BEP 1103: Philosophy of Education
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INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this module on philosophical and sociological foundations of education. In this
module you will be learning on your own, do assignments, and spend at least two hours everyday
to study the module.
During the semester you will be given assignment and sit-in CAT which
will carry 30 marks, while the end of semester exam will carr y 70 marks. Failure to do or submit a
CAT will result to failure in the unit. Please take CATs seriously. I wish success.
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
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After going through all the lectures, reading selected further r eadin g and finishing lecture
activities, you should be able to:
• Define education
• Define philosoph y
• Describe Kenya’s national philosophy.
• Describe Kenya’s philosophy of education
• Describe th e categories o f philosophy.
• Discuss the branches of philosophy.
• Explain the relationship between philosoph y and education.
• Describe philosophies of different philosophers and their contributions to ECDE
• List the social aims of education.
• Describe th e role of society in ECDE.
• Define socialization.
• Explain the role of family in socialization of children
• Describe th e concept of the child from the African contex t
• Explain the relationship between society and education.
LECTURE ONE
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DE FINITION OF TERMS
1.1 Introduction
In this lecture we shall define important terms used in this module to make understanding
easy.
1.2 Lecture Objectives
By the end o f this lecture you should be able to:
• Define education
• Define aims
• List ex amples of aims
• Define goals
• Give examples of goals
• Define objectives
• Give examples of objectives
• Distinguish between goals and objectives
• Define curriculum
• Define philosoph y
• Describe th e meaning of sociology.
1.3 Education
What is Education?
• The word education is derived from a Latin word “educare” meaning “lead to.” Thus,
education means to lead an individual to knowledge.
• Webster Dictionary defines education as the process of educating or teaching.
• Socrates a Greek Philosopher says that education is about drawing out what is already in a
child.
• The Penguin encyclopedia (1965) d escribes education as a process by which material,
mental, and cultural inheritance of a society is transmitted to each new generation.
• Oluoch (1982) defines education as a process of acquiring and developing desirable
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
• According to Dewey (1 961) education is the development of all those capacities in the
individual which will enable him to control the environment and fulfill his/her destiny.
1.4. Aims, Goals and Objectives of Education
Education is purposeful; it is concerned with outcomes that are expressed at several
different levels. The most general level is statements of aims while the most specific is
statements of objectives.
1.4.1 Aims
Sometimes people use the term aims to mean goals or objectives. If you will ask someone
what is an aim? He or she will say it is a goal. What is a goal? It is an objective. What is an
objective? It is an aim. The cycle will continue.
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So are aims, goals and objectives the same? The answer is No. The three are targets. They
are like three sisters who may appear the same but are not the same. There are differences
among the terms, and it’s very important to distinguish them.
What are aims?
• Aims are starting points.
• They are end points.
• They are distant and long-ran ge tar gets that are achieved at the end of life.
Examples of aims are:
1. To be self – reliant.
2. Self – Realization.
It will take a long period of time to make a child to be self- reliant or to realize himself or
herself.
1.4.2 Goals of Education.
What are goals?
• Goals are outcomes of education.
• They are statements that give direction to what is to be done by teachers and educators.
• They are the guiding statements that tell teachers what is to be achiev ed.
• Goals are gener al descriptions of desired outcomes.
• Goals ar e relatively short-term targets that are achieved at the end of a programme or
school life.
National goals of education in Kenya
Goals of education describe what is to be achieved through education by educational
institutions for example to unite all Kenyans and develop Kenya. This means that all
educational institutions starting from pre- primary schools should work towards the
achievement of the goals. They should provide knowledge, skills and attitudes to facilitate
the achievement of the national goals of education. The role of managers of educational
institutions is to ensure that the goals are achieved.
Examples of goals are the national goals of education in Kenya. The goals are:
•To foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity.
•To promote the social economic, technological and industrial needs for national
development.
•To promote individual development and self-fulfillment.
•To promote sound social equality and responsibility.
•To promote sound religious values.
•To promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures.
•To promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other
nations.
•To promote positive attitudes, good h ealth and en vironmental protection.
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1.4.3 Objectives
What are objectives?
• Objectives are immediate and shot –term targets.
• They are specific outcomes.
• Objectives are statements about the outcomes of learning activities.
• They are target which describes the knowledge, skills and attitudes to be acquired.
General objectives are stated in general terms. The objectives describe how a child should
look like by the end of pre-primary school education. Managers or teachers who have a
clear understanding of what they are supposed to achieve will easily achieve them
compared to those who do not have a clear understanding. This is to say that a person who
knows where he is going will easily reach there compared to a person who doesn’t know.
Examples of objectives are the objectives of Social studies in ECDE Kenya. The
objectives ar e:
•To familiarize with the surrounding environment.
•To appreciate the surrou nding environment and cultural heritage, and hence conserve
them.
•To use things found with in the surrounding p roperly.
•To develop observation and discovery skills.
Learning Activities
Distinguish between:
(i) Aims and go als.
(ii) Goals and objectives
1.5. Curriculum
• Cunningham (1888) says, “Curriculum is a tool in the hands of artist (teacher) to mould
his material (pupil) according to his ideals (aims, goals and objectives) in his studio
(school).
• Saylor (1988) says that curriculum is “A plan for providing sets of learning opportunities
for persons to be educated.
• Pratt (1988) “cu rriculum is organized set of formal educational or training –intentions”.
• Wiles (1988) Views “curriculum as a plan for learning where b y objectives determine
what learning is important”.
• Macdonald (1988) defines curriculum as a plan for action that is a plan which guides
instruction.
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• Shepherd (1988) “the cu rriculum consists of on going experiences of children under the
guidance of the school”.
• Eisner (1988) points out that “curriculum is a programme a school offers to its students.”
Thus, on the basis of above definitions, one may conclude that curriculum refers to
activities and experiences that we plan and organize for children inside and outside school for
realizing the aims and goals of education.
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1.6 Foundation
A foundation is a base on which something is built. Education is built on some foundations.
The foundations influence aspects of education. The foundations of education are historical,
philosophical, sociological, and psychological foundations.
1.7 Philosophy
What is philosophy?
•It is a set o f beliefs, religious or secular in accordance with which one tries to live.
•The term philosophy has been derived from two Greek words “ philos” meaning,
“love” and “Sophia” meaning “ wisdom”. Philosophy therefore means the love of
wisdom.
1.8
Sociology
•The term sociolog y consists of two words: “Societus” a latin word which means
companion or “associate” and “lagos” which means stud y or science. Thus sociology
means the study of society.
•Max Weber defined sociology as a science which interprets social behaviour with the
aim of arrivin g at a casual explanation of human behaviour.
1.9 Further reading.
Brown, F. J. (1955). Educational Sociology. NY: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Kilpatrick, W. H. (1961). Philosophy of Education. NY: McMillan Co.
Sachdeva, M. S. (1996). A new approach to teacher and education.
Ludhian a: Tandon Publications.
Zais, R. S. (1976). Curriculum, Principles and Foundations. NY: Thomas
Y. Crowell Company, In c.
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CHAPTER TWO
NATIONAL AND EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY
2.1 Introduction
In this lecture we are going to learn about our country’s national philosophy and educational
philosophy which lays the foundation of our education. National philosophy influences
educational philosophy and determines a country’s system of education.
2.2 Lecture Objectives
By the end this lecture you should be able to:
•Describe Kenya’s national philosophy.
•Explain the importance of Ken ya’s national philosoph y.
•State our national motto.
•State the Nyayo philosophy
•Describe Kenya’s philosophy of education
2.3 National Philosophy
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Ken ya’s national philosophy defines our country’s political, economic, social and cultural
values and lays down the values that are to be pursued for th e development and enhancement
of quality life. Ou r country’s national philosophy was formulated after independence. The
philosophical basis of the Kenyan society includes the overall objective of achieving social
justice that is;
• Freedom from want
• Freedom from ignorance
• Freedom from disease
• Human dignity
• Freedom of conscience
• equal opportunities for all citizens
• Equal distribution of national income.
At the time of independence and today the majorities of Kenyans were and are in chains of
poverty, ignorance and disease, education was meant and is still meant to free Ken yans from the
chains of poverty, ignorance, and disease.
2.3.1 National mot to
After independence, harambee was adopted as a national motto for development. Harambee
symbolizes the concept of mutual social responsibility extended from the family to the whole
nation. It encourages people to work together for a common purpose. The haramb ee spirit
expressed through self-help efforts has been central to development since independence.
Harambee as a development strategy increases the mobilization of resources for economic and
social development.
2.3.2 Nyayo philosophy
The Nyayo philosophy enhances ethical and moral foundations of democratic African socialism.
The concept of peace, lo ve, and unity emphasise the traditional subordination of self-interest and
the view that selfishness, arrogance and lack of humility are anti-social in the African traditional
society.
The tree tenets of Nyayo philosoph y (peace, love and unity) provide the foundations of
development:
•Peace. Where there is peace, there is stability and discipline resulting in investments,
enterprise and progress.
•Love. Where there is love, there is trust and readiness to work with others, learn from them
and contribute to the cause of nationhood.
•Unity. Where there is unity, there is strength rooted in the understanding of a common
purpose, loyalty, patriotism and mutual dependence.
2.3.3 Recommendations of the Kamunge Commission
The pr esidential working party on education and manpower training for the next decade and
beyond’ also known as the Kamunge Commission was formed in August 1985 and presented its
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report in March 1988. Th e main objective of the commission was to review the national education
and training for the next decade and beyond and to make recommendations for improving
education and training in Kenya.
The Kamunge commission recommended that the harambee spirit as a traditional African concept
for development and the Nyayo philosophy of peace, love and unity as foundations for
development should be part of national edu cation.
The Kamunge commission also recommended that the concepts and practices of the harambee
spirit and the Nyayo philosophy be incorporated in national curricula and taught at all levels of
education.
2.3.3 Internationalism
Ken ya’s n ational philosophy also embodies the acceptance of the spirit of internationalism as
enshrined in the United Nations Charter. This is important in the global world. National
development and survival depend on the ability of a nation to relate and be able to work with
other nations and share ideas.
According to the Kamunge report, education and training should:
•Prepare and equip Kenyans to be stron g nationalistic and patriotic towards national
independence, integrity and values.
•Education and training should foster positive international understanding and enable
Ken yans to cope with various foreign influences and remain true Ken yans.
•Develop national cultural programmes to educate and influence Kenyans and inculcate
national values and ideals
•Education and training should prepare Ken yans to be nationalistic and patriotic towards
national independen ce and values.
2.4 Kenya’s philosophy of education
The philosophy of education in Kenya is based on our national philosophy. Educational
philosophy appreciates the rationale underlying the objectives emanating from the national
philosophy to seek the ultimate reasons that justify the practice of education. The translation of
national philosophy into educational philosophy is realized throu gh the country’s system of
education. Educational philosoph y is always in a consonance with the national philosophy in
order for education to fulfill the objectives of national philosophy and to contribute towards
national development.
According to Ken ya’s ph ilosophy of education, the system of education should:
•Equal opportunities. Kenya’s philosophy of education stresses the need to develop an
egalitarian society by availing equal edu cational opportunities to ever y Kenyan r egardless of
race, sex or creed.
•In culcate values. Ken ya’s national philosophy of education reminds teachers and managers
that education should inculcate cultural, social, economic and political values.
•Development of an individual. According to the philosophy, education should develop an
individual who is committed to national, political and democratic values.
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•United nation. Kenya’s philosophy of education says that education should create a nation
united in purpose.
•Removal of social injustice. Education should remove social injustice and disparities between
sexes, regions, social and economic groups.
•Education should prepare and re-orientate the youth to realize and practice the norms and
values of the society.
Learning Activities
(i) Describe Kenya’s National philosophy.
(ii) Briefly explain the importance of the value of internationalism.
(iii)Describe Kenya’s philosophy of education and highlight its significance..
2.5 Further reading.
Government of Ken ya. (1988). Report of the presidential working party on
education and manpower training for the next decade and beyond. Nairobi.
Government of Ken ya. (1976). Report of the national committee on
educational objectives and policies. Nairobi, Kenya.
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LECTURE THREE
CATEGORIES OF PHILOSOPHIES
3.1 Introduction
In this lecture we are going to learn about categories of philosophies and how they
influence aims of education and other important aspects of education.
3.2 Lecture Objectives
By the end this lecture you should be able to:
•State the categories of philosophy.
•Define idealism.
•Describe th e characteristics of idealism.
•Define naturalism.
•Describe th e characteristics of naturalism.
•Define pragmatism
•Describe th e characteristics of pragmatism.
•Explain the influence of philosophy on targets of education.
•Explain the influence of philosophy on curriculum.
•List the methods of teaching children according to philosophy
•Outline the forms of discipline
•Explain the relationship between philosoph y and education
3.3 Monism.
The philosophy says that there is only one final reality.
Monism has two branches:
Idealism and materialism. The bran ches are described as follows:
(i) Idealism.
It says that only ideas ar e real. The word idealism is derived from the word ideal or idea.
According to Oxford dictionary, idealism means representation of things in ideal form.
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Idealism is the oldest philosophical thought. The word idealism is derived from the words
‘ideal’ o r ‘idea’. The main subject of the philosoph y is ideas. According to this philosophy
the reality of everything lies in ideas, thought and mind and not in material things.
According to idealism the reality is inform of ideas in the mind of a person. The reality is
found in the mind of a person and not in the physical world. Idealism regards man as a
spiritual being.
Characteristics of Idealism:
• The reality is in the mind.
• Idealism beliefs in the universal mind and our minds are part of the mind.
• According to idealism, values are absolute unchanging. The prime aim of man is to
achieve the spiritual values.
• Really knowledge is in the mind.
• God is the source of all knowledge.
(ii) Materialism.
The philosophy says that only matter (materials) is real. Example of materialism
philosophy is naturalism. The philosophy says that only nature is real or the material
World.
Forms of naturalism:
1. Physical naturalism. It believes that reality does not exist within a person but outside
a person in the universe.
2. Mechanical naturalism. Regards man as a machine without a spirit and only matter is
real.
3. Biological naturalism . Talks about the evolution of man.
Characteristics of Naturalism:
•Only nature is real. This means that beyond nature there is no reality.
•The whole universe is made up of matter.
•Society is only artificial structure and was created by man to meet his needs.
•Laws of nature are superb and cannot be chan ged.
3.4 Pluralism.
It says that reality is not fixed. An example of p luralism philosophy is p ragmatism. The
word pragmatism is derived from a Greek word which means active and efficient.
According to pragmatism the reality is in the process of making and there is no final truth.
The truth is utility. A pragmatist lives in the world of facts.
Characteristic of pragma tism:
•The truth is not static. Th e nature of truth is ev er changing. What is true today may not
be true tomorrow.
•No final truth. Pragmatism does not believe in ultimate truth.
•Importance of actions or activities. Pragmatism gives supreme position to actions.
•Importance of ex perimentation. Pragmatism believes in ex perimentation.
•Reality still in the making. According to pragmatism reality is still in the making.
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3.5 Philosophy and Targets Education.
Statements of aims, go als an objectives are not created in a vacuum. Philosophy
influences or determines the aims goals and objectives of education of a country’s system
of education. The philosophy advocated by a country influence the aims, goals and
objectives of edu cation.
Aims of education acco rding to different philosophies:
(a) Aims of Education accordin g to Idealism
Some of the aims of education which are recommended by idealism are:
• Self – realization.
• Spiritual development.
• Cultivation of moral values.
• Preparation for a holy life.
(b) Aims of Education according to Naturalism
Some of the aims of education which are recommended b y naturalism
are:
• Self – expression.
• Self – preservation. Education should acquaint an individual with the laws of
health as a way of preserving himself.
• Development of individuality.
• Education according to the nature of the child.
(c) Aims of E ducation according to Prag ma tism.
Some of the aims of education which are r ecommended by p ragmatism are:
• All round development of a child.
• Continuous reconstruction of experiences.
• To produce socially efficient persons.
• Continuous growth.
• Personal and social adjustment.
3.6 Philosophy and curriculum .
Curriculum is the design of education. Through it, the designed behavioral changes are
sought to be achieved to attain the goals in life and aims of education. It is philosophy
which decides why a particular subject and activities should be included in a curriculum.
Curriculum is the means through which we realize the aims of education.
Curriculum takes its direction from the overall philosophy of the school or programme. For
instance beliefs about how children learn will have an impact on curriculum.
a) Idealism and curriculum.
Characteristics o f curriculum according to idealism:
Some of the characteristics are:
•Life centred. Idealist curriculum is life centred instead of child centred. The
curriculum is meant to prepare children for the future life.
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•Meets needs of life. Curriculum is designed to meet the needs of life and not of the
child.
•Importance of ideas. Idealist while developing curriculum give mor e importance to
ideas than the activities of the child.
•Curriculum concerned with the whole humanity. Idealist curriculum is for the whole
humanity and not the child only.
b) Naturalism and Curriculum.
Characteristics of Naturalist Curriculum:
Some of the characteristics are:
i) Child- centred. Subjects are selected according to the needs, interests and activities
of the child.
ii) Subjects which impart k nowledge about nature. In the natu ralist curriculum one can
find subjects which encourage children to learn more about nature like agriculture,
gardening, art craft, botany, science, chemistry, physics, geology, geography, and
astronomy. The subjects are interrelated with the activities of the child and with the
life around the child.
iii) The curriculum allows the child to learn in a free atmosphere. The child learns in
natural settings. A child learns directly from nature through personal experiences.
iv) Curriculum contains subjects, which are useful for the present life situations,
experiences and interests of the child.
v) A child determines his or her curriculum. According to naturalism every child
should be given the right to determine his/ her curriculum.
vi) The curriculum is flexible. Naturalism does not advocate a rigid or fixed
curriculum. The curriculum can be changed according to the changing needs of the
child.
(c) Pragmatism and curriculum
Characteristics of pragmatist curriculum:
Some of the characteristics are:
• Utilitarian curriculum. Contains subjects which are useful to the child.
• Child centred. Learning activities are selected according to the needs and interests of
the child.
• Curriculum should give knowledge and skills, which the child requires for his present
and future life.
• Flexible. Pragmatists curriculum is flexible. It changes according to the needs and
interests of children.
• Activity centred. Learning activities and experiences are organized in such away that
each preceding activities and experiences lay the foundation for the mastery of the
succeedin g activities and experiences.
• Integration. Integrates subjects and learning activities.
3.7 Philosophy and Methods of Teaching
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Philosoph y also influences methods of teaching. Philosophy determines the methods of
teaching. Different philo sophical approaches r ecommends different methods of teaching.
(a) Methods of teaching recommended by Idealism.
Some of the methods recommended by idealism are:
•Reading method.
•Lecture method.
•Singing son gs
•Story telling.
•Question – answer method.
•Discussion.
(b) Methods of teaching children recommended by naturalism
Some of the methods recommended by naturalism are:
•Activity method.
•Observation method.
•Play method.
•Experimentation method.
(c) Methods of teaching children recomm ended by pragmatism:
Some of the methods recommended by pragmatism are:
According to pragmatism methods of teaching should related to the interests and needs of
the child. The methods include:
•Activity method.
•Observation method.
•Play method.
•Experimentation method.
•Project method.
•Problem solving method
3.8 Philosophy and the Teacher
Philosophy h as great influence on the teacher and regards every teacher a philosopher.
Different philosophies describe a teacher for children in different ways.
(a) Idealism and the teacher.
An idealist teacher is a man or woman of higher ideals. The teacher is very impo rtant to the
child Idealist teacher is n ot satisfied with imparting knowledge to make children clever, but
also to inspire children with principles of truth, obedience, purity, sincerity, and humility.
The principles will make children useful in their families, community and society. The
idealist teacher also desires to make every child to love God and to be self-less.
Roles of a teacher:
According to idealism the performs the following roles:
• A spiritual guide of the child.
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• A living model for the child.
• A stage setter. He sets the environment in which education takes place.
• A symbol of right conduct.
(b) Naturalism and the teacher
According to Froebel the father of kindergarten, a school is a garden, the teacher is a
gardener and the child is a tender plant. The wo rk of the gardener is to provide manure and
water the tender plant. The plant does the work of growing. According to naturalism, nature
is a great teacher. Naturalism considers nature as the only supreme teacher in whose close
contact the child develops naturally.
Roles of a teacher:
According to naturalism the teacher performs the following roles:
• An observer. In a naturalistic system of education the teacher plays the role of an
observer.
• A facilitator. The teacher’s role is to facilitate the process of the child’s growth and
development. The teacher also facilitates learning. The teacher only supplies
materials and provides learning op portunities under which learning takes place.
• A stage setter. He sets the environment in which education takes place.
• A symbol of right condu ct.
(c) Pragmatism and the teacher.
According to pr agmatism, a teacher is ver y important to the child and plays man y
roles.
Roles of a teacher :
According to pragmatism the teacher performs the following roles:
•Resource person.
•A stage setter. He sets the environment in which education takes place.
•A friend of the child.
•A helper of the child. Th e teacher assists the learner when he is in difficulty or when he
needs help.
•A facilitator. The teacher prepares the environment for children to grow, develop and
learn. The teacher provides variety of activities for children to do.
3.9 Philosophy and discipline.
Philosophy d etermines the nature and form of discipline.
(a)Idealism and Discipline.
Id ealism recommends the following forms of discipline:
•Restricted freedom to the child. Idealist belief that their can not be spiritual
development without discipline.
•Importance o f inner discipline. Accordin g to idealism the outer discipline leads to inner
discipline.
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•Importance of adult discipline. According to idealism adults should discipline children
because it helps children to develop self- discipline.
•Beliefs adults should discipline children and set rules and regulations to be followed by
children.
(b) Naturalism and discipline
Naturalism recommends the following forms of discipline:
•Unrestricted freedom to the child.
•External discipline is not recommended.
•Adults should not set standards or rules and regulations for children.
•Beliefs in discipline by natural consequences. Nature gives the consequences of the
activity in the fo rm of pleasure or pain.
(c) Pragmatism and discipline
Pragmatism recommends the following forms of discipline:
•Social discipline. Advocates social discipline based on the child’s interests, activities
and sense of responsibility.
•Individual o r self- discipline. Families and schools should provide situations and
experiences to develop individual or self – discipline.
3.10 Relationship between philosophy and education.
According to Dewey philosophy is the theor y of education. The relationship between
philosophy and edu cation may b e analyzed as follows:
• Philosophy is the foundation to decide the goals of life, while educatio n equips
people to achieve the goals.
• Philosophy helps a perso n to decide the kind of life he/she would like to live, while
education pr epares him/her to live the life by giving him the right knowledge, skills
and attitudes..
• Philosophy indicates the important values to be pursued in life, while education
inculcates those valu es in learners.
• Philosophy suggests the methods of teaching while education uses the methods of
teaching..
• Suggests methods of discipline. Philosophy suggests the forms of discipline while
education applies the forms of discipline.
• Subjects and learning activities. Philosophy suggests the subjects and learning
activities to taught, while education teaches the subjects and learning activities.
• Curriculum. Philosoph y recommends the appropriate curriculum while education
uses or implements the curriculum.
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LECTURE FOUR
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
4.1 Introduction
In ch apter one, we learned that philosophy is a system of beliefs about reality and one’s view
of the world.
Philosophy en ables man to understand the world and the truth. The branches of
philosophy are:
i) Metaphysics (study of th e nature of reality)
ii) Ethics ( Ideal conduct)
iii) Esthetics (Ideal beauty).
iv) Logic (Ideal reasoning).
v) Politics (Ideal o rganization)
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4.2 Lecture Objectives
By the end o f this lecture you should be able to:
•State the branches of philosophy.
•List the braches of metaphysics.
•Define knowled ge.
•Describe th e forms of knowledge.
•State the sources of knowledge.
•Define ethics.
•Describe th e types of ethics.
•Explain how to develop morals in children.
•State the components of ethics.
•Explain the importance of ethics to children.
•Define esth etics.
•Define lo gic
•Explain the importance of logic.
4.3 Metaphysics.
What is metaphysics?
• It originates from two terms, “meta” which “means beyond” and “physics” meaning
“nature”. Thus metaph ysics is the study of issues that goes beyond nature.
• It is the branch of philosoph y, which deals with nature of existence, reality and knowledge.
It explains the world around us and enables us to understand the reality.
4.3.1 Branches of metaphysics.
(a) Cosmology
It is derived from two words “cosmos”, which means “universe” and “logia” meaning
“study”.
Thus cosmology means study of the universe. Theories explain the origin of the
universe. The Creation theory says that God created the universe. The Big – bang theory says
that the universe
came up as a result of accident collision of various elements and particles. The evolution
theory
says that the universe evolved. Learners should critically read the theories.
(b) Theology.
It is the stud y of God and other foundations of religious beliefs. It focuses on religious
concepts and beliefs.
(c)
Ra tional psychology (reality of mind).
This is the study of the relationship between the spirit, soul and the body. It focuses on the
mind and raises question s regarding the relationship between the mind and the body.
(d) Ontology (reality of mind).
It is branch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of existence. It studies the way things are
both living and non living things. According to Plato the real world is not the one inhabited by
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our physical bodies, but a non- material domain in which the various goods exist as ideas,
perfect in details and unchanging for all times. He further says that ideas have a real existence
and are things even though they cannot be seen by the eye or h eld in the hand.
e) Epistemology.
What is Epistemology? It originates from two words “episteme” which means “knowledge”
and “Lo gia” meaning to stud y. Epistemology is th erefore, the study of knowledge and how we
acquire knowled ge. It answers the questions, what is knowledge and how do we know?”
epistemology deals with the nature, source and validity of knowled ge.
Epistemology is the study of theories of knowledge which philosophers employ to explain the
nature of knowledge.
What is knowledge?
Knowled ge is justified true belief.
In formation must meet the following three conditions to qualify to b e called knowledge. The
conditions are:
• Belief conditions. Belief is a conviction or psychological state that something is true or
false.
• Truth condition. Truth means that the information or activity is in accordance with reality
or fact. For example mobile is a mobile if its functioning.
• Evidence condition. Evidence refers to the justification given to satisfy the claim. For
example due to refractio n, a stick when put in water it will appear bent.
Forms of knowledge.
1. Empirical (Scientific) knowledge. Knowledge obtained by human senses. Valid and
reliable knowledge obtained through our senses and arrived at through the process of
observation, measurement and experimentation.
2. Rational knowledge. Information obtained from human reasoning. It is arrived at through
the process of indu ctive and deductive reasonin g.
3. Spiritual (revealed) knowledge obtained from divine source.
4. Ethical knowledge. Knowledge about morals.
Sources of knowledge according to different types of philosophies.
i) Other World centered philosophies.
Otherworld centered philosophies, which include idealism says that knowledge originate from
the otherworld. The otherworld is a World of God and is considered superior to the World in
which we live in. The Otherworld is inhabited b y bein gs with superhu man power and high
intelligence. The sup er beings in the Otherworld transmit knowledge to beings in this World
which is far valuable because it originates from a superior source. The knowledge from the
otherworld is rev ealed to this world and preserved for future generations.
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ii) Earth- centered philosophies.
The earth centered philosophies, which include naturalism, picture the earth as a good place, a
place that is worth knowing and cultivating for our own good. Aristotle (Greek philosopher)
was a strong supporter of the earth- centered philosophies. He believed this world constitutes
the genuine realm of existence. He also says that the universe is made up of two b asic
ingredients:
•Matter (primar y element). It is shapeless. Matter is an indwelling attribute of each and
every physical entity.
•Form (secondary element). It is the principle, which gives purpose and meaning of
matter. Because forms give meanin g and purpose to unformed matter, it constitutes the
principle upon which nature of reality is based. Thus according Aristotle, knowledge
of form is equivalent to knowledge of real and the search for knowledge must centre
on the particular objects and forms inhabit this world. We obtain knowledge by
discoverin g the workings of the universe.
Supporters of the earth- centered philosophies propose earth- centered curriculum. They say
that since good life depends on knowledge of the laws of nature, then scientific subjects are
the ones to be taught in schools. Science subjects will enable children to learn about the
realities of life. According to earth- centred philosophies children acquire knowledge by
discoverin g the knowled ge through their senses.
iii) Man – centred philosophies.
Man centred philosophies, which include pragmatism, says that kno wledge is constructed and
it’s the duty of everyone to determine ideas which are true or false. The validity of any
knowledge does not r eside in its source, but in one’s experience.
Pragmatism believes that the otherworld is vague and inaccessible. They say that all we really
world, is the physical world in which we live in. Pragmatists believe that reality is still in the
making. According to pragmatists the reality is experience because it is all we can hope to
know and not a thing.
Following is a summary o f sources of knowledge and nature of reality according to the
different types of philosophies.
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Summary
Knowledge is
revealed
knowledge is discovered
knowledge is experience
Idea is the reality
Object is the reality
Experience is the reality
Knowledge is ready Knowledge is read y mad eKnow is to be constructed
made
4.4 ETHICS (IDEAL CONDUCT )
What is ethics?
• The word ethics is deriv ed from a Greek Word ‘Ethikos’ meaning a custom or habit. Thus
ethics is the study of values and customs of people in a given society.
• Ethics is the study of right or wron g, good or bad.
• It is the stud y of values.
• It is the stud y of right co nduct and good life.
• It is the stud y of human actions.
• It is the stud y of morality.
• Ethics is the study o f a code of professional standards and duty to the profession and the
public.
Why do we learn ethics? We learn ethics so that we can know how to live successful and
happy lives. In ethics we learn important v alues which regulate our behaviour. Ethics and
morals are like two sides of the same coin. Ethics is the theory side while morals is practical
part. Ethics talks about the right actions, while morals indicate their practice.
Types of Ethics
We have two types of eth ics:
(a)Personal ethics
Personal ethics refers to a moral code applicable to individuals. It explains the causes of good
and bad.
(b) Social ethics
It refers to a moral code applicable to groups or people in a society. Social ethics is the
foundation of a good society. Ethics covers the whole moral ideals and behaviors.
Morality
What is morality? Morality is a guide to living. It guides people in a society on how to live.
Morality helps people to know wh at to do. A person may use trial and error or follow
morality. Morality h elps a person to choose rationally among values. Values are standards of
behaviour. They help us to know how to behave in different situations.
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Morality consists of defined rules of behaviour for example: Do not steal, do not murder, do
not commit adultery etc. The work of teachers and parents is to develop good character in
children and to help them to obey. Teachers should help children to understand the need for
rules and regulations. To understand that rules and regulations are for their good. Teachers
should also help children to understand that if they break rules they will suffer the
consequences. The consequences may be good or bad. Teachers should help children to learn
to weigh the consequences of their actions. The moral conduct is determined by a cost-benefit
analysis of the action’s consequences. In proper behaviour costs or conseq uences weigh less.
Discipline
One of the first lessons a child should learn early in life is the lesson of obedience. B efore he
is old enough to reason, he should be taught to obey. By gentle, persistent effort, the habit
should be established. This will prevent conflicts that will occur between the will and
authority that will produce bitterness towards parents and teachers and resistance of all
authority, human and divine.
Development of Morals
How can we develop children’s morals?
• Telling children what they should do and not do. Children should be told not only what
they should not do but also what they should do. When we tell children only what they
should not do they don’t know what they are supposed to do. A list of prohibitions is not
good enough for children.
• Provide good models. With ones own life as the standard of value, morality is not a
burden to bear, a prudent and effective guide, which furthers life and success.
• Telling stories.
• Singing son gs.
• Reading stor y books.
The components of ethics are concerned with moral standards, conduct, values and principles.
The components of ethics are:
(a) Meta-ethics.
The word ‘meta’ is a Greek word which means ‘beyond’. Meta-ethics is the study of the
origin and meaning of ethical concepts. Meta-ethics explains why conducts, behaviour and
principles occur as they do.
(b) Normativ e ethics.
It is about moral standards which r egulates right and wrong behaviour. It is a test of right and
wrong beh aviour. An example of normative ethics is what the bible says: Do to others what
you would like them do to you. The rule regulates our behaviour. For example if a child does
not want his banana to stolen, then he should not steal other child’s banan a. Normative ethics
regulates our behaviours.
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(c) Descriptive ethics.
It is an approach to ethics which examines the choices made by individuals or groups. The
study of descriptive ethics include: Aesthetics, etiquette, arbitration and observed choices.
Aesthetics is the basis of ethics which is developed through art. It influences an individual’s
ethical choices. The choices may b e good or bad like stealing. Etiquette refers to manners.
Arbitration is about having two things which are both right and one is supposed to choose one
when an individual needs both. Observed choice refers to decisions made by ordinary people
without other people’s help for example when voting, buying something or when deciding
what is right and wron g.
(d) Applied ethics.
It examines controversial issues in a society and resolves the issues by using meta-ethics,
normative and descriptive ethics. Some of issues include: Abortion, pollution, rape etc.
Applied ethics assesses whether it is right or wrong, moral or immoral.
Importance of teaching children ethics
• Children need knowledge about ethics. Our children are growing without ethics.
• Need to learn how to behave. Ethics helps children to learn how to behave so that they
can be acceptable members of their society.
• To help them to understand their duties like taking care of the environment.
• To learn to make priorities. Ethics helps children to learn to weigh situations both
positive and negative.
• Learn to make right decisions. This is because ethics is the study of good or bad, right
or wrong.
• Character development. Children will develop important character traits like honesty,
love, and tolerance.
• Develop God f earin g p eople. Ethics help children to learn to fear God.
• To develop a good society. Children are members of a society. Good children will
mean good members of a society.
4.5 Esthetics (Ideal Beauty)
What is esthetics? It is the study of beauty or art.
What is art?
• Art is a recreation of reality.
• Art is everything.
What is the purpose of art?
Its purpose is to concretize an abstraction to bring idea or emotion within the grasp of the
observer. Art brings co mplex abstractions closer to the perceptual level, enabling people
understand it. Art makes abstractions concrete. Art concretizes abstractions by creating an
instance of it. Art embody the abstractions b y creating an instance of it. It is this
characteristic that art tries to produce in a single concrete form. The result is an
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embodiment of abstraction. The product only retains what the artist deems important.
Since it consists of the essential aspects of the abstraction, and contains all of the
essentials, it allows the abstraction to be grasp ed directly as an entity.
4.6 LOGIC (IDEAL REASONING)
What is logic?
•It is about how we think. It is the study o f correct and systematic reasoning. We reason
so that we may avoid ambiguity, false statement and so that we may communicate
correctly.
•It is a science of reasoning.
•It is the ord er of thinking from general to specific or specific to general.
•Lo gic is the way to think so that we come to correct conclusions.
Importance of logic.
•Enables an individual to distinguish between tru e and false.
Without logic a person can not distinguish between true and false. He can not throw
out bad ideas because he can not charge them as a bad. Without logic, the mind would
be cluttered with so many absurdities and falsehood that if there were some truth, it
would be lost in the garb age of contradictions and fuzzy thou ghts.
•Enables an individual to avoid mistakes.
People make mistakes in reasoning. The mistakes in reasoning are known as fallacies.
A fallacy is an argument that may appear to be true but after being closely examined it
ends up to untrue. Fallacies occur when we make mistakes in the meaning of terms we
use in reasoning or when we make misleading conclusions based on prior assumptions
or stereotypes. Such assumptions may hav e nothing to do with the subject at hand.
Knowing the kind of mistake one could make in reasoning helps him or her to avoid
them. For example, if the best student in KSCE examination is from Nairobi Province,
it is a fallacy to conclude that all students who sat for the KSCE exam passed the
exams.
•Logic enhances correct reasoning that assist to eliminate confusion during teaching
process.
•Assist in clarification of ideas, that is, knowledge of logic enh ances justification of
arguments during discussions.
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LECTURE FIVE
PHILOSOPHERS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECDE
5.1 Introduction
In the previous lesson we have learned about the branches of philosophy. In this lecture we
are going to learn about different philosophers and the contributions they made to early
childhood development and education. The philosophers to we shall learn about in this lecture
are; John Commenius, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi.
5.2 Lecture Objectives
By the end o f this lecture you should be able to:
By the end o f this lecture you should be able to:
• Describe Comenius’ philosophy.
• Describe Locke’s philosophy.
• Describe Rousseau’s philosophy.
• Explain the disadvantages of Rousseau’s education for children.
• Describe Pestallozzi’s philosophy.
• Describe Pestallozzi’s ECE.
5.3 JOHN COMENIUS
He was born in 1592 in America. He was a teacher, writer, bishop and philosopher, all in one.
Comenius believed that children learn by doing that is they learn to speak by speaking, learn
to read by reading, and learn to write b y writing. He also believed th at schools should be
places where children work.
His beliefs about children.
i) He believed that children are like young plants, which can be planted, transplanted,
pruned and bent in any way without breaking. He further says that when it has become
a tree the processes are not possible.
ii) He believed that education of children should follow the order of nature that is the
timetable for growth and learning.
iii) Children should be taught when they are ready to learn. They should not be forced to
learn.
iv) All senses should be involved in the process of education (teaching and learning). He
says visible things to be brought to the sense of sight, audible before that of hearing
etc.
5.4 JOHN LOCKE
He was born in 1632 and died in 1704. He was a teacher and philosopher. He developed the
theory of environmentalism. Environmentalism is the belief that it is the environment and not
the innate characteristics in a person which determines what children became.
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His belief about children and mind.
• He believed th at when children are born their minds are blank. It is education, which fills
the
blank minds.
• Environment determines what children became an d not the innate characteristics
According to him it is the environment that forms the mind of the child.
• All children ar e born with the same capacity for mental development and learning.
Differences in learning, achievements, and behaviour are attributes to environmental
factors
Like home and f amily conditions, socioeconomic factors, early education, and
experiences. Some childr en when they come to school, they come with insufficient
experiences.
• Importance of sensory training. Children learn best when several senses are involved in
teaching and learning.
5.5 JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU
He was born in 1712 in Switzerland. He was a writer and naturalist. He b elieved that teachers
should understand the nature of children so that they can base their decisions on that
knowledge. The nature of children include: Children are active, inquisitive and always
exploring. Before him children were treated as miniature adults. He wrote a book called
“Emile” in which he talks about children and how they should be educated.
His beliefs about children and how they should be educated.
• Children are born good but corrupted b y adults.
• Children should be taught by nature.
• He believed th at children should grow without unnecessar y interference or restrictions.
• Adults have no control over natural growth of children. This is the process of unfolding,
in which the nature of the child unfolds as a result of maturation.
• Teachers should observe the child’s growth and development in order to provide
appropriate activities at the right time.
• Early childhood is a special period of development, during which different aspects of
development flowers according to nature’s plan.
• Children were to learn through natural experiences and not from books. Children were to
learn what they want.
• He believed th at mothers played a very important role in the education of children.
• He believed that parents were to provide the child with opportunities of learning through
discovery.
• Rousseau believed that the child should not know anything because he has been told but
because he was learned it for himself.
• He was against children punishment, because it caused suffering and darkened childhood.
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Criticisms of Rousseau’s education for children.
1. Children were indiscipline due to uncontrolled freedom. The system relied on nature for
discipline.
2. Provided limited scope of ex periences due to shielding from adults.
3. Cognitive a ability was sacrificed at the expense of freedom.
4. Igno red the n ature of children.
5.6 JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI (1746-1827).
He was born in Switzerland in 1746. He was a philosopher and teacher. He was greatly
influenced by Rousseau’s philosophy. He had a great interest in children. He was against
school practices of his time which encouraged rote learning. He established a school for
children where he integrated home life and vocation. His education consisted of three
elements:
language, number work, and forms. He believed that schools should be child
centered and learning activities and experiences should be selected according to interests
and needs of children. He believed that informal education was insufficient for children and
they should be engaged in real and meaningful activities and education for children should
cater for the whole child.
His beliefs about education and how children should be educated.
• He believed th at children were born good and inn ocent.
• He believed th at all education is based on sensory impressions.
• He believed th at sensory experiences enable children to achieve their natural potential.
• He believed th at education should consider the nature of the child.
• He believed th at children learn concepts b y manip ulating materials for example
counting, measurements, feelin g and touching.
• He believed th at parents had a significant role to play in the education of children.
• He believed th at children learn b y doing.
• He believed th at education should meet all the needs of children.
Aspects of Pestalozzi’s ECE
• Completely free child- directed, ex ploratory learning. Children were allo wed to explore
their environment freely.
• Teachers directed learning. Teachers were to plan activities to integration home life and
school. They included vocation and education for reading and writing. The reason for his
second aspect of ECE spran g from his experiences with his son, Jacques named after
Rousseau. Pestalozzi believed that their were some aspects o f learning which children
cannot learn on their own.
• Object Lessons. Pestalozzi believed that through active manipulation of objects children
learned man y important concepts like counting, and measuring b y manipulating objects.
• Spiritual education. He advocated for spiritual education for children. He believed that
children need knowledge about God.
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Differences between Rousseau’s and Pestallozzi’s ECE
• Rousseau’s never advocated for infant’s education while Pestallozzi did.
• Rousseau advocated for complete freedom of the child while Pestalozzi advocated for
controlled or limited freedom of the child.
• Rousseau was against books while Pestalozzi advocated for the use of books.
• Pestalozzi advocated for human interferen ce in the education of children while Rousseau
did not. Rousseau advocated return to nature and an approach to educating children called
naturalism. To Rousseau, naturalism meant abandoning society’s artificiality and
pretentiousness. A naturalistic education permits growth of the child without undue
interference or restrictions.
• Rousseau believed that the child should be trained or disciplined by nature while
Pestalozzi did not trust nature because nature failed to train his child to sp eak. By the age
of twelve his child could not speak.
• Pestalozzi believed the role of adults was important in the education of children
while
Rousseau did not believe that the role of adults was important.
Role of teachers a ccording to Pestalozzi
• Guide. Teachers to take children outside the classrooms so that children can learn from
nature.
• Facilitate. Provide environment to allow the natural powers of the child to develop.
Methods of teaching
• Individualized instruction
• Observation. Children to observe real objects. Teachers to take children outside the
classrooms so that children can learn f rom nature.
• Sensory approach. All senses of the child should be involved in teaching and learning.
• Direct method. Providing firsthand experiences and real objects.
• Practical: Children to be trained how to do basic activities to equip them with life skills
like farmin g, housekeeping, cleaning, cooking.
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LECTURE SIX
PHILOSOPHERS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECDE
6.1 Introduction
In this lecture we are going to learn about Friendrich Wilhelm Froebel, John Dewey, and
Maria Montessori.
6.2 Lecture Objectives
By the end o f this lecture you should be able to:
• Describe Froebel’s philosophy.
• State the contributions of Froebel to ECE.
• Outline the components of Froebel’s curriculum for children.
• List the roles of teachers according to Froebel.
• Describe Dewey’s philosophy.
• List the contributions of Dewey to ECE.
• Explain the roles of schools according to Dewey.
• Describe Maria Montessori’s philosophy.
• State the advantages and disadvantages of Montessori approach
6.3 FRIENDRICH WILHELM FROE BEL
He was born in 1782 in German. He was teacher and philosopher. He was an idealist. He was
influenced by Rousseau’s and Pestalozzi’s ideas. He wanted to make children happy. He is the
founder of the modern kindergarten. “Kindergarten” means “garden for children”. According
to Froebel, children should be nurtured from an early age in a Kindergarden. He stressed on
the need for parents to meet the needs of children before joining Kindergarten. He believed
that every child had a specific purpose to fulfill in this life. He believed that a child was born
perfect and education should protect a child from evil influences in the en vironment. In 1837
he opened his kindergarten in an old mill in Blankernburg in German y. The kindergarten
formed a bridge between home and school. In the kindergarten teachers provided activities
which helped children to learn. Froebel believed in the importance of play. He believed
children learned through play and that unstructured play was dangerous. He instructed his
teachers to guide and direct children ’s play. He dev eloped materials for learning called
“gifts”.
His beliefs about children and how they should be educated.
• He believed th at children belong to God.
• He believed th at spiritual education is the foundation of early learning.
• Children learn what they are ready to learn.
• He believed that children need free self expression, creativity, social participation and
motor expression.
• He believed that a child in Kindergarten or schoo l is just like
a young plant in a garden
which needs to nurtured to produce fruits.
• He believed that children develop in stages and that each stage should b e fully exploited
for proper subsequent development.
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• He believed that for
children to develop to the full and early childhood experiences are
very important because they influence the development of the child
His contributions to early childhood education.
• He established the first Kindergarten.
• He developed a curriculum for children. The basis for the curriculum were “gifts”,
“occup ations”, songs, and educational games.
Elements of Fro ebel’s Curriculum for Children
• Gifts. Gifts wer e objects that were fixed in form for example blocks, balls, cubes,
cylinders and sticks. The materials were for the child’s self directed activities. They
allowed children to learn different concepts like shape, size, colour and concepts involved
in counting, measu ring, contrasting, and comparison.
• Occupations. Occupations were materials or things that children could shape or
manipulate for example clay, sand, beads and strings. Learning activities were meant to
develop various skills, like sewing with a sewin g board, drawing pictures by following
dots, modeling clay, cutting, strin ging beads, weav ing, pastin g and foldin g papers.
• Play. Many of the plays or games he developed were based on gifts. Through play
children developed fine motor skills, and hand-eye coordination.
Methods of teaching children according to Froebel
• Discovery method.
• Exploration method.
• Question - answer method.
• Mult-sensory method.
• Play method.
Teacher’s Role in the education of children
• Observer.The teacher’s role is to observe the unfolding o f a child in or der to provide
appropriate learnin g activities.
• Helper.The teacher’s role is to help children to grow, develop and learn.
• Planner.The teacher plans and organizes appropriate learning activities and experiences
for children.
• Gardener.He compared the role of the teacher to that of a gardener and a school as a
garden. The teach er’s role like that of the gardener is to facilitate growth and development
of the child.
• Guide.The teacher is a guide. He guides and dir ects children so that they can learn and
became creative contributing members of their society.
• Model.He believed that teachers should be models for children to imitate. They should be
humble, kind, hardworking, honest, ob edient, faithful, and God fearing.
Role of schools
•Nurture children
•Protect children.
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•Provide needs of children.
Activity: Ex plain the implications of Froeb el’s philosophy.
6.4
JOHN DEWEY
He was born in 1859 in England and migrated to America. He was a teacher, writer,
educationist, psychologist, and philosopher. He was a pragmatist. He is one of the modern
philosophers. He greatly influenced the American system of education. His ideas had a great
influence on American system of education. He believed that the aim of living is the everending process of perfecting and refining. He defined education as the continuous
reconstruction of experiences. He established a laboratory at the University of Chicago
where he implemented his educational theories. Education during Dewey’s time was teacher
centred and rote learning was the main method of teaching. The teacher completely
controlled teaching-learning process.
His contributions to early childhood education.
•He developed a theory of education “progressivism”. The child was at the centre of his
system of education.
•Introdu ced the idea of child-centered curriculum.
•Introdu ced the idea of child-centered schools.
•He founded an “experimental school;” known as laborator y school, which made him
famous.
His beliefs about children and how they should be educated.
•Curriculum for children should be built from the interests of children.
•He believed th at philosophy should solve the pro blems of life.
Role of schools according to john Dewey.
•To provide edu cation (knowledge, skills and attitudes) which are useful. Knowledge
and skills which are not useful are death. The knowledge and skills should make
children useful to themselves, family and society.
•Schools should develop problem solving skills and not memorization.
Schools should prepare children for realities of today rather than some vague future
time. He says that education is a process of liv ing and not a preparation for future
living. Learning activities should come out of daily life. Through the activities
children learn about life and the skills necessary for living. In classroom based on
Dewey’s ideas, children are involved with ph ysical activities, utilization of things,
intellectual pursuits, and social interaction. The ph ysical activities include running,
jumping, and active involvement with materials. According to Dewey’s in this phase
the child begins the process of education and develops other interests. The growing
child learns to use tools and materials to construct things. He further says that an ideal
expression for the interest was daily livin g activities or occupations like coking and
carpentry.
• To ensure proper growth and development of a child. Schools should help children to
grow and develop.
• To prepare a child for life.
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• To make a child socially efficient.
Aims of educatio n according to Dewey’s.
He did not belief in
have more education.
Education should help
education is a pro cess of
fixed aims of education. According to him aims of education is to
He says that aims of education should grow out of life situations.
in the harmonious development of the individual. He believes
living and not a preparation of future living.
Dewey’s proposed the following as the aims of education:
•To produce socially efficient individuals.
•Development of an individual. Education should help in the harmonious development
of an individual.
Curriculum according to Dewey.
•Curriculum should not be fixed.
•Curriculum should have subjects and activities which have utility to the child.
•Curriculum should be child centered.
•Curriculum should provide for integr ation.
Methods of teaching according to Jon Dewey.
•Project method. It emphasizes on children’s needs, interests and participation in
teaching and learning process. Examples of projects are animals in the sea.
•Experimental method.
•Problem solving method. Problematic situations should be provided to children in the
classroom and outside th e classroom.
•Activity method. He emp hasized learning by doing.
•Play method.
Dewey’s philosophy and discipline.
•Self-discipline. It r efers t the discipline that results out of free, purposeful and creative
activity. Teachers provide conducive environment so that the child may develop as a
responsible member of a society. The teacher nev er imposes himself on the child. It is
not discipline for the sake of discipline.
•Social discipline. It refers to the discipline, which emanates from the cooperation in
social life. It is main purpose is to cultivate in children favourable attitudes and habits.
6.5 MARIA MONTESSORI
She was born in Italy in 1870. She was the first woman in Italy to earn a doctorate degree in
medicine. She worked at the University of Rome. During her time people could not
distinguish between the mentally retarded children and the insane. She established a home for
poor children. Her work brought her into contact with children with special needs, the
mentally disabled children. While attending to the children, she realized that mental
deficiency was more of an educational problem than a medical problem and so it required
educational treatment. She believed that children should be treated with respect. To meet the
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needs of the children who were mentally retarded she developed methods of teaching the
children and succeeded in teaching mentally retarded children to read and write. They also
passed national examination ex ams like the normal children. She also discovered that her
methods could be applied to children who were not mentally retarded.
Her belief s about children
• The first 3 years of a child are the foundation years. Crucial years of development.
• Believed th at durin g early years the mind of the child absorbs a lot of information.
• Believed th at children deserve to be respected.
• Believed th at children who were mentally retarded required educational treatment.
• Believed th at each child is unique and important.
• She believed that children are the foundation of a better and peaceful World.
• She believed that each child can achieve his/her maximum and the environment
determines wheth er the child will achieve his or her maximum.
Her contributions to early childhood education.
• She developed methods of teachin g children bearing her name.
Montessori schools or ECD centres in Kenya and the World.
• Developed materials for teaching and learning.
• Developed curriculum for children.
There are many
Principles of Montessori Education.
• Individualized approach. Each child is tau ght as an individual according to his/her needs.
• Child centred approach.
• Cater for the whole child (holistic approach).
• Importance of real life tasks to prepare the child for life. The activities are meanin gful to
children.
• Learning activities are spontaneous or natural. Children learn what they want to learn.
This develops interest in learnin g.
• Curriculum based on a specific sequence of activities.
• Children are encouraged to select activities which they are interested in.
• Following a sp ecific sequence while using material in each activity. The materials were
designed and developed according to specific specifications for example colour (pink,
light blue and white), size (fit the child’s hand).
• Children are required to respect the work of other children.
• Learning is at the pace of children dependin g on their abilities.
Montessori Curriculum
The characteristics of montessori curriculum include:
• Life centred. Learning activities were real life activities.
• Importance of practicals. Learning activities are life activities that children are taught
practical skills like self-care, sweeping, and dressing.
• Child centred. Learning activities are spontaneous or natu ral. Children learn what they
want to learn.
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• Comprehensive. The curriculum is comprehensive. It covers the following areas:
Mathematics: Topics covered included: counting, addition, multiplication, subtraction and
division.
Science: Topic covered includes: Observation, experimentation, exploration, , Language:
phonetics, letters, sounds, spellings, language skills, basic vocabulary, essay writing.
Social Studies: geo graphy, history, foods, World,
Music,
Art and Craft
Role of a teacher
• Observer. The teacher’s role is to observe the child in order to understand what he or she
needs.
• Helper. Th e teacher’s role is to help children to be useful members of a society.
• Design er. The teacher designs and develops learning materials.
• Guide. The teacher is a guide. Children are given opportunities to do activities they want
to do under the guidance of the teacher.
• Facilitator. The teacher provides appropriate environment for children to learn. The
teacher provides classroom environment where children respond to their natural drive to
learn. The teacher provides a safe, attractive and stimulating environment which
encourages growth, d evelopment and learning.
Advantages of Montessori Approach
• Develops positive self co ncept.
• Equips children with life skills hence making them useful.
• In culcates values in children like: tolerance, independence, courtesy, cooperation, hard
work, obedience etc
• Makes children useful to themselves and others.
• Develops interest in lear ning.
Activities:
1. Ex plain the disadvantages of the Montessori approach.
2. Explain the importance o f philosophy to ECDE teachers
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LECTURE SEVEN
SOCIOLOGY
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Lecture Objectives
By the end o f this lecture you should be able to:
• Define sociology.
• Describe th e branches of sociology.
• State the purpose of educational sociology
• Define society
• Define culture.
• State the elements of culture
•
7.3 Meaning of Sociology
• The term sociolo gy consists of two words: “Societus” a latin word which means
companion or “associate” and “lagos” which means study or science. Thus sociology
means the study of society.
• Max Weber defined sociology as a science which interprets social behaviour with the aim
of arrivin g at a casual explanation of human behaviour.
7.4 Branches of Sociology
Educational sociology.
It is one of the branches of sociology. It is the study of the relationship between
education
and society. Educational sociology applies sociological principles in
education.
Purpose of Educational Sociology
• To study the pr evailing social environment.
• To study the fund amental educational problems in the light of social environment.
• To socialize an individual.
• To link curriculum to the society of the child.
• To study the social stru cture.
• To give sociological interpretations of educational problems.
Functions of Education from sociological perspective
• To help a child to grow and develop.
• To make the child creative.
• To socialize the child or modify the behaviour of the child.
Educational Sociology and different aspects of education
Educational Sociology and Curriculum
• According to educational sociology, the needs of the child and the society should be kept
in mind while developing curriculum.
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• Curriculum should be flexible.
• Curriculum should be progressive.
• Curriculum should be co mmunity centred.
• Helps teachers to understand the society.
• Defines the roles of the teacher in the society for ex ample agent of social change.
• Helps the teacher to understand the needs of the society.
Educational Sociology and methods of teaching
• Project method.
• Problem solving.
• Discussion method
7.4 SOCIETY
Children grow, develop and learn within a social framework set up by the society. A good society
facilitates the growth and development of children .
Meaning of society
• According to oxford dictionary, a “society is a system whereb y people live together in
organized communities.”
• A society is a system of interrelationships, which connect individuals together. Culture exists
in a society and society cannot ex ist without culture. Without culture human beings will not
be human beings because we could have no language for expressing ourselves.
• Society is a collection of individuals who have organized themselves into distinct groups and
having things in common which enable them to belong. The things in common are the stuff
of which culture is made.
7.5 Culture.
What is culture?
Culture refers to the way of life of the members of the society, or of groups within a society. It
includes how they dress, their customs etc. it also includes the goods they create for example
houses, cars, computers etc.
Elements of culture
Culture has two elements.
•Material culture. It includes everything that we can see and touch for example food, chair,
car, houses, clothes, furniture etc.
•Non-material culture. It includes everything that we cannot see and touch for example
beliefs, education, law, r eligion etc.
Characteristics of culture
• Culture is cumulative. All elements of culture grow as a result of years of cumulating. Each
generation preserves the old and add something new.
• Culture is conservative. Culture is preserved by each generation.
• Culture is transitive. It is transmitted from one generation to another.
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• Culture changes. It is ever ch anging. It changes as society chan ges. Every generation adds
something new and modifies something. Our food habits and way of dressing are changing.
• Culture is material and non-material
The ideals of promoted by an educational system of a society
should be determined by the
culture of that society. Without society there will be no culture and without culture there will be
no society. Culture d efines the accepted way of lif e.
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LECT URE EIGHT
VALUES
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Lecture Objectives
By the end o f the lecture you should be able to:
• Define values
• List the characteristics of values
• State the types o f values
• Describe th e methods to be used to inculcate valu es.
• Explain the factors which are contributing to erosion of values in Ken ya
8. 3 Meaning of values
What are values?
Values are stand ards of behaviour. Value makes life in a society meaningful. A society
without values will be a bad society. A value is what is desired. Values are the guiding
principles or rules of life. Values tell us how to behave in different situations.
Meaning of value.
According to Dewey (1961) the term value has two different meaning. On the one hand, it
donates the attitude of pricing a thing, finding it worthwhile, for its own sake or intrinsically.
Thus, value in this sense is to appreciate, but to value also means a distinctly intellectual act,
an operation of comparin g and evaluating.
Characteristics of values.
• Vales are neither subjective nor purely objective.
• Values are co-operative results of an interaction between personal and impersonal
elements.
• Values are created and preserved by God.
• Values are not based on attitudes.
• Values are abstract.
• Values are feelings put in condensed form.
8.4 Types of values.
Professed values(What we believe in)
Operational values(What we practice)
Values may also be classified as follows:
(a) Social values.
Social values make life in a society meanin gful. People live in society and them to succeed
they should con firm to the social values in that society.
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The different social v alues include:
• Social conformity. Every person has to live according to the social norms fixed by the
society.
• Discipline. Ever y person should be self-disciplined.
• Social sensitivity. Ever y person should be socially sensitive.
• Social justice. Ever yone should be just.
• Fellow feelings. It in cludes charity, love, kindness and sympathy.
• Cleanliness. It is the second to godliness.
• Cooperation.
• Equality.
• Hard work.
(b) Moral values.
They ar e important in the lives of an individual. Morality is the base for good character.
The moral values include
Honesty, truthful, faithfulness, justice, self-con trol, and truthfulness.
(c) Cultural values.
Cultural values are acquired through experience and practice.
They in clude:
• Tolerance.
• Courtesy:
The courtesy values include:
i. Showing respect to elders and teachers.
ii. Appreciating help given b y others however small it may be.
iii. Showing consideration for the viewers of others.
iv. Greetin g others.
v.
Speaking politely.
vi. Avoiding unnecessary talks.
vii. Patience.
(d) National Values
(i) Social justice: freedom from want, ignorance and disease; human dign ity; freedom of
conscience; promotion of cultural heritage; eq ual opportunities for all citizens; and a
higher and growin g n ational income equitably distributed.
(ii) Peace.
The tree tenets of Nyayo philosophy (peace, love and unity) provide the practical
foundations of develop ment. For where there is peace, there is stability and discipline
resulting in investments, enterprise and progress.
(iii) Love.
Where there is love, there is trust and readiness to work with others, learn from them and
contribute to the cause of nationhood;
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(iv) Unity.
Where there is unity, there is strength rooted in the understandin g of a common purpose,
loyalty, patriotism and mutual dependen ce. It is important that the harambee spirit as a
traditional African concept for development and the Nyayo philosophy of peace, love and
unity as practical foundations for development should be an integral part of national
education and training programmes.
(v) Internationalism
Ken ya’s political philosoph y also embodies the acceptance of the spirit of internationalism
as enshrined in the United Nations Charter. This is important in the global world. National
development and survival depend on the ability of a nation to relate to other nations and
share ideas. Education and training should foster positive international understanding and
enable Kenyans to cope with various foreign influences and remain true Kenyans.
(vi) Nationalism
Education and training should prepare and equip Kenyans to be strongly nationalistic and
patriotic towards national independence, integrity and values. Education and training
should foster positive international understanding and enable Kenyans to cope with
various foreign influences and remain true Kenyans. Develop national cultural
programmes to educate and influence Ken yans and inculcate national values and ideals.
The Kamunge commission recommended that education and training should prepare
Ken yans to be nationalistic and patriotic towards national independence and values.
8.5 Erosion of values
Values enable children to grow and develop well. Without values, there will be no holistic
development of children. Values make children important and valuable. The problems in our
society are signs that values are eroding. When we compare the present life situations in
Ken ya with the ones of the past, it is ver y sad experience. Everyone agrees that values have
and are eroding. There is evidence of erosion of values in every aspect of our society.
Different scenes also suggest indicates that values have eroded or are eroding. The scenes
include home scene, educational scene, social scene, religious scene and political scene. We
see injustice, abuse of human rights, misuse of power, and plunder. Because of erosion of in
our society the majority of people in Ken ya is living below the poverty line and is struggling
to survive. There is a crisis of character in our schools and institutions of high learning.
Everywhere there is also a sense of frustration and gloom. Majority of our people are poor.
Many p eople are unhappy and frustrated.
Why are values eroding? Erosion of values starts in the family. The erosion of values in Kenya
is because of erosion of values in the Kenyan families. Erosion of values does not start at the
community level o r national level. It starts at home. This is because good families make a good
society or nation. Corrupt families will make a go od society or home. If our nation is corrupt
or bad it means that our families are also bad.
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Many are asking wh y values are values eroding in social groups. To get the answer we must
consider ev erything and review everything with the motive of setting everything right.
Erosion of values is d iscernible in the following different scenes.
i)
Educational scene.
The educational scene can be seen in schools, colleges and universities.
Forms of erosion of values in educational scene:
•Strikes
•Burning of schools.
•Cheating in ex aminations.
•Drinking of alcohol.
•Drug abuse.
•Fighting among students.
•Immorality.
•Corruption
•Selfishness on the part of teachers is seen.
•Lack of self- discipline
•Students not working har d
•Dishonesty.
•Disobedience is spr eadin g all around.
All this is a sign of deteriorating values. The educational institutions are meant for the
betterment of individual consequently the society, but instead they are helping in creating
a bad social environment.
ii)
Political scene.
The political parties and groups in Kenya h ave set many bad examples by showing erosion
of values before the public. All types of quarrels among the different political parties, first
verbal and then physical are seen by the public. With the advancement of science and
technology, the use of television reveals what is going on in different parts of Kenya. This
type of activities adversely affects children.
Forms of erosion of values in the political scene:
• The political leaders ex ploit the masses to achieve their own narrow selfish ends.
• The political leaders lack code of conduct
• Politicians engage in corr uption.
• The leaders keep their vested interests in the fore front and national inter ests are
ignored.
• There is lack of true and leadership.
• Lawlessness on the increase in our society.
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iii) Home scene
Forms or erosion of values:
•Quarr els between parents and between the different members of the family
•Disintegration of home or families.
•Lack r espect for parent. Children not respecting parental autho rity..
•Selfishness is spreading.
•Disobedience
•Parents have lost sight of their responsibilities.
•Disappearance of love.
iv)
Religious institutions.
Religious institution has also gone down in moral standards to a great extent.
Forms of erosion of values:
•Politics has entered into these organizations.
•Give and take relationship has become the basis in matters of service rendered by
the religious organizations.
•Lack of love in religious organizations.
•People fighting in church.
•Stealing church money.
•Corruption.
•Child trafficking.
v) Social Scene
Forms of erosion of values
•Dumping of infants.
•Robbery at daylight.
•Stealing of children.
•Tribal conflicts.
•Land conflicts.
•Terrorism.
•Diseases like HIV AIDS.
•Shortage of food.
vi) Economic Scene
Forms of erosion of values
•Majority of p eople living under poverty line.
•Closing down of factories and businesses.
•Lose of jobs.
•Cheating.
vi) Environmental Scene
Forms of erosion of values
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•Grapping of land.
•Cutting down of forests like the Mau forest and Karura forest.
•Poor people invading forests.
•Pollution of rivers and lakes. Dumping of waste in rivers and lakes.
•Air pollution.
8.6 Inculcation of values.
There are different ways of inculcating v alues.
•Direct approach.
Direct approach means teaching values directly to children. Efforts are made
cautiously to teach different values to children.
•Indirect approach. Indirect approach of teaching children values is more effective.
Indirect approach means making the values part of the school programme or home.
Teachers teach the values by example.
•In formal and Formal Approach.
When the learners are taught about different values by using formal ways, it may not
have gr eater ef fect. Material in books is taught with the motive of teaching certain values.
Media for example television, newspapers are used to inculcate different values. The
learner is unaware of the values. Chen the learner reads books with values they learn the
values. This type of learning is of gr eater value and lasts longer.
• Curricular and co-cu rricular.
According to curricular approach, the curriculum is used to inculcate different values to
the learners. Values are integrated into the syllabus. Different co-curricular activities are
organized for ex ample poems and dramatizing competitions are organized with the
objective inculcating different values in children and youth young people. Social services
activities, ph ysical ex ercises, games and sports may also be organized like that in
Marakwet.
• Reading story books. They should contain stories with moral lessons.
• Giving rewards to deserving children.
• Lectures b ased on moral values.
• Teaching by example. Provide good models.
• Use of appropriate instruction media to inculcate morals. E.g. films, televisions,
newspapers.
• Use of drama.
• Value oriented education should be made compulsory in all schools.
• Using morning assembly to inculcate values.
45
LECTURE NINE
SOCIETY AND EDUCATION
9.1 Introduction
The kind of education our children receive determines the quality of our society. The values,
beliefs and norms of a society are maintained b y and p assed to the new generation by
making them part of our system of education. Education is the means of perpetuating and
improving society.
9.2 Lecture Objectives
By the end o f the lecture you should be able to:
•List the social aims of education.
•Describe th e role of society in curriculum develop ment.
•Explain how the society views teach ers.
•State the functions of schools.
•List the roles of family in ECDE
•Describe th e roles of co mmunity in ECDE.
•
9.3 Society and education aims of education.
The social environment determines what will be the aims and goals of education.
Education should enable the child a useful member in the society.
The social aims of education include:
•To transmit culture and preserve culture.
•To produce socially efficient persons.
•Personal adjustment.
•To socialize an individual.
•National integration.
•To produce useful citizens.
•To make an individual self reliant.
•Unity in diversity. Education should preach unity in diversity.
9.4 Society and Curriculum
Curriculum is the design of education.
Society indicates:
• The kind of knowledge, skills and competence that children in the society will
need in order to be useful in that society.
• The problems prevalent in society for which education should provide an answer.
One of the important goals of education is to transmit and preserve culture is the primary
task of a
society’s educational system. In the sociological foundations, the curriculum
designer deals with:
•Values.
46
•Social needs.
•Learn ers
The ideas of education system of any society are influenced by the culture of the society.
Schools are the agents of development. Schools should help children to realize their
potential.
From the community and the people who work in it children can learn about local forms
of transportation, food growing, processing and distribution, health services including the
role of doctors, nurses, hospitals, safety provisions such as fire and police departments,
communication facilities, radio and television, newspapers, telephone services and local
recreation facilities and museums children can visit an endless variety of appropriate
places throu gh field trips. Community professionals can be invited to visit your class and
share information and tools of their professions with children. The larger physical
environment provides a setting a worth ex ploring with children in your class.
Education should help children to develop feelings of self worth and competence.
Children will be well equipped for success if they are secure about themselves Sellf
understandin g comes from learning more about oneself, ones identity, uniqueness, body,
feelings, physical and emotional needs, likes and dislikes, skills and abilities, and self
care.
9.5 Society and teacher
Society views a teacher as follows:
1. Conservator of culture.
2. Architect of th e future culture.
9.6 Society and Schools
Schools exist and operate in society. Life in society influences schools and provides frame
work within the schools operates. Schools prepare children to fit in their society. Children
learn within a social frame work set up b y the society, its institutions and its established
value system. The ideas of education system of an y society are being influenced b y the
culture of the society. Schools are the agents of social growth and development. Schools
should help children to realize their potential and help them to attain their life goals. Society
exerts pressure on school which in turn influences the development to children.
Functions of schools.
i. Preservation and transmission of culture.
Society expects school to promote and
improve culture. The curriculum should therefore concern itself with what society
wants children to know or learn.
ii. To transform culture.
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Society expects schools to transform culture. School curriculum is an instrument for
reconstructing, changin g and improving culture. Education helps the youths to
adjust to changes in their society and develop ways of dealing with problems.
iii. To develop the child. Development of an individual is the function of education.
Education socializes an individual. Education helps an individual to adjust to
different situations.
A school has three main responsibilities to children.
• To realize their potentials.
• To determine their individual go als.
• To attain their individual goals.
iv. Recreates culture.
Schools changes and should mirror current changes and should respond to dynamics of the
change. Schools should offer knowledge and skills to help children to fit in the society.
Schools are instruments of change. If we unable to deal with change in a constructive and
appropriate manner, then we become victimized by it.
9.7 Family
A society consists of families. Before children learn about their community, they will learn
about family. Family pro vides rich learning opportunities.
Family theme in a curriculum is very important because it contributes to the development of
children’s self –esteem. Family helps children to acquire information about their families and
develops understanding of families of other children. It socializes children and contributes to
their holistic development. The role of teachers is to help children to make comparisons, note
similarities and differences, and organize information.
Some of the important topics in family are:
Role family in ECDE
Home is the foundation of a society. A home is a very important agency of education. A home
makes members of a family what they ar e. A good home produces good members. The well
being and prosperity of a society depends upon home influences. Every home has rules.
Parents should administer the home rules in wisdom and love and not with a rod of iron.
Children will respond with willing obedience to the rule of love. Parents should make
children’s lives happ y. C hildren need not only reproof and correction but also encouragement.
.
Functions of a family
A family plays the following functions:
•Provides affection. It is one of the basic needs of children. According to pestalozzi, “A
home is a centre of love and affection, is the best place for education and the first
48
school for he child.” Parents should teach children to respect themselves and to love
God. They should also tech children to respect and obey God’s laws.
•Socializing the child. Children learn from elders. Home is an agent of socialization.
Home makes a child social being. Home modifies a child’s behaviour
•Teaches morals. Morality is a guide to living. It guides people in a society on how to
live. Morality helps people to know what to do. A person may use trial and error or
follow morality. Morality helps a person to choose rationally among values. Values
are stand ards of b ehavio ur. Elders teach children morals.
•Imparts education. Education of a child starts at home. Schools continue from where
the home has reached.
•Recreates. It is importan t for proper growth and development of children. The home
provides recreation facilities.
•Facilitates children’ development. Parents should ensure that home environment is
conducive for growth and development of children. Home environment should
facilitate the growth and development of childr en.
9.8 Community
Def initions of community
•A community is a group of families which have a sense of belongingness.
•According to Cook and Cook (1950) a community is an or ganized way of life within a
geographical area.
•Thus community is a group of families occupying a particular place with common
practice, values and culture.
Functions of Community
•Establishes schools and ECD centres.
•Provides conducive environment for learning.
•Sponsors feedin g pro gr ammes.
•Employs teachers and caregivers.
•Provides land for establishing ECD centres.
•Provides physical resour ces.
49
LECTURE TEN
SOCIALISATION
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Lecture Objectives
By the end o f the lecture you should be able to:
•Define socialization.
•State the factors that influence socialization
•Explain the role of family in socialization of children
•Describe the concept of the child from the African context
•Explain the relationship between society and education.
10.3 Meaning of socialization
What is socialization?
• It is the process b y which an individual is adapted to his social environment and becomes
a recognized, cooperating and efficient member of society.
• It is the process b y which children learn the ways of their society and make the ways p art
of their person ality.
• It is the process b y which an individual learns the behaviours, values and expectations of
others that enable him to play his/her roles in society.
Thus socialization is the process of preparing a child to fit in his f amily, community and
society b y giving the child the right education (knowledge, skills and attitudes).
10.4 Factors that influence socialization
• A good family. A family which is progressive.
• Good neighborhood. Neighbors interact.
• Peer groups. Bad comp any corrupts.
• School.
• Curriculum.
• Society. Society with good values and norms.
• Religion.
Factors that hinder socialization
• Bad family. Resist change. Family environment does not facilitate growth and
development.
• Bad environment or surroundings.
10.5 Role of teachers in socialization of children
• Model for children.
• Understand the culture of the child.
50
• Partnership. Parents and teachers should work together.
• Provide group activities.
• Provide environment which promotes socialization
10.6 Role of parents in socialization of children
• Work with teachers of their children.
• Attend parent teachers meetings.
• School visit to talk to teachers of their children
• Livin g models.
• Interact with their children.
• Provide enough materials
10.7 The concept of the child from the African context
A child is a person below 18 years old. How children were perceived and
treated in the African traditional Society
•Children were highly valued.
•Children were at the centre of the African traditional society.
•New born babies gave parents a new status.
•Continued family linage.
•Children were a source o f labour.
•Provided security to par ents at an old age.
•Girls were a source of wealth after marriage.
•Children bounded parents.
10.8 Relationships between society and education.
• Society determines the aims and goals of education while education empowers people
to achieve the aims and goals of education.
• Society determines what is worth living while education prepares people to live that
life.
• Society determines the values to be pursued in life while education inculcates the
values.
• Society determines the acceptable culture while education preserves and transmits the
culture.
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