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Autonomic Nervous SystemRegulates visceral activities typically unconsciously or involuntarily - <i>including circulation, digestion, sweating and pupillary digestion</i>
Regulates visceral activities typically unconsciously or involuntarily - <i>including circulation, digestion, sweating and pupillary digestion</i>Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Nervous SystemAn ANS division that mediates the flight-or-fight response, excluding most blood vessels, salivary glands and sweat glands
An ANS division that mediates the flight-or-fight response, excluding most blood vessels, salivary glands and sweat glandsSympathetic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Nervous SystemAn ANS division responsible for responding to quiet and relaxed situations
An ANS division responsible for responding to quiet and relaxed situationsParasympathetic Nervous System
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Contrast Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Ganglia<ul><li>Sympathetic ganglia are closer to the spine - forming the sympathetic trunk</li><li>Parasympathetic ganglia are within their effectors</li></ul>
GangliaHas circuits to modulate neural signals before they reach the neuroeffector junction - through IPSPs and EPSPs at pre-ganglionic, post-ganglionic or extra-ganglionic sites
Has circuits to modulate neural signals before they reach the neuroeffector junction - through IPSPs and EPSPs at pre-ganglionic, post-ganglionic or extra-ganglionic sitesGanglia
VaricositiesConducts neurotransmission to smooth muscle cells upon stimulation from post-ganglionic fibres
Conducts neurotransmission to smooth muscle cells upon stimulation from post-ganglionic fibresVaricosities
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Varicosities Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Types of Cell Innervations</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Types of Cell Innervations</div>
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var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Cell Innervations</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d33d11cfb5e64628ac33e03c8d124191-ao-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-8e6bf893d13fbbce8190b1865e3c9edce3d2fda5.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Cell Innervations</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d33d11cfb5e64628ac33e03c8d124191-ao-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-8e6bf893d13fbbce8190b1865e3c9edce3d2fda5.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Cell Innervations</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d33d11cfb5e64628ac33e03c8d124191-ao-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-8e6bf893d13fbbce8190b1865e3c9edce3d2fda5.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Cell Innervations</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d33d11cfb5e64628ac33e03c8d124191-ao-3-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-8e6bf893d13fbbce8190b1865e3c9edce3d2fda5.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Cell Innervations</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d33d11cfb5e64628ac33e03c8d124191-ao-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-8e6bf893d13fbbce8190b1865e3c9edce3d2fda5.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Cell Innervations</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d33d11cfb5e64628ac33e03c8d124191-ao-4-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-8e6bf893d13fbbce8190b1865e3c9edce3d2fda5.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-3-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-4-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-5-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-6-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-6-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-7-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-7-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-8-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Varicosity Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""24264dab09104f7a9290bdcffed5d3f5-oa-8-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-af41f9187a74a30af65802f68b4e4434246b7126.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
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var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
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var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-3-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-4-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-5-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-6-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-6-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-7-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-7-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-8-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-8-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-9-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-9-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-10-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Various Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""50c9ca30c1e64b4da646de97a5175f92-oa-10-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-a296b9f09e96b6f7fb965408747e06be5731748b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
Adrenal MedullaModified sympathetic ganglion secreting hormones directly into the blood upon pre-ganglionic fibre stimulation - releases adrenaline and noradrenaline to reach heart and vessel cells
Modified sympathetic ganglion secreting hormones directly into the blood upon pre-ganglionic fibre stimulation - releases adrenaline and noradrenaline to reach heart and vessel cellsAdrenal Medulla
"
<div id=""io-header"">Cardiomyocyte Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""064e57670a004030934513bd7a5b8a57-ao-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-d9a1bd8242dfeb390df79b6ad77a71da864bf232.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Cardiomyocyte Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""064e57670a004030934513bd7a5b8a57-ao-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-d9a1bd8242dfeb390df79b6ad77a71da864bf232.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Cardiomyocyte Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""064e57670a004030934513bd7a5b8a57-ao-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-d9a1bd8242dfeb390df79b6ad77a71da864bf232.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Cardiomyocyte Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""064e57670a004030934513bd7a5b8a57-ao-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-d9a1bd8242dfeb390df79b6ad77a71da864bf232.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Cardiomyocyte Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""064e57670a004030934513bd7a5b8a57-ao-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-d9a1bd8242dfeb390df79b6ad77a71da864bf232.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Cardiomyocyte Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""064e57670a004030934513bd7a5b8a57-ao-3-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-d9a1bd8242dfeb390df79b6ad77a71da864bf232.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Cardiomyocyte Neurotransmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""064e57670a004030934513bd7a5b8a57-ao-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Cardiomyocyte Neurotransmission</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Cardiomyocyte Neurotransmission</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Cardiomyocyte Neurotransmission</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Cardiomyocyte Neurotransmission</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Cardiomyocyte Neurotransmission</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Intestinal Motility</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Intestinal Motility</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Intestinal Motility</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Intestinal Motility</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Intestinal Motility</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Intestinal Motility</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Intestinal Motility</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Intestinal Motility</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Intestinal Motility</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Intestinal Motility</div>
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"
"Instrinsic intestinal neuronal circuits <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""autonomously"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> give rise to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""different&#x20;motilities"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.<br><ul><li>Longitudinal muscles help perform <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""peristalsis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></li><li>Circular muscles help perform <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""segmentation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></li></ul>""Instrinsic intestinal neuronal circuits <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">autonomously</span> give rise to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">different motilities</span>.<br><ul><li>Longitudinal muscles help perform <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">peristalsis</span></li><li>Circular muscles help perform <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">segmentation</span></li></ul><br>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Different muscles for different motilities</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Different muscles for different motilities</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Different muscles for different motilities</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Different muscles for different motilities</div>
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"
BolusGrouped collection of food and saliva formed in the mouth and propelled through the intestines towards the anus
Grouped collection of food and saliva formed in the mouth and propelled through the intestines towards the anusBolus
Describe how Distention-reactive Peristalsis occurs1. Bolus in intestine causes distention (bulging)<br>2. Sensory neurons detect and release 5HT to pre-ganglionic neurons<br>3. Preganglionic neurons releases ACh which binds to post-ganglionic N-R<br>5. Excitatory post-ganglionic motor neuron releases ACh and SP to cause smooth visceral muscle behind the bolus to contract and propel<br>6. Inhibitory post-ganglionic motor neurons release Nitric Oxide (NO), Vascular Intestinal Peptide (VIP) and ATP to relax muscles in front of bolus for unidirectional motion to anus
"
<div id=""io-header"">Distention-reactive Peristalsis Diagram</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Distention-reactive Peristalsis Diagram</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Distention-reactive Peristalsis Diagram</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Distention-reactive Peristalsis Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-060170c2e17d7e4040cc4147ed168783d1e83803.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Distention-reactive Peristalsis Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""fa612f12f56b4460a6a6c84b146a5377-ao-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-060170c2e17d7e4040cc4147ed168783d1e83803.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Distention-reactive Peristalsis Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""fa612f12f56b4460a6a6c84b146a5377-ao-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-060170c2e17d7e4040cc4147ed168783d1e83803.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Distention-reactive Peristalsis Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""fa612f12f56b4460a6a6c84b146a5377-ao-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-060170c2e17d7e4040cc4147ed168783d1e83803.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Distention-reactive Peristalsis Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""fa612f12f56b4460a6a6c84b146a5377-ao-4-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-060170c2e17d7e4040cc4147ed168783d1e83803.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"<div>In the defaecation reflex:</div><ul><li>SNS causes the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""smooth&#x20;internal&#x20;anal&#x20;sphincter"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""contract"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></li><li>PNS causes the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""striated&#x20;external&#x20;sphincter"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""relax"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></li></ul>""<div>In the defaecation reflex:</div><ul><li>SNS causes the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">smooth internal anal sphincter</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">contract</span></li><li>PNS causes the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">striated external sphincter</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">relax</span></li></ul><br>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Human Defaecation Reflex</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""cd3c257c848b42ee8ebcf25484477bd5-ao-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-d4268ff86eb9a36180042aba50debb13c43226fb.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Human Defaecation Reflex</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""cd3c257c848b42ee8ebcf25484477bd5-ao-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-d4268ff86eb9a36180042aba50debb13c43226fb.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Human Defaecation Reflex</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""cd3c257c848b42ee8ebcf25484477bd5-ao-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-d4268ff86eb9a36180042aba50debb13c43226fb.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Human Defaecation Reflex</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""cd3c257c848b42ee8ebcf25484477bd5-ao-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-d4268ff86eb9a36180042aba50debb13c43226fb.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Nervous System Organisation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""df8383d24e394988a357efb96a490ee2-oa-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-ed008837038ab321d917d8cbde087b27d46825bf.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Nervous System Organisation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""df8383d24e394988a357efb96a490ee2-oa-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-ed008837038ab321d917d8cbde087b27d46825bf.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Nervous System Organisation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""df8383d24e394988a357efb96a490ee2-oa-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-ed008837038ab321d917d8cbde087b27d46825bf.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Nervous System Organisation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""df8383d24e394988a357efb96a490ee2-oa-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-ed008837038ab321d917d8cbde087b27d46825bf.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Nervous System Organisation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""df8383d24e394988a357efb96a490ee2-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-ed008837038ab321d917d8cbde087b27d46825bf.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Nervous System Organisation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""df8383d24e394988a357efb96a490ee2-oa-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-ed008837038ab321d917d8cbde087b27d46825bf.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Nervous System Organisation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""df8383d24e394988a357efb96a490ee2-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-ed008837038ab321d917d8cbde087b27d46825bf.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Nervous System Organisation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""df8383d24e394988a357efb96a490ee2-oa-4-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-ed008837038ab321d917d8cbde087b27d46825bf.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Nervous System Organisation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""df8383d24e394988a357efb96a490ee2-oa-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-ed008837038ab321d917d8cbde087b27d46825bf.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Nervous System Organisation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""df8383d24e394988a357efb96a490ee2-oa-5-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-ed008837038ab321d917d8cbde087b27d46825bf.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Nervous System Organisation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""df8383d24e394988a357efb96a490ee2-oa-6-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-ed008837038ab321d917d8cbde087b27d46825bf.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Nervous System Organisation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""df8383d24e394988a357efb96a490ee2-oa-6-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-ed008837038ab321d917d8cbde087b27d46825bf.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
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<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
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</div>
</div>
<script>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
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<script>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-4-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
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var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
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<script>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-5-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
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amask.style.display = 'block'
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-6-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
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<script>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-6-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
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amask.style.display = 'block'
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
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var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-7-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
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<script>
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var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-7-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
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amask.style.display = 'block'
}
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-8-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
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var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
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var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-8-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
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amask.style.display = 'block'
}
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-9-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
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var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-9-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
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"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-10-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
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var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-10-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-11-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-11-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-12-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-12-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-13-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-13-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-14-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-14-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-15-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-15-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-16-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-16-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-17-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-17-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-18-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-18-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-19-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-19-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-20-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-20-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-21-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-21-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-22-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-22-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-23-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-23-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-24-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-24-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-25-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-25-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-26-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-26-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-27-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
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original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-27-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-28-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-28-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-29-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-29-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-30-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-30-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-31-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-31-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-32-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Effectors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""47132a7d7fe04b69977edf25c96169a8-ao-32-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7c766dd7582fae79f51bf11c1c0511b1a8be4394.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
DrugsAny exogenous (<i>even if endogenous but administered</i>) chemical substance, other than a nutrient, that induces a biological effect when administered into the body
Any exogenous (<i>even if endogenous but administered</i>) chemical substance, other than a nutrient, that induces a biological effect when administered into the bodyDrugs
"
<div id=""io-header"">Pharmacology Branches</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""e9f7d6898d184fe8abcb8702266c8da4-oa-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-394817d5791427f6897eb6b9950cbae8dbe19570.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Pharmacology Branches</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""e9f7d6898d184fe8abcb8702266c8da4-oa-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-394817d5791427f6897eb6b9950cbae8dbe19570.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Pharmacology Branches</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""e9f7d6898d184fe8abcb8702266c8da4-oa-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-394817d5791427f6897eb6b9950cbae8dbe19570.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Pharmacology Branches</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""e9f7d6898d184fe8abcb8702266c8da4-oa-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-394817d5791427f6897eb6b9950cbae8dbe19570.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Pharmacology Branches</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""e9f7d6898d184fe8abcb8702266c8da4-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-394817d5791427f6897eb6b9950cbae8dbe19570.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Pharmacology Branches</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""e9f7d6898d184fe8abcb8702266c8da4-oa-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-394817d5791427f6897eb6b9950cbae8dbe19570.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Pharmacology Branches</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""e9f7d6898d184fe8abcb8702266c8da4-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-394817d5791427f6897eb6b9950cbae8dbe19570.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Pharmacology Branches</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""e9f7d6898d184fe8abcb8702266c8da4-oa-4-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-394817d5791427f6897eb6b9950cbae8dbe19570.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Pharmacology Branches</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""e9f7d6898d184fe8abcb8702266c8da4-oa-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-394817d5791427f6897eb6b9950cbae8dbe19570.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Pharmacology Branches</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""e9f7d6898d184fe8abcb8702266c8da4-oa-5-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-394817d5791427f6897eb6b9950cbae8dbe19570.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"Higher drug doses will induce <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""greater&#x20;biological&#x20;effects"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Higher drug doses will induce <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">greater biological effects</span><br>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Drug Effect Types</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d0d59f62b678427b9a1bcfb82e2170c8-oa-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-0a3196ca8a081bd938ae01f0a5a5940b7e54cad0.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Drug Effect Types</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Drug Effect Types</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Drug Effect Types</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Drug Effect Types</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d0d59f62b678427b9a1bcfb82e2170c8-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Drug Effect Types</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d0d59f62b678427b9a1bcfb82e2170c8-oa-3-A.svg"" /></div>
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original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Drug Effect Types</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d0d59f62b678427b9a1bcfb82e2170c8-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
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</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Drug Effect Types</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d0d59f62b678427b9a1bcfb82e2170c8-oa-4-A.svg"" /></div>
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if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
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"
"Drugs and their receptors have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""structural&#x20;specificity"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to allow for binding - drugs has an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""affinity"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for those specific receptors.""Drugs and their receptors have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">structural specificity</span> to allow for binding - drugs has an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">affinity</span> for those specific receptors.<br>
"
List the factors influencing drug-receptor interactions<ul><li>Charge</li><li>Shape</li><li>Hydrophilic/hydrophobic regions</li></ul>
"
<div id=""io-header"">Various Receptor Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""ae6bcbddb710403d9a237acb4dda3c47-ao-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Various Receptor Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""ae6bcbddb710403d9a237acb4dda3c47-ao-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-76b406ee077166b05676493ef6677667dcff9dd9.jpg"" /></div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Various Receptor Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""ae6bcbddb710403d9a237acb4dda3c47-ao-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Various Receptor Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""ae6bcbddb710403d9a237acb4dda3c47-ao-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-76b406ee077166b05676493ef6677667dcff9dd9.jpg"" /></div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Various Receptor Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""ae6bcbddb710403d9a237acb4dda3c47-ao-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
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}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Various Receptor Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""ae6bcbddb710403d9a237acb4dda3c47-ao-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-76b406ee077166b05676493ef6677667dcff9dd9.jpg"" /></div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Agonist-Activated Receptors</div>
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original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Agonist-Activated Receptors</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Agonist-Activated Receptors</div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Agonist-Activated Receptors</div>
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<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""fa64e8db98684be387b9f5dc3842fc79-ao-2-A.svg"" /></div>
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var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
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// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Agonist-Activated Receptors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""fa64e8db98684be387b9f5dc3842fc79-ao-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Agonist-Activated Receptors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""fa64e8db98684be387b9f5dc3842fc79-ao-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-15de0ddd464d0e52bff62a9e2713ad4b60238690.jpg"" /></div>
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var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
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amask.style.display = 'block'
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Agonist-Activated Receptors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""fa64e8db98684be387b9f5dc3842fc79-ao-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Agonist-Activated Receptors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""fa64e8db98684be387b9f5dc3842fc79-ao-4-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-15de0ddd464d0e52bff62a9e2713ad4b60238690.jpg"" /></div>
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var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
"
Ligand-gated Ion Channels<ul><li>Composed of 3-5 subunits</li><li>Very fast response (ms)</li><li>Usually located on cell membranes with extracellular active site</li><li>Commonly on excitable/conductive tissue - <i>nerves, heart, neuromuscular junctions</i></li><li>E.g. Nicotonic ACh-R, GABA-R and Glutamate-R</li></ul>
<ul><li>Composed of 3-5 subunits</li><li>Very fast response (ms)</li><li>Usually located on cell membranes with extracellular active site</li><li>Commonly on excitable/conductive tissue - <i>nerves, heart, neuromuscular junctions</i></li><li>E.g. Nicotonic ACh-R, GABA-R and Glutamate-R</li></ul>Ligand-gated Ion Channels
Nicotinic ACh-R&nbsp;<ul><li>Composed of 5 subunits - 2 alpha, 1 beta, 1 gamma and 1 delta subunits</li><li>Subunits each have 4 TMDs or alpha-helices for 20 total TMDs</li><li>2 ACh binding sites between alpha subunits and their neighbours (gamma, delta)</li><li>Both binding sites must be activated for channel opening</li></ul>
<ul><li>Composed of 5 subunits - 2 alpha, 1 beta, 1 gamma and 1 delta subunits</li><li>Subunits each have 4 TMDs or alpha-helices for 20 total TMDs</li><li>2 ACh binding sites between alpha subunits and their neighbours (gamma, delta)</li><li>Both binding sites must be activated for channel opening</li></ul>Nicotinic ACh-R&nbsp;
GPCR<div><i>70% drugs target and is in 2% DNA - main research focus.</i></div><ul><li>7 TMDs or alpha-helices</li><li>Extracellular N-terminus and intracellular C-terminus</li><li>3rd cytoplasmic loop couples to G-protein</li><li>Fast response (s)</li><li>E.g. Dopaminergic, adrenergic, 5-HT, opiate, purine, peptide, chemo-receptors</li></ul>
<div><i>70% drugs target and is in 2% DNA - main research focus.</i></div><ul><li>7 TMDs or alpha-helices</li><li>Extracellular N-terminus and intracellular C-terminus</li><li>3rd cytoplasmic loop couples to G-protein</li><li>Fast response (s)</li><li>E.g. Dopaminergic, adrenergic, 5-HT, opiate, purine, peptide, chemo-receptors</li></ul>GPCR
G-Proteins<ul><li>Heterotrimeric complexes comprising of GDP-alpha/beta/gamma subunits</li><li>Promiscuous - G-proteins can couple with various GPCRs</li><li>Active state - separated alpha-subunit that is bound to GTP</li><li>Inactive state - combined alpha/beta/gamma complex with GDP bound to alpha</li></ul>
<ul><li>Heterotrimeric complexes comprising of GDP-alpha/beta/gamma subunits</li><li>Promiscuous - G-proteins can couple with various GPCRs</li><li>Active state - separated alpha-subunit that is bound to GTP</li><li>Inactive state - combined alpha/beta/gamma complex with GDP bound to alpha</li></ul>G-Proteins
Kinase-linked Receptors<ul><li>Single TMD on cell membrane</li><li>Activated by having agonists binding to 2 receptors</li><li>Activated by various protein mediators - cytokines, growth factors</li><li>For slow processes - cell differentiation, cell growth</li></ul>
<ul><li>Single TMD on cell membrane</li><li>Activated by having agonists binding to 2 receptors</li><li>Activated by various protein mediators - cytokines, growth factors</li><li>For slow processes - cell differentiation, cell growth</li></ul>Kinase-linked Receptors
"
<div id=""io-header"">Kinase-linked Receptor Transduction</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Kinase-linked Receptor Transduction</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Kinase-linked Receptor Transduction</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Kinase-linked Receptor Transduction</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Kinase-linked Receptor Transduction</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Kinase-linked Receptor Transduction</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Kinase-linked Receptor Transduction</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Kinase-linked Receptor Transduction</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Kinase-linked Receptor Transduction</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""bdc09ef90099411c8b21a79d5cb3da42-oa-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Kinase-linked Receptor Transduction</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Kinase-linked Receptor Transduction</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""bdc09ef90099411c8b21a79d5cb3da42-oa-6-Q.svg"" /></div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Kinase-linked Receptor Transduction</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""bdc09ef90099411c8b21a79d5cb3da42-oa-6-A.svg"" /></div>
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"
Nuclear Receptors<ul><li>Located mainly in cell cytosol or sometimes in the nucleus depending on class</li><li>Commonly hormone/fat-soluble vitamin receptors</li></ul>
<ul><li>Located mainly in cell cytosol or sometimes in the nucleus depending on class</li><li>Commonly hormone/fat-soluble vitamin receptors</li></ul>Nuclear Receptors
Estrogen Receptor Transduction"1. Estrogen passively diffuses into cell and binds to Estrogen-R (ER)<br>2. ER changes in conformation and dimerises with another estrogen-bound ER<br>3. Dimer enters nucleus and binds to Estrogen Responsive Element (ERE) on DNA<br>4. Dimer changes in conformation to allow coactivator binding<br>5. Coactivator binding promotes gene transcription<br><br><img src=""paste-57607a4bdc803d7d5a7849daecc1cb62457a46dc.jpg"">"
Types of Ion channels<ul><li>Ligand-gated receptors - activated by drug/agonist-binding</li><li>Voltage-gated receptors - respond to transmembrane potential (electrical signals)</li></ul>
"
<div id=""io-header"">Ion Channel Modulation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c0cc277b48bc495dac1231da788581f9-oa-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Ion Channel Modulation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Ion Channel Modulation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c0cc277b48bc495dac1231da788581f9-oa-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Ion Channel Modulation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c0cc277b48bc495dac1231da788581f9-oa-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-b659b38d607799271ec8561948298f10a848673d.jpg"" /></div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Ion Channel Modulation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c0cc277b48bc495dac1231da788581f9-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
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original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Ion Channel Modulation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c0cc277b48bc495dac1231da788581f9-oa-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-b659b38d607799271ec8561948298f10a848673d.jpg"" /></div>
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original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Ion Channel Modulation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c0cc277b48bc495dac1231da788581f9-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-b659b38d607799271ec8561948298f10a848673d.jpg"" /></div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Ion Channel Modulation</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c0cc277b48bc495dac1231da788581f9-oa-4-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-b659b38d607799271ec8561948298f10a848673d.jpg"" /></div>
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"
EnzymesProteins catalysing chemical changes in ligand/drug molecules<br><ul><li>Conducts anabolism/catabolism by forming enzyme-substrate complexes</li><li>Drugs usually inhibit <i>in vivo</i> enzyme action</li></ul>E.g. Cytochrome P450s metabolising drugs and proteases degrading proteins<br>
Proteins catalysing chemical changes in ligand/drug molecules<br><ul><li>Conducts anabolism/catabolism by forming enzyme-substrate complexes</li><li>Drugs usually inhibit <i>in vivo</i> enzyme action</li></ul>E.g. Cytochrome P450s metabolising drugs and proteases degrading proteins<br>Enzymes
"
<div id=""io-header"">Enzyme Substrates</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""653c0147b8094265a61e1e94fdf68b26-oa-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-94ccc33e99896de06ae606b711af94b029782491.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
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<script>
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}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Enzyme Substrates</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""653c0147b8094265a61e1e94fdf68b26-oa-1-A.svg"" /></div>
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original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Enzyme Substrates</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""653c0147b8094265a61e1e94fdf68b26-oa-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Enzyme Substrates</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""653c0147b8094265a61e1e94fdf68b26-oa-2-A.svg"" /></div>
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<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Enzyme Substrates</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""653c0147b8094265a61e1e94fdf68b26-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-94ccc33e99896de06ae606b711af94b029782491.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Enzyme Substrates</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""653c0147b8094265a61e1e94fdf68b26-oa-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-94ccc33e99896de06ae606b711af94b029782491.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
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amask.style.display = 'block'
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// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Enzyme Substrates</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""653c0147b8094265a61e1e94fdf68b26-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-94ccc33e99896de06ae606b711af94b029782491.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
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original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Enzyme Substrates</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""653c0147b8094265a61e1e94fdf68b26-oa-4-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-94ccc33e99896de06ae606b711af94b029782491.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
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amask.style.display = 'block'
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// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Enzyme Substrates</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""653c0147b8094265a61e1e94fdf68b26-oa-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-94ccc33e99896de06ae606b711af94b029782491.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
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original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Enzyme Substrates</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""653c0147b8094265a61e1e94fdf68b26-oa-5-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-94ccc33e99896de06ae606b711af94b029782491.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Enzyme Substrates</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""653c0147b8094265a61e1e94fdf68b26-oa-6-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-94ccc33e99896de06ae606b711af94b029782491.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
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original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Enzyme Substrates</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""653c0147b8094265a61e1e94fdf68b26-oa-6-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-94ccc33e99896de06ae606b711af94b029782491.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
"
TransportersShuttles membrane-impermeable substances actively using ATP
Shuttles membrane-impermeable substances actively using ATPTransporters
"
<div id=""io-header"">Transporter Substrate Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c6451c443c254d73b6121ae9ab4a3ec3-oa-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-e8abe65414982647bf35d1d724d76f942b3e6296.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Transporter Substrate Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c6451c443c254d73b6121ae9ab4a3ec3-oa-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-e8abe65414982647bf35d1d724d76f942b3e6296.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Transporter Substrate Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c6451c443c254d73b6121ae9ab4a3ec3-oa-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-e8abe65414982647bf35d1d724d76f942b3e6296.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Transporter Substrate Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c6451c443c254d73b6121ae9ab4a3ec3-oa-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-e8abe65414982647bf35d1d724d76f942b3e6296.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Transporter Substrate Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c6451c443c254d73b6121ae9ab4a3ec3-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-e8abe65414982647bf35d1d724d76f942b3e6296.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Transporter Substrate Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c6451c443c254d73b6121ae9ab4a3ec3-oa-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-e8abe65414982647bf35d1d724d76f942b3e6296.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Transporter Substrate Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c6451c443c254d73b6121ae9ab4a3ec3-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-e8abe65414982647bf35d1d724d76f942b3e6296.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Transporter Substrate Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c6451c443c254d73b6121ae9ab4a3ec3-oa-4-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-e8abe65414982647bf35d1d724d76f942b3e6296.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Transporter Substrate Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c6451c443c254d73b6121ae9ab4a3ec3-oa-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-e8abe65414982647bf35d1d724d76f942b3e6296.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Transporter Substrate Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""c6451c443c254d73b6121ae9ab4a3ec3-oa-5-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-e8abe65414982647bf35d1d724d76f942b3e6296.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
Data Science Process<ol><li>Problem formulation</li><li>Data collection</li><li>Data preparation</li><li>Data analytics</li><li>Storytelling</li></ol>
Problem formulation (Data Science Process)Clearly define the problem<br><ul><li>Who benefits and in what way?</li><li>How will success be measured?</li><li>Should the problem be solved in a data-driven way?</li></ul>
Clearly define the problem<br><ul><li>Who benefits and in what way?</li><li>How will success be measured?</li><li>Should the problem be solved in a data-driven way?</li></ul>Problem formulation (Data Science Process)
Data Collection (Data Science Process)Outline what data is required<br><ul><li>Do you own it? Is it readily accessible? Do you have access?</li><li>Where will the data be stored and for how long?</li><li>Can copies of the data be made?</li></ul>
Outline what data is required<br><ul><li>Do you own it? Is it readily accessible? Do you have access?</li><li>Where will the data be stored and for how long?</li><li>Can copies of the data be made?</li></ul>Data Collection (Data Science Process)
Data Preparation (Data Science Process)<ul><li>Is the collected data fit for its intended purpose? How will this fitness be assessed?</li><li>How will you prepare the data for analytics? How to assure it is not biased or has quality issues?</li></ul>
<ul><li>Is the collected data fit for its intended purpose? How will this fitness be assessed?</li><li>How will you prepare the data for analytics? How to assure it is not biased or has quality issues?</li></ul>Data Preparation (Data Science Process)
Data Analysis (Data Science Process)Outline how the data be analysed<br><ul><li>What methods? models? algorithms?</li><li>Can you explain why your approach is the right approach for the problem?</li></ul>
Outline how the data be analysed<br><ul><li>What methods? models? algorithms?</li><li>Can you explain why your approach is the right approach for the problem?</li></ul>Data Analysis (Data Science Process)
Storytelling (Data Science Process)<ul><li>How will you present the data analytics?</li><li>Is the presentation susceptible to misinterpretation?</li><li>What is the key takeaway message for stakeholders?</li></ul>
<ul><li>How will you present the data analytics?</li><li>Is the presentation susceptible to misinterpretation?</li><li>What is the key takeaway message for stakeholders?</li></ul>Storytelling (Data Science Process)
List the Big Data Characteristics<ul><li>Volume</li><li>Velocity</li><li>Variety</li><li>Veracity</li><li>Value</li></ul>
"
<div id=""io-header"">Big Data Characteristics Descriptions</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""ce0afd48d3ea41a796a164839d68b383-ao-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-fb97f0c6c5e93ba6210ee670a465a06583ed35d0.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Big Data Characteristics Descriptions</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""ce0afd48d3ea41a796a164839d68b383-ao-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-fb97f0c6c5e93ba6210ee670a465a06583ed35d0.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Big Data Characteristics Descriptions</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""ce0afd48d3ea41a796a164839d68b383-ao-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-fb97f0c6c5e93ba6210ee670a465a06583ed35d0.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Big Data Characteristics Descriptions</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""ce0afd48d3ea41a796a164839d68b383-ao-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-fb97f0c6c5e93ba6210ee670a465a06583ed35d0.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Big Data Characteristics Descriptions</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Big Data Characteristics Descriptions</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Big Data Characteristics Descriptions</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Big Data Characteristics Descriptions</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Big Data Characteristics Descriptions</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Big Data Characteristics Descriptions</div>
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List the advantages of DBMS<ul><li>Separates data from application</li><li>Pushes-down common functions (GP systems)</li><li>Separates physical and logical structures</li><li>Relational model and theory</li><li>Non-procedural query language</li><li>Concurrency control and recovery</li><li>High-performance query processing</li></ul>
List the flaws of DBMS in this Big Data Era<ul><li>Closed-world assumption</li><li>Prolonged independence of software from hardware platforms</li><li>Ill-supported extensions - <i>victim of its own success</i></li><li>Limited data-types</li></ul>
Databases (DB)<ul><li>Large, integrated data collections that models real-world enterprises as entities and relationships<br></li><li><i>Logically coherent Universe of Discourse of variable size and complexity</i></li></ul>
<ul><li>Large, integrated data collections that models real-world enterprises as entities and relationships<br></li><li><i>Logically coherent Universe of Discourse of variable size and complexity</i></li></ul>Databases (DB)
Database Management Systems (DBMS)<ul><li>Software package designed to store and manage DBs</li><li>Facilitates defining, constructing, manipulating and sharing DBs among users and applications</li></ul>
<ul><li>Software package designed to store and manage DBs</li><li>Facilitates defining, constructing, manipulating and sharing DBs among users and applications</li></ul>Database Management Systems (DBMS)
Relational Model<ul><li>Maps data as relations with schemas (with relation name, field names, field types)</li><li><i>Represents DB as a collection of relations - mapping conceptual models as relational DB</i></li></ul>
<ul><li>Maps data as relations with schemas (with relation name, field names, field types)</li><li><i>Represents DB as a collection of relations - mapping conceptual models as relational DB</i></li></ul>Relational Model
3-Level Architecture<ol><li>External Level - <i>provides access of particular DB parts to users</i></li><li>Conceptual Level - <i>describes whole DB structure for a user community</i></li><li>Internal Level - <i>describes DB physical storage structure</i></li></ol>
TransactionsLogical unit of work in DBMS; queries and updates that achieve a task by accessing DB system data
Logical unit of work in DBMS; queries and updates that achieve a task by accessing DB system dataTransactions
Data Definition Language (DDL)Define schemas and integrity constraints
Define schemas and integrity constraintsData Definition Language (DDL)
Data Manipulation Language (DML)Queries, inserts, deletes and updates data
Queries, inserts, deletes and updates dataData Manipulation Language (DML)
DBMS Reliability Characteristics<ul><li>Enforcing integrity constraints - data-types, value ranges, etc.</li><li>Backup and recovery</li><li>Restricting unauthorised access</li></ul>
<ul><li>Enforcing integrity constraints - data-types, value ranges, etc.</li><li>Backup and recovery</li><li>Restricting unauthorised access</li></ul>DBMS Reliability Characteristics
Problems with File System Approach<ul><li>Redundancy - <i>duplicate information stored</i></li><li>Wasting efforts on updating - <i>one change in multiple places</i></li><li>Lack of data coordination - <i>potential inconsistencies</i></li></ul>
<ul><li>Redundancy - <i>duplicate information stored</i></li><li>Wasting efforts on updating - <i>one change in multiple places</i></li><li>Lack of data coordination - <i>potential inconsistencies</i></li></ul>Problems with File System Approach
DB EfficienciesSpace efficiency - <i>minimises data redundancy</i><br>Time efficiency (response time)<br><ul><li><i>Coordinated updating</i></li><li><i>Enhanced querying (optimisations and access methods)</i></li><li><i>Concurrent user transactions</i></li></ul>
Space efficiency - <i>minimises data redundancy</i><br>Time efficiency (response time)<br><ul><li><i>Coordinated updating</i></li><li><i>Enhanced querying (optimisations and access methods)</i></li><li><i>Concurrent user transactions</i></li></ul>DB Efficiencies
DB Advantages<ul><li>Data Abstraction</li><li>Reliability</li><li>Efficiency and Performance</li></ul>
<ul><li>Data Abstraction</li><li>Reliability</li><li>Efficiency and Performance</li></ul>DB Advantages
DB Flaws and Mis-usage<ul><li>Expensive to purchase DBMS and hardware</li><li>Additional expertise required for some software</li><li>Over-kill for simple applications or DBs or if concurrency is not required</li></ul>
<ul><li>Expensive to purchase DBMS and hardware</li><li>Additional expertise required for some software</li><li>Over-kill for simple applications or DBs or if concurrency is not required</li></ul>DB Flaws and Mis-usage
"
<div id=""io-header"">Annotated Relation Schema</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Annotated Relation Schema</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Annotated Relation Schema</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Annotated Relation Schema</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Annotated Relation Schema</div>
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"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Parasympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Parasympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Parasympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Parasympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Parasympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Parasympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Parasympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Parasympathetic Dominance Effects (one word)</div>
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"Only <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""&amp;lt&#x3B;30&#x25;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> varicosities are needed for normal smooth muscle organ function. This is because <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""the&#x20;reserve&#x20;pool&#x20;is&#x20;activated&#x20;in&#x20;adverse&#x20;conditions&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Only <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">&lt;30%</span> varicosities are needed for normal smooth muscle organ function. This is because <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">the reserve pool is activated in adverse conditions.</span><br>
"
List the external factors affecting neurotransmission<ul><li>Prolonged inhibition by drugs - <i>opiates (morphine, heroin), anti-hypertensives (clonidine)</i></li><li>Prolonged stress overstimulation</li></ul>
Define EJC amplitude and explain how it is influenced<ul><li>Amount of neurotransmitters activating postsynaptic receptors determines EJC amplitude</li><li>Stress causes higher EJC (more neurotransmitters)</li><li>Opiate/clonidine neurotransmission inhibition causes same changes</li></ul>
List the significant stressors that increase EJC amplitude<ul><li>Social deprivation</li><li>Concurrent stressors (predator, social deprivation)</li></ul>
"Sympathetic nervous system is very <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""plastic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> - its continuous activation causes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""many&#x20;disorder"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>s.""Sympathetic nervous system is very <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">plastic</span> - its continuous activation causes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">many disorder</span>s.<br>
"
Potential disorders from Continuous Sympathetic Activation<ul><li>High BP -&gt; Cardiovascular disease</li><li>Immunosuppression -&gt; Increased infections and cancer</li><li>Gastrointestinal regularities</li><li>Infertility</li></ul>
<ul><li>High BP -&gt; Cardiovascular disease</li><li>Immunosuppression -&gt; Increased infections and cancer</li><li>Gastrointestinal regularities</li><li>Infertility</li></ul>Potential disorders from Continuous Sympathetic Activation
Why have people died soon after their retirement?Due to regular, prolonged stress gradually, permenantly affecting the plastic SNS to develop disorders.
Describe the general effect of prolonged neurotransmission inhibitionUpregulated neurotransmitter release mechanisms to overcome hindrance caused by drugs.
Upregulated neurotransmitter release mechanisms to overcome hindrance caused by drugs.Describe the general effect of prolonged neurotransmission inhibition
State the specific effects of chemical neurotransmission inhibitors on SNS<ul><li>Inhibition by clonidine causes a2-R stimulation</li><li>Inhibition by morphine causes opioid-R stimulation</li><li>Relatively silent varicosities turn on</li></ul>
<ul><li>Inhibition by clonidine causes a2-R stimulation</li><li>Inhibition by morphine causes opioid-R stimulation</li><li>Relatively silent varicosities turn on</li></ul>State the specific effects of chemical neurotransmission inhibitors on SNS
"Small acute stresses leads to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""catecholamine&#x20;&#x28;NA&#x29;&#x20;release"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Small acute stresses leads to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">catecholamine (NA) release</span><br>
"
"<ul><li>ATP from varicosities reaches <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""the&#x20;P2X&#x2D;R"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fast&#x20;contraction"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></li><li>NA from varicosities reaches <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""alpha1&#x2D;R"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""slow&#x20;contractions"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></li></ul>""<ul><li>ATP from varicosities reaches <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">the P2X-R</span> for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fast contraction</span></li><li>NA from varicosities reaches <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">alpha1-R</span> for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">slow contractions</span></li></ul><br>
"
Sympathetic Activation on Sperm Release"1. Testicular injection of sperm in vans deferens<br>2. ATP and NA released from varicosities into smooth muscles<br>3. P2X-R causes fast contraction at prostate gland end to build up release pressure<br>4. alpha1-R causes slow contraction to build up pressure for propelling sperm<br>5. P2X-R relaxes to allow sperm to propel beyond the prostate gland<br>6. Prostate gland injects 90% of sperm-propelling fluid<br><br><img src=""paste-c3f3439c852242d62dc948aa88427e2378acab06.jpg"">"
AgonistsSubstances that promote (normal) receptor-mediated biological responses, e.g. hormones, neurotransmitters, drugs, etc.
Substances that promote (normal) receptor-mediated biological responses, e.g. hormones, neurotransmitters, drugs, etc.Agonists
LigandsEndogenous agonists
Endogenous agonistsLigands
Inverse AgonistsSubstances that promote (opposite) receptor-mediated biological responses
Substances that promote (opposite) receptor-mediated biological responsesInverse Agonists
"Agonist-receptor interactions are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""concentration&#x20;dependent"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""reversible"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.""Agonist-receptor interactions are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">concentration dependent</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">reversible</span>.<br>
"
Agonist-receptor Binding Transduction Process1. Agonist physically interacts with receptor active site - according to their structural specificity<br>2. Agonist remains bound for a short time - high local concentration keeps agonists bound to receptors<br>3. Receptor conformational change elicits physiological response (2nd messenger activation system)
AffinityHow readily an agonist binds and remains bound to a receptor
How readily an agonist binds and remains bound to a receptorAffinity
EfficacyTendency of an agonist when bound to a receptor, to activate the receptor and elicit the maximal physiological response
Tendency of an agonist when bound to a receptor, to activate the receptor and elicit the maximal physiological responseEfficacy
"
<div id=""io-header"">Drug Affinity Equations</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Drug Affinity Equations</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Drug Affinity Equations</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Drug Affinity Equations</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Drug Affinity Equations</div>
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Reciprocal Affinity Constant / Equilibrium Dissociation Constant<ul><li>K_D = k_-1 / k₊₁<br></li><li>K_D ~ drug concentration where 50% receptors are bound to the drug<br></li><li>Higher&nbsp;K_D means less affinity for the receptor, and vise versa</li></ul>
<ul><li>K_D = k_-1 / k₊₁<br></li><li>K_D ~ drug concentration where 50% receptors are bound to the drug<br></li><li>Higher&nbsp;K_D means less affinity for the receptor, and vise versa</li></ul>Reciprocal Affinity Constant / Equilibrium Dissociation Constant
Lists examples of physiological responses to drugs<ul><li>Tissue contraction/relaxation (e.g. organ bath experiment)</li><li>Blood flow (e.g. vasodilation)</li><li>Enzyme activation</li></ul>
<ul><li>Tissue contraction/relaxation (e.g. organ bath experiment)</li><li>Blood flow (e.g. vasodilation)</li><li>Enzyme activation</li></ul>Lists examples of physiological responses to drugs
State and explain a Structural Factor of Opiate-binding affinities<ul><li>Readily-bonding functionals -&gt; Higher binding affinity + Lower&nbsp;[latex]K_D[/latex]</li></ul>
How is efficacy measured?Changing the drug concentration and recording how it changes the physiological effect
E_max<ul><li>100% Effect detected when all receptors are bound to the drug/agonist</li><li>All other responses at lower concentrations are recorded as a % of this</li></ul>
<ul><li>100% Effect detected when all receptors are bound to the drug/agonist</li><li>All other responses at lower concentrations are recorded as a % of this</li></ul>E_max
What curve is used to graph&nbsp;<i>Emax</i> against concentration and why?Log-linear scale or sigmoid curves - to easily identify potency
EC₅₀<ul><li>Potency - drug-specific concentration required to produce 50%&nbsp;E_max</li><li>Different agonist drugs have different potencies for different biological systems</li></ul>
<ul><li>Potency - drug-specific concentration required to produce 50%&nbsp;E_max</li><li>Different agonist drugs have different potencies for different biological systems</li></ul>EC₅₀
"Describe the relative efficacy and potencies<br><img src=""paste-54a97945983300be968a373fcd2f036bb17464dc.jpg"">"<ul><li>Same efficacy (full agonists) but different potencies</li><li>Lower potency drugs require higher concentrations to produce the same effects</li></ul>
"Describe the relative potencies and efficacies<br><img src=""paste-6294f4fd6acefea789bee80b676d3741c5d467cb.jpg"">"<ul><li>Lower efficacy (partial agonist) but same potency</li></ul>
Graphing inverse agonist efficacy/potency requires...Observing a baseline tissue response
Full agonistsCan produce maximal responses
Can produce maximal responsesFull agonists
Partial agonistsCannot produce maximal responses
Cannot produce maximal responsesPartial agonists
Spare receptorsLeft-over receptors whose activation are not needed to produce E_max&nbsp;but exist to increase agonist-receptor binding, e.g. E_max&nbsp;response needs 1% of cardiac receptors to activate, the rest are 'spare'
Left-over receptors whose activation are not needed to produce E_max&nbsp;but exist to increase agonist-receptor binding, e.g. E_max&nbsp;response needs 1% of cardiac receptors to activate, the rest are 'spare'Spare receptors
In most cases why does&nbsp;K_D =\= EC₅₀Spare receptors
Exceptions in terms of not having many spare receptors&nbsp;Smooth muscle relaxation and hormone secretion<br><ul><li>Agonist-bound alpha-receptors ~&nbsp; Biological response</li><li>K_D ~ EC₅₀</li></ul>
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<div id=""io-header"">Inferring Spare Receptor amount from comparing EC_50 and K_D</div>
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"Some receptors are constitutively activated <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""without&#x20;having&#x20;been&#x20;bound&#x20;to&#x20;a&#x20;ligand&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br><ul><li>Agonists have higher affinities for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""active&#x2D;state&#x20;receptors"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></li><li>Inverse agonists have higher affinities for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""inactive&#x2D;state&#x20;receptors"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></li></ul>""Some receptors are constitutively activated <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">without having been bound to a ligand.</span><br><ul><li>Agonists have higher affinities for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">active-state receptors</span></li><li>Inverse agonists have higher affinities for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">inactive-state receptors</span></li></ul><br>
"
Provide an example of a drug that has its effect decreased with continuous supply.Morphine
DesensitisationReduced receptor responsiveness to a drug <b>over a few minutes</b>
Reduced receptor responsiveness to a drug <b>over a few minutes</b>Desensitisation
ToleranceReduced receptor responsiveness to a drug over <b>more prolonged use</b>
Reduced receptor responsiveness to a drug over <b>more prolonged use</b>Tolerance
ResistanceLoss of effectiveness of chemotherapeutic drugs (anti-cancer/microbial)
Loss of effectiveness of chemotherapeutic drugs (anti-cancer/microbial)Resistance
Mechanisms enacting Receptor Desensitisation, Tolerance or Resistance<ul><li>Receptor conformation change</li><li>Receptor translocation</li><li>Depleted mediators</li><li>Accelerated drug metabolism</li><li>Physiological adaptation against drug effects</li></ul>
<ul><li>Receptor conformation change</li><li>Receptor translocation</li><li>Depleted mediators</li><li>Accelerated drug metabolism</li><li>Physiological adaptation against drug effects</li></ul>Mechanisms enacting Receptor Desensitisation, Tolerance or Resistance
State the purpose of Cardiovascular SystemsUnlike unicellular organisms or smaller multicellular organisms, large multicellular organisms would have insufficiently long diffusion times otherwise.<br><ul><li><i>Protozoa: 1.2s O2, 3.6s C6H12O6</i></li><li><i>C.elegans: 30s O2, 90s C6H12O6</i></li><li><i>Humans (within the pinky finger): 560h O2, 1680h C6H12O6</i></li></ul>
Unlike unicellular organisms or smaller multicellular organisms, large multicellular organisms would have insufficiently long diffusion times otherwise.<br><ul><li><i>Protozoa: 1.2s O2, 3.6s C6H12O6</i></li><li><i>C.elegans: 30s O2, 90s C6H12O6</i></li><li><i>Humans (within the pinky finger): 560h O2, 1680h C6H12O6</i></li></ul>State the purpose of Cardiovascular Systems
Cardiovascular systemsOrgans and tissues involved in circulating blood and lymph through the body
Organs and tissues involved in circulating blood and lymph through the bodyCardiovascular systems
List the primary and secondary purposes of the CVS<u>Primary purposes</u><br><ul><li>Delivering dissolved gases and substrates - for metabolism, growth and repair</li><li>Removing cell metabolism by-products - including carbon-dioxide</li></ul><u>Secondary purposes</u><br><ul><li>Fast cell communication - via hormones</li><li>Heat transfer - from internal heat-generating organs to outer surfaces</li><li>Inflammatory defence against foreign organisms</li></ul>
List the parts of the CVS and how they influence the CVSCVS parts have their own control systems that wholly affect the CVS.<br><ul><li>Heart</li><li>Blood and lymph</li><li>Vessels</li></ul>
Explain how exercising causes the CVS parts to regulate the CVS<ul><li><b>Heart</b> - increases HR to increase blood flow</li><li><b>Blood and lymph</b> - releases oxygen by detecting metabolic by-products in muscles</li><li><b>Vessels</b> - dilates to increase blood flow</li></ul>
Define the systemic and pulmonary circuits<ul><li><b>Systemic circuit</b> - high pressure circuit that perfuses most tissues and organs</li><li><b>Pulmonary circuit</b> - low pressure circuit that delivers blood to and from the lungs</li></ul>
Describe how hearts are functional syncytiumsFunctional syncytium as in simulatenously contraction for coordinated blood flow.<br><ul><li>Right heart side CO linkes to and matches left heart side CO - otherwise blood pools in one of the circuits</li></ul>
Identify the place where most blood is held and storedSystemic circuits hold the vast majoirty of blood - systemic veins are freely utilisable blood reservoirs.<br><i>- Especially for haemorrhages or exercise</i>
Required human blood flow5L/min
Pressure formulas"<img src=""paste-21e5b21f5e29165f50db3843e75c4f337be10b36.jpg"">"
"<img src=""paste-21e5b21f5e29165f50db3843e75c4f337be10b36.jpg"">"Pressure formulas
Define ResistanceThe measure of blood flow opposition in a vessel, by friction between the moving fluid and the vascular walls.
The measure of blood flow opposition in a vessel, by friction between the moving fluid and the vascular walls.Define Resistance
Factors that influence Resistance<ul><li>Flow type and vessel geometry - <i>mainly laminar flow</i></li><li>Blood viscosity - <i>depends on erythrocyte count</i></li><li>Vessel length - <i>more obese with age -&gt; blood flow changes with age</i></li><li>Vessel diameter</li></ul>
<ul><li>Flow type and vessel geometry - <i>mainly laminar flow</i></li><li>Blood viscosity - <i>depends on erythrocyte count</i></li><li>Vessel length - <i>more obese with age -&gt; blood flow changes with age</i></li><li>Vessel diameter</li></ul>Factors that influence Resistance
Cardiac Output formula"<img alt=""11 November 2009 Cardiovascular Physiology Lab this Week: Human EKGs, Heart Sounds, and Blood Pressure… Wear running shoes, comfortable clothes, bring. - ppt download"" src=""slide_2.jpg"">"
"<img alt=""11 November 2009 Cardiovascular Physiology Lab this Week: Human EKGs, Heart Sounds, and Blood Pressure… Wear running shoes, comfortable clothes, bring. - ppt download"" src=""slide_2.jpg"">"Cardiac Output formula
Blood Flow Formulas"<img src=""paste-d32c8855c860a564f4cd876e829ea109c0cba97f.jpg""><br><ul><li>Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) - average pressure through one cardiac cycle</li><li>Central Venous Pressure (CVP)</li></ul>"
"<img src=""paste-d32c8855c860a564f4cd876e829ea109c0cba97f.jpg""><br><ul><li>Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) - average pressure through one cardiac cycle</li><li>Central Venous Pressure (CVP)</li></ul>"Blood Flow Formulas
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<div id=""io-header"">Systemic Circulation Blood Distribution Measurements</div>
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InstanceDB data at a particular time; DB state -&nbsp;DB state changes frequently whilst the schema is fairly static
DB data at a particular time; DB state -&nbsp;DB state changes frequently whilst the schema is fairly staticInstance
Features of Integrity Constraints (ICs)<ul><li>Legal instances satisfy all specified ICs - they are must-true conditions</li><li>ICs are specified when schema is defined - DBMS Data Abstraction (DDL)</li><li>ICs are enforced when tables are modified - DBMS Reliability</li></ul>
List the types of Integrity Constraints (ICs)<ul><li>Domain constraints</li><li>Primary key (key and entity key) constraints</li><li>Referential integrity (foreign key) constraints</li><li>Complex (semantic) integrity constraints</li></ul>
Domain constraintsOccurs when the value does not fit in the attribute domain.
Occurs when the value does not fit in the attribute domain.Domain constraints
Primary key constraints<ul><li>Keys cannot be common (<i>key</i>) or NULL (<i>entity key</i>)</li><li><i>Occurs when a potential tuple's primary key is the same as a pre-existing tuple primary key</i><br></li><li><i>Occurs when a tuple is inserted or modified to have NULL within its primary key.<br></i></li></ul>
<ul><li>Keys cannot be common (<i>key</i>) or NULL (<i>entity key</i>)</li><li><i>Occurs when a potential tuple's primary key is the same as a pre-existing tuple primary key</i><br></li><li><i>Occurs when a tuple is inserted or modified to have NULL within its primary key.<br></i></li></ul>Primary key constraints
List the Types of Keys<b>Candidate keys</b> - attributes with different values for each tuple<br><ul><li><b>Primary keys</b> - the designated key attribute for a relation</li><li><b>Unique keys</b> - other non-primary candidate keys</li></ul>
Foreign keysAttributes referring to the primary key/s of tuples in other relations - helps achieve referential integrity.<br><br><i>An atttribute of a relation referring to a tuple of another relation by its primary key.</i><br><ul><li>Self-referencing relations can exist</li><li>Primary key and foreign key must have the same domain</li><li>Unless foreign key is NULL, there must be a corresponding primary key in the other relation</li></ul>
Attributes referring to the primary key/s of tuples in other relations - helps achieve referential integrity.<br><br><i>An atttribute of a relation referring to a tuple of another relation by its primary key.</i><br><ul><li>Self-referencing relations can exist</li><li>Primary key and foreign key must have the same domain</li><li>Unless foreign key is NULL, there must be a corresponding primary key in the other relation</li></ul>Foreign keys
Referential integrity constraints<ul><li><i>Insert</i>&nbsp;but not <i>Delete</i>&nbsp;causes violations in referring relations (with foreign keys)</li><li><i>Delete</i>&nbsp;but not <i>Insert</i>&nbsp;causes violations in referenced relations</li></ul><div><i>Occurs when a DB operation leads to invalid, incorrect or broken foreign key references.</i><br></div>
<ul><li><i>Insert</i>&nbsp;but not <i>Delete</i>&nbsp;causes violations in referring relations (with foreign keys)</li><li><i>Delete</i>&nbsp;but not <i>Insert</i>&nbsp;causes violations in referenced relations</li></ul><div><i>Occurs when a DB operation leads to invalid, incorrect or broken foreign key references.</i><br></div>Referential integrity constraints
Ways to enforce Referential IntegrityOn updating (<i>ON UPDATE)</i> or deleting (<i>ON DELETE</i>) a referenced relation tuple.<br><ul><li>Delete all tuples in other relations referring to it, i.e. <i>CASCADE</i></li><li>Disallow deletion of referenced tuples, i.e. <i>NO ACTION</i></li><li>Set foreign key values of referring relations to a default value, i.e. <i>SET DEFAULT ...</i></li><li>Set foreign key values of referring relations to <i>NULL</i>, i.e. <i>SET NULL</i></li></ul>
Complex integrity constraints<ul><li>Constraints are expressed as predicates</li><li>Through 3 DDL constructs: Checks, Assertions, Triggers</li></ul><div><u><b>Semantic integrity constraints</b></u></div>Defined during client consultations to implement organisation policies.<br><ul><li>Usually implemented in SQL through triggers and assertions</li></ul>
<ul><li>Constraints are expressed as predicates</li><li>Through 3 DDL constructs: Checks, Assertions, Triggers</li></ul><div><u><b>Semantic integrity constraints</b></u></div>Defined during client consultations to implement organisation policies.<br><ul><li>Usually implemented in SQL through triggers and assertions</li></ul>Complex integrity constraints
Explain why the default is not to Eliminate DuplicatesSQL treats tables as multisets not sets - meaning duplicates are not automatically eliminated.<br><ul><li>Eliminating duplicates is an expensive operation</li><li>User may wish to see duplicates</li><li>Duplicates are needed for aggregate functions</li></ul>
Describe the Conceptual Evaluation Strategy for Join Queries1. Compute the cross-product of from-list<br>2. Discard resulting tuples that fail qualifications<br>3. Delete attributes not in the select-list<br>4. Eliminate duplicate rows if <i>DISTINCT</i> is specified
Types of Antagonism<ul><li>Chemical antagonism</li><li>Pharmacokinetics antagonism</li><li>Physiological antagonism</li><li>Pharmacological antagonism</li></ul>
<ul><li>Chemical antagonism</li><li>Pharmacokinetics antagonism</li><li>Physiological antagonism</li><li>Pharmacological antagonism</li></ul>Types of Antagonism
Types of Pharmacological Antagonism<ul><li>Reversible competitive antagonism</li><li>Irreversible competitive antagonism</li><li>Non-competitive antagonism</li></ul>
<ul><li>Reversible competitive antagonism</li><li>Irreversible competitive antagonism</li><li>Non-competitive antagonism</li></ul>Types of Pharmacological Antagonism
Chemical antagonistsDrugs the inhibit the activity of another drug by binding to it and preventing it from binding to its receptor.
Drugs the inhibit the activity of another drug by binding to it and preventing it from binding to its receptor.Chemical antagonists
Pharmacokinetic antagonistsDrugs that reduce agonist concentration at the agonist binding site, limiting it from binding to receptors.
Drugs that reduce agonist concentration at the agonist binding site, limiting it from binding to receptors.Pharmacokinetic antagonists
Physiological antagonistsDrugs that promote an opposing effect to the agonist, by binding to a different and unrelated receptor.
Drugs that promote an opposing effect to the agonist, by binding to a different and unrelated receptor.Physiological antagonists
Pharmacological antagonistsDrugs that compete with an agonist drug for receptor-binding whilst not stimulating a physiological response.
Drugs that compete with an agonist drug for receptor-binding whilst not stimulating a physiological response.Pharmacological antagonists
Example of a chemical antagonist<ul><li><b>Protamine</b> - administered post-surgery to bind to heparin to prevent it reaching heparin-binding proteins (prevents post-surgery blood loss)</li><li><b>Heparin</b> - negatively-charged polysaccharide serving as a pre-surgery anticoagulant (reduces blood-clot risk) to bind to heparin-binding proteins</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Protamine</b> - administered post-surgery to bind to heparin to prevent it reaching heparin-binding proteins (prevents post-surgery blood loss)</li><li><b>Heparin</b> - negatively-charged polysaccharide serving as a pre-surgery anticoagulant (reduces blood-clot risk) to bind to heparin-binding proteins</li></ul>Example of a chemical antagonist
Example of a Pharmocokinetic Antagonist<ul><li><b>Phenobarbital</b> - anticonvulsants that treat seizures and upregulate Cytochrome P450 (increases their expression in the liver) to metabolise warfarin and decrease blood concentration</li><li><b>Warfarin</b> - an anticoagulant similar to heparin</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Phenobarbital</b> - anticonvulsants that treat seizures and upregulate Cytochrome P450 (increases their expression in the liver) to metabolise warfarin and decrease blood concentration</li><li><b>Warfarin</b> - an anticoagulant similar to heparin</li></ul>Example of a Pharmocokinetic Antagonist
Example of a Physiological Antagonist<ul><li><b>Insulin</b> - binds to insulin-R to promote glucose uptake into cells, decrease blood-glucose levels and oppose the hyperglycemic effect of cortisone</li><li><b>Cortisone (glucocorticoid drugs)</b> - binds to glucocorticoid-R to increase blood glucose levels</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Insulin</b> - binds to insulin-R to promote glucose uptake into cells, decrease blood-glucose levels and oppose the hyperglycemic effect of cortisone</li><li><b>Cortisone (glucocorticoid drugs)</b> - binds to glucocorticoid-R to increase blood glucose levels</li></ul>Example of a Physiological Antagonist
Competitive AntagonistsSimilar to agonist structures but prevents second messenger signalling.<br><ul><li>Competes in a concentration dependent manner for active binding site</li><li>Increasing ___ antagonist : agonist concentration ratio translates curve right-wards *as greater agonist concentrations are needed for greater responses<br></li><li>No tissue response from sole ___ antagonist concentration<br></li></ul>
Similar to agonist structures but prevents second messenger signalling.<br><ul><li>Competes in a concentration dependent manner for active binding site</li><li>Increasing ___ antagonist : agonist concentration ratio translates curve right-wards *as greater agonist concentrations are needed for greater responses<br></li><li>No tissue response from sole ___ antagonist concentration<br></li></ul>Competitive Antagonists
Reversible competitive antagonistsTemporarily stays bound depending on its affinity K_D.<br><ul><li>Same Emax like if only the agonist was present</li><li>Larger EC50 like if only the agonist was present</li></ul>
Temporarily stays bound depending on its affinity K_D.<br><ul><li>Same Emax like if only the agonist was present</li><li>Larger EC50 like if only the agonist was present</li></ul>Reversible competitive antagonists
Irreversible competitive antagonistsVery slowly dissociates or not even from receptors - often since their reactive groups forms covalent bonds with receptors.<br><ul><li>Smaller Emax or efficacy as it decreases available receptors long-term</li><li>Same EC50 as potency relative to reduced efficacy remains the same</li></ul>
Very slowly dissociates or not even from receptors - often since their reactive groups forms covalent bonds with receptors.<br><ul><li>Smaller Emax or efficacy as it decreases available receptors long-term</li><li>Same EC50 as potency relative to reduced efficacy remains the same</li></ul>Irreversible competitive antagonists
Non-competitive/allosteric antagonistsBinds to the allosteric not orthosteric site to conformationally conform the receptor and prevent agonist binding.<br><ul><li>This antagonist can bind and release freely independent of agonist - thus various effects on EC50 and Emax</li><li>Typically (increased EC50 and reduced Emax) or (increased EC50 alone)</li></ul>
Binds to the allosteric not orthosteric site to conformationally conform the receptor and prevent agonist binding.<br><ul><li>This antagonist can bind and release freely independent of agonist - thus various effects on EC50 and Emax</li><li>Typically (increased EC50 and reduced Emax) or (increased EC50 alone)</li></ul>Non-competitive/allosteric antagonists
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<div id=""io-header"">Types of Non-competitive Antagonist Modulation Curves</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Types of Non-competitive Antagonist Modulation Curves</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Types of Non-competitive Antagonist Modulation Curves</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Types of Non-competitive Antagonist Modulation Curves</div>
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"<img src=""paste-23bea5d866053d15318ffc616fa7535d2d331dea.jpg"">"Irreversible competitive antagonist curve
Irreversible competitive antagonist curve"<img src=""paste-23bea5d866053d15318ffc616fa7535d2d331dea.jpg"">"
"<img src=""paste-ee25fe726bc5cb0668c93f7cd652a3f88ba6f38d.jpg"">"Reversible competitive antagonist curve
Reversible competitive antagonist curve"<img src=""paste-ee25fe726bc5cb0668c93f7cd652a3f88ba6f38d.jpg"">"
"
<div id=""io-header"">MAP Effect from Increasing SV (increased CO)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">MAP Effect from Increasing SV (increased CO)</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">MAP Effect from Increasing TPR (atherosclerosis)</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">MAP Effect from Increasing TPR (atherosclerosis)</div>
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General Blood Vessel Structure (excluding microcirculation)-<b> Inner lumen</b> - blood flow passageway<br>-<b> Tunica intima</b> - endothelium surrounding inner lumen<br>-<b> Tunica media</b> - smooth muscular layer of varying thickness<br>-<b> Tunica externa</b> - outer fibrous layer<br>Additionally there is a variable amount of elastic connective tissue.
-<b> Inner lumen</b> - blood flow passageway<br>-<b> Tunica intima</b> - endothelium surrounding inner lumen<br>-<b> Tunica media</b> - smooth muscular layer of varying thickness<br>-<b> Tunica externa</b> - outer fibrous layer<br>Additionally there is a variable amount of elastic connective tissue.General Blood Vessel Structure (excluding microcirculation)
Features of Arteries and Arterioles<ul><li>Conveys blood from heart to capillaries</li><li>Exhibits thicker walls, more elastic tissue and muscle than veins</li><li><b>Rapid passageways</b> - <i>little blood-flow resistance with large radii</i></li><li><b>Arterial pressure fluctuates throughout the cardiac cycle</b> - <i>diastolic pressure from elastic recoil of arteries from systolic heart propulsion of blood</i></li></ul>
<ul><li>Conveys blood from heart to capillaries</li><li>Exhibits thicker walls, more elastic tissue and muscle than veins</li><li><b>Rapid passageways</b> - <i>little blood-flow resistance with large radii</i></li><li><b>Arterial pressure fluctuates throughout the cardiac cycle</b> - <i>diastolic pressure from elastic recoil of arteries from systolic heart propulsion of blood</i></li></ul>Features of Arteries and Arterioles
"
<div id=""io-header"">Arteries and Arteriole Specialisations</div>
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Describe BP changes from Arteries to Arterioles"<ul><li>Arterioles are main resistance vessels - <i>loses lots of BP</i></li><li>Arteries maintain BP (larger arteries even enhance it) - <i>artery recoil</i></li></ul><div><img src=""paste-5aa5da5752f5ba9ea1c431f1d97352b775fcce22.jpg""><br></div>"
"<ul><li>Arterioles are main resistance vessels - <i>loses lots of BP</i></li><li>Arteries maintain BP (larger arteries even enhance it) - <i>artery recoil</i></li></ul><div><img src=""paste-5aa5da5752f5ba9ea1c431f1d97352b775fcce22.jpg""><br></div>"Describe BP changes from Arteries to Arterioles
Describe the features of Arteries to Arterioles"<img src=""paste-acfe7c3133f60f8bc1c5315749804361fb646d21.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-457b4a5bf06e49d443ffa97efb3db6633623ef78.jpg""><br><ul><li>More pronounced Tunica media (smooth muscle layer) to facilitate distribution<br></li></ul>"
Vascular ToneArteriolar smooth muscle causes varying levels of partial constriction
Arteriolar smooth muscle causes varying levels of partial constrictionVascular Tone
<b>Vasomotor Extrinsic Control</b> - Mechanisms<b><u>Autonomic Nervous System</u></b><br>- SNS releases NA on a1-adrenoreceptors to induce vascoconstriction - <i>for GIT</i><br>- SNS releases adrenaline from adrenal medulla on B2-adrenoreceptors to induce vasodilation - <i>for heart and skeletal muscle perfusion</i><br>- PSNS indirectly releases ACh on vascular endothelium causing NO release for local vasodilation<br><br><b><u>Endocrine System</u></b><br>- <b>Vasoconstriction:</b> Angiotensin and Vasopressin<br>- <b>Vasodilation: </b>Atrial Natriuretic Peptide and Bradykinin
<b><u>Autonomic Nervous System</u></b><br>- SNS releases NA on a1-adrenoreceptors to induce vascoconstriction - <i>for GIT</i><br>- SNS releases adrenaline from adrenal medulla on B2-adrenoreceptors to induce vasodilation - <i>for heart and skeletal muscle perfusion</i><br>- PSNS indirectly releases ACh on vascular endothelium causing NO release for local vasodilation<br><br><b><u>Endocrine System</u></b><br>- <b>Vasoconstriction:</b> Angiotensin and Vasopressin<br>- <b>Vasodilation: </b>Atrial Natriuretic Peptide and Bradykinin<b>Vasomotor Extrinsic Control</b> - Mechanisms
<b>Vasomotor Extrinsic Control</b> - ANS Mechanisms<ul><li>SNS releases NA on alpha1-adrenoreceptors to induce vascoconstriction</li><li>SNS releases adrenaline from adrenal medulla on beta2-adrenoreceptors to induce vasodilation - for heart and skeletal muscle perfusion</li><li>PNS indirectly releases ACh on vascular endothelium causing NO release for local vasodilation</li></ul>
<ul><li>SNS releases NA on alpha1-adrenoreceptors to induce vascoconstriction</li><li>SNS releases adrenaline from adrenal medulla on beta2-adrenoreceptors to induce vasodilation - for heart and skeletal muscle perfusion</li><li>PNS indirectly releases ACh on vascular endothelium causing NO release for local vasodilation</li></ul><b>Vasomotor Extrinsic Control</b> - ANS Mechanisms
<b>Vasomotor Extrinsic Control</b> - Endocrine System<ul><li><b>Vasoconstriction:</b> Angiotensin and Vasopressin</li><li><b>Vasodilation: </b>Atrial Natriuretic Peptide and Bradykinin</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Vasoconstriction:</b> Angiotensin and Vasopressin</li><li><b>Vasodilation: </b>Atrial Natriuretic Peptide and Bradykinin</li></ul><b>Vasomotor Extrinsic Control</b> - Endocrine System
<b>Vasomotor Intrinsic Control </b>- MechanismsThe following alter local arteriole radii within a tissue, by chemically/physically influencing its smooth muscle.<br><ul><li><b>Metabolic factors:</b> metabolism products like gases</li><li><b>Local signals:</b> NO (vasodilation), Endothelin (vasoconstriction), Histamine (vasodilation), Prostaglandins (both)</li><li><b>Local temperature:</b> heat (dilation), cold (constriction)</li><li><b>Stretch:</b>&nbsp; myogenic response</li></ul>Intrinic/local factors can override extrinsic factors, and many originate from endothelial or immune cells.<br>
The following alter local arteriole radii within a tissue, by chemically/physically influencing its smooth muscle.<br><ul><li><b>Metabolic factors:</b> metabolism products like gases</li><li><b>Local signals:</b> NO (vasodilation), Endothelin (vasoconstriction), Histamine (vasodilation), Prostaglandins (both)</li><li><b>Local temperature:</b> heat (dilation), cold (constriction)</li><li><b>Stretch:</b>&nbsp; myogenic response</li></ul>Intrinic/local factors can override extrinsic factors, and many originate from endothelial or immune cells.<br><b>Vasomotor Intrinsic Control </b>- Mechanisms
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Functions of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems<div><ul><li><b>Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is an 'accelerator'</b> - mediating the flight-or-fight response in organs excluding most blood vessels &amp; sweat and salivary glands</li><li><b>Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) is a 'decelerator'</b> - for passive stimuli</li></ul></div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Anatomical Differences between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Anatomical Differences between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems</div>
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<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
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<div id=""io-header"">Anatomical Differences between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Anatomical Differences between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems</div>
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<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
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<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
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<div id=""io-header"">Anatomical Differences between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Anatomical Differences between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems</div>
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<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
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<script>
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<div id=""io-header"">Anatomical Differences between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Anatomical Differences between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems</div>
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<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
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<script>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
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<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
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<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
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<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
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</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
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<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
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</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
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aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
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</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
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amask.style.display = 'none';
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amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2638692fab5c49a7a520641d8df3b22f-oa-7-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-f23c130b438f23748c2675610bb15249a2002d5b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2638692fab5c49a7a520641d8df3b22f-oa-7-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-f23c130b438f23748c2675610bb15249a2002d5b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2638692fab5c49a7a520641d8df3b22f-oa-8-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-f23c130b438f23748c2675610bb15249a2002d5b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2638692fab5c49a7a520641d8df3b22f-oa-8-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-f23c130b438f23748c2675610bb15249a2002d5b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2638692fab5c49a7a520641d8df3b22f-oa-9-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-f23c130b438f23748c2675610bb15249a2002d5b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2638692fab5c49a7a520641d8df3b22f-oa-9-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-f23c130b438f23748c2675610bb15249a2002d5b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2638692fab5c49a7a520641d8df3b22f-oa-10-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-f23c130b438f23748c2675610bb15249a2002d5b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2638692fab5c49a7a520641d8df3b22f-oa-10-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-f23c130b438f23748c2675610bb15249a2002d5b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2638692fab5c49a7a520641d8df3b22f-oa-11-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-f23c130b438f23748c2675610bb15249a2002d5b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Organs</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2638692fab5c49a7a520641d8df3b22f-oa-11-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-f23c130b438f23748c2675610bb15249a2002d5b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Exocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""4f6df575982745098ed21dfc24f75ac9-oa-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-dd5aeeea8d1f1bfc2b3791ba4f9c8bef4fe8ea2b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Exocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""4f6df575982745098ed21dfc24f75ac9-oa-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-dd5aeeea8d1f1bfc2b3791ba4f9c8bef4fe8ea2b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Exocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""4f6df575982745098ed21dfc24f75ac9-oa-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-dd5aeeea8d1f1bfc2b3791ba4f9c8bef4fe8ea2b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Exocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""4f6df575982745098ed21dfc24f75ac9-oa-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-dd5aeeea8d1f1bfc2b3791ba4f9c8bef4fe8ea2b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Exocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""4f6df575982745098ed21dfc24f75ac9-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-dd5aeeea8d1f1bfc2b3791ba4f9c8bef4fe8ea2b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Exocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""4f6df575982745098ed21dfc24f75ac9-oa-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-dd5aeeea8d1f1bfc2b3791ba4f9c8bef4fe8ea2b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Exocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""4f6df575982745098ed21dfc24f75ac9-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-dd5aeeea8d1f1bfc2b3791ba4f9c8bef4fe8ea2b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Exocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""4f6df575982745098ed21dfc24f75ac9-oa-4-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-dd5aeeea8d1f1bfc2b3791ba4f9c8bef4fe8ea2b.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Endocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2edd46082f424b7994db248eccb2708a-oa-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-537999f36253c706dda74cc7aee0677b75efd900.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Endocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2edd46082f424b7994db248eccb2708a-oa-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-537999f36253c706dda74cc7aee0677b75efd900.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Endocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2edd46082f424b7994db248eccb2708a-oa-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-537999f36253c706dda74cc7aee0677b75efd900.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Endocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2edd46082f424b7994db248eccb2708a-oa-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-537999f36253c706dda74cc7aee0677b75efd900.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Endocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2edd46082f424b7994db248eccb2708a-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-537999f36253c706dda74cc7aee0677b75efd900.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activation on Endocrine Glands</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""2edd46082f424b7994db248eccb2708a-oa-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-537999f36253c706dda74cc7aee0677b75efd900.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
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Recall the 2 divisions of the Human nervous system&nbsp;<ul><li>Central nervous system (CNS)</li><li>Peripheral nervous system (PNS)</li></ul>
Recall the 2 Divisions of the Peripheral nervous system<ul><li>Somatic nervous system</li><li>Autonomic nervous system (ANS)</li></ul>
Describe Afferent neurons and their relation to the CNSSensory neurons that project to the brain/spinal chord.
Describe Efferent neurons and their relation to the CNSMotor neurons that carry motor commands away from brain/spinal chord.
Function of the Autonomic nervous systemFunctions autonomously without the individual's conscious effort - involves regulating intrinsic visceral processes that keep you alive.
<u>Which of the following statements best describes the regulation of the fight or flight response?</u><br><ul><li><b>A: </b>The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord, and activates the physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response by utilising the release of noradrenaline.</li></ul><ul><li><b>B:</b> The sympathetic division of the PNS originates in the spinal cord and the main function of the sympathetic nervous system is to activate the chemical changes that occur, by utilising the release of adrenaline.</li></ul><ul><li><b>C: </b>The parasympathetic division of the ANS originates in the spinal cord and the main function of the parasympathetic division is to activate the physiological changes during the fight or flight response, by utilising the release of adrenaline.</li></ul><ul><li><b>D:</b> The sympathetic division of the ANS originates in the brain stem and sacral region of the spinal cord and the main function of the sympathetic division is to activate the chemical changes that occur during the fight or flight response, by utilising the release of noradrenaline.</li></ul><ul><li><b>A:&nbsp;</b>The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord, and activates the physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response by utilising the release of noradrenaline.</li></ul>
Autonomic gangliaCluster of nerve cell bodies bridging central motor neurons to their effector organs; contains circuits for integrating / modulating neural signals before the neuroeffector junction<br><ul><li><b>Processing</b> includes amplification/inhibition (EPSP/IPSP) and convergence/divergence (<i>via pre-, post- and extra-ganglionic sites</i>)</li></ul>
Cluster of nerve cell bodies bridging central motor neurons to their effector organs; contains circuits for integrating / modulating neural signals before the neuroeffector junction<br><ul><li><b>Processing</b> includes amplification/inhibition (EPSP/IPSP) and convergence/divergence (<i>via pre-, post- and extra-ganglionic sites</i>)</li></ul>Autonomic ganglia
Ganglionic Transmission - Visceral Reflexes"1. Receptors in viscera or organs detect stimulus<br>2. Visceral sensory neurons (afferent) - at Dorsal spinal chord side<br>3. <i>Sometimes through Interneurons or directly to Autonomic motor neurons</i><br>4. Autonomic pre-ganglionic motor neurons (efferent)<br>5. Autonomic ganglia (ganglia processing)<br>6. Autonomic post-ganglionic motor neurons (efferent)<br>7. Visceral effector organs (smooth muscle cells or secretory gland cells)<br><br><img src=""paste-1293ad32c167d4ee01e1b85fd0fda53f80a60ffb.jpg"">"
BoutonsSmall swellings at the terminals of axons where synapses occur.
Small swellings at the terminals of axons where synapses occur.Boutons
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<div id=""io-header"">Boutons and Ganglia Cell Photograph</div>
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"
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VaricosityBead-strings conducting neurotransmission to smooth visceral muscle cells upon pre-ganglionic stimulation.
Bead-strings conducting neurotransmission to smooth visceral muscle cells upon pre-ganglionic stimulation.Varicosity
Types of Smooth visceral muscles"<ul><li><b>Single-unit smooth myocytes</b> - not all directly innervated but coupled by gap junctions for synchronised depolarisation and contraction as a unit, <i>e.g. gastrointestinal tracts</i></li><li><b>Multi-unit smooth myocytes</b> - all directly innervated since they are not coupled by gap junctions, <i>e.g. eyes</i></li></ul><div><img src=""paste-fba088cec26dd40f87c30556a18c7a5f99088f6b.jpg""><br></div>"
<u>Select the exception</u><br><ul><li><b>A:</b> Synaptic boutons</li><li><b>B:</b> Axon terminal</li><li><b>C:</b> Terminal boutons</li><li><b>D:</b> Dendrites</li><li><b>E:</b> Varicosities</li></ul><ul><li><b>E:</b> Dendrites - <i>does not relate to neurotransmitter release</i></li></ul>
<u>Aside from the digestive system, select other organs with single-unit smooth muscle cells</u><br><ul><li><b>A: </b>Uterus</li><li><b>B: </b>Trachea</li><li><b>C: </b>Blood vessels</li><li><b>D: </b>Bladder</li></ul><ul><li><b>A:</b> Uterus - useful to contract simultaneously to push</li><li><b>D:</b> Bladder - useful to contract simultaneously to empty</li></ul>
"
<div id=""io-header"">Cholinergic Transmission</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Cholinergic Transmission</div>
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"
<div id=""io-header"">Cholinergic Transmission</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Cholinergic Transmission</div>
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"
<div id=""io-header"">Cholinergic Transmission</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Cholinergic Transmission</div>
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"
<div id=""io-header"">Cholinergic Transmission</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Cholinergic Transmission</div>
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"
<div id=""io-header"">Cholinergic Transmission</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Cholinergic Transmission</div>
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"
<div id=""io-header"">Cholinergic Transmission</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Cholinergic Transmission</div>
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Types of Cholinergic Receptors<ul><li><b>Muscarinic GPCR</b> - M1, M2, M3</li><li><b>Nicotinic Ion channels</b> - N1/N_m, N2/N_n</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Muscarinic GPCR</b> - M1, M2, M3</li><li><b>Nicotinic Ion channels</b> - N1/N_m, N2/N_n</li></ul>Types of Cholinergic Receptors
Contrast the functions of Muscarinic and Nicotinic receptors<ul><li><b>Muscarinic GPCR</b> - stimulates or inhibits targeted cell function</li><li><b>Nicotinic Ion channels</b> - permeable to Na⁺ and K⁺ for fast cell depolarisation</li></ul>
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<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Cholinergic Receptors</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Cholinergic Receptors</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Cholinergic Receptors</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Cholinergic Receptors</div>
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"
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Cholinergic Receptors</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Cholinergic Receptors</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Cholinergic Receptors</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Cholinergic Receptors</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Cholinergic Receptors</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Cholinergic Receptors</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Adrenergic Transmission</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Adrenergic Transmission</div>
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<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d007f81848794a28b8ac5479e910b566-ao-1-A.svg"" /></div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Adrenergic Transmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d007f81848794a28b8ac5479e910b566-ao-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Adrenergic Transmission</div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Adrenergic Transmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d007f81848794a28b8ac5479e910b566-ao-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-8e2818328b5865bb8e55cba0312fb9e6c79f75da.jpg"" /></div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Adrenergic Transmission</div>
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<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d007f81848794a28b8ac5479e910b566-ao-3-A.svg"" /></div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Adrenergic Transmission</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Adrenergic Transmission</div>
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<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d007f81848794a28b8ac5479e910b566-ao-4-A.svg"" /></div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Adrenergic Transmission</div>
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<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d007f81848794a28b8ac5479e910b566-ao-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-8e2818328b5865bb8e55cba0312fb9e6c79f75da.jpg"" /></div>
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</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Adrenergic Transmission</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""d007f81848794a28b8ac5479e910b566-ao-5-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-8e2818328b5865bb8e55cba0312fb9e6c79f75da.jpg"" /></div>
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"
Types of Adrenergic Receptors<ul><li><b>alpha-receptor</b> (GPCR w/ more NA affinity) - alpha1, alpha2</li><li><b>beta-receptor </b>(GPCR w/ more A affinity) - beta1, beta2</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>alpha-receptor</b> (GPCR w/ more NA affinity) - alpha1, alpha2</li><li><b>beta-receptor </b>(GPCR w/ more A affinity) - beta1, beta2</li></ul>Types of Adrenergic Receptors
Contrast the affinities of the Adrenergic receptors<ul><li><b>alpha-receptor GPCR</b> - greater NA affinity</li><li><b>beta-receptor GPCR</b> - greater A affinity</li></ul>
"
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Adrenergic Receptors</div>
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<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""5d94c9baeab64ec8b1fd68544e923fae-ao-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Adrenergic Receptors</div>
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<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""5d94c9baeab64ec8b1fd68544e923fae-ao-1-A.svg"" /></div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Adrenergic Receptors</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Adrenergic Receptors</div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Adrenergic Receptors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Adrenergic Receptors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Adrenergic Receptors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Functions of Types of Adrenergic Receptors</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
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Recall what neurotransmitter and receptor is always released from pre-ganglionic neurons<div>Pre-ganglionic neurons always releases ACh on N2/N_n-R on post-ganglionic neurons<br></div>
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State the ACh-R that is a ligand-gated ion channelNicotinic ACh-R
Nicotinic ACh-RState the ACh-R that is a ligand-gated ion channel
<u>Select the receptors found in the Parasympathetic nervous system</u><br><ul><li><b>A:</b> Nicotinic</li><li><b>B:</b> Adrenergic</li><li><b>C:</b> Dopaminergic</li><li><b>D:</b> Muscarinic</li></ul><ul><li><b>A:</b> Nicotinic</li><li><b>B:</b> Muscarinic</li></ul>
<u>Select the incorrect statement for the following: Adrenal chromaffin cells are neuroendocrine cells since</u><br><ul><li><b>A:</b> Recognised as modified post-ganglionic sympathetic neurons</li><li><b>B:</b> Release ACh to circulation</li><li><b>C:</b> Release A to circulation</li><li><b>D:</b> Release NA to circulation</li></ul><ul><li><b>B:</b> Release ACh to circulation</li></ul>
<u>State the neurotransmitter responsible for sweat gland activation under Sympathetic activation</u><br><ul><li><b>A:</b> A</li><li><b>B:</b> NA</li><li><b>C:</b> Both A and NA</li><li><b>D:</b> ACh</li></ul><ul><li><b>D:</b> ACh</li></ul>
<u>Select the incorrect statement about ACh synthesis and packaging in the presynaptic terminal</u><br><ul><li><b>A: </b>Choline acetyltransferase catalyses choline and acetyl CoA reaction yielding ACh</li><li><b>B:</b> Neurotransmitter release is trigger by voltage-gated Ca2+ channels allows Ca2+ influx</li><li><b>C: </b>ACh binds to presynaptic receptors to stimulate more ACh release</li><li><b>D:</b> Acetylcholinesterase breaks down ACh in synaptic cleft to choline and acetate</li><li><b>E:</b> Choline is recycled by being taken up into the presynaptic terminal</li></ul><ul><li><b>C:</b> ACh binds to presynaptic receptors to stimulate more ACh release</li></ul>
Advantages of DBMS<ul><li><b>Integrity</b> - Guaranteed data quality</li><li><b>Reliability</b> - Preserves security and privacy</li><li><b>Availability</b> - Critical 24/7 availability </li><li><b>Recoverability</b> - Hot backups for crashes</li><li><b>Scalability</b> - High performance on cloud</li><li><b>Shareability</b> - Easy to share between users</li><li><b>Applicability</b> - One management for many data-driven applications</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Integrity</b> - Guaranteed data quality</li><li><b>Reliability</b> - Preserves security and privacy</li><li><b>Availability</b> - Critical 24/7 availability </li><li><b>Recoverability</b> - Hot backups for crashes</li><li><b>Scalability</b> - High performance on cloud</li><li><b>Shareability</b> - Easy to share between users</li><li><b>Applicability</b> - One management for many data-driven applications</li></ul>Advantages of DBMS
Properties of Data<i>Accurate description of facts typically stored in binary.</i><br><ul><li><b>Meta-data and Data</b> - <i><b>Levels of meaning:</b></i> object description and measurements of the object</li><li><b>Constraints</b> - <i><b>Context:</b></i> collected time, constraints, format, etc.</li><li><b>Data structures</b> - <i><b>Relationships:</b></i> dimensionality, dependency, etc.</li><li><b>Dynamics</b> - <i><b>Changes:</b></i> monotonous, patterned, etc.</li></ul>
<i>Accurate description of facts typically stored in binary.</i><br><ul><li><b>Meta-data and Data</b> - <i><b>Levels of meaning:</b></i> object description and measurements of the object</li><li><b>Constraints</b> - <i><b>Context:</b></i> collected time, constraints, format, etc.</li><li><b>Data structures</b> - <i><b>Relationships:</b></i> dimensionality, dependency, etc.</li><li><b>Dynamics</b> - <i><b>Changes:</b></i> monotonous, patterned, etc.</li></ul>Properties of Data
Qualities of Data-ism<ul><li><b>High dimensionality</b> - data-pieces are points in a high-dimensional data space</li><li><b>Sparsity</b> - data-space is always sparse in a problem-spare</li><li><b>Uniqueness</b> - all data-points are outliers in a high-dimensional space</li><li><b>Relevance connectivity</b> - data is about relationships, understood as graph networks, and expressed as matrices</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>High dimensionality</b> - data-pieces are points in a high-dimensional data space</li><li><b>Sparsity</b> - data-space is always sparse in a problem-spare</li><li><b>Uniqueness</b> - all data-points are outliers in a high-dimensional space</li><li><b>Relevance connectivity</b> - data is about relationships, understood as graph networks, and expressed as matrices</li></ul>Qualities of Data-ism
Purposes of Relational DBs<ul><li>Relational DBs (RDBs) solves the problem of data redundancy - which can cause further update anomalies</li><li>Meta-data (relation schemas) solve the redundancy problem through primary and foreign keys from the object's attributes</li><li>Functional Dependencies (FDs) help determine primary and foreign keys - and are derived from Entity-Relationship Diagrams (ERD)</li><li>Relational DB systems are actualised ERD concepts</li></ul>
<ul><li>Relational DBs (RDBs) solves the problem of data redundancy - which can cause further update anomalies</li><li>Meta-data (relation schemas) solve the redundancy problem through primary and foreign keys from the object's attributes</li><li>Functional Dependencies (FDs) help determine primary and foreign keys - and are derived from Entity-Relationship Diagrams (ERD)</li><li>Relational DB systems are actualised ERD concepts</li></ul>Purposes of Relational DBs
Ensuring Correct Data Modelling - <i>from UoD to RDBs</i><u><b>Verifying correctness</b></u><br><ul><li>Semantic non-ambiguity (no misinterpretations)</li><li>Minimum representation (no redundancy or derived-ness)</li></ul><u><b>Validating completeness</b></u><br><ul><li>All of UoD is represented in RDBs</li><li>RDB truly expresses all of UoD</li></ul>
<u><b>Verifying correctness</b></u><br><ul><li>Semantic non-ambiguity (no misinterpretations)</li><li>Minimum representation (no redundancy or derived-ness)</li></ul><u><b>Validating completeness</b></u><br><ul><li>All of UoD is represented in RDBs</li><li>RDB truly expresses all of UoD</li></ul>Ensuring Correct Data Modelling - <i>from UoD to RDBs</i>
Mistakes in Data Modelling<ul><li>Phenomena in the model but not in the application domain</li><li>Phenomena in the application domain but not in the model</li></ul>
<ul><li>Phenomena in the model but not in the application domain</li><li>Phenomena in the application domain but not in the model</li></ul>Mistakes in Data Modelling
Functional dependencies (FDs)Constraints representing DB semantics between attribute data items to normalise relational DB schema and restricting the possible tuples in <i>r(R)</i>, i.e. <i>A -&gt; B</i><br><ul><li><i>B</i> cannot exist in DB and is meaningless without <i>A</i></li><li>Every value in <i>A</i> implies one and only one value in <i>B</i></li></ul>
Constraints representing DB semantics between attribute data items to normalise relational DB schema and restricting the possible tuples in <i>r(R)</i>, i.e. <i>A -&gt; B</i><br><ul><li><i>B</i> cannot exist in DB and is meaningless without <i>A</i></li><li>Every value in <i>A</i> implies one and only one value in <i>B</i></li></ul>Functional dependencies (FDs)
Importances of FDs<ul><li>Formally represents semantic structures</li><li>Are forms of integrity constraints</li><li>Represent M : N or 1 : 1 relationships among attributes</li><li>FD determinants are DB keys</li><li>Identifying and inferring FDs are essential to DB design (normalisation)</li></ul>
<ul><li>Formally represents semantic structures</li><li>Are forms of integrity constraints</li><li>Represent M : N or 1 : 1 relationships among attributes</li><li>FD determinants are DB keys</li><li>Identifying and inferring FDs are essential to DB design (normalisation)</li></ul>Importances of FDs
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<div id=""io-header"">FD Graphing - Validating functions</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">FD Graphing - Validating functions</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Correlated Subquery Problem</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Correlated Subquery Problem</div>
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"<img src=""paste-9d6b1e03d0ec743add797a640631e11587fc7e5b.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-704113e8c048f8d3cb0c41ddfe7534874c75f56c.jpg"">""<img src=""paste-3dfb03fb26449d8c08cc50c85c8086204cebdef0.jpg"">"
"<img src=""paste-7b034012721809ac2d0cb2d5f780eba50fa52f0a.jpg""><br><img src=""paste-7e0f73b2aa94a4e260d3a7324c35ddb7c5ebc611.jpg"">""<img src=""paste-4d5d98db933d0b31ee1c4f03d409804fd27937ac.jpg"">"
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<div id=""io-header"">UoD to RDB</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">UoD to RDB</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">UoD to RDB</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">UoD to RDB</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">UoD to RDB</div>
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Human-Centred Principles for Data Analytics<ul><li>Every data problem is a human problem</li><li>Assume people are poorly represented in the data that you have</li><li>Visit people in their physical location if possible</li><li>Criticise your assumptions on their possible perceived values</li></ul>
<ul><li>Every data problem is a human problem</li><li>Assume people are poorly represented in the data that you have</li><li>Visit people in their physical location if possible</li><li>Criticise your assumptions on their possible perceived values</li></ul>Human-Centred Principles for Data Analytics
ViewsVirtual relations derived from base relations<br><ul><li>Can be queried like a base table</li><li>Does not physically exist like a base table</li></ul>
Virtual relations derived from base relations<br><ul><li>Can be queried like a base table</li><li>Does not physically exist like a base table</li></ul>Views
Purposes of Views<ul><li><b>Avoids redundancy (key to DB design)</b> - are logical tables that allow users to see data in different ways</li><li><b>Logical independence</b></li><li><b>Convenience and clarity when writing queries</b> - they are utilisable like base tables</li><li><b>Security</b> - authorisation grants different users access privileges</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Avoids redundancy (key to DB design)</b> - are logical tables that allow users to see data in different ways</li><li><b>Logical independence</b></li><li><b>Convenience and clarity when writing queries</b> - they are utilisable like base tables</li><li><b>Security</b> - authorisation grants different users access privileges</li></ul>Purposes of Views
Types of Security - <i>what type do views focus on</i><ul><li><b>Authentication</b> - verifying who you are</li><li><b>Authorisation</b> - verifying what you can access</li><li><b>Non-repudiation</b> - verifying an event transpired</li><li><b>Encryption</b> - ensuring data privacy between user and developer</li></ul><div>Views are specifically used for authorisation.</div>
Ways that DBMS implements views<ul><li>Query modification</li><li>View materialisation</li></ul>
<ul><li>Query modification</li><li>View materialisation</li></ul>Ways that DBMS implements views
Query ModificationQueries of a view are modified to become queries on the underlying base tables.<br><ul><li><b>Disadvantage: </b>views are re-computed with every query - inefficient for views defined via complex queries like aggregate queries.</li></ul><ol><li>For a query on a view, replace the view name in the `FROM` clause to the base table name</li><li>Adjust the query to include the specifications that made the queried view `AND` the conditions of the view-query</li></ol>
Queries of a view are modified to become queries on the underlying base tables.<br><ul><li><b>Disadvantage: </b>views are re-computed with every query - inefficient for views defined via complex queries like aggregate queries.</li></ul><ol><li>For a query on a view, replace the view name in the `FROM` clause to the base table name</li><li>Adjust the query to include the specifications that made the queried view `AND` the conditions of the view-query</li></ol>Query Modification
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<div id=""io-header"">Query Modification Example 1</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Query Modification Example 1</div>
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"
<div id=""io-header"">Query Modification Example 2</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Query Modification Example 2</div>
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if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
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mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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"
Materialised ViewsPhysically created relations that must be updated when base relations are<br><ul><li>Avoids re-computing views with every query</li><li>Assumed to allow more queries to use the same view</li><li><b>Disadvantage: </b>Materialised view maintenance is required - <i>when base relation is updated - periodical update, update strategies - re-materialisation, incremental update</i></li></ul>
Physically created relations that must be updated when base relations are<br><ul><li>Avoids re-computing views with every query</li><li>Assumed to allow more queries to use the same view</li><li><b>Disadvantage: </b>Materialised view maintenance is required - <i>when base relation is updated - periodical update, update strategies - re-materialisation, incremental update</i></li></ul>Materialised Views
Factors to consider when Materialising views<ul><li>Savings cost from using materialised views</li><li>Storing cost of materialised views</li><li>Query frequency</li><li>Update frequency</li><li>Benefits of virtual views when some are materialised</li></ul>
<ul><li>Savings cost from using materialised views</li><li>Storing cost of materialised views</li><li>Query frequency</li><li>Update frequency</li><li>Benefits of virtual views when some are materialised</li></ul>Factors to consider when Materialising views
Regarding View Updatability<b>Incremental updates</b> - requires determining what new tuples must be inserted, deleted or modified as a base relation is updated<br><ul><li><i>Eager updates - immediate incremental update even if no applications use the view&nbsp;</i></li><li><i>Lazy updates - postpones incremental update until an application uses the view</i></li></ul><br><b>Executable update queries does not mean a view is updatable according to standards.</b><br><ul><li>Most DB systems adopt simple policies outside of DBMS-specific rules</li><li>Views are not designed for updates -<i> view updatability is thus a complex problem</i></li></ul>
"
<div id=""io-header"">Trade-offs for Virtual and Materialised Relations</div>
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"
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<div id=""io-header"">Trade-offs for Virtual and Materialised Relations</div>
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"
<div id=""io-header"">Trade-offs for Virtual and Materialised Relations</div>
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"
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"
SQL Standards for View UpdatabilityViews are updatable they are unambiguously translatable into the base relation tuples.<br><ul><li>Views with a single-defining relation and including a primary key are updatable</li><li>Views using aggregate functions are not updatable - <i>aggregates have factors that is perhaps costly to refactor</i></li><li>Views joining multiple relations are generally not updatable - <i>it is not specific enough in terms of which relation to update especially if not including the primary key</i></li></ul>
Views are updatable they are unambiguously translatable into the base relation tuples.<br><ul><li>Views with a single-defining relation and including a primary key are updatable</li><li>Views using aggregate functions are not updatable - <i>aggregates have factors that is perhaps costly to refactor</i></li><li>Views joining multiple relations are generally not updatable - <i>it is not specific enough in terms of which relation to update especially if not including the primary key</i></li></ul>SQL Standards for View Updatability
Non-updatable Views<ul><li>Fields derived from expressions or constants - can insert/update but not delete</li><li>Fields derived from built-in functions</li><li>Views defined by: `GROUP BY`, `DISTINCT`, `HAVING`, `UNION` or `UNION ALL`</li><li>Views defined by correlated subqueries</li><li>Views defined by multi-relational queries</li><li>Views defined on non-updatable views</li></ul>
<ul><li>Fields derived from expressions or constants - can insert/update but not delete</li><li>Fields derived from built-in functions</li><li>Views defined by: `GROUP BY`, `DISTINCT`, `HAVING`, `UNION` or `UNION ALL`</li><li>Views defined by correlated subqueries</li><li>Views defined by multi-relational queries</li><li>Views defined on non-updatable views</li></ul>Non-updatable Views
"
<div id=""io-header"">Executable Update Example 1</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Executable Update Example 1</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Executable Update Example 1</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Executable Update Example 1</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Executable Update Example 2</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Executable Update Example 2</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Executable Update Example 3</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Executable Update Example 3</div>
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"
Data Collection Questions<ul><li>What data is required?</li><li>How do you get the data?</li><li>Where do you keep the data?</li></ul>
<ul><li>What data is required?</li><li>How do you get the data?</li><li>Where do you keep the data?</li></ul>Data Collection Questions
Questions within 'What data is required?'<ul><li>Why do you need it?</li><li>What are the data types?</li><li>Do you need all of it, or will a sample suffice?</li></ul>
<ul><li>Why do you need it?</li><li>What are the data types?</li><li>Do you need all of it, or will a sample suffice?</li></ul>Questions within 'What data is required?'
Types of Data<ul><li>Numeric</li><li>Text</li><li>Data and Time</li><li>Spatial</li><li>Time series</li><li>Graph</li><li>Multimedia</li></ul>
<ul><li>Numeric</li><li>Text</li><li>Data and Time</li><li>Spatial</li><li>Time series</li><li>Graph</li><li>Multimedia</li></ul>Types of Data
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
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var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-4-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-5-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-6-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-6-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-7-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-7-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-8-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-8-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-9-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-9-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-10-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-10-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-11-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-11-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-12-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-12-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-13-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-13-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-14-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Types of Data - Description, Applications</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""3f69822155fa41b5aa53e889f26ef3fa-oa-14-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-bf33649fa9297ec7599a19127954ec7fae9ea761.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
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Purposes of Data Sampling<ul><li>Large data volumes may cause storage and accessibility problems</li><li>Convenience</li><li>Smaller datasets may have the same <i>or similar</i> data properties - <i>efficient</i></li></ul>
<ul><li>Large data volumes may cause storage and accessibility problems</li><li>Convenience</li><li>Smaller datasets may have the same <i>or similar</i> data properties - <i>efficient</i></li></ul>Purposes of Data Sampling
Sampling with and without Replacement<i><b>Sampling without replacement (WOR)</b></i><br><ul><li><i>Items are excluded from being added again once they are already added</i></li><li><i>No duplicate items are in the sample</i></li><li><i>Sampled items are dependent</i></li></ul><b>Sampling with replacement (WR)</b><br><ul><li>Items are not excluded from being added again once they are already added</li><li>Duplicate items can exist in the sample</li><li>Sampled items are independent</li></ul>
Types of Sampling<ul><li>Simple Random Sampling (SRS)</li><li>Weighted Random Sampling</li><li>Stratified Random Sampling</li></ul>
<ul><li>Simple Random Sampling (SRS)</li><li>Weighted Random Sampling</li><li>Stratified Random Sampling</li></ul>Types of Sampling
Simple Random Sampling (SRS)"<img src=""paste-780a708fd6f6e92d467e186746a63c0f649ac32b.jpg"">"
"<img src=""paste-780a708fd6f6e92d467e186746a63c0f649ac32b.jpg"">"Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
Weighted Random Sampling"<img src=""paste-1a73005030dffd8f78c9aadeb4414971e2abefcb.jpg"">"
"<img src=""paste-1a73005030dffd8f78c9aadeb4414971e2abefcb.jpg"">"Weighted Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling"<img src=""paste-41d0b953b3106a25029264fea9e48c1a3f8c6440.jpg"">"
"<img src=""paste-41d0b953b3106a25029264fea9e48c1a3f8c6440.jpg"">"Stratified Random Sampling
Questions with 'How do you get the data?'<ul><li>Do you own it, or will you attempt to gain it?</li><li>Are you authorised to acquire the data?</li><li>Does information privacy law apply to de-identified data-sets?</li><li>Do you need to tell individuals about how you are going to use their personal information?</li></ul>
<ul><li>Do you own it, or will you attempt to gain it?</li><li>Are you authorised to acquire the data?</li><li>Does information privacy law apply to de-identified data-sets?</li><li>Do you need to tell individuals about how you are going to use their personal information?</li></ul>Questions with 'How do you get the data?'
Anonymisation Concepts"<ul><li><b>Privacy principle</b> - upholding adequate protection of users to their data</li><li><b>Modification method</b> - modifying the data to maintain the privacy principle whilst maximising data usefulness for its intended purpose</li></ul><div><img src=""paste-67781ecc96b0bba28a22ab580a589323f47e5060.jpg""><br></div>"
"<ul><li><b>Privacy principle</b> - upholding adequate protection of users to their data</li><li><b>Modification method</b> - modifying the data to maintain the privacy principle whilst maximising data usefulness for its intended purpose</li></ul><div><img src=""paste-67781ecc96b0bba28a22ab580a589323f47e5060.jpg""><br></div>"Anonymisation Concepts
Privacy Preserving Algorithms<ul><li>k-anonymity - <i>abandoned due to vulnerability in anonymising failure</i></li><li>I-diversity</li><li>Differential privacy</li></ul>
<ul><li>k-anonymity - <i>abandoned due to vulnerability in anonymising failure</i></li><li>I-diversity</li><li>Differential privacy</li></ul>Privacy Preserving Algorithms
k-Anonymity"<img src=""paste-1010952083621a965479e3448670ae90969e8f62.jpg"">"
"<img src=""paste-1010952083621a965479e3448670ae90969e8f62.jpg"">"k-Anonymity
Ways of Ingesting Collected Data - <i>where to keep the data?</i><ul><li>Simple tabular data -&gt; CSV, JSON files</li><li>Complex structured data -&gt; Relational DBs via mySQL</li><li>Text data -&gt; CLOB/BLOB, MongoDB</li><li>Multimedia data -&gt; Data lakes and cloud storage, e.g. Azure, GCP or AWS</li></ul>
<ul><li>Simple tabular data -&gt; CSV, JSON files</li><li>Complex structured data -&gt; Relational DBs via mySQL</li><li>Text data -&gt; CLOB/BLOB, MongoDB</li><li>Multimedia data -&gt; Data lakes and cloud storage, e.g. Azure, GCP or AWS</li></ul>Ways of Ingesting Collected Data - <i>where to keep the data?</i>
Data Preparation Questions<ul><li>Is your data fit for the purpose you want to use it for?</li><li>How do you know that?</li><li>What steps can you take to make the data ready?</li></ul>
<ul><li>Is your data fit for the purpose you want to use it for?</li><li>How do you know that?</li><li>What steps can you take to make the data ready?</li></ul>Data Preparation Questions
Defining Data Quality<ul><li>Degree to which data can be used for its intended purpose</li><li>Degree to which data accurately represents the real world</li></ul>
<ul><li>Degree to which data can be used for its intended purpose</li><li>Degree to which data accurately represents the real world</li></ul>Defining Data Quality
Methods for Data Preparation<ul><li><b>Data exploration</b> - discovering and understanding the quality characteristics of the data through exploratory techniques</li><li><b>Data transformation</b> - transforming the data through cleaning, curating and repairing</li><li><b>Data enrichment</b> - enriching the data through data imputation and integration, etc.</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Data exploration</b> - discovering and understanding the quality characteristics of the data through exploratory techniques</li><li><b>Data transformation</b> - transforming the data through cleaning, curating and repairing</li><li><b>Data enrichment</b> - enriching the data through data imputation and integration, etc.</li></ul>Methods for Data Preparation
Data ExplorationExploratory Data Analysis (EDA) involve summarising and discovering key data characteristics, often through visual methods.
Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) involve summarising and discovering key data characteristics, often through visual methods.Data Exploration
Data TransformationVarious tools are available for data exploration and transformation.
Various tools are available for data exploration and transformation.Data Transformation
Data Enrichment<ul><li><b>Integration</b> - combining data together at the schema/instance level</li><li><b>Imputation</b> - obtain statistically valid inferences from incomplete data</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Integration</b> - combining data together at the schema/instance level</li><li><b>Imputation</b> - obtain statistically valid inferences from incomplete data</li></ul>Data Enrichment
Factors for Data Analysis"<ul><li><b>Hindsight (search and query)</b> - what happened?</li><li><b>Insight (knowledge discovery)</b> - why is it happening?</li><li><b>Foresight (prediction)</b> - what will happen?</li></ul><i>These purposes of data analysis are used to plan an action.<br></i><br><img src=""paste-1a6dfaf7bdfb9137ebe18d588f900af41a028ec9.jpg""><br>"
"<ul><li><b>Hindsight (search and query)</b> - what happened?</li><li><b>Insight (knowledge discovery)</b> - why is it happening?</li><li><b>Foresight (prediction)</b> - what will happen?</li></ul><i>These purposes of data analysis are used to plan an action.<br></i><br><img src=""paste-1a6dfaf7bdfb9137ebe18d588f900af41a028ec9.jpg""><br>"Factors for Data Analysis
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Bioassays<i>Measures drug potency by measuring the produced magnitude of the biological response.</i><br><ul><li>Includes efficacy and toxicity measurements</li><li>Predicts likely behaviour of drugs in clinical settings</li><li>Normally compares drug response to a standard</li></ul><div><br></div><ul><li>Qualitative vs. Quantitative measurements</li><li>Needs positive and negative controls</li><li>High degree of variability (error)<br></li></ul>
<i>Measures drug potency by measuring the produced magnitude of the biological response.</i><br><ul><li>Includes efficacy and toxicity measurements</li><li>Predicts likely behaviour of drugs in clinical settings</li><li>Normally compares drug response to a standard</li></ul><div><br></div><ul><li>Qualitative vs. Quantitative measurements</li><li>Needs positive and negative controls</li><li>High degree of variability (error)<br></li></ul>Bioassays
Organ Bath Assay Examples<i>Historically used very commonly in pharmacology</i>, examples include:<br><ul><li>Contraction response of gut tissue to agonist drugs</li><li>Inhibition of contraction response in the presence of inhibitors</li></ul>
<i>Historically used very commonly in pharmacology</i>, examples include:<br><ul><li>Contraction response of gut tissue to agonist drugs</li><li>Inhibition of contraction response in the presence of inhibitors</li></ul>Organ Bath Assay Examples
Drug Discovery and Development Process<b>Drug discovery</b> - identification of lead drugs<br><br><b>Drug development (<i>in vitro</i> and with animals)</b> - efficacy, formulation, pharmacokinetics (ADME), toxicology<br><br><b>Clinical studies (with humans)<br></b><ul><li><b>Phase I</b> - safety and pharmacokinetics</li><li><b>Phase II</b>&nbsp;- efficacy and more detailed safety</li><li><b>Phase III</b> - large studies comparing new drug to existing drugs</li></ul><b>Post-marketing studies</b> - detecting rare/long-term adverse effects not identified in clinical trials, sometimes leading to drug withdrawal from the market<br><ul><li><i>E.g. AstraZeneca COVID vaccine causes blood clots in females</i></li></ul>
<b>Drug discovery</b> - identification of lead drugs<br><br><b>Drug development (<i>in vitro</i> and with animals)</b> - efficacy, formulation, pharmacokinetics (ADME), toxicology<br><br><b>Clinical studies (with humans)<br></b><ul><li><b>Phase I</b> - safety and pharmacokinetics</li><li><b>Phase II</b>&nbsp;- efficacy and more detailed safety</li><li><b>Phase III</b> - large studies comparing new drug to existing drugs</li></ul><b>Post-marketing studies</b> - detecting rare/long-term adverse effects not identified in clinical trials, sometimes leading to drug withdrawal from the market<br><ul><li><i>E.g. AstraZeneca COVID vaccine causes blood clots in females</i></li></ul>Drug Discovery and Development Process
Drug Discovery Process<ul><li>Identifying useful drug candidates by high throughput screening of many compounds - using automated systems or computational models</li><li>Molecular modelling/simulations - to improve drug design: understand drug-target docking, model protein binding sites</li><li>Test compounds (<i>in silico</i> and <i>in vitro</i>) - efficacy, formulation, pharmacokinetics, solubility or membrane permeability, limit use of animals</li><li>Identify lead drug compounds</li></ul>
<ul><li>Identifying useful drug candidates by high throughput screening of many compounds - using automated systems or computational models</li><li>Molecular modelling/simulations - to improve drug design: understand drug-target docking, model protein binding sites</li><li>Test compounds (<i>in silico</i> and <i>in vitro</i>) - efficacy, formulation, pharmacokinetics, solubility or membrane permeability, limit use of animals</li><li>Identify lead drug compounds</li></ul>Drug Discovery Process
Quantitative <i>in vitro</i> assays"<ul><li>Flow cytometry (FACS)</li><li>Enzyme Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay (ELISA)</li><li>Cytotoxicity</li><li>Organoid studies</li><li>Organ on a chip</li></ul><div><img src=""paste-6dddc17a2f0f8dc39accd1d225a795e3cea71f55.jpg""><br></div>"
"<ul><li>Flow cytometry (FACS)</li><li>Enzyme Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay (ELISA)</li><li>Cytotoxicity</li><li>Organoid studies</li><li>Organ on a chip</li></ul><div><img src=""paste-6dddc17a2f0f8dc39accd1d225a795e3cea71f55.jpg""><br></div>"Quantitative <i>in vitro</i> assays
Quantitative <i>in vivo</i> assaysHealthy animals (pharmocokinetics/toxicity)<br>Disease models (drug efficacy)<br>Genetic models for diseases - e.g. cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, alzheimers, parkinsons, *humanised* mouse models<br><ul><li>Disease model should reflect the clinical situation</li><li>Respiratory disease models, e.g. rodents vs. sheep/pigs</li><li>Rodent tumours models, e.g. xenograft vs. human explant</li></ul>
Healthy animals (pharmocokinetics/toxicity)<br>Disease models (drug efficacy)<br>Genetic models for diseases - e.g. cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, alzheimers, parkinsons, *humanised* mouse models<br><ul><li>Disease model should reflect the clinical situation</li><li>Respiratory disease models, e.g. rodents vs. sheep/pigs</li><li>Rodent tumours models, e.g. xenograft vs. human explant</li></ul>Quantitative <i>in vivo</i> assays
Human Clinical Trials Process<ul><li>Final demonstration of safety, efficacy and behaviour in vivo - many drugs fail in early clinical trials</li><li>Compare outcomes with controls - known/used/standard drugs</li><li>Endpoint can be physiological, subjective, long term or quality of life</li></ul>
<ul><li>Final demonstration of safety, efficacy and behaviour in vivo - many drugs fail in early clinical trials</li><li>Compare outcomes with controls - known/used/standard drugs</li><li>Endpoint can be physiological, subjective, long term or quality of life</li></ul>Human Clinical Trials Process
Ethical Questions about Animals?<ul><li>Good justification for work necessity?</li><li>Every attempt to limit or avoid suffering?</li><li>Potential benefit outweighs the potential adverse effects on the animal?</li><li>Every attempt to avoid or minimise using animals?</li></ul>
<ul><li>Good justification for work necessity?</li><li>Every attempt to limit or avoid suffering?</li><li>Potential benefit outweighs the potential adverse effects on the animal?</li><li>Every attempt to avoid or minimise using animals?</li></ul>Ethical Questions about Animals?
Ethical Questions about Humans<ul><li>Needs evidence of efficacy and safety in animals first</li><li>Humans are more complex than animal models</li><li>Scientific importance must be demonstrated</li><li>Must include females and males (unless intended for one or the other)</li><li>Must not compromise human treatment/care</li><li>Must obtain full informed consent (subject is fully aware of risks and trial design)</li><li>Must ensure the study is sufficiently powered</li></ul>
<ul><li>Needs evidence of efficacy and safety in animals first</li><li>Humans are more complex than animal models</li><li>Scientific importance must be demonstrated</li><li>Must include females and males (unless intended for one or the other)</li><li>Must not compromise human treatment/care</li><li>Must obtain full informed consent (subject is fully aware of risks and trial design)</li><li>Must ensure the study is sufficiently powered</li></ul>Ethical Questions about Humans
Parallel group design and Crossover design<ul><li><b>Parallel group design</b> - one group receives the experimental treatment only whilst the other only receives the control</li><li><b>Crossover design</b> - both groups receive the experimental and control treatment before exchanging treatments after some time</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Parallel group design</b> - one group receives the experimental treatment only whilst the other only receives the control</li><li><b>Crossover design</b> - both groups receive the experimental and control treatment before exchanging treatments after some time</li></ul>Parallel group design and Crossover design
Randomised controlled trial (avoiding bias)Double-blind study where neither the investigators or trial subjects know the treatment assignment
Double-blind study where neither the investigators or trial subjects know the treatment assignmentRandomised controlled trial (avoiding bias)
Sample sizeStatistically determined pre-study with financial and ethical considerations<br><ul><li><b>Power</b> - <i>how many subjects are needed to produce X outcome?</i></li></ul>
Statistically determined pre-study with financial and ethical considerations<br><ul><li><b>Power</b> - <i>how many subjects are needed to produce X outcome?</i></li></ul>Sample size
Types of Sample Errors<ul><li><b>Type I </b>- false-positive significant difference between treatments</li><li><b>Type II (power) </b>- false-negative significant difference between treatments</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Type I </b>- false-positive significant difference between treatments</li><li><b>Type II (power) </b>- false-negative significant difference between treatments</li></ul>Types of Sample Errors
Factors in Designing Human Clinical Trials<ul><li>Parallel group design and Crossover design</li><li>Randomised controlled trials</li><li>Sample size and power</li><li>Types of Sample error - Type I, Type II</li></ul>
<ul><li>Parallel group design and Crossover design</li><li>Randomised controlled trials</li><li>Sample size and power</li><li>Types of Sample error - Type I, Type II</li></ul>Factors in Designing Human Clinical Trials
ANS Functions<i>Involuntary nervous system - no conscious control.</i><br><ul><li>Homeostasis</li><li>Alters intrinsic tissue activity</li><li>Regulates body temperature, cardiovascular activity, respiratory functions, digestive functions</li></ul>
<i>Involuntary nervous system - no conscious control.</i><br><ul><li>Homeostasis</li><li>Alters intrinsic tissue activity</li><li>Regulates body temperature, cardiovascular activity, respiratory functions, digestive functions</li></ul>ANS Functions
ANS Divisions<i>ANS is organised into ganglions, nerves and plexuses.</i><br><ul><li><b>Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)</b> - flight-or-fight for anxiety and attention</li><li><b>Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)</b> - rest and digest for relaxing and pleasure</li></ul>
<i>ANS is organised into ganglions, nerves and plexuses.</i><br><ul><li><b>Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)</b> - flight-or-fight for anxiety and attention</li><li><b>Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)</b> - rest and digest for relaxing and pleasure</li></ul>ANS Divisions
ANS Control CentresControl centres are the <b>brainstem</b> and <b>hypothalamus via the medulla.</b><br><ul><li><b>Hypothalamus via the medulla:</b> body temperature, vasomotor control of BP</li><li><b>Hypothalamus:</b> water balance, food intake</li><li><b>Brainstem:</b> respiratory centre</li></ul>
Control centres are the <b>brainstem</b> and <b>hypothalamus via the medulla.</b><br><ul><li><b>Hypothalamus via the medulla:</b> body temperature, vasomotor control of BP</li><li><b>Hypothalamus:</b> water balance, food intake</li><li><b>Brainstem:</b> respiratory centre</li></ul>ANS Control Centres
ANS Control Centre Inputs<ul><li><b>Periphery:</b> chemoreceptors, baroreceptors</li><li>Cortex-thalamus-hypothalamus</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Periphery:</b> chemoreceptors, baroreceptors</li><li>Cortex-thalamus-hypothalamus</li></ul>ANS Control Centre Inputs
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<div id=""io-header"">ANS Control Centres Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""520c703ea7fb4141b84ab3d907ce0790-oa-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-5dca2c8a8ac4cfd0728d67a0ced3b262ab34d284.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Control Centres Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""520c703ea7fb4141b84ab3d907ce0790-oa-2-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-5dca2c8a8ac4cfd0728d67a0ced3b262ab34d284.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Control Centres Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""520c703ea7fb4141b84ab3d907ce0790-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-5dca2c8a8ac4cfd0728d67a0ced3b262ab34d284.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Control Centres Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""520c703ea7fb4141b84ab3d907ce0790-oa-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-5dca2c8a8ac4cfd0728d67a0ced3b262ab34d284.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Control Centres Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""520c703ea7fb4141b84ab3d907ce0790-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-5dca2c8a8ac4cfd0728d67a0ced3b262ab34d284.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Control Centres Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""520c703ea7fb4141b84ab3d907ce0790-oa-4-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-5dca2c8a8ac4cfd0728d67a0ced3b262ab34d284.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Control Centres Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""520c703ea7fb4141b84ab3d907ce0790-oa-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-5dca2c8a8ac4cfd0728d67a0ced3b262ab34d284.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Control Centres Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""520c703ea7fb4141b84ab3d907ce0790-oa-5-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-5dca2c8a8ac4cfd0728d67a0ced3b262ab34d284.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Control Centres Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""520c703ea7fb4141b84ab3d907ce0790-oa-6-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-5dca2c8a8ac4cfd0728d67a0ced3b262ab34d284.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Control Centres Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""520c703ea7fb4141b84ab3d907ce0790-oa-6-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-5dca2c8a8ac4cfd0728d67a0ced3b262ab34d284.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Control Centres Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""520c703ea7fb4141b84ab3d907ce0790-oa-7-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-5dca2c8a8ac4cfd0728d67a0ced3b262ab34d284.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Control Centres Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""520c703ea7fb4141b84ab3d907ce0790-oa-7-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-5dca2c8a8ac4cfd0728d67a0ced3b262ab34d284.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""a83d23c0acef4dea87975a93d08f97bb-oa-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-cf7b47d85eca4eed709386e17cc41c87c6f79a59.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""a83d23c0acef4dea87975a93d08f97bb-oa-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-cf7b47d85eca4eed709386e17cc41c87c6f79a59.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""a83d23c0acef4dea87975a93d08f97bb-oa-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-cf7b47d85eca4eed709386e17cc41c87c6f79a59.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""a83d23c0acef4dea87975a93d08f97bb-oa-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-cf7b47d85eca4eed709386e17cc41c87c6f79a59.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""a83d23c0acef4dea87975a93d08f97bb-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-cf7b47d85eca4eed709386e17cc41c87c6f79a59.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""a83d23c0acef4dea87975a93d08f97bb-oa-3-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-cf7b47d85eca4eed709386e17cc41c87c6f79a59.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""a83d23c0acef4dea87975a93d08f97bb-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-cf7b47d85eca4eed709386e17cc41c87c6f79a59.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""a83d23c0acef4dea87975a93d08f97bb-oa-4-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-cf7b47d85eca4eed709386e17cc41c87c6f79a59.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""a83d23c0acef4dea87975a93d08f97bb-oa-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-cf7b47d85eca4eed709386e17cc41c87c6f79a59.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""a83d23c0acef4dea87975a93d08f97bb-oa-5-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-cf7b47d85eca4eed709386e17cc41c87c6f79a59.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""a83d23c0acef4dea87975a93d08f97bb-oa-6-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-cf7b47d85eca4eed709386e17cc41c87c6f79a59.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""a83d23c0acef4dea87975a93d08f97bb-oa-6-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-cf7b47d85eca4eed709386e17cc41c87c6f79a59.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""a83d23c0acef4dea87975a93d08f97bb-oa-7-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-cf7b47d85eca4eed709386e17cc41c87c6f79a59.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
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""
<div id=""io-header"">ANS Brain Regions and Functions Diagram</div>
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"
Visceral organ and Skeletal muscle Innervations<ul><li><b>Visceral organ innervation:</b> preganglionic and postganglionic motor neurons</li><li><b>Skeletal muscle innervation:</b> somatic motor neuron</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Visceral organ innervation:</b> preganglionic and postganglionic motor neurons</li><li><b>Skeletal muscle innervation:</b> somatic motor neuron</li></ul>Visceral organ and Skeletal muscle Innervations
"
<div id=""io-header"">Visceral and Somatic Motor Innervation Diagram</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Visceral and Somatic Motor Innervation Diagram</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Visceral and Somatic Motor Innervation Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Visceral and Somatic Motor Innervation Diagram</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Visceral and Somatic Motor Innervation Diagram</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Visceral and Somatic Motor Innervation Diagram</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Visceral and Somatic Motor Innervation Diagram</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">Visceral and Somatic Motor Innervation Diagram</div>
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"
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""
<div id=""io-header"">Visceral and Somatic Motor Innervation Diagram</div>
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"
General Neurotransmitter Mechanism1. AP is propagated to the presynaptic neuron terminal<br>2. Ca²⁺ enters the presynaptic terminal<br>3. Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis<br>4. Neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic neuron receptor sites<br>5. Specific ion channels open in the subsynaptic membrane
1. AP is propagated to the presynaptic neuron terminal<br>2. Ca²⁺ enters the presynaptic terminal<br>3. Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis<br>4. Neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic neuron receptor sites<br>5. Specific ion channels open in the subsynaptic membraneGeneral Neurotransmitter Mechanism
ACh Reaction"<img src=""paste-e022872cf37fd8269cba06bf2ee4e0f27df956ff.jpg"">"
Types of Cholinergic ReceptorsNicotinic (N) ACh-R - ligand-gated cation channel<br>- Agonists include: ACh, Nicotine<br>Muscarinic (M) ACh-R - R_s -&gt; G_q -&gt; AC or R_i -&gt; G_i -&gt; PLC, pathways<br>- Agonists include: ACh, Muscarine, Carbachol
"All preganglionic neurons release <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ACh"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to reach postganglionic <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""N&#x20;ACh&#x2D;Rs"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> - effector organs can have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""varied&#x20;cholinergic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> receptors.""All preganglionic neurons release <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ACh</span> to reach postganglionic <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">N ACh-Rs</span> - effector organs can have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">varied cholinergic</span> receptors.<br>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">PNS Organ Effects</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">PNS Organ Effects</div>
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"
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""
<div id=""io-header"">PNS Organ Effects</div>
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"
"
<div id=""io-header"">PNS Organ Effects</div>
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""
<div id=""io-header"">PNS Organ Effects</div>
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"
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<div id=""io-header"">PNS Organ Effects</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">PNS Organ Effects</div>
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<div id=""io-header"">PNS Organ Effects</div>
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var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">PNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""4b11d255eb6d4247ac41022128c58de6-oa-7-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7dbe428c1e8151345c3ac4a1faf2fd42cb71ae56.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">PNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""4b11d255eb6d4247ac41022128c58de6-oa-7-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-7dbe428c1e8151345c3ac4a1faf2fd42cb71ae56.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
PNS Nerves - origin, synapse location, neurotransmitters<ul><li>From cranial-sacral spinal chord sections</li><li>Ganglia/Plexuses synapses are near effector organs</li><li>Postganglionic neurons release ACh onto M ACh-Rs on effector organs</li></ul>
<ul><li>From cranial-sacral spinal chord sections</li><li>Ganglia/Plexuses synapses are near effector organs</li><li>Postganglionic neurons release ACh onto M ACh-Rs on effector organs</li></ul>PNS Nerves - origin, synapse location, neurotransmitters
PNS Muscarinic Effects (<i>DUMBBBELS</i>)<ul><li>Diarrhoea/diaphoresis, Urination, Miosis</li><li>Bronchorrhea, Bronchospasm, Bradycardia</li><li>Emesis, Lacrimination, Salivation</li><li><i>Accommodation</i></li><li><i>Vasodilation - but no PNS innervation to most resistant vessels</i></li></ul>
<ul><li>Diarrhoea/diaphoresis, Urination, Miosis</li><li>Bronchorrhea, Bronchospasm, Bradycardia</li><li>Emesis, Lacrimination, Salivation</li><li><i>Accommodation</i></li><li><i>Vasodilation - but no PNS innervation to most resistant vessels</i></li></ul>PNS Muscarinic Effects (<i>DUMBBBELS</i>)
Catecholamine Reactions"Tyrosine-derived neurotransmitters<br><img src=""paste-2e70076a8dfa1edc8966d872bc6d25f495f26250.jpg"">"
"Tyrosine-derived neurotransmitters<br><img src=""paste-2e70076a8dfa1edc8966d872bc6d25f495f26250.jpg"">"Catecholamine Reactions
"
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-4-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-5-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-6-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-6-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-7-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-7-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-8-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-8-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-9-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-9-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-10-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-10-A.svg""></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-11-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-11-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-12-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">SNS Organ Effects</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""b83d20b9a88f497a97284c261a73ad32-oa-12-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-64b4b6a36428a9dd4e108385e4e8b90244222610.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
SNS Nerves - origin, synapse position, neurotransmitters<ul><li>From thoracic-lumbar spinal chord sections</li><li>Synapses are in paravertebral/prevertebral ganglia or the adrenal medulla</li><li>Postganglionic neurons release NA onto various Adrenergic-Rs on effector organs</li><li>Exception to above is sweat glands - postganglionic fibres release ACh</li></ul>
<ul><li>From thoracic-lumbar spinal chord sections</li><li>Synapses are in paravertebral/prevertebral ganglia or the adrenal medulla</li><li>Postganglionic neurons release NA onto various Adrenergic-Rs on effector organs</li><li>Exception to above is sweat glands - postganglionic fibres release ACh</li></ul>SNS Nerves - origin, synapse position, neurotransmitters
Adrenal Medulla Neurotransmitters<ul><li>Preganglionic fibres synapses directly into adrenal medulla chromaffin cells</li><li>Chromaffin cells (modified neurons) release NA and Adrenaline directly into the blood</li><li>NA/A blood release causes lasting effects whilst reaching non-ANS organs, <i>e.g. lungs</i></li></ul>
<ul><li>Preganglionic fibres synapses directly into adrenal medulla chromaffin cells</li><li>Chromaffin cells (modified neurons) release NA and Adrenaline directly into the blood</li><li>NA/A blood release causes lasting effects whilst reaching non-ANS organs, <i>e.g. lungs</i></li></ul>Adrenal Medulla Neurotransmitters
"
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-1-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-1-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-2-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-2-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-3-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-3-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-4-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-4-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-5-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-5-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-6-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-6-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-7-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-7-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-8-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-8-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-9-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-9-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
"
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-10-Q.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<div id=""io-footer""></div>
<script>
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
""
<div id=""io-header"">Peripheral Nervous System Neurotransmitter Pathways</div>
<div id=""io-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-overlay""><img src=""8b0757f056cc4953b83713408973ca1f-oa-10-A.svg"" /></div>
<div id=""io-original""><img src=""paste-380be59d612b7b6c49527f19185316882cbdb306.jpg"" /></div>
</div>
<button id=""io-revl-btn"" onclick=""toggle();"">Toggle Masks</button>
<div id=""io-extra-wrapper"">
<div id=""io-extra"">
</div>
</div>
<script>
// Toggle answer mask on clicking the image
var toggle = function() {
var amask = document.getElementById('io-overlay');
if (amask.style.display === 'block' || amask.style.display === '')
amask.style.display = 'none';
else
amask.style.display = 'block'
}
// Prevent original image from loading before mask
aFade = 50, qFade = 0;
var mask = document.querySelector('#io-overlay>img');
function loaded() {
var original = document.querySelector('#io-original');
original.style.visibility = ""visible"";
}
if (mask === null || mask.complete) {
loaded();
} else {
mask.addEventListener('load', loaded);
}
</script>
"
CapillariesMicroscopic lumen (5-10um) supplying blood to tissues via perfusion
Microscopic lumen (5-10um) supplying blood to tissues via perfusionCapillaries
Interstitial Fluid (IF)Exists between plasma and cells as an intermediary
Exists between plasma and cells as an intermediaryInterstitial Fluid (IF)
Bulk Flow Movement and involved Pressures<u>Driven by 2 opposing pressure gradients.</u><br>- <b>Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure (CHP)</b> - <i>from blood to IF</i><br>- <b>Oncotic or Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure (BCOP)</b> - <i>from impermeable plasma proteins</i><br>- <b>Net Filtration Pressure</b> - <i>overall pressure between blood and IF</i><br>- <i>Bulk flows occurs from vascular to interstitial regions</i><br><br>Capillary filtration (24L/day) exceeds re-absorption (20.5L/day) - <i>bulk flow occurs from vascular to interstitial fluids</i>.
<u>Driven by 2 opposing pressure gradients.</u><br>- <b>Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure (CHP)</b> - <i>from blood to IF</i><br>- <b>Oncotic or Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure (BCOP)</b> - <i>from impermeable plasma proteins</i><br>- <b>Net Filtration Pressure</b> - <i>overall pressure between blood and IF</i><br>- <i>Bulk flows occurs from vascular to interstitial regions</i><br><br>Capillary filtration (24L/day) exceeds re-absorption (20.5L/day) - <i>bulk flow occurs from vascular to interstitial fluids</i>.Bulk Flow Movement and involved Pressures
Lymph vesselsFor fluid re-uptake from interstitial fluid
For fluid re-uptake from interstitial fluidLymph vessels
Precapillary sphinctersControls blood flow through capillary beds
Controls blood flow through capillary bedsPrecapillary sphincters
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LymphFluid flowing through the lymphatic system<br><ul><li>Similar ionic composition to the interstitial fluid (IF)</li><li>Part of the Extra-Cellular Fluid (ECF)</li></ul>
Fluid flowing through the lymphatic system<br><ul><li>Similar ionic composition to the interstitial fluid (IF)</li><li>Part of the Extra-Cellular Fluid (ECF)</li></ul>Lymph
Lymphatic systemSystem of branched duct networks which terminate in small, blind-ended capillaries within nearly every tissue
System of branched duct networks which terminate in small, blind-ended capillaries within nearly every tissueLymphatic system
Lymph Movement Factors<ul><li>IF enters lymph capillary pores - <i>allows for large molecules, i.e. proteins and chylomicrons (fats)</i></li><li>Lymph propulsion - <i>from smooth muscle and skeletal muscle contractions squeezing vessels, and vein vales preventing back-flow</i></li></ul>
<ul><li>IF enters lymph capillary pores - <i>allows for large molecules, i.e. proteins and chylomicrons (fats)</i></li><li>Lymph propulsion - <i>from smooth muscle and skeletal muscle contractions squeezing vessels, and vein vales preventing back-flow</i></li></ul>Lymph Movement Factors
Lymph Functions<ul><li>Returning excess fluid back to circulation</li><li>Immune defence</li><li>Transport of lipids from GIT</li></ul>
<ul><li>Returning excess fluid back to circulation</li><li>Immune defence</li><li>Transport of lipids from GIT</li></ul>Lymph Functions
OedemaSoft tissue swelling by fluid accumulation from shifts in capillary balance<br>- Main outcome is IF build-up, <i>e.g. elephantiasis</i>
Soft tissue swelling by fluid accumulation from shifts in capillary balance<br>- Main outcome is IF build-up, <i>e.g. elephantiasis</i>Oedema
Oedema Functional ConsequencesExcess IF<br>-&gt; Increased blood-cell distance<br>-&gt; Decreased diffusion rate<br>-&gt; Inadequate nutrient supply
Excess IF<br>-&gt; Increased blood-cell distance<br>-&gt; Decreased diffusion rate<br>-&gt; Inadequate nutrient supplyOedema Functional Consequences
Veins<i>Veins are blood reservoirs - ~64% body's blood.</i><br><ul><li>Convey blood back to the right atrium</li><li>Large lumen with thin walls - low resistance</li><li>High volume or capacitance - low pressure</li><li>Has valves to prevent backflow</li></ul>
<i>Veins are blood reservoirs - ~64% body's blood.</i><br><ul><li>Convey blood back to the right atrium</li><li>Large lumen with thin walls - low resistance</li><li>High volume or capacitance - low pressure</li><li>Has valves to prevent backflow</li></ul>Veins
ComplianceReadiness for blood vessel lumen to expand
Readiness for blood vessel lumen to expandCompliance
<b>Compliance</b> - Arteries and Veins<u><b>Arteries - lower compliance</b></u><br>- Thick smooth muscle layer and elastin<br>- Withstands high pressure and roils well<br><br><u><b>Veins - higher compliance</b></u><br>- Less smooth muscle and little elastin<br>- Readily expands when filled with blood<br>- Stretchy but no recoil - <i>from little elastin</i>
<u><b>Arteries - lower compliance</b></u><br>- Thick smooth muscle layer and elastin<br>- Withstands high pressure and roils well<br><br><u><b>Veins - higher compliance</b></u><br>- Less smooth muscle and little elastin<br>- Readily expands when filled with blood<br>- Stretchy but no recoil - <i>from little elastin</i><b>Compliance</b> - Arteries and Veins
Venous Pressures<ul><li><b>End capillaries / Start venules:</b> ~18mmHg</li><li><b>Central Venous Pressure (CVP) in Right Atrium:</b> ~2mmHg</li><li><i>Venous return is via low pressure</i></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>End capillaries / Start venules:</b> ~18mmHg</li><li><b>Central Venous Pressure (CVP) in Right Atrium:</b> ~2mmHg</li><li><i>Venous return is via low pressure</i></li></ul>Venous Pressures
Venous Return<u>Blood flow back to the heart via the veins, directly affecting:</u><br>- <b>End Diastolic Volume</b> - ventricle blood pre-contraction volume<br>- <b>Stroke Volume (SV)</b> - heart-pumped blood volume<br>- <b>Cardiac Output (CO)</b> - pumped blood per minute volume
<u>Blood flow back to the heart via the veins, directly affecting:</u><br>- <b>End Diastolic Volume</b> - ventricle blood pre-contraction volume<br>- <b>Stroke Volume (SV)</b> - heart-pumped blood volume<br>- <b>Cardiac Output (CO)</b> - pumped blood per minute volumeVenous Return
Mechanisms helping Venous Return<ul><li><b>One-way valves</b> - prevent backflow, <i>e.g. in calf veins</i></li><li><b>Skeletal muscle contractions</b> - compress large veins, <i>e.g. calf veins</i></li><li><b>Respiration 'pump' </b>- chest cavity (&lt;5mmHg) is less than atmospheric pressure; <u><i>Inspiration -&gt; Increase V -&gt; Decrease P (venous) -&gt; Increase P gradient -&gt; Increase Venous Return</i></u></li><li><b>Venoconstriction</b> - SNS innervates smooth muscles in veins</li><li><b>'Cardiac suction'</b> - atrial cavity enlarges during ventricular contraction to take in more blood (atrial pressure &lt; 0mmHg)</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>One-way valves</b> - prevent backflow, <i>e.g. in calf veins</i></li><li><b>Skeletal muscle contractions</b> - compress large veins, <i>e.g. calf veins</i></li><li><b>Respiration 'pump' </b>- chest cavity (&lt;5mmHg) is less than atmospheric pressure; <u><i>Inspiration -&gt; Increase V -&gt; Decrease P (venous) -&gt; Increase P gradient -&gt; Increase Venous Return</i></u></li><li><b>Venoconstriction</b> - SNS innervates smooth muscles in veins</li><li><b>'Cardiac suction'</b> - atrial cavity enlarges during ventricular contraction to take in more blood (atrial pressure &lt; 0mmHg)</li></ul>Mechanisms helping Venous Return
Characteristics of Primary KeyUnique and NOT NULL
WITH CHECK OPTIONEnsures updates keep tuples conformed to view definition.
Ensures updates keep tuples conformed to view definition.WITH CHECK OPTION
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Types of Constraints (w/ descriptions)<b><u>Static constraints:</u></b><br>- True throughout DB lifetime<br>- Controls data meaning<br>- Specifies data relationships<br><u><b>Dynamic constraints:</b></u><br>- True for DB operations<br>- Controls transitions between DB states<br>- Specifies legal data usage
<b><u>Static constraints:</u></b><br>- True throughout DB lifetime<br>- Controls data meaning<br>- Specifies data relationships<br><u><b>Dynamic constraints:</b></u><br>- True for DB operations<br>- Controls transitions between DB states<br>- Specifies legal data usageTypes of Constraints (w/ descriptions)
Types of Static Constraints- <b>Referential integrity constraints</b> - cascade, isolated, non-isolated<br>- <b>Domain constraints</b> - enumerated values, range control, correlated domain<br><br><u><b>Constraint semantics</b></u><br>- Primitive data type constraints<br>- Attribute constraints<br>- Tuple constraints<br>- Single-table relations<br>- Schema (multi-table) constraints<br><br><u><b>Primitive Data Type Constraints</b></u><br>- `NOT NULL`<br>- `UNIQUE`<br>- `PRIMARY KEY`<br>- `FOREIGN KEY`<br>- `CHECK` - specifies a condition that each tuple must satisfy
- <b>Referential integrity constraints</b> - cascade, isolated, non-isolated<br>- <b>Domain constraints</b> - enumerated values, range control, correlated domain<br><br><u><b>Constraint semantics</b></u><br>- Primitive data type constraints<br>- Attribute constraints<br>- Tuple constraints<br>- Single-table relations<br>- Schema (multi-table) constraints<br><br><u><b>Primitive Data Type Constraints</b></u><br>- `NOT NULL`<br>- `UNIQUE`<br>- `PRIMARY KEY`<br>- `FOREIGN KEY`<br>- `CHECK` - specifies a condition that each tuple must satisfyTypes of Static Constraints
Constraint Sematics- Primitive data type constraints<br>- Attribute constraints<br>- Tuple constraints<br>- Single-table relations<br>- Schema (multi-table) constraints
- Primitive data type constraints<br>- Attribute constraints<br>- Tuple constraints<br>- Single-table relations<br>- Schema (multi-table) constraintsConstraint Sematics
Primitive Data Type Constraints- `NOT NULL`<br>- `UNIQUE`<br>- `PRIMARY KEY`<br>- `FOREIGN KEY`<br>- `CHECK` - specifies a condition that each tuple must satisfy
- `NOT NULL`<br>- `UNIQUE`<br>- `PRIMARY KEY`<br>- `FOREIGN KEY`<br>- `CHECK` - specifies a condition that each tuple must satisfyPrimitive Data Type Constraints
Types of Dynamic Constraints- State transitions<br>- Operational control - <i>Read-only, Read-write</i><br>- Co-operational domain<br>- Temporal data
- State transitions<br>- Operational control - <i>Read-only, Read-write</i><br>- Co-operational domain<br>- Temporal dataTypes of Dynamic Constraints
Ways to manage DB Constraints- Defining Constraint Guidelines -<i> high-level for business rules, low-level for ICs</i><br>- DB Assertions<br>- DB Triggers<br>- Enabling/Disabling Constraints<br>- Enabled/Disabled Constraints
- Defining Constraint Guidelines -<i> high-level for business rules, low-level for ICs</i><br>- DB Assertions<br>- DB Triggers<br>- Enabling/Disabling Constraints<br>- Enabled/Disabled ConstraintsWays to manage DB Constraints
Location where Constraints are storedData Dictionary and DB Triggers
Data Dictionary and DB TriggersLocation where Constraints are stored
SQL: Creating and Dropping Constraints- Modifying constraints requires dropping and recreating constraints<br><br>CREATE TABLE ... CONSTRAINT<br><br>-- Added Constraints: All tuple-level<br>ALTER TABLE RelationName ADD CONSTRAINT ConstraintName;<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ... -- PRIMARY KEY(...), CHECK (...)<br><br>-- Drop Constraints: Useful for modification or deletion<br>ALTER TABLE RelationName DROP CONSTRAINT ConstraintName;
SQL: Attribute Constraints-- Custom Attribute Domains<br>CREATE DOMAIN DomainName TYPE AS DATATYPE<br><br>-- Custom Attribute CHECKs<br>CREATE TABLE RelationName (<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; attributeName1 DATATYPE CHECK (attributeName1 IN ('validValues'))<br>);
SQL: Tuple Constraints- Can reject transactions every time tuple is inserted/updated<br><br>```sql<br>CREATE TABLE RelationName (<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ...<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; CHECK (attributeName1 IN ('validValues') <br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; OR attributeName2 NOT LIKE '%validString')<br>)
SQL: Naming ConstraintsCREATE TABLE RelationName (<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; -- Naming Attribute-based constraints<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; attributeName1 DATATYPE CONSTRAINT ConstraintName1 PRIMARY KEY,<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; attributeName2 DATATYPE CONSTRAINT ConstraintName2 CHECK (...),<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; -- Naming Tuple-based constraints<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; CONSTRAINT ConstraintName3 CHECK (...)<br>)
Types of Schema-level Constraints<b>Assertions</b> - boolean-valued SQL expression that must always be true<br><b>Triggers</b> - action series associated to schema-events, performed when specific events arise
<b>Assertions</b> - boolean-valued SQL expression that must always be true<br><b>Triggers</b> - action series associated to schema-events, performed when specific events ariseTypes of Schema-level Constraints
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SQL: Creating AssertionsCREATE ASSERTION AssertionName<br>CHECK (...) <br>-- can be CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT ...))<br>-- can be CHECK (5 &gt;= (SELECT ...))
Triggers- Defines DB action when DB-related events occur<br>- Enforces IC, business rules or audit changes<br>- Trigger execution is transparent to users - DB executes and invokes it<br>- Tuple-level (update) or statement-level triggers (execute line)<br>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; - Checks and acts according to ECA (Event-Condition-Action) model
SQL: Creating TriggersCREATE TRIGGER TriggerName<br><br>-- Specifies if trigger before/after event - INSERT OR UPDATE, etc.<br>AFTER|BEFORE Event ON RelationName<br>AFTER|BEFORE Event OF attributeName ON RelationName<br><br>-- Sets references to new insert tuple (NEW) or old tuple to update (OLD)<br>REFERENCING<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; OLD [TABLE|ROW] AS oldRelation/TupleName<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; NEW [TABLE|ROW] AS newRelation/TupleName<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <br>-- Checking query for each row or statement<br>[FOR EACH ROW|STATEMENT<br>WHEN Condition]<br><br>-- Action code to execute if trigger is triggered<br>[BEGIN] <br>TriggerActionCode<br>[END];
Categories of Enabling/Disabling Constraints<b>Disabled</b> - new data is not checked and table instance might not satisfy disabled constraints<br><b>Enabled novalidate (enforced)</b> - new data is checked but existing table instance might not satisfy enforced constraints<br><b>Enabled validate</b> - new data is checked and existing table instance must adhere to enabled constraints
<b>Disabled</b> - new data is not checked and table instance might not satisfy disabled constraints<br><b>Enabled novalidate (enforced)</b> - new data is checked but existing table instance might not satisfy enforced constraints<br><b>Enabled validate</b> - new data is checked and existing table instance must adhere to enabled constraintsCategories of Enabling/Disabling Constraints
SQL: Disabling Constraints- Often disabling is good before bulk-loads or for self-referencing foreign keys<br>- Disable child/referencing foreign keys before disabling parent/referenced keys<br><br>ALTER TABLE RelationName.attributeName<br>DISABLE CONSTRAINT ConstraintName CASCADE <br>-- CASCADE disables foreign key constraints as well
SQL: Enabling Constraints- `ENABLE NOVALIDATE` - fast and no locks required<br>- `ENABLE VALIDATE` - validates whole table and locks table<br><br>ALTER TABLE RelationName.attributeName<br>ENABLE NOVALIDATE CONSTRAINT ConstraintName;<br><br>ALTER TABLE RelationName.attributeName<br>ENABLE VALIDATE CONSTRAINT ConstraintName;
SQL: Disabling and Enabling TriggersALTER TRIGGER TriggerName<br>DISABLE|ENABLE;<br><br>ALTER TABLE TABLE RelationName<br>DISABLE|ENABLE ALL TRIGGERS;
"Blood flow (CO) is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""equal"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in both circuits.<br>Blood volume and pressure is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""different"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> between both circuits.""Blood flow (CO) is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">equal</span> in both circuits.<br>Blood volume and pressure is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">different</span> between both circuits.<br>
"
Resistance formulas"<img alt=""Poiseuille's Equation Flashcards | Quizlet"" src=""https://o.quizlet.com/AHrFlXb2J6O1mXOIUREc3w.png""><br><ul><li><b>n = viscosity, L = vessel length, r = vessel radius</b></li><li>Assumes laminar flow of a newtonian fluid</li><li><i>Blood is actually non-newtonian from erythrocyte shape changes and can have turbulent flow</i></li></ul>"
"<img alt=""Poiseuille's Equation Flashcards | Quizlet"" src=""https://o.quizlet.com/AHrFlXb2J6O1mXOIUREc3w.png""><br><ul><li><b>n = viscosity, L = vessel length, r = vessel radius</b></li><li>Assumes laminar flow of a newtonian fluid</li><li><i>Blood is actually non-newtonian from erythrocyte shape changes and can have turbulent flow</i></li></ul>"Resistance formulas
Short-term physiological and Long-term physical factors for MAP<u><b>Short-term physiological factors</b></u><br>- Changes in CO &lt;- From SNS activation<br>- Changes in TPR &lt;- Vasomotor control<br><u><b>Long-term physical factors<br></b></u>- Arterial compliance &lt;- Stiffer vessels over time<br>- Arterial blood volume
<u><b>Short-term physiological factors</b></u><br>- Changes in CO &lt;- From SNS activation<br>- Changes in TPR &lt;- Vasomotor control<br><u><b>Long-term physical factors<br></b></u>- Arterial compliance &lt;- Stiffer vessels over time<br>- Arterial blood volumeShort-term physiological and Long-term physical factors for MAP
Vasomotor Tone Control can occur during Exercise<ul><li>Vasodilation for skeletal muscles, coronary arteries and cerebral vessels</li><li>Vasoconstriction for GIT</li></ul>
"Nutrient exchange occurs by solutes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""passively&#x20;diffusing&#x20;down&#x20;concentration&#x20;gradients&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br>- Passive diffusion is facilitated by thin, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""semi&#x2D;permeable&#x20;capillary&#x20;walls"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""large&#x20;SAs"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Nutrient exchange occurs by solutes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">passively diffusing down concentration gradients.</span><br>- Passive diffusion is facilitated by thin, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">semi-permeable capillary walls</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">large SAs</span><br>
"
Causes for Oedema<i>Generally increasing Hydrostatic pressure relative to Oncotic pressure.</i><br>- <b>Increased BP</b> &lt;- <i>Increased water retention from having more salts over time</i><br>- <b>Decreased Oncotic pressure</b> &lt;- <i>Poor protein intake decreases plasma proteins</i><br>- <b>Increased permeability</b> &lt;- <i>Allergies or inflammatory response</i><br>- <b>Lymph blockade</b> &lt;- <i>Mosquito larvae or removing lymph nodes</i>
<i>Generally increasing Hydrostatic pressure relative to Oncotic pressure.</i><br>- <b>Increased BP</b> &lt;- <i>Increased water retention from having more salts over time</i><br>- <b>Decreased Oncotic pressure</b> &lt;- <i>Poor protein intake decreases plasma proteins</i><br>- <b>Increased permeability</b> &lt;- <i>Allergies or inflammatory response</i><br>- <b>Lymph blockade</b> &lt;- <i>Mosquito larvae or removing lymph nodes</i>Causes for Oedema
"<b>Pressure at Capillary end / Venule start:</b> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""&#x7E;18"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>mmHg<br><b>Pressure near Right Atrium (Central Venous Pressure or CVP): </b><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""&#x7E;2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>mmHg""<b>Pressure at Capillary end / Venule start:</b> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">~18</span>mmHg<br><b>Pressure near Right Atrium (Central Venous Pressure or CVP): </b><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">~2</span>mmHg<br>
"
Standard Heart Measurements at Rest (CO, SV, HR)<ul><li>CO : 5L/min</li><li>SV : 70mL/beat</li><li>HR : 70bpm</li></ul>
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Heart Rate (HR)Heartbeats per minute from ventricular contraction; <i>often measured as wrist pulse rate</i>
Heartbeats per minute from ventricular contraction; <i>often measured as wrist pulse rate</i>Heart Rate (HR)
TachycardiaHigh resting HR (&gt;100bpm in adults)<br>- Rapid HR can compromise pumping efficiency and blood flow<br>- Blood flow to heart itself is a potential issue
High resting HR (&gt;100bpm in adults)<br>- Rapid HR can compromise pumping efficiency and blood flow<br>- Blood flow to heart itself is a potential issueTachycardia
BradycardiaSlow resting HR (&lt;60bpm in adults and children)<br>- Decreased blood flow or CO can mean insufficient nutrient distribution<br>- Resting HR normally decreases with age<br>- Athletes have lower HR but increased SV due to training
Slow resting HR (&lt;60bpm in adults and children)<br>- Decreased blood flow or CO can mean insufficient nutrient distribution<br>- Resting HR normally decreases with age<br>- Athletes have lower HR but increased SV due to trainingBradycardia
Heart Regulation - <i><b>ANS</b></i><u>PSNS is dominant for regulating HR at rest.</u><br>- SNS - NA and Adrenaline -&gt; Positive chronotropy<br>- PSNS - ACh -&gt; Negative chronotropy
<u>PSNS is dominant for regulating HR at rest.</u><br>- SNS - NA and Adrenaline -&gt; Positive chronotropy<br>- PSNS - ACh -&gt; Negative chronotropyHeart Regulation - <i><b>ANS</b></i>
HR Regulation - <i><b>Other Factors</b></i>- <b>Hormones</b> - Thyroid hormones T3 and T4 -&gt; Positive chronotropy<br>- <b>Body temperature</b> - Fever -&gt; Positive chronotropy - <i>temperature increases ion diffusion for depolarisation</i><br>- <b>Ions</b> - Ca²⁺ and K⁺<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - <i><b>Hypercalcemia (Ca²⁺), Hypokalemia (K⁺)</b></i> -&gt; Positive chronotropy<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - <b><i>Hypocalcemia (Ca²⁺), Hyperkalemia (K⁺)</i></b> -&gt; Negative chronotropy<br>- <b>Age</b> - fetus-child-adult<br><i>Beta-blockers are chronotropic drug agents that block $\beta 1$-adrenoreceptors.</i>
- <b>Hormones</b> - Thyroid hormones T3 and T4 -&gt; Positive chronotropy<br>- <b>Body temperature</b> - Fever -&gt; Positive chronotropy - <i>temperature increases ion diffusion for depolarisation</i><br>- <b>Ions</b> - Ca²⁺ and K⁺<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - <i><b>Hypercalcemia (Ca²⁺), Hypokalemia (K⁺)</b></i> -&gt; Positive chronotropy<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - <b><i>Hypocalcemia (Ca²⁺), Hyperkalemia (K⁺)</i></b> -&gt; Negative chronotropy<br>- <b>Age</b> - fetus-child-adult<br><i>Beta-blockers are chronotropic drug agents that block $\beta 1$-adrenoreceptors.</i>HR Regulation - <i><b>Other Factors</b></i>
Stroke Volume (SV)Blood volume ejected in each ventricular contraction<br>- Difference between End Diastolic Volume (EDV) and End Systolic Volume (ESV)<br>- SV = EDV - ESV<br>- <i>EDV ~ 130 and ESV ~60 as a heart blood reserve for adverse conditions - leaving 70ml for contraction.</i>
Blood volume ejected in each ventricular contraction<br>- Difference between End Diastolic Volume (EDV) and End Systolic Volume (ESV)<br>- SV = EDV - ESV<br>- <i>EDV ~ 130 and ESV ~60 as a heart blood reserve for adverse conditions - leaving 70ml for contraction.</i>Stroke Volume (SV)
Cardiac Force Response<ul><li>Cardiac muscle contraction involves sliding of thick myosin and thin actin filaments - similar to skeletal muscles</li><li>Maximum tension until cardiomyocyte snaps.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Cardiac muscle contraction involves sliding of thick myosin and thin actin filaments - similar to skeletal muscles</li><li>Maximum tension until cardiomyocyte snaps.</li></ul>Cardiac Force Response