ETHICS – PRELIM
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
The term "philosophy" means, "love of wisdom." In a broad sense, philosophy is an activity
people undertake when they seek to understand fundamental truths about themselves, the
world in which they live, and their relationships to the world and to each other. As an
academic discipline philosophy is much the same. Those who study philosophy are
perpetually engaged in asking, answering, and arguing for their answers to life’s most basic
questions (Department of Philosophy, n.d.).
To make such a pursuit more systematic academic philosophy is traditionally divided into
major areas of study.

Metaphysics - the study of the nature of reality,
of what exists in the world, what it is like, and how it is
ordered.

Epistemology - the study of knowledge. It is
primarily concerned with what we can know about the
world and how we can know it.

Logic - To this end philosophers employ logic to
study the nature and structure of arguments.

ETHICS
ETHICS AS A BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending,
and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term ethics derives from the
Ancient Greek word ethikos, which is derived from the word ethos (habit, “custom”).
As a branch of philosophy, ethics investigates the questions “What is the best way for people
to live?” and “What actions are right or wrong in particular circumstances?” In practice,
ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality, by defining concepts such as good and
evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime.
ETHICS
The word “ethics” is derived from the Greek “ethos” which means “characteristic way of
acting”, “habit”, or “custom”. The Latin equivalent is mos, mores, from which come the word
moral and morality. Ethics studies the characteristics behavior of man as endowed with
reason and freewill.
The study of Ethics started with the Greek philosophers, notably Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
Socrates is regarded as the father of moral philosophy. However, it is Aristotle who has greatly
influenced ethical thinking with three important treatises – the Nicomachean Ethics, the
Eudemian Ethics, and the Magna Moralia (Great Ethics).
Ethics is the science of the morality of human acts.
Human acts are actions done intentionally and freely, like walking, reading, working, playing,
shopping, joining a contest, or signing a contract. Human acts are differentiated from acts of
man which are instinctive, such as the physiological and psychological movements like
breathing, feeling happy, or falling in love. Ethics does not study the acts of man in
themselves but as factors affecting man’s judgement and violation.
Ethics is the study of man as moral being, one who is rationally able to distinguish between
right and wrong. It examines how man is accountable for his actions and its consequences. It
proposes how man ought to live his life – meaningfully.
Ethics is concerned with morality, the quality which makes an act good or evil, correct or
wrong. Ethics examines and explains the rational basis why actions are moral or immoral. In
other words, Ethics is concerned with the norms of human behavior.
ETHICAL APPROACHES
There are two approaches – the atheistic and theistic ethics.
1. The atheistic approach assumes that only matter exists and man is responsible only
to the State since there is no God who rules the universe. Morality is an invention of
man to suit his requirement and to preserve society. Moral truths are temporary and
changeable depending on the situation. Accordingly, the concept of good and evil is
relative Some of its tenets are the following:
 Matter is the only reality.
 Man is matter and does not have spiritual soul.
 Man is free and must exercise his freedom to promote the welfare of society.
 There is no life after death.
 Man is accountable only to the State.
2. The theistic approach, to which we adhere, assumes that God is the Supreme
Lawgiver. Everything must conform to God’s Eternal plan of creation. Man must
exercise his freedom in accordance with God’s will. There are absolute principles of
morality which are not changeable. Man is accountable for his actions and deserves
either a reward or punishment in this life or in the next. Its tenets are:
 God is the Supreme Creator and Lawgiver.
 Man is free and must use his freedom to promote his personal interest along
with that of others.
 Man has an immortal soul.
THE RELATION OF ETHICS TO PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY, AND ECONOMICS
The Science of Ethics is greatly concerned with the study of the human conduct and how man
behaves or acts in accordance with morality. For this reason, it is evident that the Ethical
science is also related to some other sciences that also deal with the study of the human
nature as well as in human living. Among of these sciences are Psychology, Sociology, and
Economics.
ETHICS AND PSYCHOLOGY
The relation between these two sciences is based upon the comparison on their basic aim
that is to study man, its nature and its behavior. However, there is a basic difference
between Ethics and Psychology. The science of Psychology is not concerned with the
morality of man’s action; this science is only concern of how man ought to behave.
ETHICS AND SOCIOLOGY
They are related as Ethics is concerned in dealing with the moral order that eventually
includes the social order of society. It was being said that society depends upon the science
of Ethics for its principles. Sociology as a science is concerned with the relationship of humans
to his/her fellow individuals and to his/her society upon the observance on the moral laws
and principles that will eventually regulate man’s action in his/her community.
ETHICS AND ECONOMICS
As economics deals with labor, wages, production, as well as distribution of wealth, Ethics as
a science somehow acts in the different relations in the business processes. This would be
based on justice, charity as well as moral principles that would eventually create a prevailing
harmony in the community. Man can also be considered as an economic being. This
consideration involves man in different economic activities which should be guided with the
norms and principles of Ethics.
HUMAN ACTS AND ACTS OF MAN
1. Human Acts – the actions man does knowingly, freely and voluntarily.
2. Acts of Man – acts done by man without deliberation or volition, and simple acts of
sensation and appetition.
THE HUMAN ACTS
Actions, since they are products of our thoughts and desires, reveal our moral character. What
we are and what becomes of us as persons depends on our choices and actuations.
Attributes of Human Act
An act is considered a human act, when it is done knowingly, freely and willfully.
1. An act is done knowingly when the doer is conscious and aware of the reason and the
consequences of his actions. Every normal person of age is presumed to act knowingly.
However, children below the age of reason, the senile and the insane – are considered
incapable of moral judgment.
2. An act is done freely when the doer acts by his own initiative and choice without being
forced to do so by another person or situation. An action done under duress and
against one’s freewill is not a voluntary action. A person is not acting freely when he
gives up his money to a robber who threatens him with a knife.
3. An act is done willfully when the doer consents to the act, accepting it as his own, and
assumes accountability for its consequences.
An act which lacks of any of the above mentioned attributes is either imperfectly
voluntary or involuntary.
Because human acts come from the intellect and the will, they express the thoughts and
desires of a person, revealing his moral character. Hence, people are judged by their actions
like trees by their fruits. We condemn a person for his evil deed or praise him for doing what
is good.
We often hear people say that they “condemn the sin but not the person” or suspect. The
statement is probably acceptable if it means we should not rush to judge the guilt of a suspect.
But the statement is wrong if it means we should not blame people for their evil deeds, no
matter how unfortunate are these acts. This is to condone evil. Parents, for example, are
inclined to be soft towards children. Instead of being horrified, they are amused that their
kids are so smart.
ETHICS – PRELIM
WHAT IS MORALITY?
The principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behavior
(Oxford Languages, n.d.).
THE DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY
The determinants of morality are so called because they are the basis for judging whether an
act is good or evil, moral or immoral. They are the following:
1. The End of the Act is the natural termination or completion of an act. The end of the
act of eating is appeasing hunger, the end of playing basketball is scoring a point, and
the end of medication is curing illness.
The end of the act determines whether an act is intrinsically or extrinsically good or evil.
Any act which is consistent with the natural tendencies of human nature is intrinsically good.
But those that are contrary to reason are intrinsically evil, such as murder, abortion,
kidnapping, robbery, and rape. We speak of these acts as being contrary to natural law.
Actions which are neutral or indifferent to the norm of morality are extrinsically good or evil.
These actions are either good or bad, not on account of their nature, but because of factors
or circumstances concomitant to them. The act of eating, for
example, is an amoral act
and is neither morally good or bad. But either over-eating or excessive dieting could be
unhealthy and therefore, morally objectionable.
Actions which are intrinsically evil are prohibited at all times. Actions which are extrinsically
evil may be permitted when the factors which render them evil are removed or corrected.
2. The End of the Doer is the purpose or motive which the doer wishes to accomplish by
his action. Without a motive, an act is accidental and involuntary. A good motive is
truthful, prudent, temperate, and just.
“The End does not justify the Means” is a fundamental moral principle. It affirms that one
should not do wrong (means) in order to attain a good purpose (end). The motive of a person,
no matter how noble, does not excuse an act which is intrinsically evil. The desire to pass a
subject does not justify a student who cheats in the examination. Likewise, the need to feed
a family does not justify stealing. The desire to know the truth does not justify torture of a
suspect by the police. The rule is – don’t do wrong even if this will result in something good.
Motive and Action: The correlation between motive and act is defined in the following
principles (Glen 111-113):
a. An evil act which is done on account of an evil motive is grievously wrong. In other
words, a bad action and a wrong motive make for a dangerous combination. Stealing
in order to buy “shabu” means double trouble.
b. A good action done on account of an evil motive becomes evil itself. This means that
something nice and sweet may turn ugly and sour because of bad motive.
c. A good action done on account of a good purpose acquires an additional merit. This
means you go ahead and do the right thing.
d. An indifferent act may either become good or bad depending on the motive. This
means you should be careful of what you eat or what you say.
3. Circumstances of the Act are the historical elements surrounding the commission of
an act, such as the status of the doer, the place, the time, or the intensity of an act.
The circumstances are hinted by the interrogative pronouns – who, what, where, with
whom, why, how, and where.
1. “Who” refers either to the doer of the act or the recipient of the act. It has to do with age,
status, relation, schooling, social standing, an economic situation of those involved in an act.
In this regard, we note the following:
(a) The moron, insane, senile and children below the age of reason are incapable of
voluntary acts and are not morally accountable.
(b) Educated persons have greater accountability than those with less or without
education.
(c) Persons constituted in authority have accountability for the actions of those under
them. Thus, parents have command responsibility over their children who are minors;
employers, over the actuations of their employees, and superiors, over the acts of
their subordinates.
(d) The legal of blood relation of people involved in act may modify the nature of such
act. For instance, killing of a parent changes homicide to parricide.
2. “What” refers to the act itself, or to the quality and quantity of the results of such act. In
robbery, for instance, what is stolen and how much is stolen are aggravating factors. Likewise,
the number of victims determines the seriousness of the murder.
3. “Where” refers to the place where the act is committed. A crime inside a church is more
scandalous than the committed in a secluded place.
4. “With whom” refers to the companion or accomplices in an act. The more people are
involved in the commission of an act, the more serious is the crime.
5. “Why” refers to the motive of the doer.
6. “How” refers to the manner the act is perpetrated. Homicide committed with much cruelty
is a heinous crime.
7. “When” refers to the time of the act. A murder committed when the victim is sleeping is
more offensive than the one done when the victim is wide awake.
THE MORALITY OF GOOD ACT
A morally good act is that which sound in all aspects – in its nature, motive and circumstances.
In the Scriptures, the morally upright is a just man, one who weighs his actions in relation to
what the law demands, to what the circumstances would allow, and to what fits his stature
as a rational being. A morally good action, therefore, is a just act – “makatarungan”.
We also speak of it as “maka-tao”, or “maka-Diyos”, indicating that such action is fair to the
other person and in accordance with the will of God.
THE RELEVANCE OF THE LAW
Laws mandate some actions as prohibited and others as permitted and required. We may
therefore consider laws as determinants of human behavior. Some people do not do what is
good unless they are forced to.
Society adopts laws to protect its members from themselves or from those who might want
to hurt them. By prescribing punishment for transgressions, laws encourage and compel
people to act for the good of all.
MAN AS PERSON
Ethics is the study of man as a moral being. What goals we assign to ourselves, what actions
we choose to do, and how we treat others – depend on how we understand ourselves as a
human being.
Rational Animal
Man is organism composed of a material body and a spiritual soul. He is the whole of his
materiality and immateriality, the substantial union of body and soul, matter and spirit. This
essential wholeness is what we call human nature.
Human nature is made up of man’s biological, psychological, and rational powers. The
biological powers are nutrition, locomotion, growth, and reproduction. The psychological
powers include those of the senses; and those acts of emotions, such as love, hatred, desire,
disgust, joy, sorrow, fear, despair and courage. The rational powers are those of the intellect
and the will – comprehension and volition, respectively.
A Moral Being
Three characteristics reveal man’s moral nature:
1. Man by natural insight is able to distinguish between good and evil, right and wrong,
moral and immoral.
2. Man feels himself obliged to do what is good and to avoid what is evil.
3. Man feels himself accountable for his actions so that his good deeds merit reward,
while his evil deeds deserve punishment.
Personality and Character
The person is an individual human being. Personality is the sum of those physical attributes
and tendencies which define a person’s distinctive behavior. Personality is the sum of a
person’s physical constitution, talents, abilities, and habits which define characteristic
behavior. In layman’s term, personality consists of the physical qualities and mannerisms of
an aesthetically refined person.
As persons, all men are equal regardless of race. However, one person may have more
personality than another.
Character is often taken as synonymous with personality. Character, however, refers to the
person’s choice of values, and his intelligent exercise of his freedom.
While personality is an aspect of the body, character is an aspect of the human soul. We
describe personality as pleasant or unpleasant, but we speak of character as good or bad in
the moral sense.
Moral Character
Character is the will of the person directing him towards a recognized ideal. This is how human
actions are significant because they actualize man’s potential to be what he truly is as a
rational being. When a person fall shorts of the expectation, he is said to have bad character.
On the other hand, a person who lives up to the ideals of his humanity is said to have a good
character, or moral integrity.
Character is not the product of moment’s inspiration, but a disciplined tendency to choose the
right thing in any given circumstance. It is adherence to what is true, beautiful, and good in
us.
ETHICS – PRELIM
MORAL ACCOUNTABILITY
Human acts, because they are voluntary, are accountable acts. Actions are imputed on the
doer as its principal cause and, therefore, deserving of either reward or punishment.
The Subject of Human Acts
The subject of a human act is any person who is capable of acting intelligently and
freely. A person is either guilty or innocent, deserving or undeserving of punishment.
Sanctions and Penalties
The penal laws of the country provide a system of punishment for wrongdoings,
ranging from fines to imprisonment. The capital punishment or death is reserved for “heinous
crimes”.
Unless also prohibited by the laws of the land, no punishments are imposed on immoral
acts. However, immoral acts carry with them the burden of guilt, remorse and shame. The
Scriptures speaks of death as the punishment for sins. It means both physical and spiritual
death.
The medical science traces many illnesses to immoralities and spiritual disorientation. Evil
acts and habits cause suffering and unhappiness, not only to the victims, but to the
perpetrator and his relatives. The shamefulness of such actions is shared by all the members
of the family of the guilty. And there is the risk of being ostracized, losing a job, or being
abandoned by loved ones.
THE MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT
A voluntary act is under the control of the intellect and will of a person. There are, however,
factors that may influence the intellect and will so that actions are not perfectly voluntary.
These factors are called modifiers of human. Because they interfere with the application of
the intellect and will, they either reduce or increase accountability. The moral axiom is:
The greater the knowledge and the freedom, the greater the voluntariness and, therefore,
the accountability (Panizo: 38).
The following are the modifiers of the human act: (1) Ignorance, (2) Passions, (3) Fear, (4)
Violence, and (5) Habit.
1. Ignorance
Ignorance is the absence of knowledge which a person ought to process. A lawyer is expected
to know the law; the doctor, the cure of illnesses; and the manager, his business operations.
In the realm of morals, every normal person who has attained the age of reason,
approximately seven years old, is expected to know the general norms of proper conduct and
behavior.
Ignorance is either vincible or invincible. Vincible ignorance is one which one can easily be
corrected through ordinary diligence. Not knowing the time or the name of a seatmate is
vincible ignorance. Invincible ignorance is one which is not easily remedied, because the
person is either not aware of his state of ignorance, or, being aware of it, does not have the
means to rectify such ignorance. The waiter who serves contaminated food without being
aware of the fact has invincible ignorance.
“Ignorance of the law excuses no one” means one should not act in the state of ignorance and
one who has done wrong may not claim ignorance as a defense. A driver who does not know
the traffic rules deserves a heavy penalty.
2. Passions
Passions are psychic responses. They are either tendencies towards desirable objects, or
tendencies away from undesirable objects. The former are considered positive emotions, such
as love, desire, delight, hope, and bravery. The latter are negative emotions, such as hatred,
horror, sadness, despair, fear, and anger.
In relation to actions, passions are either antecedent or consequent. Antecedent passion
comes as a natural reaction to an object or stimulus without being aroused intentionally. It is
antecedent passion when we feel happy in the company of a friend. Consequent passion, on
the other hand, is the result of an act which causes it to be aroused. Reading pornography, for
instance, arouses sexual desires.
In themselves, passions are not evil. However, because they predispose a person to act, they
need to be subjected to the control of reason.
3. Fear
Fear is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by a danger to himself or
loved ones.
There is a difference between acting with fear and acting out of fear. Some actions which are
difficult or dangerous are done with fear. New experiences such as embarking on a long trip,
being left alone in the dark, or speaking in front of a crowd, make some people nervous and
fearful. These actions are done with fear. It is acting out of fear, when fear causes a person
to act, like to jump from the top floor of a burning building.
Intimidating or threatening a person with harm is an unjust act.
4. Violence
Violence is any physical force exerted on a person by a free agent for the purpose of
compelling said person to act against his will. Insults, torture, isolation, starvation, and
mutilation are examples of violence.
Active resistance should always be exerted to ward off any unjust aggressor. However, if
resistance is impossible, or if there is a serious threat to one’s life, a person confronted by
violence can always offer internal resistance by withholding consent. This is enough to save
one’s moral integrity (Panizo: 37).
5. Habits
Habits is the readiness, born of frequently repeated acts, for acting in a certain manner.
Habits are acquired through the repetition of an act over a period of time. They are either
good or bad. Habits become like second nature, moving one to do something with relative
ease without much reflection. They are difficult to overcome.
POVERTY
Poverty is never an excuse for committing a crime just as wealth does not justify abuses. But
there is a correlation between poverty and crimes. People who are dirt poor and starving are
unlikely to think about their morals.
Nobody deserves to be poor. Poverty is a social evil which must be corrected by the State. It
becomes an act of injustice by the State that fails to look after the welfare of the people,
neglecting their economic needs.
ACTION AND EMOTION
Man is not a robot devoid of feelings. Every human act involves a person emotionally. Thus,
we pray fervently, we work earnestly, we play eagerly, we eat heartily, or we live happily. The
Decalogue enjoins us to love God “with all our heart and with all our soul”.
Emotions are natural and beneficial. The positive tendencies of love, kindness, humility,
reverence, and justice express approval of what is good and worthy in an object. The negative
tendencies of anger, horror, and hatred express disapproval and repudiation of evil as such.
REFINEMENT OF EMOTION
Emotions, however, need to be subjugated to reason because unbridled passions could lead
a person to his perdition. One must learn to rein his emotions and work them to his
advantage.
Moral perfection comes from within. Filipinos speak of a good person as possessing
“mabuting kalooban”. He is one who is mapagmahal, matulungin sa kapwa, at may takot sa
Diyos.