NCM 1O1
HEALTH ASSESSMENT LECTURE
NURSING (American Nurses Association)
• As the promotion and optimization of
health and abilities, prevention of illness
and injury, alleviation of suffering through
the diagnosis and treatment of human
responses and advocacy in the care of
individuals, families, communities, and
populations.
• The role of the nurses especially in
assessment, promotion and optimization of
health
• Prevention of illness and injury
NURSING PROCESS
• Is a series of organized steps designed for
nurses to provide excellent care.
• This process is flexible and rigid
• Is one of the foundations of practice. It
offers a framework for thinking through
problems and provides some organization
to a nurse's critical thinking skills.
• Creativity and “thinking outside the box”
OVERVIEW OF NURSING PROCESS
Phase
Title
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Assessment
II
Diagnosis
III
Planning
IV
Implementation
V
Evaluation
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ASSESSMENT
Collect Data
Organize Data
Validate Data
Document Data
➢ Subjective Information – client’s
perception
➢ Objective Information – own observation
(use of different senses)
 After collecting the data, we have to
organize the data to come up with the
solution of the client’s condition or
problem
 But before we come up with the solution,
we need to validate the data by asking
a series of questions and reassessing the
client
 After reassessing the client, and asking
a series of questions, you will need to
document all those data
DIAGNOSING
• Analyze Data
• Identify health problems, risk, and strengths
• Formulate diagnostic statements
 Analyzing subjective and objective data
to make a professional nursing judgment
 Making of nursing diagnosis
 Collaborative problem of referral (refer
the patient to the healthcare team –
doctor, physiotherapy, or nutritionist
depending on the client’s condition)
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PLANNING
Prioritize problems/diagnosis
Formulate goals/desired outcomes
• Select Nursing Intervention
• Write Nursing Interventions
 Determine the outcome criteria and
develop a nursing care plan
 Nursing Care Plan – these are actions that
the client’s condition will improve
IMPLEMENTING
• Reassess the client
• Determine the nurse’s need for assistance
• Implement the nursing interventions
• Supervise delegated care
• Document nursing activities
 Reassess the client if your actions/plan is
effective or not
 There are nursing actions that need to be
delegated to a licensed practitioner, or a
nursing assistant or attendant
 Upon implementing nursing interventions,
you need to reassess and reassess if those
interventions are good for the client or not
EVALUATING
• Collect data related to outcomes
• Compare data with outcomes
• Relate nursing actions to client
goals/outcomes
• Draw conclusions about problem status
• Continue, modify, or terminate the client’s
care plan
 Assessing whether outcome criteria have
been met and revising the plan as
necessary
 We need to revise our nursing care plan,
especially if those actions are not good
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enough for our clients, which is why we
need to evaluate every now and then if
our goals were achieved or not
 If our goals are partially met, then we
need to review our nursing care plan, and
actions, if during the planning for these
actions could help in promoting the client’s
condition
 If the client’s condition is solved, then we
need to terminate the care plan and need
to assess your client so we can identify
another health problems of our client
HEALTH ASSESSMENT
“The protection, promotion and
optimization of health and abilities,
prevention of illness and injury,
alleviation of suffering through the
diagnosis and treatment of human
responses and advocacy in the care of
individuals, families, communities, and
populations.”
• “The registered nurse collects
comprehensive data pertinent to the
patient’s health or situation”
• The nurse:
 Collects data in a systematic and
ongoing process
 Involves the patient, family, other health
care providers and environment, as
appropriate in a holistic data collection
→ Health assessment involved a thorough
and a dynamic action in using the
different phases of nursing process
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→ Using the phases of Nursing process,
we can actually help improve the
client’s condition
→ As a professional nurse, you need to
constantly observe the situations
→ It is also important to collect
information to make nursing judgment,
without proper collection of data, how
can one make a nursing judgment or
diagnosis?
→ We need to be very specific in
collecting datas
→ May it be in the hospital, clinic, school,
community, or at home care setting, we
need to collect a good data through
application of the different phases of
nursing process
Prioritizes data collection activities based
on the patient’s immediate condition, or
anticipated needs of the patient or
situation
Uses appropriate evidence-based
assessment techniques and instruments in
collecting pertinent data
→ Synthesizing available data that we
gather, and also other information or
knowledge relevant to the situation to
identify patterns and variances
→ Patterns could be abnormal pattern, or
variances
→ Document this data in a retrievable
format because we need to base our
present assessment based on the
client’s previous health history
→ Brainstorming, it involves the different
healthcare team, like the doctors,
nursing assistant or attendant,
occupational physiotherapist, speech
therapist, nutritionist or dietician or it
depends on how big the hospital that
could collaborate all interdisciplinary
team (medical technologist, radiology
department staff, pharmacists)
DESCRIPTION
• Collecting, organizing, validating, and
documenting client data
→ It is important to collect data as soon
or as early as possible so that we can
resolve the client’s condition
→ As early as possible in order to focus
other health problems to our client
(clients could have multiple health
problems)
→ Prioritization – we can resolve the most
important/acute condition that needs
to be taken care of as soon as possible
PURPOSE
• To establish database about the client’s
response to health concerns or illness and
the ability to manage health care needs
ACTIVITIES
• Establish a Data base
1. Obtain a nursing health history
→ Determine client’s previous medical
condition so that we can have an
idea if the present condition could
have relevance with the previous
one
2. Conduct physical assessment
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→ Using the cephalocaudal
assessment, or assessing the client
from head to toe
3. Review the client’s record or the
previous health history
4. Review nursing literature
5. Ask or consult for a support person
(family, relatives, or best friend)
6. Consult professionals (collaborate with
doctors and other healthcare team
members)
Update data as needed
Organize data
Validate data
Communicate/document data
CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITIES
Making reliable observations
→ Skillful enough using the different senses
→ Through your skills in health assessment,
you can actually make a good nursing
care plan
Distinguishing relevant from irrelevant data
Distinguishing important from unimportant
data
Validating data
Organizing data
Categorizing data according to a
framework
Recognizing assumptions
Identifying gaps in the data
→ In order to know the gaps of the data,
review and revisit the client’s data, if
there are information that needs to be
revisit or needs to be validated, just to
resolve the gaps of your data
→ For example, if the datas are not
complete, you need to reassess and ask
the client again so that you could resolve
the gap of your data that you are
collecting
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TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
As a nurse, you must have a systematic
and continuous collection of data
You need to organize, validate, and
document important information or data
pertaining to your client
Assessment vary according to their
purpose, timing, availability, and client
status
Assessment should include the client’s
perceived needs, health problems, related
experience, health practices, values and
lifestyle
For example, health practices, failure to
follow the treatment regimen, or failure to
consult if such practices is good for health
or not (before eating washing of hands
are important, however their practices
could be it’s okay not to wash their hands)
A practice the needs to be given focused
FIVE BASIC TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
INITIAL COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT (ICA)
• Performed within specified time after
admission to a health care agency
• Purpose: To establish a complete database
for problem identification, reference and
future comparison
→ Data collection of subjective data about
the client’s perception of his or her
health, past heath history, family history,
lifestyle, and health practices
→ As well as objective data, during a step
by step
ONGOING OR PARTIAL ASSESSMENT (OPA)
• Performed whenever and wherever the
nurse or another health care professional
has an encounter with the client in any
setting
• Purpose: To determine any changes from
the baseline data (deterioration or
improvement)
FOCUSED OR PROBLEM-ORIENTED
ASSESSMENT (FPOA)
• Performed when a comprehensive
database exists for a client with a specific
health concern
• Purpose: A thorough assessment of a
particular client problem
→ Through assessing the client’s condition,
we could come up with a better care
plan, so that clients condition would be
addressed specifically on that condition
or problem only and not as a whole
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→ Example: Neurologic and Cardiac
Assessment, the Neurologic assessment is
different from any other assessment as
well
→ Through your specific or focused
problem-oriented assessment, you can
direct your nursing care plan or nursing
action towards what is the needed
action for your clients
EMERGENCY ASSESSMENT (EA)
• During a physiologic or psychologic crisis of
the client
• A very rapid assessment performed in life
threatening situations for prompt treatment
or intervention
• Example: Choking, Cardiac Arrest,
Drowning
• Purpose:
→ To identify life-threatening problems
→ To identify new or overlooked problems
TIME-LAPSED ASSESSMENT (TLA)
• Several months after initial assessment
• Purpose: To compare the client’s current
status to baseline data previously obtained
→ Example: Doctor’s Progress Notes, could
track their client’s condition upon
admission and on the present condition of
the client
→ Nurse’s Reassessment, could track the
client’s condition during admission and on
the present condition
→ Important especially in a long term care
facility where you have to assess weekly
basis or annually basis
NURSE’S ROLE IN HEALTH ASSESSMENT
Late 1800s – Early 1900s
• Nurses relied of their natural senses, the
client’s face and body would be observed
for “change in color, temperature, muscle
strength, use of limbs, body output, and
degrees of nutrition and hydration
1901
• Inspection – looking at the body
• Palpation – feeling the body with fingers
or hands
• Auscultation – listening to sounds
• Or the 3 senses
Succeeding Years
• GI Palpation
• Testing the 8 Cranial Nerve function
• Examination of Children in the school
system
1930 – 1949
• The American Journal of Public Health
documents routine client and home
inspection by public health nurse in 1930s
• This role of case finding, prevention of
communicable diseases, and routine use of
assessment skills in poor inner-city areas
was performed through the Frontier
Nursing Service and the Red Cross
1950 – 1969
• Nurses were hired to conduct preemployment health histories and physical
examination for major companies such as
NY telephone from 1953-1960
1970 – 1989
• Conducts health histories and physical and
psychological assessments.
• Assessment which individualized plans of
care were established.
• Primary Care of delivery care was
employed. And each nurses was
autonomous in making comprehensive
initial assessments from which
individualized plans of care were
established.
1990 – Present
• Downsizing budget cuts, and restructuring
were the priorities of the 1990’s. In turn,
there was the demand for documentation
of client assessments by all health care
provides to justify, health care services.
• 1990’s critical pathways or care maps
guided the client’s progression, with each
stage guided by each protocols that the
nurse was responsible for assessing and
validating.
• Over the last 20 years, the movement of
health care from the acute care setting to
the community and the proliferation of
baccalaureate and graduate education
solidified the nurses’ role in holistic
assessment.
• Advanced practice nurses have been
increasingly used in the hospital as
clinical nurse specialists and in the
community as nurse practitioners.
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NURSE’S ROLE IN HEALTH ASSESSMENT
ACUTE CARE NURSE
• Performs a focused assessment, and then
incorporates assessment findings with a
multidisciplinary team to develop a
comprehensive plan of care.
CRITICAL CARE OUTREACH NURSES
• Need enhanced assessment skills to safely
assess critically ill clients who are outside
the structured intensive care environment
AMBULATORY CARE NURSES
• Assess and screen clients to determine the
need for physician referrals.
HOME HEALTH NURSES
• Make independent nursing diagnoses and
referrals for collaborative problems as
needed.
PUBLIC HEALTH NURSES
• Assess the needs of communities, school
nurses monitor the growth and health of
children, and hospice nurses assess the
needs of the terminally ill clients and their
families
SCHOOL NURSES
• A specialized practice of public health
nursing, protects and promotes student
health, facilitates normal development, and
advances academic success
HOSPICE NURSES
• Is a specialist in the nursing field who is
trained to work closely with terminally ill
patients.
• While nurses who work in hospice settings
are licensed as a registered nurse, they
play a special role as a case manager and
advocate for patients who are nearing the
end of their life and their families.
COLLECTION OF SUBJECTIVE DATA
THROUGH INTERVIEW AND HEALTH
HISTORY
Subjective Data consists of:
→ Sensation or
→ Beliefs
Symptoms
→ Ideas
→ Feelings
→ Values
→ Perception
→ Personal
→ Desires
Information
→ Preferences
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Subjective Data refers to the Client’s
perception and feelings
As a nurse, we need to validate if the
client’s perception or feelings are true or
they are just malingering or not telling the
truth
It is an integral part of interview to obtain
the client health history
This data can only be filled by the client
and verified by the client
The information obtained through an
interview
PHASES OF INTERVIEW
PRE-INTRODUCTORY
• In the pre-introductory phase, the nurse
reviews the medical record which may
reveal the client's past health history and
reason for seeking health care before
meeting with the client to assist with
conducting the interview.
INTRODUCTORY
• Introduction
• Explaining the purpose of the interview
• The reason why does nurses interview the
client
• Elicit the cooperation of the patient
• Discussing the types of questions that will
be asked
• Explaining the reason for taking notes
• Assuring the client that confidential
information will remain confidential
• Making sure that the client is comfortable
and has privacy
• Developing trust and rapport using verbal
and nonverbal skills
WORKING
• This phase, the nurse elicits the client’s
comments
• Biographical data
• Reasons for seeking care
• History of present health concern
• Past health history
• Family history (The client may experience
certain conditions may it be genetic or
hereditary)
• Review of body systems for current health
problems
• Lifestyle and health practices and
developmental level
SUMMARY/CLOSING PHASES
• Summarizing information obtained during
the working phase
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Validating problems and goals with the
client
Identifying and discussing possible plans to
resolve the problem with the client
Making sure to ask if anything else
concerns the client and if there are any
further questions
COMMUNICATION DURING THE INTERVIEW
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
1. Appearance – look professional
2. Demeanor – display a professional poise
3. Facial Expression – elicit cooperation to
the client
4. Attitude – a non-judgmental attitude
5. Silence – Reflect/Organize thoughts, more
accurate reporting and data collection
6. Listening – Stay focused, listening to your
patient, eye-to-eye contact with the patient
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
1. Open-ended questions – How? What?
Clients would elaborate their answers
2. Closed-ended questions – When? Did?
Facts and Specific information
3. Laundry list – another way to ask
questions to provide the client with the list
of words to choose from, especially in
describing symptoms, conditions and
feelings (Pain: different type of pains,
throbbing, referred, pricking pain, etc)
4. Rephrasing – rephrasing the information
the client has provided an effective way to
communicate during the interview, clarify
the information the client has provided (Ex:
“I feel like I lost my right limb” – “A while
ago, you told me the you lost your right
limb, how does it feel now?”
5. Well-placed phrases – the nurse can
encourage client verbalization using a wellplaced phrases, it may be a leading
phrases to enhance effective communication
(Ex: Yes, or I agree) you are following
through what the client is talking and telling
you
6. Inferring – Inferring the information from
what the client tells you what you observed
on the client’s behavior may elicit more
data or verify existing data (Ex: “It seems
that you’re lonely at the moment, you are
not talking more about certain aspects, can
you tell me more about this certain area or
aspects?)
7. Providing information – Provide the client
with information as questions and concerns
arise (Ex: If the client will utter certain
conditions, and the client would want to
know what does this mean) Providing
information will help the client know if
certain condition might be a serious
condition that needs immediate attention
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS DURING THE
INTERVIEW
• Three variations in communication must be
reconsidered as you interview clients:
1. Gerontologic
2. Cultural
3. Emotional
• These variations affect the verbal and
nonverbal technique used during the
interview
GERONTOLOGIC VARIATIONS IN
COMMUNICATION
• Age affects and commonly slows all body
systems to varying degrees
→ Normal aspects of aging do not
necessarily equate with health problem
→ It is important not to approach and
interview with an elderly client assuming
that these/this is a certain health
problem
→ Ex: When the client tells you that she is
moving slowly each day, however, it
doesn’t mean that the client is having a
health problem because this is part of
aging process
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CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN
COMMUNICATION
Ethnicity or cultural variations in
communication and self-disclosure styles
may significantly affect the information
obtained
Frequently noted variations in
communication styles
1. Reluctance to reveal personal
information to strangers
2. Variations in willingness to openly
express emotional distress or pain –
male clients think if they are going to
share their pain, it would degrade
their personality as a male
3. Variation in ability to receive
information (listen) – the clients might
ask the question again because they
are not attentive to you due to certain
doubts/feelings, win the client’s trust
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4. Variation in meaning conveyed by
language – they may perceive certain
languages may it be intrusive or it has
another meaning for them (use simple
terms, not medical terms)
5. Variation in use and meaning of
nonverbal communication: eye
contact, stance, gestures, demeanor –
there is a professional distance
between you and the client when you
are going to conduct an interview,
direct eye contact maybe perceived as
rude, aggressive, or immodest by some
cultures but lack of eye contact may be
perceived as evasive, insecure, or
inattentive by other cultures. A slightly
bowed stance may indicate respect in
some groups; size of personal space
affects one’s comfortable interpersonal
distance; touch may be perceived as
comforting or threatening.
6. Variation in disease/illness
perception: Culture-specific
syndromes or disorders – some clients
may perceive condition as a part of
their journey, there are cultures that
may think that these syndromes and
disorder as sort of a trial and not as a
disease itself
7. Variation in past, present, or future
time orientation – asking the past
history, the patient’s brief history at the
moment, and what will be the future
that the client may think, these
variances affects the process in
gathering the data
8. Variation in the family’s role in the
decision-making process - A person
other than the client or the client’s
parent may be the major
decisionmaker about appointments,
treatments, or follow-up care for the
client.
EMOTIONAL VARIATIONS IN
COMMUNICATION
• Clients’ emotions vary for a number of
reasons
• Anxious, scared, angry, depressed
→ Example: the client is depressed, the
nurse must go and empathize the client
saying that “I know how you feel and I
am here waiting if you need something,
or if you want to talk, I am always at
your side”
→ This could really help develop a trusting
relationship between you and your
client
→ If the client is scare or anxious, you may
ask “There is nothing to be scared of or
worry about, I’m here and I’m going to
ask a series of questions, I just want to
know what you have experienced so
that we can look for solutions.”
COLLECTION OF SUBJECTIVE DATA
• The best way to collect subjective data is
through an interview
• Subjective Data includes:
→ Biographic data
→ Reasons for seeking health care
→ History of present health concern
→ Past health history
→ Family health history
→ Review of body systems (ROS) for
current health problems
→ Lifestyle and health practices profile
→ Developmental level
BIOGRAPHIC DATA
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Biographic data usually include information
that identifies the client’s name, age,
address, occupation, working status, marital
status, source of healthcare and type of
insurance
Insurance – its important so that we know
the capacity of the client to pay the bills of
the hospital
Working status – for economic status, if
he/she is good and capable of paying the
hospital bills
Occupation – some of the manifestatiosn or
symptoms could be occupation related
Marital Status – is important in decision
making, if the client does not have the
capacity to decide, the wife or husband
will be the one who will decide
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REASONS FOR SEEKING HEALTH CARE
Is the information you gather when you
initially set an agenda during a patient
centered interview.
• The nurse may ask why he or she is seeking
health care.
• Exploring patient’s reason for seeking
health care, you will learn the chronological
and sequential history of his or her health
problems
• Clarification of the patient’s perception
identifies potential needs for symptoms
management, education, counseling,
referral to community resources
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CHIEF COMPLAINT (C/C)
Is often type on the patient’s admission
sheet
Is the medical term used to describe the
primary problem of the patient that led the
patient to seek medical attention and of
which they are most concerned
Obtained by the physician during the initial
part of the visit when the medical history is
being taken
It is also being elicited by asking the
patient what brings the patient what brings
them to be seeing and what major
symptoms or problems they are
experiencing
HISTORY OF PRESENT HEALTH
Collect of essential and relevant data
about the symptoms and their effects on
the patient’s health.
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Apply critical thinking intellectual
standards.
Use the acronym PQRST or COLDSPA to
guide an assessment.
PQRST Guide
PROVOKES
• Precipitating and Relieving factors
• What causes the symptoms?
• What makes it better or worse?
• Are the activities such as the exercises can
relieve it or make it worse?
QUALITY
• What does the symptoms feel like?
• Is it sharp, dull, burning?
RADIATE
• Where are the symptoms located? Is it in
one place?
• Make the patient have a precise answer
SEVERITY
• Ask the patient to rate the severity of the
symptom on the scale of 0-10, where 0 is
no symptoms felt and 10 will be the worse
• This gives a baseline data with which to
compare in follow up assessment
TIME
• Assess the onset and duration of symptoms
• When did it started?
• Does it come and go?
• How often or for how long? What time of
the day or day of the week
• Assess if the patient has coexisting
symptoms
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Does he or she experienced another
symptoms along with the primary
symptoms?
COLDSPA GUIDE
CHARACTER
• How are you going to assess? How does it
feel? Look? Smell? Or sound?
ONSET
• When did it begin? Is it better, worst, or
the same since it began
LOCATION
• Where is it? Does it radiate?
DURATION
• How does it last? Does it recur?
SEVERITY
• How bad is the scale? 1 – barely
noticeable, 10 – worst pain ever
experienced
PATTERN
• What makes it better? What makes it
worst?
ASSOCIATED FACTORS
• What other symptoms do you have with it?
Will you be able to continue doing your
work or other activities?
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PAST HEALTH HISTORY (PHH)
Provides a holistic view of a patient’s
health care experiences and current health
habits.
Assess whether a patient has ever been
hospitalized or injured or has had surgery.
(Include herbal and over the counter (OTC)
drug).
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Description of Allergies, includes allergic
reactions to food, latex, drugs, or contact
agents (ex. Soap)
Ask patient if they have problems with
medications or food.
If the patient has an allergy, note the
specific reaction and treatment on the
assessment form and special armband
provided.
→ The history includes the description of
a patient’s habits and lifestyle
patterns
→ Assess for the use of alcohol, tobacco,
caffeine, or recreational drugs
→ Determine the patient’s risk for
disease involving the liver, lungs,
heart, and the nervous system
→ Gather the information about the type
of habit, and the frequency and
duration of use
→ Assessing the patterns of sleep,
exercise and also nutrition
FAMILY HEALTH HISTORY (FHH)
Includes data about immediate and blood
relatives
Objective: To determine whether a patient
is at risk for illness of a genetic or familial
nature and to identify areas of health
promotion and illness prevention
Data to gather:
→ Age of the parents living or date of
death
→ Parent’s illness and longevity
→ Grandparent’s illness and longevity
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→ Aunts and Uncles ages, illness and
longevity
→ Children ages, illness or longevity
→ Handicap ages, illness or longevity
The purpose or objective is to determine
whether the patient is at risk for illness of a
genetic or familiar nature
Identify areas of health promotion and
illness prevention
REVIEW OF SYSTEM (ROS)
Document the client’s description of her
health status of each body system and note
the client’s denial of signs and symptoms,
diseases, or problems that the nurse ask
about but are not experienced by the
client
• The questions about problems and signs
and symptoms of disorders should be
asked that the clients understand
• But findings should be recorded in a
standard medical terminology (use in
simple terms)
→ Skin, hair, and
→ Male genitalia
nails
→ Female genitalia
→ Head and Neck
→ Anus
→ Eyes
→ Musculoskeletal
→ Ears
→ Neurologic
→ Mouth, Throat,
→ Breast and
Nose and
Regional
Sinuses
Lymphatics
→ Thorax and
→ Heart and Neck
Lungs
Vessels
→ Peripheral
→ Abdomen
Vascular
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LIFESTYLE AND HEALTH PRACTICES PROFILE
Data to gather:
1. Description of a typical day (AM to PM)
2. Nutrition and weight management
3. 24-hour dietary intake (foods and fluids)
4. Who purchases and prepares meals
5. Activities on a typical day
6. Exercise habits and patterns
7. Sleep and rest habits and patterns
8. Use of medications and other substances
(caffeine, nicotine, alcohol, recreational
drugs)
9. Self-concept
10. Self-care responsibilities
11. Social activities contributing to society
12. Relationships with family, significant
others, and pets
13. Values, religious affiliation, spirituality
14. Past, current, and future plans for
education
15. Type of work, level of job satisfaction,
work stressors
16. Finances
17. Stressors in life, coping strategies used
18. Residency, types of environment,
neighborhood, environmental risks
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DEVELOPMENTAL LEVEL
Sigmund Freud's Stages of Psychosexual
Development
→ Freud proposes that personality
development in childhood takes place in
5 sexual stages (Oral, Anal, Phallic,
Latency & Genital Stages)
→ During each stage, sexual image or
libido is expressed in different ways
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→ Each stages represent a fixation of
libido on a different area of the body
→ As a person grows physically, certain
areas of the body become important as
a source of potential frustration
• Erik Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial
Development
→ Erikson maintained that personality
develops in a predetermined order
through 8 stages of psychosocial
development (Infancy to Adulthood)
→ During each stage, a person
experiences a psychosocial crisis which
could have a positive or negative
outcome for personality development
• Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
→ Stages of development are part of
theory about the phases of normal,
intellectual development (Infancy to
Adulthood)
→ Thought judgement and knowledge
• Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development
→ There are 3 Levels of moral development
→ Each level is split into 2 stages
→ People move through these stages in a
fixed order and the moral understanding
is linked to include pre-conventional,
Conventional, and post-conventional
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