Systems
Rayan Ali
March 2022
Introduction
Throughout history humanity has innovated by utilizing what they already
understand as building blocks to reach new heights. This is the principle idea
behind defining systems. These complex structures can be observed in all aspects of life such as how employees of a company work together to turn a profit
to the way parts of a car work together to make it move. A system is a ”hierarchy” of subgroups that are dependent on each other to reach their collective
goal, with a boundary dictating the whole system’s scope of interest.
Dependent ”Hierarchy” of Systems
In the context of systems, the word ”hierarchy” holds a slightly altered meaning. In the article ”The Architecture of Complexity”, author Herbert A. Simon
writes about how one must add to the traditional definition of hierarchy and
”include systems in which there is no relation of subordination among subsystems”. This excerpt reinforces the fact that systems are comprised of subgroups
that may or may not have their own subgroups. Nonetheless the various parts
work in tandem to complete their purpose.
Although the ”hierarchical” structure of systems has been described, we must
now observe the interdependent nature of the subgroups used to build these
systems. In chapter two of ”Systems Thinking: Coping with 21st Century
Problems”, authors John Boardman and Brian Sauser convey the message that
”it is the interconnection of several parts of the system that constitutes the
overall failure”. This statement stipulates that the overall success of a system
is also dictated by the interconnection of several different parts. Therefore,
showing that each subgroup of a system can’t make the whole system reach its
goal without the support of the other parts. A system is only a system when
all the essential subgroups are present.
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System Goals
In his article ”Systems thinking and thinking systems”, Russel L. Ackoff divides systems into three types ”mechanical, organismic, and social”. The main
factor he uses to differentiate these types is their goals. Mechanical systems
have no goals of their own, organismic systems have at least one self described
purpose, and social systems consist of subsystems that also have their own goals.
It is undeniable that every system is created to serve some purpose, however,
it is how this purpose is determined that differentiates a general system from a
computational system.
According to the criteria created by Ackoff, a computational system would
fall under the category of a mechanical system. Similar to mechanical systems
a computational one does not have a predetermined purpose. Rather it is up to
the user of the system to determine what purpose it will serve and program it
correctly to carry out the intended procedures. Additionally, this means that the
essential elements in computational systems can vary as its purpose is manually
changed, unlike the majority of general systems where the essential elements
are usually unvarying.
Boundaries
Boundaries are an essential part of every system helping ”define the area of
responsibility and the scope of interest”, which allows people to understand
what they have control over in a particular system and what context it is in
(Boardman/Sauser). This boundary, however, is not necessarily unable to be
transgressed. For example, in somatic cells the cell wall acts as a boundary for
the organelles inside the cell, yet, it still allows some nutrients to flow in and
out of the cell to maintain its health. A boundary that is too rigid cuts off
the system from the environment leading to a disconnect and deters a systems
expertise from adapting to feedback. Therefore, it is clear that computational
systems have intelligent boundaries that allow it to learn from its results.
System Classification Examples
The first example is the internal combustion engine. This is a heat engine
that uses the combustion of fuel with an oxidizer to produce high-pressure gasses
that applies force to some other component. At first glance, this may seem like
just a subgroup of a larger system (the vehicle powered by the engine), but this
subgroup is actually a general system itself. It has various parts such as the
spark plug, crankshaft, connecting rod, and valves that have a common goal to
turn chemical energy into kinetic energy all of which are bounded by the engine
block.
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The next example is the human brain. The human brain consists of the cortex,
basal ganglia, and cerebellum. The brain works by receiving spike codes that
help the basal ganglia determine which action from the list of actions stored
in the cortex that the body should take. The cerebellum is responsible for
interpreting the result of the action taken. Based off this it is clear that the
human brain is a computational system. It’s goal is constantly changing based
off of the situation its user is in, and cannot function on its own. Additionally, it
has an intelligent boundary that helps the system be responsive and constantly
adapting based on feedback.
The last example is the World Wide Web. The Web consists of various clients,
servers, and modules that communicate with each other. Overall the World
Wide Web is determined to be a social system with an collective goal to allow the
sharing of information. Each user has their own goal of spreading or gathering
information specific to their goals.
Conclusion
In conclusion, systems are comprised of various subgroups that are dependent
on each other to reach their goals. Each system is also bounded by some physical or abstract boundary that helps people determine the focus of the system.
Computational systems adhere to the previously listed rubric but have slight
differences. Their goals are not predetermined but rather determined by the
user of the system, and they have intelligent boundaries that help them respond
to feedback. Overall systems are at the core of various different aspects of one’s
everyday life.
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