See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363032252
Research Methodology Notes
Presentation · August 2022
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.14166.11844
CITATION
READS
1
16,330
1 author:
Mohammed I. S.
Federal Polytechnic Bauchi
80 PUBLICATIONS 164 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Federalism and Ethno-Religious Rivalry in Nigeria View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Mohammed I. S. on 27 August 2022.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.
THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC, BAUCHI
JOSEPH SARWUAN TARKA UNIVERSITY, MAKURDI
(BAUCHI STUDY CENTE)
PROGRAMME: POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION (PGDPA)
SEMESTER/SESSION: FIRST SEMESTER, 2020/2021 SESSION (JUNE, 2021)
COURSE TITLE: STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
COURSE CODE: PDA 711
THIS IS LECTURE NOTES ONLY; NOT TO BE SOLD, TRANSMITTED OR REPRODUCED FOR ANY
COMMERCIAL PURPOSES
Introduction
Research is not only central to, but an indispensable part of productive state and society. No
state or society can develop or advance unless it makes both short and long term, heavy and
sustained investment in research. For fulfilled students and academics, research is
indispensable in both partial fulfilment of requirements for graduation/award of certificates,
and promotion and career growth and development. For both students, especially graduating,
and the academics, especially the young ones, conducting research is not only difficult, peril,
boring, tasking and too demanding, but also a thing that is both feared and hated. Then the
fear and hatred for research becomes most when and where statistics is involved. However,
overcoming fear and hatred, and gaining confidence mark the beginning of any successful
research at whatever level, and the moment one begins, the journey moves on towards
attainment of success, but with trial and error - no research work/study is perfect. What has
however, appeared clear is that conducting research is more learned and understood by both
practice and experience. Mere reading hardly makes one a good researcher, but rather, a
combination of both the knowledge and practical/field experience. Similarly, there are several
methods of conducting research, and while each of the methods is important and unique, it
also has its own strengths and weaknesses. Furthermore, no one can claim perfection in
research, but the more often it is conducted, the more it is understood and better conducted –
learning and experience by practice.
Graduates and graduating students, especially those in their final years of National Diploma
and BSc, BA, etc., as first timers, undergo very difficult and horrible experience in fulfilling
their (project) requirements for the award of their respective certificates because conducting
research and writing their research projects, many fail to meet the project requirements for
graduation because of several reasons associated with conducting research. These include
among others: Limited time; Poor financial status; Poor environmental conditions ; Poor or
lack of confidence in oneself; Poor or no writing skills/strategies; Non-qualitative, nonsubstantive/poor contribution of a research; Becoming stuck while writing/conducting
research; Inexperience/inferiority complex; Issues of major corrections from
supervisors/external examiners, etc.; Social and emotional issues; Balancing the limited the
time for receiving lectures and conducting the research; Fears of the unknown in research
writing. These and many other challenges hinder effective conduct of research not only
among students, but also the academics. They should however, never hinder researchers from
moving on so long as one develops interest, overcomes fear and gains confidence.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
What is Research?
Research has to do with the search for something new, better understanding of what is
already known/more about it. Although there are different methods by which research is
conducted, research is universally all about investigation for the betterment of what is already
known, what exists or is being used, and for solving human problems in respect to natural,
economic, socio-cultural, environmental, anthropological, historical, and other socio-human
and natural perspectives. As researches are conducted, every research work may at a point
need to be improved, advanced or repeated for some obvious reasons/gap(s) which may
appear, but such gaps may be uncovered or not. Research is the systematic and scientific
search for knowledge on a particular phenomenon, issue, event, problem, process, activity,
etc. It is a both comprehensive and process conscious investigation into the cause, relation,
change/alteration or formation of an issue, activity, problem, event or phenomena. It is the
systematic and methodological investigation/inquiry carried out with a view to achieve some
specific aims and objectives, answer some questions, test hypothesis, find definite answers,
and or solve some systematically identified problems with scientifically methodological
answers. It is a process by which an issue, problem, event, phenomena is methodically
studied with a view to find some specific answers as to where, when and how, etc. the
process of conducting research involves among others: defining a research problem; review
of related literature (review of theories, concepts and past research results/findings);
formulation of hypothesis; designing the research; collection of data; data analysis and test of
hypothesis; interpretation and reporting of the major findings of the research.
Undertaking/carrying out a research involves a conscious plan and several carefully
organized actions/activities, including in particular, the search for answers to some questions
bearing in mind and working with some specific set objectives.
Research involves a comprehensive exploration/investigation into something with the
intention of finding some specific and new/more ideas/knowledge/fact. Research is scientific
investigation through systematically structured, organized search for facts using various
methods, steps and stages to search/investigate facts about and issue, phenomena or event. It
is a comprehensively planned search to gain new or improve the existent knowledge on issue,
event, problem or phenomenon whether natural or social. Research is an academic
commitment/activity that comprises of defining a problem or an issue/testing some statements
(hypothesis) and working out solutions or generalisations to it through a carefully planned
data collection, analysis, interpretation. Research is a search for more/advanced knowledge
on what is already known using scientifically standard and systematically established ways.
Many reasons prompt the conduct of a research on an issue, event, phenomena, problem, etc.
This can be either due to shortage of something (information/clarification, data, statistical
figures, etc.). It can be because of a dilemma over an issue/problem. It may be because of
dissatisfaction with what is obtainable/on ground, need for more and optional ways, ideas,
etc. it may be because of changing times and circumstances. It may be because of need for
knowledge improvement, etc. All or any of these can be a gap which necessitates conduct of
academic research. However, for any academic research to be successfully conducted, a
gap/vacuum/space/a definite reason that would prompt and warrant the conduct of the
particular research has to be established.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Research as a Process
Researches are conducted newly and or to also repeat earlier studies and possibly meet up
with time and changing circumstances, new methods, new trends, events and development. It
is also to further clarify or broaden an earlier study and or test/contest previous studies. As a
process, research involves among others. The process of conducting research involves:
Identifying an exact problem, question, issue, event, activity, phenomena, or developing
hypothesis for testing, etc. with a view to finding an explanation, solution or answers.
Raising the questions to be answered, problems to solved, issues to be investigated, events to
be observed, etc. or formulation of testable statements (hypothesis) in relation to an
issue/problem or activity.
Reviewing past works, studies, investigations, findings/results and how they were arrived at
in relation to the identified and raised problem, question, hypothesis, issue, event or activity
above. This stage involves looking into what others have done in the past on the same or
related subject of investigation.
Choosing a scientifically proven way of carrying out specifically outlined activities
(methodology) by which the researcher will go about conducting the research and gathering
relevant and required information/explanations (data) and from appropriate sources about the
identified/raised problem, issue or phenomena – How to go about the study/investigation;
Collection of all the relevant and possible (accessible) information, explanation, figures,
audio, video, audio-visual, etc. on the issue, problem, event or activity under
study/investigation – Data Collection.
Breaking the collected information (data) into the appropriate divisions and categories
(coding), according to their relevance/usage to the study/investigation and giving same a
meaning for the understanding and usage of whom/where it is meant to/for (interpretation).
Drawing a conclusion on what has been studied/investigated in relation to the results as may
be found by the study. By successfully reaching the end of this systematic and methodical
process, the researcher fills a gap - makes a new and positive contribution to what is already
known, brings something new, or develops a new and certain way of doing something.
It is noteworthy that there are different types/approaches of conducting research, and there
are some general and common standards in conducting research. However, various
disciplines may have some ‘discipline-specific’ standards and or requirements.
Why Research?
Academic research is conducted to fill gap through an investigation into something using
standard and systematic procedures. Hence, the search for answers/solutions to social,
economic, environmental, medical, scientific, technical problems, etc. in theoretical and
practical terms. It is meant to discover/find out answers that have not been known/found. The
search/investigation is systematic – conducted in a specially organized, orderly and logical
way. It is meant and organized to solve a particular problem, contribute to or develop
knowledge about something. The research/investigation/result can be generalized to
things/issues, events, problems, etc.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Gaps in Research
Researches are conducted by humankinds who are imperfect and have strength and
weaknesses. Thus, no research work can claim perfection. Every research work/study has its
strength and weaknesses which may be identified (at near or far) or not. Gaps may therefore,
exist in studies/researches. Researches are conducted to fill existing gaps (vacuum). Gaps can
exist and be identified in any research at any point in time – immediately after completion of
the research, later with changes in times and events, development in the field and or new
trends in that particular study/issue.
Figure 1: Gaps in Research
Methodological
Empirical
Knowledge
GAPS IN
RESEARCH
Theoretical
Evidence
Population
Practical
There are several types of gaps in research which include: Methodological, Knowledge,
Empirical, Theoretical, Evidence, Population, Practical knowledge gaps. Put simply, Gaps
which necessitate conduct of a research include omissions/non-inclusion, inconsistency,
controversy, conflicts and or contradictions as a result of: methods used in conducting
Previous Studies, analysis of the previous studies, theories used in the previous studies,
concepts of the previous studies, perspectives of the previous studies, implications of the
previous studies, and or population of the previous studies.
Basic Terms in Research
Research simply means to study, investigate, search or inquire about something (problem,
issue, event, process, activity, etc.). Scientific research/study is the conscious process of
studying, and understanding reality and finding some answers or arriving solutions to
problems through systematic collection, analysis, interpretation of data and reporting same.
The essence of research is thus to primarily obtain knowledge about something. Research
method means the specific methods, designs, actions and procedures followed by the
researcher in order to formulate, research problems collect, analyze and interpret data and
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
finally report such research findings. The major functions of research include: enhancing
peoples’ understanding of realities, e.g., a phenomena, environment, or society, etc.; enables
people to solve and or minimize problems, for example, people learn new ways; satisfies
human natural curiosity to gain more intellectual knowledge on what, how, where why about
something.
Researches can be categorized into five (5): Explanatory - research conducted on events or
things on which there are no prior knowledge about them; Descriptive – research conducted
in order to describe a phenomenon/events or to describe behaviors of individual, group or
society; Exploratory – research conducted for the purpose of validating a theory or
hypothesis, to provide an explanation for the occurrence of something; Basic - research
conducted to exercise minds and increase understanding and provide satisfactory and accurate
results. The purpose is of such research is to provide accurate theories, i.e., it is largely theory
oriented; Applied - this is carried out to provide practical solution to a particular problem and
can be any form of research - descriptive, explanatory, exploratory.
Phenomenon - Any objects or event whose characteristics can be perceived by the senses
(eyes, ears, nose, tongue, feeling), seeing, touching or hearing are all aspects of perception. In
scientific research, it means any segment of reality under observation/study
Concept – Concepts are used to describe phenomenon and every language is a collection of
concepts, and it is with these concepts that we characterize and distinguish phenomenon
which communicates a standardized meaning to all who use it.
Variable – this is a concept whose characteristic vary from one individual to another in a
given population e.g., ages, gender, level of education, income, ethnic group, religion.
Variables (constructs) are any elements/features/characters of either persons or organizations
which can have dissimilar and changing/fluctuating standards or values. Variables can be
measured and or observed in a research, e.g., income, weight, motivation, production units,
height, etc. Variables vary from one object to another, person to person, situation and
circumstances, time and or one organization to another, but can either be measured and or
observed. Values of a variable can change. Variables do cause, influence and or affect other
things. Variable can be dependent, independent, mediating and or intervening.
Hypothesis - Hypothesis means a tentative and speculative statement which specifies
relationships between two or more variables. It is tentative because it is an opinion without
fact as a proof. It may or may not be found out to be supported by fact or data. It also means
any statement, assumption, supposition which stands to be proved/confirmed or rejected after
a conduct of scientific and systematic investigation (study); it is an uncertain statement that a
researcher wants to test and prove using empirical data; it is an assumption that relates
testable independent and dependent variables in a research; it is an asked question/problem
which the researcher intends to answer/solve through systematic and scientific investigation;
it is a projecting statement which are tested through scientific means by the researcher. Some
hypothesis are proposal explanation for the phenomenon, others are opinions of the existing
relationship between variables. There are different types of hypothesis - Null, Correlative,
Directional, and Causal.
The null is simply a hypothesis that states that there is no relationship between two variables.
Null therefore, refutes/rejects assumption, opinion, statement, etc. It negates relationship.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
The correlative: correlative establishes that there is a relationship between two or more
variables. It, however, does not specify the character/nature of such established relationship.
Researchers use correlative when they do not actually understand the relationship between
the variables, but establish that the relationship exists.
The directional implies the direction of relationship between two or more variables and such
variables in directional hypothesis likely decrease or increase due to some factors.
The causal proposes a cause that affects relationship between two or more variables such as
unemployment causes poverty, frequent misunderstanding among couples cause divorce,
smoking Indian hemp causes mental health complications, and or sudden brake failure causes
accident.
In research, hypothesis has two main functions of enabling researchers to verify their theories
as the (theories) are in most cases too abstract to be tested, therefore they can be reduced to
hypothesis; and also guides the researcher in the collection and analysis of data and help
make researcher’s work objective and fully scientific. Hypothesis, among others also
determines what type of data the researcher may collect.
Theory – this is a set of inter – related concepts, definitions, and hypothesis that present a
systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables with the purpose of
explaining and predicting the phenomena. A theory also refers to interconnected concepts,
ideas, propositions/assumptions which altogether give out and or describe a phenomena,
activity, issue, etc. with the drive of making organized and coherent
explanations/provisions/predictions on an issue or phenomena. Theory is formulated to
explain or predict phenomena and explain or predict the phenomena by specifying the
differences or relationships amongst variables. Theory consist of inter – related concepts,
definition and hypothesis.
Features of Scientific Knowledge
Scientific research is conducted to acquire scientific knowledge which also means body of
organized and confirmed knowledge which has been established through comprehensive and
systematic observation. Scientific knowledge has certain established features as:
Empiricism and subject to empirical verification – scientific knowledge possesses empiricism and
it is thus practical. It is empirical (experimental and experiential) because it is knowledge
from observation of reality through the sense organs which are used to observe actual
occurrence of some phenomena and systematically record such observation as accurately as
possible through the use of certain, general and established process/procedures. Science is
thus exclusively concerned with the material work - what can be seen, and not with the
metaphysical. Science uses and relies on empirical verification - any statement, etc. must be
influenced observation.
Similarly, hypothesis and theories must be tested with empirical evidence. They cannot be
simply assumed to be truth. Therefore, knowledge that cannot be verified through the human
sensory organs is not scientific. The empirical nature of scientific knowledge makes it
different other knowledge such as religious where one believes in the unseen. Such other
knowledge may be true or otherwise, but are not scientific because it cannot be verified
empirically.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Non-normative/Non-conventional/common – Scientific knowledge is non-normative. Although
science/scientific knowledge has respect for and value things, culture, society, etc., it is not
concerned with what is usual/common, conventional and right or wrong, etc. The search for
scientific knowledge and science engage what something is and investigates/studies how and
why it happens.
Objectivity – Scientific knowledge is an objective knowledge that is free from all bias,
personal opinions, desires and values of the scientists/researcher conducting the study. A
scientific researcher does not involve personal opinion, believes, wishes or interests or allow
such to influence the research – scientifically objective. Absolute/total and or full objectivity
may however, not be possible while conducting research. It should however, be as best as
possible minimized and also in consideration of ethics and ethical issues in research. In
addition, since it cannot be completely free from such bias, interest or opinions, scientific
knowledge/research and all the findings which can be made by any researcher are freely
subjected to scientific criticisms and or repetition of its process so as to minimize such bias,
etc.
Transmissible – Scientific knowledge is transmissible - It explains and predicts many
phenomena and provides a general knowledge in order to understand more about the world or
phenomena. Such knowledge is developed from the individual knowledge and transmitted
and generalized to others, but after subjection to scientific and systematic process of both
knowledge and investigation.
Explanatory – Scientific knowledge is explanatory - explains social/natural phenomena in
order for it to be fully and accurately understood. Scientific knowledge provides
explanations/reasons for such a phenomena, problem, activity, behavior, attitude or event as
may be systematically studied. Accurate explanations, description and notes are made in
respect of attitudes, behaviors, events and or activities, but any is fully based deliberate
observation and quantification, and gathering of all available facts and figures, as well as
identifying the issues and or factors responsible for what is being studied/investigated.
Provisional – scientific knowledge is provisional, i.e., conditional, temporary and tentative
(not permanent). It can at any time be repeated, rejected, modified and or changed subject to
full and systematic scientific re-investigation. Challenges, improvements or corrections can
be made at any point in time to establish more accuracy and quality of results. New methods
of conducting same study can also be used, more careful observations and accurate
quantifications can be devised. Hence, is provisional and free to be challenged, changed or
modified based on usage of new methods, techniques which may yield more scientifically
proven results.
The scientific method is purely based on certain basic assumptions as:
- Relies on empirical evidence
- Utilises relevant concepts.
- Committed to only objective considerations.
- Presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects.
- Results into probabilistic predictions.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
- Methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing the
conclusions through replication.
- Aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
The Process of Conducting Scientific Research
Conducting scientific research may vary from one field, specific/institutional/organizational
requirements, etc. However, the scientific character in the research process entails among
others: development/formulation of research question, literature review, theory development,
generation or deduction of hypothesis, definition of key concepts, data collection, data
analysis, reporting of research finding.
1. Formulating a Research Problem: A research problem is the question which the researcher
seeks to answer through scientific investigation. In most cases, the process of scientific
enquiry begins with the formulation of the research problem, normally the researcher due
to either curiosity, personal experiences, past scientific investigation or any other reason
want to know the what, how and why of the phenomena.
2. Review of Related Literature/Literature Review: this means reading and assessing books,
journals, papers and magazines, public documents, special reports, etc., which are relevant
and or related to the topic of that the researcher wants to investigate/study. Literature
review is key to conducting every academic research for it helps to shape and reshape the
objectives of the proposed research and as well in the formulation of theories and
hypothesis to be tested and or the research questions to be answered. Through literature
review, the researcher identifies the relevant, updated and credible sources of data sources
to be used in the study.
3. Theory Development/Theoretical Framework: After reviewing filtered, credible and relevant
literature, the then develops or adopts a theory. A theory refers to interconnected concepts,
ideas, propositions/assumptions which altogether give out and or describe a phenomena,
activity, issue, etc. with the drive of making organized and coherent
explanations/provisions/predictions on an issue or phenomena.
4. Development of a Hypothesis/Research Question: Here, in a quantitative study, a testable
hypothesis (tentative statement) subject to test/verification by the researcher is developed.
The hypothesis can be developed from the theory for the study. The hypothesis has both
null (confirms the testable statement) and alternate (which rejects the testable statement).
Whether the hypothesis will be null or alternate can only be confirmed when the scientific
and systematic process is followed to arrive at either of the two. While in a qualitative
study, the researcher develops research questions based on the actual research problem,
the reviewed literature and objectives of the study.
5. Definition of Key Concepts: The basic/key terms to be used/used in the study are clearly
defined as they are used/may be used (operational definition) in the study. In defining key
terms/concepts, the researcher defines such according what they precisely mean in the
study or how they are particularly used.
6. Data Collection: This is the process by which information/explanations/notes/facts about
the research topic or hypothesis are collected from the appropriate, relevant, credible and
available methods/sources. Such data can be collected through experimentation, content
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
analysis, observation (participant/non-participant, concealed/non-concealed), interview
(face to face, structured/unstructured, telephone), Focus Group Discussion), documentary
research (reading and collecting the data from documents [books, public documents and
publications, bulletins, journal, newspapers, magazines and other periodicals],
administering questionnaire (personal administration, mail, online and electronic).
7. Data Analysis: This means processing the data collected and interpreting them in the high
of the assumption of the research hypothesis, data can be analyzed in quantitative,
qualitative or both methods. The data analysis may (depending on the study method –
whether qualitative, quantitative or mixed) answer the research questions, or
confirm/reject/modify the hypothesis as may be tested
8. Reporting the Major Findings of the Research - The reports the major findings to the
supervisor, Faculty Board, the audience, sponsors, Government, the public, organization,
present in workshops, seminar or conferences, submit to a journal for consideration and
publication, etc. as the case may be.
Research Problem/Topic and Research Questions
Research question is the actually identified and carefully framed questions, based on
literature and identified existing problems which the researcher wants to answer through
systematic study/investigation. The research questions are thus the specific questions asked
by the researcher with the intention of finding answers to. A research topic/problem means
the identified problem that warrants conducting the study. Although the two (research
questions and topic/problem) are inter-twined and or related, they are different. The research
problem has to be clearly identified, formulated for a proper literature review, relevant and
robust data collection as well as the successful conduct of a study. The research question has
to also be worthy of investigation, otherwise it makes the research insignificant. For research
problem, it is key to conduct of every study and is a major determinant of what method and or
design should appropriately be used in the study – qualitative, quantitative, and mixed, case
study, etc. any research problem to be addressed must take into consideration the relevance
and significance of the problem to the audience, availability of and accessibility to data, the
contribution/change it will make from the existing conditions, can the research be
successfully concluded within stipulated/available time, energy, resources, and other ethical
issues.
Selection, identification, formulation of a research problem largely depends on doing an
appropriate review of literature. This review enables the researcher to measure up and
understand what have so far been done on the problem/topic, how such were done
(methods/designs), who did what, what strengths and weaknesses are there in what have been
done and what gaps are there that need to be filled by future studies. Overall, literature review
provides the researcher with a clear picture and feasibility or otherwise of the study to be
conducted.
Guidelines on Writing a Research Proposal
A research proposal is the content or an outline of what to do and how a researcher intends to
go about it in conducting a particular research/study and such proposal comprises of the
outline of the activities, means and methods, as well the process by which they are to be
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
carried out. A proposal gives out the methods, designs, tools, and other things involved in a
research/study, including ethical issues. Research proposal may vary by method/design or
institutional, supervisor’s and other requirements/specifications. However, a standard
research proposal should consist of the following: title, introduction, statement and
justification of the research problem, Literature review, objectives, theoretical framework,
hypothesis/research questions, definition of key concepts/terms, scope of study, methodology
(method and the instruments of data collection and analysis), outline of chapters, and
references.
Basic & Applied Researches
Applied Research – This is research conducted to solve a particular problem at hand; a
challenge currently experienced and such are conducted to find and arrive at solutions to
needed at that moment; results from such researches are applied in solving problems, issues,
challenges, etc.
Basic Research – Basic research is conducted to generate knowledge on how to an issue, a
problem, questions, or a phenomenon can be answered, solved or addressed. Such knowledge
from the basic research is acquired to explore and understand a phenomenon, issue or
problem. It also makes additional contributions to the body of knowledge that is already
acquired on an issue, problem, etc. the acquired knowledge can also be used at other times.
Basic research furnishes audience with additional information and or knowledge. It also
develop theories from the findings of the conducted research.
Research Design
This is an outline, main plan and or a basic scheme of conducting a particular research using
some specific means of collection and measurement of primary, secondary or both data, and
procedural analysis of the same data in order to address/answer some research questions and
or test some hypotheses. In research, several designs are used and each is important, unique
and appropriate in its context of usage. There are numerous research designs which are seen
as ‘a general strategy for conducting a research study’, in use and they vary from one
researcher, scholar to another. Generally however, several research designs have been
identified which include: Experimental, Survey, Ethnographic, Correlational, Case Study,
Action Research, Qualitative, Ex post facto, Descriptive, Introspection, Grounded Theory,
Narrative, Historical, Evaluation, Causal-Comparative, Interactional analysis, Critical
Theory, Constructivism, Content analysis, Ethnomethodology, Feminist Research Design,
Hermeneutics and Phenomenology.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Figure 2: Research Designs
Correlational
Exprimental
Ethnographic
l
Survey
Historical
Evoaluation
Narrative
Descriptive
Introspection
CausalComparative
Hermeneustic
Research
Designs
Ex post
facto
Phenomenology
Interactional
Analysis
Feminist
Ethnometho
dology
Case Study
Action
Research
Content
Analysis
Qualitative
Critical
Grounded Constrructi Theory
Theory
vism
Research in History/Historical Research
There are researches purposely conducted to uncover, explain, understand issues, properly
account for past issues, experiences and or events so as to explain, interpret or analyse current
events, issues, etc. In historical research, information/data is methodically gathered, assessed
and used to provide answers to the research questions in relation to the past/historical
happenings. Therefore, historical research involves among others, the past history,
experience, records, etc. which is used to comprehend the past experience/events/issues with
a view to relating same to the contemporaneous and yet to come/happen issues, events, and or
experience. The process of its literature review is however, very cautious. There is also the
thorough study of issues, past experiences, events, happenings with standard measurement of
both validity and reliability of the past issues, events or happenings based on proofs. The
materials (data) for this research can be text (written), oral and or other artifact materials and
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
objects. This research mainly relies on the past/previous, but available data – books,
pamphlets, newspapers and magazines, personal/official letters and correspondences, reports
from Commissions, archival materials, old and historical cities, towns, sites, tombs, cultural
objects (spoons, knives, clothes, bowls and plates), sculptures and other artistry, pyramids,
old and historical roads/routes, etc. The contents and details, shapes, sizes, colours, etc. of
the above are what are used as proofs to rely on and then understand and infer on the
investigated issues, events, experiences or happenings, etc. This research can be conducted
with the use of primary, secondary or both data. All texts and or object materials are
subjected to critical examination to ensure the source, genuineness, originality usage and
intention/purpose.
Conceptual and Empirical Researches
Conceptual Research is related to theories and or ideas; it is associated with ideas and
concepts, and their interpretation/re-interpretation. While empirical Research is practical, and
can be observed or experimented; it is also known as research for it can be experimented.
Basic Questions in Every Academic Research
In any research to be or being conducted, there are fundamental questions which the
researcher should consider and always be conscious of. These include: What exactly does the
researcher wants to study/Why the study? What precisely does the researcher want to achieve
in conducting the research? What happens if the research could not fine result/solution to the
problem? What are needed to find a new/relevant/current solution by the study? What
facts/data are there on ground? Who (the individuals) should the researcher involve in the
research? What things will make the audience/readers best understand the topic and results of
the research? Where will the data be collected? What ethical issues/concerns are there in the
study? How relevant/useful will the research be to the audience/society/industry/academia?
How would the researcher find/discover more from what is already known? Who are the
audience/to benefit from the research? Why does the researcher seek solutions/answers to the
problem? Why did the need for the research come up/why did the gap come to exist? Will the
research make any difference/find anything new/ answers/solutions?
Basic Tips on Writing a Research Proposal
Research proposal is a documented representation of both the essence and detailed provisions
of how a particular research is proposed to be conducted; writing a research proposal requires
consideration/inclusion of some basic elements; these elements are further broken into more
parts as the research progresses; the proposal may also vary with the level at which the
research in conducted – PhD, MSc, BSc, etc., including some specifications which may be
required by institutions, sponsors/financiers, Dissertation/Faculty Committee, the research
design, the audience, etc. The basic elements of a research proposal include, but not limited
to:
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Figure 3: Elements of a Research Proposal
Title &
Purpose
Statement
Research
Problem &
Objectives
References
&
Appendices
ELEMENTS OF
RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
Review of
Literature
Methodology
Hypothesis/
Research
Question
1. The main purpose (purpose statement) of and the exact intention of the research.
2. General statement about the problem of the research, objectives and what it (the
research addresses) and to whom it is meant.
3. Review of Related Literature, definition of terms.
4. Formulation of hypothesis/research questions to be answered in the research;
5. Methodology - Research design/type, theory, method of data collection and analysis,
ethical issues, duration/time and cost of the study. A methodology is defined as
an intersection of theory, research methods, and data, while methods used in
conducting study refer to the actual steps, stages, specific actions and activities
and their order of arrangement which are supposed to be taken for the
study/research to be conducted and concluded successfully.
6. References.
7. Appendices.
Alternatively, a research proposal (although modifiable and varies from one research, field or
perspective to another), should clearly contain major elements of:
1. Title for the research.
2. Introduction
3. Statement of the exact problem to be addressed.
4. The main purpose of the study, use of theory and hypothesis/research questions to be
answered.
5. Literature review.
6. The scope, relevance and the limitations of the study.
7. The actual design of the research – qualitative, quantitative or mixed.
8. The exact data collection method/instrument and the analysis method.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
9. Ethical issues, budget/cost of the research, time.
10. References/Bibliography.
Figure 4: Major Components of a Research Proposal
Title of the
Research/Stud
y
Introductio
n
References
Location of
the Study
Problem
Statement
Researcch
Proposal
Methodology
Objectives
of the Study
Significance
/Justificatio
n
Specific
Objectives
Research
Questions/
Hypothesis
Alternatively, a research proposal may have major components of: Title, Introduction,
Problem statement, Objectives of the Study, Significance of the study/Justification for the
study, Research questions/Hypothesis, General and or Specific Objectives of the Study,
Methodology, Location of the Study, and References.
Title of a Research/Research Topic
Every research must have a title and for any research to be successfully conducted, it needs to
have an appropriate title for the study. A title provides the exact intention of the researcher in
relation to a study/research. A title should therefore, be:
1. Brief and concise
2. No too many words/wordings (about 12 words)
3. No use of big/pompous grammar
4. Directly focused on the problem/issue of the research/study
5. It can have a single title; or a double title separated/joined together by a colon (:).
One of the major challenges of conducting research, especially among the first-timers is the
choice/selection of a research topic. That however, can be easily done when one makes a
proper review of past literature where issues, themes and or topics are robustly found; and
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
through prevailing circumstances and situations/needs, job challenges, experience,
supervisor’s guide, workplace demands or community’s problems/issues and challenges, etc.
Abstract
An abstract is a brief/summary of the major elements of a particular research/article; although
it is written and placed at the first page of a research, it is mostly comprehensively written
after the research has been completed; abstract may thus change when a study is completed to
reflect the inclusions. Abstract is key to every research writing because it is mostly read first
and is what gives clear and general impression of the entire work done. Researchers prepare
abstracts in order to provide a succinct summary of a research. It is thus short, precise and
informative. It is a single paragraph, single space line, with only standard abbreviations.
Hence,
- Abstract comes/appears in first part of a study
- It comes in both proposal, completed research and or articles
- Writing an abstract may vary by specific/special requirements – type of study,
article, Report, proposal, etc. However, abstract generally is commonly a
summary of a research/article/study/paper and is written in one/single
paragraph.
Features of an Abstract
1. It is usually between 150 - 250 words (and may also depend on other specific
requirements)
2. It is written in a single paragraph
3. It contains no abbreviations
4. It comprises of 5 – 7 keywords as may be used in the text
5. It contains no images/artifacts – only text
6. It is clear and concise
7. It is cohesive and exact
8. It relatively comprises of some major elements as: Statement of Problem, Purpose,
Aims, Scope, Methods and Materials (data), Major Findings/Results, Main
Conclusion, Application, and Originality/Novelty of the Study.
9. It contains certain keywords (usually 5-7 words), but also depend on other specific
requirements.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Figure 5: Abstract
Title/Topic
Statement
Materials/Met
hod
Result
Implications
Applications
Abstract
Statistical
tool used
Problem
Novelty/
Originality
Objectives
Key Words
Research Problem
Research Problem is a fundamental element of qualitative research. It refers to the actual
problem that compels the need for the study; the exact need for conducting the study; why the
need for the study. It is an unanswered question/argument, unresolved controversy, or an
inconsistency/discrepancy.
Research problems may originate/emanate from the need to fill an existing gap in literature or
a study (scholarly grounds) and improve available literature or add to/improve/develop what
is already known, personal experience of the researcher/supervisor, emerging occupational
and or job challenges, etc.
In stating what exactly a research problem for a particular study is, the research needs to
essentially review some literature so as to provide and buttress the need for the study, assess
the level previous studies and then properly situate the new study along the line of the
existing literatures.
Guide to Writing/Stating Qualitative Research Questions
- Research questions are open-ended questions that allow respondents to answer freely
and navigate through the question/answer;
- Research questions are non-directional, i.e. not pointing to any specific/directed
answers; but state specifically what the researcher is investigating and needed on
the topic.
- Research questions first ask ‘what’ and or ‘how’.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
-
Research questions are clear and straight.
Research questions are not much in number (about 5-7).
Research questions may comprise sub-questions related to the central question.
Research questions arise/emerge, and one leads to another.
Research questions are asked from general to specific questions.
Generally, Research Questions fall under the types/categories of:
- Descriptive – describe an issue/phenomenon
- Exploratory – investigative a problem/issue/phenomenon
- Explanatory – explain outlines and forms which are connected to
problem/phenomenon/issue.
- Causal – investigating whether a variable results to change in another.
- Emancipatory – be involved in socio-societal action on the issue/phenomenon so as to
open up, widen or broad.
Hence, depending on what the researcher wants, research questions can be interpretive (to
interpret), explanatory (to explain), exploratory (to explore) or descriptive (to describe).
Questionnaire
A Questionnaire is a formed and written set of questions (in respect of a
research/investigation) given out (administered) to the respondents to answer via writing from
the options which may be given out on the written set of questions; answers on questioners
are usually given in alternative, but closed forms. Questionnaire is also a tool for data
collection, particularly the primary data with which respondents are asked some sort of
uniformed, special planned, fashioned and serially arranged questions which are carefully
prepared and administered by the research or their assistants. The use of questionnaire is most
common to business and educational studies/researches.
Questionnaire can be administered (given out for respondents to fill) through several ways,
especially through:
Personal Administration – the researcher and assistants distribute the questions to
respondents and collect same back after filling/answering. This is common in
confined, limited to a relatively, small, local or manageable area of study.
Online & Electronic Questionnaire – using the internet facilities, email, the social network,
websites, blog, etc. to collect data.
Mail – this is where and when the questionnaire is mailed to the respondents to
fill/answer and return same.
Guide to Preparing/Drafting Questionnaire or Schedule
A well drafted Questionnaire must take into account several elements that determine its
appropriateness to a research as:
- Conscious and always considerate of the problem of study/focus of the research
problem.
- Clarity and Simplicity when filling by the respondents.
- Questions must be logical and coherent.
- Questions must appear with well-defined units of enumeration.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
- Pilot study be conducted to pre-test the questionnaire and correction of
anomalies.
- Mindful & Careful of words to be used and the wordings.
- Questions must be sequentially prepared.
- Non-offensive Questions and Personal Information.
- Questionnaire must be revised/re-examined before administrating.
- Questions must be appropriate and whether open or closed-ended.
Things Not To Do while Preparing/Designing/Drafting a Questionnaire
In preparing/drafting/designing a questionnaire and before its administration on the field, a
researcher must ensure that the questions comprise of the right and appropriately chosen
words; the questions will be clearly understood by the respondents/participants.
Preparing/designing a questionnaire should be done in most cautions, purposeful and time,
energy and resource conscious manner. While preparing questionnaire, a researcher is
expected NOT TO some things which include:
- Not to use words, phrases, sentences which may seem/or be difficult to
understand by the participants/respondents.
- Not to use big grammar/too technical words/vocabularies;
- Not to use too many words/sentences.
- Not to include calculations.
- Not to ask difficult/perplexing/confusing questions.
- Not to be abstract in asking questions.
These things should be strictly avoided, except where such become absolutely necessary and
unavoidable.
Hypothesis
In research, Hypothesis means any statement, assumption, supposition which stands to be
proved/confirmed or disproved/refuted after a conduct of scientific and systematic
investigation (study); it is an uncertain statement that a researcher wants to test and prove
using empirical data; it is an assumption that relates testable independent and dependent
variables in a research; it is an asked question/problem which the researcher intends to
answer/solve through systematic and scientific investigation; it is a projecting statement
which are tested through scientific means by the researcher.
Types of Hypothesis
Null & Alternate Hypotheses
In research and analysis, especially statistics, two main hypotheses (Null & Alternative) are
known and often used;
Null Hypothesis – this hypothesis has symbol: H0.It assumes there is no relationship and or
differences between variables in a study.
Alternate Hypothesis – this has symbol: HA: it assumes there is relationship.
Although Hypothesis is short and brief, it should all the same contain and exhibit certain
elements and should be:
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
How to make a Good Hypothesis
- It should testable – deducible and confirmable.
- It should be testable within a considerable/reasonable period of time.
- Reflect facts and underline the need which prompt conducting the research, explain
the problem.
- It should be stated in clear, simple, vibrant and exact terms.
- Where a Hypothesis is ‘Relational’, it should clearly establish and provide the
relationship between or among variables.
- Specific to the study and limited/narrow so as to be able to be tested.
- Steady and be in consistence with already known facts.
Conceptual Framework
Conceptual framework is a graphic or textual and narrative description of what is studied/to
be studied, including the key issues, aspects and dynamics, and the relationships between and
or among them in a research;
- It is better done in graphical form;
- It is an atlas of the area under a study that is established at the commencement of a
research, but takes proper shape, changes and improves as the research moves
on.
- It guides a researcher in selecting more important issues, data to be collected for
analysis, and may aid ‘cross-case’ data analysis where a study involves several
researchers.
In quantitative research, theoretical framework does among others provide:
- Make clear definition of the variables which are relevant and useful to the
research/investigation being/to be conducted;
- Clear show the relationship between and or among variables in a study.
- Clear description/explanation on why there is that relationship between the variables.
- In making a research proposal, it is essential that the researcher provides a clear and
formal statement of the questions to be asked by the research and such questions
must be both worthy of investigation, feasible and clear. It is also essential for
researchers, especially students, writing projects (for the fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of certificates) at whatever level to be conscious of
time specification for submission of the project; outline/structural arrangement
of the project; specific institutional requirements (character and font size, length
of the whole project [words count]); type and length of abstract, page margins,
line spacing and insertion of tables, figures and appendices, etc. and other
specifically set guidelines.
Depending on the research method one uses, a proposal will require methodological aspect to
explain how various related issues/processes can be carried out/handled. There aspects
include among others: the actual target population, method of sampling for the study; the
instruments, techniques and procedures in collecting the; data; the procedure for analyzing
the data to be collected; and how ethical issues (privacy, confidentially, honesty, safety, etc.)
are to be handled by the researcher in the course of conducting the research.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
While making a research proposal, a researcher should always take note of some factors
which will guide and determine set up, and the success or otherwise of a research questions.
These include: whether other people would like and give attention to the research questions?
Whether the questions are asked at the right time they need to be answered by means of
research? Whether such questions have been asked in the past and answered or not? Whether
the research questions are meaningfully asked and answering them would solve a problem?
Are the questions research worthy? Are the questions rightly directed to the
audience/sponsors/beneficiaries, etc. of the research? Would there be data available for the
research and would it be accessed/collected? Would the research be conducted, concluded to
answer the research questions within the specified of time for the study? Is the location for
the study the right place to answer the research questions?
Collect Data in Research
In conducting qualitative research, data can be collected in research through:
Review of Documents – the researcher reviews some literature (books, journals, etc.) and or
relevant programme documents where useful information can be found.
Survey – Survey research/data collection is very common in applied social science
researches. Survey entails obtaining data/information from a specific/particular set/group of
people in order to have a generalized result; it is one on one paper talk/two way
communication between the researcher and participant/respondent with the use of
questionnaire in a sampling process to collect data from participants/respondents where
observation may not be possibly made. Survey research is mostly based on and domiciled in
quantitative research method and analysis in which the participants/respondents are asked
questions in a written form (with the use of questionnaire) and the responses/answers also
recorded, processed and then analysed and reported respectively. Any report from a research
must be precise and accurate, clear, concise, honest, and complete and such reports are
categorized into as: popular, oral and technical reports.
Survey research can as well fit into qualitative research method. Survey measures attitude,
behaviours, etc. of a population of the study with the use of a representative sample of the
population of study.
There are key issues to be considered in conducting a survey research as: what to ask,
population for the study, and the sample to be used/taken; the type and length of the questions
to be asked, logistics (materials to be used), time and cost of conducting the research.
The process of conducting survey research involves: planning the research process,
determining sampling type and frame, design of questionnaire, collection of data from the
field, translating, and analyzing collected data, making conclusions, and reporting the
research. Survey can be:
Descriptive/Exploratory – where it describes; addresses ‘what’ aspect of a question; where
the survey is meant to collect and make available data/information about certain
element.
Analytical – where it answers ‘why’; seeks to comprehend and construe and establish
relationship between/among elements.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Survey Research is conducted based on time meant for and allocated for its conduct. The
time, is however, determined by the nature and type of questions to be asked and the purpose
of conducting the survey.
There are two categories of survey based on the timing of conducting survey research as:
Longitudinal Survey – conducted over a period of time, at different points in time, and
using same or a different respondents of the sample.
Cross-Sectional Survey – the data is collected at a particular point of time and at once.
Survey research is significant, especially in social sciences because it greatly helps achieve
collection of both robust and appropriate data and the exact answers; it is very rational and
economic, energy and time efficient.
Observation – physically look at and learn how an activity/process/operation is carried out.
Research Designs
- Conceptual Design – involves Research Objectives, Research Framework, Research
Questions and or Conceptual Models, and Definition of the Research
Terms/Operationalisation of Terms in a particular research.
- Technical Design – involves the Research Planning, Research Strategy, and Research
Materials.
Variables in Research
Variables (constructs) are any elements/features/characters of either persons or organisations
which can have dissimilar and changing/flactuating standards or values; can be measured and
or observed in a research, e.g., income, weight, motivation, production units, height, etc.;
variables vary from one object to another, person to person, situation and circumstances, time
and or one organization to another, but can either be measured and or observed; values of a
variable can change.
Figure 6: Types of Variables
Variables
Dependent
Independent
Controlled
Moderating
Mediating
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Independent Variables – this variable is one that affects/influences a dependent variable in
either positive or negative means/ways; it is one thing that a researcher changes, e.g.
Age. Any changes (whether increase or decrease) in the independent variable also
results in change in the dependent variable.
Dependent Variables – The change that occurs from independent (above); a dependent variable
is one that is determined, a result of or a consequent of others, e.g., height. It is the
most important variable before every researcher for it is the subject of
investigation/conduct of a research; it is measured/quantified by the researcher; the
researcher tries to understand what affect and then describe/explain its
inconsistency/erraticism; a research can have only one, two or more dependent
variables in a study. Dependent variable (a central variable) is one that is measurable,
but is not separately classified or categorized in isolation because of its relationship
(dependence) with the independent variable.
Controlled Variables – What the researcher wants to remain consistent/constant in the
research/investigation being conducted.
Moderating Variable – with significant effects on the independent-dependent variables
relationship, this is a modifier of the exact relation between the independent and the
dependent variables; it is thus, a relationship modifier; the effects of a moderating
variables on the relationship between the two (dependent and independent) is
contingent.
Mediating/Intervening Variable– a mediating variable plays a role in when a researcher is to
‘model a process’ in a research; it comes up while the independent variables are
run/operated.
In research, there exists a relationship among all the 4 variables. It is the forces at work in any
given circumstances/situation that determine what exact type a variable is in research.
Literature Review/Review of Related Literature
Literature review is an indispensable part of academic research whether qualitative,
quantitative or the mixed mode. There are many different types of literature review – simple,
complex, integrative, methodological, historical and theoretical. Key areas related to
objectivity, articulateness, methodology, worthiness/robustness, and originality are examined
in review of literature. Literature review helps to appropriately choose a theory for a study.
Literature review is important as: it is a sequential process of identifying, evaluating and
selection of relevant text materials/previous works on the research topic/issue; and involves
critically reviewing other previous works/writings on the same or
related topic of study
being conducted by the researcher. Conducting review of literature in a research is a careful
activity that addresses some key questions as to what literatures are there related/relevant to
the proposed study? and how and to what extent such reviewed literature can be used in the
proposed study? It is essential that a researcher accesses/obtains the relevant, valid and
updated literature on the topic if study so as to be able to conduct and complete the
study/research successfully.
The essence and significance of literature review include among others: provide both general
and specific knowledge about the study/research to be conducted and as well, give a
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
background to the study; gives a map of what has been read and extent to which others have
worked on the topic/issue/problem; enables the researcher to identify a gap and gives
direction on how to fill such a gap; helps to shape the conduct of a study by signifying among
others, the research methods to be used, strategies and specific designs, and instruments to be
used in collection of data. Therefore, review of literature is very important in research for it
enables the researcher to focus properly on the research topic and also determine the scope of
the research. Literature review also guides the researcher in properly preparing their research
questions and also lead the researcher in determine the appropriate methodology for the
proposed study.
Therefore, through literature review, a researcher
- Understands whether the proposed topic to study, questions to answer,
investigation to conduct has been done in the past or not, and the results.
- Whether past/previous studies are deficient in addressing any aspect of the study.
- Whether the previous studies need to be improved.
- Whether any gap worth investigating still exists.
- How coherent and organized are the information?
- What methods were used by the others in the previous studies?
- Whether those methods were effective or not.
- What were the weaknesses of the previously used methods?
- Whether the data were properly collected, and analysed.
- Whether the research is worthy of conduct or not.
- What method (Qualitative, Quantitative or Mixed) should be used in the proposed
study?
- What latest literature and developments are there on the topic of study?
Sources of Literature Review Materials
Credibility and quality of literature review is primarily determined by its sources - from
where (proper search for), what and how the reviewed materials are sourced. These sources
include: text books, journals, PhD thesis, conference proceedings, other unpublished
manuscripts, internet (Google, yahoo, etc.), reports, newspapers and magazines.
Not everything found, interpreted or analysed in others’ literature/studies is captured,
accepted by a reviewer – only relevant, useful and creditable information
The importance of literature review in research cannot be over-emphasized. However, if it is
to be done well, it is tasking, resource and time intensive, and sometimes uninteresting and
baffling. There are however, many ways of doing it depending on the context, specific needs
and the volume of literature available.
Theory
A theory refers to a set of concepts and or hypothesis which are used to categorise a
research/study with the use of orderly structured and interrelated propositions; it is a certain
belief that is established via scientific knowledge and or experience with facts, substantive
assumptions and propositions, forecasts to relate, explain and understand elements of normal
and natural life and the world. A theory is characterized by main principles of sophistication,
economy, acceptance/popularity and extensiveness; a theory connects to and is grounded in
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
the research work. Theories are needed to relate to and also inform a research/study. A theory
is situated within a research work to frame, explain and support a related study. Theory is
based on observations, verified assumptions, general/normal laws, facts by the experienced
and experts. Theory is used to relate a general knowledge and related to the subject of
investigation/under study. The importance of a theory to research cannot be over-emphasised
especially to qualitative research method. A theory refers to interconnected concepts, ideas,
propositions/assumptions which altogether give out and or describe a phenomena, activity,
issue,
etc.
with
the
drive
of
making
organized
and
coherent
explanations/provisions/predictions on an issue or phenomena.
Theoretical Framework
Theoretical framework is an organisation of, structure or arrangement in which a particular
and relevant theory is situated within a study/research. Theory provides the researcher a basis
for both forming research questions and determining the methodology for the study;
theoretical framework explains the use, relevance and appropriateness of a theory and its
postulations to a particular research topic, questions or problems; with theoretical framework,
the audience are able to assess a particular research/study. Theoretical framework also links a
study with the available and or current knowledge in relation to the subject of study.
Researchers can also develop and propose their own theories, but such be related to the
results or main findings of their studies.
A theoretical framework highlights a theory to be used in the study, its relevance, context of
situating and as well, the general knowledge on the problem, topic, and phenomena under
study. The robustness, relevance, appropriateness and usability of a theory are essential to a
well formed theoretical framework.
How to Develop a Robust, Relevant & Appropriate Theoretical Framework for Study
For a substantive, robust and appropriate theoretical framework to be developed, the
researcher needs among others:
- Make the theory a guide to your study, including conceptual understanding,
methodology and analysis of the study.
- Carefully review related literature and clearly understand what other previous
researchers and studies have done on the same research topic.
- Carefully frame a research title and relate same to the formation of research questions.
- Carefully study and review available and relevant theories before choosing the robust
and appropriate one to use in the study.
- Carefully and precisely explain the theory and relate the chosen theory to the
research work/study, and stress the germane of the theory to the study/
- Carefully link the methodology for the study with the theoretical framework of the
study.
- Highlight any limitations/weaknesses of the chosen theory.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
METHODS & METHOLOGIES OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH
Methods of conducting research are about the exact and precise ways of how we collect data
in conducting a particular research. Methodologies of research are about how researchers
should best collect data in respect of a particular investigation/research. Epistemology is
about how we should conduct investigation of the world. Ontology is about how we
view/look at the world
Philosophy in Research/Research Philosophies
Philosophy in research involves both nature of knowledge and its development in relation to
issues, problems, phenomena, events, etc. there is philosophy in research and this makes it
possess substance and is robust since the philosophy gives research assumptions and
underpinnings which help to view and explain issues, events, problems and or phenomena;
there exist many philosophical perspectives/approaches to research as: critical,
transformative, interpretivism, pragmatism, realist, positivism, post-positivism,
constructivists, etc. thus, epistemology is about how we should conduct investigation of the
world; how we view things/issues. Ontology is about how we view/look at the world.
Axiology is about and relates to values to our thoughts, actions and reactions.
Research Designs
Research design is the structure of a research investigation/study that highlights the main
elements of a particular study/investigation. A design of research brings some certain
elements (major and key parts) and harmonises them to achieve a successful conduct and
completion of a research; it is a prescribed procedure with which a particular research is
commenced and completed. There are Three Basic Academic Research Designs. None of
them is perfect – every research method has some strengths and also its weaknesses; each is
also appropriate and robust with a particular situation and circumstance, specific aims and
objectives of the research, value system, gender, time, energy and resources available.
Similarly, there are three main research of Qualitative Method, Quantitative Method and
Mixed Method.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Research Methods
Figure 7: Research Methods
Qualitative
Quantitative
Mixed-Mode
Factors Determining Selection of a Research Design/Method
Several factors come into play in determination of which research design (Qualitative,
Quantitative or Mixed) is to be used by a researcher in conducting a particular research; these
factors ultimately decide which is to be followed and why it is to be followed.
- Availability of funds to undertake the research.
- Time and space of conducting the research – peace/conflict period, home or abroad, in
fulfilment of requirement, etc.
- Feasibility of collecting data.
- Nature, type & peculiarity of the research problem/issue/phenomenon.
- Peculiar/Personal experience, skills/expertise of the researcher in relation to the
problem of study/issue.
- To/for whom the research is meant/to be reported/used, what problems it will
solve/answers it will provide;
- The atmosphere under which it is to be conducted (political, whether, conflict/nonconflict, etc.).
Whichever of the methods/designs is to used, the researcher must be decide which is to be
used before going to the field for collection of relevant data, and subsequent analysis of the
collected data. Researcher normally chooses the most appropriate based on the research
objectives, time and resources, availability of and access to the data, extents of subsequent
reliability and validity, etc.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research deals more with text and imagery materials. Qualitative research try to
find out about a problem, opinion, issue, behaviour, situation, attitude, etc.; explores issues,
phenomenon or problems. In qualitative research, the researcher tries to get and understand
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
the interviewee/informant/respondent’s perception, view, standpoint through their ‘lived’
experience and sense of the issue/problem under study and connects same to the ‘social
world’. Qualitative Research has multiple sources of collecting data. Natural
Setting/Environment is very critical to qualitative research and data collection. Qualitative
research can be conducted in many different ways, but some of the ways are more popular.
Qualitative research is conducted in a natural setup. Qualitative research is directly connected
to the social world and has physical impacts on humans and the life they live. The researcher
himself collects the data from the field through interviews, observations,
reviewing/examining text materials/documents. Contact between the researcher and
informants/participants/respondents is wide-ranging and extensive. It involves both inductive
& deductive analysis of collected data – there is a constant navigation through and being
touch between the themes of the research and the actual database until the research work is
completed. The data/reports/findings/results in qualitative research are usually given
words/texts/pictures/images/artifacts. However, any report from a research must be precise
and accurate, clear, concise, honest, and complete and such reports are categorized into as:
popular, oral and technical reports.
It is participants that give meaning to the research problems/issues being researched – the
researcher gives emphasis to what the participants/respondents/informants with ‘lived’
experience mean on or about the problem/issue/phenomenon of the research. The plan of the
research is flexible - can change/be modified any point of conducting the research, especially
during data collection. The research questions, informants/participants, the proposed form of
the data collection, and many other adjustments and or modifications can be changed at any
time in the course of conducting the research, depending on emerging trends. Qualitative
research gives multiple perspectives of the study, brings forth the complexities and the many
dynamics involved and or found in the study and brings forth fundamental issues as related to
the problem/phenomenon. Qualitative Research involves thorough involvement and
understanding
between
the
researcher
and
the
informants/participants/interviewees/respondents. Qualitative research deals with open-ended
data in relation to the Research Questions.
Qualitative research method is popular and commonly used in most social
sciences/humanities, and applied arts researches as different and numerous disciplines,
especially Philosophy, Anthropology, Sociology, make up the qualitative method of research.
Qualitative research method is most significant in not only making new knowledge
discoveries/explorations and advances, but also the generation of new theories (grounded
theory).
The qualitative research method is based on the researcher’s inquiry using open questions and
primarily grounded in the knowledge of the reality which are acquired through the others
(persons), and only by research. Open questions provide the respondent/interviewee with the
opportunity to respond in a personally based mode, personal opinion based manner, and in
their own words of choice. The respondents are also enabled to conveniently provide and or
make their personal opinions and experience known, although such opinions/views and
experience/expertise may be difficult to analyze. Such open questions take a wide-ranging
and inclusive considerations of a research problem and provide a wider and varying
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
perspectives for both definition and detailing. Qualitative research is contextual, flexible and
can be conducted based on numerous theories and or methodological approaches with the use
of varying theories/methods of data collection – questionnaires, interviews, observations, etc.
Figure 8: Approaches to Qualitative Research
Action
Research
Case study
Ethnography
Qualitative
Research
Approaches
Phenomenology
Narrative
Inquiry
Grounded
Theory
Qualitative Data Collection
Qualitative Interviews - Face to face interviews, telephone interviews, Focus Group
Discussion (FGD) (with between 8 and 10 interviewees/person in a Group). Qualitative
Texts/Public/Private Documents – Books, Journals, Newspapers, Magazines, Diaries, Letters,
e-mails, Reports, etc. and documents analysis. Qualitative Audio, Video and or Audio-Visual
Materials – Photographs, Audio recordings, Video, Art Designs/Objects, Computer
Messages, etc. Qualitative Observation – This is making field observations during the process
of an activity, process while they take place with the researcher fully participating in the
activity/process (Participant Observation) over a long period of time, especially in studying
cultures of a people and this is most common to and associated with Sociology and
Anthropology; or where the researcher only observes without participation (Non-Participant
Observation).
Observation is famously conducted in case studies, ethnographic and action researches and
more often go together with interview and surveys. In observation, a researcher in the process
of conducting the research cautiously and vigilantly look at the participants with the intention
of gaining a true understanding of their experience as participants in the process/event being
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
carried out. It is however, complex and requires more practice and firmness. In observation,
field notes are not only necessarily written, but also more of interpretation and narration
which are finally linked to theory either developed by the researcher or use others’. In
observation, issues of ethics, especially in relation to the participants, are very delicate and
must be properly and consciously handled by the researcher. In observation, the researcher
does not only merely observe and take notes, but comprises of more and complex elements of
seeing, perceiving, hearing, touching, smelling and tasting (where applicable). It is thus a
systematic view of a process/event/activity/actions with a view to record, analyse and
interpret same for research purposes. In over/unconcealed observation, those observed are
fully aware that they are being observed where their teamwork and cooperation may even be
sought; and covert/concealed observation where those observed are not informed/aware of
they being observed by the researcher. In the process of collecting data through observation,
there are certain important things that the researcher should take note of and document as: the
actual number of participants in the observed process/event/issue, the actual
activity/process/event taking p0lace, social rules and the basic arrangements involved, the
meaning and viewpoints given to the event/activity/process by the members, the physical
setting/arrangement of the event/activity and its historical background, and the division of
labour and hierarchical order of members in the event/activity.
Observation in research can be one of either Controlled or Controlled.
Controlled – where the research/observation is carried out under an arranged/controlled and or
influenced set up.
Uncontrolled – where the observation process/researcher observes the natural course and
trends of activities, process, etc. without any interference and or attempt to
shape/control the process/activity.
Concealed & Unconcealed Observations
- Concealed Observation – where those who are observed are not aware of being observed.
- Unconcealed Observation - where those who are being observed are fully aware that they
are being observed.
Whether observation is participatory or non-participatory, controlled or uncontrolled,
concealed or unconcealed, it is up to the researcher/observer to decide which best to use and
observe depending on the circumstances, specific requirements, make-up of the research and
other factors.
Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
This is an instrument of qualitative data collection in which a researcher engages a small
group of between 6-8, 7-9, 8-10 or 12-15 (no agreement on the exact number/size of the
group) of specially chosen discussants with the researcher (moderator) asking some openended questions (collecting data) in a free and planned situation and scene, while the
discussants answer same in a discursive manner; the discussants give their perceptions on the
research questions. It is conducted within a time limit of between 60 and 90 minutes long.
Thus, FGD entails having a discussion with a purposively selected group of individuals in
order to obtain the required research data through gathering the discussants’ views on the
phenomenon/research question/problems.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
- Focus Group discussion (FGD) enable generation of data on wide, vast and variety of
views, perceptions and comments from the discussants.
- FGD explores both experience and perspectives of the research questions/issues under
discussion.
- FGD goes stably together with qualitative research approach.
- FGD can be structure, semi-structured and unstructured.
- FGD are recorded on Audi-visual or audio setting.
- Notes are also taken to supplement/back up the audio recordings.
FGD provide an economically cheaper data collection method, but may not be effective
where there is little or no cooperation/harmony and passion for the study among the
discussants and or between the researcher and the discussants.
Interviews in Qualitative Research
Interview has to do with verbal communication and exchange where a researcher
(interviewer) gathers data (through asking some set of questions in order to have a clear
understanding of what is being studied/investigated in the research. The interviewees give
their experience, belief, perception and understanding of what is studied. Qualitative
interview is one of the ways by which researchers collect both large, substantive and robust
data about a study, expertise/knowledge, ideals/attitudes/favourites, etc. of an interviewee,
Such data are also flexibly managed and multi-purposely used during the study, apart from
the main data to be collected, and also contain certain and key information, including the
date, time, venue/place of the interview; and the name, gender, qualifications/professional
skills, special abilities and professional membership of interviewees.
As researcher intends or proposes to conduct interview during the process of data collection,
certain key issues have to be given consideration. These issues not only affect the credibility,
validity and reliability of the research/study, but also the confidence, strength and moral
justification with which the researcher conducts the research/study. These issues are
numerous.
However,
these
identified
are
key
as:
the
appropriate
persons/participants/interviewees to be interviewed and how to locate and reach them; the
appropriate type of interview to conduct; where (location/venue) and when (time) the
interview should be conducted; how many participants/interviewees/respondents are to be
interviewed; what and how should the questions be asked; duration and timing of the
interview; how best to handle ethical issues during the interview.
There can be multiple interviewers where and when there are more than one researcher
interviewing the respondents/interviewees on the same topic with the researchers having the
same or varying roles during the interview process. The interview can be joint interview
where and in which the researcher engages two interviewees/respondents on the same topic,
at the same time and enquires about an issue/problem/phenomenon with both interviewees
giving their responses based on their experience, perception and expertise, etc.
Conducting and Types of Interviews in Qualitative Research
Open-Ended Interviews (where no answers retractions are made for the respondents/free to
answering/with unlimited choices of answers).
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Structured Interview
Semi-Structured Interview
Unstructured Interview
Recording Qualitative Interview
- Telephone Interview
- Audio Recorded Interview
- E-mail Interview
- Face to face Interview (where the researcher physically meets the interviewer)
- Focus Group face to face interview (involving 8-10 persons to discuss/answer/a topic,
issue or problem under investigation)
- Online Focus Group Interview
- Written Interview
Data in Qualitative Interview are recorded and then transcribed to text material.
Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research
Validity and reliability in qualitative research are meant to ensure correctness/exactness of
the findings of the study (validity), and that the method/approach used in conducting the
research is consistent, dependable and regular in relation to other researches and researchers
(reliability).
Validity involves the honesty, genuineness and reliability of the findings in the research.
Validity can be checked and ensured through: Triangulation, Member Checking, Rich
&Thick descriptions, Clarification of Biasness, Presentation of Negative/Discrepant
Information/Materials, Spending prolonged Time on the Field during Data Collection, Peer
Debriefing, and using External Auditor.
Reliability can be checked and ensured through: checking and confirming that all
transcript
materials are correct and do not contain any errors/mistakes/omissions/commissions,
especially during the process of transcription; consistent definition of Codes; constant and
effective communication, especially in coding and with the Coders and the researcher; crosschecking and comparison of codes by and with other researchers with a view to ensuring
consistency and stability.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Figure 9: Qualitative Research Design
Case Study
Grounded
Theory
Narrative
Ethnography
Approaches to
Qualitative
Research
Heuristic
Inquiry
Action
Research
Evaluation
Approaches to Qualitative Research
Approaches to Qualitative Research include: Narrative, Phenomenological, Grounded
Theory, and Ethnography/Participant Observation.
Narrative – studies stories as narrated by persons; it studies individual’s lived
experiences, and as narrated by the person; written and or spoken explanation of
activity, event, occasion, or rather, inter-related/linked series of activities/events.
This approach is originally linked to other areas – Sociology, Literature, History, etc.
Phenomenological/Phenomenology – studies various individuals’ experiences, perception,
understanding, opinions over a given issue/problem/phenomenon in the context of
human experience. In this approach, data is collected from individuals who are
experienced in/have encountered the phenomenon/problem/issue.
Grounded Theory – studying with a view to develop a new theory of an interaction, process or
activity; focuses on developing a new and substantive theory; thus, the developed
theory, in addition to describing the action/process, can offer both a basis and an
outline for conducting subsequent/further studies; the theory is developed/generated
from the data/member participants who have practiced/experienced the
activity/process; in this, systematic processes are strictly followed using the
collected data to develop a theory.
Ethnography – Derived from two words – ‘Ethno-people’ and ‘Graphy - description of
something’ - studying, and then describing and interpreting both the learned and
shared arrangement of language, beliefs, behaviours and values of a group that shares
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
culture; it involve observations and recording and writing a detailed and descriptive
account of a culture/daily life events of a people.
Ethnography is fluid to define. This is because of the varying outlines and structures, and
processes it takes during conduct and also that it denotes both the conducted, analysed and
interpreted results of conducted study (the conducted study itself); and the actual research
process and its conduct. It is however, defined as the ‘the study of people’s behavior in
naturally occurring, ongoing settings, with a focus on the cultural interpretation of behavior’.
Ethnography is basically centred on the study of a group with its culture in the natural
environment. Hence, ethnography studies groups in their cultural and environmental setting,
and not individuals. In ethnography, therefore, researchers study the culture of a group in
their environment and as well try to understand such cultural values, beliefs are ‘created,
sustained and shared’.
Ethnography, (studying a group [large or small] in their environmental, cultural and normal
setting) is conducted over a long period of time and is time (long time is spent in observation
process), dedication and labour intensive. The results/reports of ethnographic
researches/studies are usually long, detailed and narrative, and both objective and subjective
in content. Apart from studying either small or large group, ethnographic researchers may
centre an ethnographic study on an ‘issue’ in the group - ‘focused’ ethnography.
Triangulation is importantly used in order to not only substantiate findings, but also do away
with both inconsistencies and other avoidable errors. There is considerable overlap of some
of the steps and activities in the research process, especially collection, analysis, and
interpretation of data. A multiple and varying data using different instruments such as
observation, interview, and cultural materials, etc., are used. It is also essential for the
researcher in ethnography to have strong interest and commitment in conducting the research
because of peculiar and general challenges that may be faced and without strong interest, the
research may be abandoned or its aims defeated.
Therefore, ethnography as a qualitative research design, is conducted to understand a
‘cultural phenomena’ with a view to have a meaning for and also gain knowledge on the life
and socio-cultural set up of the studied people or group as they live in their natural
environment. Ethnography is not only a flexible research, but also relative based on real
issues, set up and circumstances which may be met on the field of data collection. Similarly,
in ethnography, the researcher studies a group of people in their natural cultural set up and
usually spends a long period of time in the field collecting the primary data through
observation.
The most common ethnography – (Traditional Ethnography) is based and centred on the
location of a study and not the issues in it. Emphasis is laid on the location where the
population/group to be studied lives in its natural and cultural representation. Ethnographic
studies, because of techniques and stages involved, may however, take long period of time for
collection of data from the field.
Case Study - studying a definite system/setting over a time using both in depth and
detailed data collection through the use of interviews, documents, observation, etc.
Case study is categorized into three: Collective/multiple – in which more than a single
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
case is chosen and studied in order to improve the understanding of a particular
issue/problem; instrumental – conducted to provide information, enlightenment or
reveal on an issue/problem; intrinsic – where researcher focuses on one issue, problem
that is regular and widespread to others related to it. Case study which is more of
qualitative research method, involves collection of both large, robust and valid data
from numerous viewpoints or rather, enables a researcher to collect varying data using
the method.
Figure 10: Data collection Techniques for Case Study
Focus Group
Meeting
Participant
Observation
Documentary
Records
Data Collection
Techniques for
Case Study
Journal
Diary
Narrative
Log
Direct
Observation
In-depth
Interviews
While collecting data for Case Study research, there are several techniques by data can be
collected. These include: Narrative/log/diary/journal, Focus Group Meetings, Documentary
records, In-depth interviews, Direct Observation, and Participant Observation.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Figure11: Characteristic/Features of Case Study
Small N
Contextual
Detail
Boundedness
Characteristics
of Case Study
Natural
Setting
Multiple Data
Sources
Working
Hypothesis/
Thesis &
Lessons
Learned
Extendability
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Figure 12: Categories/Designs of Case Study
Single Design
Case Study
Categories/Designs
Multiple Design
Researchers have differently typified/categorised case study based on certain uses,
techniques, features and purposes. Below are some:
Figure 13: Types of Case Study by Purposes of Conducting them.
Descriptive
Case Study
Explanatory/
Longitudinal
Exploratory
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Instrumental Case
Study
Collective/Multiple
Case Study
Intrinsic Case Study
Case Study
Descriptive
Explanatory
Experimental
Case Study
Exploratory
Illustrative
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Other Issues in Qualitative Research
- Ethical issues are given priority; knowledge, consciousness and respect for custom,
social norms, culture and traditions, confidentiality, honesty, competence/expertise,
results use/misuse, intervention & advocacy, reciprocation, damages, informed
consent, worthiness of the study, risks, cost-benefit balance, etc.
- It is a flexible research with some unfixed and dynamic procedures;
- More (adequate) time is required and spent by the researcher observing interview
protocols, collecting data.
- The researcher collects numerous data, takes and writes extensive notes.
- It is more time consuming and labour intensive with rigorous processes.
- Data collection and analysis, and report writing are all rigorous and the researcher
finally uses an appropriately chosen procedure for the validation of the
collected data;
- The researcher deals with large volume of data; and is required to reduce the
large data to few, relevant and categorized to suit the research design;
- It comprises of detailed methods of collection, analysis of data and writing the report.
- As researcher goes to and works on the field, qualitative research process involves
other issues of ‘dilemma, conflict and trade-offs’ between the researcher, the
informants/society, the environment and the purpose and standards of
conducting the research. This is especially where the researcher is caught in
situations that need assistance, unique compassion, the informants are
harmed/in harm, etc.
Common Elements of Qualitative Research Approaches
In all the identified approaches to Qualitative Research (Case Study, Ethnography, Grounded
Theory, Phenomenological and Narrative), they are bound and characterized by some
common elements of procedure. All have uniformed and sequential process/steps of:
developing research problem/questions, data collection, data analysis, and finally reporting
the research. The means of data collection are also similar - documents, audio/video
materials, interviews, survey, observation.
Quantitative Research Method
- Deals with figures, rather than words
- Has close-ended questions - Hypothesis and or Questionnaire
- Studies relations between or among variables
For the quantitative research method, the data collected is numeric (in figures), usually with a
questionnaire and ‘closed response’ questions and then analyse the numeric data with the aid
of statistical tools and methods, techniques and procedures.
Some of the weaknesses and or criticisms against the quantitative research method include
that: ‘quantitative researchers use the basic postulation/assumption that ‘theory’ embodies the
veracity of a problem as it comes up within a certain situation; it examines ‘reality’ that is
disconnected from the one in which ‘real’ people live; it meticulously adheres to a firm
methodical approach that does not make any provision y for unexpected trends and emerging
issues/developments in the field; it works with a conceptual model that is methodically and
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
technically sound, but does not provide information or details on the definite phenomenon
under study; it gives too much attention to the technical details of the research and to
measuring techniques and procedures; it shows undue respect to numbers/figures/statistics
which are not only intentionally generated, but also perceived as facts; it has only apparent –
or instrumental – neutrality; it always implies to interpret the generated data before they
become meaningful again - figures do not speak for themselves; results from such studies are
translated by the organization involved/sponsoring such research in order to make them
relevant and or appropriate and valid’.
Mixed Method Research
Mixed Method research is a combination of the elements Qualitative and Quantitative
processes and data in research; it is where and when a researcher uses/combines both the
quantitative and qualitative research methods in conducting a single investigation/research.
Qualitative and Quantitative data are mixed/blended in Mixed Method research. It is a
compromise between the qualitative and quantitative research methods; it collects and
analyses both qualitative and quantitative data, and mixes the two for the purpose of
answering research questions. Mixed method harnesses the strengths of qualitative and
quantitative studies and minimizes the weaknesses of both and that, underlies the
‘fundamental principles of mixed method’ research. It involves the deduction, induction and
abduction as in mixed method research, both inductive and deductive thoughts are combined
in order to answer research questions and achieve the results of the research/investigation.
The procedure for conducting mixed method research involves collection, analysis, and
integration/blending of quantitative and qualitative data into one complete study which
altogether give a detailed and comprehensive study.
Critical Issues in Mixed Method Research include:
- Collection of both qualitative and quantitative data.
- Merging, linking and implanting both the Qualitative and Quantitative data.
- Conducting analysis in both Qualitative and Quantitative modes.
- Adequacy of data and full adherence with the processes and steps in conducting the
research and analysis.
- Equality and or Inequality of the Qualitative and Quantitative Data.
- Whether that two data are to be collected in concurrence or in sequence.
Thus Mixed Method is where the two other methods (qualitative and quantitative) are mixed
within and across the stages of conducting a research and or where a segments/elements of
both qualitative and quantitative are generally used in a research.
Types of Mixed Method
There are different types of mixed method research as: Exploratory Sequential, Explanatory
Sequential, Convergent Parallel, and Transformative (Embedded & Multiphase Designs)
Mixed Method. Each of these is useful and more appropriate to a specific study.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Figure 13: Types of Mixed Method Research
Exploratory
Sequential
Mixed
Method
Research
Explanatory
Sequential
Tranformative
Convergent
Parallel
For others, there are four main and frequently used mixed method research designs as
explanatory, exploratory, triangulation, and embedded Designs.
Figure 14: Mixed Method Research Designs
Exploratory
Triangulation
Mixed Method
Research
Designs
Explanatory
Embedded
In mixed method research, each of its four main designs focuses on the fundamental
objectives of its conduct are: use qualitative data (text/words) to provide details of the
quantitative results (exploratory design); improve a research work with additional
quantitative and or qualitative data (embedded design); to develop a new theory or testable
measurement with the use of qualitative data (exploratory design); and making an assessment
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
or comparison of the qualitative and quantitative data in order to arrive at a convincing, valid
and appropriate conclusions of a research (triangulation design).
Mixed method is a corollary and pragmatic to both the qualitative and quantitative research
methods of conducting research. A combined (qualitative and quantitative) approach to a
study/investigation; a key issue mixed method, however, is where and when and at what
level/stage should the mix come up?
One basic element of mixed method is combining qualitative and quantitative
designs/inductive and deductive thoughts – more than a single method for optimum and good
data collection and analysis and thus relies on ‘triangulation’ means to ensure ‘confidence’ or
convergence in the collected data/results; this triangulation can be through several means as:
- The use of several methods for data collection & analysis – Method Triangulation.
- Collection of data from different sources and at different times – Data Triangulation.
- Use of more than/several theories in interpretation and analysis of the data – Theory
Triangulation.
- More than one/several researchers involved in collection and analysis of the data –
Researcher Triangulation.
The major steps involved in conducting a mixed method research involves majorly, but
subject to redesign include among others:
- Deciding and framing the research question for the study.
- Deciding which appropriate mixed design is to be used.
- Choosing the mixed method or mixed-model research design to use.
- Collecting the relevant data for the study.
- Analysing the collected in line with the mixed study.
- Interpretation of the data.
- Validating the data.
- Drawing of conclusions/writing a report.
It is however, worthy of note that mixed-method research has, among others, challenges of:
- More time and energy consumption.
- More resource intensive;
- Requires more cooperation, cohesion and coordination among many individuals
involved in a particular research.
In Mixed Method research, analysis of collected data involves several stages as:
- Data Reduction – reducing the volume of the qualitative and quantitatively collected
data into statistical figures, thematic, factor or cluster analysis, etc.
- Data display – the use charts, graphs, matrices, diagrams, tables, etc. to show the data.
- Data transformation – convert the data to texts or statistical/numerical codes.
- Data correlation – connecting/relating the qualitative and quantitative data;
- Data consolidation – Combining the qualitative and quantitative data for the purpose
of having new or amalgamating the data.
- Data Comparison – Comparing the qualitative and quantitative data to ensure
credibility and validity of the data and the sources.
- Data Integration – the qualitative and quantitative data are joined and fit into
each other to give comprehensive and complete study/result.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Mixed method research has to do with the processes and activities, and particularly including
the elements of both the qualitative and the quantitative studies combined together in one and
same research/study. Data for such study (both qualitative and quantitative) can be gathered
by the researcher whether at the same time (simultaneously/concurrently) or in sequence with
one after the other (sequentially), both of which (qualitative and quantitative data) are
thereafter integrated at certain stages of the research.
DATA
There are two types of data in research – the Primary and Secondary Data.
Figure 15: Types of Data
Primary
DATA
Secondary
Primary Data
Primary Data – is the one collected from the first hand/the first time from the source and is
fresh and original. There are several, but the major methods/sources of collecting
Primary Data include: Schedules, Questionnaire, Interviews, and Observation. There
are also other methods of primary data collection as: Depth Interviews, Content
Analysis, Projective/Indirect Interviewing, Pantry Audits, Mechanical devices,
Store/Distributors Audit, Warranty Cards, and Consumer Panels.
Secondary Data
Secondary Data – is data that has been collected by some other(s) analysed, is available and
transmitted to other(s) most often with the numerical/statistical processes;
There are also numerous methods/sources of Secondary Data (both published and
unpublished) in research as: Newspapers, Books, Magazines, Public Documents,
publications/records of local and International Governmental and Non-governmental
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Organisations/Institutions, historical facts and figures, Reports from Banks/Business
organisations, Journals and other Academic Publications; and other unpublished sources such
as: diaries, biographies, autobiographies, and letters.
Selection of Appropriate Method of Data Collection
Selection of an appropriate method/source of data collection depends on several and critical
factors as:
- Availability/Access to financial resources/sponsorship
- Availability of/time constraint in relation to the conduct and completion of the
research – some methods of data collection take longer period of time than
others; PhD and MSc candidates may be required to complete the research
within specified period of time.
- Appropriateness of the data collection method to the scope and the type of
research/problem of enquiry to be undertaken.
- Accuracy of the data collection method in relation to the type of research to be
undertaken/problem to be enquired.
Data Collection Process in Qualitative Research
In qualitative research, although different approaches can be/are used, there is a
general/common process for all the approaches in the process of the collection of data as:
- Situating/identifying the appropriate place from where to collect the data.
- Having access to and establishing familiarity with the places and peoples (who are
competent and willing) on the data collection field.
- Purposeful sampling, i.e. deliberate selecting the appropriate places/sites, social
process and the respondents/informants/interviewees, including the‘marginal,
great and ordinary’ persons.
- Collecting the data using an appropriately chosen approach – audio-visual materials,
interview, document, and observation.
- Recording the information.
- Considering and reflecting on issues (time, volume and richness of collected data,
access, ethics, etc.), which affect the study on the field of the data collection.
- Storing the collected data – which involves many crucial issues and activities –
comprehensive listing of types and categories of collected data,
confidentiality/anonymity of respondents/informants/interviewees in the data,
use of qualitative audio-visual materials, safe keeping of back-up soft/hard
copies of the collected data.
Tips on Conducting Interview
For a research interview to be successfully conducted, these tips are essential for the
researcher to work with:
- Researcher/interviewer must be conversant with the research problem and the
objectives of the study.
- Researcher/interviewer must be both social/friendly and warm in approach; courteous
and respecting of traditions & customs; avoid socio-cultural taboos.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
- Questions must be logical, coherent and organized.
- Researcher/Interviewer must be conversant, conscious and respectful of the customs
and traditions of the interviewee/respondent/informant.
- Researcher/Interviewer must be conscious of various and respective ways of
addressing interviewees, e.g., Mai Martaba, Mai Alfarma, Uwar Gida, Babban
Yaya, Your Majesty/Highness, Professor, Your Excellency, Honourable, Most
Reverend, Sheik, Allah shi gafarta Malam, Mrs., Ms, etc.
- Researcher/Interviewer must be conscious of commitments and suitable/convenient
time (weekend, weekdays, festive periods, morning, evening, etc.) of the
interviewee; convenient venue for the interview (farm house, office, hotel room,
etc.); suitable/convenient method of interview (face to face, telephone, email, focus group, etc.).
- Researcher/Interviewer must be sharp, attentive and active listener/viewer to
responses; positive in understanding; gentle in asking questions; sharp &
smart in taking notes, recording video, audio, audio visuals.
- Research ethics must be consciously, cautiously, and carefully observed at all times
and stages of conducting the research. Ethics in research have to do with the
‘moral principles’ which are to be strictly followed and ensured so as to conduct
researches in such ways that ensure using the appropriate research methods and
more particularly, being both responsible and morally upright, through being
guided and observing some set moral principles of both the researchers
‘behaviour and relationship’ in the entire conduct of research. Although ethics
are immersed and evident in research, they are universal, but relative. Generally
and universally, however, issues to do with ethics/ethical values in research are
many and versed, but can all be summed to the areas of respect for privacy and
confidentiality, no deception (not to deceive anyone whatsoever, and especially
the participants by words, writings and or actions in the process of conducting
the research), informed consent (prior consent and permission), and avoidance of
anything to harm participants (safety and protection of lives, property, integrity,
etc.).
Data Analysis in Qualitative Research
Analysing data in qualitative research involves three general steps of:
- Preparation and organization of the data by transcription/text material, or by
representation in images/photographs or other artifact forms.
- Reduction of the transcribed/imagery/photographed data into themes and sub-themes
with the use of codes.
- Representation of the coded data/themes/codes in forms of discussions, tables and or
figures.
Alternatively, qualitative analysis has 4 major parts of: the data collection itself, condensation
of the collected data, displaying the data, verifying the data and a drawing conclusion.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Elaborately, the steps/process involve: management of the collected data, reading and
commenting on so as to master the data, describing/categorizing/interpreting the data, and
expressing the data in tabular, figure, imagery or discussion form.
Accuracy and Validation of Findings in Qualitative Research
It is required that after successful completion of a research, the researcher finds a means to
ensure that the main findings of the study are both reliable and accurate for consumption by
the audience of that particular research. As such, there are means to ensure both reliability
and accuracy of the collected, analysed and interpreted data. These include:
Figure 16: Data Accuracy and Reliability
Auditing
Accuracy &
Reliability
of Data
Triangulation
MemberChecking
Auditing – the researcher engages the services of some individuals who are not part of/not
involved in the conduct of the research to examine/review the key aspects of the
research with a view to ensuring that the main findings of the study are truly found in
the data originally collected by the researcher, the method used is appropriate, the
study has been properly contextualized, appropriateness of the themes/sub-themes, etc.
as may have been used in the study;
Member – Checking- the researcher engages some of the participants in the research to
check, very and ascertain the cohesion and accuracy of the collected data, notes and
explanations provided in the study;
Triangulation – The various notes, evidences and other relevant materials collected/gathered
from the different and respective respondents/interviewees/participants, the type and
method of collected data are all substantiated and confirmed by the researcher to
ensure the accuracy and reliability of the main findings of the research. It exposes
‘corresponding, concurrence and disagreement in major findings of a research;
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
triangulation can be done using both qualitative and quantitative methods to ensure
validity and accuracy of research findings. Therefore, with triangulation, research
methods, data, etc. are checked to ensure and improve the reliability of results of such
studies/research. Triangulation is applicable and applied to all the research designs, and
especially in case study.
Triangulation can take several forms/types which include:
- Data (data sources triangulation) Triangulation of: The actual time when the data was
collected (Time); the persons who the data (Persons); and the space within which the
data was collected (Space).
The others types of triangulation also include:
- Theoretical
Triangulation
–
use
of
multiple
theories
in
same
research/study/investigation to ensure accuracy and validity of findings.
- Methodological Triangulation – use of more than one method in a study to ensure
validity and accuracy of major findings.
- Investigator
Triangulation
–
the
use/engaging
more
than
two
researchers/investigators at any stage of conducting a research to ensure validity
and accuracy of the research findings.
- Analysis (Data Analysis) Triangulation – the use of more than two methods of data
analysis in analysing the same data with the aim of ensuring both validity and
accuracy of the findings of the research.
Figure 17: Types of Triangulation
Data Sources
Theoretical
TRIANGULATION
Methodological
Analysis
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Data
Investigator
Triangulation
Theory
Methodological
ETHICS AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH
Ethics in research involve the issues of comprehensive safety, protection and preservation of
lives, properties, environment, education and scholarship, cultures, privacy, values, integrity
and dignity of the subjects/participants of a research. It also involves doing things in the right
way without infringing on the rights, culture, values and norms of subjects or the
scholarship/knowledge, purpose, aims and objectives of the research. Ethics have to do with
goodness, honour, respect, honesty, benefits in conduct of research. Although ethics is
viewed relatively, especially by philosophers, and vary from society to culture, social set-up
and environment, there are those ones that are very common, clear, precise and also
commonly known valued ethics in research, despite the relativities/variations.
Therefore, it is important to note that ethics are an integral and indispensable part of every
academic research. They also may vary from one society, culture, socio-geographic set to
another, but there are common ones that apply to all and are also embedded in academic
research. The success or failure of an academic research is greatly influenced by the
researcher’s ability to exhibit and maintain good ethics throughout the conduct of a
research/study. In academic research, ethical issues involve many elements which must be
complied with by every researcher and at every point in time of conducting a research/study.
These generally include:
- Honesty in the entire research process and to the participants.
- Safety of the subjects/participants.
- Observing and guaranteeing the rights of all those involved in the research.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
- Human Dignity - Respect for the humankinds involved in the research.
- Seeking non-compulsory – voluntary, full and informed consent of the
subjects/participants of the research at every point or level of conducting the
research (prior to and during).
- The results of whatever research must be meant and used for the benefit of
humankinds at either micro or macro level.
- The gains of conducting each and every research must be far greater than the
danger/risks involved in conducting the research.
- There must be full, adequate and timely preparation and protection of the
participants from any harm/danger which may result from the conduct of the
research.
- No disability, injury, loss of life, property, etc. must occur in the process of
conducting research. Where such occur, the researcher must immediately
discontinue the research/study.
- Research/study/investigation must only be carried out by professionals/qualified
persons.
- Researcher should as much as possible be conscious of specific cultural norms,
religious values, beliefs and cultural taboos of the subjects.
- Participants in the research must be allowed to freely opt out/withdraw from the
research without any hesitation by the researcher and at any point in time.
- Confidentiality of the participants/subjects (except where the participants who want to
be identified), must be observed and maintained at all stages.
- Nothing whatsoever must be allowed to happen to the participants which may
result in stigma, embarrassment, disgrace, disrespect, discomfort,
resentment, despise, provocation, aggression.
- Data collected must be genuine, original and not doctored in any way to
influence/undermine the result/analysis and or interpretations.
- Any conflict of interest must be fully and clearly reported/declared at the
appropriate time and instances.
- Researcher must demonstrate high sense of responsibility, restraint, caution, and
respect for others values, especially the participants.
- Participants must never be cheated, swindled and or short-changed.
- All sources of data, information, quotes, etc. are fully acknowledged.
- In case of receipt of research grants, financiers, sponsors, supporters and other
partners involved in the research must all be appropriately declared.
- The process, data, results, interpretation and analysis, etc. of the research must be
made open for debate, criticism, review and or improvement by other
researchers or those interested.
- The entire process of conducting a research must be coherent, cohesive,
purposeful, gap filling, substantive and robust, responsible and responsive; and
be consistent with local, state, nation and cross-border laws and conventions,
treaties and agreements; and conscious of socio- societal trends, problems and
imperatives for socio-physical, economic, political and other spheres of human
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
development with the overall aim of bringing relief, development, advancement
to the immediate society or humankind at large.
- The real intentions/objectives of the research must be made known and never
hidden at any stage of conducting it.
In essence, ethics in research encompasses the protection and preservation of medical and
health, physical and psychological, academic and intellectual, social and environmental,
political and economic, religious and cultural, ethnic and gender, honesty and modesty,
population and biological, historical and archival, artistic and artifact life and materials of
participants/respondents/subjects of a research viz-a-viz their participation in the conduct of
any research. Where and whenever any of these appears to be threatened, damaged or
undermined in the conduct of any research, the researcher must immediately discontinue the
conduct of such research. In other words, ethical issues in research have to do with the full
observance and respect for privacy and maintaining confidentiality, no deception, ensuring
full and informed consent, working with trust and honesty, and non-betrayal by the researcher
in respect of both the participants and the entire research process. Those, therefore, include
among others, the protection of privacy, confidentiality of participants identities, names, the
roles they play. Issues of ethics in research are non-compromising and an integral part of the
success and credibility of any research; and as well, honesty and objectivity in collection,
analysis and interpretation of data without adulteration, misrepresentation, under reporting,
cooking/concoction of data/information. In researches for the purpose of award of
Certificates – PhD, MSc, etc., and even industrial researches, ethics are given top priority and
they determine the extent of academic, social, moral and psychological successful conduct of
a research.
WRITING AND PUBLICATION OF AN ARTICLE
An article is a research paper duly written and undergone review/peer review/assessment for
publication. A paper has to undergo a process before its publication to an article by a journal
publisher. There are tens of thousands of journals – Peer Reviewed, Scopus indexed/Q1, Q2,
Q3, etc. Some journals are ‘discipline specific’ while others are ‘multidisciplinary’.
Articles are shorter than other researched works such as Thesis, Dissertations, etc. and they
are, but (not all the times) conducted/written within a shorter period and are also usually
shorter in length.
Different journals require and have different specifications and formats before publication of
a paper. These varying requirements include among others: length of the paper (words count
and number of papers), single or double column, font size and character, referencing and intext citation styles, types and structure of Abstract, contents and organization of the main
paper, etc.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Contents/Structure of a Research Paper/Article for Publication in a Journal
Contents/structure of a paper/article for journal publication vary from one discipline and or
journal to another. There are, however, some key elements/contents which are common and
standard. These include:
- Title of the Paper
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Review of Related Literature
- Methodology/Materials and Methods
- Results
- Discussion
- Conclusion
- Acknowledgements
- References/Bibliography
- Appendices
These structure/content may, however, vary. Researchers need to be fully aware of journalspecific formatting and publication guides, otherwise papers submitted are likely to suffer
desk-rejection although they may have substance and positive contributions to make.
Tips on Writing a Research Paper/Article for Publication in a Journal
In order to avoid desk-rejection, multiple and or major corrections, a researcher needs to,
before submission, ensure that these tips are taken into full consideration as:
- Confirm whether the Journal charges, Review and or publication fees, Open Access,
etc.
- Read and understand the submission guidelines of the particular journal;
- Use the guideline specified font character and size;
- Confirm the exact and maximum number of pages and word counts specified by the
journal.
- Ensure strict compliance with research ethics.
- Your writing should be clear, precise and concise.
- Note specifications on paper margins, and whether single, two or more double
columns.
- Make appropriate usage of active and passive words.
- Make appropriate usage of both academic and professional terms.
- Revise and edit your work properly.
- Properly paste the paper into the template (where such is provided).
- Proof-read your work before submission.
- Make consultation before submission.
For reading and or assessment of a research work or an article, there are key areas on which
readers, reviewers or assessor focus on in order to find substance. These areas include
introduction, discussion, and the conclusion parts. Then in those, other sub-parts such as the
main purpose of the research, how it is to be conducted, the results, strengths/weakness of the
research, and recommendations on future/further related researches are also given emphasis.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
References
Agar, M. H. (1980). The professional stranger: An informal introduction to ethnography. San
Diego, CA. Academic Press.
Annan, D. (2019). A simple guide to research writing. Stevejobs.education: Florida.
Asher, H. B. (1984). Theory-Building and Data Analysis in the Social Sciences. Knoxville,
TN: University of Tennessee Press.
Babbie, E. (2004). The practice of social research (10th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth/Thompson.
Banik, B., J. (1993). Applying triangulation in nursing research. Applied Nursing Research,
6(1), 47-52.
Begley, C. M. (1996). Using triangulation in nursing research. Journal of Advanced Nursing,
24(1), 122-128.
Bergen, A., & While, A. (2000). A case for case studies: exploring the use of case study
design in community nursing research. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 31(4), 926-934.
doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.2000.01356.x
Blumberg, B., Cooper, D. R. & Schindler, P. S. (2005) Business Research Methods.
Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Education.
Breslin, M., & Buchanan, R. (2008). On the Case Study Method of Research and Teaching in
Design. Design Issues, 24(1), 36-40.
Brown, J. D. (1988). Understanding research in second language learning: A teacher’s guide
to statistics and research design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Carr, W., & Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming critical: Knowing through action research.
London: Falmer Press.
Castle, J. & Keane, M. (2016). Five writing development strategies to help academics
flourish as writers. South African Journal of Higher Education, 30(6), 73‒93.
http://dx.doi.org/10.20853/30-6-721
Cohen, L. & Manion, L. (2011) Research Methods in Education. London: Routledge. (7th
edition).
Cresswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods
approaches. (2nd Edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing among Five
Approaches. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative approaches to research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Merrill/Pearson Education.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Mapping the field of mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed
Methods Research, 3(2). 95-108.
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research. (4th Ed.). Boston: Pearson Educational Books.
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods
research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Cronin, C. (2014). Using case study research as a rigorous form of inquiry. Nurse
Researcher, 21(5): 19-27.
Crowe, S., Cresswell, K., Robertson, A., Huby, G., Avery, A., & Sheikh, A. (2011). The case
study
approach.
BMC
Medical
Research
Methodology,
11(1),
100-108.
https://doi:10.1186/1471-2288- 11-100
Czarniawsky, B. (2004). Narratives in Social Science Research. London: Sage.
David J. Ketchen, Jr. and Donald D. Bergh. (2006). Research Methodology in Strategy and
Management. Oxford, UK: Elsevier
Denzin, N. K. (1978). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). Introduction: The discipline and practice of
qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of
qualitative research (3rd ed.) (pp. 1–42). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research: Sage
Production, Inc. USA.
Dey, I. (1993). Qualitative data analysis. A user-friendly guide for social scientists. London:
Routledge.
Dey, L. (1993). Qualitative data analysis: A user-friendly guide for social scientists. London:
Routledge.
Dickson-Swift, V., E. L. James, S. Kippen, L. Talbot, G. Verrinder & B. Ward. 2009. A nonresidential alternative to off-campus writers’ retreats for academics. Journal of Further and
Higher Education 33(3): 229‒239.
Economic and Social Research
Framework.Swindon: ESRC.
Council
(ESRC)
(2004)
Research
Ethics
Erzerberger, C., & Prein, G. (1997). Triangulation: Validity and empirically based hypothesis
construction. Quality and Quantity, 31, 141-154.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Gay, L. R., & Airasian, P. (2000). Educational Research: Competencies for analysis and
application (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill, Prentice Hall.
Gray, D. E. (2014). Doing research in the real world. London. SAGE Publications.
Greene, J. C., Caracelli, V. J., & Graham, W. F. (1989). Toward a conceptual framework for
mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 11(3), 255–
274.
Griffee, D. T. (2012). An Introduction to Second Language Research Methods: Design and
Data. Berkeley, CA: TESL-EJ Publications.
Heigham, J. & Croker, R. A. (Eds.). (2009). Qualitative Research in Applied Linguistics A
Practical Introduction. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
Heigham, J. & Croker, R. A. (Eds.). (2009). Qualitative Research in Applied Linguistics A
Practical Introduction. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
Heppner, P. P., Kivlighan, D. M. Jr., & Wampold, B. E. (1999). Research design in
counseling (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Homan, R. (1991). The Ethics of Social Research. Harlow: Longman.
Hussein, A. (2009). The use of Triangulation in Social Sciences Research: Can qualitative
and quantitative methods be combined? Journal of Comparative Social Work 1, 1-12.
Jacobs, R. L. (2011). Developing a Research Problem and Purpose Statement. In The
Handbook of Scholarly Writing and Publishing, T. S. Rocco and T. Hatcher (eds.),
SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 125–141.
Johnson, R. B. & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm
whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14–26
Johnson, R. B., & Turner, L. A. (2003). Data collection strategies in mixed methods research.
In A.Tashakkori, and C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral
research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (pp. 297–319).
Jonker, J. & Pennink, B. (2010).The Essence of Research Methodology: A Concise Guide for
Master and PhD Students in Management Science. London: Springer.
Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (1986). The action research planner. Geelong, Victoria:
Deakin University Press.
Kerlinger, F.N. & Lee, H.B. (2000). Foundations of Behavioural Research. Fort Worth, TX:
Harcourt College Publishers. (4th edition.)
Kim. K. (2015). An attempt on the methodological composure: Between number and
understanding, the nature and construction. The Legal Research Institute, College of Law,
Chosun University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea,
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Kim. K. (2015). An attempt on the methodological composure: Between number and
understanding, the nature and construction. Gwangju, Republic of Korea: The Legal
Research Institute, College of Law, Chosun University.
Kimchi, J., Polivka, B., & Stevenson, J. S. (1991). Triangulation: Operational definitions.
Nursing Research, 40(6), 364-366.
Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Technics. (2 nd Revised Edition).
New Delhi: New Age International Publishers.
Madison, D. S. (2005). Critical Ethnography: Methods, Ethics and Performance.
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Thousand
Marshall, C. & Rossman, G. B. (2006). Designing Qualitative Research (4 th ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA. Sage.
Mertens, W., Pugliese, A. & Recker, J. (2017). Quantitative Data Analysis: A Companion for
Accounting and Information Systems Research. Switzerland: Springer International
Publishing.
Miles, D.A. (2017). A Taxonomy of Research Gaps: Identifying and Defining the Seven
Research Gaps. Doctoral Student Workshop: Finding Research Gaps – Research Methods
and Strategies, Dallas, Texas.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded
sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldanã, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: a methods
sourcebook. Los Angeles: SAGE.
Mohammed, I. S. & Ahmed, M. (2018). Problems of academic literature review and writing:
the way forward. Sahel Analyst: Journal of Management Sciences, 16(5), 11-26.
Morgan, D. L. (1998). Practical strategies for combining qualitative and quantitative
methods: Applications to health research. Qualitative Health Research, 3, 362–376.
Morgan, D. L. (1998). Practical strategies for combining qualitative and quantitative
methods: Applications to health research. Qualitative Health Research, 3, 362–376.
Morse, J. M. (1991). Approaches to qualitative-quantitative methodological triangulation.
Nursing Research, 40, 120–123.
Müller-Bloch, C. & Kranz, J., (2014). A Framework for Rigorously Identifying Research
Gaps: Systematic Reviews, Journal of Epidemiology, 64(1), 1325-1330.
Neuman, W. L. (2000). Social research methods (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J. & Teddlie, C. (2003). A framework for analyzing data in mixed methods
research. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and
behavioral research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (pp. 351–383).
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park,
CA: Sage.
Plano Clark, V. L., & Creswell, J. W. (2010). Understanding research: A consumer’s guide.
Boston, MA: Merrill.
Publications.
Quarterly, 22(4), 575–592.
Robinson, K., Saldanha, I. & McKoy, N.A. (2011). Development of A Framework for to
Identify Research Gaps Systematic Reviews, Journal of Epidemiology, 64(1), 1325-1330.
Rowley, J. (2012). Conducting research interviews’. Management Research Review, 35, 260–
271.
Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) Research Methods for Business
Students. London: Prentice Hall. (6th edition).
Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2003) Research Methods for Business Students.
Harlow: Pearson Education.
Sekaran, U. & Bougie, R. (2016). Research Methods for Business: A Skill Building
Approach. John Wiley & Sons: West Sussex, United Kingdom.
Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The
Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.) (pp. 443–466). Thousand Oaks,
Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures
and Techniques (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA. Sage.
Summers, J. (2011). Guidelines for Conducting Research and Publishing in Marketing: From
Conceptualization Through the Review Process, Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science, 29(4), 405-415.
Sutton, R. I. & Barry, M. S. (1995). What Theory is Not. Administrative Science Quarterly
40, 371-384.
Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (1998). Mixed methodology: Combining qualitative and
quantitative approaches. Applied Social Research Methods Series (Vol. 46). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (1998). Mixed methodology: Combining qualitative and
quantitative approaches. Applied social research methods series, 46. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
Thurmond, A. V. (2001). The point of triangulation. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 33(3),
253-258.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
Tuckman, B. W. (1999). Conducting educational research (5th ed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt
Brace.
VanWynsberghe, R., & Khan, S. (2007). Re-defining Case Study. International Journal of
Qualitative Methods, 6(2), 1-10.
Watson-Gegeo, K. A. (1988). Ethnography in ESL: Defining the essentials. TESOL.
Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publication.
Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods. California: Sage. (4th Edition).
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
View publication stats