CFIT Controlled flight into terrain; describes an accident in which an aircraft under pilot control is unintentionally flown into the ground, mountain, water or an obstacle. Main causes for CFİT accidents are fatigue, loss of SA, disorientation, misinterpreting charts or ATC clearances. To reduce the risk of CFİT, using GPWS and obeying the İCAO rules are important GPWS Ground proximity warning system is a system designed to alert pilot if aircraft is in imminent danger of flying into ground or an obstacle. This system combines the data which are R/A, barometric altitude, configuration, vertical speed, glide slope deviation, present position, gear position, approach minima, flap position, throttle position, and in enhanced mode DTED, to warn pilot about the closure of impact. In EGPWS system wind shear is also shown. EGPWS reduces the risk of CFİT almost 50 times. GPWS is mandatory on public transportation aircraft over 5700 kg. VERTICAL (CROSS) WIND COMPONENT Crosswind component of wind is computed as follows: Sin(Runway heading-wind direction)x wind strength DUTCH ROLL If the aircraft is yawed to the right, the left wing advances (sideslip) and generates more lift, whilst the right wing slows down and produce less lift. The result of the imbalance in lift is 1 to roll the aircraft in the direction of the initial yaw. The advancing wing also produces greater drag due to the larger areas exposed to the airflow, which causes the aircraft yaw in the opposite direction. This results in the right wing producing more lift than the left wing, reversing the direction of the roll. The final result is Rolling and yawing oscillation which have the same frequency. Yaw dampers prevent Dutch Roll on swept-wing aircrafts. LIFT Lift is the force that is generated by the pressure difference between the upper and lower surface of airfoil that is facing the air with a certain speed. An airfoil is cambered on its top side and flattened on its bottom, so the air facing airfoil separates into two parts. The air on top of the wing travels faster than the air on the bottom. Faster air produces less pressure than faster air as in the Bernoulli principle. Lift can be formulated as= 1/2 CLxSxqxV2, where CL is the coefficient of lift. CL depends upon the angle of attack and shape of that specific wing. By moving the elevators, basically AOA is changed therefore the lift. Lift is assumed to be acting on center of pressure of the airfoil. CP moves forward as the AOA increase and moves backward as the AOA decrease. ALDİS LIGHT FORM GROUND 2 AIR Steady green Clear to take off Clear to land Flashing green Clear to taxi Return and wait for landing signal Steady red Stop Give way to other aircraft Flashing red Vacate runway Do not land Flashing white Return to starting point ---- Alternating red green Caution caution VREF Vref = Landing Reference Speed at a point 50 feet above the landing threshold. It is not less than 1.3 times the stall speed in the normal landing configuration. In simple terms.... your final approach speed. Hydroplaning. As causes by a thin layer of standing water that separates the tires from the runway. It causes the reduction of friction between the tires and runway surface. High aircraft speeds, water, slush, and runway texture are the effects for hydroplaning. Braking action is reported by ATC like" poor, good, fair, nil". If it is nil, directional control may be impossible. If hydroplaning occurs, landing roll may be longer than the one on smooth ice. To estimate the minimum hydroplaning speed, sqrt of tire pressure times 8,6. 3 PRECISION AND NON-PRECISION APPROACH Precision approach, as it is understood from its name, is more precise and has lower minimums than non-precision approach. The easiest way to distinguish between precision and non-precision approach is to look up chart's minima part. If DA(H) is published it is precision approach. If MDA(H) is published, it is non-precision approach. The types of precision approach are İLS, MLS, PAR and WAAS GPS RNAV. The types of non-precision approach are NDB, VOR, LOC and GPS RNAV. Final approach segment for a precision approach begins with intercepting the glide slope at designated altitude. On the other hand final approach segment for a nonprecision segment begins at designated FAF or at a point when you establish final approach course. When FAF is not designated, final approach begins at final approach point (FAP) where procedure turn intercepts the final approach course inbound. VISIBILITY / RVR Meteorological visibility is defined as the greatest horizontal distance at which a specified object can be seen in daylight conditions. Visibility is reduced whenever particles are present in the atmosphere that absorbs the light, e.g., water, ice, pollution, sand, dust, volcanic ash, etc. Runway visual range (RVR). The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of a runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or identifying its centre line. 4 - RVR is not normally reported if it is 1500m or more. Between 1500 and 800m it is reported in steps of 100m. Between 800 and 200m it is reported in steps of 50m. Between 0 and 200m it is reported in steps of 25m. TYPES OF TURBINE ENGINES There are four types of turbine engines; turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, and turboshaft. Basically turbofan and turbojet engines are similar to each other. The only difference is that the turbofan engine has additional fan in the inlet section that separates the inlet air into two parts. One is bypassing the engine to provide engine cooling and fuel efficiency and helps noise suppression. The second air flow just like turbojet engine passes through the compressor, combustor, turbine and exhaust to provide thrust. Turboshaft and turboprop are basically the same. Turboshaft engine drives a shaft that is connected to a gearbox or a transmission while a turboprop engine is connected to a propeller. There are five sections in an engine; inlet, compressor, combustor,turbine(expansion) and exhaust. PAPİ, VASİ, PVASİ, T-VASI PAPİ; precision approach path indicator lights are used for visual precision approach. Four light system are normally installed left of the runway with a glide angle of three degrees. 5 These lights are visible from 5 NM in day and 20 NM at night. Two white two red on the path. VASİ; Visual approach slope indicator lights has two types. One is two bar VASİ and the other one is three bar VASİ. VASİ lights are normally visible from 3-5 NM in day and 20 NM at night. Two bar VASİ is set to 3 degree glide slope. Short description for two bar VASİ is “red over white you are all right". PVASİ; pulsating visual approach slope indicator lights are visible from 4 NM in day and 10 NM at night. “steady white you are all right." 6 T-VASI consists of twenty light units. Ten either sights of the runway. They form a cross shape with: Six lights in a line with the runway, four across in a bar. When high on the approach; four lights in each bar show white; and depending on how high one is, one, two or three white lights are visible beyond the bar. When on the correct path, only four bar lights are visible. 7 When below the approach path: Four lights in the bar show red. Depending on how low one is, one, two or three red lights are visible in front of the bar. CAT Clear air turbulence. İt is commonly thought as high altitude turbulent air phenomena. There is no visual warning for CAT. So it is hard to detect. CAT is usually found in jet streams. This kind of turbulence is mostly 2000 feet deep, 1020 miles wide and 50 miles long. Long streams of cirrus cloud formation may show jet stream CAT. CAT is usually faced above 15000 feet. TURBULENCE 8 Turbulence is the swirl motions in the atmosphere. İt may cause stress on the airframe. There are several types of turbulence which are low level turbulence, clear air turbulence and mountain wave turbulence. Low level turbulence may be faced under 15000 feet and occurred because of surface heating, friction, or ground shapes. Wake turbulence is considered as low level turbulence. İt is generated by preceding aircraft's wingtips. That is why it is also called wingtip vortices. The greatest vortex strength occurs when the preceding aircrafts is slow, heavy, clean configuration and at high angle of attack. Generally wingtip vortices suspend in the air for several minutes. According to İCAO rules, there is supposed to be separation between the aircrafts. These are; light to light, Medium to medium and heavy to heavy none on the other hand, medium to heavy 3 and light to heavy 5 minutes. TURBULENCE PENETRATION Maintain level attitude, use maneuvering as penetration speed (rough air speed) and accept variations in airspeed and altitude. If you encounter turbulence during approach, increase the airspeed slightly above normal approach speed to attain more positive control. WIND SHEAR AND MICROBURST Wind shear is a sudden, drastic change in wind direction and speed. İt may be upward or downward. This can cause 9 the aircraft to gain or loose sudden altitude and change airspeed. Microburst is one of the most dangerous types of wind shear. This type of wind shear reaches the ground and blow away in all directions. It is intense, localized down streams as strong as 6000 fpm. An aircraft can face microburst especially at takeoff or landing. So if GPWS alerts the pilot about wind shear, the only way to recover is to go around. Wind shear may be encountered around virga, cumulus formations, rain shaft or dusting. FIRST AID KIT REQUIREMENT According to JAR -OPS 1745, first aid kit requirements is dependent upon the number of passenger seats installed. For 0-99, 1 kit, 100-199 2 kits, 200-299 3 kits and for 300 and more 4 kits are required. ISA- INTERNATIONAL STANDART ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS At sea level, Density: 1.225 kg/m3 Press:29.92 inch mercury or 1013.25 mb Temp: 15 Lapse Rate : 2 C/1000feet WEIGHTS Aircraft Authorized gross weight limits are laid down in the aircraft flight manuals (AFM). The authorized or permitted limits may be equal to or lower than the structural design weight limits. 10 Maximum weights established, for each aircraft, by design and certification must not be exceeded during aircraft operation (ramp or taxiing, takeoff, en-route flight, approach, and landing) and during aircraft loading (zero fuel conditions, centre of gravity position, and weight distribution). Maximum Taxi Weight (MTW)-(Maximum Ramp Weight (MRW)) is the maximum weight authorized for maneuvering (taxiing or towing) an aircraft on the ground as limited by aircraft strength and airworthiness requirements. It includes the weight of taxi and run-up fuel for the engines and the APU. It is greater than the maximum takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during the taxi and run-up operations. 10 to 15 minutes allowance of taxi and run-up operations. Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW)-(Maximum Brake Release Weight) is the maximum weight authorized at brake release for takeoff, or at the start of the takeoff roll. In operation, the maximum weight for takeoff may be limited to values less than the Maximum Takeoff Weight due to aircraft performance, environmental conditions, airfield characteristics (takeoff field length, altitude), maximum tire speed and brake energy, obstacle clearances, and/or enroute and landing weight requirements. Maximum Landing Weight (MLW)-The maximum weight authorized for normal landing of an aircraft. The MLW must not exceed the MTOW. The operation landing weight may be limited to a weight lower than the Maximum Landing Weight by the most restrictive of the following requirements: Aircraft performance requirements for a given altitude and temperature: 11 landing field length requirements, approach and landing climb requirements Noise requirements If the flight has been of short duration, fuel may have to be jettisoned to reduce the landing weight. Overweight landings require a structural inspection or evaluation of the touch-down loads before the next aircraft operation. Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW)- The zero fuel weight (ZFW) of an aircraft is the total weight of the airplane and all its contents, minus the total weight of the usable fuel on board (unusable fuel is included in ZFW). It is the maximum weight permitted before usable fuel and other specified usable fluids are loaded in specified sections of the airplane. The MZFW is limited by strength and airworthiness requirements. BEM+VL=DOM TOM=Ramp Mass-Taxi Fuel DOM+TOF=OM TL+TOF=Useful Load OM+TL=TOM DOM+TL+TOF=TOM DOM+TL=ZFM ZFM+TOF=TOM EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE Weight has two adverse effect on performance in terms of amount and balance. Firstly weight itself has an adverse effect on flight performance almost in every aspect. These effects from take off to landing are as follows; - higher take off speed 12 - longer take off run - reduced rate of climb and angle - lower maximum altitude - lower cruise speed - shorter range due to fuel consumption - reduced manouvrebility - higher stalling speed - higher approach and landing speed - longer landing roll - excessive weight on landing gear Secondly unbalance of weight will affect flight characteristics adversely for example fuel load unbalance will cause one wing heaviness or overload to aft will cause nose up attitude or visa versa. So before flight, loading of aircraft and computations of CG shall be checked according to POH to keep in safe limits during all flight. FORWARD CG AFT CG Increases stability, decreases Decreases stability, increases controlability controlability Take-off more elevator Take-off less elevator requires, so later lift-off requires, so later lift-off Hard to climb More drag (trim drag) Less drag (trim drag) Needs more lift so higher stall Needs less lift so lower stall speed speed 13 Requires more thrust Requires less thrust Both range and endurance Both range and endurance decreases increases TORA-TODA TORA - Takeoff Run Available is the usable length of the runway available. The physical length of runway pavement. TODA - Takeoff Distance Available=TORA+Clearway / 1,5xTORA Clearway - Obstacle-free area at the end of the runway with the dimension of 75 m. Either side of the extended runway centerline. TORR - Takeoff Run Required is the measured run required to the unstick speed (Vr) plus one-third of the airborne distance between the unstick and the screen height. ASDA - Acceleration Stop Distance Available=TORA+Stopway EMDA - Emergency Distance Available=ASDA Stopway-Unprepared surface at the end of the runway in the direction of takeoff supporting the aircraft can be stopped in case of an abandoned/rejected takeoff. BALANCED FIELD refers to TODA=ASDA LDA - Landing Distance Available is the length from 50 ft above the surface of the runway threshold (screen height) to the end of the landing runway. 14 LDR - Landing Distance Required is the length from 50 ft above the surface of the runway threshold (screen height) to the point where the aircraft reaches a full stop. ATMOSPHERE LAYERS Troposphere 0-36000 feet Stratosphere 36000-160000 feet Mesosphere 160000-280000 Thermosphere 280000-~ Ozone layer is characterized by high concentration of O3, with maximum concentration of O3, with maximum concentration about 80000 feet. This special type of oxygen molecule absorbs the harmful solar energy and accounts for the increase the temperature in that part of atmosphere. The lapse rate is defined as the rate of decrease with height for an atmospheric variable. In the lower regions of the atmosphere (up to altitudes of approximately 40,000 feet [12 km]), temperature decreases with altitude at a fairly uniform rate. (2º/1000’) TS occurrence TS's are one of the most dangerous weather hazard that pilots should avoid. Thunderstorms are associated with cumulonimbus clouds, and there may be several thunderstorm cells within a single cloud. It occurs in these conditions; 1. Unstable lapse rate ( instability) 2. Some type of lifting action 3. High moisture content Embedded TS is one which is obscured by massive cloud layers and cannot be seen. 15 There are three steps of TS which are cumulus stage, mature stage, dissipating stage. Wind shear areas can be found on all sides TS and directly under it. There are several hazards of thunderstorms which are wind shear, gusty winds, hail, icing conditions, lightening, turbulence, reduced visibility and radio/com interference. Pilots should avoid TS at least 2025 NM. STABILIZED APPROACH A stabilized approach is the safest profile, and it is one of the most critical elements of a safe approach and landing operation. There are five basic elements to the stabilized approach: 1. Landing configuration: The airplane should be in the landing configuration early in the approach. 2. Stabilize on profile: The airplane should be stabilized on profile before descending through the 1,000 feet. 3. Descent rate: The optimum descent rate should be 500-700 fpm. 4. Indicated airspeed: Indicated airspeed should be not more than VREF + 5 and appropriate adjustment for wind or other factors, and never less than VREF. 5. Engine speed: The engine speed should be at a setting that allows best response when and if a rapid power increase is needed. Otherwise, a go-around should be considered by the pilot. METAR Aviation routine weather report; is a report of observation of current surface weather. METARs are issued normally hourly. A special METAR SPECİ is issued between routine METAR 16 reports. SPECİ is generated whenever a critical metorological condition exists such as wind shear or microburst. TAF Terminal aerodrome forecast; the best source of weather for that specific aerodrome. İt is issued four times a day and valid for 24 hours and the other type is issued for a nine-hour period updated every three hours. WS/SİGMET Is inflight advisory concerning convective weather that is potentially hazardous to all aircraft. Report may be about severe icing, extreme turbulence, CAT, dust, sand stor, volcanic ash or hurricanes. INVERSION When there is an inversion in lapse rate, warm air cannot rise up and even temperetture may increase with altitude. This is called inversion. Radiation cooling from ground at clear cool nights and warm air mass over cold air mass cause inversion. İnversion occurs at low levels acting like a lid for humidity and politants. İt usually contributes to low visibility, fog, low ceiling with no wind and no turbulance conditions. DEWPOINT İs the point below which water vapor will condense into liquid. Dew point is used to calculate ceiling of clouds. AIRMASSES Air masses are large body of air that have fairly same temperature and moist. An air mass moving over a cold area creates stable airwith poor surface visibility and moving over a 17 warm area warming from below and cause a rapid rise of moist air. This creates unstability, good surface visibility, cumulus clouds, turbulence and showers. FRONTS Boundary between air masses is called front and generally brings hazardous weather. The most reliable indication of frontal passage is shift in wind direction. There are four types of fronts which are cold, warm, stationary and occluded fronts. Warm front; occurs when a warm airmass moves and replaces the cold air mass. Because of the density difference between the air masses, warm air slides over cold air. This boundary is called warm front. On the front line visibility decreases rain or snow occurs and low ceiling will be encountered. İf a pilot flies towards a warm front, he or she will face cirrus, cirrostarus, altostratus and nimbostaratusclouds associating with precipitation and low ceiling progresively. This wind blows from south, south east. Cold front; cold front occurs when a cold air mass which is moving faster than warm air mass moves and replaces the warm air mass. İt slides under the warm air mass. This boundary layer is called cold front which brings towering cumulus, CB, heavy rain, lightining, thunderstorm, hail even tornadoes, low visibility and gusty winds. A pilot heading cold front will face more cumuluform clouds with decreasing barometric pressure and finally on the front vertically developed clouds, lightining, rain, gusty winds, poor visibility, CB's and various weather hazards. 18 Cold fronts are fast approaching with little or no warnings and they make complete weather change in few hours. Weather clears rapidly after passage of cold front and unlimited visibility and dry air develops. On the other hand warm fronts provide advance warning of their approach by developing startiform clouds and takes days to pass through a region. Stationary front; when the forces two air masses are equal the boundary lay remains stationary and affects the local area for some time. Occluded front; occurs when a fast moving cold air mass cathches up with slow moving warm air mass. Warm front weather prevails and immediatly followed by cold front weather. SQUALL LINE It is a narrow band of active thunderstorms. It develops on or ahead of cold front in moist and unstable air. This line is too wide to detour and too severe to penetrarte. İt forms rapidly and reaches its maximum strength at late afternoon and first few hours of darkness. CLOUDS There are four types of clouds. These are low level, middle level, high level and vertically developed clouds. Low level clouds: this type of clouds are seen from ground to 6500' AGL. these clouds may contain supercooled water droplets and create icing hazard. Types of low clouds are stratus, nimbostratus, startocumulus and fog. 19 Middle clouds are seen from 6500' to 20000' AGL. İn these clouds, severe icing, moderate turbulence might be faced. Types of middle clouds are altostarus and alto cumulus. High clouds are seen above 20000'AGL.Turbulence an icing are seldom. Types of this clouds are cirrus, sirrostarus and cirrocumulus. Vertically developed clouds are independent of altitude. They show lifting and unstability. All weather hazards such as icing, turbulence, lightinig, windshear etc can be seen. Types are towering cumulus and cumulunmbus. ICING There are mainly two types of icing. First one is induction, second one is structural icing. Induction icing occurs in carburetor or air intake of the engine. It is most likely to occur when OAT is between -7 and 21C and humidity is above 80%. Structural icing builds up on any exposed surface of an aircraft causing lost of lift, increase in weight and control problems. There are two types: rime and clear ice. Rime ice is normally encountered in stratus clouds. İt has an opaque appearance. Major hazard of rime ice is the change of the shape of the airfoil and destroy the lift.Clear ice normally encountered in cumulus clouds or in freezing rain. It can glaze the aircraft surface. It is the most serious form of icing because it has the fastest rate of accumulation. If you encounter freezing rain, temperatures are above freezing at some higher altitude and freezing rain is most likely to have highest rate of accumulation. İce, snow or frost having a thickness of sandpaper can increase the drag by 40% and decrease the lift by 30 %. 20 When you encounter icing immediate action is for cumulus clouds change of route/course and for stratus clouds change altitude and switch on all deice systems. When you encounter freezing rain immediately climb if not possible make a 180 degree turn . There are four types of icing; trace, light , moderate, severe icing. Trace: no need for deice/antiice operation Light İce: for prolonged exposure (more than one hour)deice/anti-ice necessary Moderate ice: Deice/anti-ice is immediately necessary Severe: is beyond capability of deice/anti-ice systems Frost is hazardous especially at take-off. İt is essential to clear frost before take-off. Anti-ice : prevents the formation of ice Deice: remove the ice after it has been accumulated. The devices used for deice/anti-ice are: Thermal anti-ice, pneumatic deice boots, windshield anti-ice alcohol, windshield heater, pro heat, prop antiice Estimating freezing level: (OAT/2)x1000 AGL . İt is the altitude where you likely to encounter icing. RVSM Reduced vertical seperation minimum reduces the vertical seperation between flight levels FL290 and FL410 from 2000' to1000' and makes 6 additional flight levels available for 21 operation. Only aircrafts with specially certified altimeters and autopilots may fly in RVSM airspace. Additionally, operators must receive approval to conduct opertations in RVSM airspace. But state aircrafts exempted from this requirement. Aircrafts to fly in RVSM airspace shall have the following equipment; - 2 independent working altimeters. - autopilot - XNDR reporting altitude information - altitude alert system. PROCEDURE TURN and RACETRACK Procedure turn is used to reverse course and or descent to certain altitude. By means of procedure turn, aircraft is established inbound to final approach. There are two types of procedure turns: fourtyfive hundred and eighty degrees and eighty two hundred sixty degrees. Top of descent is a point that an aircraft starts its descent to reach a point in a designated altitude with a specific vertical speed or descent angle. Bottom-of-descent point – The end point of the descent, as calculated by the FMS/RNAV. 22 RACETRACK: A racetrack procedure consists of a turn from the inbound track through 180º from overhead the facility or fix on to the outbound track, for 1, 2, 3 minutes, followed by a 180º turn in the same direction to return to the inbound track. STALL 23 Stall is occurred when the critical angle of attack is exceeded. After this point, the airflow above the upper surface of airfoil begins to separate therefore lift production is decreased dramatically. This affect is called stall. Stall speed is affected by various factors. 1. Weight; as weight increase, stall speed increase. When weight of aircraft increases, AOA needs to be increased too to maintain the the lift. Part of that lift is used to overcome the disadvantage of excess weight. Eventually stall speed is increases. In addition to weight affect, forward CG also increases the stall speed. As the CG moves forward, stabilizer needs to produce more downward force to balance the nose down attitude. This creates more effective weight, so the weight increases and stall speed increases. 2. Icing conditions, dirt or any FOD over the wings eases the separation of airflow and increases the stall speed. 3. Turbulent air creates up or down winds causing the relative wind change rapidly, which may lead AOA to exceed critical angle and stall. Therefore turbulent air increases the stall speed. 4. As Density of air increases, stall speed decreases. Actually stall speed is given in term if CAS or İAS. Although it is a constant value at higher altitudes density of air decreases resulting TAS increase. So at higher altitudes stall speed increases. (Bkz. Şekil) 5. Flaps; flap usage decrease the stall speed. Since flap extended wing produces higher coefficient of lift. Aircraft can fly at lower speed without exceeding the critical angle. 24 6. Load factor; stall speed is directly proportional with load factor. Vs=sqrt(n)*Vs where n is the load factor. As a result as the load factor increases stall speed increases. For example at the absolute ceiling of an aircraft turn maneuver becomes impossible because of stall. HIGH LIFT DEVICES High lift devices are moving or stationary components used to increase lift during certain flight conditions. 1. Trailing edge flaps increases the lift by extending from the trailing edge of the wing and has five types. A. Plain flaps; just change the chord line therefore AOA and lift increases. B. Split flaps; almost same as the plain, produce just a bit more lift but more drag as well. C. Slotted flaps; is like plain flap with gaps between wing and leading edge of flap. Slotted flap change the chord line thus the AOA and lift. Besides, the gaps provide higher pressure air to flow upwards of wing to accelerate the boundary layer over the wing to delay separation of airflow. D. Fowler flap; is a type of slotted flap change both chord line and area of the wing, thus increases lift. E. Slotted fowler flap; is like fowler flap associated with some slots on it to delay separation of airflow. 2. Leading edge flaps; leading edge flaps increases the lift by extending from the leading edge of the wing and has four types. 25 A. Fixed slot; a nozzle shaped opening that ducts the air onto the top of the wing to increase the lift at high AOA. B. Movable slot; is like fixed slot but this time it is deployable by the operator. C. Leading edge flaps; is used to increase the camber of the wing to increase AOA and lift. D. Leading edge cuffs; are fixed aerodynamic devices, that bends the leading edge, to increase both CL and camber of the wing. It delays stall. 26 IMSAFE CHECKLIST I- Illness E-Eating M-Medication S- Stress A-Alcohol F-Fatigue STRAIGHT IN LANDING and STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH 27 Straight-In Approach: An instrument approach wherein final approach is begun without first having executed a procedure turn. Not necessarily completed with a straight-in landing or made to straight-in landing minimums. Straight-In Landing: A landing made on a runway aligned within 30 degrees of the final approach course following completion of an instrument approach. As you can see, a straight-in approach simply means that you don’t fly a procedure turn or holding-in-lieu-of procedure turn. To fly a straight-in approach you must ensure that you are approaching the final approach fix from a direction that does not require a procedure turn, or you have been cleared for a straight in approach. A straight-in approach has nothing to do with the landing procedure. A straight-in approach can be made to a circle to land procedure. Any circle to land is not a straight-in landing. Q CODES QDM - Magnetic bearing (radial) TO the station QDR - Magnetic bearing (radial) FROM the station QFE - Zeros the altimeter on the airfield QNE - 29.92 set by the transition altitude QNH - Local altimeter setting that altimeter indicates AMSL QUJ - True bearing TO the station QTE - True bearing FROM the station CABIN PRESSURIZE SYSTEM 28 Cabin pressurization is the pumping of compressed air into an aircraft cabin to maintain a safe and comfortable environment for crew and passengers when flying at altitude. Pressurization is essential over 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above sea level to protect crew and passengers from the risk of a number of physiological problems caused by the low outside air pressure above that altitude; it also serves to generally increase passenger comfort. The essential physiological problems are; hypoxia, altitude sickness, decompression sickness, barotraumas The most common source of compressed air for pressurization is bleed air extracted from the compressor stage of a gas turbine engine. Most modern commercial aircraft today have fully redundant, duplicated electronic controllers for maintaining pressurization along with a manual back-up control system. The cabin altitude of an aircraft planning to cruise at 40,000 ft (12,000 m) is programmed to rise gradually from the altitude of the airport of origin to around a maximum of 8,000 ft (2,400 m) and to then reduce gently during descent until it matches the ambient air pressure of destination. CRITICAL ENGINE When one of the engines on a typical multi-engine aircraft becomes inoperative, a thrust imbalance exists between the operative and inoperative sides of the aircraft. This thrust imbalance causes several negative effects in addition to the loss of one engine's thrust. The left engine of a conventional twin-engine propeller-driven aircraft is typically considered critical. 29 The operating right-hand engine will produce a more severe yaw towards the dead engine, thus making the failure of the left-hand engine critical. ADVERSE YAW Since the downward deflected aileron produces more lift or in other saying Outside wing produces more lift and induced drag, the same wing slows down slightly. This creates opposite side yawing motion. This is called adverse yaw. This is more common at lower airspeeds. Application of rudder is used to counteract adverse yaw. As a result, all the turns should be coordinated turns. ORGANISATIONS MEMBERS IATA - The International Air Transport Association Airline companies ECAC - European Civil Aviation Conference All EC countries JAA - Joint Aviation Authorities. ECAC EASA - European Aviation Safety Agency. - Replacement of JAA Euro Control.- Plan/optimize European air traffic management 30 HYPOXIA Hypoxia; is basically lack of oxygen. Symptoms may change individually, however the common symptoms are headache, euphoria, cyanosis, increased response time, impaired judgment, limping muscles, drowsiness and dizziness. There are four types of hypoxia. A. Hypoxic hypoxia: when there are not enough oxygen molecules in sufficient pressure. This can occur very suddenly at rapid decompression or relatively slower at lower altitudes on extended period of time. Altitude. Time of useful conciseness 45000. 9-15 sec. 40000. 15-20 sec. 35000. 30-60 sec. 30000. 1-2 min 25000. 3-5 min 18000. ~40 min B. Hypemic hypoxia: blood carries CO easier than O2, so in case of CO amount is greater than O2 hypemic hypoxia occurs. This can be seen in piston engine aircrafts with faulty cabin heating system. C. Stagnant hypoxia: circulation problem leads this kind of hypoxia. Especially, during G maneuvers, cold weather operations or heart problems may increase the risk. D. Hystootoxic hypoxia: this kind of hypoxia happens when the cells are unable to use O2 effectively. Alcohol, drug or smoking may increase the risk. 31 TCAS-ACAS A Traffic Collision Avoidance System is an aircraft system based on secondary surveillance radar (SSR) transponder signals, which operates independently of ground-based equipment to provide advice to the pilot on potential conflicting aircraft that are equipped with SSR transponders. It is mandated by the International Civil Aviation Organization to be fitted to all aircraft with a maximum take-off mass (MTOM) of over 5700 kg (12,586 lbs) or authorized to carry more than 19 passengers. TCAS 1 provides TA-traffic information only to a range of about 40 miles. TCAS 2 provides TA+RA (vertical)-traffic information and additional maneuver advice for vertical separation. TCAS 3 provides TA+RA (vertical+horizantal)-traffic information and additional maneuver advice for vertical and horizontal separation. TCAS 4 provides TA+RA and uses additional information encoded by the target aircraft in the Mode S transponder reply that additional position information encoded on an air-to-air data link to generate the bearing information, so the accuracy of the directional antenna would not be a factor. TA - Traffic Advisory RA - Resolution Advisory ILS CATEGORIES Category I ILS has minimums of 200 ft DH and 800 m visibility or 550 m RVR. 32 Category II ILS has minimums of 100-200 ft DH and 350 m RVR. Category III has three sub-categories. III A ILS has minimums of below 100 ft DH and 200 m RVR. III B ILS has minimums of below 50 ft DH and 50-200 m RVR. III C ILS has no minimums. EQUIPMENT CAT-1 AIRCRAFT: The plane has to be equipped apart from the devices for flying in IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) conditions also with the ILS system and a marker beacon receiver. CAT-2 AIRCRAFT: The plane has to be equipped with a radio altimeter or an inner marker receiver, an autopilot link, a raindrops remover and also a system for the automatic draught control of the engine can be required. The crew consists of two pilots. CAT-3 A AIRCRAFT: The aircraft has to be equipped with an autopilot with a passive malfunction monitor or a HUD (Head-up display). CAT-3 B AIRCRAFT: A device for alteration of a rolling speed to travel speed. BASIC SYSTEMS FOR ILS: VHF localizer transmitter, UHF glide slope transmitter, marker beacons, approach lighting system 33 (If there is a predominance of either 90 Hz or 150 Hz modulation, the aircraft is off the centerline.) FIRE Class A Fires consist of ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, trash or anything else that leaves an ash. Water works best to extinguish a Class A fire. Class B Fires are fueled by flammable or combustible liquids, which include oil, gasoline, and other similar materials. Smothering effects which deplete the oxygen supply work best to extinguish Class B fires. Class C Fires. Energized Electrical Fires are known as Class C fires. Always de-energize the circuit then use a nonconductive extinguishing agent. Such as Carbon dioxide. 34 Class D Fires are combustible metal fires. Magnesium and Titanium are the most common types of metal fires. Once a metal ignites do not use water in an attempt to extinguish it. Only use a Dry Powder extinguishing agent. Dry powder agents work by smothering and heat absorption. Class K Fires are fires that involve cooking oils, grease or animal fat and can be extinguished using Purple K, the typical agent found in kitchen or galley extinguishers. OPTICAL ILLUSİON Of the senses vision is the most important for safe flight. Optical illusions are primarily encountered during landing. These illusions are associated with runway width, runway slope. A narrow runway leads to an illusion that aircraft is higher so you tend to make a lower approach. Wider runway causes the opposite. A downsloping runway leads to a higher approach whereas upsloping runway causes the opposite. To overcome optical illusions use VASİ, PAPI, check altimeter frequently, use glideslope and utilize VDP. CIVIL AVIATION HISTORY Paris Conference (1919) - First international scheduled air service began. Warsaw Convention (1929) - Ticket / Baggage / Liability Chicago Convention (1944) - International Air Navigation (Major rules are set by this convention - ICAO was formed.Five Freedoms of the Air 35 1st the right to fly over a foreign country, without landing there 2nd the right to refuel or carry out maintenance in a foreign country on the way to another country 3rd the right to fly from one's own country to another 4th the right to fly from another country to one's own 5th the right to fly between two foreign countries during flights while the flight originates or ends in one's own country Tokyo Convention (1963) - Jurisdiction governance) of PIC- National jurisdiction (authority, Hague Convention (1970) - The act of unlawful seizure (hijacking of aircraft) Montreal Convention (1971) - Complements the Hague Convention SITUATIONAL AWARENESS SA is basicly knowing the position and what is happening around. Monitoring radio comm., weather discussion, and ATC comm. can enhance SA by helping the pilot to develop a mental picture of what is happening. ETOPS ( Extended range twin engine operations standards) According to ICAO standards, a twin engine aircraft operator shall plan its route to land an aerodrome within 60 minutes in case OEİ. ETOPS applies on routes with diversion time more than 180 minutes for airplanes with more than two engines. 36 MOCA, MORA, MCA, MRA, MHA, COP, MEA, MAA, MSA MOCA ; minimum obstruction clearance altitude. Minimum altitude published on routes or segments which provides obstacle clearance for the entire rote but provide signal coverage only within 22NM of VOR. 7500T shows MOCA MORA; minimum off-route altitudes is the minimum altitude published on rotes or segments provides obstacle clearance 10 NM off the route in each side by 1000 or 2000 feet in mountainous area. Grid MORA; minimum off- route altitude. İs the min altitude published on enroute chart grid block that provides obstacle clearance of 1000 or 2000 feet in mountainous area within the grid. İt is depicted in blue as first two digits. MCA; minimum crossing altitude. is the min altitude that has to be gained before reaching that point. MRA; minimum reception altitude is the lowest altitude that ensures adequte reception of navigation signals to identify that intersection. COP; change over point. Is the point that guiding frequency for that airway has to be changed to the preceding navaid frequency. MEA; minimum enroute altitude. İs the lowest altitude that is depicted on the airway that provides signal coverage and obstacle clearance for that part of enroute segment. MAA ; maximum authorized altitude is the maximum altitude for that airway that provides accurate signal coverage for that part of airway. Above this altitude the guiding signal may be confused with another navaid. 37 MSA; minimum sector altitude or terminal arrival altitudes are established for each aerodrome and provide at least 300m (1 000 ft) obstacle clearance within 46 km (25 NM) of the navigation aid, initial approach fix, or intermediate fix associated with the approach procedure for that aerodrome. LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION Aircraft, and by that I mean the body of the aircraft and not the occupants inside, are protected from lightning strikes by two things. The first and most important of these is the brains of the pilot and the weathermen who predict where violent storms are likely to be. The second is through a small unsung device called the "static wick". Shielding and surge suppressors insure that electrical transients do not threaten the on board avionics and the miles of electrical wiring found in modern aircraft. I believe the best way is to keep the aircraft out of lightning areas. RATE OF TURN/RADIUS OF TURN ROT is number of degrees of heading change per time. As speed increases ROT decrease Radius of turn is directly linked to ROT. As speed increases R increases. 38 THE FORCES ACTING ON AN AEROPLANE The forces that acting on an aeroplane are lift, drag, weight and thrust. When thrust and drag are in equilibrium, an aircraft will maintain a steady speed. For an aircraft to accelerate thrust must exceed the value of drag. When lift and weight are in equilibrium, an aircraft will maintain a steady, level attitude. For an aircraft to climb, lift must exceed the weight of the aircraft. In a banked turn, weight is constant, but lift is lost due to the effective reduction in wing span. Therefore, to maintain altitude in a banked turn, the lift value needs to be restored by increasing speed and/or the angle of attack. LIFT (Mentioned before) DRAG 39 Drag is the resistance to motion of an object (aircraft) through the air. It’s parallel to the relative airflow. It has got two major components; PARASITE DRAG Parasite drag is the drag caused by the relative motion of the aeroplane wing to the air. Parasite drag increases directly with speed because the faster aircraft moves through the air, the more air molecules its surfaces encounter, and it is this molecules that resist the motion of the aircraft through the air. Parasite Drag α CAS² INDUCED DRAG Induced drag is caused by the production of lift and is associated with the wing-tip vortices. Induced drag is greatest at lower speeds due to the high angles of attack required to maintain the necessary lift. Vmd 40 Vmd is the speed at which parasite and induced drag values are equal. THE EFFECT OF AEROPLANE WEIGHT ON DRAG Because the heavier aeroplane requires more lift at the same CAS, the angle of attack must have increased (and therefore CL inreases). Because the CL has increased, the induced drag increases. i. ii. More drag at all speeds, and Vmd is at a faster speed. THE EFFECT OF FLAPS AND UNDERCARRIAGE ON DRAG The extension of the flaps and undercarriag e results in the parasite 41 drag increasing. i. More drag at all speeds, and ii. Vmd is at a slower speed. SPEED STABILITY Speed stability is the behavior of the speed after a disturbance at a fixed power setting. Speed stable: 1. An increase in speeds leads to an increase in drag, thus causing a return to the original speed. 2. A decrease in speed leads to a decrease in drag, thus causing return to the original speed. Speed unstable: 1. A decrease in speed leads to an increase in drag, which causes a further decrease in speed, thus causing a negative speed divergence. 42 2. A increase in speed leads to an decrease in drag, which causes a further increase in speed, thus causing a positive speed divergence. WEIGHT The weight of an aeroplane always acts vertically straight down from the aeroplane’s center of gravity. W=mg THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORCES IN DIFFERENT PHASES OF FLIGHT STEADY, STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT 43 In straight-and-level flight, the flight path and the relative airflow are horizontal. This means that lift will be vertical and drag horizontal. L=W and T=D STEADY CLIMBING FLIGHT In a straight climb at the same airspeed, the forces in any opposite direction must be equal. T=D+ W sinӨ L=W cosӨ 44 STEADY DESCENDING FLIGHT In a straight climb at the same airspeed, the forces in any opposite direction must be equal. D=T+ W sinӨ L=W cosӨ THE GLIDE 45 Glide means a descent with no thrust. D=W sinӨ L= W cosӨ Also; TanӨ= D / L This means that only lift to drag ratio determines glide range and not aeroplanes weight. However, the heavier aircraft would have a higher airspeed than the lighter aircraft, and, therefore, although it would glide the same distance, it would take less time to do so. TERMINOLOGY THE CHORD LINE The chord line is a straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of an aerofoil. THE MEAN CHAMBER LINE 46 The mean chamber line is a line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of equidistance on the upper and lower surfaces of an aerofoil. ANGLE OF ATTACK Angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of an aerofoil and the relative airflow. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE The angle of incidence is the angle between the aerofoil’s chord line and the aircraft’s longitudinal datum. It’s fixed angle for a wing but may be variable for a tailplane. COEFFICIENT OF LIFT (CL) Coefficient of lift is the lifting ability of a particular wing. It depends on both the shape of the wing section and the angle of attack. CENTER OF GRAVITY (CG) Center of gravity is the point through which the total weight of a body will act. 47 CENTER OF PRESSURE The center of pressure is a single point where the lifting force is produced. (not a fixed point) ASPECT RATIO The ratio of wing span to average chord. High aspect ratio= high lift (gliders) Low aspect ratio= lower lift but capable of higher speeds CRM CRM used primarily for improving air safety, CRM focuses on interpersonal communication, leadership, and decision making in the cockpit. CRM grew out of an NTSB analysis of the crash of United Airlines flight 173 where the plane ran out of fuel while the flight crew were troubleshooting a landing gear problem in 1978. CRM can be defined as a management system which makes optimum use of all available resources - equipment, procedures and people - to promote safety and enhance the efficiency of operations. Address the individual - "Hey Chief," or "Captain Smith," or "Bob," State your concern - "I'm concerned that we may not have enough fuel to fly around this storm system," State the problem as you see it - "We're only showing 40 minutes of fuel left," State a solution - "Let's divert to another airport and refuel," 48 Obtain agreement - "Does that sound good to you, Captain?" These are often difficult skills to master, as they may require significant changes in personal habits, interpersonal dynamics, and organizational culture. UNITED AIRLINES FLIGHT 173 United Airlines Flight 173 crew was making an approach to the Portland International Airport on the evening of Dec 28, 1978 when they experienced a landing gear abnormality. The captain decided to enter a holding pattern so they could troubleshoot the problem. The captain focused on the landing gear problem for an hour, ignoring repeated hints from the first officer and the flight engineer about their decreasing fuel supply. Only when the engines began flaming out did he realize their horrible situation. They crash landed in a wooded suburb of Portland, Oregon, over six miles short of the runway. Of the 189 people aboard, two crewmembers and eight passengers died. TWA FLIGHT 800 Trans World Airlines Flight 800 (TWA 800), a Boeing 747-100, exploded and crashed into the Atlantic Ocean near New York, on July 17, 1996, 12 minutes after takeoff from John F. Kennedy International Airport on a scheduled international passenger flight to Rome, with a stopover in Paris. All 230 people on board were killed, the third-deadliest aviation accident to occur in U.S. territory. 49 While accident investigators from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) traveled to the scene, arriving the following morning, there was much initial speculation that a terrorist attack was the cause of the crash. Consequently, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) initiated a parallel criminal investigation. Sixteen months later the FBI announced that no evidence had been found of a criminal act and closed its active investigation. The four-year NTSB investigation concluded with the approval of the Aircraft Accident Report on August 23, 2000, ending the most extensive, complex, and costly air disaster investigation in United States history. The report's conclusion was that the probable cause of the accident was an explosion of flammable fuel/air vapors in a fuel tank, and, although it could not be determined with certainty, the most likely cause of the explosion was a short circuit. As a result of the investigation, new requirements were developed for aircraft to prevent future fuel tank explosions. AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIO This course provides participants with a comprehensive overview of the procedures and methods used and the skills required to investigate an aircraft accident. 1. 2. Aircraft performance Meteorology 50 3. 4. 5. 6. Systems Crash Dynamics Media Relatıons Accident Side Management WINGLET FUNCTION Winglets are aerodynamically efficient surfaces added to wingtips. As it is known, the high pressure airflow below the wing surface tries to escape upper part of wing where there is lower pressure at the wing tip. This flow creates wing tip vortices which is the reason of induced drag. Winglets at the tip of the wings act as a dam to prevent or lessen this flow to decrease the wingtip vortices, eventually the induced drug to increase the efficiency of wings. HOLDING PROCEDURES It is used to provide separation between traffics and smooth flow of traffic. There are two types of holding; standard, nonstandard. İn standart holding right hand turns, in non standard holding left hand turns are utilized. Each circuit of holding begins and ends at a certain fix. These fixes may be navaid, intersection or a 51 certain dme dlstance. Unless otherwise is instructed or depicted standard holding is performed. İnbound leg of holding is always towards the fix. There are two ways of holding procedure; first one is done by timing and the second one is done by leg length. İn timing procedure inbound leg is flown one minute at or below 14000 feet and above 14000 feet one and a half minutes. If holding is to be performed by leg length fix and end of outbound leg is given in terms of dme. In this case no timing is required. Holding speed should be adjusted according to holding altitude, if holding speed and altitude are not depicted on the chart. Icao standard is 230 kts up to 14000 ft. There are three methods used to enter a holding pattern. Parallel, direct and teardrop entry. The entry procedure depends on your heading relative to your heading course. ISOLATED AERODROME When there is no alternate aerodrome. It depends on the distance to nearest aerodrome, fuel and time required. Additional fuel will be required to fly for two hours at normal cruise power for turbine power aircraft. TRANSPONDER CODES 0000 Mode C malfunction 7700 emergency 52 7600 comm failure 7500 hijack 0033 parachute 7000 VFR when no other code has been assigned. Although codes can be assigned from 0000 to 7700 the number of possible codes to be set is 4096. Mode A: 4 digit code entered by the pilot Mode C: Pressure altitude information is sent Mode S: selective interrogation facilitates to transmit 24 bit address length of data to other aircrafts Xpndr, TCAS, ACAS, and ADS-B systems. The data to be transmitted are callsign, heading, altitude . SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN REQUIREMENT PRESSURIZED AIRCRAFT DURING AND FOLLOWING EMERGENCY DECENT FOR FLIGHT DECK AND CABIN CREW 53 Between 10.000 and 13.000 feet All flight deck and cabin crew for entire flight time minus 30 minutes. Above 13.000 feet All flight deck and cabin crew for entire flight FOR PASSANGERS Between 10.000 and 14.000 feet Entire time for 10% of the passengers Between 14.000 and 15.000 feet Entire time for 30% of the passengers Above 15.000 feet Entire time for 100% of the passengers. ORIENTATION PROBLEMS DİSORİENTATİON: Kinesthetic sense is the term used to describe the awareness of position obtained from nerves, joints and muscles. This sense is unreliable because the brain can not tell the difference between gravity inputs and g-load inputs. In VFR conditions you obtain your orientation mainly through your vision, on the other hand in İFR or at night your body relies upon your vestibular and kinesthetic sense. Since these senses are unreliable disorientation occurs. 54 Fatigue, anxiety, workload, alcohol, drugs increase the probability of disorientation. There are two types of disorientation; spatial and vestibular. Spatial disorientation occurs when there is a conflict between central vision and peripheral vision. For example one feels himself moving as the vehicle next is moving while he is in a stationary vehicle. Vestibular system in inner ear may send misleading signals to brain causing vestibular disorientation. For example, a rapid acceleration during takeoff can create the illusion of being a nose-up attitude and abrupt change from climb to straight and level flight can create the illusion of tumbling backwards. In prolonged constant rate turn you will not sense the bank after a while and if you level the aircraft you will sense as if you bank the opposite side. RNP Required navigation performance (RNP) allows an aircraft to fly a specific path between two 3D-defined points in space. RNAV and RNP systems are fundamentally similar. The key difference between them is the requirement for on-board performance monitoring and alerting. 55 An RNP of 10 means that a navigation system must be able to calculate its position to within a circle with a radius of 10 nautical miles. Various RNP levels are required for different phases of flight. For example in USA RNP-2 for enroute, RNP-1 for departure and arrival and RNP-0.3 for approach is utilized. HAA & HAT HAA: The height of the MDA above published airport elevation. This is published with circling minimums. HAT: The height of the DA or MDA above the highest runway elevation in the touchdown zone of the runway. V SPEEDS V1: Take-off decision speed V2: Takeoff safety speed. The speed at which the aircraft may safely become airborne with one engine inoperative. VR: Rotation speed, the speed to start raising the nose during the takeoff run. 56 VMCA: Minimum control speed in the take-off configuration – the minimum calibrated airspeed at which the aircraft is directionally controllable in flight with a sudden Critical engine failure and takeoff power on the operative engine(s) VMCG: Minimum control speed on the ground - the minimum airspeed at which the aircraft is directionally controllable during acceleration along the runway with one engine inoperative, takeoff power on the operative engine(s), and with nose wheel steering assumed inoperative. VX: The airspeed that provides the best angle of climb (highest altitude in shortest distance). It is typically a fairly slow speed, and is most useful for taking off over obstacles like trees. VY: The airspeed that provides the best rate of climb (highest altitude in least time). It is faster than Vx, and is most useful for getting to an altitude as quickly as possible (say, to avoid icing). IAS & CAS & TAS IAS: When you read the Airspeed on the Airspeed Indicator Flight Instrument, you are reading the Indicated Air Speed CAS: The Airspeed Indicator is subject to slight errors. These errors are caused by factors such as the placement of the Pitot Tube and 57 Static Sources and flying configuration such as the degrees of flap extended. TAS: To calculate TAS, you will need to factor in the Outside Air Temperature (OAT) and the Pressure Altitude. For every 1,000 feet of altitude gain, True Air Speed (TAS) increases approximately 2% over Indicated Air Speed (IAS). AIRPORT LIGHTING AERODROME BEACON Two types of beacon: Identification Beacon and the Location Beacon. An Identification Beacon flashing a two letter identification code in green. Where the aerodrome is also situated well away from areas of high background lighting, the Location Beacon would display a flashing White light. Where the aerodrome is situated in an area where there is a high level of background lighting, such as in the vicinity of a city where a flashing white light would be difficult to see, the Location Beacon would display a green light flashing alternately with a white light. 58 MINIMUM RUNWAY LIGHTING 1. Runway edge lights: Omni-directional white. 2. Runway threshold lights: Green and indicates the start of the available landing distance. 3. Runway end lights: Green when viewed by aircraft approaching to land and red when seen from the runway. Pilots should not continue a landing roll or taxi beyond the red runway end lights. SUPPLEMENTARY RUNWAY LIGHTING 1. Centreline Lighting: centreline lighting extends from the threshold to 900 m from the runway end, the following 600 m is lit with alternate and red lights, and the final 300 m lit by red centreline lighting. 2. Touchdown Zone (TDZ) Lighting: On runways equipped for Category II and III approaches, additional lighting consisting of two rows of barrettes is installed in order to provide textural cues in the touchdown area. The additional lighting extends from the threshold either for 900 m or to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is the lesser distance. 3. Rapid Exit Taxiway Indicator Lights (RETILs): may be provided to indicate the distance to go to the nearest rapid exit 59 taxiway. RETILs consist of six yellow lights adjacent to the runway centreline and configured in a three/two/one pattern spaced 100 m apart; the single light is 100 m from the start of the turn for the rapid exit taxiway. 4. Runway Exit: taxiways may be indicated by substitution of one or two of the white runway edge lights with blue ones. 5. Stopway Lighting: may be used to show the extent of a stopway beyond the designated end of a runway. Red unidirectional edge lights visible only in the direction of runway. TAXİWAY LIGHTING At those aerodromes equipped for low visibility operations, taxiways are equipped with green centreline lighting, otherwise blue edge lighting is provided. NEWTON’S LAWS 1 ST LAW: A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to remain moving at the same speed and in the same direction. 2 ND LAW: When a body is acted upon by a constant force, its resulting acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the body and is directly proportional to the applied force. F=ma 60 3 RD LAW: Whenever one body exerts a force on another, the second body always exerts on the first, a force that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. COMPASS ERRORS There are four types of errors regarding the compass. Variation error; Magnetic north and geographic north are different from each other. İn aviation difference between true and magnetic pole is called variation. This variaton numbers are depicted on the charts easterly and westerly. To calculate true heading, easter corrections should be substracted, while westerly corrections be added to magnetic heading. Deviation; Local magnetic fields in aircraft affect the compass. This error is called deviation. Compass correction card is used to compansate the error. These errors are changable according to intended heading. Dip error; This error occurs because of the magnetic flux enters the nort pole vertically which makes flux parallel to surface over equator and perpendicular over the poles. When performing a compass turn to northerly heading, you must roll out before reaching the desired heading and visa versa in northern hemisphere. 61 Oscillation error; Oscilaation is acombination of the other errors. To compensate this error use the average indication. FLY BY WIRE TECHNOLOGY FBW technology replaces the conventional manual flight controls, such as tubes, rods or bell cranks. By means of this technology, pilot’s or autopilot's control inputs are converted into electronic signals and transmitted to actuators attached to control surfaces by wires. That is why this system is called FBW. This system help designers to reduce weight of aircraft. On the other hand the main concern is reliability. While traditional mechanical or hydraulics system fails gradually, FBW system may collapse immediately and cause the aircraft be uncontrollable. To prevent this situation, redundant systems has been developed such as completely independent computers, wirings, actuators to take over in case one system fails. On the other hand, in some aircrafts a mix of FBW and conventional systems as back up. Airbus 320 is using this kind of system. However, Boeing 737 is not using FBW technology. FUEL MANAGEMENT Fuel management is so vital for the operation of an aircraft. At all stages of flight, the flight crew must be vigilant regarding their fuel state and, to the maximum extent possible, adhere to Company 62 policies and fly the planned profile. The effects of poor in-flight fuel management can be broadly divided into three primary categories. These categories are Operational, Legal and Financial. OPERATIONAL: Poor in-flight fuel management can lead to divert to a new destination to refuel. In the worst case, poor inflight fuel management can lead to fuel exhaustion and forced landing with the potential of the loss of aircraft and loss of life. LEGAL: Regulations dictate the minimum amount of fuel required for a given flight profile. Failure to comply with these regulations can lead to enforcement action and to the potential of administrative action (suspension of AOC, loss of licence, etc) or financial penalties being assessed against the pilot, the Company or both. FINANCIAL: Poor in-flight fuel management can result in inefficient use of the available fuel leading to higher consumption and increased cost. 63 BACK COURSE This type of approach typically is found at smaller airports that do not have ILS approaches on both ends of the runway, where often the older localizer antennas are less directional. These transmit a signal from the back that is sufficient enough to be used in a back course approach. When flying a back course, the course deviation indicator (CDI) needle deflects to the opposite side with certain types of equipment. That is, the CDI indicates to fly left when the aircraft in fact needs to fly right to intercept the approach course. Reverse sensing does not occur on a horizontal situation indicator (HSI), which gives correct course guidance during both front-course and back-course approaches. FOG Fog, by definition, is a cloud that begins within 50 feet of the surface. It typically occurs when the temperature of air near the ground is cooled to the air’s dewpoint. At this point, water vapor in the air condenses and becomes visible in the form of fog. 64 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HELICOPTER AND AIRPLANE A plane must have some type of foward motion to gain airflow over the wings to thus create lift. Where as the helicopter can simply rotate its main rotor (wings) in a circle to create lift, without needing to have a foward motion. Thus airplanes must roll along the runaway to take-off. A helicopter cant take off at zero forward speed and hover at zero forward speed. Helicopters because of their specific mission profiles have a much lower safety record than airplanes and they are noisy and they vibrate like heck, not very confortable. TACAN A tactical air navigation system, commonly referred to by the acronym TACAN, is a navigation system used by military aircraft. It is a more accurate version of the VOR/DME system that provides bearing and range information for civil aviation. The DME portion of the TACAN system is available for civil use; at VORTAC facilities where a VOR is combined with a TACAN, civil aircraft can receive VOR/DME readings. 65 HIGH SPEED FLIGHT At speeds over 260 knots, air is considered incompressible that is its density remains constant but pressure varies. Air acts like water. Although aircraft is flying subsonic, airflow over the wing may reach sonic speeds. When flow velocity reaches sonic speed further acceleration results shock waveformation. This shock wave increases drag, decreases stability and degrades controllability. Speed regimes are defined in general as follows; Subsonic - up to 0.75 mach Transonic- 0.75-1.2 mach Supersonic- 1.2-5 mach Hypersonic - above 5 mach When airfoil flowing over any part of aircraft, especially over wings, reaches sonic speed, aircraft's speed is called critical mach number. Critical mach number is the boundary between subsonic and transonic flight. After critical mach number, drag rises sharply, trim and stability changes causing a decrease in controllability. As altitude increases, true air speed increases and local sound of speed decreases so the mach number increases. To prevent speeding 66 up beyond critical mach number, at flight levels after mid twenties mach number is used. İf an aircraft flies at absolute ceiling, it can not speed up due to critical mach number and slow down due to stall speed restriction. This point is coffin corner. To delay seperation so to increase critical mach number vortex generators are utilised. İn addition to this swept back wing design is used to delay seperation and improve aerodynamic performance. MACH NUMBER: Mach number is the ratio of the speed of an object or flow to the local speed of sound. M=V/VSOUND WAKE TURBULANCE SEPERATION DISTANCE SEPERATION Others 3 nm TIME SEPERATION 67 T/O TIME LNDG All 2 min All Intersection T/O 3 min L VDP (VISUAL DESCENT POINT) A visual descent point is published for runways where the Missed Approach Point on a non-precision approach would put you in a position where you cannot make a normal 3-degree descent to the touchdown zone. If you try to make a landing from the MAP in a large or fast aircraft you would land long and possibly overshoot the runway. Cause that, the VDP is always located before the MAP. VDP provide the standard 3 degree flight path to the touchdown zone. VDP=HAT/300 AERODYNAMIC FLUTTER Flutter is an unstable oscillation which can lead to destruction. Flutter can occur on fixed surfaces, such as the wing or the stabilizer, as well as on control surfaces such as the aileron or the elevator for instance. 68 The constructor should design the airplane in such a way that it will not suffer from flutter below VNE (Never Exceed Velocity) or below VMO/MMO (Max Operating Velocity or Mach number). So, do not fly at a speed greater than the red line (for SEP, Single Engine Piston, and MEP, Multi Engine Piston) or at a speed greater than barber's pole (VMO needle on jet airplanes). HOLDING ENTRY PROCEDURES DIRECT ENTRY: Proceed directly to the assigned fix, and then, after crossing the fix, simply turn right (standard hold) to the outbound heading. After passing “abeam” the fix outbound on the outbound heading, start your timer and fly for one minute. Then, initiate a right turn to intercept the inbound track. In calm winds you will produce a one-minute track on the inbound leg. PARALLEL ENTRY: After crossing the fix during a parallel entry, simply turn to the outbound heading of the hold—maintain that heading for one minute, then turn in a direction opposite to the hold turns—that is, turn to the left (“parallel is opposite”). After the turn is flown for one minute, roll out so as to track directly to the fix and essentially fly a direct entry (turn right to the outbound heading after crossing the fix). 69 OFFSET OR TEARDROP ENTRY: the aircraft flies to the holding fix, turns into the protected area (Standart:Outbound-30º, Non-standart:Outbound+30º), flies for one minute, and then turns back inbound, proceeds to the fix and continues from there. 70