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Quantitative and Qualitative Articles Research
PUB 535
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Section 1
Quantitative Article Overview
Billingham and Hunt (2016) conduct a quantitative analysis through a survey to
determine the factors that influence parental choice in schools. The theoretical basis of the
research is that some factors, including race, play a role in parents making school selections.
Parents can now select the schools based on their preferences (Billingham & Hunt, 2016, p.101).
Before, students were automatically assigned to schools. The aim of allowing parents to make
these choices was to reduce segregation in schools. The notion behind this was, for example, an
African American parent could decide which school their children attend. However, some studies
imply that this approach might have increased segregation in schools. The basic assumption is
that parents will use academic criteria to select schools for their children. However, this is not
always the case because other factors will influence parents’ decisions. This is because parents
are based on their racial attitudes. Some parents use non-academic factors to make choices for
their children, for example, the racial composition of a school (Billingham & Hunt, 2016, p.101).
Thus, external factors rather than academic influences affect parents' decisions in making school
choices for their children.
Billingham and Hunt (2016) use the racial proxy hypothesis to determine parental choices
in schools. It can be challenging to establish whether parents selected a school based on racial
composition or other factors. However, researchers have developed a criterion to evaluate the
factors that influence school selection. First, the evaluation involves examining whether parents
select a neighborhood based on their perceptions of race. For instance, some people believe that
predominantly Black neighborhoods are associated with violence (Billingham & Hunt, 2016,
p.102). The results indicated that Whites were reluctant to live in these neighborhoods. A
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selection of neighborhoods influences the schools parents select. The study also formulated three
research questions. They include; how school racial compositions influence parents' enrollment
decisions, how other characteristics shape their decisions, and the impact of stereotypes
developed by parents on school selection (Billingham & Hunt, 2016, p.104). The study used a
quantitative approach to examine the research questions by gathering data from a survey. The
survey was conducted in 2014 using a firm -SurveyMonkey- to establish the “Race, Racial
Attitudes and School Segregation Survey (RRASS)” (Billingham & Hunt, 2016, p.103). The
study aims to establish various factors that influence parents in their selection of schools,
including race.
Qualitative Article Overview
The qualitative article is a study conducted by Harris and Lieberman (2015). The
theoretical basis is on institutional racism against African Americans in the U.S. The study also
examines people's attitudes and beliefs on the same issue. The conversation on racial inequality
and racism is not a new subject in the U.S. The examination on this topic by Harris and
Lieberman (2015, p.9) came up after two unarmed African American males were shot by White
police officers. The officers did not face any repercussions, leading to protests to support the
"Black Lives Matter" (BLM) initiative. A person might argue that the scope of racism in the U.S.
has changed since the civil rights movement, which outlawed it in the country. Before the civil
rights era, Whites grew up ideally believing the inferiority of African Americans to them (Harris
& Lieberman, 2015, p.9). Studies by Gunnar Mydral, an economist from Sweden, explored racial
relations in the U.S. The economist stipulated that for the country to gain racial equality, some
things had to change. First, Whites could change their attitudes and be superior to Blacks (Harris
& Lieberman, 2015, p.9). Alternatively, the existing conditions for Blacks, including those
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influenced by institutions and the system, had to change to enhance the fair treatment of African
Americans. However, some people might argue that a lot has not changed, with institutions still
exhibiting bias against Black people.
Despite a revolution in the view of Whites on African Americans, disparities are still
significant between the two races. In the modern day, a significant number of White people no
longer believe Blacks are inferior to them (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.10). The change in
beliefs and ideologies is not reflected in the disparities that exist between the two groups.
Examples include the differences in "criminal justice, access to employment opportunities,
education, health, and housing" (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.10). Whites have better
opportunities in the sectors mentioned compared to African Americans. For instance, the
probability of a Black person being poor is three times higher than that of a White person. They
also have a six times higher chance of going to jail (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.10). Disparities
between the two races are also evident in the financial sector. An in-depth look at financial
institutions shows they are more likely to lend to Whites than Blacks. An in-depth look was
conducted during the financial crisis of 2008. It revealed some unrecognized biases in terms of
access to financial services for Blacks and Whites (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.10). The
country has criminalized explicit discrimination, but segregation is still evident in the system.
Harris and Lieberman (2015) also examined the attitudes of White people toward
disparities with Blacks. The study unveils that many Whites do not believe in institutional
racism. They believe that the country has become colorblind in that people no longer recognize
others or grant them opportunities based on skin color (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.11). They
also believe that society has evolved to the point that Blacks can thrive on their own and no
underlying mechanisms prevent them from having the same achievements as Whites. For
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example, a significant number of Whites believe that Blacks are poorer because they are lazy
(Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.12). They believe that society has now recognized equality among
individuals from different races and anyone who is at a disadvantage is because of things in their
individual control. For instance, if someone does not want to go to jail, they should not commit a
crime. Therefore, their belief is that Blacks are more likely to go to jail because they commit
crimes more (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.12). Overall, Harris and Lieberman conduct a
qualitative analysis to support the hypothesis that institutional racism still exists in the U.S.,
despite Blacks gaining more rights on equality since the Civil rights movement.
Section 2
Quantitative Article
Billingham and Hunt (2016) use a causal model in their quantitative approach. The model
examines variables in relation to the cause (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p.49). This means that
one factor causes another to happen. For instance, the primary aim of the study is to determine
the impact of school racial composition on parental decisions on enrollment. Therefore, the study
aims to establish how the former causes the latter. The independent variable, in this case, is
school racial composition, while the dependent variable includes parents' decisions on
enrollment. The study also aims to examine how other factors (excluding racial composition)
influence enrollment decisions. Lastly, the study aims to determine the role of racial stereotypes
by parents on enrollment decisions (Billingham & Hunt, 2016, p.103). The three research
questions raised by the study aim to find a correlation between three independent variables and
one dependent variable. The independent variables in the last two research questions are other
factors and racial stereotypes. The dependent variable includes enrollment decisions. Overall,
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Billingham and Hunt explore a causal relationship between independent variables and a
dependent variable.
The study used a random sampling approach. The investigators took a different approach
to their sampling design by using an experimental manipulation method. It included 1259
participants that used the SurveyMonkey website (Billingham & Hunt, 2016, p.104). The
participants were presented with a scenario that they used to answer their questions. The
investigators also included four characteristics in the scenario. The characteristics include factors
that influence parental decisions in school selection. Three of the scenarios considered "the
quality of school facilities, school safety, and academic performance" (Billingham & Hunt, 2016,
p.104). An example of security measures includes passing through a metal detector, a school
with security guards, and other security checks. The investigators also indicate that "race often
serves as a proxy for these characteristics" (Billingham & Hunt, 2016, p.104). The fourth
characteristic directly addressed race. It included the racial composition of the student body
(Billingham & Hunt, 2016, p.104). The characteristics were randomly assigned to the school
selection list. The respondents filled in the survey in terms of likeliness to enroll their children in
these schools.
The study used a binary logistic regression model to enhance the validity and reliability
of the research. The data is well presented in figures to show the number of participants that
selected each category. The study used various categories to examine the data collected from the
study. It also examined the attitudes of parents toward various school settings. To enhance
validity and reliability, the study also recognizes the probability of some families lacking access
to online surveys. These primarily include disadvantaged groups (Billingham & Hunt, 2016,
p.104). This leaves room for error in measurement. The researchers also created another survey
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for non-white participants. However, the sample population was too small to have definitive
results to represent a larger group (Billingham & Hunt, 2016, p.114). Overall, the study
integrates measurable data and leaves room for error to enhance reliability and validity.
Qualitative Article
Harris and Lieberman (2015) use a grounded theoretical approach and case study. The
grounded approach involves an inquiry into the perspective of individuals. Researchers can
develop an abstract theory based on the views of the participants (Creswell & Creswell, 2018,
p.50). In the qualitative article, the researchers explore the views of Whites on why African
Americans are still disadvantaged despite the civil rights movement criminalizing racial
discrimination. For example, the researchers explore the opinions of a conservative, John
McWhorter. The conservative mentioned that Blacks are guided by an inferiority complex,
which makes them view themselves as victims, making them insecure (Harris & Lieberman,
2015, p.11). In turn, this inhibits their ability to progress in society. From this perspective, if
African Americans stop seeing themselves as victims, they can have the same achievements as
their White counterparts. Some Whites have also aired their views, stating that African
Americans are no longer disadvantaged by the system. A study conducted in 2013 shows that
more than 80% of Whites believe that racism no longer exists (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.11).
They believe that African Americans are disadvantaged due to their individual actions, such as
committing crimes or lack of hard work. On the other hand, a case study involves an in-depth
inquiry into a specific event or program and its impact on participants (Creswell & Creswell,
2018, p.51). Harris and Lieberman (2015) explore indications that institutional racism still exists.
The case study approach aims to counter the perspectives of many White Americans to show that
African Americans are still disadvantaged by the system. For example, they are six times more
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likely to face incarceration for crimes similar to those committed by Whites (Harris &
Lieberman, 2015, p.10). Overall, the qualitative study uses two theoretical approaches to
examine people’s attitudes toward the topic of focus and evaluate the facts on the same.
The study uses a purposive sampling approach. Creswell and Creswell (2018) do not
explore this type of sampling. It involves a selective approach whereby researchers use their
judgment in the selection process (Campbell et al., 2020). The approach aims to prove a certain
point. For instance, the study by Harris and Lieberman (2015) selects specific statements by
White individuals to indicate their opinions on institutional racism. The study does not examine
any statement made by Whites that purport they believe institutional racism affects Blacks. In a
random selection, the study population might have different opinions. The researchers mention
that a significant number of the population -more than 80%- of Whites believe that factors other
than race inhibit the success of African Americans (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.11). Many
statements made by public figures also indicate the same. A significant number of statements on
how institutional racism affects African Americans are made by Black individuals such as the
former president, Barack Obama (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.9). Therefore, it might be
challenging to find information on Whites supporting that institutional racism exists. Thus,
purposive sampling is the appropriate approach for the qualitative article.
The article deals with validity and reliability by examining previous studies and
statements made by individuals. Harris and Lieberman (2015) collect data from multiple studies
to support their claims. For instance, the uses data collected in a Gallup poll. The data indicates
that a significant number (80%) of the White respondents do not believe in the existence of
systematic racism (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.11). The researchers then use statements made
by White individuals in public to support this notion. They also use data derived from The U.S.
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Bureau of Justice and Statistics. The data indicates that one in every three Blacks is likely to be
imprisoned at one point in life (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.17). The number translates to
almost half of the inmates in U.S. jails. The researchers also explore a study by Devin Fergus. It
indicates that California implemented a law in a Zip Code with predominantly Black individuals.
The law meant that Blacks made higher car payments (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.18). Also,
many advertisements, for example, alcohol and other things that affect people's lives negatively,
target predominantly Black areas. The study enhances its validity and reliability by showing a
pattern from abstract ideas to support that African Americans are disadvantaged.
Section 3
Quantitative Article
Billingham and Hunt’s (2016) research hypothesis is that the racial composition of a
school influences parents' school selection for their children. The study uses an experimental
research design by collecting data from a survey. An alternative could be descriptive statistics.
The approach offers a summary of datasets from previous studies (Mishra et al., 2019).
Researchers explore previous studies that align with their topic. Billingham and Hunt (2016)
primarily focus on the selection process by White parents. A descriptive approach could widen
their research and explore how parents from other racial groups select schools for their children.
In the study, the researchers design survey questions that primarily focus on race. For example,
they include school structure, security, and extra-curricular activities. These characteristics differ
in schools with minority groups. A descriptive analysis approach might offer different results as
opposed to the hypothesis. For example, it might uncover that parents care more about other
factors, such as the academic performance of a school. Some methodologies might also discover
that some of the characteristics parents care about are predominant in certain schools, which
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happen to have a certain racial composition. Descriptive analysis can also widen the scope by
uncovering other factors, such as the income of parents. In the U.S., Whites have a higher
income than Blacks. Thus, they might take their children to prestigious schools with a
predominantly White population due to the resources rather than the racial groups.
Qualitative Article
The hypothesis of the study by Harris and Lieberman (2015) is that institutional racism
hinders the ability of African Americans to succeed in the U.S. The researchers also explore the
beliefs of Whites on the issue and develop a hypothesis to prove that they (the beliefs) are false
in comparison to the existing facts. The perspectives of many Whites tend to focus on Blacks and
what they can do to improve their lives (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.10). For example, they
might stipulate that a Black person should work harder in order to become successful. In
exploring the hypothesis, the researchers mention that people should pay attention to institutions
rather than individuals (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.10). If certain underlying institutional
practices are against an individual, their chances of succeeding become limited no matter what
they try. For instance, if a financial institution cannot give loans to African Americans, it limits
their ability to own houses. Thus, the researchers aim to prove that institutional racism is the
underlying issue that limits the ability of many African Americas to succeed.
An alternative methodology and research design suggested for the study by Harris and
Lieberman (2015) is the experimental approach. The primary aim of this approach is to show a
cause-and-effect relationship (Gopalan et al., 2020). Researchers can introduce a treatment in
experimental research to determine the cause-and-effect relationship. One of the claims made by
researchers includes the challenges experienced by African Americans in employment. The
researchers could attempt to apply for multiple jobs using predominantly Black or White names.
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All names should have the same qualifications for the positions applied. Subsequently, they
could evaluate which names receive callbacks for interviews. In their study, Harris and
Lieberman (2015) primarily rely on statements made by public figures and results from other
studies. An experimental approach could support or refute their hypothesis. If the predominantly
White names get more callbacks, it supports the existence of institutional racism. The study
might not necessarily refute the hypothesis. However, it can enhance the validity of this claim
and shed more light on the issue.
Section 4
Quantitative Article
If Billingham and Hunt (2016) used a qualitative approach, the paper could have had
some strengths. First, the qualitative approach uses a natural setting. Investigators do not expose
participants to a contrived situation or replicate the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p.257).
They conduct the study in a natural setting, which also allows participants to be themselves. The
qualitative analysis conducted by Harris and Lieberman (2015) uses statements made by people
in their natural settings. For example, one statement was made by a politician, Paul Ryan, in a
public space. The public spaces, either interviews, press conferences, or rallies, are natural
settings for politicians to air their thoughts. The politician stated that Black people have a
reluctance to work, which moves from one generation to the next (Harris & Lieberman, 2015,
p.12). The statement shows that the politician blamed African Americans for their misfortunes
rather than institutional racism. The natural setting enhances the accuracy of the results and the
ability of participants to remain true to what they believe in. When the same person is taken to a
lab, they might make a different statement since they know they are in a study.
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A qualitative study approach also has the strength of gathering data from multiple
sources. This case is true in the study conducted by Harris and Lieberman (2015). The
researchers gather data from multiple sources such as research materials, surveys, and public
statements. For instance, the study uses the sentiments of a conservative, McWhoter, who writes
that African Americans hinder themselves from success because they see themselves as victims
of occurrences that happened years ago (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.11). The study also
explores a statement by a Republican politician, Ryan, as discussed in the previous paragraph.
Furthermore, it uses the results of a survey conducted in a Gallup poll on the opinions of Whites
on institutional racism (Harris & Lieberman, 2015, p.11). Combined, these sources reinforce the
reliability of the results because they come from different segments. In a qualitative approach, a
researcher also makes interpretations of participants' responses. They (researchers) are the key
instruments of the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p.257). They can interpret their findings
more accurately. Billingham and Hunt (2016) primarily rely on one setting for their study and
results. At times, the setting might be insufficient to gather reliable data. Their study used a
hypothetical situation, and participants might fail to answer some questions accurately unless
they encounter it in real-life or their natural setting.
Qualitative studies also use a holistic approach and reflexivity. The approach aims to
represent a larger picture of an issue by offering different perspectives (Creswell & Creswell,
2018, p.258). Harris and Lieberman (2015) use this approach by combining different
perspectives that represent one issue. These perspectives are discussed in the previous paragraph.
They include statements made in the public, studies, commentaries, and surveys. The holistic
approach minimizes the possibility of bias in a study. These studies (qualitative) also integrate
reflexivity. The concept involves exploring the experiences of individuals. Harris and Lieberman
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(2015) explore the experiences of African Americans to show institutional racism. The study
explores their experiences with education, employment, incarceration, and access to financial
services. Exploring experiences gives an in-depth look into an issue and helps researchers get a
clearer picture of the claim made by the study. While the study provides the perspectives of a
significant number of White individuals, it also provides data and the experiences of Black
individuals. Thus, the qualitative study offers different perspectives that narrow down to support
the claims of the researchers.
Qualitative Article
Some strengths are also associated with quantitative research designs. These strengths
could have a positive impact on the study by Harris and Lieberman (2015). First, a quantitative
approach can use an experimental design that holds different variables constant using
manipulation (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p.207). Billingham and Hunt (2016) use this approach
by introducing manipulations that could affect the outcome. The study uses three manipulations
which include racial composition, other characteristics, and parental stereotypes (Billingham &
Hunt, 2016, p.104). The study examines how these manipulations affect the choices that parents
make when selecting schools for their children. It shows a correlation between one factor and
another. It also shows how different circumstances can lead to an outcome. For instance, the
study shows that the racial composition of a school (manipulation) can make some White parents
not select a school for their children (Billingham & Hunt, 2016). These studies can be used to
present solutions in real-life settings. Harris and Lieberman do not examine how different
manipulations can lead to a certain outcome. The researchers explore the experiences of Black
people within the country and the opinions of Whites. However, the study does not explore
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possible solutions by introducing a specific concept that can lead to a certain outcome, hence
addressing institutional racism.
A quantitative approach also integrates data to address the variables. A quantitative study
primarily focuses on statistical data and information (Billingham & Hunt, 2016, p.220).
Statistical information is a significant part of any study because it can be used to represent a
larger population. Researchers also state the sample population size, which indicates whether the
study is sufficient for a larger population. Creswell and Creswell (2018, p. 221) state that
statistical tests "show the practical significance of the results." The results derived from this
study can be essential in advocating for change and providing solutions. The qualitative study by
Harris and Lieberman (2015) includes a survey conducted by other researchers. However, the
authors only mention one finding, that is, that 83% of Whites believe that other factors,
excluding racism, inhibit the ability of African Americans to prosper (Harris & Lieberman, 2015,
p.11). The authors do not offer an in-depth perspective on how this conclusion was made. On the
other hand, Billingham and Hunt (2016) conducted a step-by-step analysis of their experiment
and explained how they came up with these results. Both quantitative and qualitative research
approaches are important in research. However, statistical information is important because the
figures can be used to represent a larger population.
Section 5
Quantitative Article
Some public forums or researchers can challenge any social science, including the
quantitative research by Billingham and Hunt (2016). The study uses an experimental approach
to show that a school’s racial composition can inhibit parents’ enrollment decisions. The study
specifically focuses on White parents avoiding schools with a predominantly Black student body.
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A different study by Tarkhnishvili et al. (2022) focuses on a similar subject. The study aims to
determine the factors that influence parental choice on school enrollment. The researchers focus
on a wider scope of the same issue. They use a quantitative approach but integrate a different
data collection method. The researchers conducted a one-hour interview with each participant
(Tarkhnishvili et al., 2022). The study was also not confined to White participants only. The
results indicate that other factors override race in parental decisions. These factors include
parents’ income and social status, activities within the school, the image of the school, religion,
and academic achievement (Tarkhnishvili et al., 2022). To counter the study by Billingham and
Hunt (2016), one might opine that a parent with a higher income will take their children to a
prestigious school (Marcotte & Dalane, 2019). Most of these schools are predominantly White.
Thus, racial composition might not be the only factor affecting the parent’s decision.
Qualitative Article
Some studies might take a different approach on the hypothesis by Harris & Lieberman
(2015). Despite the indication that institutional racism is a significant factor affecting African
Americans, other aspects might be related to the issue. For example, some studies attribute lower
educational achievement to the lack of success among Blacks (Gilbert et al., 2022). Other studies
also recognize higher levels of crime in predominantly African American regions. As a result,
this leads to higher incarceration rates. However, most of these studies do not deny the existence
of institutional racism. Rather, they focus on what African American individuals or community
can do to rise through the ranks. It is challenging to find a study that entirely refutes the claims
by Harris and Lieberman (2015) and provide different results. These studies recognize that
institutional racism is a significant issue facing African Americans in the country.
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References
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