KS709 Special Topics in East Asian Studies
The Roles of Tofu in Plant-Based Food Trends in South Korea: A Brief History and
Development
Yasmine Citra Dian Utami
Ewha Womans University
Background
Tofu is a flexible food that can be incorporated to any dishes, ingredients, serving
methods, as well as served by itself. In addition to that, we can observe that these days, tofu
becomes the star ingredient in many plant-based dishes around the globe; whether we find it
in restaurants or in any online recipes and cooking videos. It is interesting to learn about the
journey of tofu from its invention until today.
Research Questions
1.
How is the journey of tofu since its invention until it can be found almost everywhere
around the globe now?
2.
How is the plant-based food history and the trend worldwide?
3.
What are the roles of tofu in plant-based food trend in the world, especially in South
Korea?
Methodology
Literature review was conducted from academic journal, credible websites, reports,
and statistics data. To support that, an interview with a North Korean informant was done and
YouTube videos were reviewed and examined as supplementary information.
Introduction of Tofu
Tofu is a white-yellowish colored dish made from soybean. Tofu is an English word,
adopted from Japanese tofu which originated from Chinese doufu; dou means beans and fu
means fermented (Tofu Magazine 2007). Tofu is called dubu in Korean and tahu in
Indonesian. The soybean is processed into soy milk, then coagulated using specified liquid
until the curds formed. This is also the story behind tofu’s other name, bean curd.
Interestingly, a legendary story believed that tofu was invented unintentionally because of
‘coagulation accident’.
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KS709 Special Topics in East Asian Studies
The story begin in Shouchun County, Anhui Province, southeast China, where the
Huainan King Liu An is thought to have developed tofu in 164 BC. Daoism and the quest for
immortality were the obsessions of King Liu An. He enlisted eight talents to pursue alchemy
at the time in an effort to find elixirs that would provide him eternal life. They did that by
first making soybean milk and then combining it with a salty solution. However, attempts to
create elixirs were unsuccessful, and instead a white curd was unintentionally created from
the soybean milk. The curd was silky and delicious, and the locals enjoyed it (Zhu, Yang, and
Mouritsen 2023).
However, that theory of origin has fallen out of favor with most Chinese and foreign
scholars since the 1970s. According to Soyinfo Center (2013), the first mention of tofu in
China is in the Qing Yilu by Tao Ku in 965 CE: "In the daily market were several catties of
doufu. People of the region called doufu the ‘vice mayor’s mutton.’ Another theory said that
tofu-making method was learned from Mongolian tribes who lived in Northern China border,
based on cheese-making process from dairy milk (Shurtleff and Aoyagi 2004).
History of Soybean
According to Zhu et. al. (2023) soybean or Glycine max (Linn.) Merr. was first
domesticated around 5000 years ago in China. The original habitats of wild soybean is YunGui plateau in southwest of China and the Heilongjiang Province of northeast China.
Soybean is considered as the most valuable legume in the world.
How to Make Tofu
Basically, there are at least 3 steps to make tofu from the whole soy bean:
1.
Soy milk making
Soak the dried soybeans in water at least 6 hours, then, blend it with water. Strain it using
cheesecloth, and discard the residue. Cook the soy milk and simmer, remove the layer or
yuba until there is no skin layer on the surface. Turn off the heat.
2.
Coagulating
Use tofu coagulant, also called calcium sulfate, or lemon juice as substitute. Add the
coagulant to the hot soy milk, and stir until the curds formed.
3.
Pressing
Strain the curds using cheesecloth or similar things, and pressed the curds. Wait until the
curds solidified.
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Tofu Nutritional Value
Tofu is a high protein and low calorie food. It is rich in iron, calcium, and amino acids.
Thus, this dish is perfect for daily consumption. Here is the nutritional value in 100 grams of
tofu, according to Food Data Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture (2019).
Table 1. Nutritional Value in 100 gram Tofu
Name
Amount
Unit
Name
Amount
Unit
Water
84.6
g
Calcium, Ca
350
mg
Energy
76
kCal
Iron, Fe
5.36
mg
Energy
317
kJ
Magnesium, Mg
30
mg
Protein
8.08
g
Phosphorus, P
97
mg
Total lipid (fat)
4.78
g
Potassium, K
121
mg
1.87
g
Sodium, Na
7
mg
0.3
g
Zinc, Zn
0.8
mg
Carbohydrate,
by
difference
Fiber, total dietary
Source: Food Data Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture (2019)
Tofu and Breast Cancer Risk
In the past, people believe that eating too much tofu will increase the risk of breast
cancer in women due the high content of isoflavone. Isoflavone is plant estrogen which high
levels of estrogen is linked to breast cancer. However, study found that the moderate
consumption of tofu and other soy food do not have that high level of isoflavone to increase
breast cancer risk (Zeratsky 2022). Wang, Liu, and Ren (2020) suggests that tofu
consumption has an inverse association with breast cancer risk, using meta analysis of
observation studies.
GMO Soybean and The Safety
When Genetically Modified Organism was introduced, people were doubtful of the
safety and health aspect of that, especially for food. This also happened to GMO soybean in
the past. However, by the advanced development of science and engineering, GMO soybean
has becoming a lot better with many economic and environmental benefit in addition to the
safety of consumption (Food Insight 2021). This statement is also supported by the study of
Lin et. al (2022) who did food safety assessment to both GMO and non-GMO soybean that
resulting in the equal food safety for both GMO and non-GMO soybean.
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KS709 Special Topics in East Asian Studies
Tofu Journey in The World
The journey of tofu below is written in chronological order based in some countries,
other than China, on the reference compiled by Soyinfo Center (2013). It is not based on the
real timeline of the spread of tofu, but according to the earliest documentation of tofu that can
be found.
Tofu in Asia

In 902: There was an inscription in Watukura (now Central Java, Indonesia) that
mentioned tofu or tahu as a dish eaten at feasts. It also reflected the making process of
tahu and the first origin of tofu in Indonesia was Java Island.

In 1183: The first mention of tofu in Japan is in the diary of Nakatomi Hiroshige, the
priest of Nara's Kasuga Shrine. Tofu was offered in front of the shrine. It was believed
that tofu was brought to Japan in the 8th century.

In 1434: Korea's dynasty records mentioned that China's Ming Dinasty emperor sent
serving women to Choson court and mandated them to prepare various food, including
tofu which got praises.

In 1844: Tofu was first written in an agricultural journal in Calcutta. However, tofu was
first made in India by Chinese people and served in Chinese restaurants there during
1950s (Shurtleff and Aoyagi 2007).
Tofu in Western Countries

In 1613: British Captain John Saris visited Japan and describe the food habit of Japanese
as 'cheese'. It turned of to be tofu, not cheese.

In 1665: Navarrete from Italy wrote about tofu as staple and cheap food in China where
everyone eat it. He also described about the making process of tofu.

In 1896: Tofu was first written in the US in American Journal of Pharmacy. Later,
during the late 1800s, the first ever tofu shop in America was mentioned.

In 1904: The oldest tofu company in The US today, Quong Hop & Co. was established.
Tofu Stereotype
Tofu is frequently associated with poor and low class people due to its relatively
cheap price. In Indonesia, eating tofu in the past was also considered as being poor, unable to
buy animal sourced protein, such as chicken or meat that are much more expensive. Along
with tofu, a signature dish from Indonesia, that is also made from soy bean, tempe also has
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the similar image of being low-class food. Tofu and tempe in Indonesia in most of the time
come in pair, served together in several dishes.
Besides being famous as cheap food, tofu is also used to mock others in some
countries. Again, in Indonesia, as being low-class food, tofu is used to lowering other people
by calling them ‘having tofu mentality’, which means having weak and soft mental like tofu
texture. Meanwhile, in The US, the terms ‘tofu-eater’ and ‘soy boy’ are used to insult others
(Castrodale 2018).
Tofu Dishes in The World
With its bland taste, soft texture, and white color, tofu can be easily incorporated in a
lot of dishes, such as: soup, stir fried, fritters, beverage, and dessert, either as the main
ingredient or complementary. The relatively cheap price of tofu also contribute to its
popularity in many dishes worldwide, especially in Asia. Starting as main dish, appetizers,
and snacks, the development of culinary arts and innovation created wider and unique new
dishes from tofu, for example in dessert. Besides the various ways of serving and the cooking
process, tofu dishes in the world also hold different cultural values, symbols, and histories.
Chinese Hakka Yong Tau Foo
According to Liao and He (2018), Hakka Yong Tau Foo means ‘bean curd with
fillings’ in Hakka regional dialect accent. Li Bing (2009, cited in Liao and He 2018:3)
believed that Hakka Yong Tau Foo is an evolution of dumplings made by Hakka ancestors
with the missing feelings to the homeland. It symbolizes the long process of cultural
adaptation in terms of food during the migration of Hakka people. They invented Yong Tau
Foo by utilizing similar dumpling making process, but using the locally available ingredient,
which was tofu, to fulfill their homesickness while they were far from home.
Japanese Okinawan Tofu Dish
Okinawan people are well-known for their longest life expectancy and low rates of
disability. Their food culture is believed to be one major factor contributing to their longevity.
They consume tofu daily, usually combined with seaweed since it is rich in sulfur-containing
amino acid, such as clear soup with tofu and green seaweed, or by adding fried tofu and
konbu to meat broth (Sho 2001). Okinawan tofu itself is receiving attention worldwide for its
isoflavones that can be a disease prevention.
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South Korean Buddhist Temple Food
Buddhist temple food is vegetarian, using no meat and no pungent vegetables. It is
low calorie and high nutrition. Buddhist monks and nuns in Korea usually cook their food
from scratch, and even grew all the ingredients in the temple area in the past. Tofu is one
ingredient that is frequently used in temple food side dish since hundreds years ago because it
is vegan, high in protein and calcium, and can be prepared in the temple. Kim (2018) stated
that “The famous six-pack of Shaolin temple’s monks was made of tofu, wasn’t it?” to refer
the importance of tofu in temple food. Tofu can be boiled, fried, braised, or even fermented.
In Koryeo Dinasty, there were temples that specialized in tofu making, called Japosa (Do
2019).
North Korean Tofu Rice
During the Great Famine in 1995 in North Korea, many people starved to death which
led the North Korean mothers to find the best way to feed their family. According to Park1
(2023), the mothers invented tofu rice since tofu was the cheapest option they could afford,
yet had great nutrition for them to survive. It is a deep fried tofu which is stuffed with rice
and served with homemade chili sauce. This dish is really simple and cheap, yet fulfilling wih
enough nutrition value. Because of this history, tofu rice is still widely consumed by North
Korean today as a street food.
Indonesian Tahu Sumedang
Tahu Sumedang is a food icon from Sumedang City, West Java Province, Indonesia.
It is a deep-fried tofu with crispy crumbly skin and soft, hollow inside. From a video
documentary by Kisaras (2023), Tahu Sumedang was first found in 1917 by a Chinese
migrant, named Ong Bungkeng, who settled in Sumedang City. Bungkeng prepared and
cooked the Tahu Sumedang based on what he learned in his hometown in China. He and his
son then sold this tofu dish in Sumedang where one day, the Prince of Sumedang bought and
tasted the tofu. The prince was satisfied with the taste that made it famous around the city.
Starting from a small family business, decades later around 1970s, there were more people
selling this firstly known as ‘Tahu Bungkeng’ in Sumedang. Since then, Sumedang City has
been called as City of Tofu which Tahu Sumedang serves as its signature dish.
1
Casual interview was conducted with Park Eunhee, a North Korean defector, in an informal gathering in
Hongdae, Seoul on May 7, 2023.
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Plant-based Food Trend
Vegan, Vegetarian and The History
Vegan is a person who does not consume product made from animals, including their
derivatives, such as egg, milk, honey, silk, pearl, and wool. The consumption including not
eating and not using any products containing animal-derived ingredients. While vegan is the
most extreme type of vegetarian, vegetarian has several types, according to WHO (2021):
1.
Vegan: prohibit all animal products.
2.
Lacto-vegetarian: still consume dairy products, such as milk, cheese, and butter.
3.
Lacto-ovo-vegetarian: no meat and fish, but still consume eggs and dairy products.
4.
Ovo-vegetarian: exclude all animal products, except eggs.
5.
Pesco-vegetarian (or pescatarian): do not eat animal products, except fish, eggs, and milk.
6.
Semi-vegetarian (or flexitarian): vegetarian but occasionally eat meat, eggs, milk, fish, or
poultry in small amount.
According to Suddath (2008), vegetarianism was first introduced by Pythagoras
around 500 BCE. Pythagoras held the belief that souls were everlasting and would transition
into new living bodies through reincarnation after death. He also advocated for the notion that
all living beings, including animals, were interconnected and should be regarded as a unified
family, fostering a sense of kinship among all life forms. Consequently, Pythagoras chose to
refrain from consuming food derived from animals due to his conviction in the
interconnectedness of all creatures. Thus, until 1800s, plant-based diet was known as
Pythagorean Diet (Clem and Barthel 2021).
However, Schmida (2023) stated that evidence of vegetarianism can be traced back
more than 9,000 years ago to the ancient Indus river civilization. Specifically, in the town of
Mehrgarh, situated in present-day Pakistan, this dietary practice emerged. The Indus river
civilization, believed to have thrived between the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE, is not only
recognized as the birthplace of Hinduism, one of the world's oldest religions, but also
represents the earliest instance of vegetarianism being incorporated into religious traditions.
Recent Trend
Plant-based food gains popularity in recent decades for several reasons. The first
reason is religion. Some of the Hinduism and Buddhism followers adopt veganism as a form
of religious devotion. The next reason is health reason because various studies indicate that
plant-based diets may lower or prevent the risk of chronic diseases, such as diabetic,
cardiovascular disease, stroke, and cancer. Hemler and Hu (2019) stated that fruits and
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KS709 Special Topics in East Asian Studies
vegetables provide ample amounts of fiber, antioxidants, and diverse nutrients, and have
shown a reverse correlation with the likelihood of chronic diseases and mortality.
Figure 1. CO2 Emission in kilograms, per kg of some food item
Source: Hayek and Dutkiewicz (2021)
The next factor contributing to the rise of plant-based food trend is environmental
issue. Many studies showed that plant-based food have much lower emission than animal
food as seen in Figure 1 above. Thus, some people believe that reducing animal food
consumption and rely more on plant-based food is better for environment sustainability.
The recent pandemic also boosted the number of plant-based food consumption as
people believed that plant-based food is healthier and they worried to eat meat because it may
be exposed to the virus. On the other hand, in the middle of the economic deterioration, plantbased food was also a more cost-efficient food option than animal food (Food and Beverage
Insider 2021).
Plant-based Food Market
Figure 2. Global Plant-based Food Market 2020-2030
Plant Based News (2021). [Graph]. In Statista
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Bloomberg Intelligence reported that in 2030 global plant-based food market will
increase up to 451% (Webber 2023). Health and environment reasons are the most common
motivation of people going vegan, or at least try to consume more plant-based food.
Plant-based Food in Korea
Meanwhile in Korea, according to Hana Bank (2022) the number of people who
follow vegan diet has increased ten times in ten years from 2008 until 2018. This number also
increased until 2021 and is expected to grow more by year. Korea Agro-Fisheries & Food
Trade Corp., & MAFRA (Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs) (2021a) reported
that the growth of vegan market in Korea shifted from SMEs to large corporations-produced.
The variety of product also changed from raw materials to more of processed food.
Figure 3. Number of Vegan in Korea from 2008 to 2010 (in thousands)
Hana Bank (2022). [Graph]. In Statista
Korea Agro-Fisheries & Food Trade Corp., & MAFRA also surveyed 417 vegetarian
in Korea in December 2021. The survey shows that most of them are flexitarian (almost
80%), followed by pollo in the second rank. Pollo is another form of vegetarian who only
consumes poultry as animal based protein. Meanwhile, in terms of the reasons of starting
plant-based diets, most of the respondents answered because they want to lose weight (36.7%)
and because of health reasons (35.3%).
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KS709 Special Topics in East Asian Studies
Figure 4. Distribution of Vegetarian in Korea (December 2021)
Korea Agro-Fisheries & Food Trade Corp., & MAFRA (2021b). [Graph] In Statista
Figure 5. Motives for starting a plant-based diet in South Korea as of December 2021
Korea Agro-Fisheries & Food Trade Corp., & MAFRA (2021c). [Graph] In Statista
Tofu Roles in Plant-based Food Trend
The versatility of tofu to be incorporated in many dishes has widened its roles in
plant-based food trend. Beside being served as real tofu, tofu can also be modified into vegan
milk, cream, egg, meat, and even cheese. Shrivastava (2021) on Vox Magazine wrote that
tofu has became one prominent meat alternative since Covid-19 pandemic. Shrivastava also
interviewed Lockhart, a Columbia-based vegan restaurant owner, regarding tofu. Lockhart
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stated that tofu can be turned into chicken-type product, in which she even serves tofu bacon
in her restaurant.
There are many homemade vegan dishes recipes using tofu as the main ingredients on
YouTube. We can make ice cream from tofu, or tofu pudding for dessert. Then to change tofu
into vegan meat, we need to discard as much as possible the water content in tofu, so it is
better to use firm tofu. In this growing innovation and creativity in vegan culinary art using
tofu, it is not surprising that Maximize Market Research (2021) predicted global tofu market
will increase from US$ 247.98 billion in 2021 to US$ 372.01 billion in 2029.
Figure 6. Global Tofu Market Estimation
Source: Maximize Market Research (2021)
Tofu Roles In Plan-based Food Trend in Korea
1. Daily dishes
Korean has been adopting tofu to their daily menu since hundreds years ago. As a
staple food in Korea, there are variety of traditional dishes that are consumed daily using tofu,
range from side dish, main dish, and even snacks. Popular Korean traditional dishes made
from tofu are sundubu jjigae (soft tofu stew), dubu jorim (braised tofu), and dubu buchim
(crispy pan-fried tofu). In addition to that, Korean temple food also use tofu in daily basis as
one prominent source of protein for the monks and nuns.
The strong relation between tofu and Korean can be seen in Figure 6, where there are
2 Korean companies that become the key players in global tofu market; Pulmuone and CJ
CheilJedang. The sales volume of tofu in South Korea from 2012 to 2021 also increased
significantly by more than 100,000 tons as shown in Figure 7. Interestingly, there is a village
in Gangneung that is famous of its tofu dishes, named “Chodang Tofu Village”. There we can
find various tofu dishes, and even tofu ice cream.
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Figure 7. Sales Volume of Tofu in South Korea from 2012 to 2021 (in 1,000 metric tons)
Source: Statistics Korea (2022). [Graph] In Statista.
2. Processed vegetarian food
Korea Agro-Fisheries & Food Trade Corp., & MAFRA (2021a) reported in “2021 가
공식품 세분시장 현황 비건식품” that there are many vegan processed food made from
tofu that can be purchased in local supermarket and convenient store chains, they are noodle,
dumplings, and meatball (p. 70, 76, 81). The diverse variety of vegan tofu-based processed
food is aligned with the trend of more processed food than raw ingredients.
3. Diet food
Based on the survey that most Korean people started veganism due to body weight and
health reasons, so I searched for keywords “ 두 부 다 이 어 트 ” on Naver to see how tofu
influenced the diet to lose weight. It is not surprising to see people sharing numerous diet
meal plans using tofu as the replacement of rice, egg, flour, and meat.
Image 1. Naver first page search result
Source: Naver
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Conclusion
Tofu as an Asian Food has a long history in the world, although the exact origin is yet to
be confirmed. Originated in more than 5000 years ago, it finally spread around the globe in
the 20th century. Due to its versatility in cooking, high nutrition, relatively cheap price, and
low impact on the environment, tofu gains more popularity in recent years, especially in the
rising of plant-based food trend.
South Korea, as one of the leading country producers of tofu, has been incorporating
tofu in their dishes, as well as creating innovations using tofu as the main ingredient. Tofu
indeed plays a big role in South Korea vegan food industry, notably due to the rising number
of vegetarians in South Korea.
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