PSICOLOGIA E SAÚDE EM DEBATE
ISSN (eletrônico) 2446-922X
THEORETICAL STUDY
HYPNOSIS: definition, importance, limitations and evidencebased possibilites
DOI: 10.22289/2446-922X.V8N2A14
Filipe Luís Souza 1
Camilla Volpato Broering
ABSTRACT
The primary objective of this review is to analyze the main theoretical perspectives that define
hypnosis, the value of considering it as a unique phenomenon, the evidence that sustains that
view, and its effect on research. For more than a century in which the subject has been studied,
the results are still hampered by a methodological flaw since the beginning of the research, the
definition of the phenomenon. This review used the Medline via Pubmed as database for
bibliographic search, including a total of 41 studies, where it could be found that 72,7% of the
surveyed studies, adopt the approach in which there's an alternate state of consciousness to
explain the phenomenon and to guide its interpretations, even though there isn't enough evidence
to sustain the existence of an alternate state of consciousness exclusively hypnotic and it's
relation to the capability of hypnotic response. In conclusion, it's suggested the performance of
more studies that bring a merger between sociocognitive and state of mind perspectives, so that
the findings can come to help with the evolution of hypnosis, which already presents strong results
when applied in different medical and psychotherapeutic treatments, predominantly in the
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy.
Keywords: Hypnosis; Evidence-based Practice; Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
HIPNOSE: DEFINIÇÃO, IMPORTÂNCIA, LIMITAÇÕES E
POSSIBILIDADES BASEADAS EM EVIDÊNCIAS
RESUMO
O objetivo primário desta revisão é analisar as principais perspectivas teóricas que definem o
que seria a hipnose enquanto fenômeno, analisando também as evidências que as sustentam e
suas aplicações em pesquisas, vez que, por não haver um consenso na comunidade científica
sobre sua definição, há mais de um século em que o fenômeno é pesquisado, os resultados
potenciais dos achados podem estar comprometido por uma falha metodológica na gênese das
pesquisas. Esta revisão utilizou a Medline via Pubmed como base de dados para levantamento
bibliográfico, incluindo um total de 41 estudos, onde constatou-se que, 72,7% das pesquisas,
levantadas, utilizam uma perspectiva de estado alterado de consciência para explicar o
fenômeno e guiar a interpretação de seus achados, mesmo que não existam evidências que
sustentem a proposição da existência de um estado alterado de consciência exclusivamente
hipnótico e sua relação com a capacidade de resposta hipnótica. Por fim, propõe-se a realização
de mais estudos que tragam uma integração entre perspectivas sociocognitivas e estatais,
menos espaçadas, para que os achados venham auxiliar na evolução da hipnose, que já possui
1
Endereço eletrônico de contato: filipe.souza@clinicasouzaecabral.com
Recebido em 12/09/2022. Aprovado pelo conselho editorial para publicação em 07/12/2022.
Rev. Psicol Saúde e Debate. Dez., 2022:8(2): 226-245.
*Page numbers adjusted according to the original in brazilian portuguese.
226
forte corpo de evidências em diferentes quadros de tratamentos médicos e psicoterápicos,
sobretudo na Terapia Cognitivo-Comportamental.
Palavras-chave: Hipnose; Prática Baseada em Evidências; Imagem de Ressonância Magnética.
HIPNOSIS: DEFINICIÓN, importancia, limitaciones y
posibilidades basadas en la evidencia
RESUMEN
El objetivo principal de esta revisión es analizar las principales perspectivas teóricas que definen
la hipnosis, el valor de considerarla como un fenómeno único, la evidencia que sustenta esa
visión y su efecto en la investigación. Durante más de un siglo en el que se ha estudiado el tema,
los resultados todavía se ven obstaculizados por una falla metodológica desde el inicio de la
investigación, la definición del fenómeno. Esta revisión utilizó Medline vía Pubmed como base
de datos para la búsqueda bibliográfica, incluyendo un total de 41 estudios, donde se pudo
encontrar que el 72,7% de los estudios encuestados, adoptan el enfoque en el que hay un estado
alternativo de conciencia para explicar el fenómeno y guiar sus interpretaciones, a pesar de que
no hay suficiente evidencia para sostener la existencia de un estado alternativo de conciencia
exclusivamente hipnótico y su relación con la capacidad de hipnótico. respuesta. En conclusión,
se sugiere la realización de más estudios que traigan una fusión entre las perspectivas
sociocognitivas y del estado de ánimo, de modo que los hallazgos puedan ayudar con la
evolución de la hipnosis, que ya presenta resultados sólidos cuando se aplica en diferentes
tratamientos médicos y psicoterapéuticos, predominantemente en la Terapia CognitivoConductual.
Palabras clave: Hipnosis; Práctica basada en la evidencia; Resonancia magnética.
1 INTRODUCTION
Hypnosis is the oldest form of Western psychotherapy (DeSouza et al., 2020). Currently,
approaches such as the Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), are already well supported
regarding its functioning and resolution of mental disorders. From the concepts of Radical
Behaviorism added to the understanding of cognitive theories, the CBT was created and, with a
robust framework of evidence showing its effectiveness in the treatment of the main mental
disorders. CBT is highly effective in the treatment of anxiety disorders such as ObsessiveCompulsive Disorder (OCD), Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Panic Disorder (PD),
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), Social Anxiety (SAD), Specific Phobias and Agoraphobia
(Carpenter et al., 2018; van Dis et al., 2020; McGuire et al., 2015). Based on what common sense
expects from the results of a psychotherapeutic intervention, the evolution of Evidence-Based
Psychology has shown through multidisciplinary studies how psychotherapy is actually a
biological treatment. Thanks to recent discoveries, it’s stated that more than 50% of deaths
worldwide are attributable to diseases related to the inflammation of a person’s body, and the
state of chronic inflammation can be associated with heart problems, diabetes, cancer, arthritis
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227
and bowel diseases (Harvard Health Publishing, 2020). In addition to that, it’s also known, with
support from 56 clinical trials and a total of 4060 participants, that CBT demonstrates
improvements to our immune function (Shields, Spahr & Slavich, 2020).
Additionally and as a means of diversifying the sample base of this manuscript, the third
wave of cognitive therapies brings approaches such as Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT),
indicated for the treatment of other clinical conditions, such as the treatment of Major Depressive
Disorder (MDD), substance abuse and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). DBT is highly
effective in decreasing the incidence of self-harm as well as suicide attempts (McCauley E. et al.,
2018).
Along with the evidence of psychological treatment methods developed in the West,
another great advance that benefits those affected by mental disorders, is pharmacotherapy. So
far, it is known that major depressive disorder is one of the most common and burdensome mental
disorders for adults worldwide, and even though there are non-drug interventions for it,
antidepressant medications are still used more frequently. One of the reasons this happens,
mentioned by Cipriani et al. (2018), is the inadequate amount of resources for other means of
treatment, which reinforces the need for new and better-based tools in psychological
interventions. With 522 studies involving 116,477 participants, 21 tests of psychiatric drugs were
applied and systematically compared to the treatment of major depressive disorder in adults and,
in terms of efficiency, all antidepressants were more effective than placebo (Cipriani et al, 2018).
Taking into account the theme of this study and the concern in evaluating an accelerator of clinical
results, one should look further into the drugs and their correct usage. As an example of the
theme, it’s possible to observe an audience that suffers a lot from depressive disorders,
adolescents and children, and after reviewing 71 trials involving 9,510 participants, it was found
that no pharmacotherapy alone was more effective than psychotherapy alone, and despite the
low amount of evidence of relevant quality, fluoxetine (by itself or in associated with CBT) proved
to be the best choice for the acute treatment of moderate to severe depressive disorder in children
and adolescents (Zhou et al, 2020). Even with psychological and pharmacological interventions,
from 76% to 85% of the population in low- to middle-income countries do not receive any
treatment for their disorder (James et al, 2018). When dealing with the relationship between
psychological approaches and effectiveness, one should focus on optimization flow, I.e. , making
the experience of realizing a bad state of mind to seeking and finding help as fast as possible.
Thus, starting the treatment faster and so, having your recovery also in a faster way, as shown
by comparative research between the effectiveness of psychoanalytic approaches in
psychotherapy or not, compared to antidepressants (Eysenck, 1952), therefore, here is presented
a possibility of optimizing and accelerating the psychotherapeutic process, using hypnosis in
psychological interventions (such as CBT, DBT and others). In the clinical context, researcher
Irving Kirsch, reports that hypnosis is a therapeutic tool that can be used along with any therapy
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in which the professional applying it is competent (Carvalho, 2010) and when talking about
hypnotherapy, it’s important to remember that it has no theory of personality of its own, or a
specific perspective of the world and of people,as well as no exclusive technique to the hypnotic
methods. This brings light to the conclusion that hypnotherapy by itself does not exist, it boils
down to its “trade name”, when in reality it’s the use of hypnosis as a booster for results
associated with the tools of some other therapeutic approach.
In patients with clinical depression in a state of palliative care, cognitive hypnotherapy (CH
- hypnosis associated with CBT) has been shown to be able to develop antidepressant neural
circuits, effective in the treatment of depression, thus being a catalyst for approaches based on
mindfulness (Alladin & Alibhai, 2007). ; Lynn et al, 2010) and so being able to provide a multitude
of tools for the psychological management of depression (Alladin, 2018). Meta-analytic evidence
suggests that hypnosis may be more effective than mindfulness in relieving anxiety, and in
interventions where hypnosis was associated with CBT (HC), it was produced a large effect of
1.25, in comparison to when used as a single treatment, which produced an average effect of
0.70 (Valentine et al., 2019). Other meta-analytic evidence suggests that hypnosis has an
immediate effect on anxiety in cancer patients (Chen et al., 2017). Another positive aspect for the
use of hypnosis is its benefits in the treatment of chronic pain (Machado, Silva & Silva, 2021),
stimulating neural plasticity, increasing patient motivation and increasing the tools for pain
management, including in diseases like multiple sclerosis. The idea of adding clinically based
hypnosis is not new, in 1995 it was demonstrated through a meta-analysis of 18 studies in which
CBT was compared with CBT itself but with the addition of hypnosis. The findings were that with
HC, patients showed greater improvement than at least 70% of clients who received non-hypnotic
treatment. However, it was even more impressive with the results of obesity treatment patients
who continued to lose weight even after the treatment ended (Kirsh et al, 1995). Hypnosis is a
tool that needs better evidence about its clinical effectiveness, especially in the description and
definition of the phenomenon, although there are already other cientifical pieces making a
conceptual redefinition and integrating neurobiology with sociocognitive theories (Gruzelier,
2000), the use and dissemination of the information that hypnosis would be an “altered state of
consciousness” not only keeps society away from the possible benefits obtained through the
hypnotic process, but also keeps hypnosis away from the respectful gaze of health professionals.
The present study analyzed which theoretical perspectives have clinical applicability, added to an
evidence-based theoretical perspective and its possibilities, since the current scenario in the field
of hypnotism is divided, mostly, between hypotheses of altered state of consciousness and
sociocognitive hypotheses, both , derived from the five best-articulated views of hypnosis in the
scientific community today (Kirsch, 2011), namely: qualitative state hypothesis, quantitative state
hypothesis, no-state hypothesis, weak state view and epiphenomenal hypothesis. The data
remains inconclusive and inconsistent as to the existence of an altered hypnotic state of
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consciousness and its causal relationship with the human ability to respond to suggestions, as
numerous neuroimaging studies show the association of hypnosis with changes in neural
activation patterns but, these can also be simply associated with the normal variation of brain
activity (Tuominem et al., 2021), however, the lack of confirmation of an altered state of
consciousness, at any time, seems to change the mass application of state theories in the
academic environment and in the clinical practice.
2 DEVELOPMENT
Method
The present study is an integrative review, based on the survey of literature data,
published from Jan/2017 to 21/Jan/2022. The literature reviewed came from a single scientific
database, Medline via Pubmed. Integrative reviews bring relevant contributions to an evidencebased practice in the field of health, since, considering its systematization, the production of the
synthesis of knowledge taken by different studies on a phenomenon in common, expands the
frontier of human knowledge and has repercussions on health care practice.
In the research, it was considered the following English descriptions : “hypnosis definition”,
“hypnosis AND sociocognitive” and “hypnosis AND fmri”.
Since this is an integrative literature review based on operational steps, as a first step the
guiding question is drafted: Which theoretical perspective best comes close to defining hypnosis?
In the second stage, the criteria for inclusion and exclusion of studies is established only to add
studies that contribute to the discussion of the guiding question, providing support for different
theoretical perspectives of the definition of hypnosis.
Through this search method, 65 publications potentially eligible to be included in this
review were initially identified. Then, without evaluating only by titles, a full reading of the
publications was carried out in order to identify if at a certain point of the studies, a theoretical
perspective of hypnosis would be presented. The articles included in the analysis performed in
this research were selected only those that followed the following criteria: (a) chronology dated
from 2017 on; and (b) articles that contribute to the line of thought provided by the guiding
question. After reviewing the pieces, 41 articles that followed the criteria described above, were
selected and included.
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231
Figure 1 - Identification and selection of publications surveyed using the keywords “hypnosis
definition”, “hypnosis AND sociocognitive” and “hypnosis AND fmri”, according to the chronology
Jan/2017 to Jan /21/2022.
Discussion
Since the birth of a concept, the debate and research about it begins, therefore, hypnosis
would not be an exception to this rule. Research on hypnosis and its possibilities start from the
definition of what hypnosis would be when considered a phenomenon, being then directed to
research funds, conducting experiments, collecting and interpreting data and all of this meaning:
everything depends on the creation of the concept we’re studying. There is a growing concern
with the old problem about the existence or non-existence of a hypnotic state (Bartolucci and
Lombardo, 2017). In the bibliographic survey carried out, there was a greater application of the
concept that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness, in which, from a reduced peripheral
state of consciousness and focused attention and thoughts abandonment, we can see an
improvement in response to suggestions (Otte et al., 2020; Taylor and Genkov, 2019; Krouwel,
Jolly and Greenfield, 2019; Keefer et al., 2022; Jiang et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2020; Halsband and
Wolf, 2019; Li et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2018; Chadderdon et al., 2020; Casiglia et al., 2020; Koban
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et al., 2017; Napp et al., 2021; Walsh et al., 2017; Wolf et al. al., 2022; Li et al., 2019; Sanyal et
al., 2022; Frati et al., 2019 and Komesu et al., 2017). By saying that the vision of an altered state
of consciousness has a greater current applicability, the present article does not do it with the
intention of verifying the quality or validity of its application, only reporting
the findings in
quantitative terms. In the bibliographic survey, it was also possible to notice the application, in a
smaller number, of neo dissociative views of hypnosis, which has the principle that hypnosis
would occur as a dissociative self state and where it would be the generating fact of a temporary
separation between the connectivity of self-monitoring and the brain’s executive processes, which
would thus influence the human behavior (Wawrziczny, Buquê and Picard, 2021; Wahbeh and
Radin, 2017; Pancheri et al., 2017; Facco et al, 2019 and Bastos Jr. et al. ., 2021). As in the
altered state of consciousness view, in dissociative theories, attention and concentration would
also be less sensitive to irrelevant stimuli (Facco et al., 2019).
Table 1 - Survey of theoretical perspectives of hypnosis applied in research with functional
magnetic resonance (fmri)
Theoretical
perspective
Authorship
Research object
Jiang et al., 2017
State (Standard)
Functional alterations of the DMN,
ECN and SN and their association with
hypnosis and hypnotizability
Komesu et al., 2017
Methodology for a trial of brainState (Standard)
centered versus anticholinergic therapy
in women with urgency urinary
incontinence
Koban et al., 2017
Mechanisms involved in the influence
and changes in the perception of pain
and emotion through speech,
instructions, placebo and hypnosis
Walsh et al., 2017
State (Standard)
Brain mechanisms in the loss or
reduction of consciousness and
movement in neuropsychiatric
disorders and dissociative phenomena
Derbyshire et al.,
2017
Suggestions to Reduce Clinical Sociocognitive
Fibromyalgia Pain and Experimentally
Induced Pain Produce Parallel Effects
on Perceived Pain but Divergent
Functional MRI–Based Brain Activity
Liu et al., 2018
Investigation on the Neural Mechanism State (Standard)
of Hypnosis-Based Respiratory Control
Using Functional MRI
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State
(Adjustments)
232
Solitário et al., 2018
Review of neuroimaging studies
related to pain modulation in subjects
with high and low levels of hypnotic
susceptibility
Trujillo-Rodriguez et
al., 2019
Mechanisms underlying the modulation State (Standard)
of pain perception under hypnotic
conditions mediated by the anterior
and prefrontal cingulate
Halsband & Wolf,
2019
Functional Changes in Brain Activity State
After
Hypnosis:
Neurobiological (Adjustments)
Mechanisms and Application to
Patients with a Specific Phobia—
Limitations and Future Directions
Facco et al., 2019
Dissociative identity as a continuum
from healthy mind to psychiatric
disorders: Epistemological and
neurophenomenological implications
approached through hypnosis.
Dissociative
Picerni et al., 2019
Cerebellar Structural Variations in
Subjects with Different Hypnotizability
Sociocognitive
Rainville et al., 2019
Hypnotic automaticity in the resting
brain
Sociocognitive
Li et al., 2019
Neural mechanisms of hypnosis-based State
(Adjustments)
treatment in smoking, specifically,
when hypnosis involves a top-down or
bottom-up regulatory mechanism
Frati et al., 2019
Description of the results of a
preliminary experience of a cohort of
patients operated on with an original
protocol of hypnosis-assisted awake
surgery
Liu et al, 2020
Physiological performance altered in
State
hypnosis through temporal fluctuation, (Adjustments)
control of respiratory movement and
synchronization of the signal of brain
activity
Li et al ., 2020
The neural mechanisms of immediate State (Standard)
and follow-up of the treatment effect of
hypnosis on smoking craving
Chadderdon et al.,
2020
State (Standard)
Mechanisms of psychological
interventions for their application in
patients who need to undergo MRI and
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State (Standard)
Dissociative
233
interventional radiology
Casiglia et al., 2020
State (Standard)
Brain mechanisms involved in
analgesia with hypnotic focus from
functional magnetic resonance imaging
in 20 highly hypnotizable subjects
Napp et al., 2021
Audio self-hypnosis as a way to reduce State
claustrophobia during MRI
(Adjustments)
Bastos Jr et al., 2021 Corpus callosum size, hypnotic
susceptibility and empathy in women
with alleged mediumship: a controlled
study.
Sociocognitive
Wolf et al., 2022
Systematic review of functional
changes in brain activity during
hypnosis
State (Standard)
Sanyal et al., 2022
Introduction of hypnotherapy as a
State
therapeutic option for stroke treatment (Adjustments)
Note - In the making of this dataset, the articles that used the same state perspective, I.e.,
that hypnosis is a state of consciousness that involves focused attention and reduced peripheral
awareness characterized by a greater ability to respond to suggestion, were classified as “State
(Standard)”. Articles that presented a theoretical state perspective but with the presentation of
small changes in their definitions, flowing between hypotheses of qualitative, quantitative and
weak state, were grouped as “State (Adjustments)”. Articles that present hypnosis as a
dissociative phenomenon were indexed as “Dissociative” and articles that presented hypnosis as
a phenomenon dependent on social, cognitive and expectation variables were indexed as a
“Sociocognitive” perspective.
Figure 2 - Generalization and opening of the theoretical-state spectrum. Note - The
supremacy of the applications of state perspective theories (Graph A) on hypnosis in the field of
neuroscientific research is verified. However, when increasing interest in it, a spectrum of
hypnosis definitions is observed (Graph B) within a spectrum that precedes them.
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In theorizing the phenomenon of “hypnosis”, sociocognitive perspectives (non-state view
and epiphenomenal hypothesis), on the other hand, reject the views of hypersuggestibility
generated by the altered state of consciousness (hypnotic trance) as responsible for our ability to
respond to hypnotic suggestions and begin to theorize the hypnotic response as the product of a
variety of attitudes, beliefs, imaginative abilities, dream capacities and above all, a person’s
expectations,
which
is
potentially
changable
(Short, 2018). Not even within theories of state, hypersuggestibility finds refuge, according to
Janet (1925, p. 282, apud Short, 2018): “It is very doubtful that hypnosis can be considered an
increased suggestibility. Certain subjects are more suggestible in the waking state than during
hypnotic sleep.” There is no consensus on the definition, natural or theoretical perspective. It is
known that in general when a phenomenon involves induction, relaxation and suggestions
(directly or indirectly), it will usually be called hypnosis (Lam et al., 2018). Research on hypnosis
in addition to being carried out, almost entirely, with healthy subjects with high hypnotizability
scores (Solitário et al., 2018), ignore other data that would be relevant, such as the morphological
variations found in the cerebellar structure that extends and takes away the corticocentric view
of hypnotizability (Picerni et al., 2019), a restrictive view of hypnosis as a state of decreased
consciousness and peripheral perception as a result of the altered activity of regions, specifically,
of the cortical regions.
The sociocognitive proposal brings to light the possibility of understanding hypnosis as a
behavior involving the motivation of the subject, who is submitted to social and psychological
influences like any other person. The subject’s expectations, including their expectations about
the word “hypnosis”, must be taken into account, since it makes hypnotic experiences to be seen
as a continuum of social influence on human behavior and cognition (Jiang et al., 2017). There
are many problems that are born from the idea of the existence of a hypnotic trance, in addition
to the fact that this research has been carried out for more than a century to solve this debate and
the evidence being ambiguous regarding the alterations in neural functioning that would support
the state view, Its existence is even contradictory based on the functional changes found to date
since, based on them, hypnosis, meditation and near-death experiences could be the same thing
(Facco et al., 2017). Besides, it is known that task motivation instructions can reproduce the
same effects of hypnotic induction, creating a similar response to that of the hypnotic suggestion
(Bartolucci and Lombardo, 2017), added to these data and moving towards a more
neurophysiological view, the OXTR gene polymorphism is associated with a tendency and ability
to focus more on internal experiences, which would increase hypnotizability (Bryant et al., 2014
apud Santarcangelo and Scattina, 2019), following a state view, however, the release of oxytocin
after induction is higher in subjects identified with low and medium hypnotizability (Varga &
Kekecs, 2014 apud Santarcangelo and Scattina, 2019). The data provided reinforces the
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hypothesis that although there is a need to quantify the observed phenomena, everyone can
respond to hypnosis to a certain level but, every scale is always intimately linked to the definition
of the observed and described in the study, therefore the accuracy and reliability of the
hypnotizability scales are found to be lower than desired (Facco et al., 2017). Nothing that
hypnosis does, cannot be replicated without it (Derbyshire et al., 2017) even if to a lesser extent,
evidence points to how everyone can respond to hypnosis, even if by different neurophysiological
mechanisms (Santarcangelo and Scattina, 2019). In the bibliographic survey, it was possible to
find a single article on the use of hypnosis as analgesia measured by the cingulate, which when
delimiting what was treated by hypnosis, specified that it does not have, until this day, specific
neural correlates and that hypnosis itself , produces changes in the perceptual experience through
suggestions and responses (Trujillo-Rodriguez et al., 2019), so it’s clear that the community is
aware of the structural flaw of state theories, just not replicating true delimitations when describing
it.
The perpetuation of theories that stipulate hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness,
purely and simply, generate a distance from its initial purpose and as society appropriates
institutional knowledge, it interprets it freely, transforming different experiences and phenomena
into “hypnosis”. ”, then applying the term to describe exorcisms, laying on of hands and other
rites, doing not only a cultural injustice (Wickramasekera 2º, 2020) but also generating a social
“conditioning” that hypnosis exerts different possibilities on the human “mind”. In the academic
scenario this can be ignored, in everyday situations, the possibility of the existence of an altered
state of consciousness that has the ability to change perceptions through simple suggestions,
based on mentalistic theories or not, makes it possible for hypnosis to be used as a possible
treatment for reversing sexual orientation and/or gender identity (Alempijevic et al., 2020), all
around the world and under state’s endorsement.
3 CONCLUSION
The premise of the theoretical state perspective is as necessary for hypnosis as
Descartes' radical localizationist school was for the neurosciences. Its pedagogical use is easily
seen, since it undergoes so many changes when explained, a phenomenon that is perceived
when observing state hypotheses not as a block but as a spectrum (Figure 2). Hypnosis generates
changes in brain functioning, this is a sustained statement. What is concluded is the need not to
abandon a theoretical perspective for the empowerment of another, it is necessary to adopt a
multi-theoretical model (Bartolucci and Lombardo, 2017), adding the understanding of hypnosis
as a behavior and the influence of expectations, as well as its neural correlations, looking for its
neuronal markers. The results obtained on hypnosis, to date, already allow us to reconcile the
sociocognitive perspective with theories of state (Rainville et al., 2019), since understanding
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hypnosis as a process linked to human communication and in turn, linked to the behavior of being
motivated to collaborate with a certain suggestion (sociocognitive hypothesis), is a possibility.
From this, one can understand their neural correlates using the literature on the effects induced
by expectation that affect aspects of self-representation that in turn, produce an alteration in the
subject's subjective perception.
If an experiment seeks to understand the applicability of hypnosis and its range of
possibilities based on evidence to favor individual and/or collective human health in the most
diverse clinical and neuropsychiatric conditions, doing it with a methodological error in its genesis,
logically, will guide its result, inevitably, to the minimum contemplation of the full potential of
hypnosis. Used as treatment for stroke (Sanyal et al., 2022), form of therapy for urinary
incontinence (Komesu et al., 2017), alternative control of chronic pain and acute pain during
invasive surgery (Derbyshire et al., 2017), hypnosis is used as a tool in so many other activities
in different areas of human health, which are not part of the body of discussion of this article,
therefore, regardless of the theoretical perspective, its application is beneficial and known to
people, the establishment and reverberation of a socio-cognitive perspective with the
neuroimaging research apparatus and other technologies used in experimental state vision
research, would point to a healthier public reception with still springing possibilities. This review
concludes that better quality and less spaced research is needed on the suggested subject, since
numerous authors already argue that there is a continuum of positions on hypnosis and its
different theoretical perspectives, which should not be taken as excluding one another, but being
an addition to one another (Bastos Jr et al., 2021).
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