreation a man lays aside arguments
concerning eternal Realities and considers
104 Perhaps haematite or platinum.
105 Cf. 29 B, D, 48 C, etc.
[59β] ὅσα χυτὰ προσείπομεν ὕδατα, τὸ μὲν ἐκ
λεπτοτάτων καὶ ὁμαλωτάτων πυκνότατον
γιγνόμενον, μονοειδὲς γένος, στίλβοντι καὶ
ξανθῷ χρώματι κοινωθέν, τιμαλφέστατον
κτῆμα χρυσὸς ἠθημένος διὰ πέτρας ἐπάγη:
χρυσοῦ δὲ ὄζος, διὰ πυκνότητα σκληρότατον
ὂν καὶ μελανθέν, ἀδάμας ἐκλήθη. τὸ δ᾽ ἐγγὺς
μὲν χρυσοῦ τῶν μερῶν, εἴδη δὲ πλείονα ἑνὸς
ἔχον, πυκνότητι δέ, τῇ μὲν χρυσοῦ πυκνότερον
ὄν, καὶ γῆς μόριον ὀλίγον καὶ λεπτὸν
μετασχόν, ὥστε σκληρότερον εἶναι, τῷ [59ξ]
δὲ μεγάλα ἐντὸς αὑτοῦ διαλείμματα ἔχειν
κουφότερον, τῶν λαμπρῶν πηκτῶν τε ἓν γένος
ὑδάτων χαλκὸς συσταθεὶς γέγονεν: τὸ δ᾽ ἐκ γῆς
αὐτῷ
μειχθέν,
ὅταν
παλαιουμένω
διαχωρίζησθον πάλιν ἀπ᾽ ἀλλήλων, ἐκφανὲς
καθ᾽ αὑτὸ γιγνόμενον ἰὸς λέγεται. τἆλλα δὲ
τῶν
τοιούτων
οὐδὲν
ποικίλον
ἔτι
διαλογίσασθαι τὴν τῶν εἰκότων μύθων
μεταδιώκοντα ἰδέαν: ἣν ὅταν τις ἀναπαύσεως
ἕνεκα τοὺς περὶ τῶν ὄντων ἀεὶ καταθέμενος
λόγους, τοὺς γενέσεως πέρι διαθεώμενος [59δ]
εἰκότας ἀμεταμέλητον ἡδονὴν κτᾶται, μέτριον
ἂν ἐν τῷ βίῳ παιδιὰν καὶ φρόνιμον ποιοῖτο.
ταύτῃ δὴ καὶ τὰ νῦν ἐφέντες τὸ μετὰ τοῦτο τῶν
αὐτῶν πέρι τὰ ἑξῆς εἰκότα δίιμεν τῇδε.
and secure for himself while he lives a wise
and moderate pastime. Let us grant ourselves
this indulgence, and go through the
probabilities relating to the same subjects
which follow next in order.
probable accounts of Becoming, [59d] gaining
thereby a pleasure not to be repented of, he
provides for his life a pastime that is both
moderate and sensible. To this pastime let us
now give free play, and proceed to expound in
order the subsequent probabilities concerning
these same phenomena in the following way.
Water which is mingled with fire, so much as is
fine and liquid (being so called by reason of its
motion and the way in which it rolls along the
ground), and soft, because its bases give way
are less stable than those of earth, when
separated from fire and air and isolated,
becomes more uniform, [59e] and by their
retirement is compressed into itself; and if the
condensation be very great, the water above
the earth becomes hail, but on the earth, ice;
and that which is congealed in a less degree
and is only half solid, when above the earth is
called snow, and when upon the earth, and
condensed from dew, hoarfrost.
The water that is mixed with fire, which is fine
and fluid, is termed “fluid,” owing to its
motion and the way it rolls over the earth. 106
Also it is soft owing to the fact that its bases,
being less stable than those of earth, give way.
When this kind is separated off from fire and
air and isolated it becomes more uniform, [59e]
but because of their outflow it is compressed
upon itself; and when it is thus solidified, the
part of it above the earth which is most
affected by this process is termed “hail,” and
the part upon the earth “ice” and the part which
is less affected and is still only half-solid is
called snow when it is above the earth, but
when it is upon the earth and solidified out of
dew it is called “hoar-frost.”
τὸ πυρὶ μεμειγμένον ὕδωρ, ὅσον λεπτὸν ὑγρόν
τε διὰ τὴν κίνησιν καὶ τὴν ὁδὸν ἣν
κυλινδούμενον ἐπὶ γῆς ὑγρὸν λέγεται, μαλακόν
τε αὖ τῷ τὰς βάσεις ἧττον ἑδραίους οὔσας ἢ
τὰς γῆς ὑπείκειν, τοῦτο ὅταν πυρὸς
ἀποχωρισθὲν ἀέρος τε μονωθῇ, [59ε] γέγονεν
μὲν ὁμαλώτερον, συνέωσται δὲ ὑπὸ τῶν
ἐξιόντων εἰς αὑτό, παγέν τε οὕτως τὸ μὲν ὑπὲρ
γῆς μάλιστα παθὸν ταῦτα χάλαζα, τὸ δ᾽ ἐπὶ γῆς
κρύσταλλος, τὸ δὲ ἧττον, ἡμιπαγές τε ὂν ἔτι, τὸ
μὲν ὑπὲρ γῆς αὖ χιών, τὸ δ᾽ ἐπὶ γῆς συμπαγὲν
ἐκ δρόσου γενόμενον πάχνη λέγεται.
Then, again, there are the numerous kinds of
water which have been mingled with one
another, and are distilled through plants which
grow in the earth; [60a] and this whole class is
called by the name of juices or saps. The
unequal admixture of these fluids creates a
variety of species; most of them are nameless,
Now as regards most forms of water that are
intermingled one with another, the kind as a
whole, consisting of water that has been
strained through earth-grown plants, [60a] is
called “sap”; but inasmuch as the several sorts
have become dissimilar owing to intermixture,
most of the kinds thus produced are unnamed.
τὰ δὲ δὴ πλεῖστα ὑδάτων εἴδη μεμειγμένα
ἀλλήλοις—σύμπαν μὲν τὸ γένος, [60α] διὰ τῶν
ἐκ γῆς φυτῶν ἠθημένα, χυμοὶ λεγόμενοι—διὰ
δὲ τὰς μείξεις ἀνομοιότητα ἕκαστοι σχόντες τὰ
μὲν ἄλλα πολλὰ ἀνώνυμα γένη παρέσχοντο,
τέτταρα δὲ ὅσα ἔμπυρα εἴδη, διαφανῆ μάλιστα
γενόμενα, εἴληφεν ὀνόματα αὐτῶν, τὸ μὲν τῆς
106 Alluding to a fanciful derivation of ὑγρόν from ὑπὲρ γῆν ῥέον.
but four which are of a fiery nature are clearly
distinguished and have names. First there is
wine, which warms the soul as well as the
body: secondly, there is the oily nature, which
is smooth and divides the visual ray, and for
this reason is bright and shining and of a
glistening appearance, including pitch, the
juice of the castor berry, oil itself, and other
things of a like kind: [60b] thirdly, there is the
class of substances which expand the
contracted parts of the mouth, until they return
to their natural state, and by reason of this
property create sweetness; — these are
included under the general name of honey:
and, lastly, there is a frothy nature, which
differs from all juices, having a burning quality
which dissolves the flesh; it is called opos (a
vegetable acid).
Four of these kinds, however, being fiery and
specially conspicuous, have received names.
Of these, that which is heating to the soul as
well as the body is called “wine”; that which is
smooth and divisive of the vision, and
therefore bright to look upon and gleaming and
glistening in appearance, is the species “oil,”
including pitch and castor oil and olive oil
itself and all the others that are of the same
character; [60b] and all that kind which tends
to expand the contracted parts of the mouth, so
far as their nature allows, and by this property
produces sweetness, has received as a general
designation the name of “honey”; and the
foamy kind, which tends to dissolve the flesh
by burning, and is secreted from all the saps, is
named “verjuice.”107
ψυχῆς μετὰ τοῦ σώματος θερμαντικὸν οἶνος,
τὸ δὲ λεῖον καὶ διακριτικὸν ὄψεως διὰ ταῦτά τε
ἰδεῖν λαμπρὸν καὶ στίλβον λιπαρόν τε
φανταζόμενον ἐλαιηρὸν εἶδος, πίττα καὶ κίκι
καὶ ἔλαιον αὐτὸ ὅσα τ᾽ ἄλλα τῆς αὐτῆς
δυνάμεως: ὅσον δὲ διαχυτικὸν [60β] μέχρι
φύσεως τῶν περὶ τὸ στόμα συνόδων, ταύτῃ τῇ
δυνάμει γλυκύτητα παρεχόμενον, μέλι τὸ κατὰ
πάντων μάλιστα πρόσρημα ἔσχεν, τὸ δὲ τῆς
σαρκὸς διαλυτικὸν τῷ κάειν, ἀφρῶδες γένος,
ἐκ πάντων ἀφορισθὲν τῶν χυμῶν, ὀπὸς
ἐπωνομάσθη.
As to the kinds of earth, that which is filtered
through water passes into stone in the
following manner: — The water which mixes
with the earth and is broken up in the process
changes into air, and taking this form mounts
into its own place. [60c] But as there is no
surrounding vacuum it thrusts away the
neighbouring air, and this being rendered
heavy, and, when it is displaced, having been
poured around the mass of earth, forcibly
compresses it and drives it into the vacant
space whence the new air had come up; and the
earth when compressed by the air into an
Of the species of earth, that which is strained
through water becomes a stony substance in
the following way. When the water
commingled therewith is divided in the process
of mingling, it changes into the form of air; and
when it has become air it rushes up to its own
region; [60c] but because there was no void
space above them, therefore it pressed against
the adjacent air; and it, being heavy, when
pressed and poured round the mass of earth,
crushed it forcibly and compressed it into the
spaces from which the new air was ascending.
But when earth is thus compressed by the air
γῆς δὲ εἴδη, τὸ μὲν ἠθημένον διὰ ὕδατος
τοιῷδε τρόπῳ γίγνεται σῶμα λίθινον. τὸ
συμμιγὲς ὕδωρ ὅταν ἐν τῇ συμμείξει κοπῇ,
μετέβαλεν εἰς ἀέρος ἰδέαν: γενόμενος δὲ [60ξ]
ἀὴρ εἰς τὸν ἑαυτοῦ τόπον ἀναθεῖ. κενὸν δ᾽
ὑπερεῖχεν αὐτῶν οὐδέν: τὸν οὖν πλησίον
ἔωσεν ἀέρα. ὁ δὲ ἅτε ὢν βαρύς, ὠσθεὶς καὶ
περιχυθεὶς τῷ τῆς γῆς ὄγκῳ, σφόδρα ἔθλιψεν
συνέωσέν τε αὐτὸν εἰς τὰς ἕδρας ὅθεν ἀνῄει ὁ
νέος ἀήρ: συνωσθεῖσα δὲ ὑπὸ ἀέρος ἀλύτως
ὕδατι γῆ συνίσταται πέτρα, καλλίων μὲν ἡ τῶν
ἴσων καὶ ὁμαλῶν διαφανὴς μερῶν, αἰσχίων δὲ
ἡ ἐναντία. τὸ δὲ ὑπὸ πυρὸς τάχους τὸ νοτερὸν
107 Perhaps a kind of fig-juice.
indissoluble union with water becomes rock.
The fairer sort is that which is made up of
equal and similar parts and is transparent; that
which has the opposite qualities is inferior. But
when all the watery part is suddenly drawn out
by fire, a more brittle [60d] substance is
formed, to which we give the name of pottery.
Sometimes also moisture may remain, and the
earth which has been fused by fire becomes,
when cool, a certain stone of a black colour. A
like separation of the water which had been
copiously mingled with them may occur in two
substances composed of finer particles of earth
and of a briny nature; out of either of them a
half solid body is then formed, soluble in water
— the one, soda, which is used for purging
away oil and earth, and other, salt, which
harmonizes so well in combinations pleasing to
the palate, [60e] and is, as the law testifies, a
substance dear to the gods.
so as to be indissoluble by water it forms
“stone”; of which the fairer sort is that
composed of equal and uniform parts and
transparent, and the coarser sort the opposite.
That kind from which all the moisture has been
carried off by the rapidity of fire, and which is
more brittle [60d] in its composition than the
first kind, is the kind to which we have given
the name of “earthenware.” But sometimes,
when moisture is still left in the earth and it has
been fused by fire and has cooled again, it
forms the species which is black in hue. On the
other hand there are two kinds, which, in
exactly the same manner, are isolated after the
mixture from much of their water, but are
composed of finer parts of earth, and are
saline: when these have become semi-solid and
soluble again by water, one of them is
purgative of oil and earth and forms the species
called “lye“108; and the other, which blends
well with the combinations which affect the
sensation of the mouth, [60e] is that substance
which is customarily termed “beloved of the
gods,”109 namely “salt.”
[60δ] πᾶν ἐξαρπασθὲν καὶ κραυρότερον
ἐκείνου
συστάν,
ᾧ
γένει
κέραμον
ἐπωνομάκαμεν, τοῦτο γέγονεν: ἔστιν δὲ ὅτε
νοτίδος ὑπολειφθείσης χυτὴ γῆ γενομένη διὰ
πυρὸς ὅταν ψυχθῇ, γίγνεται τὸ μέλαν χρῶμα
ἔχον λίθος. τὼ δ᾽ αὖ κατὰ ταὐτὰ μὲν ταῦτα ἐκ
συμμείξεως ὕδατος ἀπομονουμένω πολλοῦ,
λεπτοτέρων δὲ ἐκ γῆς μερῶν ἁλμυρώ τε ὄντε,
ἡμιπαγῆ γενομένω καὶ λυτὼ πάλιν ὑφ᾽ ὕδατος,
τὸ μὲν ἐλαίου καὶ γῆς καθαρτικὸν γένος
λίτρον, τὸ δ᾽ εὐάρμοστον ἐν ταῖς κοινωνίαις
[60ε] ταῖς περὶ τὴν τοῦ στόματος αἴσθησιν
ἁλῶν κατὰ λόγον [νόμου] θεοφιλὲς σῶμα
ἐγένετο. τὰ δὲ κοινὰ ἐξ ἀμφοῖν ὕδατι μὲν οὐ
λυτά, πυρὶ δέ, διὰ τὸ τοιόνδε οὕτω
συμπήγνυται.
The compounds of earth and water are not
soluble by water, but by fire only, and for this
reason: — Neither fire nor air melt masses of
earth; for their particles, being smaller than the
interstices in its structure, have plenty of room
to move without forcing their way, and so they
As regards the kinds which are a blend of these
two, and are dissoluble by fire and not by
water, their composition is due to the following
cause. Fire and air do not melt masses of earth;
for, inasmuch as their particles are smaller then
the interstices of its structure, they have room
γῆς ὄγκους πῦρ μὲν ἀήρ τε οὐ τήκει: τῆς γὰρ
συστάσεως
τῶν
διακένων
αὐτῆς
σμικρομερέστερα πεφυκότα, διὰ πολλῆς
εὐρυχωρίας ἰόντα, οὐ βιαζόμενα, ἄλυτον αὐτὴν
ἐάσαντα ἄτηκτον παρέσχεν: τὰ δὲ ὕδατος
ἐπειδὴ μείζω πέφυκεν μέρη, βίαιον ποιούμενα
108 i.e., potash or saltpeter.
109 Cf. Hom.Il. ix. 214 πάσσε δ᾽ ἁλὸς θείοιο.
leave the earth unmelted and undissolved; but
particles of water, which are larger, force a
passage, and dissolve and melt the earth. [61a]
Wherefore earth when not consolidated by
force is dissolved by water only; when
consolidated, by nothing but fire; for this is the
only body which can find an entrance. The
cohesion of water again, when very strong, is
dissolved by fire only — when weaker, then
either by air or fire — the former entering the
interstices, and the latter penetrating even the
triangles. But nothing can dissolve air, when
strongly condensed, which does not reach the
elements or triangles; or if not strongly
condensed, then only fire can dissolve it.
to pass through without forcible effort and
leave the earth undissolved, with the result that
it remains unmelted; whereas the particles of
water, being larger, must use force to make
their way out, and consequently dissolve and
melt the earth. [61a] Thus earth when it is not
forcibly condensed is dissolved only by water;
and when it is condensed it is dissolved by fire
only, since no entrance is left for anything save
fire. Water, again, when most forcibly massed
together is dissolved by fire only, but when
massed less forcibly both by fire and air, the
latter acting by way of the interstices, and the
former by way of the triangles; but air when
forcibly condensed is dissolved by nothing
save by way of its elemental triangles, and
when unforced it is melted down by fire only.
τὴν διέξοδον, λύοντα αὐτὴν τήκει. γῆν [61α]
μὲν γὰρ ἀσύστατον ὑπὸ βίας οὕτως ὕδωρ
μόνον λύει, συνεστηκυῖαν δὲ πλὴν πυρὸς
οὐδέν: εἴσοδος γὰρ οὐδενὶ πλὴν πυρὶ λέλειπται.
τὴν δὲ ὕδατος αὖ σύνοδον τὴν μὲν βιαιοτάτην
πῦρ μόνον, τὴν δὲ ἀσθενεστέραν ἀμφότερα,
πῦρ τε καὶ ἀήρ, διαχεῖτον, ὁ μὲν κατὰ τὰ
διάκενα, τὸ δὲ καὶ κατὰ τὰ τρίγωνα: βίᾳ δὲ
ἀέρα συστάντα οὐδὲν λύει πλὴν κατὰ τὸ
στοιχεῖον, ἀβίαστον δὲ κατατήκει μόνον πῦρ.
As to bodies composed of earth and water,
[61b] while the water occupies the vacant
interstices of the earth in them which are
compressed by force, the particles of water
which approach them from without, finding no
entrance, flow around the entire mass and
leave it undissolved; but the particles of fire,
entering into the interstices of the water, do to
the water what water does to earth and fire to
air, and are the sole causes of the compound
body of earth and water liquefying and
becoming fluid. Now these bodies are of two
kinds; some of them, such as glass [61c] and
the fusible sort of stones, have less water than
they have earth; on the other hand, substances
As regards the classes of bodies which are
compounds of earth and water, [61b] so long as
the water occupies the interspaces of earth
which are forcibly contracted, the portions of
water which approach from without find no
entrance, but flow round the whole mass and
leave it undissolved. But when portions of fire
enter into the interspaces of the water they
produce the same effects on water as water
does on earth; consequently, they are the sole
causes why the compound substance is
dissolved and flows. And of these substances
those which contain less water than earth form
the whole kind known as “glass,” [61c] and all
the species of stone called “fusible”; while
τὰ δὴ τῶν συμμείκτων ἐκ γῆς τε καὶ ὕδατος
σωμάτων, μέχριπερ ἂν [61β] ὕδωρ αὐτοῦ τὰ
τῆς γῆς διάκενα καὶ βίᾳ συμπεπιλημένα
κατέχῃ, τὰ μὲν ὕδατος ἐπιόντα ἔξωθεν εἴσοδον
οὐκ ἔχοντα μέρη περιρρέοντα τὸν ὅλον ὄγκον
ἄτηκτον εἴασεν, τὰ δὲ πυρὸς εἰς τὰ τῶν ὑδάτων
διάκενα εἰσιόντα, ὅπερ ὕδωρ γῆν, τοῦτο πῦρ
[ἀέρα] ἀπεργαζόμενα, τηχθέντι τῷ κοινῷ
σώματι ῥεῖν μόνα αἴτια συμβέβηκεν: τυγχάνει
δὲ ταῦτα ὄντα, τὰ μὲν ἔλαττον ἔχοντα ὕδατος ἢ
γῆς, τό τε περὶ τὴν ὕαλον γένος [61ξ] ἅπαν ὅσα
τε λίθων χυτὰ εἴδη καλεῖται, τὰ δὲ πλέον
ὕδατος αὖ, πάντα ὅσα κηροειδῆ καὶ θυμιατικὰ
σώματα συμπήγνυται.
of the nature of wax and incense have more of
water entering into their composition.
those which contain more water include all the
solidified substances of the type of wax and
frankincense.
I have thus shown the various classes of bodies
as they are diversified by their forms and
combinations and changes into one another,
and now I must endeavour to set forth their
affections and the causes of them. In the first
place, the bodies which I have been describing
are necessarily objects of sense. But we have
not yet considered the origin of flesh, or what
belongs to flesh, or of that part of the soul
which is mortal. And these things cannot be
adequately explained [61d] without also
explaining the affections which are concerned
with sensation, nor the latter without the
former: and yet to explain them together is
hardly possible; for which reason we must
assume first one or the other and afterwards
examine the nature of our hypothesis. In order,
then, that the affections may follow regularly
after the elements, let us presuppose the
existence of body and soul.
And now we have explained with some
fullness the Four Kinds, which are thus
variegated in their shapes and combinations
and permutations; but we have still to try to
elucidate the Causes which account for their
affective qualities. Now, first of all, the quality
of sense-perceptibility must always belong to
the objects under discussion; but we have not
as yet described the generation of flesh and the
appurtenances of flesh, nor of that portion of
Soul which is mortal. But, in truth, these last
cannot be adequately explained [61d] apart
from the subject of the sensible affections, nor
the latter without the former; while to explain
both simultaneously is hardly possible.
Therefore, we must assume one of the two, to
begin with, and return later to discuss our
assumptions. In order, then, that the affective
properties may be treated next after the kinds,
let us presuppose the facts about body and
soul.
καὶ τὰ μὲν δὴ σχήμασι κοινωνίαις τε καὶ
μεταλλαγαῖς εἰς ἄλληλα πεποικιλμένα εἴδη
σχεδὸν ἐπιδέδεικται: τὰ δὲ παθήματα αὐτῶν δι᾽
ἃς αἰτίας γέγονεν πειρατέον ἐμφανίζειν.
πρῶτον μὲν οὖν ὑπάρχειν αἴσθησιν δεῖ τοῖς
λεγομένοις ἀεί, σαρκὸς δὲ καὶ τῶν περὶ σάρκα
γένεσιν, ψυχῆς τε ὅσον θνητόν, οὔπω
διεληλύθαμεν: τυγχάνει δὲ οὔτε ταῦτα χωρὶς
[61δ] τῶν περὶ τὰ παθήματα ὅσα αἰσθητικὰ
οὔτ᾽ ἐκεῖνα ἄνευ τούτων δυνατὰ ἱκανῶς
λεχθῆναι, τὸ δὲ ἅμα σχεδὸν οὐ δυνατόν.
ὑποθετέον δὴ πρότερον θάτερα, τὰ δ᾽
ὑποτεθέντα ἐπάνιμεν αὖθις. ἵνα οὖν ἑξῆς τὰ
παθήματα λέγηται τοῖς γένεσιν, ἔστω πρότερα
ἡμῖν τὰ περὶ σῶμα καὶ ψυχὴν ὄντα.
First, let us enquire what we mean by saying
that fire is hot; and about this we may reason
[61e] from the dividing or cutting power which
it exercises on our bodies. We all of us feel that
fire is sharp; and we may further consider the
fineness of the sides, and the sharpness of the
angles, and the smallness of the particles, and
Firstly, then, let us consider how it is that we
call fire “hot” by noticing the way it acts [61e]
upon our bodies by dividing and cutting. That
its property is one of sharpness we all, I
suppose, perceive; but as regards the thinness
of its sides and the acuteness of its angles and
the smallness of its particles and the rapidity of
πρῶτον μὲν οὖν ᾗ πῦρ θερμὸν λέγομεν, ἴδωμεν
ὧδε σκοποῦντες, τὴν διάκρισιν καὶ τομὴν
αὐτοῦ περὶ τὸ σῶμα ἡμῶν γιγνομένην [61ε]
ἐννοηθέντες. ὅτι μὲν γὰρ ὀξύ τι τὸ πάθος,
πάντες σχεδὸν αἰσθανόμεθα: τὴν δὲ λεπτότητα
τῶν πλευρῶν καὶ γωνιῶν ὀξύτητα τῶν τε
μορίων σμικρότητα καὶ τῆς φορᾶς τὸ τάχος, οἷς
the swiftness of the motion — all this makes
the action of fire violent and sharp, so that it
cuts whatever it meets. And we must not forget
[62a] that the original figure of fire [i.e. the
pyramid], more than any other form, has a
dividing power which cuts our bodies into
small pieces (Kepmatizei), and thus naturally
produces that affection which we call heat; and
hence the origin of the name (thepmos,
Kepma).
its motion—owing to all which properties fire
is intense and keen and sharply cuts whatever it
encounters,—these properties we must explain
by recalling [62a] the origin of its form, how
that it above all others is the one substance
which so divides our bodies and minces them
up as to produce naturally both that affection
which we call “heat” and its very name.110
πᾶσι σφοδρὸν ὂν καὶ τομὸν ὀξέως τὸ
προστυχὸν ἀεὶ [62α] τέμνει, λογιστέον
ἀναμιμνῃσκομένοις τὴν τοῦ σχήματος αὐτοῦ
γένεσιν, ὅτι μάλιστα ἐκείνη καὶ οὐκ ἄλλη
φύσις διακρίνουσα ἡμῶν κατὰ σμικρά τε τὰ
σώματα κερματίζουσα τοῦτο ὃ νῦν θερμὸν
λέγομεν εἰκότως τὸ πάθημα καὶ τοὔνομα
παρέσχεν.
Now, the opposite of this is sufficiently
manifest; nevertheless we will not fail to
describe it. For the larger particles of moisture
which surround the body, entering in and
driving out the lesser, but not being able to take
their places, compress the moist principle in
us; and this from being unequal and disturbed,
is forced by them into a state of rest, [62b]
which is due to equability and compression.
But things which are contracted contrary to
nature are by nature at war, and force
themselves apart; and to this war and
convulsion the name of shivering and
trembling is given; and the whole affection and
the cause of the affection are both termed cold.
The opposite affection is evident, but none the
less it must not lack description. When liquids
with larger particles, which surround the body,
enter into it they drive out the smaller particles;
but as they cannot pass into their room they
compress the moisture within us, so that in
place of non-uniformity and motion they
produce immobility and density, [62b] as a
result of the uniformity and compression. But
that which is being contracted contrary to
nature fights, and, in accordance with its
nature, thrusts itself away in the contrary
direction. And to this fighting and shaking we
give the names of “trembling” and “shivering”;
while this affection as a whole, as well as the
cause thereof, is termed “cold.”
τὸ δ᾽ ἐναντίον τούτων κατάδηλον μέν, ὅμως δὲ
μηδὲν ἐπιδεὲς ἔστω λόγου. τὰ γὰρ δὴ τῶν περὶ
τὸ σῶμα ὑγρῶν μεγαλομερέστερα εἰσιόντα, τὰ
σμικρότερα ἐξωθοῦντα, εἰς τὰς ἐκείνων οὐ
δυνάμενα ἕδρας ἐνδῦναι, συνωθοῦντα ἡμῶν
[62β] τὸ νοτερόν, ἐξ ἀνωμάλου κεκινημένου τε
ἀκίνητον δι᾽ ὁμαλότητα καὶ τὴν σύνωσιν
ἀπεργαζόμενα πήγνυσιν: τὸ δὲ παρὰ φύσιν
συναγόμενον μάχεται κατὰ φύσιν αὐτὸ ἑαυτὸ
εἰς τοὐναντίον ἀπωθοῦν.
That is called hard to which our flesh yields,
and soft which yields to our flesh; and things
are also termed hard and soft relatively to one
another. That which yields has a small base;
By the term “hard” we indicate all the things to
which our flesh gives way; and by the term
“soft” all those which give way to our flesh;
and these terms are similarly used relatively to
τῇ δὴ μάχῃ καὶ τῷ σεισμῷ τούτῳ τρόμος καὶ
ῥῖγος ἐτέθη, ψυχρόν τε τὸ πάθος ἅπαν τοῦτο
καὶ τὸ δρῶν αὐτὸ ἔσχεν ὄνομα. σκληρὸν δέ,
ὅσοις ἂν ἡμῶν ἡ σὰρξ ὑπείκῃ, μαλακὸν δέ,
110 i.e., θερμόν (quasi κερμόν) is derived from κερματίζω (“minced up” or “mint”).
but that which rests on [62c] quadrangular
bases is firmly posed and belongs to the class
which offers the greatest resistance; so too
does that which is the most compact and
therefore most repellent.
each other. Now a substance gives way when it
has its base small; but when it is constructed
[62c] of quadrangular bases, being very firmly
based, it is a most inelastic form; and so too is
everything which is of very dense composition
and most rigid.
ὅσα ἂν τῇ σαρκί: πρὸς ἄλληλά τε οὕτως.
ὑπείκει δὲ ὅσον ἐπὶ σμικροῦ βαίνει: τὸ δὲ ἐκ
[62ξ] τετραγώνων ὂν βάσεων, ἅτε βεβηκὸς
σφόδρα, ἀντιτυπώτατον εἶδος, ὅτι τε ἂν εἰς
πυκνότητα συνιὸν πλείστην ἀντίτονον ᾖ
μάλιστα.
The nature of the light and the heavy will be
best understood when examined in connexion
with our notions of above and below; for it is
quite a mistake to suppose that the universe is
parted into two regions, separate from and
opposite to each other, the one a lower to
which all things tend which have any bulk, and
an upper to which things only ascend against
their will. [62d] For as the universe is in the
form of a sphere, all the extremities, being
equidistant from the centre, are equally
extremities, and the centre, which is
equidistant from them, is equally to be
regarded as the opposite of them all. Such
being the nature of the world, when a person
says that any of these points is above or below,
may he not be justly charged with using an
improper expression? For the centre of the
world cannot be rightly called either above or
below, but is the centre and nothing else; and
the circumference is not the centre, and has in
no one part of itself a different relation to the
centre from what it has in any of the opposite
parts. Indeed, when it is in every direction
similar, how can one rightly give to it names
The nature of “heavy” and “light” would be
shown most clearly if, along with them, we
examined also the nature of “above” and
“below,” as they are called. That there really
exist two distinct and totally opposite regions,
each of which occupies one-half of the
Universe—the one termed “below,” towards
which move all things possessing any bodily
mass, and the other “above,” towards which
everything goes against its will,— [62d] this is
a wholly erroneous supposition111 For
inasmuch as the whole Heaven is spherical, all
its outermost parts, being equally distant from
the center, must really be “outermost” in a
similar degree; and one must conceive of the
center, which is distant from all the outermost
parts by the same measures, as being opposite
to them all. Seeing, then, that the Cosmos is
actually of this nature, which of the bodies
mentioned can one set “above” or “below”
without incurring justly the charge of applying
a wholly unsuitable name? For its central
region cannot rightly be termed either “above”
or “below,” but just “central”; while its
circumference neither is central nor has it any
βαρὺ δὲ καὶ κοῦφον μετὰ τῆς τοῦ κάτω φύσεως
ἄνω τε λεγομένης ἐξεταζόμενον ἂν δηλωθείη
σαφέστατα. φύσει γὰρ δή τινας τόπους δύο
εἶναι διειληφότας διχῇ τὸ πᾶν ἐναντίους, τὸν
μὲν κάτω, πρὸς ὃν φέρεται πάνθ᾽ ὅσα τινὰ
ὄγκον σώματος ἔχει, τὸν δὲ ἄνω, πρὸς ὃν
ἀκουσίως ἔρχεται πᾶν, οὐκ ὀρθὸν οὐδαμῇ
νομίζειν: τοῦ γὰρ παντὸς [62δ] οὐρανοῦ
σφαιροειδοῦς ὄντος, ὅσα μὲν ἀφεστῶτα ἴσον
τοῦ μέσου γέγονεν ἔσχατα, ὁμοίως αὐτὰ χρὴ
ἔσχατα πεφυκέναι, τὸ δὲ μέσον τὰ αὐτὰ μέτρα
τῶν ἐσχάτων ἀφεστηκὸς ἐν τῷ καταντικρὺ
νομίζειν δεῖ πάντων εἶναι. τοῦ δὴ κόσμου
ταύτῃ πεφυκότος, τί τῶν εἰρημένων ἄνω τις ἢ
κάτω τιθέμενος οὐκ ἐν δίκῃ δόξει τὸ μηδὲν
προσῆκον ὄνομα λέγειν; ὁ μὲν γὰρ μέσος ἐν
αὐτῷ τόπος οὔτε κάτω πεφυκὼς οὔτε ἄνω
λέγεσθαι δίκαιος, ἀλλ᾽ αὐτὸ ἐν μέσῳ: ὁ δὲ
πέριξ οὔτε δὴ μέσος οὔτ᾽ ἔχων διάφορον αὑτοῦ
μέρος ἕτερον θατέρου μᾶλλον πρὸς τὸ μέσον ἤ
τι τῶν καταντικρύ. τοῦ δὲ ὁμοίως πάντῃ
πεφυκότος ποῖά τις ἐπιφέρων ὀνόματα αὐτῷ
ἐναντία καὶ πῇ καλῶς ἂν ἡγοῖτο λέγειν; εἰ γάρ
τι καὶ στερεὸν εἴη κατὰ μέσον τοῦ [63α]
παντὸς ἰσοπαλές, εἰς οὐδὲν ἄν ποτε τῶν
111 The reference here is, probably to Democritus (Aristotle also speaks of τὸ ἄνω φύσει, Phys. 208 b 14).
which imply opposition? For if there were any
solid body in equipoise at the centre of the
universe, [63a] there would be nothing to draw
it to this extreme rather than to that, for they
are all perfectly similar; and if a person were to
go round the world in a circle, he would often,
when standing at the antipodes of his former
position, speak of the same point as above and
below; for, as I was saying just now, to speak
of the whole which is in the form of a globe as
having one part above and another below is not
like a sensible man.
one part more divergent than another from the
center or any of its opposite parts. But to that
which is in all ways uniform, what opposite
names can we suppose are rightly applicable,
or in what sense? For suppose there were a
solid body evenly-balanced at the center of the
universe, [63a] it would never be carried away
to the extremities because of their uniformity
in all respects; nay, even were a man to travel
round it in a circle he would often call the same
part of it both “above” and “below,” according
as he stood now at one pole, now at the
opposite.112 For seeing that the Whole is, as we
said just now, spherical, the assertion that it has
one region “above” and one “below” does not
become a man of sense.
ἐσχάτων ἐνεχθείη διὰ τὴν πάντῃ ὁμοιότητα
αὐτῶν: ἀλλ᾽ εἰ καὶ περὶ αὐτὸ πορεύοιτό τις ἐν
κύκλῳ, πολλάκις ἂν στὰς ἀντίπους ταὐτὸν
αὐτοῦ κάτω καὶ ἄνω προσείποι.
The reason why these names are used, and the
circumstances under which they are ordinarily
applied by us to the division of the heavens,
[63b] may be elucidated by the following
supposition: — if a person were to stand in that
part of the universe which is the appointed
place of fire, and where there is the great mass
of fire to which fiery bodies gather — if, I say,
he were to ascend thither, and, having the
power to do this, were to abstract particles of
fire and put them in scales and weigh them,
and then, raising the balance, were to draw the
fire by force towards the uncongenial element
of the air, it would be very evident that he
could compel the smaller mass more readily
Now the origin of these names and their true
meaning which accounts for our habit of
making these verbal distinctions even about the
whole Heaven, [63b] we must determine on the
basis of the following principles. Suppose that
a man were to take his stand in that region of
the Universe in which the substance of fire has
its special abode, and where also that substance
to which it flies is collected in largest bulk; and
suppose that, having the power to do so, he
were to separate portions of the fire and weigh
them, putting them on scales and lifting the
balance and pulling the fire by force into the
dissimilar air, it is obvious that he will force
the smaller mass more easily than the larger.
τὸ μὲν γὰρ ὅλον, καθάπερ εἴρηται νυνδή,
σφαιροειδὲς ὄν, τόπον τινὰ κάτω, τὸν δὲ ἄνω
λέγειν ἔχειν οὐκ ἔμφρονος: ὅθεν δὲ ὠνομάσθη
ταῦτα καὶ ἐν οἷς ὄντα εἰθίσμεθα δι᾽ ἐκεῖνα καὶ
τὸν οὐρανὸν ὅλον οὕτω διαιρούμενοι [63β]
λέγειν, ταῦτα διομολογητέον ὑποθεμένοις τάδε
ἡμῖν. εἴ τις ἐν τῷ τοῦ παντὸς τόπῳ καθ᾽ ὃν ἡ
τοῦ πυρὸς εἴληχε μάλιστα φύσις, οὗ καὶ
πλεῖστον ἂν ἠθροισμένον εἴη πρὸς ὃ φέρεται,
ἐπεμβὰς ἐπ᾽ ἐκεῖνο καὶ δύναμιν εἰς τοῦτο ἔχων,
μέρη τοῦ πυρὸς ἀφαιρῶν ἱσταίη τιθεὶς εἰς
πλάστιγγας, αἴρων τὸν ζυγὸν καὶ τὸ πῦρ ἕλκων
εἰς ἀνόμοιον ἀέρα βιαζόμενος [63ξ] δῆλον ὡς
τοὔλαττόν που τοῦ μείζονος ῥᾷον βιᾶται: ῥώμῃ
γὰρ μιᾷ δυοῖν ἅμα μετεωριζομένοιν τὸ μὲν
112 i.e., “above” and “below” are purely relative terms.
than the larger; [63c] for when two things are
simultaneously raised by one and the same
power, the smaller body must necessarily yield
to the superior power with less reluctance than
the larger; and the larger body is called heavy
and said to tend downwards, and the smaller
body is called light and said to tend upwards.
And we may detect ourselves who are upon the
earth doing precisely the same thing. For we of
separate earthy natures, and sometimes earth
itself, and draw them into the uncongenial
element of air by force and contrary to nature,
both clinging to their kindred elements. [63d]
But that which is smaller yields to the impulse
given by us towards the dissimilar element
more easily than the larger; and so we call the
former light, and the place towards which it is
impelled we call above, and the contrary state
and place we call heavy and below
respectively. Now the relations of these must
necessarily vary, because the principal masses
of the different elements hold opposite
positions; for that which is light, heavy, below
[63e] or above in one place will be found to be
and become contrary and transverse and every
way diverse in relation to that which is light,
heavy, below or above in an opposite place.
And about all of them this has to be
considered: — that the tendency of each
towards its kindred element makes the body
which is moved heavy, and the place towards
which the motion tends below, but things
which have an opposite tendency we call by an
[63c] For if two masses are lifted up
simultaneously by a single effort, the smaller
will necessarily yield more and the larger less,
owing to its resistance, to the force exerted;
and the large mass will be said to be “heavy”
and moving “down,” the small light and
moving “up.” Now this is just what we ought
to detect ourselves doing in our region here.
Standing on the earth and detaching various
earthy substances, and sometimes pure earth,
we pull them into the dissimilar air by force
and against nature, since both these kinds
cleave to their own kindred; [63d] and the
smaller mass yields more easily, and follows
first, as we force it into the dissimilar kind;
wherefore we name it “light,” and the region to
which we force it “above”; and the conditions
opposite thereto we name “heavy” and
“below.” Thus, these must necessarily differ in
their mutual relations, because the main masses
of the Kinds occupy regions opposite to one
another; for when we compare what is light in
one region with what is light in the opposite
region, and the heavy with the heavy, the
“below” with the below, [63e] and the” above
with the above, we shall discover that these all
become and are opposite and oblique and in
every way different in their mutual relations.
There is, however, this one fact to be noticed
about them all, that it is the passage of each
kind to its kindred mass which makes the
moving body heavy, and the region to which
such a body moves “below”; while the
ἔλαττον μᾶλλον, τὸ δὲ πλέον ἧττον ἀνάγκη
που κατατεινόμενον συνέπεσθαι τῇ βίᾳ, καὶ τὸ
μὲν πολὺ βαρὺ καὶ κάτω φερόμενον κληθῆναι,
τὸ δὲ σμικρὸν ἐλαφρὸν καὶ ἄνω. ταὐτὸν δὴ
τοῦτο δεῖ φωρᾶσαι δρῶντας ἡμᾶς περὶ τόνδε
τὸν τόπον. ἐπὶ γὰρ γῆς βεβῶτες γεώδη γένη
διιστάμενοι, καὶ γῆν ἐνίοτε αὐτήν, ἕλκομεν εἰς
ἀνόμοιον ἀέρα βίᾳ καὶ παρὰ φύσιν, ἀμφότερα
τοῦ [63δ] συγγενοῦς ἀντεχόμενα, τὸ δὲ
σμικρότερον ῥᾷον τοῦ μείζονος βιαζομένοις εἰς
τὸ ἀνόμοιον πρότερον συνέπεται: κοῦφον οὖν
αὐτὸ προσειρήκαμεν, καὶ τὸν τόπον εἰς ὃν
βιαζόμεθα, ἄνω, τὸ δ᾽ ἐναντίον τούτοις πάθος
βαρὺ καὶ κάτω. ταῦτ᾽ οὖν δὴ διαφόρως ἔχειν
αὐτὰ πρὸς αὑτὰ ἀνάγκη διὰ τὸ τὰ πλήθη τῶν
γενῶν τόπον ἐναντίον ἄλλα ἄλλοις κατέχειν—
τὸ γὰρ ἐν ἑτέρῳ κοῦφον ὂν τόπῳ τῷ κατὰ τὸν
ἐναντίον τόπον ἐλαφρῷ [63ε] καὶ τῷ βαρεῖ τὸ
βαρὺ τῷ τε κάτω τὸ κάτω καὶ τὸ ἄνω τῷ ἄνω
πάντ᾽ ἐναντία καὶ πλάγια καὶ πάντως διάφορα
πρὸς ἄλληλα ἀνευρεθήσεται γιγνόμενα καὶ
ὄντα—τόδε γε μὴν ἕν τι διανοητέον περὶ
πάντων αὐτῶν, ὡς ἡ μὲν πρὸς τὸ συγγενὲς ὁδὸς
ἑκάστοις οὖσα βαρὺ μὲν τὸ φερόμενον ποιεῖ,
τὸν δὲ τόπον εἰς ὃν τὸ τοιοῦτον φέρεται, κάτω,
τὰ δὲ τούτοις ἔχοντα ὡς ἑτέρως θάτερα. περὶ
δὴ τούτων αὖ τῶν παθημάτων ταῦτα αἴτια
εἰρήσθω.
opposite name. Such are the causes which we
assign to these phenomena.
opposite conditions produce the contrary
results.113 Let this, then, stand as our account of
the causes of these conditions.
As to the smooth and the rough, any one who
sees them can explain the reason of them to
another. For roughness is hardness mingled
with irregularity, and smoothness is produced
by the joint effect of [64a] uniformity and
density.
Of “smoothness” and “roughness” anyone
might be able to discern the causes and explain
them also to others. For the cause of the latter
is hardness combined with irregularity, and of
the former [64a] regularity combined with
density.
λείου δ᾽ αὖ καὶ τραχέος παθήματος αἰτίαν πᾶς
που κατιδὼν καὶ ἑτέρῳ δυνατὸς ἂν εἴη λέγειν:
σκληρότης γὰρ ἀνωμαλότητι μειχθεῖσα, τὸ δ᾽
[64α] ὁμαλότης πυκνότητι παρέχεται.
The most important of the affections which
concern the whole body remains to be
considered — that is, the cause of pleasure and
pain in the perceptions of which I have been
speaking, and in all other things which are
perceived by sense through the parts of the
body, and have both pains and pleasures
attendant on them. Let us imagine the causes of
every affection, whether of sense or not, to be
of the following nature, [64b] remembering
that we have already distinguished between the
nature which is easy and which is hard to
move; for this is the direction in which we
must hunt the prey which we mean to take. A
body which is of a nature to be easily moved,
on receiving an impression however slight,
spreads abroad the motion in a circle, the parts
communicating with each other, until at last,
reaching the principle of mind, they announce
the quality of the agent. But a body of the
In respect of the affections common to the
whole body a very important point, which still
remains, is the cause of the pleasures and pains
attaching to the sense-affections we have been
discussing; and the cause also of those
affections which have become perceptible by
means of the bodily parts and involve in
themselves concomitant pains and pleasures.
Let us, then, try to grasp the causes in
connection with every perceptible and
imperceptible affection in the following way,
[64b] bearing in mind the distinction we
previously drew114 between mobile and
immobile substances; for it is in this way that
we must track down all those facts that we
intend to grasp. Whenever what is naturally
mobile is impressed by even a small affection,
it transmits it in a circle, the particles passing
on to one another this identical impression
until they reach the organ of intelligence and
μέγιστον δὲ καὶ λοιπὸν τῶν κοινῶν περὶ ὅλον
τὸ σῶμα παθημάτων τὸ τῶν ἡδέων καὶ τῶν
ἀλγεινῶν αἴτιον ἐν οἷς διεληλύθαμεν, καὶ ὅσα
διὰ τῶν τοῦ σώματος μορίων αἰσθήσεις
κεκτημένα καὶ λύπας ἐν αὑτοῖς ἡδονάς θ᾽ ἅμα
ἑπομένας ἔχει. ὧδ᾽ οὖν κατὰ παντὸς αἰσθητοῦ
καὶ ἀναισθήτου παθήματος τὰς αἰτίας
λαμβάνωμεν, ἀναμιμνῃσκόμενοι τὸ τῆς [64β]
εὐκινήτου τε καὶ δυσκινήτου φύσεως ὅτι
διειλόμεθα ἐν τοῖς πρόσθεν: ταύτῃ γὰρ δὴ
μεταδιωκτέον πάντα ὅσα ἐπινοοῦμεν ἑλεῖν. τὸ
μὲν γὰρ κατὰ φύσιν εὐκίνητον, ὅταν καὶ βραχὺ
πάθος εἰς αὐτὸ ἐμπίπτῃ, διαδίδωσιν κύκλῳ
μόρια ἕτερα ἑτέροις ταὐτὸν ἀπεργαζόμενα,
μέχριπερ ἂν ἐπὶ τὸ φρόνιμον ἐλθόντα
ἐξαγγείλῃ τοῦ ποιήσαντος τὴν δύναμιν: τὸ δ᾽
ἐναντίον ἑδραῖον ὂν κατ᾽ οὐδένα τε κύκλον ἰὸν
πάσχει μόνον, [64ξ] ἄλλο δὲ οὐ κινεῖ τῶν
πλησίον, ὥστε οὐ διαδιδόντων μορίων μορίοις
ἄλλων ἄλλοις τὸ πρῶτον πάθος ἐν αὐτοῖς
113 i.e., the attraction takes different directions, therefore “up” and “down” are relative terms.
114 Cf. 54 B ff., 57 D, E.
opposite kind, being immobile, and not
extending to the surrounding region, merely
receives the impression, and does not stir any
of the neighbouring parts; [64c] and since the
parts do not distribute the original impression
to other parts, it has no effect of motion on the
whole animal, and therefore produces no effect
on the patient. This is true of the bones and
hair and other more earthy parts of the human
body; whereas what was said above relates
mainly to sight and hearing, because they have
in them the greatest amount of fire and air.
announce the quality of the agent. But a
substance of the opposite kind, being stable
and having no circular movement, is only
affected in itself and does not move any other
adjacent particle; consequently, [64c] since the
particles do not transmit to one another the
original affection, it fails to act upon the living
creature as a whole, and the result is that the
affected body is non-percipient. This is the
case with the bones and the hair and all our
other parts that are mainly earthy whereas the
former character belongs especially to the
organs of sight and of hearing, owing to the
fact that they contain a very large quantity of
fire and air.
ἀκίνητον εἰς τὸ πᾶν ζῷον γενόμενον
ἀναίσθητον παρέσχεν τὸ παθόν. ταῦτα δὲ περί
τε ὀστᾶ καὶ τὰς τρίχας ἐστὶν καὶ ὅσ᾽ ἄλλα
γήϊνα τὸ πλεῖστον ἔχομεν ἐν ἡμῖν μόρια: τὰ δὲ
ἔμπροσθεν περὶ τὰ τῆς ὄψεως καὶ ἀκοῆς
μάλιστα, διὰ τὸ πυρὸς ἀέρος τε ἐν αὐτοῖς
δύναμιν ἐνεῖναι μεγίστην.
Now we must conceive of pleasure and pain in
this way. [64d] An impression produced in us
contrary to nature and violent, if sudden, is
painful; and, again, the sudden return to nature
is pleasant; but a gentle and gradual return is
imperceptible and vice versa. On the other
hand the impression of sense which is most
easily produced is most readily felt, but is not
accompanied by Pleasure or pain; such, for
example, are the affections of the sight, which,
as we said above, is a body naturally uniting
with our body in the day-time; for cuttings and
burnings [64e] and other affections which
happen to the sight do not give pain, nor is
there pleasure when the sight returns to its
Now the nature of pleasure and pain we must
conceive of in this way. [64d] When an
affection which is against nature and violent
occurs within us with intensity it is painful,
whereas the return back to the natural
condition, when intense, is pleasant115; and an
affection which is mild and gradual is
imperceptible, while the converse is of a
contrary character. And the affection which, in
its entirety, takes place with ease is eminently
perceptible, but it does not involve pain or
pleasure; such, for example, are the affections
of the visual stream itself, which, as we said
before,116 becomes in the daylight a body
substantially one with our own. For no pains
τὸ δὴ τῆς ἡδονῆς καὶ λύπης ὧδε δεῖ
διανοεῖσθαι: τὸ μὲν παρὰ φύσιν καὶ [64δ]
βίαιον γιγνόμενον ἁθρόον παρ᾽ ἡμῖν πάθος
ἀλγεινόν, τὸ δ᾽ εἰς φύσιν ἀπιὸν πάλιν ἁθρόον
ἡδύ, τὸ δὲ ἡρέμα καὶ κατὰ σμικρὸν
ἀναίσθητον, τὸ δ᾽ ἐναντίον τούτοις ἐναντίως.
τὸ δὲ μετ᾽ εὐπετείας γιγνόμενον ἅπαν αἰσθητὸν
μὲν ὅτι μάλιστα, λύπης δὲ καὶ ἡδονῆς οὐ
μετέχον, οἷον τὰ περὶ τὴν ὄψιν αὐτὴν
παθήματα, ἣ δὴ σῶμα ἐν τοῖς πρόσθεν ἐρρήθη
καθ᾽ ἡμέραν συμφυὲς ἡμῶν γίγνεσθαι. ταύτῃ
γὰρ τομαὶ μὲν καὶ καύσεις καὶ ὅσα ἄλλα
πάσχει λύπας οὐκ ἐμποιοῦσιν, οὐδὲ [64ε]
ἡδονὰς πάλιν ἐπὶ ταὐτὸν ἀπιούσης εἶδος,
μέγισται δὲ αἰσθήσεις καὶ σαφέσταται καθ᾽ ὅτι
115 Cf. Rep. 583 C ff.,Phileb. 31 D ff.
116 Cf. 45 B.
natural state; but the sensations are dearest and
strongest according to the manner in which the
eye is affected by the object, and itself strikes
and touches it; there is no violence either in the
contraction or dilation of the eye. But bodies
formed of larger particles yield to the agent
only with a struggle; and then they impart their
motions to the whole and cause pleasure and
pain — [65a] pain when alienated from their
natural conditions, and pleasure when restored
to them. Things which experience gradual
withdrawings and emptyings of their nature,
and great and sudden replenishments, fail to
perceive the emptying, but are sensible of the
replenishment; and so they occasion no pain,
but the greatest pleasure, to the mortal part of
the soul, as is manifest in the case of perfumes.
But things which are changed all of a sudden,
and only gradually and with difficulty [65b]
return to their own nature, have effects in every
way opposite to the former, as is evident in the
case of burnings and cuttings of the body.
are produced therein by cuttings or burnings
[64e] or any other affections, nor does its
reversion to its original form produce
pleasures; but it has most intense and clear
perceptions concerning every object that
affects it, and every object also which it strikes
against or touches; for force is wholly absent
both from its dilation and from its contraction.
But those bodied which are composed of larger
particles, since they yield with difficulty to the
agent and transmit their motions to the whole,
feel pleasures and pains— [65a] pains when
they suffer alteration, and pleasures when they
are restored to their original state. And all those
bodies which undergo losses of substance and
emptyings that are gradual, but replenishings
that are intense and abundant, become
insensitive to the emptyings but sensitive to the
replenishings; consequently, they furnish no
pains to the mortal part of the soul, but the
greatest pleasures—a result which is obvious in
the case of perfumes. But all those parts which
undergo violent alterations, and are restored
gradually and with difficulty [65b] to their
original condition, produce results the opposite
of those last mentioned; and it is evident that
this is what occurs in the case of burnings and
cuttings of the body.
τ᾽ ἂν πάθῃ καὶ ὅσων ἂν αὐτή πῃ προσβαλοῦσα
ἐφάπτηται: βία γὰρ τὸ πάμπαν οὐκ ἔνι τῇ
διακρίσει τε αὐτῆς καὶ συγκρίσει. τὰ δ᾽ ἐκ
μειζόνων μερῶν σώματα μόγις εἴκοντα τῷ
δρῶντι, διαδιδόντα δὲ εἰς ὅλον τὰς κινήσεις,
ἡδονὰς ἴσχει καὶ λύπας, ἀλλοτριούμενα [65α]
μὲν λύπας, καθιστάμενα δὲ εἰς τὸ αὐτὸ πάλιν
ἡδονάς. ὅσα δὲ κατὰ σμικρὸν τὰς ἀποχωρήσεις
ἑαυτῶν καὶ κενώσεις εἴληφεν, τὰς δὲ
πληρώσεις ἁθρόας καὶ κατὰ μεγάλα, κενώσεως
μὲν ἀναίσθητα, πληρώσεως δὲ αἰσθητικὰ
γιγνόμενα, λύπας μὲν οὐ παρέχει τῷ θνητῷ τῆς
ψυχῆς, μεγίστας δὲ ἡδονάς: ἔστιν δὲ ἔνδηλα
περὶ τὰς εὐωδίας. ὅσα δὲ ἀπαλλοτριοῦται μὲν
ἁθρόα, κατὰ σμικρὰ δὲ μόγις τε εἰς ταὐτὸν
[65β] πάλιν ἑαυτοῖς καθίσταται, τοὐναντίον
τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν πάντα ἀποδίδωσιν: ταῦτα δ᾽ αὖ
περὶ τὰς καύσεις καὶ τομὰς τοῦ σώματος
γιγνόμενά ἐστιν κατάδηλα.
Thus have we discussed the general affections
of the whole body, and the names of the agents
which produce them. And now I will
endeavour to speak of the affections of
And now we have given a fairly complete
statement of the affections which are common
to the body as a whole, and of all the names
which belong to the agents which produce
καὶ τὰ μὲν δὴ κοινὰ τοῦ σώματος παντὸς
παθήματα, τῶν τ᾽ ἐπωνυμιῶν ὅσαι τοῖς δρῶσιν
αὐτὰ γεγόνασι, σχεδὸν εἴρηται: τὰ δ᾽ ἐν ἰδίοις
μέρεσιν ἡμῶν γιγνόμενα, τά τε πάθη καὶ τὰς
particular parts, and the causes and agents of
them, as far as I am able.
them. Next we must try, if haply we are able, to
describe what takes place in the several parts of
our bodies, both the affections themselves and
the agents to which they are ascribed.
αἰτίας αὖ τῶν δρώντων, πειρατέον εἰπεῖν, ἄν
πῃ
[65c] In the first place let us set forth what was
omitted when we were speaking of juices,
concerning the affections peculiar to the
tongue. These too, like most of the other
affections, appear to be caused by certain
contractions and dilations, but they have
besides more of roughness and smoothness
than is found in other affections; for whenever
earthy particles enter into the small veins
which are [65d] the testing of the tongue,
reaching to the heart, and fall upon the moist,
delicate portions of flesh — when, as they are
dissolved, they contract and dry up the little
veins, they are astringent if they are rougher,
but if not so rough, then only harsh. Those of
them which are of an abstergent nature, and
purge the whole surface of the tongue, if they
do it in excess, and so encroach as to consume
some part of the flesh itself, like potash and
soda, [65e] are all termed bitter. But the
particles which are deficient in the alkaline
quality, and which cleanse only moderately, are
called salt, and having no bitterness or
roughness, are regarded as rather agreeable
than otherwise. Bodies which share in and are
made smooth by the heat of the mouth, and
[65c] Firstly, then, we must endeavor to
elucidate so far as possible those affections
which we omitted in our previous account of
the flavors, they being affections peculiar to
the tongue. It is evident that these also, like
most others, are brought about by means of
certain contractions and dilations117; and, more
than other affections, they involve also
conditions of roughness and smoothness. For
all the earthy particles which enter in by the
small veins—which, extending as far as to the
heart, serve as it were [65d] for testinginstruments118 of the tongue,—when they strike
upon the moist and soft parts of the flesh and
are melted down, contract the small veins and
dry them up; and these particles when more
rough appear to be” astringent,” when less
rough “harsh.” And such as act on these veins
as detergents and wash out all the surface of
the tongue, when they do this excessively and
lay such hold on the tongue as to dissolve part
of its substance—and such, for example, is the
property of alkalies,— [65e] are all termed
“bitter”; while those which have a property less
strong than the alkaline, being detergent in a
moderate degree, seem to us to be “saline,” and
[65ξ] δυνώμεθα. πρῶτον οὖν ὅσα τῶν χυμῶν
πέρι λέγοντες ἐν τοῖς πρόσθεν ἀπελίπομεν, ἴδια
ὄντα παθήματα περὶ τὴν γλῶτταν, ἐμφανιστέον
ᾗ δυνατόν. φαίνεται δὲ καὶ ταῦτα, ὥσπερ οὖν
καὶ τὰ πολλά, διὰ συγκρίσεών τέ τινων καὶ
διακρίσεων γίγνεσθαι, πρὸς δὲ αὐταῖς
κεχρῆσθαι μᾶλλόν τι τῶν ἄλλων τραχύτησί τε
καὶ λειότησιν. ὅσα μὲν γὰρ εἰσιόντα περὶ τὰ
φλέβια, οἷόνπερ δοκίμια τῆς γλώττης [65δ]
τεταμένα ἐπὶ τὴν καρδίαν, εἰς τὰ νοτερὰ τῆς
σαρκὸς καὶ ἁπαλὰ ἐμπίπτοντα γήϊνα μέρη
κατατηκόμενα συνάγει τὰ φλέβια καὶ
ἀποξηραίνει, τραχύτερα μὲν ὄντα στρυφνά,
ἧττον δὲ τραχύνοντα αὐστηρὰ φαίνεται: τὰ δὲ
τούτων τε ῥυπτικὰ καὶ πᾶν τὸ περὶ τὴν γλῶτταν
ἀποπλύνοντα, πέρα μὲν τοῦ μετρίου τοῦτο
δρῶντα καὶ προσεπιλαμβανόμενα ὥστε
ἀποτήκειν αὐτῆς τῆς φύσεως, οἷον ἡ τῶν
λίτρων [65ε] δύναμις, πικρὰ πάνθ᾽ οὕτως
ὠνόμασται, τὰ δὲ ὑποδεέστερα τῆς λιτρώδους
ἕξεως ἐπὶ τὸ μέτριόν τε τῇ ῥύψει χρώμενα
ἁλυκὰ ἄνευ πικρότητος τραχείας καὶ φίλα
μᾶλλον ἡμῖν φαντάζεται. τὰ δὲ τῇ τοῦ
στόματος θερμότητι κοινωνήσαντα καὶ
λεαινόμενα ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ, συνεκπυρούμενα καὶ
πάλιν αὐτὰ ἀντικάοντα τὸ διαθερμῆναν,
117 Cf. 64 E.
118 The function of the nerves is here assigned to the veins.
which are inflamed, and again in turn inflame
that which heats them, and which are so light
that they are carried upwards to the sensations
of the head, and cut all that comes in their way,
[66a] by reason of these qualities in them, are
all termed pungent. But when these same
particles, refined by putrefaction, enter into the
narrow veins, and are duly proportioned to the
particles of earth and air which are there, they
set them whirling about one another, and while
they are in a whirl cause them to dash against
and enter into one another, and so form
hollows surrounding the particles that enter —
which watery vessels of air (for a film of
moisture, [66b] sometimes earthy, sometimes
pure, is spread around the air) are hollow
spheres of water; and those of them which are
pure, are transparent, and are called bubbles,
while those composed of the earthy liquid,
which is in a state of general agitation and
effervescence, are said to boil or ferment — of
all these affections the cause is termed acid.
more agreeable, as being devoid of the rough
bitterness. And those which share in the heat of
the mouth and are made smooth thereby, when
they are fully inflamed and are themselves in
turn burning the part which heated them, fly
upwards because of their lightness towards the
senses of the head and cut all the parts on
which they impinge; [66a] and because of
these properties all such are called “pungent.”
Again, when particles already refined by
putrefaction, entering into the narrow veins, are
symmetrical with the particles of earth and air
contained therein, so that they cause them to
circulate round one another and ferment, then,
in thus fermenting they change round and pass
into fresh places, and thereby create fresh
hollows which envelop the entering particles.
By this means, the air being veiled in a moist
film, [66b] sometimes of earth, sometimes of
pure moisture, moist and hollow and globular
vessels of air are formed; and those formed of
pure moisture are the transparent globules
called by the name of “bubbles,” while those of
the earthy formation which moves throughout
its mass and seethes are designated “boiling”
and “fermenting”; and the cause of these
processes is termed “acid.”
φερόμενά τε ὑπὸ κουφότητος ἄνω πρὸς τὰς τῆς
κεφαλῆς αἰσθήσεις, τέμνοντά τε [66α] πάνθ᾽
ὁπόσοις ἂν προσπίπτῃ, διὰ ταύτας τὰς
δυνάμεις δριμέα πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα ἐλέχθη. τὸ
δὲ αὖ τῶν προλελεπτυσμένων μὲν ὑπὸ
σηπεδόνος, εἰς δὲ τὰς στενὰς φλέβας
ἐνδυομένων, καὶ τοῖς ἐνοῦσιν αὐτόθι μέρεσιν
γεώδεσιν καὶ ὅσα ἀέρος συμμετρίαν ἔχοντα,
ὥστε κινήσαντα περὶ ἄλληλα ποιεῖν κυκᾶσθαι,
κυκώμενα δὲ περιπίπτειν τε καὶ εἰς ἕτερα
ἐνδυόμενα
ἕτερα
κοῖλα
ἀπεργάζεσθαι
περιτεινόμενα τοῖς εἰσιοῦσιν— [66β] ἃ δὴ
νοτίδος περὶ ἀέρα κοίλης περιταθείσης, τοτὲ
μὲν γεώδους, τοτὲ δὲ καὶ καθαρᾶς, νοτερὰ
ἀγγεῖα ἀέρος, ὕδατα κοῖλα περιφερῆ τε
γενέσθαι, καὶ τὰ μὲν τῆς καθαρᾶς διαφανεῖς
περιστῆναι κληθείσας ὄνομα πομφόλυγας, τὰ
δὲ τῆς γεώδους ὁμοῦ κινουμένης τε καὶ
αἰρομένης ζέσιν τε καὶ ζύμωσιν ἐπίκλην
λεχθῆναι—τὸ δὲ τούτων αἴτιον τῶν
παθημάτων ὀξὺ προσρηθῆναι.
And there is the opposite affection [66c]
arising from an opposite cause, when the mass
of entering particles, immersed in the moisture
of the mouth, is congenial to the tongue, and
smooths and oils over the roughness, and
An affection which is the opposite of all those
last described [66c] results from an opposite
condition. Whenever the composition of the
particles which enter into the moist parts is
naturally akin to the state of the tongue, they
σύμπασιν δὲ τοῖς περὶ ταῦτα εἰρημένοις [66ξ]
πάθος ἐναντίον ἀπ᾽ ἐναντίας ἐστὶ προφάσεως:
ὁπόταν ἡ τῶν εἰσιόντων σύστασις ἐν ὑγροῖς,
οἰκεία τῇ τῆς γλώττης ἕξει πεφυκυῖα, λεαίνῃ
μὲν ἐπαλείφουσα τὰ τραχυνθέντα, τὰ δὲ παρὰ
relaxes the parts which are unnaturally
contracted, and contracts the parts which are
relaxed, and disposes them all according to
their nature — that sort of remedy of violent
affections is pleasant and agreeable to every
man, and has the name sweet. But enough of
this.
oil its roughened parts and smooth it,
contracting the parts that are unnaturally
dilated or dilating those that are contracted, and
thus settling them all, so far as possible, in
their natural condition; and every such remedy
of the forcible affections, being pleasant and
welcome to everyone, is called “sweet.”
φύσιν συνεστῶτα ἢ κεχυμένα τὰ μὲν συνάγῃ,
τὰ δὲ χαλᾷ, καὶ πάνθ᾽ ὅτι μάλιστα ἱδρύῃ κατὰ
φύσιν, ἡδὺ καὶ προσφιλὲς παντὶ πᾶν τὸ
τοιοῦτον ἴαμα τῶν βιαίων παθημάτων
γιγνόμενον κέκληται γλυκύ.
[66d] The faculty of smell does not admit of
differences of kind; for all smells are of a half
formed nature, and no element is so
proportioned as to have any smell. The veins
about the nose are too narrow to admit earth
and water, and too wide to detain fire and air;
and for this reason no one ever perceives the
smell of any of them; but smells always
proceed from bodies that are damp, or
putrefying, or liquefying, or evaporating, and
are perceptible [66e] only in the intermediate
state, when water is changing into air and air
into water; and all of them are either vapor or
mist. That which is passing out of air into
water is mist, and that which is passing from
water into air is vapour; and hence all smells
are thinner than water and thicker than air. The
proof of this is, that when there is any
obstruction to the respiration, and a man draws
in his breath by force, then no smell filters
through, but the air without the smell alone
penetrates. Wherefore the varieties of smell
have no name, and they have not many, or
definite and simple kinds; but they are
distinguished only painful and pleasant, the
[66d] For this subject, then, let this account
suffice. Next, as regards the property of the
nostrils, it does not contain fixed kinds. For the
whole range of smells is a half-formed class,
and no kind possesses the symmetry requisite
for containing any smell; for our veins in these
organs are of too narrow a construction for the
kinds of earth and of water and too wide for
those of fire and air, so that no one has ever yet
perceived any smell from any of these, but
only from substances which are in process of
being moistened or putrefied or melted or
vaporized. [66e] For smells arise in the
intermediate state, when water is changing into
air or air into water, and they are all smoke or
mist; and of these, the passage from air to
water is mist, and the passage from water to air
is smoke whence it is that all the smells are
thinner than water and thicker than air. Their
nature is made clear whenever there is some
block in the respiration and a man draws in his
breath forcibly; for then no accompanying
smell is strained through, but the breath passes
in alone by itself isolated from the smells. So
for these reasons the varieties of these smells
[66δ] καὶ τὰ μὲν ταύτῃ ταῦτα: περὶ δὲ δὴ τὴν
τῶν μυκτήρων δύναμιν, εἴδη μὲν οὐκ ἔνι. τὸ
γὰρ τῶν ὀσμῶν πᾶν ἡμιγενές, εἴδει δὲ οὐδενὶ
συμβέβηκεν συμμετρία πρὸς τό τινα σχεῖν
ὀσμήν: ἀλλ᾽ ἡμῶν αἱ περὶ ταῦτα φλέβες πρὸς
μὲν τὰ γῆς ὕδατός τε γένη στενότεραι
συνέστησαν, πρὸς δὲ τὰ πυρὸς ἀέρος τε
εὐρύτεραι, διὸ τούτων οὐδεὶς οὐδενὸς ὀσμῆς
πώποτε ᾔσθετό τινος, ἀλλὰ ἢ βρεχομένων ἢ
σηπομένων ἢ τηκομένων ἢ θυμιωμένων
γίγνονταί τινων. μεταβάλλοντος γὰρ [66ε]
ὕδατος εἰς ἀέρα ἀέρος τε εἰς ὕδωρ ἐν τῷ
μεταξὺ τούτων γεγόνασιν, εἰσίν τε ὀσμαὶ
σύμπασαι καπνὸς ἢ ὁμίχλη, τούτων δὲ τὸ μὲν
ἐξ ἀέρος εἰς ὕδωρ ἰὸν ὁμίχλη, τὸ δὲ ἐξ ὕδατος
εἰς ἀέρα καπνός: ὅθεν λεπτότεραι μὲν ὕδατος,
παχύτεραι δὲ ὀσμαὶ σύμπασαι γεγόνασιν
ἀέρος.
δηλοῦνται
δὲ
ὁπόταν
τινὸς
ἀντιφραχθέντος περὶ τὴν ἀναπνοὴν ἄγῃ τις βίᾳ
τὸ πνεῦμα εἰς αὑτόν: τότε γὰρ ὀσμὴ μὲν
οὐδεμία συνδιηθεῖται, τὸ δὲ πνεῦμα τῶν ὀσμῶν
ἐρημωθὲν αὐτὸ μόνον [67α] ἕπεται. δύ᾽ οὖν
ταῦτα ἀνώνυμα τὰ τούτων ποικίλματα γέγονεν,
οὐκ ἐκ πολλῶν οὐδὲ ἁπλῶν εἰδῶν ὄντα, ἀλλὰ
διχῇ τό θ᾽ ἡδὺ καὶ τὸ λυπηρὸν αὐτόθι μόνω
one sort irritating and disturbing the whole
cavity which is situated between the head and
the navel, the other having a soothing
influence, and restoring this same region to an
agreeable and natural condition.
have no name, [67a] not being derived either
from many or from simple forms, but are
indicated by two distinctive terms only,
“pleasant” and “painful” of which the one kind
roughens and violently affects the whole of our
bodily cavity which lies between the head and
the navel, whereas the other mollifies this same
region and restores it agreeably to its natural
condition.
διαφανῆ λέγεσθον, τὸ μὲν τραχῦνόν τε καὶ
βιαζόμενον τὸ κύτος ἅπαν, ὅσον ἡμῶν μεταξὺ
κορυφῆς τοῦ τε ὀμφαλοῦ κεῖται, τὸ δὲ ταὐτὸν
τοῦτο καταπραῧνον καὶ πάλιν ᾗ πέφυκεν
ἀγαπητῶς ἀποδιδόν.
In considering the third kind of sense, hearing,
[67b] we must speak of the causes in which it
originates. We may in general assume sound to
be a blow which passes through the ears, and is
transmitted by means of the air, the brain, and
the blood, to the soul, and that hearing is the
vibration of this blow, which begins in the head
and ends in the region of the liver. The sound
which moves swiftly is acute, and the sound
which moves slowly is grave, and that which is
regular is equable and smooth, and the reverse
is harsh. [67c] A great body of sound is loud,
and a small body of sound the reverse.
Respecting the harmonies of sound I must
hereafter speak.
The third organ of perception within us which
we have to describe in our survey is that of
hearing, [67b] and the causes whereby its
affections are produced. In general, then, let us
lay it down that sound is a stroke transmitted
through the ears, by the action of the air upon
the brain and the blood, and reaching to the
soul; and that the motion caused thereby, which
begins in the head and ends about the seat of
the liver, is “hearing”; and that every rapid
motion produces a “shrill” sound, and every
slower motion a more “deep” sound; and that
uniform motion produces an “even” and
smooth sound and the opposite kind of motion
a “harsh” sound; [67c] and that large motion
produces “loud” sound, and motion of the
opposite kind “soft” sound. The subject of
concords of sounds must necessarily be treated
in a later part of our exposition.119
τρίτον δὲ αἰσθητικὸν ἐν ἡμῖν μέρος
ἐπισκοποῦσιν τὸ περὶ [67β] τὴν ἀκοήν, δι᾽ ἃς
αἰτίας τὰ περὶ αὐτὸ συμβαίνει παθήματα,
λεκτέον. ὅλως μὲν οὖν φωνὴν θῶμεν τὴν δι᾽
ὤτων ὑπ᾽ ἀέρος ἐγκεφάλου τε καὶ αἵματος
μέχρι ψυχῆς πληγὴν διαδιδομένην, τὴν δὲ ὑπ᾽
αὐτῆς κίνησιν, ἀπὸ τῆς κεφαλῆς μὲν
ἀρχομένην, τελευτῶσαν δὲ περὶ τὴν τοῦ
ἥπατος ἕδραν, ἀκοήν: ὅση δ᾽ αὐτῆς ταχεῖα,
ὀξεῖαν, ὅση δὲ βραδυτέρα, βαρυτέραν: τὴν δὲ
ὁμοίαν ὁμαλήν τε καὶ λείαν, τὴν δὲ ἐναντίαν
τραχεῖαν: [67ξ] μεγάλην δὲ τὴν πολλήν, ὅση δὲ
ἐναντία, σμικράν. τὰ δὲ περὶ συμφωνίας αὐτῶν
ἐν τοῖς ὕστερον λεχθησομένοις ἀνάγκη
ῥηθῆναι.
There is a fourth class of sensible things,
having many intricate varieties, which must
We have still remaining a fourth kind of
sensation, which we must divide up seeing that
τέταρτον δὴ λοιπὸν ἔτι γένος ἡμῖν αἰσθητικόν,
ὃ διελέσθαι δεῖ συχνὰ ἐν ἑαυτῷ ποικίλματα
119 Cf. 80 A.
now be distinguished. They are called by the
general name of colours, and are a flame which
emanates from every sort of body, and has
particles corresponding to the sense of sight. I
have spoken already, in what has preceded, of
the causes which generate sight, [67d] and in
this place it will be natural and suitable to give
a rational theory of colours. Of the particles
coming from other bodies which fall upon the
sight, some are smaller and some are larger,
and some are equal to the parts of the sight
itself. Those which are equal are imperceptible,
and we call them transparent. The larger
produce contraction, the smaller dilation, in the
sight, exercising a power akin to that of hot
and cold bodies on the flesh, or of astringent
bodies on the tongue, or of those heating
bodies which we termed pungent. White and
black are similar effects of contraction and
dilation in another sphere, and for this reason
have a different appearance. Wherefore, we
ought to term white that which dilates the
visual ray, and the opposite of this is black.
There is also a swifter motion of a different
sort of fire which strikes and dilates the ray of
sight until it reaches the eyes, forcing a way
through their passages [68a] and melting them,
and eliciting from them a union of fire and
water which we call tears, being itself an
opposite fire which comes to them from an
120 Cf. 45 C ff.
121 Cf. 65 E.
122 Cf. 45 C ff.
it embraces numerous varieties, which, as a
whole, we call “colors.” This consists of a
flame which issues from the several bodies,
and possesses particles so proportioned to the
visual stream as to produce sensation; and as
regards the visual stream, we have already
stated120 merely the causes which produced it.
[67d] Concerning colors, then, the following
explanation will be the most probable and
worthy af a judicious account. Of the particles
which fly off from the rest and strike into the
visual stream some are smaller, some larger,
and some equal to the particles of the stream
itself; those, then, that are equal are
imperceptible, and we term them “transparent”;
while the larger and smaller particles—of
which the one kind contracts, the other dilates
the visual stream—are akin to the particles of
heat and cold which affect the flesh, [67e] and
to the astringent particles which affect the
tongue, and to all the heating particles which
we call “bitter“121 with these “white” and
“black” are really identical affections,
occurring in a separate class of sensation,
although they appear different for the causes
stated. These, therefore, are the names we must
assign to them: that which dilates the visual
stream is “white” and the opposite thereof
“black“122; and the more rapid motion, being
that of a different species of fire, which strikes
κεκτημένον, ἃ σύμπαντα μὲν χρόας
ἐκαλέσαμεν, φλόγα τῶν σωμάτων ἑκάστων
ἀπορρέουσαν, ὄψει σύμμετρα μόρια ἔχουσαν
πρὸς αἴσθησιν: ὄψεως δ᾽ ἐν τοῖς πρόσθεν αὐτὸ
περὶ τῶν αἰτίων τῆς γενέσεως [67δ] ἐρρήθη.
τῇδ᾽ οὖν τῶν χρωμάτων πέρι μάλιστα εἰκὸς
πρέποι τ᾽ ἂν ἐπιεικεῖ λόγῳ διεξελθεῖν: τὰ
φερόμενα ἀπὸ τῶν ἄλλων μόρια ἐμπίπτοντά τε
εἰς τὴν ὄψιν τὰ μὲν ἐλάττω, τὰ δὲ μείζω, τὰ δ᾽
ἴσα τοῖς αὐτῆς τῆς ὄψεως μέρεσιν εἶναι: τὰ μὲν
οὖν ἴσα ἀναίσθητα, ἃ δὴ καὶ διαφανῆ λέγομεν,
τὰ δὲ μείζω καὶ ἐλάττω, τὰ μὲν συγκρίνοντα,
τὰ δὲ διακρίνοντα αὐτήν, τοῖς περὶ τὴν σάρκα
θερμοῖς καὶ ψυχροῖς καὶ τοῖς [67ε] περὶ τὴν
γλῶτταν στρυφνοῖς, καὶ ὅσα θερμαντικὰ ὄντα
δριμέα ἐκαλέσαμεν, ἀδελφὰ εἶναι, τά τε λευκὰ
καὶ τὰ μέλανα, ἐκείνων παθήματα γεγονότα ἐν
ἄλλῳ γένει τὰ αὐτά, φανταζόμενα δὲ ἄλλα διὰ
ταύτας τὰς αἰτίας. οὕτως οὖν αὐτὰ
προσρητέον: τὸ μὲν διακριτικὸν τῆς ὄψεως
λευκόν, τὸ δ᾽ ἐναντίον αὐτοῦ μέλαν, τὴν δὲ
ὀξυτέραν φορὰν καὶ γένους πυρὸς ἑτέρου
προσπίπτουσαν καὶ διακρίνουσαν τὴν ὄψιν
μέχρι τῶν ὀμμάτων, αὐτάς τε τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν
τὰς διεξόδους [68α] βίᾳ διωθοῦσαν καὶ
τήκουσαν, πῦρ μὲν ἁθρόον καὶ ὕδωρ, ὃ
δάκρυον καλοῦμεν, ἐκεῖθεν ἐκχέουσαν, αὐτὴν
δὲ οὖσαν πῦρ ἐξ ἐναντίας ἀπαντῶσαν, καὶ τοῦ
μὲν ἐκπηδῶντος πυρὸς οἷον ἀπ᾽ ἀστραπῆς, τοῦ
δ᾽ εἰσιόντος καὶ περὶ τὸ νοτερὸν
opposite direction — the inner fire flashes
forth like lightning, and the outer finds a way
in and is extinguished in the moisture, and all
sorts of colours are generated by the mixture.
This affection is termed dazzling, and the
object which produces it is called bright and
flashing. There is another sort of fire [68b]
which is intermediate, and which reaches and
mingles with the moisture of the eye without
flashing; and in this, the fire mingling with the
ray of the moisture, produces a colour like
blood, to which we give the name of red. A
bright hue mingled with red and white gives
the colour called auburn. The law of
proportion, however, according to which the
several colours are formed, even if a man knew
he would be foolish in telling, for he could not
give any necessary reason, nor indeed any
tolerable or probable explanation of them.
Again, red, when mingled with black and
white, becomes purple, [68c] but it becomes
umber when the colours are burnt as well as
mingled and the black is more thoroughly
mixed with them. Flame colour is produced by
a union of auburn and dun, and dun by an
admixture of black and white; pale yellow, by
an admixture of white and auburn. White and
bright meeting, and falling upon a full black,
become dark blue, and when dark blue mingles
with white, a light blue colour is formed, as
flame-colour with black makes leek green.
There will be no difficulty in seeing how and
upon the visual stream and dilates it as far as to
the eyes, and penetrating [68a] and dissolving
the very passages of the eyes causes a volume
of fire and water to pour from them, which we
call “tears.” And this moving body, being itself
fire, meets fire from the opposite direction; and
as the one firestream is leaping out like a flash,
and the other passing in and being quenched in
the moisture, in the resultant mixture colors of
all kinds are produced. This sensation we term
“dazzling” and the object which causes it
“bright” or “brilliant.” Again, when the kind of
fire [68b] which is midway between these 123
reaches to the liquid of the eyes and is mingled
therewith, it is not brilliant but, owing to the
blending of the fire's ray through the moisture,
it gives off a sanguine color, and we give it the
name of “red.” And “bright” color when
blended with red and white becomes “yellow.”
But in what proportions the colors are blended
it were foolish to declare, even if one knew,
seeing that in such matters one could not
properly adduce any necessary ground or
probable reason. Red blended with black and
white makes “purple”; [68c] but when these
colors are mixed and more completely burned,
and black is blended therewith, the result is
“violet.” “Chestnut” comes from the blending
of yellow and grey; and “grey” from white and
black; and “ochre” from white mixed with
yellow. And when white is combined with
“bright” and is steeped in deep black it turns
123 i.e., between the kinds of fire which produce “blackness” and “brightness.”
κατασβεννυμένου, παντοδαπῶν ἐν τῇ κυκήσει
ταύτῃ γιγνομένων χρωμάτων, μαρμαρυγὰς μὲν
τὸ πάθος προσείπομεν, τὸ δὲ τοῦτο
ἀπεργαζόμενον λαμπρόν τε καὶ στίλβον
ἐπωνομάσαμεν. [68β] τὸ δὲ τούτων αὖ μεταξὺ
πυρὸς γένος, πρὸς μὲν τὸ τῶν ὀμμάτων ὑγρὸν
ἀφικνούμενον καὶ κεραννύμενον αὐτῷ,
στίλβον δὲ οὔ: τῇ δὲ διὰ τῆς νοτίδος αὐγῇ τοῦ
πυρὸς
μειγνυμένου
χρῶμα
ἔναιμον
παρασχομένῃ, τοὔνομα ἐρυθρὸν λέγομεν.
λαμπρόν τε ἐρυθρῷ λευκῷ τε μειγνύμενον
ξανθὸν γέγονεν: τὸ δὲ ὅσον μέτρον ὅσοις, οὐδ᾽
εἴ τις εἰδείη, νοῦν ἔχει τὸ λέγειν, ὧν μήτε τινὰ
ἀνάγκην μήτε τὸν εἰκότα λόγον καὶ μετρίως ἄν
τις εἰπεῖν εἴη δυνατός. ἐρυθρὸν δὲ δὴ [68ξ]
μέλανι λευκῷ τε κραθὲν ἁλουργόν: ὄρφνινον
δέ, ὅταν τούτοις μεμειγμένοις καυθεῖσίν τε
μᾶλλον συγκραθῇ μέλαν. πυρρὸν δὲ ξανθοῦ τε
καὶ φαιοῦ κράσει γίγνεται, φαιὸν δὲ λευκοῦ τε
καὶ μέλανος, τὸ δὲ ὠχρὸν λευκοῦ ξανθῷ
μειγνυμένου. λαμπρῷ δὲ λευκὸν συνελθὸν καὶ
εἰς μέλαν κατακορὲς ἐμπεσὸν κυανοῦν χρῶμα
ἀποτελεῖται, κυανοῦ δὲ λευκῷ κεραννυμένου
γλαυκόν, πυρροῦ δὲ μέλανι πράσιον. τὰ δὲ
[68δ] ἄλλα ἀπὸ τούτων σχεδὸν δῆλα αἷς ἂν
ἀφομοιούμενα μείξεσιν διασῴζοι τὸν εἰκότα
μῦθον. εἰ δέ τις τούτων ἔργῳ σκοπούμενος
βάσανον λαμβάνοι, τὸ τῆς ἀνθρωπίνης καὶ
θείας φύσεως ἠγνοηκὼς ἂν εἴη διάφορον, ὅτι
θεὸς μὲν τὰ πολλὰ εἰς ἓν συγκεραννύναι καὶ
πάλιν ἐξ ἑνὸς εἰς πολλὰ διαλύειν ἱκανῶς
ἐπιστάμενος ἅμα καὶ δυνατός, ἀνθρώπων δὲ
by what mixtures the colours derived from
these are made according to the rules of
probability. He, however, who should attempt
to verify all this by experiment, would forget
the difference of the human and divine nature.
For God only has the knowledge and also the
power which are able to combine many things
into one and again resolve the one into many.
But no man either is or ever will be able to
accomplish either the one or the other
operation.
into a “dark blue” color; and dark blue mixed
with white becomes “light blue”; and chestnut
with black becomes “green.” As to the rest, it is
fairly clear from these examples [68d] what are
the mixtures with which we ought to identify
them if we would preserve probability in our
account. But should any inquirer make an
experimental test of these facts, he would
evince his ignorance of the difference between
man's nature and Gods—how that, whereas
God is sufficiently wise and powerful to blend
the many into one and to dissolve again the one
into many, there exists not now, nor ever will
exist hereafter, a child of man sufficient for
either of these tasks.
οὐδεὶς οὐδέτερα τούτων ἱκανὸς οὔτε ἔστι νῦν
οὔτε εἰς αὖθίς ποτε ἔσται.
[68e] These are the elements, thus of necessity
then subsisting, which the creator of the fairest
and best of created things associated with
himself, when he made the self-sufficing and
most perfect God, using the necessary causes
as his ministers in the accomplishment of his
work, but himself contriving the good in all his
creations. Wherefore we may distinguish two
sorts of causes, the one divine and the other
necessary, and may seek for the divine in all
things, as far as our nature admits, with a view
to the blessed life; [69a] but the necessary kind
only for the sake of the divine, considering that
without them and when isolated from them,
these higher things for which we look cannot
be apprehended or received or in any way
[68e] Such, then, being the necessary nature of
all these things, the Artificer of the most fair
and good took them over at that time amongst
things generated when He was engendering the
self-sufficing and most perfect God; and their
inherent properties he used as subservient
causes, but Himself designed the Good in all
that was being generated. Wherefore one ought
to distinguish two kinds of causes,124 the
necessary and the divine, and in all things to
seek after the divine for the sake of gaining a
life of blessedness, so far as our nature admits
thereof, [69a] and to seek the necessary for the
sake of the divine, reckoning that without the
former it is impossible to discern by
themselves alone the divine objects after which
[68ε] ταῦτα δὴ πάντα τότε ταύτῃ πεφυκότα ἐξ
ἀνάγκης ὁ τοῦ καλλίστου τε καὶ ἀρίστου
δημιουργὸς ἐν τοῖς γιγνομένοις παρελάμβανεν,
ἡνίκα τὸν αὐτάρκη τε καὶ τὸν τελεώτατον θεὸν
ἐγέννα, χρώμενος μὲν ταῖς περὶ ταῦτα αἰτίαις
ὑπηρετούσαις, τὸ δὲ εὖ τεκταινόμενος ἐν πᾶσιν
τοῖς γιγνομένοις αὐτός. διὸ δὴ χρὴ δύ᾽ αἰτίας
εἴδη διορίζεσθαι, τὸ μὲν ἀναγκαῖον, τὸ δὲ
θεῖον, καὶ τὸ μὲν θεῖον ἐν ἅπασιν ζητεῖν [69α]
κτήσεως ἕνεκα εὐδαίμονος βίου, καθ᾽ ὅσον
ἡμῶν ἡ φύσις ἐνδέχεται, τὸ δὲ ἀναγκαῖον
ἐκείνων χάριν, λογιζόμενον ὡς ἄνευ τούτων οὐ
δυνατὰ αὐτὰ ἐκεῖνα ἐφ᾽ οἷς σπουδάζομεν μόνα
κατανοεῖν οὐδ᾽ αὖ λαβεῖν οὐδ᾽ ἄλλως πως
μετασχεῖν.
124 Cf. 46 D, 48 A.
shared by us.
we strive, or to apprehend them or in any way
partake thereof.
Seeing, then, that we have now prepared for
our use the various classes of causes which are
the material out of which the remainder of our
discourse must be woven, just as wood is the
material of the carpenter, let us revert in a few
words to the point [69b] at which we began,
and then endeavour to add on a suitable ending
to the beginning of our tale.
Seeing, then, that we have now lying before us
and thoroughly sifted—like wood ready for the
joiner, —the various kinds of causes, out of
which the rest of our account must be woven
together, let us once more for a moment revert
to our starting-point,125 and thence proceed
rapidly to the point [69b] from which we
arrived hither. In this way we shall endeavor
now to supplement our story with a conclusion
and a crown in harmony with what has gone
before.
ὅτ᾽ οὖν δὴ τὰ νῦν οἷα τέκτοσιν ἡμῖν ὕλη
παράκειται τὰ τῶν αἰτίων γένη διυλισμένα, ἐξ
ὧν τὸν ἐπίλοιπον λόγον δεῖ συνυφανθῆναι,
πάλιν ἐπ᾽ ἀρχὴν ἐπανέλθωμεν διὰ βραχέων,
ταχύ τε εἰς ταὐτὸν πορευθῶμεν ὅθεν δεῦρο
ἀφικόμεθα, [69β] καὶ τελευτὴν ἤδη κεφαλήν τε
τῷ μύθῳ πειρώμεθα ἁρμόττουσαν ἐπιθεῖναι
τοῖς πρόσθεν.
As I said at first, when all things were in
disorder God created in each thing in relation
to itself, and in all things in relation to each
other, all the measures and harmonies which
they could possibly receive. For in those days
nothing had any proportion except by accident;
nor did any of the things which now have
names deserve to be named at all — as, for
example, fire, water, [69c] and the rest of the
elements. All these the creator first set in order,
and out of them he constructed the universe,
which was a single animal comprehending in
itself all other animals, mortal and immortal.
Now of the divine, he himself was the creator,
but the creation of the mortal he committed to
his offspring. And they, imitating him, received
As we stated at the commencement,126 all these
things were in a state of disorder, when God
implanted in them proportions both severally in
relation to themselves and in their relations to
one another, so far as it was in any way
possible for them to be in harmony and
proportion. For at that time nothing partook
thereof, save by accident, nor was it possible to
name anything worth mentioning which bore
the names we now give them, such as fire and
water, [69c] or any of the other elements; but
He, in the first place, set all these in order, and
then out of these He constructed this present
Universe, one single Living Creature
containing within itself all living creatures both
mortal and immortal. And He Himself acts as
ὥσπερ γὰρ οὖν καὶ κατ᾽ ἀρχὰς ἐλέχθη, ταῦτα
ἀτάκτως ἔχοντα ὁ θεὸς ἐν ἑκάστῳ τε αὐτῷ
πρὸς αὑτὸ καὶ πρὸς ἄλληλα συμμετρίας
ἐνεποίησεν, ὅσας τε καὶ ὅπῃ δυνατὸν ἦν
ἀνάλογα καὶ σύμμετρα εἶναι. τότε γὰρ οὔτε
τούτων, ὅσον μὴ τύχῃ, τι μετεῖχεν, οὔτε τὸ
παράπαν ὀνομάσαι τῶν νῦν ὀνομαζομένων
ἀξιόλογον ἦν οὐδέν, οἷον πῦρ καὶ ὕδωρ καὶ εἴ
τι τῶν ἄλλων: ἀλλὰ πάντα ταῦτα [69ξ] πρῶτον
διεκόσμησεν, ἔπειτ᾽ ἐκ τούτων πᾶν τόδε
συνεστήσατο, ζῷον ἓν ζῷα ἔχον τὰ πάντα ἐν
ἑαυτῷ θνητὰ ἀθάνατά τε. καὶ τῶν μὲν θείων
αὐτὸς γίγνεται δημιουργός, τῶν δὲ θνητῶν τὴν
γένεσιν τοῖς ἑαυτοῦ γεννήμασιν δημιουργεῖν
προσέταξεν. οἱ δὲ μιμούμενοι, παραλαβόντες
ἀρχὴν ψυχῆς ἀθάνατον, τὸ μετὰ τοῦτο θνητὸν
125 i.e., 47 E.
126 Cf. 30 A, 42 D ff.
from him the immortal principle of the soul;
and around this they proceeded to fashion a
mortal body, and. made it to be the vehicle of
the so and constructed within the body a soul
of another nature which was mortal, [69d]
subject to terrible and irresistible affections —
first of all, pleasure, the greatest incitement to
evil; then, pain, which deters from good; also
rashness and fear, two foolish counsellors,
anger hard to be appeased, and hope easily led
astray — these they mingled with irrational
sense and with all-daring love according to
necessary laws, and so framed man.
Wherefore, fearing to pollute the divine any
more than was absolutely unavoidable, [69e]
they gave to the mortal nature a separate
habitation in another/r part of the body, placing
the neck between them to be the isthmus and
boundary, which they constructed between the
head and breast, to keep them apart. And in the
breast, and in what is termed the thorax, they
encased the mortal soul; and as the one part of
this was superior and the other inferior they
divided the cavity of the thorax into two parts,
as the women’s and men’s apartments are
divided in houses, and placed the midriff to be
a wall of partition between them. That part of
the inferior soul which is endowed with
courage and passion and loves contention they
settled nearer the head, midway between the
midriff and the neck, in order that it might be
127 Cf. 44 E.
128 Cf. 64 E.
the Constructor of things divine, but the
structure of the mortal things He commanded
His own engendered sons to execute. And they,
imitating Him, on receiving the immortal
principle of soul, framed around it a mortal
body, and gave it all the body to be its
vehicle,127 and housed therein besides another
form of soul, even the mortal form, [69d]
which has within it passions both fearful and
unavoidable—firstly, pleasure, a most mighty
lure to evil; next, pains, which put good to
rout128; and besides these, rashness and fear,
foolish counsellors both and anger, hard to
dissuade; and hope, ready to seduce. And
blending these with irrational sensation and
with all-daring lust, they thus compounded in
necessary fashion the mortal kind of soul.
Wherefore, since they scrupled to pollute the
divine, unless through absolute necessity, [69e]
they planted the mortal kind apart therefrom in
another chamber of the body, building an
isthmus and boundary for the head and chest
by setting between them the neck, to the end
that they might remain apart. And within the
chest—or “thorax,” as it is called—they
fastened the mortal kind of soul. And inasmuch
as one part thereof is better, and one worse,
they built a division within the cavity of the
thorax— [70a] as if to fence off two separate
chambers, for men and for women—by placing
the midriff between them as a screen. That part
σῶμα αὐτῇ περιετόρνευσαν ὄχημά τε πᾶν τὸ
σῶμα ἔδοσαν ἄλλο τε εἶδος ἐν αὐτῷ ψυχῆς
προσῳκοδόμουν τὸ θνητόν, δεινὰ καὶ ἀναγκαῖα
ἐν ἑαυτῷ [69δ] παθήματα ἔχον, πρῶτον μὲν
ἡδονήν, μέγιστον κακοῦ δέλεαρ, ἔπειτα λύπας,
ἀγαθῶν φυγάς, ἔτι δ᾽ αὖ θάρρος καὶ φόβον,
ἄφρονε συμβούλω, θυμὸν δὲ δυσπαραμύθητον,
ἐλπίδα δ᾽ εὐπαράγωγον: αἰσθήσει δὲ ἀλόγῳ
καὶ ἐπιχειρητῇ παντὸς ἔρωτι συγκερασάμενοι
ταῦτα, ἀναγκαίως τὸ θνητὸν γένος συνέθεσαν.
καὶ διὰ ταῦτα δὴ σεβόμενοι μιαίνειν τὸ θεῖον,
ὅτι μὴ πᾶσα ἦν ἀνάγκη, χωρὶς ἐκείνου
κατοικίζουσιν εἰς [69ε] ἄλλην τοῦ σώματος
οἴκησιν τὸ θνητόν, ἰσθμὸν καὶ ὅρον
διοικοδομήσαντες τῆς τε κεφαλῆς καὶ τοῦ
στήθους, αὐχένα μεταξὺ τιθέντες, ἵν᾽ εἴη χωρίς.
ἐν δὴ τοῖς στήθεσιν καὶ τῷ καλουμένῳ θώρακι
τὸ τῆς ψυχῆς θνητὸν γένος ἐνέδουν. καὶ ἐπειδὴ
τὸ μὲν ἄμεινον αὐτῆς, τὸ δὲ χεῖρον ἐπεφύκει,
διοικοδομοῦσι τοῦ θώρακος αὖ τὸ κύτος,
διορίζοντες οἷον [70α] γυναικῶν, τὴν δὲ
ἀνδρῶν χωρὶς οἴκησιν, τὰς φρένας διάφραγμα
εἰς τὸ μέσον αὐτῶν τιθέντες. τὸ μετέχον οὖν
τῆς ψυχῆς ἀνδρείας καὶ θυμοῦ, φιλόνικον ὄν,
κατῴκισαν ἐγγυτέρω τῆς κεφαλῆς μεταξὺ τῶν
φρενῶν τε καὶ αὐχένος, ἵνα τοῦ λόγου
κατήκοον ὂν κοινῇ μετ᾽ ἐκείνου βίᾳ τὸ τῶν
ἐπιθυμιῶν κατέχοι γένος, ὁπότ᾽ ἐκ τῆς
ἀκροπόλεως τῷ τ᾽ ἐπιτάγματι καὶ λόγῳ
μηδαμῇ πείθεσθαι ἑκὸν ἐθέλοι: τὴν δὲ δὴ
καρδίαν [70β] ἅμμα τῶν φλεβῶν καὶ πηγὴν τοῦ
under the rule of reason and might join with it
in controlling and restraining the desires when
they are no longer willing of their own accord
to obey the word of command issuing from the
citadel. The heart, [70b] the knot of the veins
and the fountain of the blood which races
through all the limbs was set in the place of
guard, that when the might of passion was
roused by reason making proclamation of any
wrong assailing them from without or being
perpetrated by the desires within, quickly the
whole power of feeling in the body, perceiving
these commands and threats, might obey and
follow through every turn and alley, and thus
allow the principle of the best [70c] to have the
command in all of them. But the gods,
foreknowing that the palpitation of the heart in
the expectation of danger and the swelling and
excitement of passion was caused by fire,
formed and implanted as a supporter to the
heart the lung, which was, in the first place,
soft and bloodless, and also had within hollows
like the pores of a sponge, in order that by
receiving the breath and the drink, it might
give coolness and the power of respiration and
alleviate [70d] the heat. Wherefore they cut the
air-channels leading to the lung, and placed the
lung about the heart as a soft spring, that, when
passion was rife within, the heart, beating
against a yielding body, might be cooled and
suffer less, and might thus become more ready
to join with passion in the service of reason.
of the soul, then, which partakes of courage
and spirit, since it is a lover of victory, they
planted more near to the head, between the
midriff and the neck, in order that it might
hearken to the reason, and, in conjunction
therewith, might forcibly subdue the tribe of
the desires whensoever they should utterly
refuse to yield willing obedience to the word of
command from the citadel of reason. And the
heart, [70b] which is the junction of the veins
and the fount of the blood which circulates
vigorously through all the limbs, they
appointed to be the chamber of the bodyguard,
to the end that when the heat of the passion
boils up, as soon as reason passes the word
round that some unjust action is being done
which affects them, either from without or
possibly even from the interior desires, every
organ of sense in the body might quickly
perceive through all the channels both the
injunctions and the threats and in all ways obey
and follow them, thus allowing their best part
[70c] to be the leader of them all. And as a
means of relief for the leaping of the heart, in
times when dangers are expected and passion
is excited—since they knew that all such
swelling of the passionate parts would arise
from the action of fire,—they contrived and
implanted the form of the lungs. This is, in the
first place, soft and bloodless; and, moreover, it
contains within it perforated cavities like those
of a sponge, so that, when it receives the breath
and the drink, it might have a cooling effect
περιφερομένου κατὰ πάντα τὰ μέλη σφοδρῶς
αἵματος εἰς τὴν δορυφορικὴν οἴκησιν
κατέστησαν, ἵνα, ὅτε ζέσειεν τὸ τοῦ θυμοῦ
μένος, τοῦ λόγου παραγγείλαντος ὥς τις ἄδικος
περὶ αὐτὰ γίγνεται πρᾶξις ἔξωθεν ἢ καί τις ἀπὸ
τῶν ἔνδοθεν ἐπιθυμιῶν, ὀξέως διὰ πάντων τῶν
στενωπῶν πᾶν ὅσον αἰσθητικὸν ἐν τῷ σώματι,
τῶν τε παρακελεύσεων καὶ ἀπειλῶν
αἰσθανόμενον, γίγνοιτο ἐπήκοον καὶ ἕποιτο
πάντῃ, καὶ τὸ βέλτιστον οὕτως ἐν αὐτοῖς [70ξ]
πᾶσιν ἡγεμονεῖν ἐῷ. τῇ δὲ δὴ πηδήσει τῆς
καρδίας ἐν τῇ τῶν δεινῶν προσδοκίᾳ καὶ τῇ
τοῦ θυμοῦ ἐγέρσει, προγιγνώσκοντες ὅτι διὰ
πυρὸς ἡ τοιαύτη πᾶσα ἔμελλεν οἴδησις
γίγνεσθαι τῶν θυμουμένων, ἐπικουρίαν αὐτῇ
μηχανώμενοι τὴν τοῦ πλεύμονος ἰδέαν
ἐνεφύτευσαν, πρῶτον μὲν μαλακὴν καὶ
ἄναιμον, εἶτα σήραγγας ἐντὸς ἔχουσαν οἷον
σπόγγου κατατετρημένας, ἵνα τό τε πνεῦμα καὶ
τὸ πῶμα δεχομένη, [70δ] ψύχουσα, ἀναπνοὴν
καὶ ῥᾳστώνην ἐν τῷ καύματι παρέχοι: διὸ δὴ
τῆς ἀρτηρίας ὀχετοὺς ἐπὶ τὸν πλεύμονα ἔτεμον,
καὶ περὶ τὴν καρδίαν αὐτὸν περιέστησαν οἷον
μάλαγμα, ἵν᾽ ὁ θυμὸς ἡνίκα ἐν αὐτῇ ἀκμάζοι,
πηδῶσα εἰς ὑπεῖκον καὶ ἀναψυχομένη,
πονοῦσα ἧττον, μᾶλλον τῷ λόγῳ μετὰ θυμοῦ
δύναιτο ὑπηρετεῖν.
and furnish relief and comfort [70d] in the
burning heat. To this end they drew the
channels of the windpipe to the lungs, and
placed the lungs as a kind of padding round the
heart, in order that, when the passion therein
should be at its height, by leaping upon a
yielding substance and becoming cool, the
heart might suffer less and thereby be enabled
the more to be subservient to the reason in time
of passion.
The part of the soul which desires meats and
drinks and the other things of which it has need
by reason of the bodily nature, they placed
between the midriff and the boundary [70e] of
the navel, contriving in all this region a sort of
manger for the food of the body; and there they
bound it down like a wild animal which was
chained up with man, and must be nourished if
man was to exist. They appointed this lower
creation his place here in order that he might
be always feeding at the manger, and have his
dwelling as far as might be from the councilchamber, making as little noise and disturbance
as possible, and permitting the best part to
advise quietly [71a] for the good of the whole.
And knowing that this lower principle in man
would not comprehend reason, and even if
attaining to some degree of perception would
never naturally care for rational notions, but
that it would be led away by phantoms and
visions night and day — to be a remedy for
this, God combined with it the liver, and placed
And all that part of the Soul which is subject to
appetites for foods and drinks, and all the other
wants that are due to the nature of the body,
they planted in the parts midway between the
midriff and the boundary [70e] at the navel,
fashioning as it were a manger in all this region
for the feeding of the body; and there they tied
up this part of the Soul, as though it were a
creature which, though savage, they must
necessarily keep joined to the rest and feed, if
the mortal stock were to exist at all. In order,
then, that this part, feeding thus at its manger
and housed as far away as possible from the
counselling part, and creating the least possible
turmoil and din, should allow the Supreme part
to take counsel in peace [71a] concerning what
benefits all, both individually and in the mass,
—for these reasons they stationed it in that
position. And inasmuch as they knew that it
would not understand reason, and that, even if
it did have some share in the perception of
reasons, it would have no natural instinct to
τὸ δὲ δὴ σίτων τε καὶ ποτῶν ἐπιθυμητικὸν τῆς
ψυχῆς καὶ ὅσων ἔνδειαν διὰ τὴν τοῦ σώματος
ἴσχει φύσιν, τοῦτο [70ε] εἰς τὸ μεταξὺ τῶν τε
φρενῶν καὶ τοῦ πρὸς τὸν ὀμφαλὸν ὅρου
κατῴκισαν, οἷον φάτνην ἐν ἅπαντι τούτῳ τῷ
τόπῳ τῇ τοῦ σώματος τροφῇ τεκτηνάμενοι: καὶ
κατέδησαν δὴ τὸ τοιοῦτον ἐνταῦθα ὡς θρέμμα
ἄγριον, τρέφειν δὲ συνημμένον ἀναγκαῖον,
εἴπερ τι μέλλοι ποτὲ θνητὸν ἔσεσθαι γένος. ἵν᾽
οὖν ἀεὶ νεμόμενον πρὸς φάτνῃ καὶ ὅτι
πορρωτάτω τοῦ βουλευομένου κατοικοῦν,
θόρυβον καὶ βοὴν ὡς ἐλαχίστην παρέχον,
[71α] τὸ κράτιστον καθ᾽ ἡσυχίαν περὶ τοῦ πᾶσι
κοινῇ καὶ ἰδίᾳ συμφέροντος ἐῷ βουλεύεσθαι,
διὰ ταῦτα ἐνταῦθ᾽ ἔδοσαν αὐτῷ τὴν τάξιν.
εἰδότες δὲ αὐτὸ ὡς λόγου μὲν οὔτε συνήσειν
ἔμελλεν, εἴ τέ πῃ καὶ μεταλαμβάνοι τινὸς
αὐτῶν αἰσθήσεως, οὐκ ἔμφυτον αὐτῷ τὸ
μέλειν τινῶν ἔσοιτο λόγων, ὑπὸ δὲ εἰδώλων
καὶ φαντασμάτων νυκτός τε καὶ μεθ᾽ ἡμέραν
μάλιστα ψυχαγωγήσοιτο, τούτῳ δὴ θεὸς
ἐπιβουλεύσας αὐτῷ τὴν ἥπατος [71β] ἰδέαν
it in the house of the lower nature, [71b]
contriving that it should be solid and smooth,
and bright and sweet, and should also have a
bitter quality, in order that the power of
thought, which proceeds from the mind, might
be reflected as in a mirror which receives
likenesses of objects and gives back images of
them to the sight; and so might strike terror
into the desires, when, making use of the bitter
part of the liver, to which it is akin, it comes
threatening and invading, and diffusing this
bitter element swiftly through the whole liver
produces colours like bile, and contracting
every part makes it [71c] wrinkled and rough;
and twisting out of its right place and
contorting the lobe and closing and shutting up
the vessels and gates, causes pain and loathing.
And the converse happens when some gentle
inspiration of the understanding pictures
images of an opposite character, and allays the
bile and bitterness by refusing to stir or touch
the nature opposed to itself, but by making use
of the natural sweetness of the liver, [71d]
corrects all things and makes them to be right
and smooth and free, and renders the portion of
the soul which resides about the liver happy
and joyful, enabling it to pass the night in
peace, and to practise divination in sleep,
inasmuch as it has no share in mind and
reason.
pay heed to any of them but would be
bewitched for the most part both day and night
by images and phantasms,—to guard against
this God devised and constructed the form of
the liver and placed it in that part's abode;
[71b] and He fashioned it dense and smooth
and bright and sweet, yet containing bitterness,
that the power of thoughts which proceed from
the mind, moving in the liver as in a mirror
which receives impressions and provides
visible images, should frighten this part of the
soul; for when the mental power bears down
upon it with stern threats, it uses a kindred
portion of the liver's bitterness129 and makes it
swiftly suffuse the whole liver, so that it
exhibits bilious colors, and by contraction
makes it [71c] all wrinkled and rough;
moreover, as regards the lobe and passages and
gates130 of the liver, the first of these it bends
back from the straight and compresses, while it
blocks the others and closes them up, and thus
it produces pains and nausea. On the other
hand, when a breath of mildless from the
intellect paints on the liver appearances of the
opposite kind, and calms down its bitterness by
refusing to move or touch the nature opposite
to itself, and using upon the liver the sweetness
inherent therein [71d] rectifies all its parts so as
to make them straight and smooth and free, it
causes the part of the soul planted round the
liver to be cheerful and serene, so that in the
129 i.e., gall.
130 i.e., the right lobe, the viliary vesicle, and the vena porta; cf. Eurip.Electra827 ff.
συνέστησε καὶ ἔθηκεν εἰς τὴν ἐκείνου
κατοίκησιν, πυκνὸν καὶ λεῖον καὶ λαμπρὸν καὶ
γλυκὺ καὶ πικρότητα ἔχον μηχανησάμενος, ἵνα
ἐν αὐτῷ τῶν διανοημάτων ἡ ἐκ τοῦ νοῦ
φερομένη δύναμις, οἷον ἐν κατόπτρῳ δεχομένῳ
τύπους καὶ κατιδεῖν εἴδωλα παρέχοντι, φοβοῖ
μὲν αὐτό, ὁπότε μέρει τῆς πικρότητος χρωμένη
συγγενεῖ, χαλεπὴ προσενεχθεῖσα ἀπειλῇ, κατὰ
πᾶν ὑπομειγνῦσα ὀξέως τὸ ἧπαρ, χολώδη
χρώματα ἐμφαίνοι, συνάγουσά τε πᾶν ῥυσὸν
καὶ τραχὺ ποιοῖ, [71ξ] λοβὸν δὲ καὶ δοχὰς
πύλας τε τὸ μὲν ἐξ ὀρθοῦ κατακάμπτουσα καὶ
συσπῶσα, τὰ δὲ ἐμφράττουσα συγκλείουσά τε,
λύπας καὶ ἄσας παρέχοι, καὶ ὅτ᾽ αὖ τἀναντία
φαντάσματα ἀποζωγραφοῖ πρᾳότητός τις ἐκ
διανοίας ἐπίπνοια, τῆς μὲν πικρότητος ἡσυχίαν
παρέχουσα τῷ μήτε κινεῖν μήτε προσάπτεσθαι
τῆς ἐναντίας ἑαυτῇ φύσεως ἐθέλειν, γλυκύτητι
δὲ τῇ κατ᾽ ἐκεῖνο συμφύτῳ πρὸς αὐτὸ χρωμένη
καὶ πάντα [71δ] ὀρθὰ καὶ λεῖα αὐτοῦ καὶ
ἐλεύθερα ἀπευθύνουσα, ἵλεών τε καὶ εὐήμερον
ποιοῖ τὴν περὶ τὸ ἧπαρ ψυχῆς μοῖραν
κατῳκισμένην, ἔν τε τῇ νυκτὶ διαγωγὴν
ἔχουσαν μετρίαν, μαντείᾳ χρωμένην καθ᾽
ὕπνον, ἐπειδὴ λόγου καὶ φρονήσεως οὐ
μετεῖχε.
night it passes its time sensibly, being occupied
in its slumbers with divination, seeing that in
reason and intelligence it has no share.
For the authors of our being, remembering the
command of their father when he bade them
create the human race [71e] as good as they
could, that they might correct our inferior parts
and make them to attain a measure of truth,
placed in the liver the seat of divination. And
herein is a proof that God has given the art of
divination not to the wisdom, but to the
foolishness of man. No man, when in his wits,
attains prophetic truth and inspiration; but
when he receives the inspired word, either his
intelligence is enthralled in sleep, or he is
demented by some distemper or possession.
And he who would understand what he
remembers to have been said, whether in a
dream or when he was awake, by the prophetic
and inspired nature, or would determine by
reason the meaning of the apparitions [72a]
which he has seen, and what indications they
afford to this man or that, of past, present or
future good and evil, must first recover his
wits. But, while he continues demented, he
cannot judge of the visions which he sees or
the words which he utters; the ancient saying is
very true, that “only a man who has his wits
can act or judge about himself and his own
affairs.” And for this reason it is customary to
appoint interpreters to be judges [72b] of the
131 Cf. Rep. 346 B,Laws772 D,Phaedo. 244 A ff.
For they who constructed us, remembering the
injunction of their Father, when He enjoined
upon them to make the mortal kind [71e] as
good as they possibly could, rectified the vile
part of us by thus establishing therein the organ
of divination, that it might in some degree lay
hold on truth. And that God gave unto man's
foolishness the gift of divination131 a sufficient
token is this: no man achieves true and inspired
divination when in his rational mind, but only
when the power of his intelligence is fettered in
sleep or when it is distraught by disease or by
reason of some divine inspiration. But it
belongs to a man when in his right mind to
recollect and ponder both the things spoken in
dream or waking vision by the divining and
inspired nature, and all the visionary forms that
were seen, and by means of reasoning to
discern about them all [72a] wherein they are
significant and for whom they portend evil or
good in the future, the past, or the present. But
it is not the task of him who has been in a state
of frenzy, and still continues therein, to judge
the apparitions and voices seen or uttered by
himself; for it was well said of old that to do
and to know one's own and oneself belongs
only to him who is sound of mind. Wherefore
also it is customary to set the tribe of
μεμνημένοι γὰρ τῆς τοῦ πατρὸς ἐπιστολῆς οἱ
συστήσαντες ἡμᾶς, ὅτε τὸ θνητὸν ἐπέστελλεν
γένος ὡς ἄριστον εἰς δύναμιν ποιεῖν, οὕτω δὴ
κατορθοῦντες καὶ τὸ φαῦλον [71ε] ἡμῶν, ἵνα
ἀληθείας πῃ προσάπτοιτο, κατέστησαν ἐν
τούτῳ τὸ μαντεῖον. ἱκανὸν δὲ σημεῖον ὡς
μαντικὴν ἀφροσύνῃ θεὸς ἀνθρωπίνῃ δέδωκεν:
οὐδεὶς γὰρ ἔννους ἐφάπτεται μαντικῆς ἐνθέου
καὶ ἀληθοῦς, ἀλλ᾽ ἢ καθ᾽ ὕπνον τὴν τῆς
φρονήσεως πεδηθεὶς δύναμιν ἢ διὰ νόσον, ἢ
διά τινα ἐνθουσιασμὸν παραλλάξας. ἀλλὰ
συννοῆσαι μὲν ἔμφρονος τά τε ῥηθέντα
ἀναμνησθέντα ὄναρ ἢ ὕπαρ ὑπὸ τῆς μαντικῆς
τε καὶ ἐνθουσιαστικῆς φύσεως, καὶ ὅσα ἂν
φαντάσματα [72α] ὀφθῇ, πάντα λογισμῷ
διελέσθαι ὅπῃ τι σημαίνει καὶ ὅτῳ μέλλοντος ἢ
παρελθόντος ἢ παρόντος κακοῦ ἢ ἀγαθοῦ: τοῦ
δὲ μανέντος ἔτι τε ἐν τούτῳ μένοντος οὐκ
ἔργον τὰ φανέντα καὶ φωνηθέντα ὑφ᾽ ἑαυτοῦ
κρίνειν, ἀλλ᾽ εὖ καὶ πάλαι λέγεται τὸ πράττειν
καὶ γνῶναι τά τε αὑτοῦ καὶ ἑαυτὸν σώφρονι
μόνῳ προσήκειν. ὅθεν δὴ καὶ τὸ τῶν προφητῶν
γένος ἐπὶ [72β] ταῖς ἐνθέοις μαντείαις κριτὰς
ἐπικαθιστάναι νόμος: οὓς μάντεις αὐτοὺς
ὀνομάζουσίν τινες, τὸ πᾶν ἠγνοηκότες ὅτι τῆς
δι᾽ αἰνιγμῶν οὗτοι φήμης καὶ φαντάσεως
ὑποκριταί, καὶ οὔτι μάντεις, προφῆται δὲ
μαντευομένων δικαιότατα ὀνομάζοιντ᾽ ἄν.
true inspiration. Some persons call them
prophets; they are quite unaware that they are
only the expositors of dark sayings and visions,
and are not to be called prophets at all, but only
interpreters of prophecy.
prophets132 to pass judgement [72b] upon these
inspired divinations; and they, indeed,
themselves are named “diviners” by certain
who are wholly ignorant of the truth that they
are not diviners but interpreters of the
mysterious voice and apparition, for whom the
most fitting name would be “prophets of things
divined.”
Such is the nature of the liver, which is placed
as we have described in order that it may give
prophetic intimations. During the life of each
individual these intimations are plainer, but
after his death the liver becomes blind, and
delivers oracles too obscure [72c] to be
intelligible.
For these reasons, then, the nature of the liver
is such as we have stated and situated in the
region we have described, for the sake of
divination. Moreover, when the individual
creature is alive this organ affords signs that
are fairly manifest, but when deprived of life 133
it becomes blind and the divinations it presents
are too much obscured to have any [72c] clear
significance.
ἡ μὲν οὖν φύσις ἥπατος διὰ ταῦτα τοιαύτη τε
καὶ ἐν τόπῳ ᾧ λέγομεν πέφυκε, χάριν
μαντικῆς: καὶ ἔτι μὲν δὴ ζῶντος ἑκάστου τὸ
τοιοῦτον σημεῖα ἐναργέστερα ἔχει, στερηθὲν
δὲ τοῦ ζῆν γέγονε τυφλὸν καὶ τὰ μαντεῖα
ἀμυδρότερα [72ξ] ἔσχεν τοῦ τι σαφὲς
σημαίνειν.
The neighbouring organ [the spleen] is situated
on the left-hand side, and is constructed with a
view of keeping the liver bright and pure —
like a napkin, always ready prepared and at
hand to clean the mirror. And hence, when any
impurities arise in the region of the liver by
reason of disorders of the body, the loose
nature of the spleen, which is composed of a
hollow and bloodless tissue, receives them all
and dears them away, and when filled with the
unclean matter, swells and festers, [72d] but,
The structure of the organ which adjoins it,134
with its seat on the left, is for the sake of the
liver, to keep it always bright and clean, as a
wiper that is laid beside a mirror always
prepared and ready to hand. Wherefore also,
whenever any impurities due to ailments of the
body occur round about the liver, the loose
texture of the spleen cleanses and absorbs them
all, seeing that it is woven of a stuff that is
porous and bloodless: hence, when it is filled
with the offscourings, the spleen grows to be
ἡ δ᾽ αὖ τοῦ γείτονος αὐτῷ σύστασις καὶ ἕδρα
σπλάγχνου γέγονεν ἐξ ἀριστερᾶς χάριν
ἐκείνου, τοῦ παρέχειν αὐτὸ λαμπρὸν ἀεὶ καὶ
καθαρόν, οἷον κατόπτρῳ παρεσκευασμένον καὶ
ἕτοιμον ἀεὶ παρακείμενον ἐκμαγεῖον. διὸ δὴ
καὶ ὅταν τινὲς ἀκαθαρσίαι γίγνωνται διὰ
νόσους σώματος περὶ τὸ ἧπαρ, πάντα ἡ
σπληνὸς καθαίρουσα αὐτὰ δέχεται μανότης,
ἅτε κοίλου καὶ ἀναίμου ὑφανθέντος: [72δ]
ὅθεν πληρούμενος τῶν ἀποκαθαιρομένων
μέγας καὶ ὕπουλος αὐξάνεται, καὶ πάλιν, ὅταν
Cf. Laws871 C, Eurip.Ion413 ff.
133 i.e., in the sacrificed victim; Cf. Rep. 364 C ff.
134 i.e., the spleen, which, in relation to the liver, is concave.
132
again, when the body is purged, settles down
into the same place as before, and is humbled.
large and festered; [72d] and conversely, when
the body is cleansed, it is reduced and shrinks
back to its primal state.
καθαρθῇ τὸ σῶμα, ταπεινούμενος εἰς ταὐτὸν
συνίζει.
Concerning the soul, as to which part is mortal
and which divine, and how and why they are
separated, and where located, if God
acknowledges that we have spoken the truth,
then, and then only, can we be confident; still,
we may venture to assert that what has been
said by us is probable, and will be rendered
more probable by investigation. Let us assume
thus much.
Concerning the soul, then, what part of it is
mortal, what part immortal, and where and
with what companions and for what reasons
these have been housed apart, only if God
concurred could we dare to affirm that our
account is true135; but that our account is
probable we must dare to affirm now, and to
affirm still more positively as our inquiry
proceeds: affirmed, therefore, let it be.
τὰ μὲν οὖν περὶ ψυχῆς, ὅσον θνητὸν ἔχει καὶ
ὅσον θεῖον, καὶ ὅπῃ καὶ μεθ᾽ ὧν καὶ δι᾽ ἃ χωρὶς
ᾠκίσθη, τὸ μὲν ἀληθὲς ὡς εἴρηται, θεοῦ
συμφήσαντος τότ᾽ ἂν οὕτως μόνως
διισχυριζοίμεθα: τό γε μὴν εἰκὸς ἡμῖν εἰρῆσθαι,
καὶ νῦν καὶ ἔτι μᾶλλον ἀνασκοποῦσι
διακινδυνευτέον τὸ φάναι καὶ πεφάσθω.
[72e] The creation of the rest of follows next in
order, and this we may investigate in a similar
manner. And it appears to be very meet that the
body should be framed on the following
principles: — The authors of our race were
aware that we should be intemperate in eating
and drinking, and take a good deal more than
was necessary or proper, by reason of gluttony.
In order then that disease might not quickly
destroy us, [73a] and lest our mortal race
should perish without fulfilling its end —
intending to provide against this, the gods
made what is called the lower belly, to be a
receptacle for the superfluous meat and drink,
and formed the convolution of the bowels, so
that the food might be prevented from passing
[72e] The subject which comes next to this we
must investigate on the same lines; and that
subject is the way in which the remainder of
the body has been generated.136 Its construction
would most fittingly be ascribed to reasoning
such as this. Those who were constructing our
kind were aware of the incontinence that would
reside in us in respect of drinks and meats, and
how that because of our greed we would
consume far more than what was moderate and
necessary; wherefore, lest owing to maladies
swift destruction should overtake them, [73a]
and the mortal kind, while still incomplete,
come straightway to a complete end,—
foreseeing this, the Gods set the “abdomen,” 137
as it is called, to serve as a receptacle for the
[72ε] τὸ δ᾽ ἑξῆς δὴ τούτοισιν κατὰ ταὐτὰ
μεταδιωκτέον: ἦν δὲ τὸ τοῦ σώματος ἐπίλοιπον
ᾗ γέγονεν. ἐκ δὴ λογισμοῦ τοιοῦδε
συνίστασθαι μάλιστ᾽ ἂν αὐτὸ πάντων πρέποι.
τὴν ἐσομένην ἐν ἡμῖν ποτῶν καὶ ἐδεστῶν
ἀκολασίαν ᾔδεσαν οἱ συντιθέντες ἡμῶν τὸ
γένος, καὶ ὅτι τοῦ μετρίου καὶ ἀναγκαίου διὰ
μαργότητα πολλῷ χρησοίμεθα πλέονι: ἵν᾽ οὖν
μὴ φθορὰ διὰ νόσους ὀξεῖα γίγνοιτο καὶ ἀτελὲς
τὸ γένος εὐθὺς [73α] τὸ θνητὸν τελευτῷ, ταῦτα
προορώμενοι τῇ τοῦ περιγενησομένου
πώματος ἐδέσματός τε ἕξει τὴν ὀνομαζομένην
κάτω κοιλίαν ὑποδοχὴν ἔθεσαν, εἵλιξάν τε
πέριξ τὴν τῶν ἐντέρων γένεσιν, ὅπως μὴ ταχὺ
διεκπερῶσα ἡ τροφὴ ταχὺ πάλιν τροφῆς ἑτέρας
δεῖσθαι τὸ σῶμα ἀναγκάζοι, καὶ παρέχουσα
135 Cf. 68 D, 74 D.
136 Cf. 61 C.
137 Literally “the lower belly,” as distinct from “the upper belly” or thorax.
quickly through and compelling the body to
require more food, thus producing insatiable
gluttony, and making the whole race an enemy
to philosophy and music, and rebellious against
the divinest element within us.
holding of the superfluous meat and drink; and
round about therein they coiled the structure of
the entrails, to prevent the food from passing
through quickly and thereby compelling the
body to require more food quickly, and causing
insatiate appetite, whereby the whole kind by
reason of its gluttony would be rendered
devoid of philosophy and of culture, and
disobedient to the most divine part we possess.
ἀπληστίαν, διὰ γαστριμαργίαν ἀφιλόσοφον καὶ
ἄμουσον πᾶν ἀποτελοῖ τὸ γένος, ἀνυπήκοον
τοῦ θειοτάτου τῶν παρ᾽ ἡμῖν.
The bones and flesh, and other similar parts of
us, [73b] were made as follows. The first
principle of all of them was the generation of
the marrow. For the bonds of life which unite
the soul with the body are made fast there, and
they are the root and foundation of the human
race. The marrow itself is created out of other
materials: God took such of the primary
triangles as were straight and smooth, and were
adapted by their perfection to produce fire and
water, and air and earth — these, I say, he
separated from their kinds, [73c] and mingling
them in due proportions with one another,
made the marrow out of them to be a universal
seed of the whole race of mankind; and in this
seed he then planted and enclosed the souls,
and in the original distribution gave to the
marrow as many and various forms as the
different kinds of souls were hereafter to
receive. That which, like a field, was to receive
the divine seed, he made [73d] round every
As regards the bones and the flesh and all such
substances [73b] the position was this. All
these had their origin in the generation of the
marrow. For it was in this that the bonds of life
by which the Soul is bound to the body were
fastened, and implanted the roots of the mortal
kind; but the marrow itself was generated out
of other elements. Taking all these primary
triangles138 which, being unwarped and
smooth, were best able to produce with
exactness fire and water and air and earth, God
separated them, each apart from his own kind,
[73c] and mixing them one with another in due
proportion, He fashioned therefrom the
marrow, devising it as a universal seed-stuff for
every mortal kind. Next, He engendered
therein the various kinds of Soul139 and bound
them down; and He straightway divided the
marrow itself, in His original division, into
shapes corresponding in their number and their
nature to the number and the nature of the
[73β] τὸ δὲ ὀστῶν καὶ σαρκῶν καὶ τῆς
τοιαύτης φύσεως πέρι πάσης ὧδε ἔσχεν.
τούτοις σύμπασιν ἀρχὴ μὲν ἡ τοῦ μυελοῦ
γένεσις: οἱ γὰρ τοῦ βίου δεσμοί, τῆς ψυχῆς τῷ
σώματι συνδουμένης, ἐν τούτῳ διαδούμενοι
κατερρίζουν τὸ θνητὸν γένος: αὐτὸς δὲ ὁ
μυελὸς γέγονεν ἐξ ἄλλων. τῶν γὰρ τριγώνων
ὅσα πρῶτα ἀστραβῆ καὶ λεῖα ὄντα πῦρ τε καὶ
ὕδωρ καὶ ἀέρα καὶ γῆν δι᾽ ἀκριβείας μάλιστα
ἦν παρασχεῖν δυνατά, ταῦτα ὁ θεὸς ἀπὸ τῶν
ἑαυτῶν ἕκαστα γενῶν χωρὶς [73ξ] ἀποκρίνων,
μειγνὺς δὲ ἀλλήλοις σύμμετρα, πανσπερμίαν
παντὶ θνητῷ γένει μηχανώμενος, τὸν μυελὸν ἐξ
αὐτῶν ἀπηργάσατο, καὶ μετὰ ταῦτα δὴ
φυτεύων ἐν αὐτῷ κατέδει τὰ τῶν ψυχῶν γένη,
σχημάτων τε ὅσα ἔμελλεν αὖ σχήσειν οἷά τε
καθ᾽ ἕκαστα εἴδη, τὸν μυελὸν αὐτὸν τοσαῦτα
καὶ τοιαῦτα διῃρεῖτο σχήματα εὐθὺς ἐν τῇ
διανομῇ τῇ κατ᾽ ἀρχάς. καὶ τὴν μὲν τὸ θεῖον
σπέρμα οἷον ἄρουραν μέλλουσαν ἕξειν ἐν αὑτῇ
περιφερῆ πανταχῇ πλάσας ἐπωνόμασεν τοῦ
138 Cf. 53 C ff.
139 i.e., the rational (νοῦς), and “spirited” (θυμός), and appetitive (ἐπιθυμία) kinds or parts.
way, and called that portion of the marrow,
brain, intending that, when an animal was
perfected, the vessel containing this substance
should be the head; but that which was
intended to contain the remaining and mortal
part of the soul he distributed into figures at
once around and elongated, and he called them
all by the name “marrow”; and to these, as to
anchors, fastening the bonds of the whole soul,
he proceeded to fashion around them the entire
framework of our body, constructing for the
marrow, first of all a complete covering [73e]
of bone.
shapes which should belong to the several
kinds of Soul. And that portion of the marrow
which was intended to receive within itself, as
it were into a field, the divine seed He molded
[73d] in the shape of a perfect globe 140 and
bestowed on it the name of “brain,” purposing
that, when each living creature should be
completed, the vessel surrounding this should
be called the “head.” But that portion which
was to contain the other and mortal part of the
Soul He divided into shapes that were at once
rounded and elongated,141 and all these He
designated “marrow”; and from these, as from
anchors, He cast out bands of the Whole Soul,
and around this He finally wrought the whole
of this body of ours, when He had first built
round about it for a shelter a framework [73e]
all of bone.
μυελοῦ [73δ] ταύτην τὴν μοῖραν ἐγκέφαλον,
ὡς ἀποτελεσθέντος ἑκάστου ζῴου τὸ περὶ
τοῦτ᾽ ἀγγεῖον κεφαλὴν γενησόμενον: ὃ δ᾽ αὖ
τὸ λοιπὸν καὶ θνητὸν τῆς ψυχῆς ἔμελλε
καθέξειν, ἅμα στρογγύλα καὶ προμήκη
διῃρεῖτο σχήματα, μυελὸν δὲ πάντα
ἐπεφήμισεν, καὶ καθάπερ ἐξ ἀγκυρῶν
βαλλόμενος ἐκ τούτων πάσης ψυχῆς δεσμοὺς
περὶ τοῦτο σύμπαν ἤδη τὸ σῶμα ἡμῶν
ἀπηργάζετο, στέγασμα μὲν αὐτῷ πρῶτον
συμπηγνὺς περὶ [73ε] ὅλον ὀστέινον.
Bone was composed by him in the following
manner. Having sifted pure and smooth earth
he kneaded it and wetted it with marrow, and
after that he put it into fire and then into water,
and once more into fire and again into water —
in this way by frequent transfers from one to
the other he made it insoluble by either. Out of
this he fashioned, as in a lathe, a globe made of
bone, which he placed around the brain, and in
this he left a narrow opening; and around the
marrow [74a] of the neck and back he formed
vertebrae which he placed under one another
And bone He compounded in this wise. Having
sifted earth till it was pure and smooth, He
kneaded it and moistened it with marrow; then
He placed it in fire, and after that dipped it in
water, and from this back to fire, and once
again in water; and by thus transferring it many
times from the one element to the other He
made it so that it was soluble by neither. This,
then, He used, and fashioned thereof, by
turning, a bony sphere round about the brain;
and therein he left a narrow opening; and
around the marrow [74a] of both neck and back
τὸ δὲ ὀστοῦν συνίστησιν ὧδε. γῆν διαττήσας
καθαρὰν καὶ λείαν ἐφύρασε καὶ ἔδευσεν
μυελῷ, καὶ μετὰ τοῦτο εἰς πῦρ αὐτὸ ἐντίθησιν,
μετ᾽ ἐκεῖνο δὲ εἰς ὕδωρ βάπτει, πάλιν δὲ εἰς
πῦρ, αὖθίς τε εἰς ὕδωρ: μεταφέρων δ᾽ οὕτω
πολλάκις εἰς ἑκάτερον ὑπ᾽ ἀμφοῖν ἄτηκτον
ἀπηργάσατο. καταχρώμενος δὴ τούτῳ περὶ μὲν
τὸν ἐγκέφαλον αὐτοῦ σφαῖραν περιετόρνευσεν
ὀστεΐνην, ταύτῃ δὲ στενὴν διέξοδον [74α]
κατελείπετο: καὶ περὶ τὸν διαυχένιον ἅμα καὶ
νωτιαῖον μυελὸν ἐξ αὐτοῦ σφονδύλους πλάσας
ὑπέτεινεν οἷον στρόφιγγας, ἀρξάμενος ἀπὸ τῆς
140 Cf. 44 D.
141 i.e., the vertebral column, cylindrical in shape.
like pivots, beginning at the head and
extending through the whole of the trunk. Thus
wishing to preserve the entire seed, he
enclosed it in a stone-like casing, inserting
joints, and using in the formation of them the
power of the other or diverse as an
intermediate nature, that they might have
motion and flexure. [74b] Then again,
considering that the bone would be too brittle
and inflexible, and when heated and again
cooled would soon mortify and destroy the
seed within — having this in view, he
contrived the sinews and the flesh, that so
binding all the members together by the
sinews, which admitted of being stretched and
relaxed about the vertebrae, he might thus
make the body capable of flexion and
extension, while the flesh would serve as a
protection against the summer heat and against
the winter cold, and also against falls, softly
and easily yielding to external bodies, like
articles made of felt; [74c] and containing in
itself a warm moisture which in summer
exudes and makes the surface damp, would
impart a nature coolness to the whole body;
and again in winter by the help of this internal
warmth would form a very tolerable defence
against the frost which surrounds it and attacks
it from without. He who modelled us,
considering these things, mixed earth with fire
and water and blended them; and making a
142 i.e., the principle of plurality, cf. 35 B.
143 Cf. 70 D.
He molded vertebrae of bone, and set them,
like pivots, in a vertical row, throughout all the
trunk, beginning from the head. And thus for
preserving the whole seed He closed it in with
a ring-fence of stony substance; and therein He
made joints, using as an aid the power of the
Other142 as an intermediary between them, for
the sake of movement and bending. [74b] And
inasmuch as He deemed that the texture of the
bony substance was too hard and inflexible,
and that if it were fired and cooled again it
would decay and speedily destroy the seed
within it, for these reasons He contrived the
species known as sinew and flesh. He designed
to bind all the limbs together by means of the
former, which tightens and relaxes itself
around the pivots, and thus cause the body to
bend and stretch itself. And the flesh He
designed to be a shield against the heat and a
shelter against the cold; and, moreover, that in
case of falls it should yield to the body softly
and gently, like padded garments143; [74c] and,
inasmuch as it contains within it warm
moisture, that it should supply in summer, by
its perspiration and dampness, a congenial
coolness over the exterior of the whole body,
and contrariwise in winter defend the body
sufficiently, by means of its fire, from the frost
which attacks and surrounds it from without.
Wherefore, with this intent, our Modeller
mixed and blended together water and fire and
κεφαλῆς, διὰ παντὸς τοῦ κύτους. καὶ τὸ πᾶν δὴ
σπέρμα διασῴζων οὕτως λιθοειδεῖ περιβόλῳ
συνέφραξεν, ἐμποιῶν ἄρθρα, τῇ θατέρου
προσχρώμενος ἐν αὐτοῖς ὡς μέσῃ ἐνισταμένῃ
δυνάμει, κινήσεως καὶ κάμψεως ἕνεκα. τὴν δ᾽
αὖ τῆς ὀστεΐνης φύσεως ἕξιν ἡγησάμενος [74β]
τοῦ δέοντος
κραυροτέραν εἶναι καὶ
ἀκαμπτοτέραν, διάπυρόν τ᾽ αὖ γιγνομένην καὶ
πάλιν
ψυχομένην
σφακελίσασαν
ταχὺ
διαφθερεῖν τὸ σπέρμα ἐντὸς αὑτῆς, διὰ ταῦτα
οὕτω τὸ τῶν νεύρων καὶ τὸ τῆς σαρκὸς γένος
ἐμηχανᾶτο, ἵνα τῷ μὲν πάντα τὰ μέλη
συνδήσας ἐπιτεινομένῳ καὶ ἀνιεμένῳ περὶ τοὺς
στρόφιγγας καμπτόμενον τὸ σῶμα καὶ
ἐκτεινόμενον παρέχοι, τὴν δὲ σάρκα προβολὴν
μὲν καυμάτων, πρόβλημα δὲ χειμώνων, ἔτι δὲ
πτωμάτων οἷον τὰ πιλητὰ ἔσεσθαι κτήματα,
[74ξ] σώμασιν μαλακῶς καὶ πρᾴως
ὑπείκουσαν, θερμὴν δὲ νοτίδα ἐντὸς ἑαυτῆς
ἔχουσαν θέρους μὲν ἀνιδίουσαν καὶ
νοτιζομένην ἔξωθεν ψῦχος κατὰ πᾶν τὸ σῶμα
παρέξειν οἰκεῖον, διὰ χειμῶνος δὲ πάλιν αὖ
τούτῳ τῷ πυρὶ τὸν προσφερόμενον ἔξωθεν καὶ
περιιστάμενον πάγον ἀμυνεῖσθαι μετρίως.
ταῦτα ἡμῶν διανοηθεὶς ὁ κηροπλάστης, ὕδατι
μὲν καὶ πυρὶ καὶ γῇ συμμείξας καὶ
συναρμόσας, ἐξ ὀξέος καὶ ἁλμυροῦ συνθεὶς
[74δ] ζύμωμα ὑπομείξας αὐτοῖς, σάρκα
ἔγχυμον καὶ μαλακὴν συνέστησεν: τὴν δὲ τῶν
νεύρων φύσιν ἐξ ὀστοῦ καὶ σαρκὸς ἀζύμου
κράσεως μίαν ἐξ ἀμφοῖν μέσην δυνάμει
ferment of acid and salt, [74d] he mingled it
with them and formed soft and succulent flesh.
As for the sinews, he made them of a mixture
of bone and unfermented flesh, attempered so
as to be in a mean, and gave them a yellow
colour; wherefore the sinews have a firmer and
more glutinous nature than flesh, but a softer
and moister nature than the bones. With these
God covered the bones and marrow, binding
them together by sinews, and then enshrouded
them all in an upper covering of flesh. [74e]
The more living and sensitive of the bones he
enclosed in the thinnest film of flesh, and those
which had the least life within them in the
thickest and most solid flesh. So again on the
joints of the bones, where reason indicated that
no more was required, he placed only a thin
covering of flesh, that it might not interfere
with the flexion of our bodies and make them
unwieldy because difficult to move; and also
that it might not, by being crowded and pressed
and matted together, destroy sensation by
reason of its hardness, and impair the memory
and dull the edge of intelligence. Wherefore
[75a] also the thighs and the shanks and the
hips, and the bones of the arms and the
forearms, and other parts which have no joints,
and the inner bones, which on account of the
rarity of the soul in the marrow are destitute of
reason — all these are abundantly provided
with flesh; but such as have mind in them are
in general less fleshy, except where the creator
144 i.e., those of the head and spine.
earth, and compounding a ferment of acid and
salt [74d] mixed it in therewith, and thus
molded flesh full of sap and soft. And the
substance of the sinews He compounded of a
mixture of bone and unfermented flesh,
forming a single substance blended of both and
intermediate in quality, and he used yellow also
for its coloring. Hence it is that the sinews have
acquired a quality that is firmer and more rigid
than flesh, but softer and more elastic than
bone. With these, then, God enclosed the bones
and marrow, first binding them one to another
with the sinews, and then shrouding them all
over with flesh. [74e] All the bones, then, that
possessed most soul144 He enclosed in least
flesh, but the bones which contained least soul
with most and most dense flesh; moreover, at
the junctions of the bones, except where reason
revealed some necessity for its existence, He
made but little flesh to grow, lest by hindering
the flexions it should make the bodies
unwieldy, because stiff in movement, or else
through its size and density, when thickly
massed
together,
it
should
produce
insensitiveness, owing to its rigidity, and
thereby cause the intellectual parts to be more
forgetful and more obtuse. Wherefore [75a] the
thighs and the shins and the region of the loins
and the bones of the upper and lower arm, and
all our other parts which are jointless, and all
those bones which are void of intelligence
within, owing to the small quantity of soul in
συνεκεράσατο, ξανθῷ χρώματι προσχρώμενος.
ὅθεν συντονωτέραν μὲν καὶ γλισχροτέραν
σαρκῶν, μαλακωτέραν δὲ ὀστῶν ὑγροτέραν τε
ἐκτήσατο δύναμιν νεῦρα: οἷς συμπεριλαβὼν ὁ
θεὸς ὀστᾶ καὶ μυελόν, δήσας πρὸς ἄλληλα
νεύροις, μετὰ ταῦτα σαρξὶν [74ε] πάντα αὐτὰ
κατεσκίασεν ἄνωθεν. ὅσα μὲν οὖν ἐμψυχότατα
τῶν ὀστῶν ἦν, ὀλιγίσταις συνέφραττε σαρξίν,
ἃ δ᾽ ἀψυχότατα ἐντός, πλείσταις καὶ
πυκνοτάταις, καὶ δὴ κατὰ τὰς συμβολὰς τῶν
ὀστῶν, ὅπῃ μήτινα ἀνάγκην ὁ λόγος ἀπέφαινεν
δεῖν αὐτὰς εἶναι, βραχεῖαν σάρκα ἔφυσεν, ἵνα
μήτε ἐμποδὼν ταῖς καμπαῖσιν οὖσαι δύσφορα
τὰ σώματα ἀπεργάζοιντο, ἅτε δυσκίνητα
γιγνόμενα, μήτ᾽ αὖ πολλαὶ καὶ πυκναὶ σφόδρα
τε ἐν ἀλλήλαις ἐμπεπιλημέναι, διὰ στερεότητα
ἀναισθησίαν ἐμποιοῦσαι, δυσμνημονευτότερα
καὶ κωφότερα τὰ περὶ τὴν διάνοιαν ποιοῖεν. διὸ
δὴ τό τε τῶν μηρῶν καὶ κνημῶν καὶ [75α] τὸ
περὶ τὴν τῶν ἰσχίων φύσιν τά τε περὶ τὰ τῶν
βραχιόνων ὀστᾶ καὶ τὰ τῶν πήχεων, καὶ ὅσα
ἄλλα ἡμῶν ἄναρθρα, ὅσα τε ἐντὸς ὀστᾶ δι᾽
ὀλιγότητα ψυχῆς ἐν μυελῷ κενά ἐστιν
φρονήσεως, ταῦτα πάντα συμπεπλήρωται
σαρξίν: ὅσα δὲ ἔμφρονα, ἧττον—εἰ μή πού
τινα αὐτὴν καθ᾽ αὑτὴν αἰσθήσεων ἕνεκα
σάρκα οὕτω συνέστησεν, οἷον τὸ τῆς γλώττης
εἶδος— τὰ δὲ πλεῖστα ἐκείνως: ἡ γὰρ ἐξ
ἀνάγκης γιγνομένη καὶ [75β] συντρεφομένη
φύσις οὐδαμῇ προσδέχεται πυκνὸν ὀστοῦν καὶ
σάρκα πολλὴν ἅμα τε αὐτοῖς ὀξυήκοον
αἴσθησιν. μάλιστα γὰρ ἂν αὐτὰ πάντων ἔσχεν ἡ
has made some part solely of flesh in order to
give sensation — as, for example, the tongue.
But commonly this is not the case. For the
nature which comes into being and grows up in
us by a law of necessity, [75b] does not admit
of the combination of solid bone and much
flesh with acute perceptions. More than any
other part the framework of the head would
have had them, if they could have co-existed,
and the human race, having a strong and fleshy
and sinewy head, would have had a life twice
or many times as long as it now has, and also
more healthy and free from pain. But our
creators, considering [75c] whether they
should make a longer-lived race which was
worse, or a shorter-lived race which was better,
came to the conclusion that every one ought to
prefer a shorter span of life, which was better,
to a longer one, which was worse; and
therefore they covered the head with thin bone,
but not with flesh and sinews, since it had no
joints; and thus the head was added, having
more wisdom and sensation than the rest of the
body, but also being in every man far weaker.
the marrow—all these are abundantly supplied
with flesh; but those parts which are intelligent
are supplied less abundantly—except possibly
where He so fashioned the flesh that it can of
itself convey sensations, as is the case with the
tongue; but most of these parts He made in the
way described above. For the substance which
is generated by necessity and grows up with us
[75b] in no wise admits of quick perception
coexisting with dense bone and abundant flesh.
For if these characteristics were willing to
consort together, then the structure of the head
would have acquired them most of all, and
mankind, crowned with a head that was fleshy
and sinewy and strong, would have enjoyed a
life that was twice (nay, many times) as long as
our present life, and healthier, to boot, and
more free from pain. But as it is, when the
Constructors of our being were cogitating [75c]
whether they should make a kind that was
more long-lived and worse or more short-lived
and better, they agreed that the shorter and
superior life should by all means be chosen by
all rather than the longer and inferior.
Wherefore they covered the head closely with
thin bone, but not with flesh and sinews, since
it was also without flexions. For all these
reasons, then, the head that was joined to the
body in every man was more perceptive and
more intelligent but less strong.
περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν σύστασις, εἴπερ ἅμα
συμπίπτειν ἠθελησάτην, καὶ τὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων
γένος σαρκώδη ἔχον ἐφ᾽ ἑαυτῷ καὶ νευρώδη
κρατεράν τε κεφαλὴν βίον ἂν διπλοῦν καὶ
πολλαπλοῦν καὶ ὑγιεινότερον καὶ ἀλυπότερον
τοῦ νῦν κατεκτήσατο. νῦν δὲ τοῖς περὶ τὴν
ἡμετέραν
γένεσιν
δημιουργοῖς,
ἀναλογιζομένοις πότερον πολυχρονιώτερον
[75ξ] χεῖρον ἢ βραχυχρονιώτερον βέλτιον
ἀπεργάσαιντο γένος, συνέδοξεν τοῦ πλείονος
βίου, φαυλοτέρου δέ, τὸν ἐλάττονα ἀμείνονα
ὄντα παντὶ πάντως αἱρετέον: ὅθεν δὴ μανῷ μὲν
ὀστῷ, σαρξὶν δὲ καὶ νεύροις κεφαλήν, ἅτε οὐδὲ
καμπὰς ἔχουσαν, οὐ συνεστέγασαν. κατὰ
πάντα οὖν ταῦτα εὐαισθητοτέρα μὲν καὶ
φρονιμωτέρα, πολὺ δὲ ἀσθενεστέρα παντὸς
ἀνδρὸς προσετέθη κεφαλὴ σώματι.
For these reasons and after this manner God
placed the sinews at the extremity of the head,
It was on these grounds and in this way that
God set the sinews at the bottom of the head
τὰ δὲ νεῦρα διὰ [75δ] ταῦτα καὶ οὕτως ὁ θεὸς
ἐπ᾽ ἐσχάτην τὴν κεφαλὴν περιστήσας κύκλῳ
[75d] in a circle round the neck, and glued
them together by the principle of likeness and
fastened the extremities of the jawbones to
them below the face, and the other sinews he
dispersed throughout the body, fastening limb
to limb.
[75d] round about the neck and glued them
there symmetrically; and with these He
fastened the extremities of the jaws below the
substance of the face; and the rest of the sinews
He distributed amongst all the limbs, attaching
joint to joint.
περὶ τὸν τράχηλον ἐκόλλησεν ὁμοιότητι, καὶ
τὰς σιαγόνας ἄκρας αὐτοῖς συνέδησεν ὑπὸ τὴν
φύσιν τοῦ προσώπου: τὰ δ᾽ ἄλλα εἰς ἅπαντα τὰ
μέλη διέσπειρε, συνάπτων ἄρθρον ἄρθρῳ.
The framers of us framed the mouth, as now
arranged, having teeth and tongue and lips,
[75e] with a view to the necessary and the
good, contriving the way in for necessary
purposes, the way out for the best purposes; for
that is necessary which enters in and gives
food to the body; but the river of speech, which
flows out of a man and ministers to the
intelligence, is the fairest and noblest of all
streams.
And those who fashioned the features of our
mouth fashioned it with teeth and tongue and
lips, even as it is fashioned now, [75e] for ends
both necessary and most good, contriving it as
an entrance with a view to necessary ends, and
as an outlet with a view to the ends most good.
For all that enters in and supplies food to the
body is necessary; while the stream of speech
which flows out and ministers to intelligence is
of all streams the fairest and most good.
τὴν δὲ δὴ τοῦ στόματος ἡμῶν δύναμιν ὀδοῦσιν
καὶ γλώττῃ καὶ χείλεσιν ἕνεκα τῶν ἀναγκαίων
καὶ
τῶν
ἀρίστων
διεκόσμησαν
οἱ
διακοσμοῦντες ᾗ νῦν [75ε] διατέτακται, τὴν
μὲν εἴσοδον τῶν ἀναγκαίων μηχανώμενοι
χάριν, τὴν δ᾽ ἔξοδον τῶν ἀρίστων: ἀναγκαῖον
μὲν γὰρ πᾶν ὅσον εἰσέρχεται τροφὴν διδὸν τῷ
σώματι, τὸ δὲ λόγων νᾶμα ἔξω ῥέον καὶ
ὑπηρετοῦν φρονήσει κάλλιστον καὶ ἄριστον
πάντων ναμάτων.
Still the head could neither be left a bare frame
of bones, on account of the extremes of heat
and cold in the different seasons, nor yet be
allowed to be wholly covered, and so become
dull and senseless by reason of an overgrowth
of flesh. [76a] The fleshy nature was not
therefore wholly dried up, but a large sort of
peel was parted off and remained over, which
is now called the skin. This met and grew by
the help of the cerebral moisture, and became
the circular envelopment of the head. And the
moisture, rising up under the sutures, watered
and closed in the skin upon the crown, forming
a sort of knot. The diversity of the sutures was
caused by the power of the courses of the soul
Moreover, it was not possible to leave the head
to consist of bare bone only, because of the
excessive variations of temperature in either
direction, due to the seasons; nor yet was it
possible to allow it to be shrouded up, and to
become, in consequence, stupid and insensitive
owing to its burdensome mass of flesh. [76a]
Accordingly, of the fleshy substance which
was not being fully dried up a larger
enveloping film was separated off, forming
what is now called “skin.” And this, having
united with itself because of the moisture
round the brain and spreading, formed a
vesture round about the head; and this was
damped by the moisture ascending under the
τὴν δ᾽ αὖ κεφαλὴν οὔτε μόνον ὀστεΐνην ψιλὴν
δυνατὸν ἐᾶν ἦν διὰ τὴν ἐν ταῖς ὥραις ἐφ᾽
ἑκάτερον ὑπερβολήν, οὔτ᾽ αὖ συσκιασθεῖσαν
κωφὴν καὶ ἀναίσθητον διὰ τὸν τῶν σαρκῶν
ὄχλον περιιδεῖν γιγνομένην: τῆς δὴ [76α]
σαρκοειδοῦς φύσεως οὐ καταξηραινομένης
λέμμα μεῖζον περιγιγνόμενον ἐχωρίζετο, δέρμα
τὸ νῦν λεγόμενον. τοῦτο δὲ διὰ τὴν περὶ τὸν
ἐγκέφαλον νοτίδα συνιὸν αὐτὸ πρὸς αὑτὸ καὶ
βλαστάνον κύκλῳ περιημφιέννυεν τὴν
κεφαλήν: ἡ δὲ νοτὶς ὑπὸ τὰς ῥαφὰς ἀνιοῦσα
ἦρδε καὶ συνέκλεισεν αὐτὸ ἐπὶ τὴν κορυφήν,
οἷον ἅμμα συναγαγοῦσα, τὸ δὲ τῶν ῥαφῶν
παντοδαπὸν εἶδος γέγονε διὰ τὴν τῶν περιόδων
δύναμιν καὶ τῆς τροφῆς, μᾶλλον μὲν ἀλλήλοις
and of the food, and the more these struggled
against one another the more numerous they
became, and fewer if the struggle were less
violent. [76b] This skin the divine power
pierced all round with fire, and out of the
punctures which were thus made the moisture
issued forth, and the liquid and heat which was
pure came away, and a mixed part which was
composed of the same material as the skin, and
had a fineness equal to the punctures, was
borne up by its own impulse and extended far
outside the head, but being too slow to escape,
was thrust back by the external air, and rolled
up underneath the skin, where it took root.
[76c] Thus the hair sprang up in the skin, being
akin to it because it is like threads of leather,
but rendered harder and closer through the
pressure of the cold, by which each hair, while
in process of separation from the skin, is
compressed and cooled. Wherefore the creator
formed the head hairy, making use of the
causes which I have mentioned, and reflecting
also that instead of flesh the brain needed the
hair to be a light covering or guard, [76d]
which would give shade in summer and shelter
in winter, and at the same time would not
impede our quickness of perception. From the
combination of sinew, skin, and bone, in the
structure of the finger, there arises a triple
compound, which, when dried up, takes the
form of one hard skin partaking of all three
natures, and was fabricated by these second
causes, but designed by mind which is the
seams and closed down over the crown, being
drawn together as it were in a knot; and the
seams had all kinds of shapes owing to the
force of the soul's revolutions and of her food,
being more in number when these are more in
conflict with one another, and less when they
are less in conflict. [76b] And the Deity kept
puncturing all this skin round about with fire;
and when the skin was pierced and the
moisture flew out through it, all the liquid and
heat that was pure went away, but such as was
mixed with the substance whereof the skin also
was composed was lifted up by the motion and
extended far beyond the skin, being of a
fineness to match the puncture; but since it was
thrust back, because of its slowness, by the
external air that surrounded it, it coiled itself
round inside and rooted itself under the skin.
[76c] Such, then, were the processes by which
hair grew in the skin, it being a cord-like
species akin to the skin but harder and denser
owing to the constriction of the cold, whereby
each hair as it separated off from the skin was
chilled and constricted. Making use, then, of
the causes mentioned our Maker fashioned the
head shaggy with hair, purposing that, in place
of flesh, the hair should serve as a light roofing
for the part about the brain for safety's sake,
[76d] providing a sufficient shade and screen
alike in summer and in winter, while proving
no obstacle in the way of easy perception. And
at the place in the fingers where sinew and skin
and bone were interlaced there was formed a
μαχομένων τούτων πλείους, [76β] ἧττον δὲ
ἐλάττους. τοῦτο δὴ πᾶν τὸ δέρμα κύκλῳ
κατεκέντει πυρὶ τὸ θεῖον, τρηθέντος δὲ καὶ τῆς
ἰκμάδος ἔξω δι᾽ αὐτοῦ φερομένης τὸ μὲν ὑγρὸν
καὶ θερμὸν ὅσον εἰλικρινὲς ἀπῄειν, τὸ δὲ
μεικτὸν ἐξ ὧν καὶ τὸ δέρμα ἦν, αἰρόμενον μὲν
ὑπὸ τῆς φορᾶς ἔξω μακρὸν ἐτείνετο, λεπτότητα
ἴσην ἔχον τῷ κατακεντήματι, διὰ δὲ βραδυτῆτα
ἀπωθούμενον ὑπὸ τοῦ περιεστῶτος ἔξωθεν
πνεύματος πάλιν ἐντὸς ὑπὸ τὸ δέρμα [76ξ]
εἱλλόμενον κατερριζοῦτο: καὶ κατὰ ταῦτα δὴ
τὰ πάθη τὸ τριχῶν γένος ἐν τῷ δέρματι
πέφυκεν, συγγενὲς μὲν ἱμαντῶδες ὂν αὐτοῦ,
σκληρότερον δὲ καὶ πυκνότερον τῇ πιλήσει τῆς
ψύξεως, ἣν ἀποχωριζομένη δέρματος ἑκάστη
θρὶξ ψυχθεῖσα συνεπιλήθη. τούτῳ δὴ λασίαν
ἡμῶν ἀπηργάσατο τὴν κεφαλὴν ὁ ποιῶν,
χρώμενος μὲν αἰτίοις τοῖς εἰρημένοις,
διανοούμενος δὲ ἀντὶ σαρκὸς αὐτὸ δεῖν εἶναι
στέγασμα τῆς [76δ] περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον ἕνεκα
ἀσφαλείας κοῦφον καὶ θέρους χειμῶνός τε
ἱκανὸν
σκιὰν
καὶ
σκέπην
παρέχειν,
εὐαισθησίας δὲ οὐδὲν διακώλυμα ἐμποδὼν
γενησόμενον. τὸ δ᾽ ἐν τῇ περὶ τοὺς δακτύλους
καταπλοκῇ τοῦ νεύρου καὶ τοῦ δέρματος
ὀστοῦ τε, συμμειχθὲν ἐκ τριῶν, ἀποξηρανθὲν
ἓν κοινὸν συμπάντων σκληρὸν γέγονεν δέρμα,
τοῖς μὲν συναιτίοις τούτοις δημιουργηθέν, τῇ
δὲ αἰτιωτάτῃ διανοίᾳ τῶν ἔπειτα ἐσομένων
ἕνεκα εἰργασμένον. ὡς γάρ ποτε ἐξ ἀνδρῶν
γυναῖκες καὶ τἆλλα [76ε] θηρία γενήσοιντο,
ἠπίσταντο οἱ συνιστάντες ἡμᾶς, καὶ δὴ καὶ τῆς
τῶν ὀνύχων χρείας ὅτι πολλὰ τῶν θρεμμάτων
principal cause with an eye to the future. For
our creators well knew that women [76e] and
other animals would some day be framed out
of men, and they further knew that many
animals would require the use of nails for
many purposes; wherefore they fashioned in
men at their first creation the rudiments of
nails. For this purpose and for these reasons
they caused skin, hair, and nails to grow at the
extremities of the limbs.
material blended of these three; and this when
it was dried off became a single hard skin
compounded of them all and whereas these
were the auxiliary causes145 whereby it was
fashioned, it was wrought by the greatest of
causes, divine Purpose, for the sake of what
should come to pass hereafter. For those who
were constructing us knew that out of men
women should one day spring [76e] and all
other animals146; and they understood,
moreover, that many of these creatures would
need for many purposes the help of nails;
wherefore they impressed upon men at their
very birth the rudimentary structure of fingernails. Upon this account and with these designs
they caused skin to grow into hair and nails
upon the extremities of the limbs.
καὶ ἐπὶ πολλὰ δεήσοιτο ᾔδεσαν, ὅθεν ἐν
ἀνθρώποις εὐθὺς γιγνομένοις ὑπετυπώσαντο
τὴν τῶν ὀνύχων γένεσιν.
And now that all the parts and members of the
mortal animal had come together, [77a] since
its life of necessity consisted of fire and breath,
and it therefore wasted away by dissolution
and depletion, the gods contrived the following
remedy: They mingled a nature akin to that of
man with other forms and perceptions, and
thus created another kind of animal. These are
the trees and plants and seeds which have been
improved by cultivation and are now
domesticated among us; anciently there were
only the wild kinds, [77b] which are older than
the cultivated. For everything that partakes of
And when all the limbs and parts of the mortal
living creature had been naturally joined
together, [77a] it was so that of necessity its
life consisted in fire and air; and because of
this it wasted away when dissolved by these
elements or left empty thereby; wherefore the
Gods contrived succour for the creature.
Blending it with other shapes and senses they
engendered a substance akin to that of man, so
as to form another living creature: such are the
cultivated trees and plants and seeds which
have been trained by husbandry and are now
domesticated amongst us; but formerly the
τούτῳ δὴ τῷ λόγῳ καὶ ταῖς προφάσεσιν ταύταις
δέρμα τρίχας ὄνυχάς τε ἐπ᾽ ἄκροις τοῖς κώλοις
ἔφυσαν. [77α] μέρη καὶ μέλη, τὴν δὲ ζωὴν ἐν
πυρὶ καὶ πνεύματι συνέβαινεν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἔχειν
αὐτῷ, καὶ διὰ ταῦτα ὑπὸ τούτων τηκόμενον
κενούμενόν τ᾽ ἔφθινεν, βοήθειαν αὐτῷ θεοὶ
μηχανῶνται. τῆς γὰρ ἀνθρωπίνης συγγενῆ
φύσεως φύσιν ἄλλαις ἰδέαις καὶ αἰσθήσεσιν
κεραννύντες, ὥσθ᾽ ἕτερον ζῷον εἶναι,
φυτεύουσιν: ἃ δὴ νῦν ἥμερα δένδρα καὶ φυτὰ
καὶ σπέρματα παιδευθέντα ὑπὸ γεωργίας
τιθασῶς πρὸς ἡμᾶς ἔσχεν, πρὶν δὲ ἦν μόνα τὰ
[77β] τῶν ἀγρίων γένη, πρεσβύτερα τῶν
145 Cf. 68 E f.
146 Cf. 90 E ff.
life may be truly called a living being, and the
animal of which we are now speaking partakes
of the third kind of soul, which is said to be
seated between the midriff and the navel,
having no part in opinion or reason or mind,
but only in feelings of pleasure and pain and
the desires which accompany them. For this
nature is always in a passive state, revolving in
and about itself, repelling the motion from
without [77c] and using its own, and
accordingly is not endowed by nature with the
power of observing or reflecting on its own
concerns. Wherefore it lives and does not differ
from a living being, but is fixed and rooted in
the same spot, having no power of self-motion.
wild kinds only existed, [77b] these being older
than the cultivated kinds. For everything, in
fact, which partakes of life may justly and with
perfect truth be termed a living creature.
Certainly that creature which we are now
describing partakes of the third kind of soul,
which is seated, as we affirm, between the
midriff and the navel,147 and which shares not
at all in opinion and reasoning and mind but in
sensation, pleasant and painful, together with
desires. For inasmuch as it continues wholly
passive and does not turn within itself around
itself, repelling motion from without [77c] and
using its own native motion, it is not endowed
by its original constitution with a natural
capacity for discerning or reflecting upon any
of its own experiences. Wherefore it lives
indeed and is not other than a living creature,
but it remains stationary and rooted down
owing to its being deprived of the power of
self-movement.
ἡμέρων ὄντα. πᾶν γὰρ οὖν ὅτιπερ ἂν μετάσχῃ
τοῦ ζῆν, ζῷον μὲν ἂν ἐν δίκῃ λέγοιτο
ὀρθότατα: μετέχει γε μὴν τοῦτο ὃ νῦν λέγομεν
τοῦ τρίτου ψυχῆς εἴδους, ὃ μεταξὺ φρενῶν
ὀμφαλοῦ τε ἱδρῦσθαι λόγος, ᾧ δόξης μὲν
λογισμοῦ τε καὶ νοῦ μέτεστιν τὸ μηδέν,
αἰσθήσεως δὲ ἡδείας καὶ ἀλγεινῆς μετὰ
ἐπιθυμιῶν. πάσχον γὰρ διατελεῖ πάντα,
στραφέντι δ᾽ αὐτῷ ἐν ἑαυτῷ περὶ ἑαυτό, τὴν
[77ξ] μὲν ἔξωθεν ἀπωσαμένῳ κίνησιν, τῇ δ᾽
οἰκείᾳ χρησαμένῳ, τῶν αὑτοῦ τι λογίσασθαι
κατιδόντι φύσει οὐ παραδέδωκεν ἡ γένεσις. διὸ
δὴ ζῇ μὲν ἔστιν τε οὐχ ἕτερον ζῴου, μόνιμον
δὲ καὶ κατερριζωμένον πέπηγεν διὰ τὸ τῆς ὑφ᾽
ἑαυτοῦ κινήσεως ἐστερῆσθαι.
Now after the superior powers had created all
these natures to be food for us who are of the
inferior nature, they cut various channels
through the body as through a garden, that it
might be watered as from a running stream. In
the first place, [77d] they cut two hidden
channels or veins down the back where the
skin and the flesh join, which answered
severally to the right and left side of the body.
And when our Superiors had generated all
these kinds as nutriment for us inferior beings,
they channelled out our body itself, like as if
they were cutting channels in gardens, to the
end that it might be irrigated as it were by an
inflowing stream. And firstly, beneath the
junction [77d] of the skin and flesh they cut for
hidden channels two veins148 along the back,
seeing that the body was in fact double, with
ταῦτα δὴ τὰ γένη πάντα φυτεύσαντες οἱ
κρείττους τοῖς ἥττοσιν ἡμῖν τροφήν, τὸ σῶμα
αὐτὸ ἡμῶν διωχέτευσαν τέμνοντες οἷον ἐν
κήποις ὀχετούς, ἵνα ὥσπερ ἐκ νάματος
ἐπιόντος ἄρδοιτο. καὶ πρῶτον μὲν ὀχετοὺς
κρυφαίους ὑπὸ [77δ] τὴν σύμφυσιν τοῦ
δέρματος καὶ τῆς σαρκὸς δύο φλέβας ἔτεμον
νωτιαίας, δίδυμον ὡς τὸ σῶμα ἐτύγχανεν
δεξιοῖς τε καὶ ἀριστεροῖς ὄν: ταύτας δὲ
147 Cf. 70 D ff., 72 E ff.
148 i.e., the aorta and the vena cava. The distinction between veins and arteries was unknown in Plato's time.
These they let down along the backbone, so as
to have the marrow of generation between
them, where it was most likely to flourish, and
in order that the stream coming down from
above might flow freely to the other parts, and
equalise the irrigation. In the next place, [77e]
they divided the veins about the head, and
interlacing them, they sent them in opposite
directions; those coming from the right side
they sent to the left of the body, and those from
the left they diverted towards the right, so that
they and the skin might together form a bond
which should fasten the head to the body, since
the crown of the head was not encircled by
sinews; and also in order that the sensations
from both sides might be distributed over the
whole body. [78a] And next, they ordered the
water-courses of the body in a manner which I
will describe, and which will be more easily
understood if we begin by admitting that all
things which have lesser parts retain the
greater, but the greater cannot retain the lesser.
Now of all natures fire has the smallest parts,
and therefore penetrates through earth and
water and air and their compounds, nor can
anything hold it. And a similar principle
applies to the human belly; for when meats and
drinks enter it, [78b] it holds them, but it
cannot hold air and fire, because the particles
of which they consist are smaller than its own
structure. These elements, therefore, God
employed for the sake of distributing moisture
149 Cf. 56 A, 58 A ff.
right side and left; and these they drew down
along by the spine, keeping between them the
spermatic marrow, in order that this might
thrive as much as possible, and that the stream
of moisture from there, being in a downward
course, might flow easily to the other parts and
cause the irrigation to be uniform. After this
[77e] they clave the veins round the head and
interlaced them, and drew them opposite ways,
bending those from the right of the head to the
left and those from the left to the right, in order
that they, together with the skin, might serve as
a bond between the head and the body, seeing
that the head was not encircled by sinews at the
crown; and in order, also, that the senseimpressions derived from the parts on either
side might be manifest to the whole body.
[78a] Thereupon they arranged the irrigation
on some such plan as this—a plan which we
shall perceive more easily when we have first
agreed upon the following postulates. All
bodies composed of smaller particles shut in
the larger, but those composed of larger
particles cannot shut in the smaller; and fire,
because of all the elements it has the smallest
particles,149 passes through water and earth and
air and all things composed thereof, and
nothing can shut it in. We must conceive that
the same law holds good of the action of our
belly. Whenever foods and drinks flow into it
[78b] it shuts them in, but air and fire, being of
smaller particles than its own structure, it
καθῆκαν παρὰ τὴν ῥάχιν, καὶ τὸν γόνιμον
μεταξὺ λαβόντες μυελόν, ἵνα οὗτός τε ὅτι
μάλιστα θάλλοι, καὶ ἐπὶ τἆλλα εὔρους ἐντεῦθεν
ἅτε ἐπὶ κάταντες ἡ ἐπίχυσις γιγνομένη παρέχοι
τὴν ὑδρείαν ὁμαλήν. μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα σχίσαντες
περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν τὰς φλέβας καὶ δι᾽ [77ε]
ἀλλήλων ἐναντίας πλέξαντες διεῖσαν, τὰς μὲν
ἐκ τῶν δεξιῶν ἐπὶ τἀριστερὰ τοῦ σώματος, τὰς
δ᾽ ἐκ τῶν ἀριστερῶν ἐπὶ τὰ δεξιὰ κλίναντες,
ὅπως δεσμὸς ἅμα τῇ κεφαλῇ πρὸς τὸ σῶμα εἴη
μετὰ τοῦ δέρματος, ἐπειδὴ νεύροις οὐκ ἦν
κύκλῳ κατὰ κορυφὴν περιειλημμένη, καὶ δὴ
καὶ τὸ τῶν αἰσθήσεων πάθος ἵν᾽ ἀφ᾽ ἑκατέρων
τῶν μερῶν εἰς ἅπαν τὸ σῶμα εἴη διάδηλον. τὸ
δ᾽
ἐντεῦθεν
ἤδη
τὴν
ὑδραγωγίαν
παρεσκεύασαν τρόπῳ τινὶ [78α] τοιῷδε, ὃν
κατοψόμεθα ῥᾷον προδιομολογησάμενοι τὸ
τοιόνδε, ὅτι πάντα ὅσα ἐξ ἐλαττόνων
συνίσταται στέγει τὰ μείζω, τὰ δὲ ἐκ μειζόνων
τὰ σμικρότερα οὐ δύναται, πῦρ δὲ πάντων
γενῶν σμικρομερέστατον, ὅθεν δι᾽ ὕδατος καὶ
γῆς ἀέρος τε καὶ ὅσα ἐκ τούτων συνίσταται
διαχωρεῖ καὶ στέγειν οὐδὲν αὐτὸ δύναται.
ταὐτὸν δὴ καὶ περὶ τῆς παρ᾽ ἡμῖν κοιλίας
διανοητέον, ὅτι σιτία μὲν καὶ ποτὰ ὅταν εἰς
αὐτὴν ἐμπέσῃ, [78β] στέγει, πνεῦμα δὲ καὶ πῦρ
σμικρομερέστερα ὄντα τῆς αὑτῆς συστάσεως
οὐ δύναται. τούτοις οὖν κατεχρήσατο ὁ θεὸς
εἰς τὴν ἐκ τῆς κοιλίας ἐπὶ τὰς φλέβας ὑδρείαν,
πλέγμα ἐξ ἀέρος καὶ πυρὸς οἷον οἱ κύρτοι
συνυφηνάμενος, διπλᾶ κατὰ τὴν εἴσοδον
ἐγκύρτια ἔχον, ὧν θάτερον αὖ πάλιν διέπλεξεν
from the belly into the veins, weaving together
network of fire and air like a weel, having at
the entrance two lesser weels; further he
constructed one of these with two openings,
and from the lesser weels he extended cords
reaching all round to the extremities of the
network. All the interior of the net [78c] he
made of fire, but the lesser weels and their
cavity, of air. The network he took and spread
over the newly-formed animal in the following
manner: — He let the lesser weels pass into the
mouth; there were two of them, and one he let
down by the air-pipes into the lungs, the other
by the side of the air-pipes into the belly. The
former he divided into two branches, both of
which he made to meet at the channels of the
nose, so that when the way through the mouth
did not act, [78d] the streams of the mouth as
well were replenished through the nose. With
the other cavity (i.e. of the greater weel) he
enveloped the hollow parts of the body, and at
one time he made all this to flow into the lesser
weels, quite gently, for they are composed of
air, and at another time he caused the lesser
weels to flow back again; and the net he made
to find a way in and out through the pores of
the body, and the rays of fire which are bound
fast within followed the passage of the air
either way, never at any time ceasing so long as
the mortal being holds together. [78e] This
process, as we affirm, the name-giver named
inspiration and expiration. And all this
movement, active as well as passive, takes
cannot shut in. These elements, therefore, God
employed to provide irrigation from the belly
to the veins, weaving out of air and fire a veil
of mesh-work like unto a fish-weel, having two
innerweels at its entrance; and one of these
inner-weels He wove over again so as to make
it bifurcated; and from the inner-weels He
stretched as it were ropes all over it in a circle
up to the extremities of the veil. Now the
inward parts of the veil [78c] He constructed
wholly of fire, but the inner-weels and the
envelope of air; and taking this He placed it
round about the living creature that was
molded in the following manner. The part
consisting of the inner-weels He let down into
the mouth; and since this part was twofold, He
let down one inner-weel by way of the
windpipe into the lungs, and the other into the
belly alongside the windpipe. And cleaving the
former of these weels in two He gave to both
sections a common outlet by way of the
channels of the nose, so that when the first
conduit by way of the mouth failed to act,
[78d] its streams as well should be plenished
from this. The rest of the enveloping meshwork He made to grow round all the hollow
part of our body; and He caused all this at one
time to flow gently into the inner-weels, seeing
they were of air, and at another time the weels
to flow back into it. And inasmuch as the body
was porous, He caused the veil to pass in
through it and out again; and the inner rays of
fire that were enclosed within it He made to
δίκρουν: καὶ ἀπὸ τῶν ἐγκυρτίων δὴ διετείνατο
οἷον σχοίνους κύκλῳ διὰ παντὸς πρὸς τὰ
ἔσχατα τοῦ πλέγματος. τὰ μὲν [78ξ] οὖν ἔνδον
ἐκ πυρὸς συνεστήσατο τοῦ πλοκάνου ἅπαντα,
τὰ δ᾽ ἐγκύρτια καὶ τὸ κύτος ἀεροειδῆ, καὶ
λαβὼν αὐτὸ περιέστησεν τῷ πλασθέντι ζῴῳ
τρόπον τοιόνδε. τὸ μὲν τῶν ἐγκυρτίων εἰς τὸ
στόμα μεθῆκεν: διπλοῦ δὲ ὄντος αὐτοῦ κατὰ
μὲν τὰς ἀρτηρίας εἰς τὸν πλεύμονα καθῆκεν
θάτερον, τὸ δ᾽ εἰς τὴν κοιλίαν παρὰ τὰς
ἀρτηρίας: τὸ δ᾽ ἕτερον σχίσας τὸ μέρος
ἑκάτερον κατὰ τοὺς ὀχετοὺς τῆς ῥινὸς ἀφῆκεν
κοινόν, ὥσθ᾽ ὅτε μὴ κατὰ στόμα ἴοι θάτερον,
ἐκ τούτου πάντα καὶ τὰ [78δ] ἐκείνου ῥεύματα
ἀναπληροῦσθαι. τὸ δὲ ἄλλο κύτος τοῦ κύρτου
περὶ τὸ σῶμα ὅσον κοῖλον ἡμῶν περιέφυσεν,
καὶ πᾶν δὴ τοῦτο τοτὲ μὲν εἰς τὰ ἐγκύρτια
συρρεῖν μαλακῶς, ἅτε ἀέρα ὄντα, ἐποίησεν,
τοτὲ δὲ ἀναρρεῖν μὲν τὰ ἐγκύρτια, τὸ δὲ
πλέγμα, ὡς ὄντος τοῦ σώματος μανοῦ, δύεσθαι
εἴσω δι᾽ αὐτοῦ καὶ πάλιν ἔξω, τὰς δὲ ἐντὸς τοῦ
πυρὸς ἀκτῖνας διαδεδεμένας ἀκολουθεῖν ἐφ᾽
ἑκάτερα ἰόντος τοῦ ἀέρος, καὶ τοῦτο, [78ε]
ἕωσπερ ἂν τὸ θνητὸν συνεστήκῃ ζῷον, μὴ
διαπαύεσθαι γιγνόμενον: τούτῳ δὲ δὴ τῷ γένει
τὸν τὰς ἐπωνυμίας θέμενον ἀναπνοὴν καὶ
ἐκπνοὴν λέγομεν θέσθαι τοὔνομα. πᾶν δὲ δὴ τό
τ᾽ ἔργον καὶ τὸ πάθος τοῦθ᾽ ἡμῶν τῷ σώματι
γέγονεν
ἀρδομένῳ
καὶ
ἀναψυχομένῳ
τρέφεσθαι καὶ ζῆν: ὁπόταν γὰρ εἴσω καὶ ἔξω
τῆς ἀναπνοῆς ἰούσης τὸ πῦρ ἐντὸς συνημμένον
ἕπηται, διαιωρούμενον δὲ ἀεὶ διὰ τῆς κοιλίας
εἰσελθὸν τὰ [79α] σιτία καὶ ποτὰ λάβῃ, τήκει
place in order that the body, being watered and
cooled, may receive nourishment and life; for
when the respiration is going in and out, and
the fire, which is fast bound within, follows it,
and ever and anon moving to and fro, enters
through the belly [79a] and reaches the meat
and drink, it dissolves them, and dividing them
into small portions and guiding them through
the passages where it goes, pumps them as
from a fountain into the channels of the veins,
and makes the stream of the veins flow through
the body as through a conduit.
follow the air as it moved in either direction;
whence it comes that, so long as the mortal
living creature preserves its structure, this
process goes on unceasingly. [78e] And to this
kind of process the Giver of Titles 150 gave, as
we say, the names of “inspiration” and
“expiration.” And the whole of this mechanism
and its effects have been created in order to
secure nourishment and life for our body, by
means of moistening and cooling. For as the
respiration goes in and out the inward fire
attached thereto follows it; and whenever in its
constant oscillations this fire enters in through
the belly [79a] and lays hold on the meats and
drinks, it dissolves them, and dividing them
into small particles it disperses them through
the outlets by which it passes and draws them
off to the veins, like water drawn into channels
from a spring; and thus it causes the streams of
the veins to flow through the body as through a
pipe.
δή, καὶ κατὰ σμικρὰ διαιροῦν, διὰ τῶν ἐξόδων
ᾗπερ πορεύεται διάγον, οἷον ἐκ κρήνης ἐπ᾽
ὀχετοὺς ἐπὶ τὰς φλέβας ἀντλοῦν αὐτά, ῥεῖν
ὥσπερ αὐλῶνος διὰ τοῦ σώματος τὰ τῶν
φλεβῶν ποιεῖ ῥεύματα.
Let us once more consider the phenomena of
respiration, and enquire into the causes which
have made it what it is. [79b] They are as
follows: — Seeing that there is no such thing
as a vacuum into which any of those things
which are moved can enter, and the breath is
carried from us into the external air, the next
point is, as will be dear to every one, that it
does not go into a vacant space, but pushes its
Once again let us consider the process of
respiration, and the causes in virtue of which it
has come to be such as it now is. [79b] This,
then, is the way of it. Inasmuch as no void
exists151 into which any of the moving bodies
could enter, while the breath from us moves
outwards, what follows is plain to everyone—
namely, that the breath does not enter a void
but pushes the adjacent body from its seat; and
πάλιν δὲ τὸ τῆς ἀναπνοῆς ἴδωμεν πάθος, αἷς
χρώμενον αἰτίαις τοιοῦτον γέγονεν οἷόνπερ τὰ
νῦν ἐστιν. ὧδ᾽ οὖν. [79β] ἐπειδὴ κενὸν οὐδέν
ἐστιν εἰς ὃ τῶν φερομένων δύναιτ᾽ ἂν
εἰσελθεῖν τι, τὸ δὲ πνεῦμα φέρεται παρ᾽ ἡμῶν
ἔξω, τὸ μετὰ τοῦτο ἤδη παντὶ δῆλον ὡς οὐκ εἰς
κενόν, ἀλλὰ τὸ πλησίον ἐκ τῆς ἕδρας ὠθεῖ: τὸ
δ᾽ ὠθούμενον ἐξελαύνει τὸ πλησίον ἀεί, καὶ
κατὰ
ταύτην
τὴν
ἀνάγκην
πᾶν
150 A mythical figure, like Adam in Gen. 11. 19-20; Cf. Cratyl. 438-439.
151 Cf. 58 A.
neighbour out of its place, and that which is
thrust out in turn drives out its neighbour; and
in this everything of necessity at last comes
round to that place from whence the breath
came forth, and enters in there, and following
the breath, fills up the vacant space; and this
goes on like the rotation of a wheel, because
there can be no such thing as a vacuum. [79c]
Wherefore also the breast and the lungs, when
they emit the breath, are replenished by the air
which surrounds the body and which enters in
through the pores of the flesh and is driven
round in a circle; and again, the air which is
sent away and passes out through the body
forces the breath inwards through the passage
of the mouth and the nostrils. Now the origin
[79d] of this movement may be supposed to be
as follows. In the interior of every animal the
hottest part is that which is around the blood
and veins; it is in a manner on internal fountain
of fire, which we compare to the network of a
creel, being woven all of fire and extended
through the centre of the body, while the outer
parts are composed of air. Now we must admit
that heat naturally proceeds outward to its own
place and to its kindred element; and as there
are two exits for the heat, the out through the
body, [79e] and the other through the mouth
and nostrils, when it moves towards the one, it
drives round the air at the other, and that which
is driven round falls into the fire and becomes
warm, and that which goes forth is cooled. But
when the heat changes its place, and the
the body thus displaced drives out in turn the
next; and by this law of necessity every such
body is driven round towards the seat from
which the breath went out and enters therein,
filling it up and following the breath; and all
this takes place as one simultaneous process,
like a revolving wheel, because that no void
exists. [79c] Wherefore the region of the chest
and that of the lungs when they let out the
breath become filled again by the air
surrounding the body, which filters in through
the porous flesh and circulates round. And
again, when the air is repelled and passes out
through the body it pushes the inspired air
round and in by way of the passages of the
mouth and of the nostrils. The originating
cause [79d] of these processes we must assume
to be this. Every living creature has its inward
parts round the blood and the veins extremely
hot, as it were a fount of fire residing within it;
and this region we have, in fact, likened to the
envelope of the fish-weel, saying that all that
was extended at its middle was woven of fire,
whereas all the other and outward parts were of
air. Now we must agree that heat, by Nature's
law, goes out into its own region to its kindred
substance; and inasmuch as there are two
outlets, the one out by way of the body, [79e]
the other by way of the mouth and the nose,
whenever the fire rushes in one direction it
propels the air round to the other, and the air
which is thus propelled round becomes heated
by streaming into the fire, whereas the air
περιελαυνόμενον εἰς τὴν ἕδραν ὅθεν ἐξῆλθεν
τὸ πνεῦμα, εἰσιὸν ἐκεῖσε καὶ ἀναπληροῦν
αὐτὴν συνέπεται τῷ πνεύματι, καὶ τοῦτο ἅμα
πᾶν [79ξ] οἷον τροχοῦ περιαγομένου γίγνεται
διὰ τὸ κενὸν μηδὲν εἶναι. διὸ δὴ τὸ τῶν στηθῶν
καὶ τὸ τοῦ πλεύμονος ἔξω μεθιὲν τὸ πνεῦμα
πάλιν ὑπὸ τοῦ περὶ τὸ σῶμα ἀέρος, εἴσω διὰ
μανῶν
τῶν
σαρκῶν
δυομένου
καὶ
περιελαυνομένου, γίγνεται πλῆρες: αὖθις δὲ
ἀποτρεπόμενος ὁ ἀὴρ καὶ διὰ τοῦ σώματος ἔξω
ἰὼν εἴσω τὴν ἀναπνοὴν περιωθεῖ κατὰ τὴν τοῦ
στόματος καὶ τὴν τῶν μυκτήρων δίοδον. τὴν δ᾽
αἰτίαν τῆς ἀρχῆς αὐτῶν θετέον [79δ] τήνδε.
πᾶν ζῷον αὑτοῦ τἀντὸς περὶ τὸ αἷμα καὶ τὰς
φλέβας θερμότατα ἔχει, οἷον ἐν ἑαυτῷ πηγήν
τινα ἐνοῦσαν πυρός: ὃ δὴ καὶ προσῃκάζομεν
τῷ τοῦ κύρτου πλέγματι, κατὰ μέσον
διατεταμένον ἐκ πυρὸς πεπλέχθαι πᾶν, τὰ δὲ
ἄλλα ὅσα ἔξωθεν, ἀέρος. τὸ θερμὸν δὴ κατὰ
φύσιν εἰς τὴν αὑτοῦ χώραν ἔξω πρὸς τὸ
συγγενὲς ὁμολογητέον ἰέναι: δυοῖν δὲ τοῖν
διεξόδοιν οὔσαιν, τῆς μὲν κατὰ τὸ σῶμα ἔξω,
τῆς δὲ αὖ [79ε] κατὰ τὸ στόμα καὶ τὰς ῥῖνας,
ὅταν μὲν ἐπὶ θάτερα ὁρμήσῃ, θάτερα περιωθεῖ,
τὸ δὲ περιωσθὲν εἰς τὸ πῦρ ἐμπῖπτον
θερμαίνεται,
τὸ
δ᾽
ἐξιὸν
ψύχεται.
μεταβαλλούσης δὲ τῆς θερμότητος καὶ τῶν
κατὰ τὴν ἑτέραν ἔξοδον θερμοτέρων
γιγνομένων πάλιν ἐκείνῃ ῥέπον αὖ τὸ
θερμότερον μᾶλλον, πρὸς τὴν αὑτοῦ φύσιν
φερόμενον, περιωθεῖ τὸ κατὰ θάτερα: τὸ δὲ τὰ
αὐτὰ πάσχον καὶ τὰ αὐτὰ ἀνταποδιδὸν ἀεί,
κύκλον οὕτω σαλευόμενον ἔνθα καὶ ἔνθα
particles at the other exit grow warmer, the
hotter air inclining in that direction and carried
towards its native element, fire, pushes round
the air at the other; and this being affected in
the same way and communicating the same
impulse, a circular motion swaying to and from
is produced by the double process, which we
call inspiration and expiration.
which passes out becomes cooled. And as the
heat changes its situation and the particles
about the other outlet become hotter, the hotter
body in its turn tends in that direction, and
moving towards its own substance propels
round the air which is at the former outlet; and
thus the air, by continually undergoing and
transmitting the same affections, causes
inspiration and expiration to come about as a
result of this double process, as it were a wheel
that oscillates backwards and forwards.
ἀπειργασμένον ὑπ᾽ ἀμφοτέρων τὴν ἀναπνοὴν
καὶ ἐκπνοὴν γίγνεσθαι παρέχεται.
The phenomena of medical cupping-glasses
[80a] and of the swallowing of drink and of the
projection of bodies, whether discharged in the
air or bowled along the ground, are to be
investigated on a similar principle; and swift
and slow sounds, which appear to be high and
low, and are sometimes discordant on account
of their inequality, and then again harmonical
on account of the equality of the motion which
they excite in us. For when the motions of the
antecedent swifter sounds begin to pause [80b]
and the two are equalised, the slower sounds
overtake the swifter and then propel them.
When they overtake them they do not intrude a
new and discordant motion, but introduce the
beginnings of a slower, which answers to the
swifter as it dies away, thus producing a single
mixed expression out of high and low, whence
arises a pleasure which even the unwise feel,
and which to the wise becomes a higher sort of
Moreover, we must trace out in this way the
causes of the phenomena connected with
medical cupping-glasses, [80a] and the causes
of deglutition, and of projectiles, whether
discharged aloft or flying over the surface of
the earth; and the causes also of all the
sounds152 which because of their quickness or
slowness seem shrill or deep, and the
movement of which is at one time discordant
because of the irregularity of the motion they
cause within us, and at another time concordant
because of its regularity. For the slower sounds
overtake the motions of the earlier and quicker
sounds when the latter begin to stop [80b] and
have already fallen to a speed similar to that
with which the slower sounds collide with
them afterwards and move them; and when the
slower overtake the quicker sounds they do not
perturb them by imposing upon them a
different motion, but they attach to them the
καὶ δὴ καὶ τὰ τῶν περὶ τὰς ἰατρικὰς σικύας
παθημάτων [80α] αἴτια καὶ τὰ τῆς καταπόσεως
τά τε τῶν ῥιπτουμένων, ὅσα ἀφεθέντα μετέωρα
καὶ ὅσα ἐπὶ γῆς φέρεται, ταύτῃ διωκτέον, καὶ
ὅσοι φθόγγοι ταχεῖς τε καὶ βραδεῖς ὀξεῖς τε καὶ
βαρεῖς φαίνονται, τοτὲ μὲν ἀνάρμοστοι
φερόμενοι δι᾽ ἀνομοιότητα τῆς ἐν ἡμῖν ὑπ᾽
αὐτῶν κινήσεως, τοτὲ δὲ σύμφωνοι δι᾽
ὁμοιότητα. τὰς γὰρ τῶν προτέρων καὶ
θαττόνων
οἱ
βραδύτεροι
κινήσεις
ἀποπαυομένας ἤδη τε εἰς ὅμοιον ἐληλυθυίας,
[80β] αἷς ὕστερον αὐτοὶ προσφερόμενοι
κινοῦσιν
ἐκείνας,
καταλαμβάνουσιν,
καταλαμβάνοντες δὲ οὐκ ἄλλην ἐπεμβάλλοντες
ἀνετάραξαν κίνησιν, ἀλλ᾽ ἀρχὴν βραδυτέρας
φορᾶς κατὰ τὴν τῆς θάττονος, ἀποληγούσης
δέ, ὁμοιότητα προσάψαντες, μίαν ἐξ ὀξείας καὶ
βαρείας συνεκεράσαντο πάθην: ὅθεν ἡδονὴν
μὲν τοῖς ἄφροσιν, εὐφροσύνην δὲ τοῖς
ἔμφροσιν διὰ τὴν τῆς θείας ἁρμονίας μίμησιν
152 Cf. 67 A ff.
delight, being an imitation of divine harmony
in mortal motions. Moreover, as to the flowing
of water, the fall [80c] of the thunderbolt, and
the marvels that are observed about the
attraction of amber and the Heraclean stones,
— in none of these cases is there any
attraction; but he who investigates rightly, will
find that such wonderful phenomena are
attributable to the combination of certain
conditions — the non-existence of a vacuum,
the fact that objects push one another round,
and that they change places, passing severally
into their proper positions as they are divided
or combined
beginning of a slower motion in accord with
that which was quicker but is tending to cease;
and thus from shrill and deep they blend one
single sensation, furnishing pleasure thereby to
the unintelligent, and to the intelligent that
intellectual delight153 which is caused by the
imitation of the divine harmony154 manifested
in mortal motions. Furthermore, as regards all
flowings of waters, and fallings [80c] of
thunderbolts, and the marvels concerning the
attraction of electron155 and of the Heraclean
stone156—not one of all these ever possesses
any real power of attraction; but the fact that
there is no void, and that these bodies propel
themselves round one into another, and that
according as they separate or unite they all
exchange places and proceed severally each to
its own region,—it is by means of these
complex and reciprocal processes that such
marvels are wrought, as will be evident to him
who investigates them properly.
ἐν θνηταῖς γενομένην φοραῖς παρέσχον. καὶ δὴ
καὶ τὰ τῶν ὑδάτων πάντα ῥεύματα, ἔτι δὲ [80ξ]
τὰ τῶν κεραυνῶν πτώματα καὶ τὰ
θαυμαζόμενα ἠλέκτρων περὶ τῆς ἕλξεως καὶ
τῶν Ἡρακλείων λίθων, πάντων τούτων ὁλκὴ
μὲν οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδενί ποτε, τὸ δὲ κενὸν εἶναι
μηδὲν περιωθεῖν τε αὑτὰ ταῦτα εἰς ἄλληλα, τό
τε διακρινόμενα καὶ συγκρινόμενα πρὸς τὴν
αὑτῶν διαμειβόμενα ἕδραν ἕκαστα ἰέναι
πάντα, τούτοις τοῖς παθήμασιν πρὸς ἄλληλα
συμπλεχθεῖσιν τεθαυματουργημένα τῷ κατὰ
τρόπον ζητοῦντι φανήσεται.
[80d] Such as we have seen, is the nature and
such are the causes of respiration — the
subject in which this discussion originated. For
the fire cuts the food and following the breath
surges up within, fire and breath rising together
and filling the veins by drawing up out of the
[80d] Moreover, the process of respiration—
with which our account commenced—came
about, as we previously stated, in this manner
and by these means. The fire divides the foods,
and rises through the body following after the
breath; and as it rises, with the breath it fills the
[80δ] καὶ δὴ καὶ τὸ τῆς ἀναπνοῆς, ὅθεν ὁ λόγος
ὥρμησεν, κατὰ ταῦτα καὶ διὰ τούτων γέγονεν,
ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς πρόσθεν εἴρηται, τέμνοντος μὲν
τὰ σιτία τοῦ πυρός, αἰωρουμένου δὲ ἐντὸς τῷ
πνεύματι συνεπομένου, τὰς φλέβας τε ἐκ τῆς
κοιλίας τῇ συναιωρήσει πληροῦντος τῷ τὰ
153 εὐφροσύνη (quasi εὐφεροσύνη), derived from φέρω, φορά（“motion”); Cf. Cratyl. 419 D. The two kinds of sound, quicker and slower, are
supposed to be blended by the time they reach the ear.
154 Cf. 47 C ff.
155 i.e., amber.
156 i.e., the loadstone or magnet; Cf. Ion533 D.
belly and pouring into them the cut portions of
the food; and so the streams of food are kept
flowing through the whole body in all animals.
And fresh cuttings [80e] from kindred
substances, whether the fruits of the earth or
herb of the field, which God planted to be our
daily food, acquire all sorts of colours by their
inter-mixture; but red is the most pervading of
them, being created by the cutting action of fire
and by the impression which it makes on a
moist substance; and hence the liquid which
circulates in the body has a colour such as we
have described. The liquid itself we call blood,
which nourishes the flesh [81a] and the whole
body, whence all parts are watered and empty
places filled. Now the process of repletion and
evacuation is effected after the manner of the
universal motion by which all kindred
substances are drawn towards one another. For
the external elements which surround us are
always causing us to consume away, and
distributing and sending off like to like; the
particles of blood, too, which are divided and
contained within the frame of the animal as in
a sort of heaven, are compelled to imitate the
motion of the universe. [81b] Each, therefore,
of the divided parts within us, being carried to
its kindred nature, replenishes the void. When
more is taken away than flows in, then we
decay, and when less, we grow and increase.
The frame of the entire creature when young
157 Cf. 77 A.
158 Cf. 68 B, C.
veins from the belly by drawing into them from
thence the divided particles. And it is owing to
this that in all living creatures the streams of
nutriment course in this way through the whole
body. And inasmuch as these nutritive particles
are freshly divided [80e] and derived from
kindred substances,—some from fruits, and
some from cereals, which God planted for us
for the express purpose of serving as food, 157—
they get all varieties of colors because of their
commingling, but red is the color that runs
through them most of all, it being a natural
product of the action of the fire in dividing the
liquid food and imprinting itself thereon.158
Wherefore the color of the stream which flows
through the body acquired an appearance such
as we have described; and this stream we call
“blood,” which is the nutriment of the flesh
[81a] and of the whole body, each part drawing
therefrom supplies of fluid and filling up the
room of the evacuated matter. And the
processes of filling and evacuating take place
just as the motion of everything in the Universe
takes place, namely, according to the law that
every kindred substance moves towards its
kind. For the bodies which surround us without
are always dissolving us and sending off and
distributing to each species of substance what
is akin thereto; while the blood-particles, again,
being minced up within us and surrounded by
the structure of each creature as by a Heaven,
τετμημένα αὐτόθεν ἐπαντλεῖν: καὶ διὰ ταῦτα
δὴ καθ᾽ ὅλον τὸ σῶμα πᾶσιν τοῖς ζῴοις τὰ τῆς
τροφῆς νάματα οὕτως ἐπίρρυτα γέγονεν.
νεότμητα δὲ καὶ ἀπὸ συγγενῶν ὄντα, τὰ μὲν
καρπῶν, τὰ δὲ χλόης, [80ε] ἃ θεὸς ἐπ᾽ αὐτὸ
τοῦθ᾽ ἡμῖν ἐφύτευσεν, εἶναι τροφήν,
παντοδαπὰ μὲν χρώματα ἴσχει διὰ τὴν
σύμμειξιν, ἡ δ᾽ ἐρυθρὰ πλείστη περὶ αὐτὰ χρόα
διαθεῖ, τῆς τοῦ πυρὸς τομῆς τε καὶ ἐξομόρξεως
ἐν ὑγρῷ δεδημιουργημένη φύσις. ὅθεν τοῦ
κατὰ τὸ σῶμα ῥέοντος τὸ χρῶμα ἔσχεν οἵαν
ὄψιν διεληλύθαμεν ὃ καλοῦμεν αἷμα, νομὴν
σαρκῶν καὶ σύμπαντος τοῦ σώματος, [81α]
ὅθεν ὑδρευόμενα ἕκαστα πληροῖ τὴν τοῦ
κενουμένου βάσιν: ὁ δὲ τρόπος τῆς πληρώσεως
ἀποχωρήσεώς τε γίγνεται καθάπερ ἐν τῷ παντὶ
παντὸς ἡ φορὰ γέγονεν, ἣν τὸ συγγενὲς πᾶν
φέρεται πρὸς ἑαυτό. τὰ μὲν γὰρ δὴ περιεστῶτα
ἐκτὸς ἡμᾶς τήκει τε ἀεὶ καὶ διανέμει πρὸς
ἕκαστον εἶδος τὸ ὁμόφυλον ἀποπέμποντα, τὰ
δὲ ἔναιμα αὖ, κερματισθέντα ἐντὸς παρ᾽ ἡμῖν
καὶ περιειλημμένα ὥσπερ ὑπ᾽ [81β] οὐρανοῦ
συνεστῶτος ἑκάστου τοῦ ζῴου, τὴν τοῦ παντὸς
ἀναγκάζεται μιμεῖσθαι φοράν: πρὸς τὸ
συγγενὲς οὖν φερόμενον ἕκαστον τῶν ἐντὸς
μερισθέντων τὸ κενωθὲν τότε πάλιν
ἀνεπλήρωσεν. ὅταν μὲν δὴ πλέον τοῦ
ἐπιρρέοντος ἀπίῃ, φθίνει πᾶν, ὅταν δὲ ἔλαττον,
αὐξάνεται. νέα μὲν οὖν σύστασις τοῦ παντὸς
ζῴου, καινὰ τὰ τρίγωνα οἷον ἐκ δρυόχων ἔτι
ἔχουσα τῶν γενῶν, ἰσχυρὰν μὲν τὴν σύγκλεισιν
has the triangles of each kind new, and may be
compared to the keel of a vessel which is just
off the stocks; they are locked firmly together
and yet the whole mass is soft and delicate,
[81c] being freshly formed of marrow and
nurtured on milk. Now when the triangles out
of which meats and drinks are composed come
in from without, and are comprehended in the
body, being older and weaker than the triangles
already there, the frame of the body gets the
better of them and its newer triangles cut them
up, and so the animal grows great, being
nourished by a multitude of similar particles.
But when the roots of the triangles are
loosened by having undergone many conflicts
with many things in the course of time, [81d]
they are no longer able to cut or assimilate the
food which enters, but are themselves easily
divided by the bodies which come in from
without. In this way every animal is overcome
and decays, and this affection is called old age.
And at last, when the bonds by which the
triangles of the marrow are united no longer
hold, and are parted by the strain of existence,
they in turn loosen the bonds of the soul, and
she, obtaining a natural release, flies away with
joy. [81e] For that which takes place according
to nature is pleasant, but that which is contrary
to nature is painful. And thus death, if caused
by disease or produced by wounds, is painful
and violent; but that sort of death which comes
are compelled to copy the motion of the whole;
[81b] hence, when each of the particles that are
divided up inside moves towards its kin, it fills
up again the emptied place. And when what
passes out is more than the inflow every
creature decays, but when less, it increases.
Now when the structure of the whole creature
is new, inasmuch as the triangles which form
its elements159 are still fresh, and as it were
straight from the stocks, it keeps them firmly
interlocked one with another, and the whole
mass of it is of a soft composition, [81c] seeing
that it is newly produced from marrow and
nourished on milk; and as the triangles
contained therein, which have invaded it from
without and go to form the meats and drinks,
are older and weaker than its own, it divides
and overcomes them with its own new
triangles, and thus renders the creature large by
feeding it on many similar substances. But
when the root of the triangles160 grows slack
owing to their having fought many fights
during long periods, [81d] they are no longer
able to divide the entering triangles of the food
and assimilate them to themselves, but are
themselves easily divided by those which enter
from without; and in this condition every
animal is overpowered and decays; and this
process is named “old age.” And finally, when
the bonds of the triangles in the marrow which
have been fitly framed together no longer resist
159 Cf. 53 D ff.
160 i.e., the radical structure of the primary triangles; cf. 53 D ff.
αὐτῶν πρὸς ἄλληλα κέκτηται, συμπέπηγεν δὲ ὁ
πᾶς ὄγκος αὐτῆς [81ξ] ἁπαλός, ἅτ᾽ ἐκ μυελοῦ
μὲν νεωστὶ γεγονυίας, τεθραμμένης δὲ ἐν
γάλακτι: τὰ δὴ περιλαμβανόμενα ἐν αὐτῇ
τρίγωνα ἔξωθεν ἐπεισελθόντα, ἐξ ὧν ἂν ᾖ τά τε
σιτία καὶ ποτά, τῶν ἑαυτῆς τριγώνων
παλαιότερα ὄντα καὶ ἀσθενέστερα καινοῖς
ἐπικρατεῖ τέμνουσα, καὶ μέγα ἀπεργάζεται τὸ
ζῷον τρέφουσα ἐκ πολλῶν ὁμοίων. ὅταν δ᾽ ἡ
ῥίζα τῶν τριγώνων χαλᾷ διὰ τὸ πολλοὺς
ἀγῶνας ἐν πολλῷ χρόνῳ πρὸς πολλὰ [81δ]
ἠγωνίσθαι, τὰ μὲν τῆς τροφῆς εἰσιόντα οὐκέτι
δύναται τέμνειν εἰς ὁμοιότητα ἑαυτοῖς, αὐτὰ δὲ
ὑπὸ τῶν ἔξωθεν ἐπεισιόντων εὐπετῶς
διαιρεῖται: φθίνει δὴ πᾶν ζῷον ἐν τούτῳ
κρατούμενον, γῆράς τε ὀνομάζεται τὸ πάθος.
τέλος δέ, ἐπειδὰν τῶν περὶ τὸν μυελὸν
τριγώνων οἱ συναρμοσθέντες μηκέτι ἀντέχωσιν
δεσμοὶ τῷ πόνῳ διιστάμενοι, μεθιᾶσιν τοὺς τῆς
ψυχῆς αὖ δεσμούς, ἡ δὲ λυθεῖσα κατὰ φύσιν
μεθ᾽ ἡδονῆς [81ε] ἐξέπτατο: πᾶν γὰρ τὸ μὲν
παρὰ φύσιν ἀλγεινόν, τὸ δ᾽ ᾗ πέφυκεν
γιγνόμενον ἡδύ. καὶ θάνατος δὴ κατὰ ταὐτὰ ὁ
μὲν κατὰ νόσους καὶ ὑπὸ τραυμάτων
γιγνόμενος ἀλγεινὸς καὶ βίαιος, ὁ δὲ μετὰ
γήρως ἰὼν ἐπὶ τέλος κατὰ φύσιν ἀπονώτατος
τῶν θανάτων καὶ μᾶλλον μεθ᾽ ἡδονῆς
γιγνόμενος ἢ λύπης.
with old age and fulfils the debt of nature is the
easiest of deaths, and is accompanied with
pleasure rather than with pain.
the strain but fall asunder, they let slip in turn
the bonds of the soul, and it, when thus
naturally set loose, flies out gladly; [81e] for
whereas every process which is contrary to
nature is painful, that which takes place
naturally is pleasurable. So too, in like manner,
the death which occurs in consequence of
disease or by wounds is painful and violent,
but that which follows on old age and
constitutes a natural end is the least grievous of
deaths and is accompanied by more of pleasure
than of pain.
Now every one can see whence diseases arise.
[82a] There are four natures out of which the
body is compacted, earth and fire and water
and air, and the unnatural excess or defect of
these, or the change of any of them from its
own natural place into another, or — since
there are more kinds than one of fire and of the
other elements — the assumption by any of
these of a wrong kind, or any similar
irregularity, produces disorders and diseases;
for when any of them is produced or changed
in a manner contrary to nature, the parts which
were previously cool [82b] grow warm, and
those which were dry become moist, and the
light become heavy, and the heavy light; all
sorts of changes occur. For, as we affirm, a
thing can only remain the same with itself,
whole and sound, when the same is added to it,
or subtracted from it, in the same respect and
in the same manner and in due proportion; and
The origin of disease is plain, of course, to
everybody. [82a] For seeing that there are four
elements of which the body is compacted,—
earth, fire, water and air,—when, contrary to
nature, there occurs either an excess or a
deficiency of these elements, or a transference
thereof from their native region to an alien
region; or again, seeing that fire and the rest
have each more than one variety, every time
that the body admits an inappropriate variety,
then these and all similar occurrences bring
about internal disorders and disease. For when
any one element suffers a change of condition
that is contrary to nature, all its particles that
formerly were being cooled [82b] become
heated, and the dry presently become moist,
and the light heavy, and they undergo every
variety of change in every respect. For, as we
maintain, it is only the addition or subtraction
of the same substance from the same substance
τὸ δὲ τῶν νόσων ὅθεν συνίσταται, δῆλόν που
καὶ παντί. [82α] τεττάρων γὰρ ὄντων γενῶν ἐξ
ὧν συμπέπηγεν τὸ σῶμα, γῆς πυρὸς ὕδατός τε
καὶ ἀέρος, τούτων ἡ παρὰ φύσιν πλεονεξία καὶ
ἔνδεια καὶ τῆς χώρας μετάστασις ἐξ οἰκείας ἐπ᾽
ἀλλοτρίαν γιγνομένη, πυρός τε αὖ καὶ τῶν
ἑτέρων ἐπειδὴ γένη πλείονα ἑνὸς ὄντα
τυγχάνει, τὸ μὴ προσῆκον ἕκαστον ἑαυτῷ
προσλαμβάνειν, καὶ πάνθ᾽ ὅσα τοιαῦτα,
στάσεις καὶ νόσους παρέχει: παρὰ φύσιν γὰρ
ἑκάστου γιγνομένου καὶ μεθισταμένου
θερμαίνεται μὲν ὅσα ἂν πρότερον ψύχηται,
[82β] ξηρὰ δὲ ὄντα εἰς ὕστερον γίγνεται
νοτερά, καὶ κοῦφα δὴ καὶ βαρέα, καὶ πάσας
πάντῃ μεταβολὰς δέχεται. μόνως γὰρ δή,
φαμέν, ταὐτὸν ταὐτῷ κατὰ ταὐτὸν καὶ
ὡσαύτως καὶ ἀνὰ λόγον προσγιγνόμενον καὶ
ἀπογιγνόμενον ἐάσει ταὐτὸν ὂν αὑτῷ σῶν καὶ
ὑγιὲς μένειν: ὃ δ᾽ ἂν πλημμελήσῃ τι τούτων
ἐκτὸς ἀπιὸν ἢ προσιόν, ἀλλοιότητας
whatever comes or goes away in violation of
these laws causes all manner of changes and
infinite diseases and corruptions.
in the same order and in the same manner and
in due proportion which will allow the latter to
remain safe and sound in its sameness with
itself. But whatsoever oversteps any of these
conditions in its going out or its coming in will
produce alterations of every variety and
countless diseases and corruptions.
παμποικίλας καὶ νόσους φθοράς τε ἀπείρους
παρέξεται.
[82c] Now there is a second class of structures
which are also natural, and this affords a
second opportunity of observing diseases to
him who would understand them. For whereas
marrow and bone and flesh and sinews are
composed of the four elements, and the blood,
though after another manner, is likewise
formed out of them, most diseases originate in
the way which I have described; but the worst
of all owe their severity to the fact that the
generation of these substances stances in a
wrong order; they are then destroyed. For the
natural order is that the flesh and sinews
should be made of blood, [82d] the sinews out
of the fibres to which they are akin, and the
flesh out of the dots which are formed when
the fibres are separated. And the glutinous and
rich matter which comes away from the sinews
and the flesh, not only glues the flesh to the
bones, but nourishes and imparts growth to the
bone which surrounds the marrow; and by
reason of the solidity of the bones, that which
[82c] Again, in the structures which are
naturally secondary161 in order of construction,
there is a second class of diseases to be noted
by him who has a mind to take cognizance of
them. For inasmuch as marrow and bone and
flesh and sinew are compacted from the
elements,—and blood also is formed from the
same constituents, although in a different way,
— most of the other maladies come about like
those previously described, but the most severe
of them have dangerous results for the reason
following: whenever the production of these
secondary substances proceeds in the reverse
direction, then they are corrupted. For in the
order of nature flesh and sinews arise from
blood,162 [82d] the sinew from the fibrine
because of its kindred quality, and flesh from
the coagulated substance which coagulates on
its separation from the fibrine; and further, the
substance which is derived from the sinews
and flesh, being viscid and oily, 163 not only
glues the flesh to the substance of the bones
δευτέρων δὴ συστάσεων αὖ κατὰ φύσιν
συνεστηκυιῶν, [82ξ] δευτέρα κατανόησις
νοσημάτων τῷ βουλομένῳ γίγνεται συννοῆσαι.
μυελοῦ γὰρ ἐξ ἐκείνων ὀστοῦ τε καὶ σαρκὸς
καὶ νεύρου συμπαγέντος, ἔτι τε αἵματος ἄλλον
μὲν τρόπον, ἐκ δὲ τῶν αὐτῶν γεγονότος, τῶν
μὲν ἄλλων τὰ πλεῖστα ᾗπερ τὰ πρόσθεν, τὰ δὲ
μέγιστα τῶν νοσημάτων τῇδε χαλεπὰ
συμπέπτωκεν: ὅταν ἀνάπαλιν ἡ γένεσις τούτων
πορεύηται, τότε ταῦτα διαφθείρεται. κατὰ
φύσιν γὰρ σάρκες μὲν καὶ νεῦρα ἐξ αἵματος
γίγνεται, νεῦρον μὲν ἐξ ἰνῶν διὰ τὴν
συγγένειαν, [82δ] σάρκες δὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ παγέντος
ὃ πήγνυται χωριζόμενον ἰνῶν: τὸ δὲ ἀπὸ τῶν
νεύρων καὶ σαρκῶν ἀπιὸν αὖ γλίσχρον καὶ
λιπαρὸν ἅμα μὲν τὴν σάρκα κολλᾷ πρὸς τὴν
τῶν ὀστῶν φύσιν αὐτό τε τὸ περὶ τὸν μυελὸν
ὀστοῦν τρέφον αὔξει, τὸ δ᾽ αὖ διὰ τὴν
πυκνότητα
τῶν
ὀστῶν
διηθούμενον
καθαρώτατον γένος τῶν τριγώνων λειότατόν τε
καὶ λιπαρώτατον, λειβόμενον ἀπὸ τῶν ὀστῶν
καὶ στάζον, ἄρδει τὸν [82ε] μυελόν. καὶ κατὰ
161 Cf. 41 D ff.
162 Cf. 74 D.
163 i.e., the synovial fluid.
filters through consists of the purest and
smoothest and oiliest sort of triangles, [82e]
dropping like dew from the bones and watering
the marrow. Now when each process takes
place in this order, health commonly results;
when in the opposite order, disease. For when
the flesh becomes decomposed and sends back
the wasting substance into the veins, then an
over-supply of blood of diverse kinds,
mingling with air in the veins, having
variegated colours and bitter properties, as well
as acid and saline qualities, contains all sorts of
bile and serum and phlegm. For all things go
the wrong way, and having become corrupted,
first they taint the blood itself, and then ceasing
to give [83a] nourishment the body they are
carried along the veins in all directions, no
longer preserving the order of their natural
courses, but at war with themselves, because
they receive no good from one another, and are
hostile to the abiding constitution of the body,
which they corrupt and dissolve. The oldest
part of the flesh which is corrupted, being hard
to decompose, from long burning grows black,
and from being everywhere corroded becomes
bitter, and is injurious [83b] to every part of the
body which is still uncorrupted. Sometimes,
when the bitter element is refined away, the
black part assumes an acidity which takes the
place of the bitterness; at other times the
bitterness being tinged with blood has a redder
colour; and this, when mixed with black, takes
the hue of grass; and again, an auburn colour
but also feeds and increases the bone itself
which encloses the marrow, while that which is
formed of the purest kind of triangles, very
smooth and very oily, filters through [82e] the
density of the bones, and, as it oozes and drips
from the bones, moistens the marrow. Now
when each of these substances is produced in
this order, health as a rule results; but if in the
reverse order, disease. For whenever the flesh
is decomposed and sends its decomposed
matter back again into the veins, then, uniting
with the air, the blood in the veins, which is
large in volume and of every variety, is
diversified by colors and bitter flavors, as well
as by sharp and saline properties, and contains
bile and serum and phlegm of every sort. For
when all the substances become reversed and
corrupted, they begin by destroying the blood
itself, and then they themselves cease to supply
[83a] any nourishment to the body; for they
move through the veins in all directions and no
longer preserve the order of their natural
revolutions, being at enmity with themselves
because they have no enjoyment of themselves,
and being at war also with the established and
regular constitution of the body, which they
corrupt and dissolve. Therefore all the oldest
part of the flesh that is decomposed becomes
tough and is blackened by the continued
combustion; and because it is eaten away on
every side it is bitter, and therefore dangerous
[83b] in its attack on any part of the body that
is not as yet corrupted. And at one time the
ταῦτα μὲν γιγνομένων ἑκάστων ὑγίεια
συμβαίνει τὰ πολλά: νόσοι δέ, ὅταν ἐναντίως.
ὅταν γὰρ τηκομένη σὰρξ ἀνάπαλιν εἰς τὰς
φλέβας τὴν τηκεδόνα ἐξιῇ, τότε μετὰ
πνεύματος αἷμα πολύ τε καὶ παντοδαπὸν ἐν
ταῖς
φλεψὶ
χρώμασι
καὶ
πικρότησι
ποικιλλόμενον, ἔτι δὲ ὀξείαις καὶ ἁλμυραῖς
δυνάμεσι, χολὰς καὶ ἰχῶρας καὶ φλέγματα
παντοῖα ἴσχει: παλιναίρετα γὰρ πάντα γεγονότα
καὶ διεφθαρμένα τό τε αἷμα αὐτὸ πρῶτον
διόλλυσι, καὶ αὐτὰ οὐδεμίαν [83α] τροφὴν ἔτι
τῷ σώματι παρέχοντα φέρεται πάντῃ διὰ τῶν
φλεβῶν, τάξιν τῶν κατὰ φύσιν οὐκέτ᾽ ἴσχοντα
περιόδων, ἐχθρὰ μὲν αὐτὰ αὑτοῖς διὰ τὸ
μηδεμίαν ἀπόλαυσιν ἑαυτῶν ἔχειν, τῷ
συνεστῶτι δὲ τοῦ σώματος καὶ μένοντι κατὰ
χώραν πολέμια, διολλύντα καὶ τήκοντα. ὅσον
μὲν οὖν ἂν παλαιότατον ὂν τῆς σαρκὸς τακῇ,
δύσπεπτον γιγνόμενον μελαίνει μὲν ὑπὸ
παλαιᾶς συγκαύσεως, διὰ δὲ τὸ πάντῃ
διαβεβρῶσθαι [83β] πικρὸν ὂν παντὶ χαλεπὸν
προσπίπτει τοῦ σώματος ὅσον ἂν μήπω
διεφθαρμένον ᾖ, καὶ τοτὲ μὲν ἀντὶ τῆς
πικρότητος ὀξύτητα ἔσχεν τὸ μέλαν χρῶμα,
ἀπολεπτυνθέντος μᾶλλον τοῦ πικροῦ, τοτὲ δὲ ἡ
πικρότης αὖ βαφεῖσα αἵματι χρῶμα ἔσχεν
ἐρυθρώτερον, τοῦ δὲ μέλανος τούτῳ
συγκεραννυμένου
χλοῶδες:
ἔτι
δὲ
συμμείγνυται ξανθὸν χρῶμα μετὰ τῆς
πικρότητος, ὅταν νέα συντακῇ σὰρξ ὑπὸ τοῦ
περὶ τὴν φλόγα πυρός. καὶ τὸ μὲν κοινὸν ὄνομα
πᾶσιν τούτοις ἤ τινες [83ξ] ἰατρῶν που χολὴν
ἐπωνόμασαν, ἢ καί τις ὢν δυνατὸς εἰς πολλὰ
mingles with the bitter matter when new flesh
is decomposed by the fire which surrounds the
internal flame — [83c] to all which symptoms
some physician perhaps, or rather some
philosopher, who had the power of seeing in
many dissimilar things one nature deserving of
a name, has assigned the common name of
bile. But the other kinds of bile are variously
distinguished by their colours. As for serum,
that sort which is the watery part of blood is
innocent, but that which is a secretion of black
and acid bile is malignant when mingled by the
power of heat with any salt substance, and is
then called acid phlegm. Again, the substance
which is formed by the liquefaction of new and
tender flesh when air is present, if inflated
[83d] and encased in liquid so as to form
bubbles, which separately are invisible owing
to their small size, but when collected are of a
bulk which is visible, and have a white colour
arising out of the generation of foam — all this
decomposition of tender flesh when intermingled with air is termed by us white phlegm.
And the whey or sediment of newly-formed
phlegm is sweat and tears, [83e] and includes
the various daily discharges by which the body
is purified. Now all these become causes of
disease when the blood is not replenished in a
natural manner by food and drink but gains
bulk from opposite sources in violation of the
164 Cf. 71 B.
165 Cf. 68 D.
166 Cf. 66 B.
black matter acquires a sharpness in place of its
bitterness, when the bitter substance becomes
more diluted; and at another time the bitter
substance acquires a redder color through
being dipped in blood, while if the black matter
is blended with this it turns greenish; and
again, whenever new flesh also is decomposed
by the fire of the inflammation, a yellow matter
is commingled with the bitter substance. [83c]
To all these humors the general designation
“bile” has been given,164 either by certain
physicians or by someone who was capable of
surveying a number of dissimilar cases and
discerning amongst them one single type 165
worthy to give its name to them all. All the rest
that are counted as species of bile have gained
their special descriptions in each case from
their colors. Serum is of two kinds: one is the
mild whey of the blood; the other, being
derived from black and acid bile, is malignant
whenever it is imbued with a saline quality
through the action of heat; and this kind is
termed “acid phlegm.” Another kind involves
air and is produced by dissolution from new
and tender flesh. And when this is inflated
[83d] and enclosed by a fluid, and when as a
result of this process bubbles166 are formed
which individually are invisible because of
their small size but in the aggregate form a
mass which is visible, and which possess a
μὲν καὶ ἀνόμοια βλέπειν, ὁρᾶν δὲ ἐν αὐτοῖς ἓν
γένος ἐνὸν ἄξιον ἐπωνυμίας πᾶσιν: τὰ δ᾽ ἄλλα
ὅσα χολῆς εἴδη λέγεται, κατὰ τὴν χρόαν ἔσχεν
λόγον αὐτῶν ἕκαστον ἴδιον. ἰχὼρ δέ, ὁ μὲν
αἵματος ὀρὸς πρᾷος, ὁ δὲ μελαίνης χολῆς
ὀξείας τε ἄγριος, ὅταν συμμειγνύηται διὰ
θερμότητα ἁλμυρᾷ δυνάμει: καλεῖται δὲ ὀξὺ
φλέγμα τὸ τοιοῦτον. τὸ δ᾽ αὖ μετ᾽ ἀέρος
τηκόμενον ἐκ νέας καὶ ἁπαλῆς σαρκός, τούτου
δὲ [83δ] ἀνεμωθέντος καὶ συμπεριληφθέντος
ὑπὸ ὑγρότητος, καὶ πομφολύγων συστασῶν ἐκ
τοῦ πάθους τούτου καθ᾽ ἑκάστην μὲν ἀοράτων
διὰ σμικρότητα, συναπασῶν δὲ τὸν ὄγκον
παρεχομένων ὁρατόν, χρῶμα ἐχουσῶν διὰ τὴν
τοῦ ἀφροῦ γένεσιν ἰδεῖν λευκόν, ταύτην πᾶσαν
τηκεδόνα ἁπαλῆς σαρκὸς μετὰ πνεύματος
συμπλακεῖσαν λευκὸν εἶναι φλέγμα φαμέν.
φλέγματος δὲ αὖ νέου συνισταμένου ὀρὸς
ἱδρὼς καὶ δάκρυον, [83ε] ὅσα τε ἄλλα τοιαῦτα
σώματα τὸ καθ᾽ ἡμέραν χεῖται καθαιρόμενα:
καὶ ταῦτα μὲν δὴ πάντα νόσων ὄργανα
γέγονεν, ὅταν αἷμα μὴ ἐκ τῶν σιτίων καὶ ποτῶν
πληθύσῃ κατὰ φύσιν, ἀλλ᾽ ἐξ ἐναντίων τὸν
ὄγκον παρὰ τοὺς τῆς φύσεως λαμβάνῃ νόμους.
διακρινομένης μὲν οὖν ὑπὸ νόσων τῆς σαρκὸς
ἑκάστης, μενόντων δὲ τῶν πυθμένων αὐταῖς
ἡμίσεια τῆς συμφορᾶς ἡ δύναμις—ἀνάληψιν
γὰρ ἔτι μετ᾽ εὐπετείας ἴσχει— [84α] τὸ δὲ δὴ
σάρκας ὀστοῖς συνδοῦν ὁπότ᾽ ἂν νοσήσῃ, καὶ
μηκέτι αὐτὸ ἐξ ἰνῶν †αἷμα καὶ νεύρων
laws of nature. When the several parts of the
flesh are separated by disease, if the foundation
remains, the power of the disorder is only half
as great, and there is still a prospect of an easy
recovery; [84a] but when that which binds the
flesh to the bones is diseased, and no longer
being separated from the muscles and sinews,
ceases to give nourishment to the bone and to
unite flesh and bone, and from being oily and
smooth and glutinous becomes rough and salt
and dry, owing to bad regimen, then all the
substance thus corrupted crumbles away under
the flesh and the sinews, [84b] and separates
from the bone, and the fleshy parts fall away
from their foundation and leave the sinews
bare and full of brine, and the flesh again gets
into the circulation of the blood and makes the
previously-mentioned disorders still greater.
And if these bodily affections be severe, still
worse are the prior disorders; as when the bone
itself, by reason of the density of the flesh,
does not obtain sufficient air, but becomes
mouldy and hot and gangrened and receives no
nutriment, and the natural process is inverted,
[84c] and the bone crumbling passes into the
food, and the food into the flesh, and the flesh
again falling into the blood makes all maladies
that may occur more virulent than those
already mentioned. But the worst case of all is
when the marrow is diseased, either from
excess or defect; and this is the cause of the
very greatest and most fatal disorders, in which
167 Cf. 82 D.
color which appears white owing to the foam
created,—then
we
describe
all
this
decomposition of tender flesh intermixed with
air as “white phlegm.” And the whey of
phlegm that is newly formed is “sweat” and
“tears,” [83e] and all other such humors as
pour forth in the daily purgings of the body.
And all these are factors in disease, whenever
the blood is not replenished naturally from
meats and drinks but receives its mass from
opposite substances contrary to Nature's laws.
Now, when the flesh in any part is being
decomposed by disease, but the bases thereof
still remain firm, the force of the attack is
reduced by half, for it still admits of easy
recovery; [84a] but whenever the substance
which binds the flesh to the bones167 becomes
diseased and no longer separates itself at once
from them and from the sinews, so as to
provide food for the bone and to serve as a
bond between flesh and bone, but becomes
rough and saline instead of being oily and
smooth and viscid, owing to its being starved
by a bad regimen,—then, every such
substance, as it undergoes these affections,
molders away beneath the flesh and the sinews
[84b] and withdraws from the bones; while the
flesh falls away with it from the roots and
leaves the sinews bare and full of saline matter,
and by falling back itself into the stream of the
blood it augments the maladies previously
described. But although these bodily ailments
ἀποχωριζόμενον ὀστῷ μὲν τροφή, σαρκὶ δὲ
πρὸς ὀστοῦν γίγνηται δεσμός, ἀλλ᾽ ἐκ λιπαροῦ
καὶ λείου καὶ γλίσχρου τραχὺ καὶ ἁλμυρὸν
αὐχμῆσαν ὑπὸ κακῆς διαίτης γένηται, τότε
ταῦτα πάσχον πᾶν τὸ τοιοῦτον καταψήχεται
μὲν αὐτὸ πάλιν ὑπὸ τὰς σάρκας καὶ τὰ νεῦρα,
ἀφιστάμενον ἀπὸ τῶν ὀστῶν, αἱ δ᾽ ἐκ τῶν
[84β] ῥιζῶν συνεκπίπτουσαι τά τε νεῦρα γυμνὰ
καταλείπουσι καὶ μεστὰ ἅλμης: αὐταὶ δὲ πάλιν
εἰς τὴν αἵματος φορὰν ἐμπεσοῦσαι τὰ πρόσθεν
ῥηθέντα νοσήματα πλείω ποιοῦσιν. χαλεπῶν δὲ
τούτων περὶ τὰ σώματα παθημάτων
γιγνομένων μείζω ἔτι γίγνεται τὰ πρὸ τούτων,
ὅταν ὀστοῦν διὰ πυκνότητα σαρκὸς ἀναπνοὴν
μὴ
λαμβάνον
ἱκανήν,
ὑπ᾽
εὐρῶτος
θερμαινόμενον, σφακελίσαν μήτε τὴν τροφὴν
καταδέχηται [84ξ] πάλιν τε αὐτὸ εἰς ἐκείνην
ἐναντίως ἴῃ ψηχόμενον, ἡ δ᾽ εἰς σάρκας, σὰρξ
δὲ εἰς αἷμα ἐμπίπτουσα τραχύτερα πάντα τῶν
πρόσθεν τὰ νοσήματα ἀπεργάζηται: τὸ δ᾽
ἔσχατον πάντων, ὅταν ἡ τοῦ μυελοῦ φύσις ἀπ᾽
ἐνδείας ἤ τινος ὑπερβολῆς νοσήσῃ, τὰ μέγιστα
καὶ κυριώτατα πρὸς θάνατον τῶν νοσημάτων
ἀποτελεῖ, πάσης ἀνάπαλιν τῆς τοῦ σώματος
φύσεως ἐξ ἀνάγκης ῥυείσης.
the whole course of the body is reversed.
are severe, still more grave are those which
precede them, whenever the bone by reason of
the density of the flesh fails to receive
sufficient inspiration, and becoming heated
because of its moldiness decays and does not
admit its nutriment, but, on the contrary, falls
back itself, [84c] as it crumbles, into its
nutriment which then passes into flesh, and this
flesh falling into, the blood causes all such
maladies to be more violent than those
previously described. And the most extreme
case of all occurs whenever the substance of
the marrow becomes diseased either from
deficiency or from excess; for this results in the
gravest of diseases and the most potent in
causing death, inasmuch as the whole
substance of the body, by the force of
necessity, streams in the reverse direction.
There is a third class of diseases which may be
conceived of as arising in three ways; [84d] for
they are produced sometimes by wind, and
sometimes by phlegm, and sometimes by bile.
When the lung, which is the dispenser of the
air to the body, is obstructed by rheums and its
passages are not free, some of them not acting,
while through others too much air enters, then
the parts which are unrefreshed by air corrode,
while in other parts the excess of air forcing its
way through the veins distorts them and
decomposing the body is enclosed in the midst
of it and occupies the midriff thus [84e]
numberless painful diseases are produced,
A third class of diseases takes place, as we
must conceive, in three ways, [84d] being due
partly to air, partly to phlegm, and partly to
bile. Whenever the lungs, which are the
dispensers of air to the body, fail to keep their
outlets clean through being blocked up with
rheums, then the air, being unable to pass one
way while entering by another way in more
than its proper volume, causes the parts
deprived of respiration to rot, but forces and
distorts the vessels of the veins, and as it thus
dissolves the body it is itself shut off within the
center thereof which contains the midriff; and
as a result of this [84e] countless diseases of a
τρίτον δ᾽ αὖ νοσημάτων εἶδος τριχῇ δεῖ
διανοεῖσθαι [84δ] γιγνόμενον, τὸ μὲν ὑπὸ
πνεύματος, τὸ δὲ φλέγματος, τὸ δὲ χολῆς. ὅταν
μὲν γὰρ ὁ τῶν πνευμάτων τῷ σώματι ταμίας
πλεύμων μὴ καθαρὰς παρέχῃ τὰς διεξόδους
ὑπὸ ῥευμάτων φραχθείς, ἔνθα μὲν οὐκ ἰόν,
ἔνθα δὲ πλεῖον ἢ τὸ προσῆκον πνεῦμα εἰσιὸν
τὰ μὲν οὐ τυγχάνοντα ἀναψυχῆς σήπει, τὰ δὲ
τῶν φλεβῶν διαβιαζόμενον καὶ συνεπιστρέφον
αὐτὰ τῆκόν τε τὸ σῶμα εἰς τὸ μέσον αὐτοῦ
διάφραγμά τ᾽ ἴσχον [84ε] ἐναπολαμβάνεται,
καὶ μυρία δὴ νοσήματα ἐκ τούτων ἀλγεινὰ
μετὰ πλήθους ἱδρῶτος πολλάκις ἀπείργασται.
πολλάκις δ᾽ ἐν τῷ σώματι διακριθείσης σαρκὸς
accompanied by copious sweats. And
oftentimes when the flesh is dissolved in the
body, wind, generated within and unable to
escape, is the source of quite as much pain as
the air coming in from without; but the greatest
pain is felt when the wind gets about the
sinews and the veins of the shoulders, and
swells them up, so twists back the great
tendons and the sinews which are connected
with them. These disorders are called tetanus
and opisthotonus, by reason of the tension
which accompanies them. The cure of them is
difficult; relief is in most cases given by fever
supervening. [85a] The white phlegm, though
dangerous when detained within by reason of
the air-bubbles, yet if it can communicate with
the outside air, is less severe, and only
discolours the body, generating leprous
eruptions and similar diseases. When it is
mingled with black bile and dispersed about
the courses of the head, which are the divinest
part of us, the attack if coming on in sleep, is
not so severe; but when assailing those who are
awake it is hard to be got rid of, and being an
affection of a sacred part, is most justly called
sacred. An acid and salt phlegm, again, is the
source of all those diseases which take the
form of catarrh, but they have many names
because the places into which they flow are
manifold.
168 i.e., epilepsy; Cf. Laws916 A.
painful kind are produced, accompanied by
much sweating. And often, when the flesh is
disintegrated, air which is enclosed in the body
and is unable to pass out brings about the same
pangs as those caused by the air that enters
from without; and these pangs are most severe
when the air surrounds the sinews and the
adjacent veins and by its swelling up strains
backwards the tendons and the sinews attached
to them; hence it is actually from this process
of intense strain that these maladies have
derived their names of “tetanus” and
“opisthotonus.” Of these maladies the cure also
is severe for what does most to relieve them is,
in fact, an attack of fever. [85a] White phlegm,
also, is dangerous when it is blocked inside
because of the air in its bubbles; but when it
has air-vents outside the body it is milder,
although it marks the body with spots by
breeding white scabs and tetters and the
maladies akin thereto. And when this phlegm is
blended with black bile and spreads over the
revolutions of the head, which are the most
divine, and perturbs them, [85b] its action is
more gentle during sleep, but when it attacks
persons who are awake it is harder to shake
off; and because it is a disease of the sacred
substance it is most justly termed “the sacred
disease.”168 Phlegm that is sharp and saline is
the fount of all the maladies which are of the
nature of catarrhs; and these have received all
kinds of names because the regions into which
πνεῦμα ἐγγενόμενον καὶ ἀδυνατοῦν ἔξω
πορευθῆναι τὰς αὐτὰς τοῖς ἐπεισεληλυθόσιν
ὠδῖνας παρέσχεν, μεγίστας δέ, ὅταν περὶ τὰ
νεῦρα καὶ τὰ ταύτῃ φλέβια περιστὰν καὶ
ἀνοιδῆσαν τούς τε ἐπιτόνους καὶ τὰ συνεχῆ
νεῦρα οὕτως εἰς τὸ ἐξόπισθεν κατατείνῃ
τούτοις: ἃ δὴ καὶ ἀπ᾽ αὐτοῦ τῆς συντονίας τοῦ
παθήματος τὰ νοσήματα τέτανοί τε καὶ
ὀπισθότονοι προσερρήθησαν. ὧν καὶ τὸ
φάρμακον χαλεπόν: πυρετοὶ γὰρ οὖν δὴ τὰ
τοιαῦτα ἐπιγιγνόμενοι [85α] μάλιστα λύουσιν.
τὸ δὲ λευκὸν φλέγμα διὰ τὸ τῶν πομφολύγων
πνεῦμα χαλεπὸν ἀποληφθέν, ἔξω δὲ τοῦ
σώματος ἀναπνοὰς ἴσχον ἠπιώτερον μέν,
καταποικίλλει δὲ τὸ σῶμα λεύκας ἀλφούς τε
καὶ τὰ τούτων συγγενῆ νοσήματα ἀποτίκτον.
μετὰ χολῆς δὲ μελαίνης κερασθὲν ἐπὶ τὰς
περιόδους τε τὰς ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ θειοτάτας
οὔσας ἐπισκεδαννύμενον καὶ συνταράττον
αὐτάς, καθ᾽ ὕπνον μὲν ἰὸν πρᾳΰτερον, [85β]
ἐγρηγορόσιν
δὲ
ἐπιτιθέμενον
δυσαπαλλακτότερον: νόσημα δὲ ἱερᾶς ὂν
φύσεως ἐνδικώτατα ἱερὸν λέγεται. φλέγμα δ᾽
ὀξὺ καὶ ἁλμυρὸν πηγὴ πάντων νοσημάτων ὅσα
γίγνεται καταρροϊκά: διὰ δὲ τοὺς τόπους εἰς
οὓς ῥεῖ παντοδαποὺς ὄντας παντοῖα ὀνόματα
εἴληφεν.
they flow are of all varieties.
Inflammations of the body come from burnings
and inflamings, and all of them originate in
bile. When bile finds a means of discharge,
[85c] it boils up and sends forth all sorts of
tumours; but when imprisoned within, it
generates many inflammatory diseases, above
all when mingled with pure blood; since it then
displaces the fibres which are scattered about
in the blood and are designed to maintain the
balance of rare and dense, in order that the
blood may not be so liquefied by heat as to
exude from the pores of the body, nor again
become too dense [85d] and thus find a
difficulty in circulating through the veins. The
fibres are so constituted as to maintain this
balance; and if any one brings them all
together when the blood is dead and in process
of cooling, then the blood which remains
becomes fluid, but if they are left alone, they
soon congeal by reason of the surrounding
cold. The fibres having this power over the
blood, bile, which is only stale blood, and
which from being flesh is dissolved again into
blood, at the first influx coming in little by
little, hot and liquid, [85e] is congealed by the
power of the fibres; and so congealing and
made to cool, it produces internal cold and
shuddering. When it enters with more of a
flood and overcomes the fibres by its heat, and
boiling up throws them into disorder, if it have
169 Cf. 82 D.
All those diseases which are called
inflammations, owing to the burning and
inflaming of the body which they involve, are
caused by bile. This, when it gains an external
outlet, [85c] boils and sends up all kinds of
eruptions; but when it is confined inside it
produces many burning diseases; and of these
the gravest occurs when the bile, being mixed
with pure blood, displaces the matter of the
fibrine from its proper position. For this fibrine
is dispersed through the blood in order that the
blood may have a due proportion of both rarity
and density, and may neither flow out from the
porous body through being liquefied by heat,
nor yet prove immobile [85d] through its
density and circulate with difficulty in the
veins. Of these qualities the fibrine preserves
the due amount owing to the nature of its
formation.169 Even when anyone collects
together the fibrine of blood that is dead and in
process of cooling, all the rest of the blood
turns liquid; but if the fibrine is left alone as it
is, it acts in combination with the surrounding
cold and rapidly congeals the blood. As the
fibrine, then, has this property, bile, which is
naturally formed of old blood and dissolved
again into blood from flesh, penetrates the
blood gradually at first, while it is hot and
moist, [85e] and is congealed by this property
of the fibrine; and as it becomes congealed and
ὅσα δὲ φλεγμαίνειν λέγεται τοῦ σώματος, ἀπὸ
τοῦ κάεσθαί τε καὶ φλέγεσθαι, διὰ χολὴν
γέγονε πάντα. λαμβάνουσα μὲν οὖν ἀναπνοὴν
ἔξω παντοῖα [85ξ] ἀναπέμπει φύματα ζέουσα,
καθειργνυμένη δ᾽ ἐντὸς πυρίκαυτα νοσήματα
πολλὰ ἐμποιεῖ, μέγιστον δέ, ὅταν αἵματι
καθαρῷ συγκερασθεῖσα τὸ τῶν ἰνῶν γένος ἐκ
τῆς ἑαυτῶν διαφορῇ τάξεως, αἳ διεσπάρησαν
μὲν εἰς αἷμα, ἵνα συμμέτρως λεπτότητος ἴσχοι
καὶ πάχους καὶ μήτε διὰ θερμότητα ὡς ὑγρὸν
ἐκ μανοῦ τοῦ σώματος ἐκρέοι, μήτ᾽ αὖ
πυκνότερον δυσκίνητον [85δ] ὂν μόλις
ἀναστρέφοιτο ἐν ταῖς φλεψίν. καιρὸν δὴ
τούτων ἶνες τῇ τῆς φύσεως γενέσει
φυλάττουσιν: ἃς ὅταν τις καὶ τεθνεῶτος
αἵματος ἐν ψύξει τε ὄντος πρὸς ἀλλήλας
συναγάγῃ, διαχεῖται πᾶν τὸ λοιπὸν αἷμα,
ἐαθεῖσαι δὲ ταχὺ μετὰ τοῦ περιεστῶτος αὐτὸ
ψύχους συμπηγνύασιν. ταύτην δὴ τὴν δύναμιν
ἐχουσῶν ἰνῶν ἐν αἵματι χολὴ φύσει παλαιὸν
αἷμα γεγονυῖα καὶ πάλιν ἐκ τῶν σαρκῶν εἰς
τοῦτο τετηκυῖα, θερμὴ καὶ ὑγρὰ κατ᾽ ὀλίγον τὸ
πρῶτον ἐμπίπτουσα πήγνυται [85ε] διὰ τὴν
τῶν ἰνῶν δύναμιν, πηγνυμένη δὲ καὶ βίᾳ
κατασβεννυμένη χειμῶνα καὶ τρόμον ἐντὸς
παρέχει. πλείων δ᾽ ἐπιρρέουσα, τῇ παρ᾽ αὐτῆς
θερμότητι κρατήσασα τὰς ἶνας εἰς ἀταξίαν
ζέσασα διέσεισεν: καὶ ἐὰν μὲν ἱκανὴ διὰ
τέλους κρατῆσαι γένηται, πρὸς τὸ τοῦ μυελοῦ
διαπεράσασα γένος κάουσα ἔλυσεν τὰ τῆς
power enough to maintain its supremacy, it
penetrates the marrow and burns up what may
be termed the cables of the soul, and sets her
free; but when there is not so much of it, and
the body though wasted still holds out, the bile
is itself mastered, and is either utterly
banished, or is thrust through the veins into the
lower or upper-belly, and is driven out of the
body like an exile from a state in which there
has been civil war; whence arise diarrhoeas
and dysenteries, and all such disorders. When
the constitution is disordered by excess of fire,
continuous heat and fever are the result; when
excess of air is the cause, then the fever is
quotidian; when of water, which is a more
sluggish element than either fire or air, then the
fever is a tertian; when of earth, which is the
most sluggish of the four, and is only purged
away in a four-fold period, the result is a
quartan fever, which can with difficulty be
shaken off.
forcibly chilled it causes internal cold and
shivering. But when the bile flows in with
more volume, it overpowers the fibrine by the
heat it contains, and shakes it into disorder by
its boiling up; and should it be capable of thus
overpowering the fibrine continuously, it
penetrates to the substance of the marrow and
loosens from thence, by burning, the mooringropes of the soul,170 as it were of a ship, and
sets it free. But when the bile is in smaller
quantity and the body resists dissolution, then
the bile itself is overpowered, and either it is
ejected over the whole surface of the body, or
else it is forced through the veins into the
lower or the upper belly, being ejected from the
body like fugitives from a city in revolt; [86a]
and it produces diarrhoea and dysentery and all
suchlike maladies.When a body has become
diseased mainly from an excess of fire, it
produces constant inflammations and fevers;
when from air, quotidian fevers; when from
water, tertian fevers, because that element is
more sluggish than air or fire; and when from
earth, which is the fourth and most sluggish of
the elements and is purged in four-fold periods
of time,171 it causes quartan fevers and is cured
with difficulty.
ψυχῆς αὐτόθεν οἷον νεὼς πείσματα μεθῆκέν τε
ἐλευθέραν, ὅταν δ᾽ ἐλάττων ᾖ τό τε σῶμα
ἀντίσχῃ τηκόμενον, αὐτὴ κρατηθεῖσα ἢ κατὰ
πᾶν τὸ σῶμα ἐξέπεσεν, ἢ διὰ τῶν φλεβῶν εἰς
τὴν κάτω συνωσθεῖσα ἢ τὴν ἄνω κοιλίαν, οἷον
φυγὰς ἐκ πόλεως στασιασάσης ἐκ [86α] τοῦ
σώματος
ἐκπίπτουσα,
διαρροίας
καὶ
δυσεντερίας καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα νοσήματα πάντα
παρέσχετο. τὸ μὲν οὖν ἐκ πυρὸς ὑπερβολῆς
μάλιστα νοσῆσαν σῶμα συνεχῆ καύματα καὶ
πυρετοὺς ἀπεργάζεται, τὸ δ᾽ ἐξ ἀέρος
ἀμφημερινούς, τριταίους δ᾽ ὕδατος διὰ τὸ
νωθέστερον ἀέρος καὶ πυρὸς αὐτὸ εἶναι: τὸ δὲ
γῆς, τετάρτως ὂν νωθέστατον τούτων, ἐν
τετραπλασίαις
περιόδοις
χρόνου
καθαιρόμενον, τεταρταίους πυρετοὺς ποιῆσαν
ἀπαλλάττεται μόλις.
[86b] Such is the manner in which diseases of
the body arise; the disorders of the soul, which
depend upon the body, originate as follows. We
[86b] Such is the manner in which diseases of
the body come about; and those of the soul
which are due to the condition of the body
[86β] καὶ τὰ μὲν περὶ τὸ σῶμα νοσήματα ταύτῃ
συμβαίνει γιγνόμενα, τὰ δὲ περὶ ψυχὴν διὰ
σώματος ἕξιν τῇδε. νόσον μὲν δὴ ψυχῆς ἄνοιαν
170 Cf. 73 D, 81 D.
171 i.e., the fever recurs after an interval of two days.
must acknowledge disease of the mind to be a
want of intelligence; and of this there are two
kinds; to wit, madness and ignorance. In
whatever state a man experiences either of
them, that state may be called disease; and
excessive pains and pleasures are justly to be
regarded as the greatest diseases to which the
soul is liable. For a man who is in great joy or
in great [86c] pain, in his unseasonable
eagerness to attain the one and to avoid the
other, is not able to see or to hear anything
rightly; but he is mad, and is at the time utterly
incapable of any participation in reason. He
who has the seed about the spinal marrow too
plentiful and overflowing, like a tree overladen
with fruit, has many throes, and also obtains
many pleasures in his desires and their
offspring, and is [86d] for the most part of his
life deranged, because his pleasures and pains
are so very great; his soul is rendered foolish
and disordered by his body; yet he is regarded
not as one diseased, but as one who is
voluntarily bad, which is a mistake. The truth
is that the intemperance of love is a disease of
the soul due chiefly to the moisture and fluidity
which is produced in one of the elements by
the loose consistency of the bones. And in
general, all that which is termed the
incontinence of pleasure and is deemed a
reproach under the idea that the wicked
voluntarily do wrong is not justly a matter for
172 Cf. Rep. 571 D,Soph. 228 A,Laws689 A ff.
173 Cf. 73 C, 91 C.
arise in the following way. We must agree that
folly is a disease of the soul172; and of folly
there are two kinds, the one of which is
madness, the other ignorance. Whatever
affection a man suffers from, if it involves
either of these conditions it must be termed
“disease”; and we must maintain that pleasures
and pains in excess are the greatest of the soul's
diseases. For when a man is overjoyed or
contrariwise suffering excessively [86c] from
pain, being in haste to seize on the one and
avoid the other beyond measure, he is unable
either to see or to hear anything correctly, and
he is at such a time distraught and wholly
incapable of exercising reason. And whenever
a man's seed grows to abundant volume in his
marrow,173 as it were a tree that is overladen
beyond measure with fruit, he brings on
himself time after time many pangs and many
pleasures owing to his desires and the issue
thereof, and comes to be in a state of madness
[86d] for the most part of his life because of
those greatest of pleasures and pains, and keeps
his soul diseased and senseless by reason of the
action of his body. Yet such a man is reputed to
be voluntarily wicked and not diseased;
although, in truth, this sexual incontinence,
which is due for the most part to the abundance
and fluidity of one substance because of the
porosity of the bones, constitutes a disease of
the soul. And indeed almost all those affections
συγχωρητέον, δύο δ᾽ ἀνοίας γένη, τὸ μὲν
μανίαν, τὸ δὲ ἀμαθίαν. πᾶν οὖν ὅτι πάσχων τις
πάθος ὁπότερον αὐτῶν ἴσχει, νόσον
προσρητέον,
ἡδονὰς
δὲ
καὶ
λύπας
ὑπερβαλλούσας τῶν νόσων μεγίστας θετέον τῇ
ψυχῇ: περιχαρὴς γὰρ ἄνθρωπος ὢν ἢ καὶ
τἀναντία ὑπὸ [86ξ] λύπης πάσχων, σπεύδων τὸ
μὲν ἑλεῖν ἀκαίρως, τὸ δὲ φυγεῖν, οὔθ᾽ ὁρᾶν
οὔτε ἀκούειν ὀρθὸν οὐδὲν δύναται, λυττᾷ δὲ
καὶ λογισμοῦ μετασχεῖν ἥκιστα τότε δὴ
δυνατός. τὸ δὲ σπέρμα ὅτῳ πολὺ καὶ ῥυῶδες
περὶ τὸν μυελὸν γίγνεται καὶ καθαπερεὶ
δένδρον πολυκαρπότερον τοῦ συμμέτρου
πεφυκὸς ᾖ, πολλὰς μὲν καθ᾽ ἕκαστον ὠδῖνας,
πολλὰς δ᾽ ἡδονὰς κτώμενος ἐν ταῖς ἐπιθυμίαις
καὶ τοῖς περὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα τόκοις, ἐμμανὴς τὸ
πλεῖστον γιγνόμενος τοῦ βίου διὰ τὰς μεγίστας
ἡδονὰς [86δ] καὶ λύπας, νοσοῦσαν καὶ ἄφρονα
ἴσχων ὑπὸ τοῦ σώματος τὴν ψυχήν, οὐχ ὡς
νοσῶν ἀλλ᾽ ὡς ἑκὼν κακὸς δοξάζεται: τὸ δὲ
ἀληθὲς ἡ περὶ τὰ ἀφροδίσια ἀκολασία κατὰ τὸ
πολὺ μέρος διὰ τὴν ἑνὸς γένους ἕξιν ὑπὸ
μανότητος ὀστῶν ἐν σώματι ῥυώδη καὶ
ὑγραίνουσαν νόσος ψυχῆς γέγονεν. καὶ σχεδὸν
δὴ πάντα ὁπόσα ἡδονῶν ἀκράτεια καὶ ὄνειδος
ὡς ἑκόντων λέγεται τῶν κακῶν, οὐκ ὀρθῶς
ὀνειδίζεται: κακὸς [86ε] μὲν γὰρ ἑκὼν οὐδείς,
διὰ δὲ πονηρὰν ἕξιν τινὰ τοῦ σώματος καὶ
ἀπαίδευτον τροφὴν ὁ κακὸς γίγνεται κακός,
παντὶ δὲ ταῦτα ἐχθρὰ καὶ ἄκοντι προσγίγνεται.
καὶ πάλιν δὴ τὸ περὶ τὰς λύπας ἡ ψυχὴ κατὰ
reproach. For no man is voluntarily bad; [86e]
but the bad become bad by reason of an ill
disposition of the body and bad education,
things which are hateful to every man and
happen to him against his will. And in the case
of pain too in like manner the soul suffers
much evil from the body. For where the acid
and briny phlegm and other bitter and bilious
humours wander about in the body, and find no
exit or escape, [87a] but are pent up within and
mingle their own vapours with the motions of
the soul, and are blended, with them, they
produce all sorts of diseases, more or fewer,
and in every degree of intensity; and being
carried to the three places of the soul,
whichever they may severally assail, they
create infinite varieties of ill-temper and
melancholy, of rashness and cowardice, and
also of forgetfulness and stupidity. Further,
when to this evil constitution of body [87b]
evil forms of government are added and evil
discourses are uttered in private as well as in
public, and no sort of instruction is given in
youth to cure these evils, then all of us who are
bad become bad from two causes which are
entirely beyond our control. In such cases the
planters are to blame rather than the plants, the
educators rather than the educated. But
however that may be, we should endeavour as
far as we can by education, and studies, and
learning, to avoid vice and attain virtue; this,
which are called by way of reproach
“incontinence in pleasure,” as though the
wicked acted voluntarily, are wrongly so
reproached; for no one is voluntarily wicked, 174
[86e] but the wicked man becomes wicked by
reason of some evil condition of body and
unskilled nurture, and these are experiences
which are hateful to everyone and involuntary.
And again, in respect of pains likewise the soul
acquires much evil because of the body. For
whenever the humors which arise from acid
and saline phlegms, and all humors that are
bitter and bilious wander through the body and
find no external vent [87a] but are confined
within, and mingle their vapor with the
movement of the soul and are blended
therewith, they implant diseases of the soul of
all kinds, varying in intensity and in extent;
and as these humors penetrate to the three
regions175 of the Soul, according to the region
which they severally attack, they give rise to
all varieties of bad temper and bad spirits, and
they give rise to all manner of rashness and
cowardice, and of forgetfulness also, as well as
of stupidity. Furthermore, when, with men in
such an evil condition, [87b] the political
administration also is evil, and the speech in
the cities, both public and private, is evil; and
when, moreover, no lessons that would cure
these evils are anywhere learnt from childhood,
—thus it comes to pass that all of us who are
174 For this Socratic dictum Cf. Protag. 345 D ff.,Laws731 C ff.
175 Cf. 73 D ff.
ταὐτὰ διὰ σῶμα πολλὴν ἴσχει κακίαν. ὅτου γὰρ
ἂν ἢ τῶν ὀξέων καὶ τῶν ἁλυκῶν φλεγμάτων
καὶ ὅσοι πικροὶ καὶ χολώδεις χυμοὶ κατὰ τὸ
σῶμα πλανηθέντες ἔξω μὲν μὴ λάβωσιν
ἀναπνοήν, ἐντὸς δὲ εἱλλόμενοι [87α] τὴν ἀφ᾽
αὑτῶν ἀτμίδα τῇ τῆς ψυχῆς φορᾷ συμμείξαντες
ἀνακερασθῶσι, παντοδαπὰ νοσήματα ψυχῆς
ἐμποιοῦσι μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον καὶ ἐλάττω καὶ
πλείω, πρός τε τοὺς τρεῖς τόπους ἐνεχθέντα τῆς
ψυχῆς, πρὸς ὃν ἂν ἕκαστ᾽ αὐτῶν προσπίπτῃ,
ποικίλλει μὲν εἴδη δυσκολίας καὶ δυσθυμίας
παντοδαπά, ποικίλλει δὲ θρασύτητός τε καὶ
δειλίας, ἔτι δὲ λήθης ἅμα καὶ δυσμαθίας. πρὸς
δὲ τούτοις, ὅταν οὕτως [87β] κακῶς παγέντων
πολιτεῖαι κακαὶ καὶ λόγοι κατὰ πόλεις ἰδίᾳ τε
καὶ δημοσίᾳ λεχθῶσιν, ἔτι δὲ μαθήματα
μηδαμῇ τούτων ἰατικὰ ἐκ νέων μανθάνηται,
ταύτῃ κακοὶ πάντες οἱ κακοὶ διὰ δύο
ἀκουσιώτατα γιγνόμεθα: ὧν αἰτιατέον μὲν τοὺς
φυτεύοντας ἀεὶ τῶν φυτευομένων μᾶλλον καὶ
τοὺς τρέφοντας τῶν τρεφομένων, προθυμητέον
μήν, ὅπῃ τις δύναται, καὶ διὰ τροφῆς καὶ δι᾽
ἐπιτηδευμάτων μαθημάτων τε φυγεῖν μὲν
κακίαν, τοὐναντίον δὲ ἑλεῖν. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν δὴ
τρόπος ἄλλος λόγων.
however, is part of another subject.
wicked become wicked owing to two quite
involuntary causes. And for these we must
always blame the begetters more than the
begotten, and the nurses more than the
nurslings; yet each man must endeavor, as best
he can, by means of nurture and by his pursuits
and studies to flee the evil and to pursue the
good. This, however, forms a separate subject
of discussion.
[87c] There is a corresponding enquiry
concerning the mode of treatment by which the
mind and the body are to be preserved, about
which it is meet and right that I should say a
word in turn; for it is more our duty to speak of
the good than of the evil. Everything that is
good is fair, and the animal fair is not without
proportion, and the animal which is to be fair
must have due proportion. Now we perceive
lesser symmetries or proportions and reason
about them, but of the highest and greatest we
take no heed; for there is no proportion or
disproportion more productive of health and
disease, [87d] and virtue and vice, than that
between soul and body. This however we do
not perceive, nor do we reflect that when a
weak or small frame is the vehicle of a great
and mighty soul, or conversely, when a little
soul is encased in a large body, then the whole
animal is not fair, for it lacks the most
important of all symmetries; but the due
proportion of mind and body is the fairest and
[87c] Again, it is reasonable and proper to set
forth in turn the subject complementary to the
foregoing, namely the remedial treatment of
body and mind, and the causes which conserve
this. For what is good merits description more
than what is evil. All that is good is fair, and
the fair is not void of due measure; wherefore
also the living creature that is to be fair must be
symmetrical. Of symmetries we distinguish
and reason about such as are small, but of the
most important and the greatest we have no
rational comprehension. For with respect to
health and disease, [87d] virtue and vice, there
is no symmetry or want of symmetry greater
than that which exists between the soul itself
and the body itself. But as regards these, we
wholly fail to perceive or reflect that, whenever
a weaker and inferior type of body is the
vehicle176 of a soul that is strong and in all
ways great,—or conversely, when each of these
two is of the opposite kind,—then the creature
as a whole is not fair, seeing that it is
176 Cf. 44 E, 69 C.
[87ξ] τὸ δὲ τούτων ἀντίστροφον αὖ, τὸ περὶ
τὰς τῶν σωμάτων καὶ διανοήσεων θεραπείας
αἷς αἰτίαις σῴζεται, πάλιν εἰκὸς καὶ πρέπον
ἀνταποδοῦναι: δικαιότερον γὰρ τῶν ἀγαθῶν
πέρι μᾶλλον ἢ τῶν κακῶν ἴσχειν λόγον. πᾶν δὴ
τὸ ἀγαθὸν καλόν, τὸ δὲ καλὸν οὐκ ἄμετρον:
καὶ ζῷον οὖν τὸ τοιοῦτον ἐσόμενον σύμμετρον
θετέον. συμμετριῶν δὲ τὰ μὲν σμικρὰ
διαισθανόμενοι
συλλογιζόμεθα,
τὰ
δὲ
κυριώτατα καὶ μέγιστα [87δ] ἀλογίστως
ἔχομεν. πρὸς γὰρ ὑγιείας καὶ νόσους ἀρετάς τε
καὶ κακίας οὐδεμία συμμετρία καὶ ἀμετρία
μείζων ἢ ψυχῆς αὐτῆς πρὸς σῶμα αὐτό: ὧν
οὐδὲν σκοποῦμεν οὐδ᾽ ἐννοοῦμεν, ὅτι ψυχὴν
ἰσχυρὰν καὶ πάντῃ μεγάλην ἀσθενέστερον καὶ
ἔλαττον εἶδος ὅταν ὀχῇ, καὶ ὅταν αὖ
τοὐναντίον συμπαγῆτον τούτω, οὐ καλὸν ὅλον
τὸ ζῷον—ἀσύμμετρον γὰρ ταῖς μεγίσταις
συμμετρίαις—τὸ δὲ ἐναντίως ἔχον πάντων
θεαμάτων τῷ δυναμένῳ καθορᾶν κάλλιστον
καὶ ἐρασμιώτατον. [87ε] οἷον οὖν ὑπερσκελὲς
ἢ καί τινα ἑτέραν ὑπέρεξιν ἄμετρον ἑαυτῷ τι
loveliest of all sights to him who has the seeing
eye. [87e] Just as a body which has a leg too
long, or which is unsymmetrical in some other
respect, is an unpleasant sight, and also, when
doing its share of work, is much distressed and
makes convulsive efforts, and often stumbles
through awkwardness, and is the cause of
infinite evil to its own self — in like manner
we should conceive of the double nature which
we call the living being; and when in this
compound there is an impassioned soul more
powerful than the body, [88a] that soul, I say,
convulses and fills with disorders the whole
inner nature of man; and when eager in the
pursuit of some sort of learning or study,
causes wasting; or again, when teaching or
disputing in private or in public, and strifes and
controversies arise, inflames and dissolves the
composite frame of man and introduces
rheums; and the nature of this phenomenon is
not understood by most professors of medicine,
who ascribe it to the opposite of the real cause.
And once more, when body large and too
strong for the soul is united to a small [88b]
and weak intelligence, then inasmuch as there
are two desires natural to man, — one of food
for the sake of the body, and one of wisdom for
the sake of the diviner part of us — then, I say,
the motions of the stronger, getting the better
and increasing their own power, but making
the soul dull, and stupid, and forgetful,
engender ignorance, which is the greatest of
diseases. There is one protection against both
unsymmetrical in respect of the greatest of
symmetries; whereas a creature in the opposite
condition is of all sights, for him who has eyes
to see, [87e] the fairest and most admirable. A
body, for example, which is too long in the
legs, or otherwise disproportioned owing to
some excess, is not only ugly, but, when joint
effort is required, it is also the source of much
fatigue and many sprains and falls by reason of
its clumsy motion, whereby it causes itself
countless evils. So likewise we must conceive
of that compound of soul and body which we
call the “living creature.” Whenever the soul
within it is stronger than the body [88a] and is
in a very passionate state, it shakes up the
whole body from within and fills it with
maladies; and whenever the soul ardently
pursues some study or investigation, it wastes
the body; and again, when the soul engages, in
public or in private, in teachings and battles of
words carried on with controversy and
contention, it makes the body inflamed and
shakes it to pieces, and induces catarrhs; and
thereby it deceives the majority of so-called
physicians and makes them ascribe the malady
to the wrong cause. And, on the other hand,
when a large and overbearing body is united to
a small [88b] and weak intellect, inasmuch as
two desires naturally exist amongst men, —the
desire of food for the body's sake, and the
desire of wisdom for the sake of the most
divine part we have,—the motions of the
stronger part prevail and augment their own
σῶμα ὂν ἅμα μὲν αἰσχρόν, ἅμα δ᾽ ἐν τῇ
κοινωνίᾳ τῶν πόνων πολλοὺς μὲν κόπους,
πολλὰ δὲ σπάσματα καὶ διὰ τὴν παραφορότητα
πτώματα παρέχον μυρίων κακῶν αἴτιον ἑαυτῷ,
ταὐτὸν δὴ διανοητέον καὶ περὶ τοῦ
συναμφοτέρου, ζῷον ὃ καλοῦμεν, ὡς ὅταν τε
ἐν αὐτῷ ψυχὴ κρείττων [88α] οὖσα σώματος
περιθύμως ἴσχῃ, διασείουσα πᾶν αὐτὸ ἔνδοθεν
νόσων ἐμπίμπλησι, καὶ ὅταν εἴς τινας μαθήσεις
καὶ ζητήσεις συντόνως ἴῃ, κατατήκει, διδαχάς
τ᾽ αὖ καὶ μάχας ἐν λόγοις ποιουμένη δημοσίᾳ
καὶ ἰδίᾳ δι᾽ ἐρίδων καὶ φιλονικίας γιγνομένων
διάπυρον αὐτὸ ποιοῦσα σαλεύει, καὶ ῥεύματα
ἐπάγουσα, τῶν λεγομένων ἰατρῶν ἀπατῶσα
τοὺς πλείστους, τἀναίται αἰτιᾶσθαι ποιεῖ: σῶμά
τε ὅταν αὖ μέγα καὶ ὑπέρψυχον σμικρᾷ
συμφυὲς ἀσθενεῖ τε διανοίᾳ γένηται, διττῶν
[88β] ἐπιθυμιῶν οὐσῶν φύσει κατ᾽ ἀνθρώπους,
διὰ σῶμα μὲν τροφῆς, διὰ δὲ τὸ θειότατον τῶν
ἐν ἡμῖν φρονήσεως, αἱ τοῦ κρείττονος κινήσεις
κρατοῦσαι καὶ τὸ μὲν σφέτερον αὔξουσαι, τὸ
δὲ τῆς ψυχῆς κωφὸν καὶ δυσμαθὲς ἀμνῆμόν τε
ποιοῦσαι, τὴν μεγίστην νόσον ἀμαθίαν
ἐναπεργάζονται. μία δὴ σωτηρία πρὸς ἄμφω,
μήτε τὴν ψυχὴν ἄνευ σώματος κινεῖν μήτε
σῶμα ἄνευ ψυχῆς, ἵνα ἀμυνομένω γίγνησθον
ἰσορρόπω καὶ [88ξ] ὑγιῆ. τὸν δὴ μαθηματικὸν
ἤ τινα ἄλλην σφόδρα μελέτην διανοίᾳ
κατεργαζόμενον καὶ τὴν τοῦ σώματος
ἀποδοτέον
κίνησιν,
γυμναστικῇ
προσομιλοῦντα, τόν τε αὖ σῶμα ἐπιμελῶς
πλάττοντα τὰς τῆς ψυχῆς ἀνταποδοτέον
κινήσεις, μουσικῇ καὶ πάσῃ φιλοσοφίᾳ
kinds of disproportion: — that we should not
move the body without the soul or the soul
without the body, and thus they will be on their
guard against each other, and be healthy and
well
balanced.
And
therefore
the
mathematician [88c] or any one else whose
thoughts are much absorbed in some
intellectual pursuit, must allow his body also to
have due exercise, and practise gymnastic; and
he who is careful to fashion the body, should in
turn impart to the soul its proper motions, and
should cultivate music and all philosophy, if he
would deserve to be called truly fair and truly
good. And the separate parts should be treated
in the same manner, in imitation of the pattern
of the universe; for as the body [88d] is heated
and also cooled within by the elements which
enter into it, and is again dried up and
moistened by external things, and experiences
these and the like affections from both kinds of
motions, the result is that the body if given up
to motion when in a state of quiescence is
overmastered and perishes; but if any one, in
imitation of that which we call the fostermother and nurse of the universe, will not
allow the body ever to be inactive, but is
always producing motions and agitations
through its whole extent, which form the
natural defence against other motions both
internal and external, and by moderate exercise
power, but they make that of the soul obtuse
and dull of wit and forgetful, and thereby they
produce within it that greatest of diseases,
ignorance. From both these evils the one means
of salvation is this—neither to exercise the soul
without the body nor the body without the
soul,177 so that they may be evenly matched
and sound of health. Thus the student of
mathematics, [88c] or of any other subject,
who works very hard with his intellect must
also provide his body with exercise by
practising gymnastics; while he who is diligent
in molding his body must, in turn, provide his
soul with motion by cultivating music178 and
philosophy in general, if either is to deserve to
be called truly both fair and good. The various
parts, likewise, must be treated in the same
manner, in imitation of the form of the
Universe. For as the body [88d] is inflamed or
chilled within by the particles that enter it, and
again is dried or moistened by those without,
and suffers the affections consequent on both
these motions, whenever a man delivers his
body, in a state of rest, to these motions, it is
overpowered and utterly perishes; whereas if a
man imitates that which we have called the
nurturer and nurse of the Universe, 179 and
never, if possible, allows the body to be at rest
but keeps it moving, and by continually
producing internal vibrations defends it in
177 Cf. Laws728 E.
178 i.e., “music” in the wide sense of “mental culture.”
179 Cf. 49 A, 52 D.
προσχρώμενον, εἰ μέλλει δικαίως τις ἅμα μὲν
καλός, ἅμα δὲ ἀγαθὸς ὀρθῶς κεκλῆσθαι. κατὰ
δὲ ταὐτὰ ταῦτα καὶ τὰ μέρη θεραπευτέον, τὸ
τοῦ παντὸς [88δ] ἀπομιμούμενον εἶδος. τοῦ
γὰρ σώματος ὑπὸ τῶν εἰσιόντων καομένου τε
ἐντὸς καὶ ψυχομένου, καὶ πάλιν ὑπὸ τῶν
ἔξωθεν ξηραινομένου καὶ ὑγραινομένου καὶ τὰ
τούτοις ἀκόλουθα πάσχοντος ὑπ᾽ ἀμφοτέρων
τῶν κινήσεων, ὅταν μέν τις ἡσυχίαν ἄγον τὸ
σῶμα παραδιδῷ ταῖς κινήσεσι, κρατηθὲν
διώλετο, ἐὰν δὲ ἥν τε τροφὸν καὶ τιθήνην τοῦ
παντὸς προσείπομεν μιμῆταί τις, καὶ τὸ σῶμα
μάλιστα μὲν μηδέποτε ἡσυχίαν ἄγειν ἐᾷ, κινῇ
δὲ καὶ σεισμοὺς ἀεί τινας ἐμποιῶν αὐτῷ διὰ
[88ε] παντὸς τὰς ἐντὸς καὶ ἐκτὸς ἀμύνηται
κατὰ φύσιν κινήσεις, καὶ μετρίως σείων τά τε
περὶ τὸ σῶμα πλανώμενα παθήματα καὶ μέρη
κατὰ συγγενείας εἰς τάξιν κατακοσμῇ πρὸς
ἄλληλα, κατὰ τὸν πρόσθεν λόγον ὃν περὶ τοῦ
παντὸς ἐλέγομεν, οὐκ ἐχθρὸν παρ᾽ ἐχθρὸν
τιθέμενον ἐάσει πολέμους ἐντίκτειν τῷ σώματι
καὶ νόσους, ἀλλὰ φίλον παρὰ φίλον τεθὲν
ὑγίειαν [89α] ἀπεργαζόμενον παρέξει. τῶν δ᾽
αὖ κινήσεων ἡ ἐν ἑαυτῷ ὑφ᾽ αὑτοῦ ἀρίστη
κίνησις—μάλιστα γὰρ τῇ διανοητικῇ καὶ τῇ
τοῦ παντὸς κινήσει συγγενής—ἡ δὲ ὑπ᾽ ἄλλου
χείρων: χειρίστη δὲ ἡ κειμένου τοῦ σώματος
καὶ ἄγοντος ἡσυχίαν δι᾽ ἑτέρων αὐτὸ κατὰ
μέρη κινοῦσα. διὸ δὴ τῶν καθάρσεων καὶ
συστάσεων τοῦ σώματος ἡ μὲν διὰ τῶν
[88e] reduces to order according to their
affinities the particles and affections which are
wandering about the body, as we have already
said when speaking of the universe, he will not
allow enemy placed by the side of enemy to
stir up wars and disorders in the body, but he
will place friend by the side of friend, so as to
create health. [89a] Now of all motions that is
the best which is produced in a thing by itself,
for it is most akin to the motion of thought and
of the universe; but that motion which is
caused by others is not so good, and worst of
all is that which moves the body, when at rest,
in parts only and by some external agency.
Wherefore of all modes of purifying and
reuniting the body the best is gymnastic; the
next best is a surging motion, as in sailing or
any other mode of conveyance which is not
fatiguing; the third sort of motion may be of
use in a case of extreme necessity, [89b] but in
any other will be adopted by no man of sense: I
mean the purgative treatment of physicians; for
diseases unless they are very dangerous should
not be irritated by medicines, since every form
of disease is in a manner akin to the living
being, whose complex frame has an appointed
term of life. [89c] For not the whole race only,
but each individual — barring inevitable
accidents — comes into the world having a
fixed span, and the triangles in us are originally
framed with power to last for a certain time,
180 Cf. 33 A.
181 Cf. Laws789 C.
nature's way against the inward and outward
motions, and by means of moderate vibrations
[88e] arranges the affections and particles
which stray about in the body in their due
reciprocal order,180 according to their affinities,
—as described in the previous account which
we have given of the Universe—then he will
not suffer foe set beside foe to breed war in the
body and disease, but he will cause friend to be
set beside friend so as to produce sound health.
[89a] Further, as concerns the motions, the best
motion of a body is that caused by itself in
itself; for this is most nearly akin to the motion
of intelligence and the motion of the Universe.
Motion due to the agency of another is less
good; and the least good motion is that which
is imparted to a body lying in a state of rest and
which moves it piecemeal and by means of
others. Wherefore the motion that is best for
purgings and renovations of the body consists
in gymnastic exercises; and second-best is the
motion provided by swaying vehicles,181 such
as boats or any conveyances that produce no
fatigue; while the third kind of motion,
although useful for one who is absolutely
driven to it, [89b] is by no means acceptable,
under any other conditions, to a man of sense,
it being the medical kind of purging by means
of drugs. For no diseases which do not involve
great danger ought to be irritated by drugging.
For in its structure every disease resembles in
γυμνασίων ἀρίστη, δευτέρα δὲ ἡ διὰ τῶν
αἰωρήσεων κατά τε τοὺς πλοῦς καὶ ὅπῃπερ ἂν
ὀχήσεις ἄκοποι γίγνωνται: τρίτον δὲ εἶδος
κινήσεως [89β] σφόδρα ποτὲ ἀναγκαζομένῳ
χρήσιμον, ἄλλως δὲ οὐδαμῶς τῷ νοῦν ἔχοντι
προσδεκτέον,
τὸ
τῆς
φαρμακευτικῆς
καθάρσεως γιγνόμενον ἰατρικόν. τὰ γὰρ
νοσήματα, ὅσα μὴ μεγάλους ἔχει κινδύνους,
οὐκ ἐρεθιστέον φαρμακείαις. πᾶσα γὰρ
σύστασις νόσων τρόπον τινὰ τῇ τῶν ζῴων
φύσει προσέοικε. καὶ γὰρ ἡ τούτων σύνοδος
ἔχουσα τεταγμένους τοῦ βίου γίγνεται χρόνους
τοῦ τε γένους σύμπαντος, καὶ καθ᾽ αὑτὸ τὸ
ζῷον εἱμαρμένον ἕκαστον ἔχον τὸν βίον
φύεται, [89ξ] χωρὶς τῶν ἐξ ἀνάγκης
παθημάτων: τὰ γὰρ τρίγωνα εὐθὺς κατ᾽ ἀρχὰς
ἑκάστου δύναμιν ἔχοντα συνίσταται μέχρι
τινὸς χρόνου δυνατὰ ἐξαρκεῖν, οὗ βίον οὐκ ἄν
ποτέ τις εἰς τὸ πέραν ἔτι βιῴη. τρόπος οὖν ὁ
αὐτὸς καὶ τῆς περὶ τὰ νοσήματα συστάσεως: ἣν
ὅταν τις παρὰ τὴν εἱμαρμένην τοῦ χρόνου
φθείρῃ φαρμακείαις, ἅμα ἐκ σμικρῶν μεγάλα
καὶ πολλὰ ἐξ ὀλίγων νοσήματα φιλεῖ γίγνεσθαι.
διὸ παιδαγωγεῖν δεῖ διαίταις πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα,
καθ᾽ ὅσον ἂν ᾖ τῳ σχολή, [89δ] ἀλλ᾽ οὐ
φαρμακεύοντα κακὸν δύσκολον ἐρεθιστέον.
beyond which no man prolong his life. And
this holds also of the constitution of diseases; if
any one regardless of the appointed time tries
to subdue them by medicine, he only
aggravates and multiplies them. Wherefore we
ought always to manage them by regimen, as
far as [89d] a man can spare the time, and not
provoke a disagreeable enemy by medicines.
some sort the nature of the living creature. For,
in truth, the constitution of these creatures has
prescribed periods of life for the species as a
whole, and each individual creature likewise
has a naturally predestined term of life, [89c]
apart from the accidents due to necessity. For
from the very beginning the triangles of each
creature are constructed with a capacity for
lasting until a certain time, beyond which no
one could ever continue to live. With respect to
the structure of diseases also the same rule
holds good: whenever anyone does violence
thereto by drugging, in despite of the
predestined period of time, diseases many and
grave, in place of few and slight, are wont to
occur. Wherefore one ought to control all such
diseases, so far as [89d] one has the time to
spare, by means of dieting rather than irritate a
fractious evil by drugging.
Enough of the composite animal, and of the
body which is a part of him, and of the manner
in which a man may train and be trained by
himself so as to live most according to reason:
and we must above and before all provide that
the element which is to train him shall be the
fairest and best adapted to that purpose. A
minute discussion of this subject would be
[89e] a serious task; but if, as before, I am to
give only an outline, the subject may not
unfitly be summed up as follows. I have often
remarked that there are three kinds of soul
Concerning both the composite living creature
and the bodily part of it, how a man should
both guide and be guided by himself so as to
live a most rational life, let our statement stand
thus. But first and with special care we must
make ready the part which is to be the guide to
the best of our power, so that it may be as fair
and good as possible for the work of guidance.
Now to expound this subject alone in accurate
detail would in itself be [89e] a sufficient
task.182 But treating it merely as a side-issue, if
we follow on the lines of our previous
182 Education is the theme of Rep. vii. and Lawsvii. and xii ad fin.
καὶ περὶ μὲν τοῦ κοινοῦ ζῴου καὶ τοῦ κατὰ τὸ
σῶμα αὐτοῦ μέρους, ᾗ τις ἂν καὶ
διαπαιδαγωγῶν καὶ διαπαιδαγωγούμενος ὑφ᾽
αὑτοῦ μάλιστ᾽ ἂν κατὰ λόγον ζῴη, ταύτῃ
λελέχθω: τὸ δὲ δὴ παιδαγωγῆσον αὐτὸ μᾶλλόν
που καὶ πρότερον παρασκευαστέον εἰς δύναμιν
ὅτι κάλλιστον καὶ ἄριστον εἰς τὴν παιδαγωγίαν
εἶναι. δι᾽ ἀκριβείας μὲν οὖν περὶ τούτων [89ε]
διελθεῖν ἱκανὸν ἂν γένοιτο αὐτὸ καθ᾽ αὑτὸ
μόνον ἔργον: τὸ δ᾽ ἐν παρέργῳ κατὰ τὰ
πρόσθεν ἑπόμενος ἄν τις οὐκ ἄπο τρόπου τῇδε
σκοπῶν ὧδε τῷ λόγῳ διαπεράναιτ᾽ ἄν.
located within us, having each of them
motions, and I must now repeat in the fewest
words possible, that one part, if remaining
inactive and ceasing from its natural motion,
must necessarily become very weak, but that
which is trained and exercised, very strong.
[90a] Wherefore we should take care that the
movements of the different parts of the soul
should be in due proportion. And we should
consider that God gave the sovereign part of
the human soul to be the divinity of each one,
being that part which, as we say, dwells at the
top of the body, inasmuch as we are a plant not
of an earthly but of a heavenly growth, raises
us from earth to our kindred who are in
heaven. And in this we say truly; for the divine
power suspended the head and root of us from
that place where the generation of the soul first
began, [90b] and thus made the whole body
upright. When a man is always occupied with
the cravings of desire and ambition, and is
eagerly striving to satisfy them, all his thoughts
must be mortal, and, as far as it is possible
altogether to become such, he must be mortal
every whit, because he has cherished his
mortal part. But he who has been earnest in the
love of knowledge and of true wisdom, and has
exercised his intellect more than any other part
of him, [90c] must have thoughts immortal and
divine, if he attain truth, and in so far as human
nature is capable of sharing in immortality, he
exposition, we may consider the matter and
state our conclusions not inaptly in the
following terms. We have frequently asserted 183
that there are housed within us in three regions
three kinds of soul, and that each of these has
its own motions; so now likewise we must
repeat, as briefly as possible, that the kind
which remains in idleness and stays with its
own motions; in repose necessarily becomes
weakest, whereas the kind which exercises
itself becomes strongest; [90a] wherefore care
must be taken that they have their motions
relatively to one another in due proportion.
And as regards the most lordly kind of our
soul, we must conceive of it in this wise: we
declare that God has given to each of us, as his
daemon,184 that kind of soul which is housed in
the top of our body and which raises us—
seeing that we are not an earthly but a heavenly
plant up from earth towards our kindred in the
heaven. And herein we speak most truly; for it
is by suspending our head and root from that
region whence the substance of our soul first
came that the Divine Power [90b] keeps
upright our whole body. Whoso, then, indulges
in lusts or in contentions and devotes himself
overmuch thereto must of necessity be filled
with opinions that are wholly mortal, and
altogether, so far as it is possible to become
mortal, fall not short of this in even a small
degree, inasmuch as he has made great his
183 Cf. 69 D, 79 D, 87 A.
184 i.e., “genius” or “guardian-angel”; Cf. Laws732 C, 877 A.
καθάπερ εἴπομεν πολλάκις, ὅτι τρία τριχῇ
ψυχῆς ἐν ἡμῖν εἴδη κατῴκισται, τυγχάνει δὲ
ἕκαστον κινήσεις ἔχον, οὕτω κατὰ ταὐτὰ καὶ
νῦν ὡς διὰ βραχυτάτων ῥητέον ὅτι τὸ μὲν
αὐτῶν ἐν ἀργίᾳ διάγον καὶ τῶν ἑαυτοῦ
κινήσεων ἡσυχίαν ἄγον ἀσθενέστατον ἀνάγκη
γίγνεσθαι,
τὸ
δ᾽
ἐν
γυμνασίοις
ἐρρωμενέστατον: [90α] διὸ φυλακτέον ὅπως
ἂν ἔχωσιν τὰς κινήσεις πρὸς ἄλληλα
συμμέτρους. τὸ δὲ δὴ περὶ τοῦ κυριωτάτου
παρ᾽ ἡμῖν ψυχῆς εἴδους διανοεῖσθαι δεῖ τῇδε,
ὡς ἄρα αὐτὸ δαίμονα θεὸς ἑκάστῳ δέδωκεν,
τοῦτο ὃ δή φαμεν οἰκεῖν μὲν ἡμῶν ἐπ᾽ ἄκρῳ τῷ
σώματι, πρὸς δὲ τὴν ἐν οὐρανῷ συγγένειαν
ἀπὸ γῆς ἡμᾶς αἴρειν ὡς ὄντας φυτὸν οὐκ
ἔγγειον ἀλλὰ οὐράνιον, ὀρθότατα λέγοντες:
ἐκεῖθεν γάρ, ὅθεν ἡ πρώτη τῆς ψυχῆς γένεσις
ἔφυ, τὸ θεῖον τὴν κεφαλὴν καὶ ῥίζαν ἡμῶν
[90β] ἀνακρεμαννὺν ὀρθοῖ πᾶν τὸ σῶμα. τῷ
μὲν οὖν περὶ τὰς ἐπιθυμίας ἢ περὶ φιλονικίας
τετευτακότι καὶ ταῦτα διαπονοῦντι σφόδρα
πάντα τὰ δόγματα ἀνάγκη θνητὰ ἐγγεγονέναι,
καὶ παντάπασιν καθ᾽ ὅσον μάλιστα δυνατὸν
θνητῷ γίγνεσθαι, τούτου μηδὲ σμικρὸν
ἐλλείπειν, ἅτε τὸ τοιοῦτον ηὐξηκότι: τῷ δὲ περὶ
φιλομαθίαν καὶ περὶ τὰς ἀληθεῖς φρονήσεις
ἐσπουδακότι καὶ ταῦτα μάλιστα τῶν αὑτοῦ
γεγυμνασμένῳ [90ξ] φρονεῖν μὲν ἀθάνατα καὶ
θεῖα, ἄνπερ ἀληθείας ἐφάπτηται, πᾶσα ἀνάγκη
που, καθ᾽ ὅσον δ᾽ αὖ μετασχεῖν ἀνθρωπίνῃ
φύσει ἀθανασίας ἐνδέχεται, τούτου μηδὲν
must altogether be immortal; and since he is
ever cherishing the divine power, and has the
divinity within him in perfect order, he will be
perfectly happy. Now there is only one way of
taking care of things, and this is to give to each
the food and motion which are natural to it.
And the motions which are naturally akin to
the divine principle within us [90d] are the
thoughts and revolutions of the universe. These
each man should follow, and correct the
courses of the head which were corrupted at
our birth, and by learning the harmonies and
revolutions of the universe, should assimilate
the thinking being to the thought, renewing his
original nature, and having assimilated them
should attain to that perfect life which the gods
have set before mankind, both for the present
and the future.
mortal part. But he who has seriously devoted
himself to learning and to true thoughts, and
has exercised these qualities above all his
others, [90c] must necessarily and inevitably
think thoughts that are immortal and divine, if
so be that he lays hold on truth, and in so far as
it is possible for human nature to partake of
immortality,185 he must fall short thereof in no
degree; and inasmuch as he is for ever tending
his divine part and duly magnifying that
daemon who dwells along with him, he must
be supremely blessed.186 And the way of
tendance of every part by every man is one—
namely, to supply each with its own congenial
food and motion; and for the divine part within
us the congenial motions [90d] are the
intellections and revolutions of the Universe.187
These each one of us should follow, rectifying
the revolutions within our head, which were
distorted at our birth, by learning the
harmonies and revolutions of the Universe, and
thereby making the part that thinks like unto
the object of its thought, in accordance with its
original nature, and having achieved this
likeness attain finally to that goal of life which
is set before men by the gods as the most good
both for the present and for the time to come.
μέρος ἀπολείπειν, ἅτε δὲ ἀεὶ θεραπεύοντα τὸ
θεῖον ἔχοντά τε αὐτὸν εὖ κεκοσμημένον τὸν
δαίμονα σύνοικον ἑαυτῷ, διαφερόντως
εὐδαίμονα εἶναι. θεραπεία δὲ δὴ παντὶ παντὸς
μία, τὰς οἰκείας ἑκάστῳ τροφὰς καὶ κινήσεις
ἀποδιδόναι. τῷ δ᾽ ἐν ἡμῖν θείῳ συγγενεῖς εἰσιν
κινήσεις αἱ τοῦ παντὸς διανοήσεις [90δ] καὶ
περιφοραί: ταύταις δὴ συνεπόμενον ἕκαστον
δεῖ, τὰς περὶ τὴν γένεσιν ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ
διεφθαρμένας ἡμῶν περιόδους ἐξορθοῦντα διὰ
τὸ καταμανθάνειν τὰς τοῦ παντὸς ἁρμονίας τε
καὶ περιφοράς, τῷ κατανοουμένῳ τὸ
κατανοοῦν ἐξομοιῶσαι κατὰ τὴν ἀρχαίαν
φύσιν, ὁμοιώσαντα δὲ τέλος ἔχειν τοῦ
προτεθέντος ἀνθρώποις ὑπὸ θεῶν ἀρίστου βίου
πρός τε τὸν παρόντα καὶ τὸν ἔπειτα χρόνον.
[90e] Thus our original design of discoursing
about the universe down to the creation of man
[90e] And now the task prescribed for us at the
beginning to give a description of the Universe
[90ε] καὶ δὴ καὶ τὰ νῦν ἡμῖν ἐξ ἀρχῆς
παραγγελθέντα διεξελθεῖν περὶ τοῦ παντὸς
185 Cf. Sympos. 212 A.
186 Literally, “with a good daemon” (a play on δαίμωνand εὐδαίμων).
187 Cf. 37 A ff.
is nearly completed. A brief mention may be
made of the generation of other animals, so far
as the subject admits of brevity; in this manner
our argument will best attain a due proportion.
On the subject of animals, then, the following
remarks may be offered. Of the men who came
into the world, those who were cowards or led
unrighteous lives may with reason be supposed
to have changed [91a] into the nature of
women in the second generation. And this was
the reason why at that time the gods created in
us the desire of sexual intercourse, contriving
in man one animated substance, and in woman
another, which they formed respectively in the
following manner. The outlet for drink by
which liquids pass through the lung under the
kidneys and into the bladder, which receives
then by the pressure of the air emits them, was
so fashioned by them as to penetrate also into
the body of the marrow, which passes from the
head along the neck and through the back,
[91b] and which in the preceding discourse we
have named the seed. And the seed having life,
and becoming endowed with respiration,
produces in that part in which it respires a
lively desire of emission, and thus creates in us
the love of procreation. Wherefore also in men
the organ of generation becoming rebellious
and masterful, like an animal disobedient to
reason, and maddened with the sting of lust,
seeks to gain absolute sway; [91c] and the
188 Cf. 41 D ff.
189 Cf. 73 C, 86 C.
up to the production of mankind, would appear
to be wellnigh completed. For as regards the
mode in which the rest of living creatures have
been produced we must make but a brief
statement, seeing that there is no need to speak
at length; for by such brevity we will feel
ourselves to be preserving a right proportion in
our handling of these subjects. Wherefore let
this matter be treated as follows. According to
the probable account, all those creatures
generated as men who proved themselves
cowardly and spent their lives in wrong-doing
were transformed, [91a] at their second
incarnation,188 into women. And it was for this
reason that the gods at that time contrived the
love of sexual intercourse by constructing an
animate creature of one kind in us men, and of
another kind in women; and they made these
severally in the following fashion. From the
passage of egress for the drink, where it
receives and joins in discharging the fluid
which has come through the lungs beneath the
kidneys into the bladder and has been
compressed by the air, they bored a hole into
the condensed marrow which comes from the
head down by the neck and along the spine
[91b] which marrow, in our previous
account,189 we termed “seed.” And the marrow,
inasmuch as it is animate and has been granted
an outlet, has endowed the part where its outlet
lies with a love for generating by implanting
μέχρι γενέσεως ἀνθρωπίνης σχεδὸν ἔοικε τέλος
ἔχειν. τὰ γὰρ ἄλλα ζῷα ᾗ γέγονεν αὖ, διὰ
βραχέων ἐπιμνηστέον, ὃ μή τις ἀνάγκη
μηκύνειν: οὕτω γὰρ ἐμμετρότερός τις ἂν αὑτῷ
δόξειεν περὶ τοὺς τούτων λόγους εἶναι. τῇδ᾽
οὖν τὸ τοιοῦτον ἔστω λεγόμενον. τῶν
γενομένων ἀνδρῶν ὅσοι δειλοὶ καὶ τὸν βίον
ἀδίκως διῆλθον, κατὰ λόγον τὸν εἰκότα
γυναῖκες μετεφύοντο ἐν τῇ δευτέρᾳ [91α]
γενέσει: καὶ κατ᾽ ἐκεῖνον δὴ τὸν χρόνον διὰ
ταῦτα θεοὶ τὸν τῆς συνουσίας ἔρωτα
ἐτεκτήναντο, ζῷον τὸ μὲν ἐν ἡμῖν, τὸ δ᾽ ἐν ταῖς
γυναιξὶν συστήσαντες ἔμψυχον, τοιῷδε τρόπῳ
ποιήσαντες ἑκάτερον. τὴν τοῦ ποτοῦ διέξοδον,
ᾗ διὰ τοῦ πλεύμονος τὸ πῶμα ὑπὸ τοὺς
νεφροὺς εἰς τὴν κύστιν ἐλθὸν καὶ τῷ πνεύματι
θλιφθὲν συνεκπέμπει δεχομένη, συνέτρησαν
εἰς τὸν ἐκ τῆς κεφαλῆς κατὰ τὸν αὐχένα καὶ
διὰ τῆς ῥάχεως [91β] μυελὸν συμπεπηγότα, ὃν
δὴ σπέρμα ἐν τοῖς πρόσθεν λόγοις εἴπομεν: ὁ
δέ, ἅτ᾽ ἔμψυχος ὢν καὶ λαβὼν ἀναπνοήν, τοῦθ᾽
ᾗπερ ἀνέπνευσεν, τῆς ἐκροῆς ζωτικὴν
ἐπιθυμίαν ἐμποιήσας αὐτῷ, τοῦ γεννᾶν ἔρωτα
ἀπετέλεσεν. διὸ δὴ τῶν μὲν ἀνδρῶν τὸ περὶ τὴν
τῶν αἰδοίων φύσιν ἀπειθές τε καὶ αὐτοκρατὲς
γεγονός, οἷον ζῷον ἀνυπήκοον τοῦ λόγου,
πάντων δι᾽ ἐπιθυμίας οἰστρώδεις ἐπιχειρεῖ
κρατεῖν: αἱ δ᾽ ἐν [91ξ] ταῖς γυναιξὶν αὖ μῆτραί
τε καὶ ὑστέραι λεγόμεναι διὰ τὰ αὐτὰ ταῦτα,
ζῷον ἐπιθυμητικὸν ἐνὸν τῆς παιδοποιίας, ὅταν
ἄκαρπον παρὰ τὴν ὥραν χρόνον πολὺν
same is the case with the so-called womb or
matrix of women; the animal within them is
desirous of procreating children, and when
remaining unfruitful long beyond its proper
time, gets discontented and angry, and
wandering in every direction through the body,
closes up the passages of the breath, and, by
obstructing respiration, drives them to
extremity, causing all varieties of disease, until
at length the desire and love of the man and the
woman, bringing them together and as it were
plucking the fruit from the tree, [91d] sow in
the womb, as in a field, animals unseen by
reason of their smallness and without form;
these again are separated and matured within;
they are then finally brought out into the light,
and thus the generation of animals is
completed.
therein a lively desire for emission. Wherefore
in men the nature of the genital organs is
disobedient and self-willed, like a creature that
is deaf to reason, and it attempts to dominate
all because of its frenzied lusts. [91c] And in
women again, owing to the same causes,
whenever the matrix or womb, as it is called,—
which is an indwelling creature desirous of
child-bearing,—remains without fruit long
beyond the due season, it is vexed and takes it
ill; and by straying all ways through the body
and blocking up the passages of the breath and
preventing respiration it casts the body into the
uttermost distress, and causes, moreover, all
kinds of maladies; until the desire and love of
the two sexes unite them. Then, culling as it
were the fruit from trees, [91d] they sow upon
the womb, as upon ploughed soil, animalcules
that are invisible for smallness and unshapen;
and these, again, they mold into shape and
nourish to a great size within the body; after
which they bring them forth into the light and
thus complete the generation of the living
creature.
γίγνηται, χαλεπῶς ἀγανακτοῦν φέρει, καὶ
πλανώμενον πάντῃ κατὰ τὸ σῶμα, τὰς τοῦ
πνεύματος διεξόδους ἀποφράττον, ἀναπνεῖν
οὐκ ἐῶν εἰς ἀπορίας τὰς ἐσχάτας ἐμβάλλει καὶ
νόσους παντοδαπὰς ἄλλας παρέχει, μέχριπερ
ἂν ἑκατέρων ἡ ἐπιθυμία καὶ ὁ [91δ] ἔρως
συναγαγόντες, οἷον ἀπὸ δένδρων καρπὸν
καταδρέψαντες, ὡς εἰς ἄρουραν τὴν μήτραν
ἀόρατα ὑπὸ σμικρότητος καὶ ἀδιάπλαστα ζῷα
κατασπείραντες καὶ πάλιν διακρίναντες μεγάλα
ἐντὸς ἐκθρέψωνται καὶ μετὰ τοῦτο εἰς φῶς
ἀγαγόντες ζῴων ἀποτελέσωσι γένεσιν.
Thus were created women and the female sex
in general. But the race of birds was created
out of innocent light-minded men, who,
although their minds were directed toward
heaven, imagined, in their simplicity, that the
clearest demonstration of the things above was
to be obtained by sight; these were remodelled
In this fashion, then, women and the whole
female sex have come into existence. And the
tribe of birds are derived by transformation,
growing feathers in place of hair, from men
who are harmless but light-minded190—men,
too, who, being students of the worlds above,
suppose in their simplicity that the most solid
γυναῖκες μὲν οὖν καὶ τὸ θῆλυ πᾶν οὕτω
γέγονεν: τὸ δὲ τῶν ὀρνέων φῦλον
μετερρυθμίζετο, ἀντὶ τριχῶν πτερὰ φύον, ἐκ
τῶν ἀκάκων ἀνδρῶν, κούφων δέ, καὶ
μετεωρολογικῶν μέν, ἡγουμένων δὲ δι᾽ ὄψεως
[91ε] τὰς περὶ τούτων ἀποδείξεις βεβαιοτάτας
εἶναι δι᾽ εὐήθειαν. τὸ δ᾽ αὖ πεζὸν καὶ θηριῶδες
190 Cf. Rep. 529 A ff.
and transformed into birds, and they grew
feathers instead of hair. [91e] The race of wild
pedestrian animals, again, came from those
who had no philosophy in any of their
thoughts, and never considered at all about the
nature of the heavens, because they had ceased
to use the courses of the head, but followed the
guidance of those parts of the soul which are in
the breast. In consequence of these habits of
theirs they had their front-legs and their heads
resting upon the earth to which they were
drawn by natural affinity; and the crowns of
their heads were elongated and of all sorts of
shapes, into which the courses of the soul were
crushed by reason of disuse. [92a] And this
was the reason why they were created
quadrupeds and polypods: God gave the more
senseless of them the more support that they
might be more attracted to the earth. And the
most foolish of them, who trail their bodies
entirely upon the ground and have no longer
any need of feet, he made without feet to crawl
upon the earth. [92b] The fourth class were the
inhabitants of the water: these were made out
of the most entirely senseless and ignorant of
all, whom the transformers did not think any
longer worthy of pure respiration, because they
possessed a soul which was made impure by
all sorts of transgression; and instead of the
subtle and pure medium of air, they gave them
the deep and muddy sea to be their element of
respiration; and hence arose the race of fishes
191 Cf. 69 E ff.
proofs about such matters are obtained by the
sense of sight. [91e] And the wild species of
animal that goes on foot is derived from those
men who have paid no attention at all to
philosophy nor studied at all the nature of the
heavens, because they ceased to make use of
the revolutions within the head and followed
the lead of those parts of the soul which are in
the breast.191 Owing to these practices they
have dragged their front limbs and their head
down to the earth, and there planted them,
because of their kinship therewith; and they
have acquired elongated heads of every shape,
according as their several revolutions have
been distorted by disuse. [92a] On this account
also their race was made four-footed and
many-footed, since God set more supports
under the more foolish ones, so that they might
be dragged down still more to the earth. And
inasmuch as there was no longer any need of
feet for the most foolish of these same
creatures, which stretched with their whole
body along the earth, the gods generated these
footless and wriggling upon the earth. [92b]
And the fourth kind, which lives in the water,
came from the most utterly thoughtless and
stupid of men, whom those that remolded them
deemed no longer worthy even of pure
respiration, seeing that they were unclean of
soul through utter wickedness; wherefore in
place of air, for refined and pure respiring, they
thrust them into water, there to respire its
γέγονεν ἐκ τῶν μηδὲν προσχρωμένων
φιλοσοφίᾳ μηδὲ ἀθρούντων τῆς περὶ τὸν
οὐρανὸν φύσεως πέρι μηδέν, διὰ τὸ μηκέτι ταῖς
ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ χρῆσθαι περιόδοις, ἀλλὰ τοῖς
περὶ τὰ στήθη τῆς ψυχῆς ἡγεμόσιν ἕπεσθαι
μέρεσιν. ἐκ τούτων οὖν τῶν ἐπιτηδευμάτων τά
τ᾽ ἐμπρόσθια κῶλα καὶ τὰς κεφαλὰς εἰς γῆν
ἑλκόμενα ὑπὸ συγγενείας ἤρεισαν, προμήκεις
τε καὶ παντοίας ἔσχον τὰς [92α] κορυφάς, ὅπῃ
συνεθλίφθησαν ὑπὸ ἀργίας ἑκάστων αἱ
περιφοραί: τετράπουν τε τὸ γένος αὐτῶν ἐκ
ταύτης ἐφύετο καὶ πολύπουν τῆς προφάσεως,
θεοῦ βάσεις ὑποτιθέντος πλείους τοῖς μᾶλλον
ἄφροσιν, ὡς μᾶλλον ἐπὶ γῆν ἕλκοιντο. τοῖς δ᾽
ἀφρονεστάτοις αὐτῶν τούτων καὶ παντάπασιν
πρὸς γῆν πᾶν τὸ σῶμα κατατεινομένοις ὡς
οὐδὲν ἔτι ποδῶν χρείας οὔσης, ἄποδα αὐτὰ καὶ
ἰλυσπώμενα ἐπὶ γῆς ἐγέννησαν. τὸ δὲ [92β]
τέταρτον γένος ἔνυδρον γέγονεν ἐκ τῶν
μάλιστα ἀνοητοτάτων καὶ ἀμαθεστάτων, οὓς
οὐδ᾽ ἀναπνοῆς καθαρᾶς ἔτι ἠξίωσαν οἱ
μεταπλάττοντες, ὡς τὴν ψυχὴν ὑπὸ
πλημμελείας πάσης ἀκαθάρτως ἐχόντων, ἀλλ᾽
ἀντὶ λεπτῆς καὶ καθαρᾶς ἀναπνοῆς ἀέρος εἰς
ὕδατος θολερὰν καὶ βαθεῖαν ἔωσαν
ἀνάπνευσιν: ὅθεν ἰχθύων ἔθνος καὶ τὸ τῶν
ὀστρέων συναπάντων τε ὅσα ἔνυδρα γέγονεν,
δίκην ἀμαθίας ἐσχάτης ἐσχάτας οἰκήσεις [92ξ]
εἰληχότων. καὶ κατὰ ταῦτα δὴ πάντα τότε καὶ
νῦν διαμείβεται τὰ ζῷα εἰς ἄλληλα, νοῦ καὶ
ἀνοίας ἀποβολῇ καὶ κτήσει μεταβαλλόμενα.
and oysters, and other aquatic animals, which
have received the most remote habitations as a
punishment of their outlandish ignorance.
These are the laws by which animals pass
[92c] into one another, now, as ever, changing
as they lose or gain wisdom and folly.
turbid depths. Thence have come into being the
tribe of fishes and of shellfish and all creatures
of the waters, which have for their portion the
extremest of all abodes in requital for the
extremity of their witlessness. Thus, both then
and now, living creatures keep passing [92c]
into one another in all these ways, as they
undergo transformation by the loss or by the
gain of reason and unreason.
We may now say that our discourse about the
nature of the universe has an end. The world
has received animals, mortal and immortal, and
is fulfilled with them, and has become a visible
animal containing the visible — the sensible
God who is the image of the intellectual, the
greatest, best, fairest, most perfect — the one
only begotten heaven.
And now at length we may say that our
discourse concerning the Universe has reached
its termination. For this our Cosmos has
received the living creatures both mortal and
immortal and been thereby fulfilled; it being
itself a visible Living Creature embracing the
visible creatures, a perceptible God made in the
image of the Intelligible, most great and good
and fair and perfect in its generation—even
this one Heaven sole of its kind.192
192 Cf. 30 C ff., 31 B.
καὶ δὴ καὶ τέλος περὶ τοῦ παντὸς νῦν ἤδη τὸν
λόγον ἡμῖν φῶμεν ἔχειν: θνητὰ γὰρ καὶ
ἀθάνατα ζῷα λαβὼν καὶ συμπληρωθεὶς ὅδε ὁ
κόσμος οὕτω, ζῷον ὁρατὸν τὰ ὁρατὰ περιέχον,
εἰκὼν τοῦ νοητοῦ θεὸς αἰσθητός, μέγιστος καὶ
ἄριστος κάλλιστός τε καὶ τελεώτατος γέγονεν
εἷς οὐρανὸς ὅδε μονογενὴς ὤν.