CFIT
Controlled flight into terrain; describes an accident in which
an aircraft under pilot control is unintentionally flown into the
ground, mountain, water or an obstacle. Main causes for CFİT
accidents are fatigue, loss of SA, disorientation,
misinterpreting charts or ATC clearances. To reduce the risk of
CFİT, using GPWS and obeying the İCAO rules are important
GPWS
Ground proximity warning system is a system designed to
alert pilot if aircraft is in imminent danger of flying into ground
or an obstacle. This system combines the data which are R/A,
barometric altitude, configuration, vertical speed, glide slope
deviation, present position, gear position, approach minima,
flap position, throttle position, and in enhanced mode DTED, to
warn pilot about the closure of impact. In EGPWS system wind
shear is also shown. EGPWS reduces the risk of CFİT almost
50 times. GPWS is mandatory on public transportation aircraft
over 5700 kg.
VERTICAL (CROSS) WIND COMPONENT
Crosswind component of wind is computed as follows:
Sin(Runway heading-wind direction)x wind strength
DUTCH ROLL
If the aircraft is yawed to the right, the left wing advances
(sideslip) and generates more lift, whilst the right wing slows
down and produce less lift. The result of the imbalance in lift is
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to roll the aircraft in the direction of the initial yaw. The
advancing wing also produces greater drag due to the larger
areas exposed to the airflow, which causes the aircraft yaw in
the opposite direction. This results in the right wing producing
more lift than the left wing, reversing the direction of the roll.
The final result is Rolling and yawing oscillation which have
the same frequency. Yaw dampers prevent Dutch Roll on
swept-wing aircrafts.
LIFT
Lift is the force that is generated by the pressure difference
between the upper and lower surface of airfoil that is facing the
air with a certain speed. An airfoil is cambered on its top side
and flattened on its bottom, so the air facing airfoil separates
into two parts. The air on top of the wing travels faster than the
air on the bottom. Faster air produces less pressure than
faster air as in the Bernoulli principle. Lift can be formulated
as= 1/2 CLxSxqxV2, where CL is the coefficient of lift. CL
depends upon the angle of attack and shape of that specific
wing. By moving the elevators, basically AOA is changed
therefore the lift. Lift is assumed to be acting on center of
pressure of the airfoil. CP moves forward as the AOA increase
and moves backward as the AOA decrease.
ALDİS
LIGHT FORM
GROUND
2
AIR
Steady green
Clear to take off
Clear to land
Flashing green
Clear to taxi
Return and wait for
landing signal
Steady red
Stop
Give way to other
aircraft
Flashing red
Vacate runway
Do not land
Flashing white
Return to starting
point
----
Alternating red green
Caution
caution
VREF
Vref = Landing Reference Speed at a point 50 feet above
the landing threshold. It is not less than 1.3 times the stall
speed
in
the
normal
landing
configuration.
In simple terms.... your final approach speed.
Hydroplaning.
As causes by a thin layer of standing water that separates
the tires from the runway. It causes the reduction of friction
between the tires and runway surface. High aircraft speeds,
water, slush, and runway texture are the effects for
hydroplaning. Braking action is reported by ATC like" poor,
good, fair, nil". If it is nil, directional control may be impossible.
If hydroplaning occurs, landing roll may be longer than the one
on smooth ice. To estimate the minimum hydroplaning speed,
sqrt of tire pressure times 8,6.
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PRECISION AND NON-PRECISION
APPROACH
Precision approach, as it is understood from its name, is
more precise and has lower minimums than non-precision
approach. The easiest way to distinguish between precision
and non-precision approach is to look up chart's minima part. If
DA(H) is published it is precision approach. If MDA(H) is
published, it is non-precision approach.
The types of precision approach are İLS, MLS, PAR and
WAAS GPS RNAV. The types of non-precision approach are
NDB, VOR, LOC and GPS RNAV.
Final approach segment for a precision approach begins
with intercepting the glide slope at designated altitude.
On the other hand final approach segment for a nonprecision segment begins at designated FAF or at a point
when you establish final approach course. When FAF is not
designated, final approach begins at final approach point
(FAP) where procedure turn intercepts the final approach
course inbound.
VISIBILITY / RVR
Meteorological visibility is defined as the greatest
horizontal distance at which a specified object can be seen in
daylight conditions. Visibility is reduced whenever particles are
present in the atmosphere that absorbs the light, e.g., water,
ice, pollution, sand, dust, volcanic ash, etc.
Runway visual range (RVR). The range over which the
pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of a runway can see the
runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway
or identifying its centre line.
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-
RVR is not normally reported if it is 1500m or more.
Between 1500 and 800m it is reported in steps of 100m.
Between 800 and 200m it is reported in steps of 50m.
Between 0 and 200m it is reported in steps of 25m.
TYPES OF TURBINE ENGINES
There are four types of turbine engines; turbojet, turbofan,
turboprop, and turboshaft. Basically turbofan and turbojet
engines are similar to each other. The only difference is that
the turbofan engine has additional fan in the inlet section that
separates the inlet air into two parts. One is bypassing the
engine to provide engine cooling and fuel efficiency and helps
noise suppression. The second air flow just like turbojet engine
passes through the compressor, combustor, turbine and
exhaust to provide thrust.
Turboshaft and turboprop are basically the same.
Turboshaft engine drives a shaft that is connected to a
gearbox or a transmission while a turboprop engine is
connected to a propeller.
There are five sections in an engine; inlet, compressor,
combustor,turbine(expansion) and exhaust.
PAPİ, VASİ, PVASİ, T-VASI
PAPİ; precision approach path indicator lights are used for
visual precision approach. Four light system are normally
installed left of the runway with a glide angle of three degrees.
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These lights are visible from 5 NM in day and 20 NM at night.
Two white two red on the path.
VASİ; Visual approach slope indicator lights has two types.
One is two bar VASİ and the other one is three bar VASİ. VASİ
lights are normally visible from 3-5 NM in day and 20 NM at
night. Two bar VASİ is set to 3 degree glide slope. Short
description for two bar VASİ is “red over white you are all
right".
PVASİ; pulsating visual approach slope indicator lights are
visible from 4 NM in day and 10 NM at night. “steady white you
are all right."
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T-VASI consists of twenty light units. Ten either sights of
the runway. They form a cross shape with: Six lights in a line
with the runway, four across in a bar.
When high on the approach; four lights in each bar show
white; and depending on how high one is, one, two or three
white
lights
are
visible
beyond
the
bar.
When on the correct path, only four bar lights are visible.
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When below the approach path: Four lights in the bar show
red. Depending on how low one is, one, two or three red lights
are visible in front of the bar.
CAT
Clear air turbulence. İt is commonly thought as high
altitude turbulent air phenomena. There is no visual warning
for CAT. So it is hard to detect. CAT is usually found in jet
streams. This kind of turbulence is mostly 2000 feet deep, 1020 miles wide and 50 miles long. Long streams of cirrus cloud
formation may show jet stream CAT. CAT is usually faced
above 15000 feet.
TURBULENCE
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Turbulence is the swirl motions in the atmosphere. İt
may cause stress on the airframe. There are several types of
turbulence which are low level turbulence, clear air turbulence
and mountain wave turbulence.
Low level turbulence may be faced under 15000 feet and
occurred because of surface heating, friction, or ground
shapes. Wake turbulence is considered as low level
turbulence. İt is generated by preceding aircraft's wingtips.
That is why it is also called wingtip vortices. The greatest
vortex strength occurs when the preceding aircrafts is slow,
heavy, clean configuration and at high angle of attack.
Generally wingtip vortices suspend in the air for several
minutes. According to İCAO rules, there is supposed to be
separation between the aircrafts. These are; light to light,
Medium to medium and heavy to heavy none on the other
hand, medium to heavy 3 and light to heavy 5 minutes.
TURBULENCE PENETRATION
Maintain level attitude, use maneuvering as penetration
speed (rough air speed) and accept variations in airspeed and
altitude.
If you encounter turbulence during approach, increase
the airspeed slightly above normal approach speed to attain
more positive control.
WIND SHEAR AND MICROBURST
Wind shear is a sudden, drastic change in wind direction
and speed. İt may be upward or downward. This can cause
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the aircraft to gain or loose sudden altitude and change
airspeed. Microburst is one of the most dangerous types of
wind shear. This type of wind shear reaches the ground and
blow away in all directions. It is intense, localized down
streams as strong as 6000 fpm.
An aircraft can face microburst especially at takeoff or
landing. So if GPWS alerts the pilot about wind shear, the only
way to recover is to go around. Wind shear may be
encountered around virga, cumulus formations, rain shaft or
dusting.
FIRST AID KIT REQUIREMENT
According to JAR -OPS 1745, first aid kit requirements is
dependent upon the number of passenger seats installed. For
0-99, 1 kit, 100-199 2 kits, 200-299 3 kits and for 300 and
more 4 kits are required.
ISA- INTERNATIONAL STANDART
ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
At sea level, Density: 1.225 kg/m3 Press:29.92 inch
mercury or 1013.25 mb Temp: 15 Lapse Rate : 2 C/1000feet
WEIGHTS
Aircraft Authorized gross weight limits are laid down in
the aircraft flight manuals (AFM). The authorized or permitted
limits may be equal to or lower than the structural design
weight limits.
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Maximum weights established, for each aircraft, by
design and certification must not be exceeded during aircraft
operation (ramp or taxiing, takeoff, en-route flight, approach,
and landing) and during aircraft loading (zero fuel conditions,
centre of gravity position, and weight distribution).
Maximum Taxi Weight (MTW)-(Maximum Ramp Weight
(MRW)) is the maximum weight authorized for maneuvering
(taxiing or towing) an aircraft on the ground as limited by
aircraft strength and airworthiness requirements. It includes
the weight of taxi and run-up fuel for the engines and the APU.
It is greater than the maximum takeoff weight due to the fuel
that will be burned during the taxi and run-up operations. 10 to
15 minutes allowance of taxi and run-up operations.
Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW)-(Maximum Brake
Release Weight) is the maximum weight authorized at brake
release for takeoff, or at the start of the takeoff roll.
In operation, the maximum weight for takeoff may be
limited to values less than the Maximum Takeoff Weight due to
aircraft performance, environmental conditions, airfield
characteristics (takeoff field length, altitude), maximum tire
speed and brake energy, obstacle clearances, and/or enroute
and landing weight requirements.
Maximum Landing Weight (MLW)-The maximum weight
authorized for normal landing of an aircraft. The MLW must not
exceed the MTOW.
The operation landing weight may be limited to a weight
lower than the Maximum Landing Weight by the most
restrictive of the following requirements:
Aircraft performance requirements for a given altitude
and temperature:
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landing field length requirements,
approach and landing climb requirements
Noise requirements
If the flight has been of short duration, fuel may have to
be
jettisoned
to
reduce
the
landing
weight.
Overweight landings require a structural inspection or
evaluation of the touch-down loads before the next aircraft
operation.
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW)- The zero fuel
weight (ZFW) of an aircraft is the total weight of the airplane
and all its contents, minus the total weight of the usable fuel on
board (unusable fuel is included in ZFW). It is the maximum
weight permitted before usable fuel and other specified usable
fluids are loaded in specified sections of the airplane. The
MZFW is limited by strength and airworthiness requirements.
BEM+VL=DOM
TOM=Ramp Mass-Taxi Fuel
DOM+TOF=OM
TL+TOF=Useful Load
OM+TL=TOM
DOM+TL+TOF=TOM
DOM+TL=ZFM
ZFM+TOF=TOM
EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON AIRCRAFT
PERFORMANCE
Weight has two adverse effect on performance in terms
of amount and balance. Firstly weight itself has an adverse
effect on flight performance almost in every aspect. These
effects from take off to landing are as follows;
- higher take off speed
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- longer take off run
- reduced rate of climb and angle
- lower maximum altitude
- lower cruise speed
- shorter range due to fuel consumption
- reduced manouvrebility
- higher stalling speed
- higher approach and landing speed
- longer landing roll
- excessive weight on landing gear
Secondly unbalance of weight will affect flight characteristics
adversely for example fuel load unbalance will cause one wing
heaviness or overload to aft will cause nose up attitude or visa
versa.
So before flight, loading of aircraft and computations of CG
shall be checked according to POH to keep in safe limits
during all flight.
FORWARD CG
AFT CG
Increases stability, decreases Decreases stability, increases
controlability
controlability
Take-off
more
elevator Take-off
less
elevator
requires, so later lift-off
requires, so later lift-off
Hard to climb
More drag (trim drag)
Less drag (trim drag)
Needs more lift so higher stall Needs less lift so lower stall
speed
speed
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Requires more thrust
Requires less thrust
Both range and endurance Both range and endurance
decreases
increases
TORA-TODA
TORA - Takeoff Run Available is the usable length of the
runway available.
The physical length of runway pavement.
TODA - Takeoff Distance Available=TORA+Clearway /
1,5xTORA
Clearway - Obstacle-free area at the end of the runway with
the dimension of 75 m. Either side of the extended runway
centerline.
TORR - Takeoff Run Required is the measured run
required to the unstick speed (Vr) plus one-third of the
airborne distance between the unstick and the screen height.
ASDA - Acceleration Stop Distance
Available=TORA+Stopway
EMDA - Emergency Distance Available=ASDA
Stopway-Unprepared surface at the end of the runway in
the direction of takeoff supporting the aircraft can be stopped
in case of an abandoned/rejected takeoff.
BALANCED FIELD refers to TODA=ASDA
LDA - Landing Distance Available is the length from 50 ft
above the surface of the runway threshold (screen height) to
the end of the landing runway.
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LDR - Landing Distance Required is the length from 50 ft
above the surface of the runway threshold (screen height) to
the point where the aircraft reaches a full stop.
ATMOSPHERE LAYERS
Troposphere 0-36000 feet
Stratosphere 36000-160000 feet
Mesosphere 160000-280000
Thermosphere 280000-~
Ozone layer is characterized by high concentration of O3,
with maximum concentration of O3, with maximum
concentration about 80000 feet. This special type of oxygen
molecule absorbs the harmful solar energy and accounts for
the increase the temperature in that part of atmosphere.
The lapse rate is defined as the rate of decrease with height
for an atmospheric variable. In the lower regions of the
atmosphere (up to altitudes of approximately 40,000 feet [12
km]), temperature decreases with altitude at a fairly uniform
rate. (2º/1000’)
TS occurrence
TS's are one of the most dangerous weather hazard that
pilots should avoid. Thunderstorms are associated with
cumulonimbus clouds, and there may be several thunderstorm
cells within a single cloud. It occurs in these conditions;
1. Unstable lapse rate ( instability)
2. Some type of lifting action
3. High moisture content
Embedded TS is one which is obscured by massive cloud
layers and cannot be seen.
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There are three steps of TS which are cumulus stage,
mature stage, dissipating stage. Wind shear areas can be
found on all sides TS and directly under it. There are several
hazards of thunderstorms which are wind shear, gusty winds,
hail, icing conditions, lightening, turbulence, reduced visibility
and radio/com interference. Pilots should avoid TS at least 2025 NM.
STABILIZED APPROACH
A stabilized approach is the safest profile, and it is one of
the most critical elements of a safe approach and landing
operation. There are five basic elements to the stabilized
approach:
1. Landing configuration: The airplane should be in the
landing configuration early in the approach.
2. Stabilize on profile: The airplane should be stabilized
on profile before descending through the 1,000 feet.
3. Descent rate: The optimum descent rate should be
500-700 fpm.
4. Indicated airspeed: Indicated airspeed should be not
more than VREF + 5 and appropriate adjustment for wind or
other factors, and never less than VREF.
5. Engine speed: The engine speed should be at a setting
that allows best response when and if a rapid power increase
is needed.
Otherwise, a go-around should be considered by the pilot.
METAR
Aviation routine weather report; is a report of observation of
current surface weather. METARs are issued normally hourly.
A special METAR SPECİ is issued between routine METAR
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reports. SPECİ is generated whenever a critical metorological
condition exists such as wind shear or microburst.
TAF
Terminal aerodrome forecast; the best source of weather for
that specific aerodrome. İt is issued four times a day and valid
for 24 hours and the other type is issued for a nine-hour period
updated every three hours.
WS/SİGMET
Is inflight advisory concerning convective weather that is
potentially hazardous to all aircraft. Report may be about
severe icing, extreme turbulence, CAT, dust, sand stor,
volcanic ash or hurricanes.
INVERSION
When there is an inversion in lapse rate, warm air cannot rise
up and even temperetture may increase with altitude. This is
called inversion. Radiation cooling from ground at clear cool
nights and warm air mass over cold air mass cause inversion.
İnversion occurs at low levels acting like a lid for humidity and
politants. İt usually contributes to low visibility, fog, low ceiling
with no wind and no turbulance conditions.
DEWPOINT
İs the point below which water vapor will condense into liquid.
Dew point is used to calculate ceiling of clouds.
AIRMASSES
Air masses are large body of air that have fairly same
temperature and moist. An air mass moving over a cold area
creates stable airwith poor surface visibility and moving over a
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warm area warming from below and cause a rapid rise of
moist air. This creates unstability, good surface visibility,
cumulus clouds, turbulence and showers.
FRONTS
Boundary between air masses is called front and generally
brings hazardous weather. The most reliable indication of
frontal
passage
is
shift
in
wind
direction.
There are four types of fronts which are cold, warm, stationary
and occluded fronts.
Warm front; occurs when a warm airmass moves and
replaces the cold air mass. Because of the density difference
between the air masses, warm air slides over cold air. This
boundary is called warm front. On the front line visibility
decreases rain or snow occurs and low ceiling will be
encountered. İf a pilot flies towards a warm front, he or she will
face cirrus, cirrostarus, altostratus and nimbostaratusclouds
associating with precipitation and low ceiling progresively. This
wind blows from south, south east.
Cold front; cold front occurs when a cold air mass which is
moving faster than warm air mass moves and replaces the
warm air mass. İt slides under the warm air mass. This
boundary layer is called cold front which brings towering
cumulus, CB, heavy rain, lightining, thunderstorm, hail even
tornadoes, low visibility and gusty winds. A pilot heading cold
front will face more cumuluform clouds with decreasing
barometric pressure and finally on the front vertically
developed clouds, lightining, rain, gusty winds, poor visibility,
CB's and various weather hazards.
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Cold fronts are fast approaching with little or no warnings and
they make complete weather change in few hours. Weather
clears rapidly after passage of cold front and unlimited visibility
and dry air develops. On the other hand warm fronts provide
advance warning of their approach by developing startiform
clouds and takes days to pass through a region.
Stationary front; when the forces two air masses are
equal the boundary lay remains stationary and affects the local
area for some time.
Occluded front; occurs when a fast moving cold air mass
cathches up with slow moving warm air mass. Warm front
weather prevails and immediatly followed by cold front
weather.
SQUALL LINE
It is a narrow band of active thunderstorms. It develops on
or ahead of cold front in moist and unstable air. This line is too
wide to detour and too severe to penetrarte. İt forms rapidly
and reaches its maximum strength at late afternoon and first
few hours of darkness.
CLOUDS
There are four types of clouds. These are low level,
middle level, high level and vertically developed clouds.
Low level clouds: this type of clouds are seen from ground to
6500' AGL. these clouds may contain supercooled water
droplets and create icing hazard. Types of low clouds are
stratus,
nimbostratus,
startocumulus
and
fog.
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Middle clouds are seen from 6500' to 20000' AGL. İn these
clouds, severe icing, moderate turbulence might be faced.
Types of middle clouds are altostarus and alto cumulus.
High clouds are seen above 20000'AGL.Turbulence an icing
are seldom. Types of this clouds are cirrus, sirrostarus and
cirrocumulus.
Vertically developed clouds are independent of altitude. They
show lifting and unstability. All weather hazards such as icing,
turbulence, lightinig, windshear etc can be seen. Types are
towering cumulus and cumulunmbus.
ICING
There are mainly two types of icing. First one is induction,
second one is structural icing. Induction icing occurs in
carburetor or air intake of the engine. It is most likely to occur
when OAT is between -7 and 21C and humidity is above 80%.
Structural icing builds up on any exposed surface of an
aircraft causing lost of lift, increase in weight and control
problems. There are two types: rime and clear ice.
Rime ice is normally encountered in stratus clouds. İt has
an opaque appearance. Major hazard of rime ice is the
change of the shape of the airfoil and destroy the lift.Clear ice
normally encountered in cumulus clouds or in freezing rain. It
can glaze the aircraft surface. It is the most serious form of
icing because it has the fastest rate of accumulation.
If you encounter freezing rain, temperatures are above
freezing at some higher altitude and freezing rain is most likely
to have highest rate of accumulation.
İce, snow or frost having a thickness of sandpaper can
increase the drag by 40% and decrease the lift by 30 %.
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When you encounter icing immediate action is for cumulus
clouds change of route/course and for stratus clouds change
altitude and switch on all deice systems. When you encounter
freezing rain immediately climb if not possible make a 180
degree turn .
There are four types of icing; trace, light , moderate,
severe icing.
Trace: no need for deice/antiice operation
Light İce: for prolonged exposure (more than one
hour)deice/anti-ice necessary
Moderate ice: Deice/anti-ice is immediately necessary
Severe: is beyond capability of deice/anti-ice systems
Frost is hazardous especially at take-off. İt is essential to
clear frost before take-off.
Anti-ice : prevents the formation of ice
Deice: remove the ice after it has been accumulated.
The devices used for deice/anti-ice are: Thermal anti-ice,
pneumatic deice boots, windshield anti-ice alcohol, windshield
heater, pro heat, prop antiice
Estimating freezing level: (OAT/2)x1000 AGL . İt is the
altitude where you likely to encounter icing.
RVSM
Reduced vertical seperation minimum reduces the vertical
seperation between flight levels FL290 and FL410 from 2000'
to1000' and makes 6 additional flight levels available for
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operation. Only aircrafts with specially certified altimeters and
autopilots may fly in RVSM airspace. Additionally, operators
must receive approval to conduct opertations in RVSM
airspace. But state aircrafts exempted from this requirement.
Aircrafts to fly in RVSM airspace shall have the following
equipment;
- 2 independent working altimeters.
- autopilot
- XNDR reporting altitude information
- altitude alert system.
PROCEDURE TURN and RACETRACK
Procedure turn is used to reverse course and or descent to
certain altitude. By means of procedure turn, aircraft is
established inbound to final approach. There are two types of
procedure turns: fourtyfive hundred and eighty degrees and
eighty two hundred sixty degrees.
Top of descent is a point that an aircraft starts its descent to
reach a point in a designated altitude with a specific vertical
speed or descent angle.
Bottom-of-descent point – The end point of the descent, as
calculated by the FMS/RNAV.
22
RACETRACK: A racetrack procedure consists of a turn from
the inbound track through 180º from overhead the facility or fix
on to the outbound track, for 1, 2, 3 minutes, followed by a
180º turn in the same direction to return to the inbound track.
STALL
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Stall is occurred when the critical angle of attack is
exceeded. After this point, the airflow above the upper surface
of airfoil begins to separate therefore lift production is
decreased dramatically. This affect is called stall.
Stall speed is affected by various factors.
1. Weight; as weight increase, stall speed increase. When
weight of aircraft increases, AOA needs to be increased too to
maintain the the lift. Part of that lift is used to overcome the
disadvantage of excess weight. Eventually stall speed is
increases.
In addition to weight affect, forward CG also increases the
stall speed. As the CG moves forward, stabilizer needs to
produce more downward force to balance the nose down
attitude. This creates more effective weight, so the weight
increases and stall speed increases.
2. Icing conditions, dirt or any FOD over the wings eases
the separation of airflow and increases the stall speed.
3. Turbulent air creates up or down winds causing the
relative wind change rapidly, which may lead AOA to exceed
critical angle and stall. Therefore turbulent air increases the
stall speed.
4. As Density of air increases, stall speed decreases.
Actually stall speed is given in term if CAS or İAS. Although it
is a constant value at higher altitudes density of air decreases
resulting TAS increase. So at higher altitudes stall speed
increases. (Bkz. Şekil)
5. Flaps; flap usage decrease the stall speed. Since flap
extended wing produces higher coefficient of lift. Aircraft can
fly at lower speed without exceeding the critical angle.
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6. Load factor; stall speed is directly proportional with load
factor.
Vs=sqrt(n)*Vs where n is the load factor. As a result as the
load factor increases stall speed increases. For example at the
absolute ceiling of an aircraft turn maneuver becomes
impossible because of stall.
HIGH LIFT DEVICES
High lift devices are moving or stationary components used
to increase lift during certain flight conditions.
1. Trailing edge flaps increases the lift by extending from
the trailing edge of the wing and has five types.
A. Plain flaps; just change the chord line therefore AOA
and lift increases.
B. Split flaps; almost same as the plain, produce just a bit
more lift but more drag as well.
C. Slotted flaps; is like plain flap with gaps between wing
and leading edge of flap. Slotted flap change the chord line
thus the AOA and lift. Besides, the gaps provide higher
pressure air to flow upwards of wing to accelerate the
boundary layer over the wing to delay separation of airflow.
D. Fowler flap; is a type of slotted flap change both chord
line and area of the wing, thus increases lift.
E. Slotted fowler flap; is like fowler flap associated with
some slots on it to delay separation of airflow.
2. Leading edge flaps; leading edge flaps increases the lift
by extending from the leading edge of the wing and has four
types.
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A. Fixed slot; a nozzle shaped opening that ducts the air
onto the top of the wing to increase the lift at high AOA.
B. Movable slot; is like fixed slot but this time it is
deployable by the operator.
C. Leading edge flaps; is used to increase the camber of
the wing to increase AOA and lift.
D. Leading edge cuffs; are fixed aerodynamic devices, that
bends the leading edge, to increase both CL and camber of
the wing. It delays stall.
26
IMSAFE CHECKLIST
I- Illness
E-Eating
M-Medication S- Stress A-Alcohol F-Fatigue
STRAIGHT IN LANDING and
STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH
27
Straight-In Approach: An instrument approach wherein
final approach is begun without first having executed a
procedure turn. Not necessarily completed with a straight-in
landing or made to straight-in landing minimums.
Straight-In Landing: A landing made on a runway aligned
within 30 degrees of the final approach course following
completion of an instrument approach.
As you can see, a straight-in approach simply means that
you don’t fly a procedure turn or holding-in-lieu-of procedure
turn.
To fly a straight-in approach you must ensure that you are
approaching the final approach fix from a direction that does
not require a procedure turn, or you have been cleared for a
straight in approach.
A straight-in approach has nothing to do with the landing
procedure. A straight-in approach can be made to a circle to
land procedure.
Any circle to land is not a straight-in landing.
Q CODES
QDM - Magnetic bearing (radial) TO the station
QDR - Magnetic bearing (radial) FROM the station
QFE - Zeros the altimeter on the airfield
QNE - 29.92 set by the transition altitude
QNH - Local altimeter setting that altimeter indicates AMSL
QUJ - True bearing TO the station
QTE - True bearing FROM the station
CABIN PRESSURIZE SYSTEM
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Cabin pressurization is the pumping of compressed air into
an aircraft cabin to maintain a safe and comfortable
environment for crew and passengers when flying at altitude.
Pressurization is essential over 10,000 feet (3,000 m)
above sea level to protect crew and passengers from the risk
of a number of physiological problems caused by the low
outside air pressure above that altitude; it also serves to
generally increase passenger comfort. The essential
physiological problems are; hypoxia, altitude sickness,
decompression sickness, barotraumas
The most common source of compressed air for
pressurization is bleed air extracted from the compressor
stage of a gas turbine engine. Most modern commercial
aircraft today have fully redundant, duplicated electronic
controllers for maintaining pressurization along with a manual
back-up control system.
The cabin altitude of an aircraft planning to cruise at
40,000 ft (12,000 m) is programmed to rise gradually from the
altitude of the airport of origin to around a maximum of 8,000 ft
(2,400 m) and to then reduce gently during descent until it
matches the ambient air pressure of destination.
CRITICAL ENGINE
When one of the engines on a typical multi-engine aircraft
becomes inoperative, a thrust imbalance exists between the
operative and inoperative sides of the aircraft. This thrust
imbalance causes several negative effects in addition to the
loss of one engine's thrust. The left engine of a conventional
twin-engine propeller-driven aircraft is typically considered
critical.
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The operating right-hand engine will produce a more
severe yaw towards the dead engine, thus making the failure
of the left-hand engine critical.
ADVERSE YAW
Since the downward deflected aileron produces more lift or
in other saying Outside wing produces more lift and induced
drag, the same wing slows down slightly. This creates
opposite side yawing motion. This is called adverse yaw. This
is more common at lower airspeeds. Application of rudder is
used to counteract adverse yaw. As a result, all the turns
should be coordinated turns.
ORGANISATIONS MEMBERS
IATA - The International Air Transport Association Airline
companies
ECAC - European Civil Aviation Conference All EC countries
JAA - Joint Aviation Authorities. ECAC
EASA - European Aviation Safety Agency. - Replacement of
JAA
Euro Control.- Plan/optimize European air traffic management
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HYPOXIA
Hypoxia; is basically lack of oxygen. Symptoms may
change individually, however the common symptoms are
headache, euphoria, cyanosis, increased response time,
impaired judgment, limping muscles, drowsiness and
dizziness. There are four types of hypoxia.
A. Hypoxic hypoxia: when there are not enough oxygen
molecules in sufficient pressure. This can occur very suddenly
at rapid decompression or relatively slower at lower altitudes
on
extended
period
of
time.
Altitude. Time of useful conciseness
45000. 9-15 sec.
40000. 15-20 sec.
35000. 30-60 sec.
30000. 1-2 min
25000. 3-5 min
18000. ~40 min
B. Hypemic hypoxia: blood carries CO easier than O2, so
in case of CO amount is greater than O2 hypemic hypoxia
occurs. This can be seen in piston engine aircrafts with faulty
cabin heating system.
C. Stagnant hypoxia: circulation problem leads this kind of
hypoxia. Especially, during G maneuvers, cold weather
operations or heart problems may increase the risk.
D. Hystootoxic hypoxia: this kind of hypoxia happens when
the cells are unable to use O2 effectively. Alcohol, drug or
smoking may increase the risk.
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TCAS-ACAS
A Traffic Collision Avoidance System is an aircraft system
based on secondary surveillance radar (SSR) transponder
signals, which operates independently of ground-based
equipment to provide advice to the pilot on potential conflicting
aircraft that are equipped with SSR transponders.
It is mandated by the International Civil Aviation
Organization to be fitted to all aircraft with a maximum take-off
mass (MTOM) of over 5700 kg (12,586 lbs) or authorized to
carry more than 19 passengers.
TCAS 1 provides TA-traffic information only to a range of
about 40 miles.
TCAS 2 provides TA+RA (vertical)-traffic information and
additional maneuver advice for vertical separation.
TCAS 3 provides TA+RA (vertical+horizantal)-traffic
information and additional maneuver advice for vertical and
horizontal separation.
TCAS 4 provides TA+RA and uses additional information
encoded by the target aircraft in the Mode S transponder reply
that additional position information encoded on an air-to-air
data link to generate the bearing information, so the accuracy
of the directional antenna would not be a factor.
TA - Traffic Advisory
RA - Resolution Advisory
ILS CATEGORIES
Category I ILS has minimums of 200 ft DH and 800 m
visibility or 550 m RVR.
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Category II ILS has minimums of 100-200 ft DH and 350 m
RVR.
Category III has three sub-categories.
III A ILS has minimums of below 100 ft DH and 200 m
RVR.
III B ILS has minimums of below 50 ft DH and 50-200 m
RVR.
III C ILS has no minimums.
EQUIPMENT
CAT-1 AIRCRAFT: The plane has to be equipped apart
from the devices for flying in IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)
conditions also with the ILS system and a marker beacon
receiver.
CAT-2 AIRCRAFT: The plane has to be equipped with a
radio altimeter or an inner marker receiver, an autopilot link, a
raindrops remover and also a system for the automatic
draught control of the engine can be required. The crew
consists of two pilots.
CAT-3 A AIRCRAFT: The aircraft has to be equipped with
an autopilot with a passive malfunction monitor or a HUD
(Head-up display).
CAT-3 B AIRCRAFT: A device for alteration of a rolling
speed to travel speed.
BASIC SYSTEMS FOR ILS: VHF localizer transmitter,
UHF glide slope transmitter, marker beacons, approach
lighting system
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(If there is a predominance of either 90 Hz or 150 Hz
modulation, the aircraft is off the centerline.)
FIRE
Class A Fires consist of ordinary combustibles such as
wood, paper, trash or anything else that leaves an ash. Water
works best to extinguish a Class A fire.
Class B Fires are fueled by flammable or combustible
liquids, which include oil, gasoline, and other similar materials.
Smothering effects which deplete the oxygen supply work best
to extinguish Class B fires.
Class C Fires. Energized Electrical Fires are known as
Class C fires. Always de-energize the circuit then use a nonconductive extinguishing agent. Such as Carbon dioxide.
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Class D Fires are combustible metal fires. Magnesium and
Titanium are the most common types of metal fires. Once a
metal ignites do not use water in an attempt to extinguish it.
Only use a Dry Powder extinguishing agent. Dry powder
agents work by smothering and heat absorption.
Class K Fires are fires that involve cooking oils, grease or
animal fat and can be extinguished using Purple K, the typical
agent found in kitchen or galley extinguishers.
OPTICAL ILLUSİON
Of the senses vision is the most important for safe flight.
Optical illusions are primarily encountered during landing.
These illusions are associated with runway width, runway
slope. A narrow runway leads to an illusion that aircraft is
higher so you tend to make a lower approach. Wider runway
causes the opposite.
A downsloping runway leads to a higher approach whereas
upsloping runway causes the opposite.
To overcome optical illusions use VASİ, PAPI, check
altimeter frequently, use glideslope and utilize VDP.
CIVIL AVIATION HISTORY
Paris Conference (1919) - First international scheduled air
service began.
Warsaw Convention (1929) - Ticket / Baggage / Liability
Chicago Convention (1944) - International Air Navigation
(Major rules are set by this convention - ICAO was formed.Five Freedoms of the Air
35
1st the right to fly over a foreign country, without landing there
2nd
the right to refuel or carry out maintenance in a foreign
country on the way to another country
3rd the right to fly from one's own country to another
4th the right to fly from another country to one's own
5th
the right to fly between two foreign countries during flights
while the flight originates or ends in one's own country
Tokyo Convention (1963) - Jurisdiction
governance) of PIC- National jurisdiction
(authority,
Hague Convention (1970) - The act of unlawful seizure
(hijacking of aircraft)
Montreal Convention (1971) - Complements the Hague
Convention
SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
SA is basicly knowing the position and what is happening
around. Monitoring radio comm., weather discussion, and ATC
comm. can enhance SA by helping the pilot to develop a
mental picture of what is happening.
ETOPS
( Extended range twin engine operations standards)
According to ICAO standards, a twin engine aircraft operator
shall plan its route to land an aerodrome within 60 minutes in
case OEİ. ETOPS applies on routes with diversion time more
than 180 minutes for airplanes with more than two engines.
36
MOCA, MORA, MCA, MRA, MHA, COP,
MEA, MAA, MSA
MOCA ; minimum obstruction clearance altitude. Minimum
altitude published on routes or segments which provides
obstacle clearance for the entire rote but provide signal
coverage only within 22NM of VOR. 7500T shows MOCA
MORA; minimum off-route altitudes is the minimum altitude
published on rotes or segments provides obstacle clearance
10 NM off the route in each side by 1000 or 2000 feet in
mountainous area.
Grid MORA; minimum off- route altitude. İs the min altitude
published on enroute chart grid block that provides obstacle
clearance of 1000 or 2000 feet in mountainous area within the
grid. İt is depicted in blue as first two digits.
MCA; minimum crossing altitude. is the min altitude that
has to be gained before
reaching that
point.
MRA; minimum reception altitude is the lowest altitude that
ensures adequte reception of navigation signals to identify that
intersection.
COP; change over point. Is the point that guiding
frequency for that airway has to be changed to the preceding
navaid frequency.
MEA; minimum enroute altitude. İs the lowest altitude that
is depicted on the airway that provides signal coverage and
obstacle clearance for that part of enroute segment.
MAA ; maximum authorized altitude is the maximum
altitude for that airway that provides accurate signal coverage
for that part of airway. Above this altitude the guiding signal
may be confused with another navaid.
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MSA; minimum sector altitude or terminal arrival altitudes
are established for each aerodrome and provide at least 300m
(1 000 ft) obstacle clearance within 46 km (25 NM) of the
navigation aid, initial approach fix, or intermediate fix
associated with the approach procedure for that aerodrome.
LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION
Aircraft, and by that I mean the body of the aircraft and not
the occupants inside, are protected from lightning strikes by
two things. The first and most important of these is the brains
of the pilot and the weathermen who predict where violent
storms are likely to be. The second is through a small unsung
device called the "static wick".
Shielding and surge suppressors insure that electrical
transients do not threaten the on board avionics and the miles
of electrical wiring found in modern aircraft.
I believe the best way is to keep the aircraft out of lightning
areas.
RATE OF TURN/RADIUS OF TURN
ROT is number of degrees of heading change per time.
As speed increases ROT decrease
Radius of turn is directly linked to ROT.
As speed increases R increases.
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THE FORCES ACTING ON AN AEROPLANE
The forces that acting on an aeroplane are lift, drag, weight
and thrust.
When thrust and drag are in equilibrium, an aircraft will
maintain a steady speed. For an aircraft to accelerate thrust
must exceed the value of drag. When lift and weight are in
equilibrium, an aircraft will maintain a steady, level attitude.
For an aircraft to climb, lift must exceed the weight of the
aircraft.
In a banked turn, weight is constant, but lift is lost due to
the effective reduction in wing span. Therefore, to maintain
altitude in a banked turn, the lift value needs to be restored by
increasing speed and/or the angle of attack.
LIFT
(Mentioned before)
DRAG
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Drag is the resistance to motion of an object (aircraft)
through the air. It’s parallel to the relative airflow. It has got two
major components;
PARASITE DRAG
Parasite drag is the drag caused by the relative motion of
the aeroplane wing to the air. Parasite drag increases directly
with speed because the faster aircraft moves through the air,
the more air molecules its surfaces encounter, and it is this
molecules that resist the motion of the aircraft through the air.
Parasite Drag α CAS²
INDUCED DRAG
Induced drag is caused by the production of lift and is
associated with the wing-tip vortices. Induced drag is greatest
at lower speeds due to the high angles of attack required to
maintain the necessary lift.
Vmd
40
Vmd is the speed at which parasite and induced drag
values are equal.
THE EFFECT OF AEROPLANE WEIGHT ON DRAG
Because
the heavier
aeroplane
requires
more lift at
the same
CAS, the
angle of
attack must
have
increased (and therefore CL inreases). Because the CL has
increased, the induced drag increases.
i.
ii.
More drag at all speeds, and
Vmd is at a faster speed.
THE EFFECT OF FLAPS AND UNDERCARRIAGE ON DRAG
The
extension of
the flaps and
undercarriag
e results in
the parasite
41
drag increasing.
i.
More drag at all speeds, and
ii.
Vmd is at a slower speed.
SPEED STABILITY
Speed stability is the behavior of the speed after a
disturbance at a fixed power setting.
Speed stable:
1. An increase in speeds leads to an increase in drag, thus
causing a return to the original speed.
2. A decrease in speed leads to a decrease in drag, thus
causing return to the original speed.
Speed unstable:
1. A decrease in speed leads to an increase in drag, which
causes a further decrease in speed, thus causing a negative
speed divergence.
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2. A increase in speed leads to an decrease in drag, which
causes a further increase in speed, thus causing a positive
speed divergence.
WEIGHT
The weight of an
aeroplane always
acts vertically
straight down
from the
aeroplane’s
center of gravity.
W=mg
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORCES IN
DIFFERENT PHASES OF FLIGHT
STEADY, STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT
43
In straight-and-level flight, the flight path and the relative airflow
are horizontal. This means that lift will be vertical and drag
horizontal.
L=W and
T=D
STEADY CLIMBING FLIGHT
In a straight climb at the same airspeed, the forces in any opposite
direction must be equal.
T=D+ W sinӨ
L=W cosӨ
44
STEADY DESCENDING FLIGHT
In a straight climb at the same airspeed, the forces in any opposite
direction must be equal.
D=T+ W sinӨ
L=W cosӨ
THE GLIDE
45
Glide means a descent with no thrust.
D=W sinӨ
L= W cosӨ
Also;
TanӨ= D / L
This means that only lift to drag ratio determines glide range and
not aeroplanes weight.
However, the heavier aircraft would have a higher airspeed
than the lighter aircraft, and, therefore, although it would glide the
same distance, it would take less time to do so.
TERMINOLOGY
THE CHORD LINE
The chord line is a straight line from the leading edge to the trailing
edge of an aerofoil.
THE MEAN CHAMBER LINE
46
The mean chamber line is a line from the leading edge to the trailing
edge of equidistance on the upper and lower surfaces of an aerofoil.
ANGLE OF ATTACK
Angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of an aerofoil
and the relative airflow.
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
The angle of incidence is the angle between the aerofoil’s chord line
and the aircraft’s longitudinal datum. It’s fixed angle for a wing but
may be variable for a tailplane.
COEFFICIENT OF LIFT (CL)
Coefficient of lift is the lifting ability of a particular wing. It depends
on both the shape of the wing section and the angle of attack.
CENTER OF GRAVITY (CG)
Center of gravity is the point through which the total weight of a
body will act.
47
CENTER OF PRESSURE
The center of pressure is a single point where the lifting force is
produced. (not a fixed point)
ASPECT RATIO
The ratio of wing span to average chord.
High aspect ratio= high lift (gliders)
Low aspect ratio= lower lift but capable of higher speeds
CRM
CRM used primarily for improving air safety, CRM focuses on
interpersonal communication, leadership, and decision making in
the cockpit.
CRM grew out of an NTSB analysis of the crash of United Airlines
flight 173 where the plane ran out of fuel while the flight crew were
troubleshooting a landing gear problem in 1978.
CRM can be defined as a management system which makes
optimum use of all available resources - equipment, procedures and
people - to promote safety and enhance the efficiency of
operations.
Address the individual - "Hey Chief," or "Captain Smith," or
"Bob,"
State your concern - "I'm concerned that we may not have
enough fuel to fly around this storm system,"
State the problem as you see it - "We're only showing 40
minutes of fuel left,"
State a solution - "Let's divert to another airport and refuel,"
48
Obtain agreement - "Does that sound good to you, Captain?"
These are often difficult skills to master, as they may require
significant changes in personal habits, interpersonal dynamics, and
organizational culture.
UNITED AIRLINES FLIGHT 173
United Airlines Flight 173 crew was making an approach to the
Portland International Airport on the evening of Dec 28, 1978 when
they experienced a landing gear abnormality. The captain decided
to enter a holding pattern so they could troubleshoot the problem.
The captain focused on the landing gear problem for an hour,
ignoring repeated hints from the first officer and the flight engineer
about their decreasing fuel supply. Only when the engines began
flaming out did he realize their horrible situation. They crash landed
in a wooded suburb of Portland, Oregon, over six miles short of the
runway. Of the 189 people aboard, two crewmembers and eight
passengers died.
TWA FLIGHT 800
Trans World Airlines Flight 800 (TWA 800), a Boeing 747-100,
exploded and crashed into the Atlantic Ocean near New York, on
July 17, 1996, 12 minutes after takeoff from John F. Kennedy
International Airport on a scheduled international passenger flight to
Rome, with a stopover in Paris. All 230 people on board were killed,
the third-deadliest aviation accident to occur in U.S. territory.
49
While accident investigators from the National Transportation Safety
Board (NTSB) traveled to the scene, arriving the following morning,
there was much initial speculation that a terrorist attack was the
cause of the crash. Consequently, the Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) initiated a parallel criminal investigation. Sixteen months later
the FBI announced that no evidence had been found of a criminal act
and closed its active investigation.
The four-year NTSB investigation concluded with the approval of
the Aircraft Accident Report on August 23, 2000, ending the most
extensive, complex, and costly air disaster investigation in United
States history. The report's conclusion was that the probable cause of
the accident was an explosion of flammable fuel/air vapors in a fuel
tank, and, although it could not be determined with certainty, the
most likely cause of the explosion was a short circuit. As a result of
the investigation, new requirements were developed for aircraft to
prevent future fuel tank explosions.
AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIO
This course provides participants with a comprehensive overview of
the procedures and methods used and the skills required to
investigate an aircraft accident.
1.
2.
Aircraft performance
Meteorology
50
3.
4.
5.
6.
Systems
Crash Dynamics
Media Relatıons
Accident Side Management
WINGLET FUNCTION
Winglets are aerodynamically efficient surfaces added to wingtips.
As it is known, the high pressure airflow below the wing surface tries
to escape upper part of wing where there is lower pressure at the
wing tip. This flow creates wing tip vortices which is the reason of
induced drag. Winglets at the tip of the wings act as a dam to prevent
or lessen this flow to decrease the wingtip vortices, eventually the
induced drug to increase the efficiency of wings.
HOLDING PROCEDURES
It is used to provide separation between traffics and smooth
flow of traffic. There are two types of holding; standard,
nonstandard. İn standart holding right hand turns, in non standard
holding left hand turns are utilized. Each circuit of holding begins
and ends at a certain fix. These fixes may be navaid, intersection or a
51
certain dme dlstance. Unless otherwise is instructed or depicted
standard holding is performed. İnbound leg of holding is always
towards the fix. There are two ways of holding procedure; first one is
done by timing and the second one is done by leg length. İn timing
procedure inbound leg is flown one minute at or below 14000 feet
and above 14000 feet one and a half minutes. If holding is to be
performed by leg length fix and end of outbound leg is given in
terms of dme. In this case no timing is required. Holding speed
should be adjusted according to holding altitude, if holding speed
and altitude are not depicted on the chart. Icao standard is 230 kts up
to 14000 ft. There are three methods used to enter a holding pattern.
Parallel, direct and teardrop entry. The entry procedure depends on
your heading relative to your heading course.
ISOLATED AERODROME
When there is no alternate aerodrome. It depends on the
distance to nearest aerodrome, fuel and time required. Additional
fuel will be required to fly for two hours at normal cruise power for
turbine power aircraft.
TRANSPONDER CODES
0000 Mode C malfunction
7700 emergency
52
7600 comm failure
7500 hijack
0033 parachute
7000 VFR when no other code has been assigned.
Although codes can be assigned from 0000 to 7700 the
number of possible codes to be set is 4096.
Mode A: 4 digit code entered by the pilot
Mode C: Pressure altitude information is sent
Mode S: selective interrogation facilitates to transmit 24 bit
address length of data to other aircrafts Xpndr, TCAS, ACAS, and
ADS-B systems. The data to be transmitted are callsign, heading,
altitude .
SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN
REQUIREMENT
PRESSURIZED AIRCRAFT DURING AND FOLLOWING
EMERGENCY DECENT
FOR FLIGHT DECK AND CABIN CREW
53
Between 10.000 and 13.000 feet
All flight deck and cabin crew for entire flight time minus 30
minutes.
Above 13.000 feet
All flight deck and cabin crew for entire flight
FOR PASSANGERS
Between 10.000 and 14.000 feet
Entire time for 10% of the passengers
Between 14.000 and 15.000 feet
Entire time for 30% of the passengers
Above 15.000 feet
Entire time for 100% of the passengers.
ORIENTATION PROBLEMS
DİSORİENTATİON: Kinesthetic sense is the term used to
describe the awareness of position obtained from nerves, joints and
muscles. This sense is unreliable because the brain can not tell the
difference between gravity inputs and g-load inputs. In VFR
conditions you obtain your orientation mainly through your vision,
on the other hand in İFR or at night your body relies upon your
vestibular and kinesthetic sense. Since these senses are unreliable
disorientation occurs.
54
Fatigue, anxiety, workload, alcohol, drugs increase the
probability of disorientation. There are two types of disorientation;
spatial and vestibular. Spatial disorientation occurs when there is a
conflict between central vision and peripheral vision. For example
one feels himself moving as the vehicle next is moving while he is in
a stationary vehicle.
Vestibular system in inner ear may send misleading signals
to brain causing vestibular disorientation. For example, a rapid
acceleration during takeoff can create the illusion of being a nose-up
attitude and abrupt change from climb to straight and level flight can
create the illusion of tumbling backwards. In prolonged constant rate
turn you will not sense the bank after a while and if you level the
aircraft you will sense as if you bank the opposite side.
RNP
Required navigation performance (RNP) allows an aircraft to
fly a specific path between two 3D-defined points in space. RNAV
and RNP systems are fundamentally similar. The key difference
between them is the requirement for on-board performance
monitoring and alerting.
55
An RNP of 10 means that a navigation system must be able
to calculate its position to within a circle with a radius of 10 nautical
miles.
Various RNP levels are required for different phases of
flight. For example in USA RNP-2 for enroute, RNP-1 for departure
and arrival and RNP-0.3 for approach is utilized.
HAA & HAT
HAA: The height of the MDA above published airport
elevation. This is published with circling minimums.
HAT: The height of the DA or MDA above the highest
runway elevation in the touchdown zone of the runway.
V SPEEDS
V1: Take-off decision speed
V2: Takeoff safety speed. The speed at which the aircraft may safely
become airborne with one engine inoperative.
VR: Rotation speed, the speed to start raising the nose during the
takeoff run.
56
VMCA: Minimum control speed in the take-off configuration – the
minimum calibrated airspeed at which the aircraft is directionally
controllable in flight with a sudden Critical engine failure and takeoff
power on the operative engine(s)
VMCG: Minimum control speed on the ground - the minimum
airspeed at which the aircraft is directionally controllable during
acceleration along the runway with one engine inoperative, takeoff
power on the operative engine(s), and with nose wheel steering
assumed inoperative.
VX: The airspeed that provides the best angle of climb (highest
altitude in shortest distance). It is typically a fairly slow speed, and is
most useful for taking off over obstacles like trees.
VY: The airspeed that provides the best rate of climb (highest altitude
in least time). It is faster than Vx, and is most useful for getting to an
altitude as quickly as possible (say, to avoid icing).
IAS & CAS & TAS
IAS: When you read the Airspeed on the Airspeed Indicator Flight
Instrument, you are reading the Indicated Air Speed
CAS: The Airspeed Indicator is subject to slight errors. These errors
are caused by factors such as the placement of the Pitot Tube and
57
Static Sources and flying configuration such as the degrees of flap
extended.
TAS: To calculate TAS, you will need to factor in the Outside Air
Temperature (OAT) and the Pressure Altitude. For every 1,000 feet
of altitude gain, True Air Speed (TAS) increases approximately 2%
over Indicated Air Speed (IAS).
AIRPORT LIGHTING
AERODROME BEACON
Two types of beacon: Identification Beacon and the Location
Beacon. An Identification Beacon flashing a two letter
identification code in green.
Where the aerodrome is also situated well away from areas
of high background lighting, the Location Beacon would display
a flashing White light.
Where the aerodrome is situated in an area where there is a
high level of background lighting, such as in the vicinity of a city
where a flashing white light would be difficult to see, the
Location Beacon would display a green light flashing alternately
with a white light.
58
MINIMUM RUNWAY LIGHTING
1. Runway edge lights: Omni-directional white.
2. Runway threshold lights: Green and indicates the start of
the available landing distance.
3. Runway end lights: Green when viewed by aircraft
approaching to land and red when seen from the runway. Pilots
should not continue a landing roll or taxi beyond the red runway end
lights.
SUPPLEMENTARY RUNWAY LIGHTING
1. Centreline Lighting: centreline lighting extends from the
threshold to 900 m from the runway end, the following 600 m is lit
with alternate and red lights, and the final 300 m lit by red centreline
lighting.
2. Touchdown Zone (TDZ) Lighting: On runways equipped
for Category II and III approaches, additional lighting consisting of
two rows of barrettes is installed in order to provide textural cues in
the touchdown area. The additional lighting extends from the
threshold either for 900 m or to the midpoint of the runway,
whichever is the lesser distance.
3. Rapid Exit Taxiway Indicator Lights (RETILs): may be
provided to indicate the distance to go to the nearest rapid exit
59
taxiway. RETILs consist of six yellow lights adjacent to the runway
centreline and configured in a three/two/one pattern spaced 100 m
apart; the single light is 100 m from the start of the turn for the rapid
exit taxiway.
4. Runway Exit: taxiways may be indicated by substitution of
one or two of the white runway edge lights with blue ones.
5. Stopway Lighting: may be used to show the extent of a
stopway beyond the designated end of a runway. Red unidirectional
edge lights visible only in the direction of runway.
TAXİWAY LIGHTING
At those aerodromes equipped for low visibility operations,
taxiways are equipped with green centreline lighting, otherwise blue
edge lighting is provided.
NEWTON’S LAWS
1
ST
LAW: A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a
body in motion tends to remain moving at the same speed and in the
same direction.
2
ND
LAW: When a body is acted upon by a constant force,
its resulting acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the
body and is directly proportional to the applied force. F=ma
60
3
RD
LAW: Whenever one body exerts a force on another,
the second body always exerts on the first, a force that is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction.
COMPASS ERRORS
There are four types of errors regarding the compass.
Variation error; Magnetic north and geographic north are different
from each other. İn aviation difference between true and magnetic
pole is called variation. This variaton numbers are depicted on the
charts easterly and westerly. To calculate true heading, easter
corrections should be substracted, while westerly corrections be
added to magnetic heading.
Deviation; Local magnetic fields in aircraft affect the
compass. This error is called deviation. Compass correction card is
used to compansate the error. These errors are changable according
to intended heading.
Dip error; This error occurs because of the magnetic flux
enters the nort pole vertically which makes flux parallel to surface
over equator and perpendicular over the poles. When performing a
compass turn to northerly heading, you must roll out before reaching
the desired heading and visa versa in northern hemisphere.
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Oscillation error; Oscilaation is acombination of the other
errors. To compensate this error use the average indication.
FLY BY WIRE TECHNOLOGY
FBW technology replaces the conventional manual flight
controls, such as tubes, rods or bell cranks. By means of this
technology, pilot’s or autopilot's control inputs are converted into
electronic signals and transmitted to actuators attached to control
surfaces by wires. That is why this system is called FBW. This
system help designers to reduce weight of aircraft. On the other hand
the main concern is reliability. While traditional mechanical or
hydraulics system fails gradually, FBW system may collapse
immediately and cause the aircraft be uncontrollable. To prevent this
situation, redundant systems has been developed such as completely
independent computers, wirings, actuators to take over in case one
system fails. On the other hand, in some aircrafts a mix of FBW and
conventional systems as back up. Airbus 320 is using this kind of
system. However, Boeing 737 is not using FBW technology.
FUEL MANAGEMENT
Fuel management is so vital for the operation of an aircraft.
At all stages of flight, the flight crew must be vigilant regarding their
fuel state and, to the maximum extent possible, adhere to Company
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policies and fly the planned profile. The effects of poor in-flight fuel
management can be broadly divided into three primary categories.
These categories are Operational, Legal and Financial.
OPERATIONAL: Poor in-flight fuel management can lead
to divert to a new destination to refuel. In the worst case, poor inflight fuel management can lead to fuel exhaustion and forced
landing with the potential of the loss of aircraft and loss of life.
LEGAL: Regulations dictate the minimum amount of fuel
required for a given flight profile. Failure to comply with these
regulations can lead to enforcement action and to the potential of
administrative action (suspension of AOC, loss of licence, etc) or
financial penalties being assessed against the pilot, the Company or
both.
FINANCIAL: Poor in-flight fuel management can result in
inefficient use of the available fuel leading to higher consumption
and increased cost.
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BACK COURSE
This type of approach typically is found at smaller airports
that do not have ILS approaches on both ends of the runway, where
often the older localizer antennas are less directional. These transmit
a signal from the back that is sufficient enough to be used in a back
course approach.
When flying a back course, the course deviation indicator
(CDI) needle deflects to the opposite side with certain types of
equipment. That is, the CDI indicates to fly left when the aircraft in
fact needs to fly right to intercept the approach course. Reverse
sensing does not occur on a horizontal situation indicator (HSI),
which gives correct course guidance during both front-course and
back-course approaches.
FOG
Fog, by definition, is a cloud that begins within 50 feet of the
surface. It typically occurs when the temperature of air near the
ground is cooled to the air’s dewpoint.
At this point, water vapor in the air condenses and becomes
visible in the form of fog.
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HELICOPTER
AND AIRPLANE
A plane must have some type of foward motion to gain
airflow over the wings to thus create lift. Where as the helicopter can
simply rotate its main rotor (wings) in a circle to create lift, without
needing to have a foward motion. Thus airplanes must roll along
the runaway to take-off. A helicopter cant take off at zero
forward speed and hover at zero forward speed.
Helicopters because of their specific mission profiles have a
much lower safety record than airplanes and they are noisy and they
vibrate like heck, not very confortable.
TACAN
A tactical air navigation system, commonly referred to by the
acronym TACAN, is a navigation system used by military aircraft. It
is a more accurate version of the VOR/DME system that provides
bearing and range information for civil aviation. The DME portion of
the TACAN system is available for civil use; at VORTAC facilities
where a VOR is combined with a TACAN, civil aircraft can receive
VOR/DME readings.
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HIGH SPEED FLIGHT
At speeds over 260 knots, air is considered incompressible
that is its density remains constant but pressure varies. Air acts like
water. Although aircraft is flying subsonic, airflow over the wing
may reach sonic speeds. When flow velocity reaches sonic speed
further acceleration results shock waveformation. This shock wave
increases drag, decreases stability and degrades controllability.
Speed regimes are defined in general as follows;
Subsonic - up to 0.75 mach
Transonic- 0.75-1.2 mach
Supersonic- 1.2-5 mach
Hypersonic - above 5 mach
When airfoil flowing over any part of aircraft, especially over wings,
reaches sonic speed, aircraft's speed is called critical mach number.
Critical mach number is the boundary between subsonic and
transonic flight.
After critical mach number, drag rises sharply, trim and stability
changes
causing
a
decrease
in
controllability.
As altitude increases, true air speed increases and local sound of
speed decreases so the mach number increases. To prevent speeding
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up beyond critical mach number, at flight levels after mid twenties
mach number is used.
İf an aircraft flies at absolute ceiling, it can not speed up due to
critical mach number and slow down due to stall speed restriction.
This point is coffin corner.
To delay seperation so to increase critical mach number vortex
generators are utilised. İn addition to this swept back wing design
is used to delay seperation and improve aerodynamic performance.
MACH NUMBER: Mach number is the ratio of the speed of an
object or flow to the local speed of sound. M=V/VSOUND
WAKE TURBULANCE SEPERATION
DISTANCE SEPERATION
Others 3 nm
TIME SEPERATION
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T/O
TIME
LNDG
All
2 min
All
Intersection T/O
3 min
L
VDP (VISUAL DESCENT POINT)
A visual descent point is published for runways where the Missed
Approach Point on a non-precision approach would put you in a
position where you cannot make a normal 3-degree descent to the
touchdown zone.
If you try to make a landing from the MAP in a large or fast aircraft
you would land long and possibly overshoot the runway. Cause that,
the VDP is always located before the MAP. VDP provide the
standard
3
degree
flight
path
to
the
touchdown
zone.
VDP=HAT/300
AERODYNAMIC FLUTTER
Flutter is an unstable oscillation which can lead to destruction.
Flutter can occur on fixed surfaces, such as the wing or the stabilizer,
as well as on control surfaces such as the aileron or the elevator for
instance.
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The constructor should design the airplane in such a way that it will
not suffer from flutter below VNE (Never Exceed Velocity) or below
VMO/MMO (Max Operating Velocity or Mach number). So, do not
fly at a speed greater than the red line (for SEP, Single Engine
Piston, and MEP, Multi Engine Piston) or at a speed greater than
barber's pole (VMO needle on jet airplanes).
HOLDING ENTRY PROCEDURES
DIRECT ENTRY: Proceed directly to the assigned fix, and then,
after crossing the fix, simply turn right (standard hold) to the
outbound heading. After passing “abeam” the fix outbound on the
outbound heading, start your timer and fly for one minute. Then,
initiate a right turn to intercept the inbound track. In calm winds you
will produce a one-minute track on the inbound leg.
PARALLEL ENTRY: After crossing the fix during a parallel entry,
simply turn to the outbound heading of the hold—maintain that
heading for one minute, then turn in a direction opposite to the hold
turns—that is, turn to the left (“parallel is opposite”). After the turn is
flown for one minute, roll out so as to track directly to the fix and
essentially fly a direct entry (turn right to the outbound heading after
crossing the fix).
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OFFSET OR TEARDROP ENTRY: the aircraft flies to the
holding fix, turns into the protected area (Standart:Outbound-30º,
Non-standart:Outbound+30º), flies for one minute, and then turns
back inbound, proceeds to the fix and continues from there.
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