Origin of the universe
Tuesday, September 01, 2020
3:24 PM
Astronomy
→ Studies the composition and distribution of
celestial objects and phenomena.
→ A multidisciplinary science as it is related to
physics, chemistry, mathematics computer
science, geology, and biology
Ancient Astronomy
→ It started when ancient people began to
wonder about observable phenomena in the
sky(day, night, seasons, eclipses, stars, and
their color etc.)
Astrophysics
→ Involves the study of the physics of
astronomy and focuses on the behaviour
properties and motion of object in space
Cosmology
→ A branch of astronomy that studies the
past, present, and future of the universe
→ NASA defines cosmology as "the scientific
study of the large scale property of the
universe as a whole
→ It is a highly theoretical science but one on
which the foundation of astronomy all rest.
Universe
→ It refers to all matter and energy in space,
known or unknown to man
Space
→ It is a thing in which matter and energy
exists, can be bent by mass creating gravity
and expands causing the universe to expands
carrying along the galaxies with it.
Modern Cosmology
→ Based on big bang theory
→ Developed in the mid-20th century, it is still
the most successful explaination for the
observe properties of the universe and laws
of theoritical physics
Limitation of Cosmology
→ Ability to conduct experiments on the
universe
→ The only universe that can be studied is our
own, so there are no universe to compare
Features of universe are explained by theories
→ Fixed of speed of light
→ The universe is expanding
→ The uniform distribution of matter through
the cosmos
Brief History
Vesto Slipher
• Observe the spectra of spiral in galaxy in 1912
• He observed that almost all galaxies were "Red
shifted" which means they are all moving away
from us
George Lemaitre
• He first suggested the big bang theory in
1920's
• He theorized that the universe is expanding
which explains why galaxies appeared to be
rushing away from us
Edwin Hubble
• Observe the variable of stars in Andromeda
galaxy and other galaxy Slipher did and
measured.
• He found out that the farther away the galaxy
was, the faster it appeared to be moving away
from us and it has been proven at present
Fred Hoyle
• First to use the big bang theory
• Developed the steady state theory (1948),
which said that as the universe expanded
new matter was formed to fill void left by
the expansion
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 1
The big bang theory
10:13 AM
• Traces the expansion of the universe and creation of
all matter back to violent explosion 13.7 billion years
ago
• Accounts for many features of present day universe,
and the evidence in the favor is that the entire sky is
still glowing with faint radiation left from the initial
explosion
• It is currently the best model of how universe began
• About 13.8 billion years ago the universe came into
being in a violent explosion
• The theory doesn't and can't attempt to explain
what came "before" because time and space did not
exist
• Infinitely small, dense and not as it came to being.
• For the first 10-43 seconds , the so called plank
time, the normal law of physics did not apply
• The density of the energy was so high that the particles could form and decay
spontaneously
• George Gamow(1904-1968)
○ He help to explain how different particles formed in a hot big bang
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
• Heat left over from the early universe
• Observes have all characteristics expected from the big bang theories
• Accidentally discovered by German-born American physicist Arno Penzias and American
Physicist Robert Woodrow Wilson
Inflammation theory reinforces the bigbang
1970 -Astronomers discovered that the galaxies were distributed very evenly through
the original big bang theories suggested that matter would evenly distributed
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 2
More origin of the Universe
Tuesday, October 20, 2020
11:58 AM
• Galaxies- is a collection of stars gasses
and other matter bound together by the
force of gravity
• Milky way galaxy- is one of the billions of
galaxies entrenched in the much larger
universe
• Hubble telescope were used by the
astronomers to catalog thousands of
other galaxies in relatively small section
of deep space
• 13.8 billion years- current model
suggested age of the universe
• 93 light years observable universe is
currently believe
How is the age of the universe determined
• Astronomers estimate the age of the
universe:
○ By looking for the oldest stars
○ By measuring the rate of expansion
of the universe and predicting back
to the big bang
WMAP- Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
• It help to determine the age of the
universe
• Detailed structure of the cosmic
microwave depends on the current density
of the universe, the composition of the
universe, and its expansion rate.
13.77-+ 0.59 billion years- scientist estimated
age of the universe
Einstein's General Relativity
• Can be used to compute how fast the
universe has been expanding in the past.
How is the size of the universe determined?
• Brightness and luminosity. The brightness
of a star depends on the distance to the
star and amount of light energy it
radiates (luminosity).
• The Doppler Effect. If you know the
frequency of the siren that produced the
sound and measured the frequency of an
approaching siren, you could calculate the
speed of the emergency vehicle. The same
effect occurs with light, and Hubble used
the Doppler Effect on light to estimate
the earth's distance from far away stars.
• velocity of light-Hubble analyzed the
wavelength of light from distant pulsating
stars and noted that the wavelength were
typically longer and closer to the red end of
the spectrum when compared to the light
from closer stars.
• Measuring Distances in Light Years. One
light year is the distance that light can
travel in 1 year and is equivalent to 9500
billion km or 9.5 trillion km. So even though
it is a light year it is actually and measure of
distance not time.
Proxima Centauri is 4.3 light years away nearest
star to our sun
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 3
Theories on the Formation of the Solar
System
Wednesday, October 21, 2020
9:16 PM
Terms:
• Planetesimal- an object formed from
dust, rock and other material
• Protoplanet- a large planetary embryo
that originated within photoplanetary
disk
• Accretion- process growth/increase in
by size by gradual accumulation of
additional layers of matter
• Angular Momentum- the momentum that
a body has due to its rotation about an
axis
• Jovian Planet
○ Multiple moons
○ No solid surface
○ Support ring system
○ Immerse size
Solar System 101
• Mercury- Smallest planet
• It is one over 500 known solar system in
Shortest orbit(about 3 earth months)
the milky way galaxy
• Venus- hottest planet, with temperatures of up to
• It came into being about 4.5 billion
867 F, due to an atmosphere of carbon Dioxide
years ago, when a cloud of interstellar
and extensive lava flow
gas and dust collapsed, resulting in a
• Earth- world of water
solar nebula, swirling disc of material
Water help create only known
that collided to form the solar system.
environment to sustain life
• It is located in Milky way's Orion Star
• Mars- might have also supported life about 3.7
cluster. Only 15% of stars in the galaxy
billion years ago
host planetary systems, and one of
• Jupiter -largest planet
those is the SUN.
• Saturn- second largest
○ Revolving around the sun is 8
It's rings are wide enough to fit
planets
between earth and moon
• Terrestrial Planet
• Uranus- rotating on its side
○ Made of rocky materials
• Neptune- the coldest
○ Surface are solid
Asteroid belt
○ Don’t have rings
• Orbiting the terrestrial planets
○ Very few moons
• A flat disc of rocky objects full of remnants from
○ Relatively small
the solar system's formation.
○ Ceres- largest object
Dwarf planet
Kuiper Belt
• Home to draft planet, such as Pluto
• Birthplace of many comets
Oort Cloud
• A vast, spherical collection of icy debris
• Edge of the solar system
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 4
Solar System
Wednesday, October 21, 2020
9:46 PM
Nicolaus Copernicus
• He described in 1543 the heliocentric
theory of sun-centered system of
planetary motion
What is a Hypothesis?
• Either suggested explanation for an
observable phenomenon, or a reasoned
prediction
What is a theory?
• A tested, well-sustained, unifying
explanation for a set of verified proven
factors and always backed with evidence
Encounter Hypothesis
• One of the earliest theories for the
formation of the planets
• In this scenario, a rogue star passes close
to the Sun about 5 billion years ago.
Material, in the form of hot gas, is tidally
stripped from the Sun and the rogue
star.
○ This material fragments into smaller
lumps which form the planets. This
hypothesis has the advantage of
explaining why the planets all revolve
in the same direction (from the
encounter geometry) and also
provides an explanation for why the
inner worlds are denser than the
outer worlds.
Advantage of Encounter Hypothesis
• Explaining why the planets all revolve in the
same direction
• Also provide explanation for why the inner
world are denser than outer world
Disadvantage of encounter hypothesis
• hot gas expands, not contracts. So lumps of
hot gas would not form planets.
• encounters between stars are extremely
rare, so rare as to be improbable in the
lifetime of the Universe (15 billion years).
GLL de Buffon (1749)
• Sun-comet encounter that sent matter to
form planet
James Jean(1917)
• Sun-star encounter that would have drawn
from the sun matter that would condense to
planet
Nebular hypothesis
• the whole Solar System starts as a large
cloud of gas that contracts under selfgravity.
• Conservation of angular momentum requires
that a rotating disk form with a large
concentration at the center (the proto-Sun).
Within the disk, planets form.
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 5
Wednesday, October 21, 2020
10:18 PM
• It was first proposed in 1794 by Swedish
scientist and theologian Emmanual
Swedenborg
• Immanuel Kent developed the theory
further and published it in his universal
natural history and theory of the heavens
(1755)
○ He argued that gaseous clouds
(nebulae) slowly rotate, gradually
collapsing and flattening due to gravity
and forming stars and planet
• Problem:
○ Titled axes
○ Majority of the angular momentum in
the solar system is held by the outer
planets
Protoplanet Hypothesis
• The current working model for the
formation of the Solar System is called the
protoplanet hypothesis. It incorporates
many of the components of the nebular
hypothesis, but adds some new aspects
from modern knowledge of fluids and states
of matter.
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 6
Earth's characteristic that support
life
Wednesday, October 21, 2020
•
•
•
•
•
•
10:29 PM
Liquid water
Water is essential for life where there is
water on earth life is present too.
Average temperature is 15 degree to
make it possible for water to exist as
liquid
Earth has relatively mild temperature
because of:
○ Distance
○ Presence of the atmosphere
○ Magnetic field
Gravity and a protective atmosphere
Earth is held together by gravity
Gravity
○ Holds its layer of atmospheric gases
close to its surface
Protective atmosphere
○ Protective it comets and meteorites
and absorbs harmful radiation from
the sun
○ Atmosphere also blocks, intercepts
and absorbs short-wavelength solar
radiation such as x-ray, gamma rays
and ultra-violet radiation that would
be extremely harmful to living
organism
○ Responsible for energy
redistribution and insulation form
the extreme cold space
 Mutation can cause cancer
• Life-sustaining gases
○ Earth's biosphere control the gases in
the atmosphere to make it more
habitable of life
○ Vegetation(photosynthesis) it absorbs
carbon dioxide and produces oxygen
that essential for animal life
○ Greenhouse gases; such as carbon
dioxide and water vapor absorbs and
trap heats radiated in the atmosphere
increasing the temperature at earth's
surface by 33 degree
• Strong Magnetic Field
○ Earth's magnetic field is produced by
the convection in earth's outer space
 Convection-is the transfer of
heat thru hot material
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 7
Earth's Subsystem and their
interaction
Thursday, October 22, 2020
11:01 AM
The earth system is an integrated system
that subdivided into four subsystem/spheres:
• Lithosphere- solid earth
• Atmosphere- gases
• Hydrosphere- all water
• Biosphere-all life
BIOSPHERE
• part of the Earth where life exists,
including every living being
• contains diverse organisms, including
fungi and other microorganisms,
plants, and animals
• most living organisms require nutrients
and resources from other three
spheres
• Overlaps the other three spheres
because living things are adapted to
inhabit one or more of the other
three spheres: within a shallow
surface layer encompassing the lower
part of the atmosphere (plants,
animals and microorganisms, the
surface of the crust (soil, rocks) and
approximately the upper 100 metres
of the ocean.
HYDROSPHERE
Atmosphere
• is essential for the existence and
maintenance of life on earth
• Provides habitat for aquatic and
freshwater organisms, both plants and
animals
• envelope of gas, mostly nitrogen and
oxygen along with less abundant gases
like water vapor, ozone, carbon dioxide,
and argon, that surrounds the Earth
essential to life in the biosphere
• Keeps the heat in a temperature enough
for living organisms to live
• protects the Earth from harmful solar
radiation
• provides oxygen for breathing and
carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
• absorbs water from the hydrosphere
thru evaporation
• Provides climatic conditions/weather
phenomena
LITHOSPHERE
• earth’s crust and upper part of mantle:
first 60 miles of solid material from
the surface of Earth, constantly
changes due to movement of tectonic
plates (segment of the earth’s crust
that moves relative to other segments
and is characterized by volcanic or
seismic activity around its margins)
• parts where the processes of erosion,
weathering and transport, tectonic
forces and volcanic activity occur
• includes all the rocks that make up
Earth, from the partially melted rock
under the crust, rocks under the
oceans,to mountains, and grains of
sand on a beach
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 8
Thursday, October 22, 2020
11:24 AM
THE EARTH’S SUBSYSTEMS ARE
INTERCONNECTED.
• What affects one system can affect another.
• A change in one system can cause change in
one or more of the other subsystems
SAMPLE INTERACTION BETWEEN BIOSPHERE
AND ATMOSPHERE:
• Atmosphere: Source of carbon dioxide
(carbon sink)
• Biosphere: Plants absorb Carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere through photosynthesis
to produce oxygen for the atmosphere
MATTER FLOWS IN THE FOUR SUBSYSTEMS
• The 4 subsystems are interconnected by flows
(and biosphere. pathways or fluxes) of energy
and materials.
• Biogeochemical cycles- natural pathways for
the circulation of elements that are essential
for life: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
phosphorous and sulphur.
• Matter is transferred continually between the
lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere
CARBON CYCLE
• Green plants (biosphere) absorb carbon
dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and
produce carbon-containing sugars through
photosynthesis.
• Animals eat plants (biosphere) to obtain
the energy trapped during photosynthesis
and break down the carbohydrates in the
plant tissue, releasing CO₂ through
respiration.
• When dead plants and animals (biosphere)
slowly decay under high pressure and high
temperatures, they may eventually form
pools of energy known as fossil fuels.
Carbon is stored in fossil fuels (fuel
formed from pre-historic organisms
buried for millions of years) that are in
fossil fuel reserves in the lithosphere.
• C goes to the atmosphere through
decomposition of organic materials and
forest fires and burning of fossil fuels
• CO₂ is exchanged between the atmosphere
and the ocean hydrosphere. Calcium
carbonate (CO₃) is a component of shells of
ocean organisms like oysters and clams and
other microorganisms.
• When the skeletons and shells (made of
CO₃) are buried and compacted, limestone
(a sedimentary rock) is formed in the
oceans (lithosphere). Most rocks remain in
the lithosphere for millions of years.
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 9
ENERGY FLOWS IN THE FOUR SUBSYSTEMS
Thursday, October 22, 2020
11:31 AM
• The Earth is driven by two sources of
energy: an internal source (the decay of
radioactive elements in the lithosphere,
which generates geothermal heat) and an
external source (the solar radiation
received from the Sun.
• As the energy flows (and cycles) through
the subsystems, they are changed from
one form to another.
• Solar radiation heats Earth’s surface
unevenly causing the air in the atmosphere
to move. This movement of air distributes
energy throughout the atmosphere. The
transfer of energy, especially heat, due to
the movement of matter, such as air, is
called convection.
The sun’s energy heats ocean water
(hydrosphere) unevenly causing changes in
its temperature:
warmer at the
equator and colder to freezing at the
poles.
The temperature of ocean water also
decreases with depth. Differences in
temperature cause differences in density
which in turn cause the water to move by
convection. Convection current is the
movement of matter caused by
differences in density
and can
distribute
energy in the ocean.
• Energy enters the biosphere as sunlight.
Plants change light energy into chemical
energy through the process of
photosynthesis. Then, chemical energy is
passed to organisms that eat the plants.
Energy and matter is also passed between
organisms when they eat one another.
• The transfer of energy in the biosphere
does not stop when a living thing dies.
Dead organisms are consumed by
decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi.
• In the lithosphere, energy from inside the
Earth is responsible for internal
processes such as volcanism and plate
movements/tectonics.
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 10
ROCK FORMING MINERALS
Thursday, October 22, 2020
11:42 AM
MINERALS
• are naturally occurring inorganic solids of
one or more elements that have a definite
chemical composition with an orderly
internal arrangement of atoms.
• The consistent arrangement of atoms means
that the mineral has a uniform chemical
composition
• Minerals are interesting Earth materials
that surround us.
• More than 4,000 minerals are known
• Around 50–100 new minerals are discovered
annually
• Minerals make up rocks but not that many
of minerals are found in rocks
Physical Properties of Minerals used
to Identify them:
CRYSTAL FORM
• The shape of the crystal that a mineral
forms when it is free to grow
unhampered. The shape of a mineral is
related to the way chemical bonds form.
• Shapes maybe prism, pyramids, needles,
cubes and sheets
Mineral Characteristics/Criteria:
SOLID
• A state of matter that can maintain its
shape indefinitely
• Minerals are solids, not liquids or gases.
INORGANIC
• Not made from living things or not living
things
• Do not have carbon-hydrogen bonds
NATURALLY OCCURRING
• Formed geologically
• Found in nature
• Not man-made
HAVE DEFINITE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
• Have defined chemical formula
• Quartz- SiO₂
• Calcite-CaCO₃
HAVE SPECIFIC ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT
Atoms in a mineral are arranged in a specific
order or structure
CRYSTAL CLEAVAGE
• Property of a mineral to break along one
or more cleavage planes (parts of the
mineral where ions are connected by
relatively weak ionic bonds; the cleavage
produces flat, shiny surfaces
HAVE SPECIFIC ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT
• The physical properties of minerals
(hardness, shape) are due to the internal
arrangement of their atoms
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 11
Thursday, October 22, 2020
11:51 AM
COLOR
• Part of visible light that is not absorbed
by a mineral
• Used with care when identifying mineral
because some minerals can exist in a wide
range of colors e.g. quartz (clear, white,
yellow, pink, purple, gray, etc.)
• Minerals can change in color when exposed
to changing natural conditions (e.g. heat)
on or near the surface of the Earth
• Common dark-colored minerals (black, dark
brown, dark green): amphibole, olivine,
pyroxene
• Common light-colored minerals (white, pink,
gray, translucent): quartz, feldspar,
gypsum, halite, calcite.
LUSTER
• How light is reflected from a mineral
• Could be metallic (looks like a metal)
or nonmetallic (silky, glassy, pearly,
dull etc.)
STREAK
• The mark formed when a mineral is
scratched across an unglazed piece
of porcelain
HARDNESS
• Measures the resistance of a mineral to
scratching.
• Derives the strength of atomic bonds.
• Hardness of a mineral is compared to the
Mohs scale for hardness - hierarchy of
scratch ability (Friedrich Mohs)
•
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 12
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Thursday, October 22, 2020
11:57 AM
Igneous Rocks
• Rocks formed from cooling and
crystallization of magma
• Has two types based on where they
were formed:
intrusive (plutonic)
or extrusive (volcanic)
What is Magma
• Magma is the completely or partially
molten material, which on cooling
solidifies to form an igneous rock
• Once it is formed it rises towards the
surface through pipes or fractures in
the Earth’s crust because it is less
dense than the surrounding rocks.
• Magma that reaches the earth’s surface
is known as Lava
VOLCANIC (EXTRUSIVE) IGNEOUS ROCKS
• Igneous rocks that form when magma in
Earth’s interior rises to the surface
through pipes or fractures in the
Earth’s crust
• Cool rapidly at the surface because they
undergo a rapid temperature drop of at
least 700⁰C upon reaching the surface
VOLCANIC (EXTRUSIVE) IGNEOUS ROCKS
• Individual mineral crystals are small
because do not have much time to grow
when magma cools rapidly
• Fine-grained texture
PLUTONIC (INTRUSIVE) IGNEOUS ROCKS
• Igneous rocks that cool below the
Earth’s surface
• Have big mineral crystals that form with
plenty of time to grow into large crystals
as the magma cools slowly below the
surface
• Coarse-grained texture
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLUTONIC AND
VOLCANIC ROCKS
• Texture or the size and arrangement of
their mineral grains which depends on
how fast the magma cools and solidifies.
• Color which represents their chemical
composition or silica content.
• Light-colored igneous rocks such as
rhyolite and granite are formed from
silica-rich (felsic) magmas and contain
abundant white, pink or translucent
silica-rich minerals
• Dark-colored igneous rocks such as
basalt and gabbro are formed from
silica-poor (mafic) magmas and are
dominated by olivine and pyroxene , darkcolored minerals
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 13
Metamorphic Rocks
Sunday, October 18, 2020
9:57 PM
Meta- change
Morphe- form
Metamorphosis -change
• Metamorphism- change in the mineral
composition/texture(grain size) of a
pre-existing rocks
• Chemical Reaction- can caused
chemical change in the composition of
rocks
• Factors that can change rocks:
○ Increased of temp
○ Increased of pressure
○ Presence of Fluids
• 200 c- 1100 c - temperature range for
most mineral rocks near the earth's
surface to melt
• Foliation- alignment of minerals into
sheets/ creating of alternating light
and dark bands cause by the pressure
on the rocks
• Types of rocks formed by Regional
○ Folliation
Types of Metamorphic Rocks
• Foliated- have foliation
- Have parallel layers of
metamorphic rocks
Example
* Gneiss
* Phyllite
* Schist
• Non-foliated - don’t have foliation and
parallel layers
* Quartzite
* Marble
Contact Metamorphism
• Occurs when rocks come in contact
with a source of heat(e.g magma body)
that cause change in the texture of
the rock
Example
○ Marble- its pre-existing rock is
limestone that had been heated
to high temperature(limestone
and marble have same composition
but marble has larger grains)
• Features of rock formed by contact:
○ Stronger that pre-existing rock
○ More resistant to erosion than
pre-existing rocks
Regional Metamorphism
• Occurs when rocks at depths of 7-8
kilometers undergo increase temp. and
pressure usually due to collision of
tectonic plates at convergent
bounderies resulting to growth of
some specific minerals
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 14
Sedimentary Rocks
Monday, October 19, 2020
12:22 PM
• Form layers like the pages of the books
• The layers record a history of ancient
environment
• The layers occurs only in the upper part of
the crust
• Cover underlying basement rocks
Key words
• Sediment
○ Consist of rocks/materials; shells and
shell fragments; or mineral crystals
that precipitate directly from water
• Bed
○ Layers of sedimentary rocks
• Clast
○ Loose fragment of many sediment
materials
○ Come in varies of sizes ranging from
too small to see even with a
microscope, to car-sized, or even
larger
Sedimentary rock
• A rock that forms at/near surface of the
earth in one of the ff ways:
○ Compacting/cementing together of
loose fragments produced by
weathering of pre-existing rocks;
○ Growth of shell masses by cementing
together of shells and shell
fragments
○ Accumulation of and alternation of
organic matter left after the death
of plants and planktons
○ Precipitation of minerals directly
from water solution
• Where do sedimentary rocks came from?
○ Stream Channel
○ Floor of the deep ocean
• It occurs only in the upper part of the
crust and effectively form a cover that
buries underlying basement of igneous and
metamorphic rocks
• Physical and chemical weathering provide
the raw material for all sedimentary rocks
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
• Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
- Composed of sediment rocks and
minerals that form when rocks break
apart at near earth's surface
- Formed form one-separated grains
that have been packed together and
then cemented to one another
- Makes up the majority of all the
sedimentary rocks
- It was formed by
 Weathering- generation of loose
clstivia rpck disintegration
 Erosion- Removal of sediment
grains from the parent rock
 Transportation disperal by
gravity, wind, water and ice.
 Desposition- settling out the
transporting fluids
 Lithification- transformation into
solid rock.
- Examples
 Congolmerate
 Breccia
 Red sandstone
 Gray Sandstone
 Shale
• Chemical Sedimentary
- Rock that crystallized from
solution(sea water) as a result of
changing condition
- Formed by different/direct
precipitation of minerals from water
solution
- Commonly have a crystalline texture
 Table Salt- Halite mineral that
forms when sea water evaporate
- Examples
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 15

Gypsum
Rocksalt
Travertine chert
Monday, October 19, 2020
1:20 PM
• Biochemical Sedimentary rocks
- Form by the actions of living
organism/ composed of
remains of dead organism
- Sediment derived from the
shells of living organism
- Example
 Coquina
 Limestone
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 16
Minerals important to the Society
Monday, October 19, 2020
1:24 PM
Mineral
• Naturally occurring substance
(element/compound) that is mined in
the ground
• A substance that occurs naturally
from the rocks
Mineral Ore
• Mineral from which metal is extracted
Why are minerals important
• They are used everywhere
• They have uses in many areas of
human life
○ Foods
○ Shelter
○ Cosmetics
○ Transportation
○ Communication
○ Electronics
Minerals and their uses:
• Magnetite and Goethite
○ Contain a lot of iron to used in
making steel, iron nails
• Kaolinite
○ Clay material used to make
crockery
○ Used for medicine and lotion
• Quartz
○ Used to make glasses, electronics
and gems
Fluorite
•
○ Source of fluorine used in making
non-stick pans
• Calcite
○ Chemical Name: Calcium
Carbonate
○ Used in making cement, plaster
for wounds
• Gypsum
○ Used in making cement, plaster
products in medicine and even
fertilizer
• Bornite and Chalcopyrite
○ Mineral source of copper
• Chromite
○ Source of chromium- used to coat
other metal to stop from rusting
• Wolframite
○ Source of tungsten- used to make
pen nibs
• Graphite
○ Used in batteries, lubricant,
electric motors, nuclear reactors,
carbon fibers, pencil leads
• Mica
○ Electrical Insulator, heating
element
• Diamond
○ Gem, abrasive, cutting tools,
dental
Metallic Minerals
• Copper
○ Electrical wires, electronics, pipes
• Silver
○ Coins, jewelry, photography,
battery
• Zinc
○ Galvanize steel(carbon and iron)
alloys(mixture of 2 or more metal)
brass (Zinc and copper)
• Lead
○ Batteries
• Tin
○ Electrical, cans, construction
• Gold
○ Jewelry, arts, electronics, dental,
medical (pacemaker)
• Platinum
○ Catalyst for chemical reaction,
electronics, glass, jewelry
Nickel
•
○ Important alloy in steel,
electroplanting vehicle
• Iron ore
○ Main ingredients in steel
• Cobalt
○ Airplane engine metal, chemical
• Titanium
○ White pigment, metal in airplane
and human joint replacement
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 17
Monday, October 19, 2020
4:34 PM
• Aluminum
○ Cans, airplane, building, electrical
• Phosphate rock
Fertilizer, animal feed supplement
• Lithium
○ Ceramic, glass, lithium ion
batteries and electric car
(rechargeable)
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 18
Finding, mining and processing ORE MINERALS
Monday, October 19, 2020
4:37 PM
ORE
• It's a deposit in deposit in earth's crust
of one/more valuable minerals
• The most valuable ore deposits contain
metals crucial to industry and trade, like
copper, gold and iron
• It is naturally occurring mineral from
which metal can be profitable extracted
Example
Aluminum is found in bauxite.
• Some ore-forming environment involve
hot/deep processes and other involve lowtemperature process typical of nearsurface environment
Surficial Process
• Weathering Enrichment (mineral is
leached from rocks by weathering then
deposited elsewhere)
• Formation by weathering(accumulation of
residual materials as other chemical
elements are leached away by weathering)
• Mechanical Concentration(sorting and
concentration of mineral as they are
transported by rivers and waves)
• Low-temperature Precipitation(deposition
of valuable minerals by evaporating
sea/lake water )
How are ore mineral found?
• Mineral exploration
○ Finds out deposits of mineral and
rocks that can be used to meet the
resource needs to society.
• Mineral Exploration
○ Searching for new mineral prospect
and evaluation of the property for
economic mining
○ The process of searching for
evidence any mineralization hosted in
the surrounding rocks
• Geologist
○ Study geological formations and then
test the physical and chemical
properties of soil and rocks
○ Concentration of mineral is only
called an ore deposit if it is
profitable to mine
• Geoscientist and exploration geologist
conduct survey across potential
exploration targets using several
geophysical techniques
• After finding a mineral, geologist
determine its size. The deposit is
outlined and the surrounding geology on a
geologic map
• The amount of valuable minerals miners
think they will get from the deposit is
calculated
Surface Mining
• Allows extraction of ores that are closes
to earth's surface
• Overlying is blasted and the rock that
contains the valuable minerals is placed in
a truck and taken to refinery
• Includes open-pit mining and strip miningmountain top removal
Underground Mining
• used to recover ores that are deeper
into earth's surface
• Blast and tunnel into rock to gain access
to the ores
• Very expensive and dangerous
How are minerals processed?
• Rocks are crushed so that the valuable
minerals can be separated from waste
rocks
○ Mineral Processing- mineral are
separated out of the ore by various
operation known collectively
• Methods for Extracting Ores:
○ Heap leaching- addition of chemicals
such as cyanide/acid to remove ore
○ Flotation - addition of compound
that attaches to the valuable
mineral and floats
○
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 19
Tuesday, October 20, 2020
9:27 AM
○ Smelting- roasting rock, causing it to segregate into layers so minerals can
be extracted
• Electrolysis
○ Acid and electricity are used to separate a metal from its ore
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 20
Formation of the Fossil Fuels
Tuesday, October 20, 2020
3:11 PM
What is Fossil Fuel?
• Coal, oil or natural gas
• Non-renewable resources from remains of plants
and animals that have been buried in the ground
for millions of years
What is petroleum?
• Naturally-occurring petroleum is an organic
substances largely composed of carbon chemically
bonded with hydrogen and small amounts of other
elements
• This is why oil and natural gas are hydrocarbons
• Naturally form when sediment rich in organic
material is deposited, buried and heated to
slightly increased temperature
• Once formed , petroleum can escape to the
surface or be trapped at depth, where it can be
discovered by geologist and extracted through
drilling
What are the sources of organic material in petroleum?
• Reefs with microscopic and macroscopic
organisms contribute organic material to deepocean sediment
• plants when buried can change to make coal and
methane gas
• Most petroleum comes from microorganisms that
occur in great variety and abundance in seas and
lakes settles when they die
What processes turn organic material into oil and
natural gas?
• Accumulation of organic material
○ Occurs in a layer of dark, organic-rich mud
○ Source rock contains enough organic
material to produce petroleum.
○ Accumulated organic material still retains
the structure of the animals or plants from
which the material was derived
• Preservation of Organic Material
○ The organic material is deposited in oxygenpoor conditions and buried under the layers
of sediment before decomposing. When
buried to shallow depths and heated to less
than about 60⁰C, the organic starting
material is converted into kerogen (a thick
substance composedof long chains of
hydrocarbons).
• Burying and Covering of Source Rocks
○ Overtime, source rocks can be buried
by more sedimentary rocks, becoming
heated by temperature increase with
depth.
○ When heated to 60⁰C to 120⁰C, long
hydrocarbon chains in kerogen break
down into heavy and light oils
○ When heated to 200⁰C, the oily
hydrocarbons change into natural gas
• What is coal?
○ Coal is a carbon-based resource
formed from buried and compacted
plants
• How does coal form?
1. Accumulation of plant matter and organic
materials
- This happens in swamps and other
wetlands
 Formation of Organic Material
- This starts when the organic material
starts as compressed and partially
decomposed plant matter including peat
(water-soaked mass of relatively
unconsolidated plant remains found in
bogs)
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 21
Thursday, October 22, 2020
12:26 PM
• Formation of Lignite
○ The pressure that accompanies rapid burial of plant matter
squeezes water and other impurities out, changing it to lowquality coal called lignite, has less carbon than other coals
• Formation of Bituminous Coals
○ Compaction and increased temperature convert lignite to
subbituminous and then bituminous coal both of which
contain more carbon and less water than lignite
• Maturation
- The process by which coal changes as it
is buried
• Formation of Organic Material
○ This starts when the organic material starts as compressed
and partially decomposed plant matter including peat (watersoaked mass of relatively unconsolidated plant remains
found in bogs)
• Formation of Lignite
○ The pressure that accompanies rapid burial of plant matter
squeezes water and other impurities out, changing it to lowquality coal called lignite, has less carbon than other coals
1st Quarter- Earth Science Page 22