AGRONOMY
Seventh Edition
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
1
Copyright © 2020 by Agri Coaching Chandigarh
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other
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requests, write us at info@agricoaching.in or contact us at below address:
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Sco-7, Kharar Landran road, Kharar (Mohali)
Contact Number: 98288-22277, 95-200-90-200
www.agricoaching.in
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Message from Director’s Desk
This gives me immense happiness to announce that with wholehearted co-operation of
teaching and support of our students, we are about to complete our fourth year under
the banner of Agri Coaching Chandigarh.
Hello Champ, I am your coach D.K. Wadhwa. I am writing this message not with my
knowledge but with my experience of 8 years in the teaching field where I have dealt
with a number and different types of students. I have observed one common thing
among all those who got selected, they have a Positive Attitude and Hard-Working
nature. If you can maintain a daily 4-6 hours for your studies and that too with a
positive attitude, you will be a winner within one year which is full of struggle.
Now the third factor apart from positive attitude and hard work will be your Strategy,
with a good strategy you can get your goal very easily. It was said by Michael Porter:
“Strategy is about setting yourself apart from the competition. It is not a matter of
being better at what you do – it is a matter of being different at what you do”.
Usually, students do not know how to start and what to study. So, before you start
preparing for any competitive exam, just make sure that what will be the strategy for it
and then start with a positive attitude.
At Agri Coaching Chandigarh we strive to provide you the best. We have set a
benchmark of 317 final selections in IBPS-AFO. We have no competitor throughout
India in terms of highest selections. We provide high quality content with the best
teaching methods that help a student to achieve his/her goal.
Proud to be a unique era of this quality guidance, proud to be a reason to smile on
certain lips, proud to be your family member and your teacher.
We at Agri Coaching Chandigarh will always be at your side to push you towards
Success!
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Preface
We have a great pleasure while publishing our seventh edition of books. These books are
very precise and has a lot of data as per the need of your exam. We have added Basic
Principles, all crops, Soil, previous year questions, Allied subjects and students’ doubts
and much more. These books are dedicated to all our passionate students who are the part
of our family and struggling for their success. After reading these books you will be able
to analyse that we have covered all Agriculture related content in limited number of pages.
We have tried to give you all important data in summarized and well manner. I being a
privileged citizen of this great nation, have certain individual responsibilities to make it a
better nation with better education for the students of agriculture. Please feel free to write
us at Info@agricoaching.in for any kind of improvement or suggestion.
While writing these books we have used all authentic source, however if any kind of loss
or damage happened due to use of this content author will not be responsible for the same.
Director
D.K. Wadhwa
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Index
S.No.
Topic
Page No.
1
Important terms of Agriculture
7
2
Terms related to dryland Agriculture
20
3
About ICAR and other organizations
21
4
Revolutions in Agriculture
31
5
International years related to Agriculture
32
6
Important days in Agriculture
32
7
Instruments used in Agriculture
35
8
Basics of Agronomy
38
9
Nomenclature of crops
40
10
Plant family and their other name
44
11
Crop with special name
44
12
Crop classification
46
13
Cropping pattern, cropping system and cropping
scheme
53
14
Types of farming
62
15
Organic / eco-friendly farming
65
16
Sowing methods
66
17
Irrigation & it’s methods
62
18
Drainage
84
19
Agro-climatic zones
89
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6
20
Agrometeorology
91
21
Atmosphere
94
22
Monsoon
102
23
Climatology
103
24
Dryland agriculture
106
25
Watershed management
110
26
Important summarized data
112
27
Important facts
129
28
Doubts asked by students
132
29
Field crops
136
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
IMPORTANT TERMS OF AGRICULTURE
❖ Absorption Losses: Loss of water from a canal or a reservoir by capillary action and
percolation and in case of canal during the process of delivery.
❖ Abscission: Detachment of fruit, leaf or other parts from a plant is called abscission.
❖ Acid soil: A soil which is deficient in available bases, particularly Ca and which give an acid
reaction when tested by a standard method.
❖ Acre foot water: The amount of water that would cover an area of land to a depth of one foot
assuming no seepage evaporation and run off.
❖ Acre inch day: Term used principally in irrigated section of united states for measuring
quantity of flow of water. It is equal to a flow which will cover one acre to a depth of one inch
in a 24 hours period or 0.042 cubic feet per second.
❖ Acre inch: It is a measure of quantity of flow of water and is equal to the flow which will
cover one acre to a depth of one inch.
❖ Acre: (43560 sq. ft) an area of land about 220 feet long and 198 feet wide.
❖ Adiabatic: A condition in which heat is neither gained nor dissipated.
❖ Adobe soil: These soils are formed by the broken material of rocks transported by both wind
and water.
❖ Agar: A substance made from seed weed and used in the solid culture.
❖ Agriculture: It is an art, science and business of raising crops and rearing of animals through
exploring the natural resources with the coordination of socio-economic infrastructure to meet
the basic necessities of life.i.e.. food, feed, fiber and shelter.
❖ Allelopathy: Phenomenon involving the release of certain chemicals from plant parts into the
environment which may when present in sufficient amounts, inhibit or suppress the
germination or growth of the plants in the neighborhood.
❖ Alluvial soil: These are the soils which are formed by the deposition of broken material of
rocks transported and deposited by water of streams and rivers.
❖ Altitude: Height from sea level
❖ Application losses: Water losses through percolation or run off.
❖ Arable farming: The term arable farming refers to system in which only crops that require
cultivation of the soil are grown.
❖ Arboriculture: Intensive cultivation of individual trees possibly for fruits gums and resins.
❖ Arid region: The region where total rain fall is less than natural evapo – transpiration rate.
❖ Aridity: It is the characteristic of a region where there is low average rain fall or 100%
available water. It is permanent feature of region.
❖ Available water: The water retained in a soil which represents the difference between field
capacity and the permanent wilting percentage is called available water.
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❖ Barani soil: When the source of irrigation to crop is only the rainwater that is known as Barani
soil.
❖ Base period: Period of time in days from the first watering of crop before sowing and the last
watering before harvesting.
❖ Basic seed: Is the progeny of pre – basic seed produced so as to maintain genetic purity and
identity.
❖ Basin: Flat area of land surrounded by low ridges or bunds
❖ Biological yield: It is the total dry matter produced by a plant as a result of photosynthesis
and nutrient uptake minus that lost by respiration.
❖ Blind hoeing: Hoeing before a crop germinates.
❖ Botanical variety: When a group of plant occurring in nature is different from the general
species originally described and the botanical binomial name is not enough to identify it is
called as botanical variety.
❖ Brake crops: These crops are grown to break the continuity of the agroecological situation of
the field under multiple cropping systems e.g., growing of pulse, potato or oilseeds in cerealbased cropping system.
❖ Broadcasting: Manual spreading of seed in the field and mixing of the spread seed by
ploughing or planking the field.
❖ C3 plants: Plants which fix CO2 in three C molecule and do not use temperature and water
as efficiently as C4 plant. e.g., wheat, rice, cotton.
❖ C4 plant: Plants which fix CO2 in to four C molecules’., sugarcane, maize, sorghum.
❖ Capillary Water: It is the soil water in excess of hygroscopic water. This exists in the pore
space of the soil by surface tension or molecular attraction against gravitational forces. It is
only water available for plant growth and development.
❖ Catchment’s Area: The area which drains the rainwater falling on it, via streams and rivers,
eventually to the sea or into a lake.
❖ Cereal Crops: A cereal is defined as crop grown for its edible seed. These crops are also
known as grain crops e.g. wheat, Rice, Maize etc.
❖ Certified Seed: It is the progeny of basic seed and is produced by registered growers of seed
producing agencies. (RRB SO 2018)
❖ Clayey Soil: A soil is known as clayey which contain at least 30% clay particles and in most
cases not less than 40% ,usually it contains 45% clay , 30% silt and 25% sand.
❖ Cleaning crops : Such crops make the field clean e.g., potato, maize etc.
❖ Climate: Aggregate of atmospheric condition over a long period of time.
❖ Clone: A cultivar propagated by vegetative method is called a clone.
❖ Colluvial Soil: Are those which are form from the material transported by the force of gravity.
❖ Command Area: Area who can be economically irrigated by an irrigation system.
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❖ Commercial Farming System: In this type of farming system, crops are raised on a
commercial scale for marketing.
❖ Companion Crops: The two crops grown together are called companion crops. e.g., Berseem
and barley.
❖ Condiment Crops: Crops which are grown and consumed as condiments e.g., coriander,
mint.
❖ Conidia: One celled asexual spore in certain fungi.
❖ Consumptive Use of Water: Evapo-transpiration plus the water assimilated by various plant
metabolic processes. As the water consumed in plant metabolism is very small, consumptive
use and evapo-transpiration are considered almost equal.
❖ Cover Crops: The crops, which are planted to cover the ground and to reduce the soil erosion
and nutrients losses by leaching. e.g. grasses and rye.
❖ Critical Period of Competition: During the crop period there is a certain time when crop
plants are most sensitive to competition by weeds, this time is known as the critical period of
competition.
❖ Critical Threshold Level (CTL): A weed, insect pest density capable of causing significant
damage to crop is termed as critical threshold level.
❖ Crop Rotation: Is the strategy of raising crops from a piece of land in such an order or
succession that the fertility of land suffers minimally, and the farmer’s profits are not reduced.
❖ Crop Water Requirement: The amount of water required to raise a crop to maturity within
a given period of time.
❖ Crop: A crop is a community of plants grown under field condition for its economic value.
❖ Cropping Intensity: The term cropping intensity refers to the ratio of actual cultivated area
to total farm area over a year. Cropping intensity of India: 142%.
❖ Cropping Pattern: It is a general cropping system followed or practiced by the farmers in an
ecological zone.
❖ Cropping Scheme: Allocation of an area to different crops being grown on a particular farm
in a year.
❖ Cultivator: Which only cut and stir the soil.
❖ Necrosis: Death of organs of a plant, either as blight or death of tissue in localized areas,
usually inside fruit and stems or die back or death of stems or branches.
❖ Delta of Water: The depth of irrigation water required for the full crop period.
❖ Duty: Duty is the area of land that can be irrigated with a unit volume of water supplied across
the base period.
❖ Base Period: Base Period for a crop refers to the whole period of cultivation from the time
when irrigation water is first issued for preparation of the ground for planting the crop, to its
last watering before harvesting.
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❖ Korwatering: The first watering which is given to a crop, when the crop is a few
centimeters high, is called Korwatering.
❖ Palco irrigation: Sometimes, in the initial stages before the crop is sown, the land is very dry.
In such a case, the soil is moistened with water, so as to help in sowing of the crops.
❖ Irrigation Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of water output to the water input, i.e., the
ratio or percentage of the irrigation water consumed by the crop of an irrigated farm, field
or project to the water delivered from the source. It is in (%).
❖ Crop Water Requirement: The amount of water required to raise a crop to maturity within
a given period of time.
❖ Determinate Plants: Those plant which initiate their reproductive stage after completing
vegetative growth, e.g., wheat, barley.
❖ Dicots: Dicots have two cotyledons and reticulate leaf venation.
❖ Diversified Farming: This is an expanded type of farming system in which varieties of crops
are produced and many types of animals are reared.
❖ Dobari Crops: A crop grown on residual moisture after the harvest of rice.
❖ Dormancy: Seed dormancy is the state of inhibited germination of seeds with viable embryos
in condition conducive to plant growth.
❖ Drainage: It is the removal of excess surface or ground water from the root zone of a crop by
means of surface or sub – surface drains.
❖ Dry farming: In which crops and livestock are raised on land which does not receive
sufficient rainfall for water intensive crops and no irrigation facilities are available fall into
this category.
❖ Earthing up: The operation of pulling up soil from the center of crop rows to the bottom of
the plants, this helps in uprooting weeds and supporting to plants.
❖ Economic yield: The economically important part for which a particular crop is grown.
❖ Effective rainfall: It is the part of the rainfall which forms a portion of the water requirement
of a crop, or which can be used by crop.
❖ Eolian soil: The soil which is formed by the material transported by winds from one place to
another is called eolian soil.
❖ Epigeal germination: It is derived from two words epi “above” and geas “earth”. In this type
of germination, the cotyledons come out above the soil surface and generally turn green and
act as first foliage leaves. e.g., bean, cotton.
❖ Evapotranspiration: It is the total loss of water due to its evaporation from land, plant and
water surfaces and transpiration by vegetation per unit area per unit time.
❖ Exhaustive crops: Crops, which feed heavily on the soil and deplete soil nutrients, or we can
say such crops leave the field exhaustive after growing e.g., sorghum, tobacco, cereals,
sesame, brinjal, tapioca etc.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Extensive farming: In this type of farming large areas are used with minimum expenditure
or attention to efficient use of other resources.
❖ Fiber crops: The crops, which are grown for their fiber and are used in making textiles, ropes.
e.g., jute, sun hemp, cotton.
❖ Field capacity: The amount of water retained by soil after drainage of saturated soil by
gravitational force is called field capacity.
❖ Field carrying capacity: It is the field capacity. It is also called normal moisture capacity.
❖ Forage crops: Those crops, which are grazed by animals and harvested
for green chop,
hay, silage is classified as forage crops e.g., maize and sorghum.
❖ Fouling crops: Whose cultural practices allow the infestation of weeds intensively e.g., direct
seeded upland rice.
❖ Fruit farming: In which orchards are planted and the objectives are to maximize fruit
production, enhance quality and increase income.
❖ Garden crops: Vegetable crops, which are grown for their edible leaves, shoots, flowers, fruit
and seed. e.g. cabbage and okra.
❖ Germination: Is the emergence and development from the seed embryo of those essential
structures which, for the kind of seed provided, indicate the ability to produce a normal plant
under favourable conditions.
❖ Grassland farming: These systems are mainly concerned with growing grasses for
consumption by livestock kept for milk or meat production.
❖ Gravitational water: Is the water in excess of hygroscopic and capillary water that percolates
through the soil under the action of gravity if favourable conditions for water drainage are
provided.
❖ Green manure crops: Some crops are grown and ploughed in the soil in green form in order
to improve soil fertility e.g., Berseem, Guara, Dhaincha etc
❖ Hard pan: A hard semi-impervious layer usually developed due to continuous ploughing to
a depth of about 15 cm, with cultivators, or with continuous deposition of salts due to soil or
surface irrigation water.
❖ Herbaceous: Plants with soft and easily vulnerable body parts.
❖ Herbs: Are plants of small to medium height and canopy.
❖ Hydrophyte: Plant which grows in water, or which loves water.
❖ Hygroscopic water: Water attached to soil particles by loose chemical bonds and does not
move by the action of gravity or capillary force.
❖ Ideotype: An ideal plant type developed through breeding.
❖ Indeterminate plants: In these plants, the vegetative and reproductive stages continue
simultaneously e.g., okra, tomato. Soybean is the only crop, which has determinate and
indeterminate as well as semi – determinate growing types.
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❖ Inoculant: The bacteria containing material used to introduce N – fixing Rhizobium bacteria
into soil.
❖ Integrated weed management: The concept of IWM involves the planned use of all possible
direct and indirect measures rather than relying on a single method to combat weeds.
❖ Intercropping: Growing of two or more crops together on the same field, where one crop
(main crop) planted in rows first and then another crop (intercrop) is planted in between the
rows. These crops remain in association for a shorter time. These crops may or may not be
planted and harvested at the same time e.g in Sugar cane planting of onion, garlic etc
❖ Interception: When the drops of rainfall or precipitation are intercepted by plant leaves it is
called interception.
❖ Irrigated soil: The soil, which receives irrigation water from well and tube wells, are known
as irrigated or chahi soil.
❖ Irrigation efficiency: It is a term used to indicate how efficiently the available water supply
is being used for crop production.
❖ Irrigation scheduling: It refers to the number of irrigations for a crop and their timing.
❖ Irrigation water requirement: The quantity of water required for successful crop production
exclusive of precipitation, ground water and other natural resources.
❖ Irrigation: Irrigation is the artificial application of water to soil or crop plants to assist crop
production.
❖ Kera: Manual sowing of seeds in lines in furrows.
❖ Kharif crops: Those crops, which are planted in the summer month from the March to July
and harvested in autumn and winter, are called Kharif crops e.g., rice and cotton.
❖ Latitude: The angular distance north or south of earth equator.
❖ Line: A cultivar propagated by seed is called a line.
❖ Livestock and poultry farming: This category includes farming system in which various
kinds of livestock are reared for meat, milk, wool and eggs.
❖ Loamy soil: The soil is more or less than midway clay and sandy soil and ideal loam soil may
defined as a mixture of sand, silt and clay particles which shows the properties of sandy, silt
and clayey in equal proportion.
❖ Lodging: The bending or breaking over of a plant before harvesting.
❖ Long day plants: Plants which change vegetative to reproductive stage by producing flowers
and fruits, when the days become longer. e.g., Carrot, Radish etc.
❖ Matric potential: It is produced by capillary and surface forces.
❖ Maximum potential soil moisture deficit: Is the greatest value of potential soil moisture
deficit attained during the growth of a crop.
❖ Monocots: These plants have one cotyledon and parallel leaf venation.
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❖ Moisture Available Index: Ratio of rainfall weekly/monthly at 50% probability and potential
evapotranspiration (RRB SO 2018)
❖ Muck soil: If the quantity of organic matter exceeds 20 % but less than 50% are called muck
soil.
❖ Mulch: Any material or practice which is used to check the loss of water by evaporation is
called mulch.
❖ Multiple cropping: It is growing of two or more crops in a year from the same piece of land
❖ Narcotic or drug crops: This category includes those crops, which have some narcotic and
drug value e.g., poppy, tobacco.
❖ Natural erosion: The erosion of the soil under natural condition.
❖ Natural soil: Strictly speaking a soil having pH of 7, in practice a soil having PH 6.6 and 7.3.
❖ No tillage crop (zero tillage crop): Crop grown without any tillage to prepare seed bed or
row.
❖ Nucleus seed: Seeds obtained from selected individual plants of a particular variety which
needs to be purified and multiplied in such a way as to maintain its genetic purity.
❖ Nut cycle: The regeneration/cycling of nutrients.
❖ Nutrients budget: A quantitative data of the major nut flowing to retained within the
discharge from the system.
❖ Nutrients: The food for microbial and plant life mainly composed of nitrogen and
phosphorous but also of potassium, Mg, Fe, Ca, Co, Cu, Zn and other elements.
❖ Oil seed crops: These are the crops, which are grown for the purpose of extracting oil from
their seed e.g., mustard and groundnut.
❖ On – farm water management: The planned use of irrigation water at the farm level or
more efficient utilization in agriculture.
❖ Osmotic potential: It is also called solute potential. It is produced by various solutes in soil
water.
❖ Peat soil: If the quantity of organic matter is more than 50% is called peat soil.
❖ Percolation: Downward movement of water within the soil profile.
❖ Plant development: Plant development is the progress of plant from germination to maturity
through a series of stages.
❖ Plant growth: It is the increase in the dry weight of a plant over time mainly as a consequence
of photosynthesis.
❖ Plough pan: A dense, compacted layer about 5 to 7 cm thick formed beneath the surface soil
by repeated ploughing in the same path.
❖ Plough: Its function is to cut, stir, invert, and pulverize the soil.
❖ Pore space: It is a space between soil particles occupied by air and water; it is largely
controlled by the texture of soil.
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❖ Potential Evapotranspiration: Is defined as the amount of evaporation occurring from an
extensive area of a short, green growing crop completely covering the ground and well
supplied with water.
❖ Potential soil moisture deficit: It is the difference between a crop potential
evapotranspiration and the amount of rainfall received by a crop plus the quantity of water
delivered to it in irrigation.
❖ Pressure potential: It is produced by actual hydrostatic pressure.
❖ Puddling: Ploughing in standing water to create a shallow hard pan at a 5-10 cm depth, which
helps to increase water-holding capacity and reduce moisture losses by percolation.
❖ Pulses or grain legumes: The crops belonging to Leguminosae family are grown for their
edible seed e.g chickpea, lobia.
❖ Readily available water: The portion of the available water that is most easily extracted by
a plant is called readily available water.
❖ Regular and trade winds e.g., monsoon winds
❖ Relay crops: A relay crops is one which is planted as a second crop after the first crop has
reached its reproductive stage of growth but before it is ready for harvest. e.g., planting of
sugar cane in sugar beet.
❖ Restorative crops: Such crops provide a good harvest along with enrichment or restoration
or amelioration of soil e.g., legumes.
❖ Riparian crops: Grown along with irrigation or drainage channels or waterbodies e.g., water
bind weed (Kalmi sak), para grass.
❖ Root and tuber crops: These are vegetable crops grown for their under-ground parts like
roots, bulbs, rhizomes, corms and stem tubers e.g., carrot and onion.
❖ Rostering/water regulation: The process of distribution of irrigation water.
❖ Run off: When water flows out the field by breaking the bunds of the field or flows to the
sloppy areas from the high level is called run off..
❖ Sandy soil: the soil which contains 2.00 to 0.2 mm diameter soil particles , it contains 85%
sand , and >15% , silt and clay. These soils are poor in plant material.
❖ Saturation capacity: This term refers to the amount of water present in the soil when it is
completely saturated with water.
❖ Scarification: Any physical or chemical treatment that makes the seed coat permeable is
known as scarification.
❖ Seed certification: Is the process to secure, maintain and make available high-quality seed
and propagating materials of superior crop varieties, so grown and distributed as to ensure
desirable standards of genetic identity, physical purity and quality attributes.
❖ Seedling: A young plant that has grown from a seed
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Seepage: Losses through the beds and banks of canals and water channels take place mainly
by unlined canals.
❖ Sett: A piece of seed cane with two – four buds (eyes).
❖ Shifting agriculture: The forest land is cleared off and same crop (generally rice) is grown
MP. It causes soil erosion mostly practiced in northeast region. (JRF 2013)
❖ Short day plants: Plants which changes from vegetative to reproductive stage and produces
flowers and fruits when the days become shorter.
❖ Shrubs: Are bushy plants with medium to tall height and canopy.
❖ Silage crops: Those crops, which are harvested when still green and succulent and are fed
directly to animals without curing, are called silage crops. e.g., Berseem, Shaftal, maize.
❖ Stratification: Is the practice of exposing imbibed seeds to cool temperature conditions for a
few days prior to germination in order to break their dormancy. (RRB SO 2018)
❖ Strip crops: These are of following types:
(i) Erosion permitting crops: These crops are grown to permit soil erosion in large sloping
lands which require land shaping for successful arable farming. Such crops have lower
foliage cover and holding capacity of roots to surface soil, and they are sown along the
slope in strips e.g., Sorghum, pearl millet, maize etc.
(ii) Erosion restricting or resisting crops: These crops are grown to restrict soil erosion.
They are grown across the slope in strips alternately with erosion permitting strip crops
to introduce land shaping by cultural means e.g., horse gram, kidney bean, Cowpea,
Groundnut, Lobia, grasses. etc.
(iii) Contour Strip crops: These crops plants are grown in strips of suitable width across the
slopes on the level or contour lines alternating with erosion restricting crops particularly
where land shaping is not needed i.e., in low gradient grounds e.g., sorghum, pigeon pea,
groundnut, marvel grass.
(iv) Field strip crops: the crop plants that are grown on farmlands in more or less parallel
strips across fairly uniform slopes but not exact contours e.g., maize, pigeon pea, guar,
sorghum, pearl millet, cowpea, sun hemp, mung bean, sesame etc.
(v) Wind strip crops: The tall crop plants such as jowar, bajra, maize, pigeon pea, safflower
and mustard that are grown with low crops such as potato, peas, groundnut, mung, urd
in alternately arranged straight and long but relatively narrow, parallel strips laid right
across the direction of the prevailing wind regardless of the land contours.
(vi) Permanent buffer strip crops: These are crop plants such as permanent legume, grass
or bush or shrubs that are grown on a permanent or temporary basis on the strips e.g.,
babool, subabul, Cassia, Prosopis, Glyricidia, munj, guine grass, lemon grass etc.
❖ Subsistence farming: In which basic necessities like food, clothing, and shelter are produced
for the family to live on.
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❖ Sugar crops: These are the crops, which are grown for sugar purposes. e.g., sugar cane and
sugar beet.
❖ Sod or turf crops: These crops plants belong to the grass family and have sod type tillers with
matted foliage and roots close to the soil surface to conserve soil from erosion e.g., marvel,
digitaria and doob grasses.
❖ Temporary wilting percentage: Soil water content at which plants wilt during the hot windy
part of the day but regain turgidity during the cooler part of the day is called TWP.
❖ Topping: Topping in tobacco is the removal of the terminal bud with or without some of the
small top leaves just before or after the appearance of the flower head.
❖ Transpiration ratio: It is the ratio of the weight or volume of water transpired by the plant
during its growth period to the weight of dry matter produced by the plant.
❖ Transpiration: It is the process of loss of water from living plants.
❖ True Allelopathy: When the allelochemical is toxic in their original form is called true
Allelopathy.
❖ Variety: In general, the term variety has been used to refer to a group of similar plant within
a particular species that is distinguished by one or more than one character and given the name.
❖ Vernalization and chilling: Many biennials and temperate annuals, as well as certain fruit
trees, require exposure to cold temperature before they can flower. This is known as
Vernalization requirement for annuals and biennials and chilling requirement for fruit trees.
❖ Vines: Are plants, which have tender stems, and requires some support for upward growth.
❖ Water holding capacity: Ability of soil to retain water.
❖ Ware Crops: such crops are grown for temporary storing as intact in warehouse for future
use or sale e.g., potato, tomato etc.
❖ Water potential: Refers to the chemical potential of water.
❖ Weather: It is a state of atmosphere at any time; it is combined effect of many things such as
heat, cold.
❖ Weed: any plant growing out of its proper place.
❖ Harvest index: It is the ratio of economic yield to biological yield. It is expressed in
percentage in
❖ H.I. = economic yield x 100 / Biological yield
❖ Biological yield: It is the total dry matter produced by the crops after synthesis minus
respiration losses.
❖ Economic yield: That part of the crop for which crop is grown e.g. stem in sugarcane, root in
the case of sugar beet.
❖ Monocropping: Raising of only one crop in a year when there is seasonal supply of water is
called Monocropping, monoculture or specialized farming.
16
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Multiple cropping: Raising of two or more crops in the same field or in a year is called
diversified multiple cropping or simple multiple cropping.
❖ Tilth: It is the final condition of soil when all the tillage operations are carried.
❖ What is composite variety? A mixture of genotype from general sources maintained by
normal pollination.
❖ What are the compounds which act as buffer in soil? Clay organic matter and such
compounds as carbonates and phosphates which make the soil to resist appreciable change in
pH value.
❖ What is arid? A term applied to land that is dry also means deficient in rainfall.
❖ What is compost? A manure derived from decomposed plant remains usually made by
fermentation, waste plant material under controlled conditions. Compost usually used in green
houses to enrich the soil dungs as surface.
❖ What is contact herbicide? Which kill only those parts of plant with which they come into
contact and used mostly to control annual weeds when seedling, they have little residual effect.
❖ What is crop rotation? A definite succession of crops following one an other in a specific
order.
❖ What is drought resistance? Characteristics of plants which are suitable for cultivation in
dry condition regardless of the inherent mechanism that provides resistance.
❖ What is effective rainfall? Precipitation which falls during the growing period of the crop
and is available to meet the Evapotranspiration requirements of crops .
❖ What is harvest index? The ratio of grain weight to total plant weight in a cereal crop.
❖ What is hybrid vigour? Qualities in a hybrid does not present in either parent.
❖ What is meant by autotrophe? Organism able to manufacture their own food from
inorganic materials. Using energy from outside sources. Most green plants are completely
autotrophe.’
❖ What is meant by bolting? Formation of elongated stem or seed stalk, it is usually taking
place during the second season of the growth in biennial plants.
❖ What is meant by F1 and F2 generation? Genetic terms for the offspring generations
produced by a parental generation of plants or animals.
❖ What is meant by soiling crops? Crops harvested when green and succulent condition are
fed to animals shortly after cutting, it is neither dried nor stored for future feeding.
❖ What is organic farming? System of farming which avoid the use of artificial fertilizers,
pesticides or herbicides, and concentrate on methods of crop rotation and the use of home
growth feed, organic fertilizer.
❖ What is pasteurization? Process of killing organisms in a product, commonly milk by
heating to a controlled temperature.
❖ What is pedology: The study of soil.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
17
❖ What is planker: Implement used to crush clods on land where a roller can be used consisting
of number of fixed over lapping plates, showed with iron bars along the working edges which
is pulled over the land.
❖ What is seed certification: Refers to the system of maintaining the genetic purity and quality
of seed.
❖ What is seed dressing: The chemical treatment of seeds particularly cereals, with fungicides
and sometime insecticides to protect them against soil and seed borne disease and pest.
❖ What is truck gardening: Growing of crops like potato onion and cabbage on large scale for
distinct market.
❖ What is trench layering: An asexual reproductive method of plant propagation involving
laying down the whole stem, the new shoots are thus forced to push their way through a layer
of soil which prevents the bark from coloring and favors root formation.
❖ What is weathering: The process by which soil disintegrates and decomposes, eventually
producing soil particles by exposure to the physical and chemical effects of atmospheric
agents.
❖ Wilting point: The point at which the water content of a soil reaches such a level that it is
firmly held by soil and unavailable to plant roots, so that the plants wilt permanently and die.
❖ Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): Bt is bacteria found naturally in soil and is used in agriculture to
control pests. Today, organic farmers and home gardeners spray it on their crops for insect
protection. Proteins from Bt are also used in genetically modified (GM) crops, such as cotton
and corn.
❖ Biofortification: The process in which the nutritional quality of food crops is improved
through biological means such as conventional plant breeding. Biofortification differs from
conventional fortification in that it aims to increase nutrient levels in crops during plant growth
rather than through manual means during processing of the crops. (Source: WHO)
❖ Breeding: Plant breeding is the act of bringing together two specific parent plants with
desirable traits to produce a new offspring with those desirable traits. This results in new plant
varieties and hybrids.
❖ Conventional agriculture: Conventional farming systems vary from farm to farm and from
country to country. However, they share many characteristics, such as use of technological
advances, pesticides and fertilizers, and sometimes GMOs, to enhance crop production.
❖ Cover Crops: Crops such as grass (rye, oats, buckwheat) or legumes (field peas, alfalfa,
clover) that are planted between growing seasons of the farmers’ primary cash crop to
conserve and improve the soil. Benefits may include weed suppression, increasing organic
matter, improved nitrogen cycling, moisture conservation and reduced soil erosion. The crops
may or may not be harvested for sale.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Genetically Modified Organism (GMO): A GMO is created by taking a beneficial trait, like
insect resistance or pesticide tolerance, from one living thing and introducing it into a new
plant to help it thrive in its environment. GMOs are also commonly referred to as GM crops
or products. GM crops are also referred to as biotechnology or genetically engineered,
transgenic or bioengineered crops.
❖ Hybrid: Hybrid seeds are created by traditionally breeding two different plants to create a
third new plant, known as the hybrid.
❖ Irrigation: Irrigation is a method in which water is supplied manually to plants. In agriculture.
❖ Organic agriculture: Organic farming uses production practices that allow the use of natural
pesticides and fertilizers, but generally disallows the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers.
Foods certified organic must meet specific production standards as defined by the country’s
recognized organic certifying body.
❖ Precision farming: Precision agriculture is the use of data analysis to help farmers improve
crop production practices. Farmers analyze data to help them produce more on every square
foot of every field, while using water, nutrients and fuel more efficiently. The target specific
use of inputs for production according to crop requirement on localized basis is known as
Precision farming. (NABARD 2021)
❖ Sustainable agriculture: Sustainable agriculture is the long-term production of plant or
animal products using farming techniques that protect the environment, public health, human
communities and animal welfare year over year.
❖ Smother Crop: crop which suppresses weeds growing under it with quick growing ability
and dense foliage (AFO-2021)
❖ Tillage: Practice of plowing soil before and after harvests to remove stalks, leaves and other
residue from a field. No-till farming is the absence of tillage where stalks and leaves remain
in the field to improve soil by retaining water, preventing erosion and benefiting soil health.
(JRF)
❖ Transgenic crops: Transgenic crops are synonymous with GMO crops. Transgenic stands for
transfer of genes.
❖ Mycorrhiza: It is the symbiotic association between fungus and the roots of higher plants.
❖ VAM: Vascular arbuscular Mycorrhiza is the phosphorus absorber in plant roots.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
19
TERMS RELATED TO DRYLAND AGRICULTURE:
❖ Agri-silviculture: Conscious and deliberate use of land for the concurrent production of
agricultural and forest crops is called agri-silviculture.
❖ Agri-silvi-pastural system: System in which land is managed for the concurrent production
of agriculture and forest crops and for the rearing of domesticated animals is called agri-silvipastural system.
❖ Agroforestry: Self-sustaining land management system which combines production of
agricultural crops with that of tree crops as also with that of livestock simultaneously or
sequentially on the same unit of land is called agroforestry.
❖ Atmospheric drought: Drought caused by low air humidity accompanied by hot and dry
winds and when the rate of transpiration is more than the rate of moisture absorption by plants
is called atmospheric drought.
❖ Basin listing: Tillage that forms lister furrows at regular intervals to create small basins to
capture and store rain or applied water.
❖ Dead furrows: Plough furrows made between the crop rows at an interval of 3-4 m depending
on the crop as a means of moisture conservation are called dead furrows.
❖ Drought escaping: Plants escaping the drought by way of early maturity before the available
water is exhausted is called drought escaping.
❖ Drought evading: Plant evading drought by way of limited amount of growth giving reduced
transpiring surface is called drought evading.
❖ Drought year: When the annual rainfall is less than the normal by more than twice the mean
deviation, it is called drought year.
❖ Minimal irrigation: Irrigation of rabi crops which do not receive rains after sowing is called
minimal irrigation.
❖ Soil drought: Drought that occurs when the moisture present in the soil absorbed by the plant
is less than the potential evapotranspiration of the crop is called soil drought.
❖ Soil or dust mulch: Thin layer of loose soil surface that can be created by frequently stirring
the soil with surface tillage implements to conserve moisture is called soil or dust mulch.
❖ Watershed: Any surface area from which rainfall is collected and drains through a common
point is called watershed.
❖ Watershed management: Integration of technologies within the natural boundaries of a
drainage area for optimum development of land, water and plant resources to meet the basic
needs of the people and animals in a sustained manner is watershed management.
❖ Wind breaks: Any structure that obstructs wind flow and reduce wind speed for protection
of crop fields are called wind breaks.
❖ Wind shelter belts: Rows of trees planted across the direction of wind for protection of crops
against wind are called wind shelter belts.
20
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Year-round tillage: Refers to tillage after harvest or as soon, thereafter, as is possible, tilling
with pre monsoon showers to finish seed bed work at optimum time is referred to as a yearround tillage.
❖ Zing terracing: Practice to cut down the length of slope (3-10%) to harvest run off from upper
area for the benefit of crops grown in lower side and to ensure adequate drainage during the
periods of heavy down pours is called zing terracing.
ABOUT ICAR AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS
❖ Who was the first deputy director general of horticulture, ICAR - Dr. K.L. Chadha
❖ ICAR day is celebrated on 16 July
❖ Union Minister of Agriculture and Farmer welfare is the ex-office President of the ICAR
society (President- Narendra Singh Tomar).
❖ Shri Kailash Choudhary and Shri Parshottam Rupala are Hon'ble Union Minister of
State for Agriculture and Farmers Welfare
❖ Agro Ecological Zones in India is 8 (by NARP ICAR), 21 (by NBSSLUP)—but now only
20 (Updated data)
❖ Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research &Education Ministry of Agriculture,
Govt, of India & Director General, ICAR-the Principal Executive Officer of the Council.
(Present DG – Dr. T. Mohapatra)
❖ Number of➢ KVKs -725(Can be updated till your exam)
➢ Agricultural Universities-64
➢ Deemed Universities-4
➢ Central Agricultural Universities: 3
1. Central Agricultural University, Manipur,
2. Rani Laxmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh,
3. Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Bihar
➢ ICAR Institutes- 65 (Newly added ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
Hazaribag, Jharkhand and ICAR-National Institute for Plant Biotechnology, New Delhi)
➢ National Research Centers- 15 (Newly added: National Research Centre on Integrated
Farming (ICAR-NRCIF), Motihar) now named as Mahatma Gandhi Integrated Farming
Research Institute )
➢ National Bureaues-6
➢ Directorates-13
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
21
➢ AICRPs- 60/59
✓ Chairman of National Commission for Farmers- Dr. M.S. Swaminathan
22
1.
AICRP on Nematodes, New Delhi
2.
AICRP on Maize, New Delhi
3.
AICRP Rice, Hyderabad
4.
AICRP on Chickpea, Kanpur
5.
AICRP on MULLARP, Kanpur
6.
AICRP on Pigeon Pea, Kanpur
7.
AICRP on Arid Legumes, Kanpur
8.
AICRP on Wheat & Barley Improvement Project, Karnal
9.
AICRP Sorghum, Hyderabad
10.
AICRP on Pearl Millets, Jodhpur
11.
AICRP on Small Millets, Bangalore
12.
AICRP on Sugarcane, Lucknow
13.
AICRP on Cotton, Coimbatore
14.
AICRP on Groundnut, Junagarh
15.
AICRP on Soybean, Indore
16.
AICRP on Rapeseed & Mustard, Bharatpur
17.
AICRP on Sunflower, Safflower, Castor, Hyderabad
18.
AICRP on Linseed, Kanpur
19.
AICRP on Sesame and Niger, Jabalpur
20.
AICRP on IPM and Biocontrol, Bangalore
21.
AICRP on Honeybee Research & Training, Hisar
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
22.
AICRP -NSP(Crops), Mau
23.
AICRP on Forage Crops, Jhansi
24.
AICRP on Fruits, Bangaluru
25.
AICRP Arid Zone Fruits, Bikaner
26.
AICRP Mushroom, Solan
27.
AICRP Vegetables including NSP vegetable, Varanasi
28
AICRP Potato, Shimla
29.
AICRP Tuber Crops, Thiruvananthapuram
30.
AICRP Palms, Kasaragod
31.
AICRP Cashew, Puttur
32.
AICRP Spices, Calicut
33.
AICRP on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants including Betelvine, Anand
34.
AICRP on Floriculture, New Delhi
35.
AICRP in Micro Secondary & Pollutant Elements in Soils and Plants, Bhopal
36.
lAICRP on Soil Test with Crop Response, Bhopal
37.
AICRP on Long Term Fertilizer Experiments, Bhopal
38.
AICRP on Salt Affected Soils & Use of Saline Water in Agriculture, Karnal
39.
AICRP on Water Management Research, Bhubaneshwar
40.
AICRP on Ground Water Utilisation, Bhubaneshwar
41.
AICRP Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad
42.
AICRP on Agrometeorology, Hyderabad including Network on Impact adaptation &
Vulnerability of Indian Agri. to Climate Change
43.
AICRP Integrated Farming System Research, Modipuram including Network Organic
Farming
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
23
44.
AICRP Weed Control, Jabalpur
45.
AICRP on Agroforestry, Jhansi
46.
AICRP on Farm Implements & Machinery, Bhopal
47.
All India Coordinated Research Project on Ergonomics and Safety in Agriculture
48.
AICRP on Energy in Agriculture and Agro Based Indus.,Bhopal
49.
AICRP on Utilization of Animal Energy (UAE), Bhopal
50.
AICRP on Plasticulture Engineering and Technologies, Ludhiana
51.
AICRP on PHT, Ludhiana
52.
AICRP on Goat Improvement, Mathura
53.
AICRP- Improvement of Feed Sources & Nutrient Utilisation for raising animal
production, Bangalore
54.
AICRP on Cattle Research, Meerut
55.
AICRP on Poultry, Hyderabad
56.
AICRP-Pig, Izzatnagar
57.
AICRP Foot and Mouth Disease, Mukteshwar
58.
AICRP ADMAS, Bangalore
59.
AICRP on Home Science, Bhubaneshwar
NETWORK PROJECTS – 20:
24
1.
All India Network Project on Pesticides Residues, New Delhi
2.
All India Network Project on Underutilized Crops, New Delhi
3.
All India Network Project on Tobacco, Rajahmundry
4.
All India Network Project on Soil Arthropod Pests, Durgapura
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
5.
Network on Agricultural Acarology, Bangalore
6.
Network on Economic Ornithology, Hyderabad
7.
All India Network Project on Rodent Control, Jodhpur
8.
All India Network Project on Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore
9.
Network project on Improvement of Onion & Garlic, Pune
10.
Network Bio-fertilizers, Bhopal
11.
Network Project on Harvest & Post Harvest and Value Addition to Natural Resins &
Gums, Ranchi
12.
Network project on Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal
13.
Network Project on R&D Support for Process Upgradation of Indigenous Milk
products for industrial application Karnal
14.
Network Programme on Sheep Improvement, Avikanagar
15.
Network Project on Buffaloes Improvement, Hisar
16.
Network on Gastrointestinal Parasitism, Izatnagar
17.
Network on Haemorrhagic Septicaemia, Izatnagar
18.
Network Programme Blue Tongue Disease, Izatnagar
19.
Network Project on Conservation of Lac Insect Genetic Resources, Ranchi
20.
Network Project on Agricultural Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, New
Delhi
MILESTONES IN AGRICULTURE:
❖
❖
❖
❖
1880 - Department of Agriculture was established
1905 - Imperial Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) was started at Pusa, Bihar
1912 - Sugarcane Breeding Institute was established in Coimbatore
1923: NDRI was Established in Bangalore as Imperial Institute of Animal Husbandry and
Dairying.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
25
❖ 1929 - Imperial Council of Agricultural Research at New Delhi (then ICAR) after
independence becomes ICAR
❖ 1935: Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI) was established to implement the
agricultural marketing policies and programs.
❖ 1936 - Due to earthquake in Bihar, IARI was shifted to New Delhi and the place was called
with original name Pusa.
❖ 1957: A premier Warehousing Agency in India, established during 1957 providing logistics
support to the agricultural sector.
❖ 1958: National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Ltd.
(NAFED) was established.
❖ 1960- First Agricultural University was started at Pantnagar.
❖ 1965: Food Corporation of India was established.
❖ 1965: The National Dairy Development Board was established at Anand, Gujarat.
❖ 1965-67 - Green revolution in India due to introduction of HYVP –Wheat, rice, use of
fertilizers, construction of Dams and use of pesticides.
❖ 1975: The first RRB, the Prathama Bank was established with authorized capital of Rs. 5
crores
❖ 1978: Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute (IASRI) was established to assist ICAR
in the areas of Agricultural Statistics and Computer Applications
❖ 1982- NABARD established to refinance the rural sector.
❖ 1984: National Horticulture Board (NHB) was set up by Government of India in April 1984
on the basis of recommendations of the "Group on Perishable Agricultural Commodities",
headed by Dr M. S. Swaminathan.
❖ 1986: APEDA was established to promote agricultural export in India.
❖ 1987: National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) was
established with the headquarter at Hyderabad
❖ 2004: The National Commission on Farmers (NCF) was established to decrease the farmers
suicides in India and to improve the agriculture in India.
INSTITUTIONS IN AGRICULTURE:
26
Institution
Location
National Rice Research Institute
Indian Institute of Rice Research
Cuttack
Hyderabad
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Establishment
Year
23 April 1946
1965
Indian Institute of Pulses Research
Kanpur
Central Tobacco Research Institute
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research
Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research
Sugarcane Breeding Institute
Rajahmundry
Varanasi
Lucknow
Coimbatore
1966, Shifted to
Kanpur in 1978
1947
1971
1952
1912
Sugarcane breeding Institute, Regional
Centre
Indian Institute of Farming Systems
Research (IIFSR)
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS)
Karnal
1932
Meerut, UP
1968
Dehradun,
Uttarakhand
Central Institute for Women in Agriculture Bhubaneshwar,
(CIWA)
Odisha
Indian Institute of Seed Research (IISR)
Mau, Uttar Pradesh
Central Institute of Cotton Research
Nagpur
Central Research Institute for Jute and
Barrackpore
Allied Fibres
National Institute of Research on Jute &
Kolkata
Allied Fibre Technology
Indian Grassland and Fodder Research
Jhansi
Institute
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Bangalore
Central Institute of Sub Tropical
Lucknow
Horticulture
Central Institute of Temperate
Srinagar
Horticulture
Central Institute of Arid Horticulture
Bikaner
Central Potato Research Institute
Shimla
1966
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute
Central Plantation Crops Research
Institute
Central Island Agriculture Research
Institute
1963
1974
Trivandrum
Kasargod, Kerala
1996
2004
1976
1953
1939
1962
1967
1972, renamed as
CISH in 1995
1994
1994
1949
Port Blair, Andaman 1978
and Nicobar Islands Renamed in 2017
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
27
Indian Institute of Spices Research
Calicut
1975
Indian Institute of Natural Resins and
Gums
ICAR–Indian Institute of Soil and Water
Conservation
Indian Institute of Soil Sciences
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
ICAR Research Complex for Eastern
Region
Central Research Institute of Dryland
Agriculture
Central Institute of Fisheries Technology
Central Arid Zone Research Institute
Ranchi
1924
Dehradun
Bhopal
Karnal
Patna
1974
Renamed in 2015
1988
1969
2001
Hyderabad
1985
ICAR -Central Coastal Agricultural
Research Institute
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region
National Institute of Abiotic Stress
Management
Central Institute of Agricultural
Engineering
Central Institute on Post harvest
Engineering and Technology
Central Institute of Research on Cotton
Technology
Indian Agricultural Statistical Research
Institute
Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute
Cochin
Jodhpur
1957
1952, upgraded to
CAZRI in 1959
Goa
1976
Upgraded from 1st
April, 2014
Barapani, Meghalaya 1975
Malegaon, Baramati 2009
Maharashtra
Bhopal
1976
Ludhiana
1989
Mumbai
1924
New Delhi
1930
Avikanagar,
Rajasthan
Central Institute for Research on Goats
Makhdoom, Mathura
Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes Hissar
National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Bangalore
Physiology
Central Avian Research Institute
Izatnagar
28
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
1962
1979
1985
1995
1979
Central Marine Fisheries Research
Kochi
Institute
Central Institute Brackishwater
Chennai
Aquaculture
Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute Barrackpore
February 3rd 1947
1987
1947/1959
NATIONAL RESEARCH INSTITUTES
National Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology
New Delhi
National Centre for Integrated Pest Management
New Delhi
National Research Centre for Litchi
Muzaffarpur
National Research Centre for Citrus
Nagpur
National Research Centre for Grapes
Pune
National Research Centre for Banana
Trichy, TN
National Research Centre Seed Spices
Ajmer
National Research Centre for Pomegranate
Solapur
National Research Centre on Orchids
Pakyong, Sikkim
National Research Centre Agroforestry
Jhansi
National Research Centre on Camel
Bikaner
National Research Centre on Equines
Hisar
National Research Centre on Meat
Hyderabad
National Research Centre on Pig
Guwahati
National Research Centre on Yak
West Kemang, Arunachal Pradesh
National Research Centre on Mithun
Medziphema, Nagaland
National Research Centre on Integrated FarmingMotihari
(ICAR-NRCIF)
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
29
IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS ON AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH
30
AVRDC- Asian Vegetable Research and
Development Centre
Taiwan (1971)
CIAT – Centro International de Agricultura
Tropical (International Centre for Tropical
Agriculture)
Cali, Colombia
CIP – International potato research institute
Peru, South America (1971)
CIMMYT- International Centre for maize and
Wheat development
Londress, Mexico
IITA –International Institute for Tropical
Agriculture
Ibadon in Nigeria, Africa
ICARDA – International Centre for Agricultural
Research in the Dry Areas
Beirut, Lebanon
ICRISAT – International Crops Research Institute
for the Semi Arid Tropics
Hyderabad, India
IIMI- International Irrigation Management
Institute
Colombo, SRILANKA
IRRI – International Rice Research Institute
Los Banos, Philippines
ISNAR- International Service In National
Agricultural Research
The Hague, Netherlands
WARDA - West African Rice Development
Association Ivory coast
Africa
IBPGR - International Board for Plant Genetic
Resources
Rome, Italy
CGIAR – Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research
Montpellier, France
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
FAO – Food and Agricultural Organization
Rome, Italy
WMO- World Meteorological Organization
Geneva, Switzerland
CGIAR
❖ CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a foodsecured future.
❖ CGIAR research is dedicated to reducing rural poverty, increasing food security, improving
human health and nutrition, and ensuring sustainable management of natural resources.
❖ It is carried out by 15 Centers, that are members of the CGIAR Consortium, in close
collaboration with hundreds of partners.
❖ CGIAR established in 1971.
REVOLUTIONS IN AGRICULTURE:
Protein Revolution
Black Revolution
Higher Production (Technology driven
2nd Green revolution)
Oil seed Production (Especially Mustard and
Sunflower)
Petroleum products
Blue Revolution
Fish Production
Brown Revolution
Leather/Cocoa
Golden Fiber Revolution.
Jute Production (SSC-2017)
Golden Revolution
Fruits (IBPS AFO 2020) / Honey Production /
Horticulture Development
Fertilizers.
Yellow Revolution
Grey Revolution
Pink Revolution
Evergreen Revolution
Onion Production / Pharmaceuticals / Prawn
Production.
Overall Production of Agriculture
Silver Revolution
Egg Production / Poultry Production
Silver Fiber Revolution
Cotton (RRB SO 2018)
Red Revolution
Meat Production / Tomato Production.
Round Revolution
Potato.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
31
Green Revolution
Food Grains.
White Revolution/ Operation Flood Milk Production.
Sweet Revolution
Honey Production
INTERNATIONAL YEARS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE OBSERVED BY UN:
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
2004- International year of rice
2005- International year of parthenium
2006- International year of desert and desertification
2007- International year of water
2008 - International year of potato
2009- International year of natural fibers
2010- International year of biodiversity
2011- International year of forest
2012- International year of cooperative (Also celebrated as National year of horticulture)
2013- International year of water cooperation
2014- International year of family farming
2015- International year of soil and Light
2016- International year of pulses (theme- nutritious seed for sustainable agriculture)
2017- International year of sustainable tourism
2018- Recommended for International year of millets (Declared as National year of millets)
2019: International year of Indigenous language
2020: International Year of Plant Health
2021: International Year of Fruits and Vegetables
International Year of Creative Economy for Sustainable Development
2022: International Year of Artisanal Fisheries and Aquaculture
2023: International year of Millets
IMPORTANT DAYS IN AGRICULTURE:
32
Important Days
Date
WTO Foundation day
1st January
World wetland day
2nd February
World Pulse Day
10th February
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
World Wildlife Day
3rd March
International women’s day
8 March
World Consumers Day
15th March
World Forest Day/ International day of
Forest
21st March
World Water Day
22nd March
World Meteorological Day
23rd March
World Health Day
7th April
World Earth Day
22nd April
Panchayat Raj Day
24th April
World Veterinary Day
Last Saturday of April
International Labour Day
1st May
World Tuna Day
2nd May
World Bee Day
20th May
International Tea Day
21 May
International Biodiversity Day/
22nd May
International Day for Biological Diversity
World Milk Day
1st June
World Environment Day
5th June
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33
34
World Food Safety Day
7 June
Worlds Ocean Day
8 June
World Day to Combat Desertification
June 17
Micro-, Small and Medium-sized
Enterprises Day
June 27
National Fish Husbandry Day
10th July
World Population Day
11th July
NABARD Foundation Day
12th July
ICAR Foundation Day
16th July
National Nutrition Week
1-7 September
World Coconut Day
2nd September
World Ozone Day
September 16
World Bamboo Day
September 18
World Coffee Day
1 October
World Wildlife Week
1-7 October
World Animal Husbandry Day
4th October
World Egg Day
2nd Friday of October
National Women Farmer Day/
International Day of Rural Woman
15th October
World Food Day
16th October
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
World Fish Day
21st November
National Milk Day
26th November
National Agriculture Education Day Babu 3rd December
Rajendra Prasad birthday)
Agriculture Women Day
4th December
World Soil Day
5th December
Farmers Day
23rd December
Jai Kisan Jai Vigyan Week
23-29 December
ABOUT KISAN DIVAS:
❖ Kisan Diwas was observed across the country on 23 December 2013 to celebrate the
birthday of Chaudhary Charan Singh.
❖ Chaudhary Charan Singh (23 Dec 1902 - 29 May 1987) was the fifth Prime Minister of
India. He served as the Prime Minister from 28 July 1979 to 14 January 1980.
❖ Chaudhary Charan Singh holds the record of being the only Prime Minister of India who
did not face the Parliamentary floor for a single day after assuming the office.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN AGRICULTURE:
Instrument
Measure
Pyranometer
Total insolation (incoming radiation)
Pyreheliometer
Direct solar radiation
Spectroradiometer
Solar radiation in narrow wavelength
Pyrgeometer
Solar radiation in Long wavelength
Pyradiometer
Both Long and short wavelength
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Shading Pyranometre
Diffused radiation
Albedometer
Radiation reflectivity or albedo
Spectrophotometer
Wavelength of light
Net radiometer
Net radiation
Quantum sensor
36
Photosynthetically active radiation
Campbell-Stroke sunshine recorder
Duration of bright sunshine hours (used in
India)
Heliograph
Duration of bright sunshine hours
Maximum thermometer
Max. air temperature during day (2 pm)
(mercury used)
Minimum thermometer
Min. air temperature during day (5 am)
(alcohol used)
Dry Bulb thermometer
Air Temperature
Wet Bulb Thermometer
Saturated air temperature
Thermograph
Continuous air temperature
Aneroid barometer and barograph
Atmospheric pressure
Anemometer
Wind velocity
Wind vane
Wind direction
Beaufort scale
Wind force/speed
Psychrometer/Hygrometer
Indirect measurement of relative humidity
(RH)
Assmann Psychrometer
RH in open and crop canopy
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Hygrograph
Continuous record of RH
Rain gauge
Rainfall
Aerometer
Density of gases
Piezometer
Pressure of ground water (hydrostatic
pressure)
Pycnometer
Specific gravity of soil
Hydrometer
Specific gravity of liquid
Penetrometre
Strength of Soil
Crescograph
Plant growth (invented by J. C. Bose)
Auxanometer
Plant growth .
Manometer
Photometer
Porometer
Potometer
Evaporimeter/Atmometer/Atmidometer
Osmometer
Lysimeter
Tensiometer/ lrrometer
Root pressure
Transpiration or stomata behaviour
Stomatal behaviour
Transpiration
Evaporation
Osmosis
ET and percolation & leaching losses, i.e.,
watermoisture
Soil
loss
tension (SMT) (AFO 2021)
Notes: Still well is present in which meteorological instrument: Evaporation pan (NABARD2021)
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BASICS OF AGRONOMY
❖ Agronomy: Agronomy is derived from a Greek word ‘Agros’ meaning ‘field’ and ‘nomos’
meaning ‘management’. Principles of agronomy deal with scientific facts in relations to
environment in which crop are produced.
❖ Agronomy: It is defined as an agricultural science deal with principles and practices of
crop production and field management.
❖ With a 19.5% contribution to the gross domestic product (GDP), agriculture still provides
livelihood support to about 54% of country's population.
❖ According to Agricultural budget 2020-21 economic survey of India the agricultural
GVA % of India is 19.9 (NABARD- 2021)
Branches of Agriculture
Vermiculture
Tissue culture
Apiculture
Horticulture
Pomology
Sericulture
Moriculture
Viticulture
Silviculture
Agriculture of Earth worm
Production of a new plant from plant cells
Study of honeybee.
Study of fruits and vegetables.
Study of fruits.
Rearing of silkworm.
Production of mulberry.
Production of grapes.
Forest Development
Evolution of man and Agriculture:
❖ There are different stages in development of agriculture, which is oriented with human
civilization.
2. Pastoral
3. Crop
culture
1. Hunting
Stages
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4. Trade
(stages of
human
civilization)
❖ Hunting – It was the primary source of food in old days. It is the important occupation and
it existed for a very long period.
❖ Pastoral – Human obtained his food through domestication animals, e.g. dogs, horse, cow,
buffalo etc.
❖ Crop culture - By living near the riverbed, he had enough water for his animals and
domesticated crops and started cultivation. Thus, he has started to settle in a place.
Agriculture became civilized from crop culture stage.
❖ Trade – When he started producing more than his requirement the excess was exchanged,
this is the basis for trade. When agriculture has flourished, trade developed. This led to
infrastructure development like road, routes, etc
Some important events for different periods that lead to development of scientific
agriculture.
Earlier than 10000
BC: Hunting and
Gathering
7500 BC:
Cultivation of
Wheat and Barley
3400 BC: Wheel
was invented
2300 BC:
Cultivated of
chickpea, Cotton,
Mustard
2900 BC: Plough
was invented,
irrigated farming
started
3000 BC: Bronze
used for making
tools
2200 BC:
Cultivation of rice
1500 BC:
Cultivation of
Sugarcane
1400 BC: Use of
Iron
1500 AD:
Cultivation of
orange, Brinjal,
pomegranate
1000 BC: Use of
iron Plough
1600 AD: Introduction of
Potato, Papaya, tapioca,
tomato, Chillies,
Pineapple, Groundnut,
Tobacco, Rubber,
American cotton.
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NOMENCLATURE OF CROPS:
English/Hindi Name
Botanical Name
Family
CEREAL CROPS
Rice (Found in Asia, AmericaOryza sativa (AFO 2021)Poaceae
and Europe)
(Gramineae)
Rice (Found in West Africa) Oryza glaberrima
Poaceae
40
Chromosome
Number
24
Common
bread
wheat/Mexican dwarf wheat
Macaroni/durum wheat
Indian dwarf wheat
Emmer wheat
Einkorn wheat
Maize
Sorghum
Barley
Oat
Triticale
Rye
MILLETS
Pearl millet
Finger millet/Ragi
Foxtail millet (Italian millet)
Triticum aestivum
Poaceae
42
Triticum durum
Triticum sphaerococcum
Triticum dicoccum
Triticum monococcum
Zea mays
Sorghum bicolor
Hordeum vulgare
Avena sativa
Tritico secale
Secale cereale
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
20
20
14
42
42
14
Pennisetum glaucum
Eleusine coracana
Setaria italica
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
14
36
18
Kodo millet
Little millet/ kutki
Proso millet/cheena
Barnyard millet/Sawan
PULSE CROPS
Chickpea
Pigeon pea (Red gram)
Lentil
Green gram (Moong)
Black gram (Urd)
Cowpea
Paspalum scrobiculatum
Panicum sumatrense
Panicum miliaceum
Echinocloa frumentacea
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Poaceae
Cicer arietinum
Cajanus cajan
Lens culinaris
Vigna radiata
Vigna mungo
Vigna unguiculata
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
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16
22
14
22
22
22
Field pea
Garden pea
Pisum sativum var.
Fabaceae
arvense
Pisum sativum var. hortensFabaceae
Cluster bean/Guar
Cyamopsis
tetragonoloba
Common/Kidney/French beanPhaseolus vulgaris
Fabaceae
14
Fabaceae
22
Lathyrus (Grass pea)
Lathyrus sativus
Fabaceae
Moth bean
Vigna acontifolia
Fabaceae
Rice bean
Vigna umbellata
Fabaceae
Horse gram
Macrotyloma uniflorum Fabaceae
Note: Kharif Pulses: 2n = 22 except horse gram (Kulthi) (2n = 24).
Rabi Pulses: 2n = 14
OILSEED CROPS
Rapeseed and mustard
Mustard
Indian mustard/Leaf
mustard/ Brown mustard
14
14
22
22
20-24
Lentil
Pea
except chickpea (2n = 16)
Lathyrus
Brassica sp.
Brassicaceae
(Cruciferae)
Brassica juncea
Brassicaceae
(Cruciferae)
(AFO 2021)
Brassicaceae
(Cruciferae)
Brassicaceae
(Cruciferae)
Pedaliaceae
Asteraceae
(Compositae)
Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Linaceae
Asteraceae
(Compositae)
Black mustard/true
mustard/banarasi rai
Ethiopian mustard/African
mustard
Sesame
Sunflower
Brassica nigra
Ground nut
Arachis hypogaea
Linseed
Safflower
Linum usitatissimum
Carthamus tinctorius
Brassica carinata
Sesamum indicum
Helianthus annuus
26
34
40
30
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41
Niger
Guizotia abyssinica
Soybean
Glycine max
Castor
FIBRE CROPS
White Jute
Tossa Jute
Upland/American Cotton
Desi Cotton
Asiatic cotton
Mesta
Sunnhemp
Ricinus communis
Corchorus capsularis
Corchorus olitorius
Gossypium hirsutum
Gossypium arboreum
Gossypium herbaceum
Hibiscus sabdariffa
Crotalaria juncea
Asteraceae
(Compositae)
Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Euphorbiaceae
30
Tiliaceae
Tiliaceae
Malvaceae
Malvaceae
Malvaceae
Malvaceae
Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Linaceae
Malvaceae
16
14
26
Flax
Linum usitatissimum
Kenaf
Hibiscus cannabinus
SUGAR AND STARCH CROPS
Sugarcane (Noble cane)
Saccharum officinarum Poaceae
(Gramineae)
Sugarbeet
Beta Vulgaris
Chenopodiaceae
Potato
Solanum tuberosum
Solanaceae
Buck wheat
Fagopyrum esculentum Polygonaceae
Cassava (Tapioca)
Manihot esculenta
Euphorbiaceae
NARCOTIC CROPS
Tobacco
Nicotiana tabacum/rusticaSolanaceae
Canabis
BEVERAGE CROPS
Tea
Coffee
Cocoa
Chicory
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20
16
80
18
48
32
36
48
Cannabis sativa
Cannabaceae
Camellia sinensis
Coffea arabica
Theobroma cacao
Chicorium intybus
Theaceae
Rubiaceae
Sterculiaceae
Asteraceae
(Compositae)
30
Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
16
FORAGE AND GRASSES
Egyptian Clover / Berseem Trifolium alexandrium
42
20
18
Alfalfa/Lucerne (NABARD Medicago sativa
Fabaceae
2021)
(Leguminosae)
Cowpea/Lobia (NABARD Vigna unguiculata
Fabaceae
2021)
(Leguminosae)
Cluster bean/Guar
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Sweet clover/ Senji
Melilotus alba
Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Para grass/Buffalo grass
Brachiaria mutica
Poaceae
(Gramineae)
Napier grass
Pennisetum purpureum Poaceae
(Gramineae)
Oats
Avena sativa
Poaceae
(Gramineae)
Red Clover
Trifolium pratense
Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Sericea
Lespedeza cuneata
Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Velvet bean
Mucna pruriens
Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Common Vetch
Vicia sativa
Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Kudzu
Pueraria thumb ergiana Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Indigo (Hairy)
Indigofera hirsuta
Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Rhodes grass
Chloris gayana
Poaceae
(Gramineae)
Rye
Secale cereale
Poaceae
(Gramineae)
Italian Ryegrass
Lolium multiflorum
Poaceae
(Gramineae)
GREEN MANURE CROPS
Cluster bean/Guar
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Sesbania
Sesbania speciosa
Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
22
14
42
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43
Dhaincha (Root nodulating Sesbania aculeata
species)
Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
PLANT FAMILY AND THEIR OTHER NAME
Poaceae
Gramineae
Fabaceae, Papillionacea
Leguminosae
Brassicaceae
Cruciferae
Asteraceae
Compositae
Solanaceae
Nightshades
Laminaceae
Labiatae
Theaceae
Cammeliaceae
CROP WITH SPECIAL NAME
Special Name
Brown gold
White gold
Poor man's meat/ boneless meat/ Yellow
jewel/ Wonder Crop
Golden fiber
Bio energy plant
King of temperate crop
Poor man’s friend
Vegetable Meat
Poor man’s substitute for ghee
Poor man’s food
Glory of East
Autumn queen
Wonder tree
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Crop
Dead pupae of silkworm
Cotton
Soybean
Jute
Jatropha
Apple
Potato
Cow pea
Sesame
Pearl millet
Chrysanthemum
Chrysanthemum
Neem
Queen of night
Cestrum nocturnum
Apple of paradise
Banana
Poor man’s orange (India) and Love of
Tomato
apple (England)
Drosophila of crop plants
Maize
Adams fig
Banana
Butter fruit
Avocado
Green gold
Bamboo
Food of God
Cocoa
Tree of heaven
Coconut
Bio drainage plant
Eucalyptus spp
Thorny oilseed crop/Fencing crop/ BorderSafflower
crop
Pseudo cereal
Buckwheat
Coarsest millet
Kodo (Paspalum scrobiculatum)
Hardiest crop among all the pulses
Mung bean
Famous Crop
Crop
King of cereals
Wheat
Queen of cereals
Maize
King of coarse cereals
Sorghum
King of pulses
Gram
Queen of pulses
Pea
King of fruits
Mango
Queen of fruits
Mangosteen
King of temperate fruits
Apple
King of spices
Black Pepper
Queen of spices
Cardamom
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King of vegetables
Potato
Famine reserves
Millets
Camel crop
Sorghum
Queen of oilseeds
Sesame
King of oilseeds
Mustard
King of fodder crops
Berseem
Queen of fodder crops
Lucerne
Poor man's fruit
Jackfruit, Ber
King of arid and semi-arid fruits
Ber
Poor’s grain
Pearl Millet
King of Weeds
Congress Grass or Carrot Grass
Night's queen
Cestrum nocturnum
Organic oil plant
Jatropha
Butter fruit
Avocado
Queen of beverages
Tea
Tree of heaven
Coconut
CROP CLASSIFICATION
❖ Based on Ontogeny (Life cycle)
(a) Annual crops: Crop plants that complete life cycle within a season or year. They produce
seed and die within the season. Ex. Wheat, rice, maize, mustard etc.
(b) Biennial crops: Plants that have life span of two consecutive seasons or years. First years/
season, these plants have purely vegetative growth usually confined to rosette of leaves. The
tap root is often fleshy and serves as a food storage organ. During the second year / season,
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
they produce flower stocks from the crown and after producing seeds the plants die. Ex.
Sugar beet, beet root, etc.
(c) Perennial crops: They live for three or more years. They may be seed bearing or non-seed
bearing. Ex. Napier fodder grass, coconut (IBPS AFO 2018), etc.
❖ Classification based on climate:
1. Tropical: Crops grow well in warm & hot climate. E.g., Rice, sugarcane, Jowar etc
2. Subtropical: Rice, cotton
3. Temperate: Crops grow well in cool climate. E.g., Wheat, Barley Oats, Gram, Potato etc.
4. Polar crops: All pines, pasture grasses
❖ Classification Based on growing season:
1. Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops: The crops grown in monsoon months from June to OctNov, require warm, wet weather at major period of crop growth, also required short day
length for flowering. E.g., Cotton, Rice, Jowar, bajra etc.
2. Season to grow well from Oct to March month. Crops grow well in cold and dry weather.
Require longer day length for flowering. E.g., Wheat, gram, Safflower etc.
3. Summer/Zaid crops: The crops grown in summer month from March to June. Require
warm day weather for major growth period and longer day length for flowering. E.g.,
Groundnuts, Watermelon, Pumpkins, Gourds.
LIST OF KHARIF AND RABI CROPS:
Kharif
Sunflower, Castor, Soybean, Sunhemp,
Cotton, Till, Groundnut, Bajra, paddy,
Maize
Rabi
Tobacco, Berseem,
Wheat, Barley
Sugarcane,
Mustard,
❖ Use/Agronomic classification:
1. Cereals: Cereals are the cultivated grasses grown for their edible starchy grains. Larger
grains used as staple food – Rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats etc. Cereals are an excellent
source of fat-soluble vitamin E, which is an essential antioxidant. Whole cereal grains
contain 20 to 30% of the daily requirements of the minerals such as selenium, calcium, zinc
and copper.
2. Millets: Millets are the small, grained cereals which are of minor importance as food. E.g.,
Bajra. They are also annual grasses of the group cereals. But’ they are grown in lesser area
or less important area whose productivity and economics are also less important. These are
also staple food for people of poor countries. In India, pearl millet is a staple food in
Rajasthan.
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Millets are broadly classified in to two,
1. Major millets
2. Minor millets.
Major millets
Sorghum /Jowar/Cholam
Sorghum bicolor
Pearl millet /Bajra/Cumbu
Pennisetum glaucum
Finger millet or Ragi
Eleusine coracona
Minor millets
Foxtail millet / Thenai
Setaria italica
Little millet / Samai
Panicum miliare
Common millet / Panivaraugu
Panicum miliaceum
Barnyard millet / Kudiraivali
Echinchloa colona var frumentaceae
Kodo millet / Varagu
Paspalum scrobiculatum
Note: Major Coarse cereal millet: Jowar, bajra, ragi (NABARD- 2021)
3. Pulse/legume crops: Seeds of leguminous crops plant used as food. On splitting they
produced dal which is rich in protein.
48
Red gram
Cajanus Cajan
Black gram
Vigna mungo
Green gram
V. radiata
Cowpea
V. unguiculata
Bengal gram
Cicer arietinum
Horse gram
Macrotyloma uniflorum
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Lentil
Lens esculentus or Lens culinaris
Soybean
Glycine max
Peas or garden pea
Pisum sativum
Garden bean
Lablab purpureus
Lathyrus/Khesari
Lathyrus sativus
Notes:
➢ Guar: Legumes crop used for gum manufacturing.
➢ Cowpea: tolerant to heavy rainfall than other pulses
➢ Lathyrus its grain and other parts contain a neurotoxin called ODAP (βN-oxalyl - 2α, βdiamino-propionic acid) which causes lathyrism, i.e., paralysis in the lower limbs. In our
country, a variety, Bio L-212 (Ratan) with very low ODAP content is recently released.
4. Oil seeds crops: crop seeds are rich in fatty acids, are used to extract vegetable oil to meet
various requirements.
Groundnut or peanut
Arachis hypogaea
Sesame or gingelly
Sesamum indicum
Sunflower
Helianthus annuus
Castor
Ricinus communis
Linseed or flax
Linum usitatissimum
Niger
Guizotia abyssinia
Safflower
Carthamus tinctorius
Brown or Indian Mustard
Brassica juncea
Sarson
Brassica sp.
5. Fodder/ Forage Crop: It refers to vegetative matter, fresh or preserved, utilized as feed for
animals. It includes hay, silage, pasturage and fodder.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Ex. Grasses - Bajra Napier grass, guinea grass, fodder sorghum, fodder maize.
Legumes - Lucerne, Desmanthus, Cowpea (NABARD 2021) etc. Crop cultivated & used for
fickler, hay, silage.
6. Fibre crops: crown for fibre yield. Fibre may be obtained from seed.
Different kinds of fibre are:
Seed fibre
Cotton
Stem/ bast fibre
Jute, Mesta
Leaf fibre
Agave, pineapple
Cotton:
➢
➢
➢
➢
Important fibre crop of the world used for garment purpose.
Seed for cattle feed and oil is edible purpose.
Epidermal hairs of seed coats are the economic portion.
Lint (Kapas-seed) has industrial value (fibre) and stalk is of fuel nature.
Jute, Sun hemp, Mesta:
➢ Jute is a fibre crop based on economic use (RRB SO 2018)
➢ The fibre obtained from stems is used for gunny bags, ropes.
➢ Stem itself is used as fuel.
➢ Sun hemp is used for both stem fibre and green manure crop.
7. Roots crops: Roots are the economic produce in root crop. E.g., sweet potato, sugar beet,
carrot, turnip etc.
8. Tuber crop: crop whose edible portion is not a root but a short thickened underground stem.
E.g., Potato, yam.
9. Sugar crops: The two important crops are sugarcane and sugar beet cultivated for production
for sugar.
i. Sugarcane - Saccharum officinarum
ii. Sugar beet - Beta vulgaris
10. Starch crops: grown to produce starch. E.g., tapioca, potato, sweet potato.
11. Drug crop: used for preparation for medicines. E.g., tobacco, mint ( RRB SO 2018),
pyrethrum.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
12. Spices & condiments/spices crops: crop plants as their products are used to flavour taste and
sometime colour the fresh preserved food. E.g., ginger, garlic, chili, cumin, onion,
coriander, cardamom, pepper, turmeric etc.
13. Vegetables crops: may be leafy as fruity vegetables. E.g. Palak, Mentha, Brinjal, tomato.
14. Green manure crop: grown and incorporated into soil to increase fertility of soil. E.g., sun
hemp.
15. Medicinal & aromatic crops: Medicinal plants includes cinchona, Isabgol, opium poppy,
tobacco, senna, belladonna, rauwolfia, Liquorice etc.
16. Aromatic plants such as lemon grass, citronella grass, Palm Rosa, Japanese mint, peppermint,
Rose Geraniums, jasmine, henna etc.
❖ Classification based on cultural method/water:
1. Rain fed: crops grow only on rainwater. E.g., Jowar, Bajra, Mung etc.
2. Irrigated crops: Crops grows with the help of irrigation water. E.g., Chili, sugarcane,
Banana, papaya etc.
❖ Classification based on root system:
1. Tap root system: The main root goes deep into the soil. E.g., Tur, Grape, Cotton etc.
2. Adventitious/Fibre rooted: The crops whose roots are fibrous shallow & spreading into the
soil. E.g., Cereal crops, wheat, rice etc.
❖ Classification based on economic importance:
1. Cash crop: Grown for earning money. E.g., Sugarcane, cotton.
2. Food crops: Grown for raising food grain for the population and & fodder for cattle. E.g.,
Jowar, wheat, rice etc.
❖ Classification based on No. of cotyledons:
1. Monocots or monocotyledons: Having one cotyledon in the seed. E.g., all cereals &
Millets.
2. Dicots or dicotyledonous: Crops having two cotyledons in the seed. E.g., all legumes &
pulses.
❖ Classification based on length of photoperiod required for floral initiation (According to
TNAU)
➢ Photoperiodism is a response of plant to day length.
1. Short-day plants: Flower initiation takes plate when days are short less than twelve hours.
E.g., rice, sunflower, cotton, Jowar, green gram, black gram etc.
2. Long day plants: Require long days are more than ten hours for floral ignition. E.g., Wheat,
Barley, oat, carrot, Potato, sugar beet and cabbage.
3. Day neutral plants: Photoperiod does not have much influence for phase change for these
plants. E.g., Maize, Tomato.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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The rate of the flowering initiation depends on how short or long is photoperiod. Shorter the days,
more rapid initiation of flowering in short days plants. Longer the days more rapid are the initiation
of flowering in long days plants.
❖ Phototropism –– Response of plants to light direction. E.g. Sunflower.
❖ Photosensitive – Season bound varieties depends on quantity of light received.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
CROPPING PATTERN, CROPPING SYSTEM AND CROPPING SCHEME
❖ Cropping pattern depicts the pattern of crops for a given piece of land, means the
proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a unit area or it indicates the yearly
sequence and spatial arrangements of crops that follows in an area.
❖ Cropping system means the relation of a specific cropping pattern with all available farm
resources like Land, water and environment etc. Thus, this combination comes out to be a
system.
❖ Thus, a cropping system comprises cropping pattern plus all components required to produce
a particular crop and the inter relationships between them and environment.
❖ Cropping scheme: The plan according to which crops are grown on individual plots of a
farm with an object of getting maximum return from cash crop without impairing the fertility
of soil is known as cropping scheme.
INTENSIVE CROPPING
❖ Growing number of crops on the same piece of land during the given period of time. The
turnaround period between one crop and another is minimized through modified land
preparation.
➢ Types of cropping systems:
Mono-Cropping
Multiple-cropping
Inter-cropping
Sequence cropping
Relay cropping
Ratoon cropping
❖ Mono-Cropping: Mono-cropping or monoculture refers to growing of only one crop on a
piece of land year after year.
➢ It may be due to climatological and socio-economic conditions or due to specialisation of a
farmer in growing a particular crop, e.g., under rained conditions, groundnut or cotton or
sorghum are grown year after year due to limitation of rainfall.
➢ In canal irrigated areas, under a waterlogged condition, rice crop is grown as it is not possible
to grow any other crop.
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➢ Advantages of monoculture/monocropping: ✓ Convenience in sowing with the help of machinery under mechanized farming
✓ It is convenient for harvesting with the help of machinery
➢ Disadvantages:
✓ Sometimes fertility and productivity of the soil are lowered if suitable soil management
practices are not followed.
✓ Soil structure may be deteriorated.
✓ Increase infestation of pests, diseases, and weeds.
✓ Intensive Cropping systems
❖ Multiple-cropping: Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one calendar
year is known as multiple-cropping.
➢ It is the intensification of cropping in time and space dimensions, i.e., more number of crops
within year and more number of crops on same piece of land any give period.
➢ It includes inter-cropping, mixed-cropping and sequence cropping. Double-cropping is a
case where the land is occupied by two crops, which are grown in a year in sequence.
✓ E.g., Sorghum-Wheat-Green Gram
✓ Maize-Wheat-Green gram
✓ Rice-Wheat-Black Gram-Linseed
Parallel Multiple cropping
Sequential Multiple cropping
Mixed cropping
Sequential cropping: Double cropping
Intercropping
Triple cropping
Relay cropping
Quadruple cropping
Alley cropping
Ratoon cropping/Ratooning
Multi storied cropping
❖ Parallel multiple cropping: ➢ When two or more crops are grown in association for part or entire period of their life cycle
is known as parallel multiple cropping.
➢ It includes following cropping systems.
i) Mixed cropping: ➢ Growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row arrangement is known as
mixed cropping.
➢ E.g., Maize + Green gram + Pigeon pea
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➢ Sorghum + Groundnut + Pigeon pea
➢ Mixed cropping is common practice in rainfed or dry farming areas.
➢ Generally, legumes crop like red gram, black gram, green gram, cowpea etc. or oilseed crops
like groundnut, mustard etc. are mixed with cereal crops like jowar or bajra.
➢ Sowing is done by drilling the mixture of seed with the help of seed drill or moghan can be
attached behind the seed drill for sowing of mixed crop.
➢ Usually, cereals are grown as main crop and pulses or oilseeds as minor or mixed crop.
Advantages of mixed cropping: ✓ Risk of failure of crop is less
✓ Fulfills the daily requirements of food grains, oilseeds, pulses etc.
✓ Improve fertility of the soil if legumes are taken as minor crop
✓ Better distribution of Labour throughout the crop period
✓ Increase gross monetary returns
✓ Well balanced cattle feed is obtained
✓ Safeguards against pests and diseases
✓ Full utilization of space and available plant nutrients
➢ Disadvantages: ✓ Sometimes control of pests, diseases and weeds become difficult
✓ Sometimes affects the yield of main crop
✓ Harvesting with the help of machinery is not possible
➢ Type of mixed cropping1. Mixed crop: - Seeds of different crops are mixed and then sown either in lines or broadcasted
is called as mixed crop.
2. Companion crop: Seeds of different crops are not mixed but different crops are sown in different rows is called
as companion crop
3. Guard crop: The main crop is sown in the center, surrounded by hardy crop to provide protection to main
crop is called as guard crop.
E.g., Safflower around wheat, Mesta around sugarcane.
4. Augmenting crop: Sub crops are sown to supplement the yield of main crop, the sub crop is called as augmenting
crops. e.g., Japanese mustard with berseem.
➢ Advantages of Augmenting crop: ✓ Better utilization of available resources.
✓ Insurance of against total failure of crop
✓ Higher yield per unit area per unit time.
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✓ Less incidence of pest and diseases
✓ Improvement in soil structure
✓ Improvement in soil fertility
➢ Disadvantages of Augmenting crop:✓ Difficult to carry out different field operations
✓ More labour requirement
✓ Due care is needed while selecting crop
❖ Inter-cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field.
➢ Crop intensification is in both time and space dimensions.
➢ There is intercrop competition during all or part of crop growth.
➢ Inter-cropping was originally practiced as an insurance against crop failure under
rained conditions. At present main objective of inter-cropping is higher productivity per
unit area in addition to stability in production. Inter-cropping system utilizes resources
efficiently and their productivity is increased.
➢ E.g., Maize + Pigeon pea (2:1)
Sorghum + Pigeon pea (2:1)
Cotton + Green gram (2:1)
Pigeon pea + Ground nut + Lentil (2:1:1)
➢ Ccharacteristics of good intercrop/minor crop/subsidiary mixed crop:✓ It should be nor affecting the growth and yield of base crop or main crop.
✓ It should mature earlier or later than the base crop or main crop.
✓ A far as possible it should be a legume crop for maintaining fertility and productivity of the
soil.
✓ It should have different growth habits and nutrient requirements to have minimum
competition.
✓ It should have different rooting depths.
✓ It should differ in canopy development and sunlight requirement.
➢ Advantages of intercropping system:
✓ It should help to Improves the soil fertility and soil productivity.
✓ Maintaining the higher crop yield.
✓ Better utilization of available resources.
✓ It should resist the soil erosion.
✓ Reduces the incidence of insect pest, disease and weeds.
✓ Improves the soil structure and water holding capacity of soil.
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➢ Disadvantages:
✓ Harvesting with the help of machinery is difficult.
✓ Intercultural operations are not possible.
✓ Competition among the resources is more.
✓ Harvesting makes a time consuming/difficult.
✓ Weed control is not possible.
✓ Water requirement is more.
TYPES OF INTERCROPPING
Mixed intercropping
Row intercropping
Alley cropping
Strip intercropping
Relay intercropping
➢ Types of Intercropping: (a) Parallel Cropping: ✓ Cultivation of such crops which have different natural habit, and zero competition is
called as parallel cropping. e.g., black gram/green gram + Maize.
(b) Companion cropping: ✓ System in which production of both intercrops is equal to that of its solid planting is
called as companion cropping. e.g., Mustard/Potato/Onion + Sugarcane.
(c) Mixed Intercropping: ✓ Growing of two or more crops with no distinct row arrangement is called as mixed
intercropping.
➢ There are four types of mixed intercropping systems: 1. Row intercropping: -
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✓ Growing of two or more crops simultaneously, where one or more crops are planted in rows
is called as row intercropping. Maize + green gram (1:1), Maize + black gram (1:1),
Groundnut + Red gram (6:1)
2. Patch cropping: ✓ Where component crops are planted in patches is called as patch cropping.
3. Strip intercropping: ✓ Growing of two or more crops simultaneously in strips wide enough to permit independent
cultivation but narrow enough to interact the crop agronomically is called as strip
intercropping. Ex. Groundnut + red gram (6:4) strip.
4. Relay intercropping: ✓ Growing of two or more crops simultaneously during the part of life cycle of each is called
as relay intercropping.
✓ Second crop is planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive stage of growth but
before it is ready for harvest. Succeeding crop is planted before harvesting of preceding
crop.
5. Relay cropping:➢ It is the cropping system in which succeeding crop (next crop) is or sown or planted when
the first crop (preceding crop) has reached its physiological maturity stage or before it is
ready to harvest is called as relay cropping.
➢ e.g., Rice-Linseed/lentil/black gram/chickpea.
➢ Advantages of relay cropping:
✓ Better utilization of residual moisture and fertilizers.
✓ Reduces the cost of cultivation practices.
✓ Also reduces the cost of fertilizers and irrigation.
✓ Labour requirement is less.
✓ Incidence of pest, diseases and weeds is less due to early sowing operation.
➢ Disadvantages:✓ Risk of crop failure is more.
✓ Lack of availability of skilled labour.
✓ Greater incidence of pest, disease and weeds.
6. Alley cropping:➢ The system of growing jowar, maize, bajra or any other arable crop in the alleys (passage
between two rows) of leguminous shrubs like subabul (Leucaena leucocephela) is called as
alley cropping.
➢ Growing of maize, jowar, bajra, cowpea in between rows of subabul planted at 5-10 m
spacing, this system is useful for conservation of moisture and maintaining fertility of soil
in dry farming areas.
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➢ The loppings of the subabul are used as green fodder for animals or spread in between the
crop rows as mulch for conservation of soil moisture and after delaying it adds organic
matter to the soil.
➢ Advantages of alley cropping:
✓ Better utilization of natural resources.
✓ Reduces the cost of cultivation.
✓ Improves the soil fertility and productivity.
✓ Provides fodder for animals and food for human.
➢ Disadvantages:
✓ Competition among the natural resources i.e moisture, nutrients, light and space.
✓ Incidence of pest, diseases and weeds is more.
✓ Chances of crop failure is more.
✓ Less yield is obtained.
➢ Types of Alley cropping :1. Food cum fodder system:✓ In this system provides food grains like pulses, cereals, oilseeds and fodder for livestock.
2. Food cum mulch system:✓ In this system provides food grains as well as crop residues as a mulch for soil and water
conservative measures.
3. Food cum pole system:✓ In this system provides food as well as wood for fuel, timber, furniture etc.
7. Multistoried cropping: ➢ In this system the crops of different height and vertical layers of leaf canopies, sunlight
requirements and root system are grown together on the same field is called as multistoried
cropping.
➢ Generally, the shorter crops favoring shade and humidity are grown in passage between the
rows of taller crops, which are tolerant to strong sunlight.
➢ e.g., Growing of pineapple, sweet potato, black pepper, tapioca, turmeric, ginger etc. in
coconut or arecanut.
➢ Advantages of Multistoried cropping:
✓ Better utilization of moisture and nutrients in different soil layers.
✓ Better utilization of sunlight and space.
✓ Provides a balanced food for humans.
✓ Enrichment of organic matter or plant residues in soil.
✓ Improve the water holding capacity of soil
➢ Disadvantages:
✓ Competition among the natural resources.
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✓
✓
✓
a)
More area is required.
Lack of labour availability
Incidence of pest, disease and weeds is more.
Synergetic cropping:-
✓ The yields of both crops are higher than of their pure crop on unit area basis is called as
synergetic cropping. e.g., Sugarcane + Potato
i) Additive Series:✓ In this system one crop is main crop or base cop and another crop is intercrop.
✓ intercrop is introduced into the base crop by adjusting or changing crop geometry. Plant
population of main crop is kept same so that recommended for pure stand by reducing
row spacing.
✓ Intercrop is sown in the reduced space.
✓ The objective of the system is to get additional income and to cover risk.
✓ LER (Land Equivalent Ratio) is more than 1.
✓ Additive series is more efficient than the replacement series.
ii) Replacement Series:✓ Both the crops are component crops. The plant population of both crops is less than their
recommended population in pure stand. LER is less than 1.
✓ Replacement series is less efficient than the Additive series.
✓ LER of intercropping system should be 1.
2) Sequential multiple cropping:✓ It is the multiple cropping system in which two or more crops are grown in sequence on the
same piece of land in a year or over a fixed period.
i) Sequence cropping:✓ In this cropping system two or more crops are grown in sequence one after another on the
same piece of land in a year.
a) Double cropping:✓ It is multiple cropping system in which two crops are grown in sequence on the same piece
of land in a year.
✓ e.g., Black gram-Jowar
✓ Black gram-Wheat
✓ Rice-Gram, Groundnut-Wheat etc.
b) Triple cropping:✓ It is the multiple cropping system in which three crops are grown in sequence on a same
land in a year.
✓ It is possible when irrigation facilities are available throughout the year.
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✓ e.g., Groundnut-Wheat-Okra, Rice-Wheat-Groundnut, Jowar-Potato-Green gram,
Soybean-Wheat-Groundnut etc.
c) Quadruple cropping: ✓ It is the multiple cropping system in which four crops are grown in a sequence on the same
land in a year.
✓ It is possible under irrigated conditions throughout the year. e.g., Groundnut-CorianderWheat-Green gram, Soybean-Methi-Wheat-Green gram etc.
ii) Ratoon cropping or Ratooning: ✓ The cultivation of crop regrowth after harvest is known as ratoon cropping. (IBPS AFO
2020)
✓ Ratooning is one of the important systems of intensive cropping, which implies more than
one harvest from one sowing/planting because of regrowth from the basal buds on the stem
after harvest of first crop.
✓ Thus, ratooning consists of allowing the stubbles of the original crop to strike again or to
produce the tillers after harvesting and to raise another crop.
✓ e.g., Ratooning of Sugarcane, Hybrid Jowar, Hybrid Bajra, and Red gram etc.
➢ Advantages of multiple cropping: ✓ It increases the total production and gross monetary returns from the unit area in a year.
✓ Fulfills various needs of food grains, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fodder etc.
✓ Facilitates even distribution of labour throughout the year.
✓ Better utilization of land, labour, power, and other resources on the farm.
✓ Regular flow of income throught the year.
➢ Disadvantages of multiple cropping:✓ Fertility and productivity of the soil is lowered or exhausted if proper soil management
practices are allowed.
✓ Sometimes if affects the structure of the soil due to continuous cropping and irrigation.
✓ Sometimes control of pests, diseases and weeds becomes difficult.
➢ Fallowing or fallow in rotation:✓ In scarcity areas (dry farming) where rainfall is very low only two crops are taken in three
years as against one crop every year is called as fallowing or fallow in rotation.
✓ A fallow year or season in one in which field is not cultivated with any crop but left without
crop.
✓ The field may be left undisturbed in a ploughed condition or kept clean by frequent
harrowing.
✓ This practice is useful for conservation of soil moisture and maintaining fertility of the soil.
✓ In irrigated area sometimes one season is kept fallow for maintaining fertility of the soil
and minimizing the damage to the soil due to continuous use of irrigation and cropping.
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➢ Definitions of important terms in cropping systems: ✓ Base crop: - It is the major crop grown in intercropping system.
✓ Inter crop: - It is the additional crop grown in the space created in inter cropping systems.
✓ Mixed crop/minor/subsidiary crop: - In the crop grown by seed mixture in main crop in
mixed cropping.
✓ Main crop: - The major crop grown in mixed cropping system.
✓ Companion crop: - The crop grown in association in cropping system for complementary
effect.
✓ Component crop: - Either of the crop grown in multiple cropping system.
❖ Cropping intensity
➢ Cropping intensity = (Gross cropped area / Net sown area) x 100 = ( Area under kharif +
Rabi +Zaid /Area under actual cultivation)x100
➢ Cropping intensity of India is nearly 138 % (Kurukshetra-April 2019)
❖ Crop rotation intensity
➢ C.R.I = ( No. of crop in crop rotation/No. of year in crop rotation) x100
➢ E.g., Crop rotation for 1 year: Rice – Pea (200%)
➢ Crop rotation for 2 year: Groundnut- wheat- sugarcane (150%)
ANNIDATION
➢ The complimentary interaction between intercrops in the intercrop-ping system is known as
Annidation. When plants are grown as compo-nents of intercropping system, interactions
between the components spe-cies occur
➢ Spatial Annidation (Annidation in Space): Here the complimentary interactions between
the intercrops occur with regard to spatial position (space/place). This principle is used in
Multistorey cropping
➢ Temporal Annidation (Annidation in Time): The complimentary interaction between the
intercrops in the time as-pect is called Temporal Annidation. Such intercrops have different
natural habit and zero competition. Both the component species have widely vary-ing
duration and different peak demands for light and nutrients.
TYPES OF FARMING:
➢ Subsistence farming: means farming for own consumption. In other words, the entire
production is largely consumed by the farmers and their family, and they do not have any
surplus to sell in the market.
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➢ Commercial farming: involves the production of food for sale. In today’s agriculture most
of the farmers are involved in this type of farming.
➢ Intensive method: is practiced in those countries where the supply of land is limited, and
density of population is high. In this type of farming emphasis is on greatest possible output
per hectare of land. Countries like India, China, Japan, Britain, Holland, Germany, and
Belgium practice this method of agriculture.
➢ Extensive method: is practiced in sparsely populated area - where average land holding area
is higher and where there is scope for bringing additional land under cultivation e.g. USA,
Russia, Australia, Argentina and Brazil.
➢ Shifting cultivation is another form of extensive agriculture. Planting crops in a region until
fertility diminishes and then moving to a fresh area to plant means there must be lots of land
available. This is practised in forest area.
➢ Agribusiness: is a form of commercial farming. It is run by large corporations that are selfsufficient providing their own inputs and processing their own outputs.
➢ Plantation Farming: is an estate where a single cash crop is grown for sale. This type of
agriculture involves growing and processing of a single cash crop purely meant for sale. Tea,
coffee, rubber, banana and spices are all examples of plantation crops.
➢ Mixed Farming: is a situation in which both raising crops and rearing animals are carried
on simultaneously. Here farmers engaged in mixed farming are economically better off than
others.
➢ Precision agriculture: is used to cover the three aspects of production namely for data
collection of information input through options as Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite
data, grid soil sampling, yield monitoring, remote sensing, etc; for data analysis or processing
through Geographic Information System (GIS) and decision technologies as process models,
artificial intelligence systems, and expert systems; and for application of information by
farmers.
➢ Ley Farming: the growing of grass or legumes in rotation with grain or tilled crops as a soil
conservation measure. (IBPS AFO 2020, RRB SO 2018)
➢ Contour farming: Farming system which provides more time to absorb runoff water and
later it is supplied to crops. (RRB SO 2020)
❖ Remote sensing
➢ Remote sensing is defined as the art and science of gathering information about objects or
areas from a distance without having physical contact with objects area being investigated.
➢ Uses: Remote sensing techniques are used in agricultural and allied fields.
1. Collection of basic data for monitoring of crop growth
2. Estimating the cropped area
3. Forecasting the crop production
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
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Mapping of wastelands
Drought monitoring and its assessment
Flood mapping and damage assessment
Land use/cover mapping and area under forest coverage
Soil mapping
Assessing soil moisture condition, irrigation, drainage
Assessing outbreak of pest and disease
Ground water exploration
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ORGANIC / ECO-FRIENDLY AGRICULTURE/FARMING
❖ Organic farming: Organic farming is a production system where all kinds of agricultural
products are produced organically, including grains, meat, dairy, eggs, fibers such as cotton,
flowers and processed food products.
❖ International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements - IFOAM, 1972
❖ Synonyms of organic farming: Eco-farming, Biological farming, Bio-dynamic farming,
Macrobiotic agriculture “Feed the soil, not the plant” is the watchword and slogan of
ecological farming.
Eco-farming
➢ Farming in relation to ecosystem.
➢ It has the potential for introducing mutually reinforcing ecological approaches to food
production.
➢ It aims at the maintenance of soil chemically, biologically and physically the way nature
would do it left alone.
➢ Soil would then take proper care of plants growing on it.
➢ Feed the soil, not the plant is the watchword and slogan of ecological farming.
Biological farming:
➢ Farming in relation to biological diversity.
Biodynamic farming:
➢ Farming which is biologically organic and ecologically sound and sustainable farming.
BASICS OF LAND USE RELATED TO AGRICULTURE
➢ Agricultural land: refers to the share of land area that is arable, under permanent crops, or
under permanent pastures.
➢ Arable land: includes land defined by the FAO as land under temporary crops (doublecropped areas are counted once), temporary meadows for mowing or for pasture, land under
market or kitchen gardens, and land temporarily fallow. Land abandoned as a result of
shifting cultivation is excluded.
➢ Irrigated land: refers to areas purposely provided with water, including land irrigated by
controlled flooding.
➢ Cropland: refers to arable land and permanent cropland.
❖ Scheme for land Record management: The NLRMP (National Land Records
Modernization Programme) has 3 major components –
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a. Computerization of land record
b. Survey/re-survey
c. Computerization of Registration.
The district has been taken as the unit of implementation, where all programme activities are
to converge. It is hoped that all districts in the country would be covered by the end of the
12th Plan period except where cadastral surveys are being done for the first time.
Cadastral map is used to map subdivisions of land and gives length and direction to owner’s
land and boundaries. (RRB SO 2020)
SOWING METHODS
1.Broadcasting
4. Seed drilling
2. Dibbling
5. Nursery
transplanting
3. Sowing behind
the country plough
(manual and
mechanical drilling)
6. Planting
1. Broadcasting: Broadcasting is called as random sowing. Literally means ‘scattering the
seed.
➢ Broadcasting is mostly followed for small sized to medium sized crops.
➢ This is the largest method of sowing followed in India, since; it is the easiest and cheapest
and requires minimum labours.
➢ To ensure a good and uniform population, it is better to broadcast on either direction. This
is called criss-cross sowing.
➢ For broadcasting sesame seeds are mixed with sand at 1:15 or 1:10 ratio and sown.
❖ Disadvantages
➢ All the seeds broadcasted do not have contact with the soil. 100% germination is not
possible.
➢ Enhanced seed rate is required.
➢ Seeds cannot be placed in desired depth. Desired depth ensures perfect anchorage.
➢ Lodging (falling down) is common in broadcasting.
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2. Dibbling: This is actually line sowing.
➢ Inserting a seed through a hole at a desired depth and covering the hole.
➢ Dibbling is practiced on plain surface and ridges and furrows or beds and channels
➢ The seeds are dibbled at 2/3rd from top or 1/3rd at bottom of the ridge.
➢ This is done for wider spaced crops and medium to large sized seeds.
➢ Ex. Sorghum, maize, sunflower, cotton are dibbled on ridges and furrows. Both beds and
channels, and ridges and furrows come under line sowing. While earthing up, the plant
occupies middle of the ridge.
➢ Earthing up is essential for proper anchorage of the root system.
❖ Advantages of line sowing are,
➢ Uniform population
➢ Better germination
➢ Reduced seed rate.
❖ Disadvantages of Dibbling :➢ It is time consuming.
➢ More labor is required
➢ This method is costly.
3. Sowing behind the plough: Sowing behind the plough is done by manual or mechanical
means.
➢ Seeds are dropped in the furrows opened by the plough and the same is closed or covered
when the next furrow is opened.
➢ The seeds are sown at uniform distance.
➢ Seeds like red gram, cowpea and groundnut are sown behind the country plough.
➢ Major sown crop is ground nut.
➢ Kera and pora methods are related to desi/indigenous plough.
➢ Seeds are sown by mechanical means by ‘Gorus’ – seed drill. A seed drill has a plough
share and hopper. Seeds are placed on hopper.
❖ Advantages:
➢ The seeds are placed at desired depth covered by iron planks.
➢ Except very small, very large seeds most of the seeds can be sown, e.g. maize, sorghum,
millets, sunflower, etc.
4. Drill sowing (or) Drilling: Drilling is the practice of dropping seeds in a definite depth
covered with soil and compacted. (AFO 2021)
➢ In this method, sowing implements are used for placing the seeds into the soil.
➢ Seeds are drilled continuously or at regular intervals in rows.
➢ Seeds are placed at uniform depth, covered and compacted.
❖ Advantages of Drilling
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➢ The quantity of seed required is less.
➢ During drilling Manures, fertilizers and amendments can applied with seeds.
❖ Disadvantages of Drilling
➢ More time consuming.
➢ More labor required.
➢ Cost is high.
5. Transplanting: It is the raising of seedlings on nursery beds and transplanting of seedlings
in the laid-out field.
➢ This method of planting has two components:
a. Nursery
b. Transplanting.
❖ This method is followed in crops like paddy, fruit, vegetable, crops, tobacco, etc.
❖ Advantages
➢ Can ensure optimum plant population.
➢ Sowing of main field duration, i.e., management in the main field is reduced.
➢ Crop intensification is possible under transplanting
❖ Disadvantages
➢ Nursery raising is expensive.
➢ Transplanting is another laborious and expensive method
❖ Age of seedlings is 1/4th of the total duration of the crop.
❖ Thumb rule:- 3 months crop – nursery duration 3 weeks, 4 months – 4 weeks minimum
period.
❖ Transplanting shock is a period after transplanting, the seedlings show no growth. It is for
a period of 5-7 days depending upon season, crop, variety, etc
th
❖ Nursery Transplanting: Age – 1/4 of the total duration is on the nursery beds.
❖ Area required for nursery normally is 1/10th of the total area.
6. Planting: It is the placing of vegetative part of crops which are vegetatively propagated in
the laid-out field.
➢ E.g.: Tubers of Potato sets of ginger & turmeric, cuttings of sweet potato & grapes, sets of
sugarcane.
DIFFERENT CROP GEOMETRIES ARE AVAILABLE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
1. Broadcasting: Results in random geometry, no equal space is maintained, resources are
either under exploited or over exploited.
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2. Square method or square geometry: The plants are sown at equal distances on either side.
Mostly perennial crops, tree crops follow square method of cultivation.
Advantages
(i) Light is uniformly available,
(ii) Movement of wind is not blocked and
(iii) Mechanization can be possible.
3. Rectangular method of sowing: There are rows and columns, the row spacing are wider
than the spacing between plants. The different types exist in rectangular method
(a) Solid row – Each row will have no proper spacing between the plants. This is followed only
for annual crops which have tillering pattern. There is definite row arrangement but no
column arrangement, e.g., wheat.
(b) Paired row arrangement – It is also a rectangular arrangement. It a crop requires 60 cm x
300 m spacing and if paired row is to be adopted the spacing is altered to 90 cm instead of
60 cm in order to accommodate an intercrop. The base population is kept constant.
(c) Skip row – A row of planting is skipped and hence there is a reduction in population. This
reduction is compensated by planting an intercrop; practiced in rainfed or dryland agriculture
(d) Triangular method of planting - It is recommended for wide spaced crops like coconut,
mango, etc. The number of plants per unit area is more in this system.
GERMINATION: ➢ The most effective wavelength for promoting germination is red (662 nm) and 730 nm
inhibits germination.
➢ The thumb rule for sowing depth of seeds is approximately 3 to 4 times diameter of the seed.
➢ The optimum depth of sowing for most of the field crops ranges between 3-5 cm depth.
➢ After sowing the sown area should be protected from BIRDS for at least 3 days.
❖ Optimum plant population: ➢ It is the number of plants required to produce maximum output or biomass per unit area
➢ Any increase beyond this stage results in either no increase or reduction in biomass.
❖ Intercultural operations: 1. Thinning and Gap filling: ➢ Normally, these are practiced a week after sowing to a maximum of 15 days.
➢ In dry land agriculture, gap filling is done first by dibbling seeds 7 DAS, to avoid draught
2. Earthing up: ➢ It is done around 6-8 weeks after sowing / planting in sugarcane, tapioca, banana, etc.
➢ Depth of ploughing: The desirable depth of ploughing is 12 to 20 cm for field crops.
➢ The ploughing depth varies with effective root zone of the crop.
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Depth of Ploughing
Types of crops
Shallow Rooted crops
10-20 cm
Deep Rooted Crops
15-30 cm
❖ Time of ploughing: The optimum soil moisture content for tillage is 60% of field capacity.
Seed rate: In Rice.
Direct sowing
100 kg/ha
Line sowing
60 kg/ha
Transplanting
40 kg/ha
Approximate Rooting depth (mm)
Soil type
Sandy
Loamy
Clay
Rooting depth
Shallow
15
20
30
Medium
30
40
50
Deep
40
60
70
Root depth of different field crops are given below:
70
Shallow
30 – 60 cm
Paddy, onion, potato,
pineapple, cabbage.
Medium
50 – 100 cm
Banana, bean, coconut,
groundnut, peas, soybean,
sunflower, tobacco, tomato,
pearl millet, pulses
Deep
90-150 cm
Citrus, grapes, cotton, maize,
sorghum, soybean
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Depending on the crops and varieties, the plant population varies: (According to TNAU)
Crop
Type of variety
Plant population
Spacing
Rice
Short duration
6,66,666 plants/ha
15 cm x 10 cm
Medium
5,00,000 plants/ha
20 cm x 10 cm
Long
3,33,000 plants/ha
20 cm x 15 cm
Medium
55,555 plants/ha
60 cm x 30 cm
Long
44444 plants/ha
75 cm x 30 cm
Hybrids
18,518 plants/ha
120 cm x 45 cm
Varieties
83,333 plants/ha
60 x 20 cm
Hybrids
47,620 plants/ha
60 x 35 cm
Cotton
Maize
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IRRIGATION & IT’S METHODS
❖ Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water to the soil for the purpose of crop
production in supplement to rainfall and ground water contribution.
TERMINOLOGY
❖ Nominal duty: it is the ratio of the area to be irrigated to the mean supply discharge during
the base period.
❖ Kor watering, Kor depth kor period: Crop water requirement is not uniform all through
base period. The first watering is known as Kor watering, and the depth applied in first
watering is kor depth. Part of the base period during which kor watering is given is known as
kor period.
❖ Palco: it is the first irrigation before sowing the crop for seed germination and seedlng
establishment.
❖ Crop period: It is the duration in days from sowing or planting of crop to maturity.
❖ Base period: it refers to the entire duration of crop in days from irrigation for preparatory
cultivation to the last irrigation.
❖ Delta (∆): It is the total depth of water (cm) required by a crop during its duration in the field
denoted by the symbol ∆.
❖ Duty of water (D): It is the ratio between the area of crop irrigated and the quantity of water
applied to the crop. It can also be defined as the area irrigated per cumec of discharge running
for base period B. It is usually represented by the letter D.
❖ Cumec day: It is the quantity of water flowering for one day at the rate of one cumec. It is
equal to 8.64 ha-m.
❖ Rostering system: The process of irrigation water distribution or regulation.
❖ Rotational irrigation: It is also known as warabhandi irrigation.
❖ Importance of water to plants:
1. Plants contain 90% water which gives turgidity and keeps them erect
2. Water is an essential part of protoplasm
3. It regulates the temperature of the plant system
4. It is essential to meet the transpiration requirements
5. It serves as a medium for dissolving the nutrients present in the soil
6. It is an important ingredient in photosynthesis
7. Generally, the water present in the macrospores drains down to subsoil in 48 Hrs.
Water use efficiency of major field crops:
S. No.
1
72
Crop
Finger Millet
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Water Use eff. (Kg/ha mm)
13.4
2
3
4
5
6
7
Wheat
Groundnut
Sorghum
Pearl Millet
Maize
Rice
12.6
9.2
9
8
8
3.7
METHODS OF IRRIGATION- SUITABILITY, ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS
DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION IN INDIA
Rainfall
❖ Rainfall is precipitation in the form of liquid drops larger than 0.5 mm in diameter falling on
the earth.
❖ Ordinary rain drop size varies from 0.5 to 4 mm in diameter.
❖ When rain has a drop size <0.5 mm: drizzle (NABARD- 2021)
❖ Annual Average rainfall is 1190 mm.
❖ Total rainfall generated volume in India is: 400 mha-m
❖ Rainy day- > 2.5 mm rains for 24 hours called rainy day
❖ Crop rainy day- > 5 mm rains for 24 hours called crop rainy day
❖ The rainfall below 2.5 mm is not considered for water budgeting, since it will immediately
evaporate from surface soil without any contribution to surface water or ground water.
❖ There are on an average 130 rainy days in a year in the country out of which the rain for 75
days considered as effective rain. The remaining 55 days are very light and shallow which
evaporates immediately without any contribution to surface or ground water recharge.
❖ Rainfall pattern in India:
Season/period
Winter (Jan-Feb)
Pre-monsoon (Mar-May)
S-W monsoon (June-sept)
N-E monsoon (Oct-Dec)
Total for the year
M ha M
12
52
296
40
400
Percent
3
13
74
10
100
❖ Seasons of rainfall can be classifieds follows:
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73
Winter
Cold dry period
January – February
Summer
Hot weather period
March – May
Kharif
South-West monsoon
June – September
Rabi
North-East monsoon
October – December
❖ Rainfall and Climate region
Rainfall (mm)
Name of the climatic region
Less than 500
Arid
500-700
Semi-arid
750-1000
Sub humid
More than 1000
Humid (IBPS AFO 2018)
❖ Classification of irrigation work or projects:
Project
Major
Medium
Minor
Capital
more than 50 million
Rupees
2.5 million to 50
million Rupees
less than 2.5 million
Rupees
Command Area
more than 10,000 hectares
2000 – 10,000 hectares
2,000 hectares
IRRIGATION PROJECT
74
Dam / reservoir
River
State
Bhakra Nangal
Sutlej
Haryana,
Pradesh
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Punjab
and
Himachal
Rana Pratap Sagar
Chambal
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
Damodar Valley
Damondar
West Bengal, Bihar
Hirakund
Mahanadi
Orissa
Nagarjuna sagar
Krishna
Andhra Pradesh
Sardar Sarovar
Narmada
Gujarat , Madhya Pradesh
Indira Sagar
Narmada
Madhya Pradesh
Maahi
Maahi
Gujarat
Kosi
Kosi
Bihar
WATER APPLICATION METHODS ARE GROUPED AS:
Flooding
Applying it
beneath the
soil surface
Spraying it
under
pressure
Applying in
drops
Irrigation Methods
Irrigation Methods-
Surface
Sub surface
Pressurized
irrigation
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Surface Irrigation:
➢ Oldest (4000 years back) and most common method.
➢ In surface irrigation, water moves over and across the land by simple gravity flow in order to
wet and infiltrate the soil.
➢ Surface irrigation can be divided into furrow, border strip or basin irrigation.
➢ It is often called flood irrigation when it results in flooding or near flood of the cultivated
land.
➢ This method is most suitable for low to moderate infiltration rates and leveled lands and
having <2-3% slope
➢ Flood irrigation: Water is allowed from the channel into the field without much control on
either side of the flow.
➢ This method is practiced where irrigation water is abundant.
➢ Mostly adopted in wetland rice.
➢ Border Irrigation: The land is divided into number of long parallel strips called borders.
✓ These borders are separated by low ridges.
✓ The border strip has a uniform gentle slope in the direction of irrigation.
✓ Each strip is irrigated independently by turning the water in the upper end.
✓ The water spreads and flows down the strip in a sheet confined by the border ridges.
❖ Suitability:
➢ To soils having moderately low to moderately high infiltration rates.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ It is not used in coarse sandy soils that have very high infiltration rates and also in heavy soils
having very low infiltration rate.
➢ Suitable to irrigate all close growing crops like wheat, barley, fodder crops and legumes and
not suitable for rice.
❖ Advantages:
(i) Border ridges can be constructed with simple farm implements like bullock drawn “A”
frame ridger or bund former.
(ii) Labour requirement in irrigation is reduced as compared to conventional check basin
method.
(iii) Uniform distribution of water and high-water application efficiencies are possible.
(iv) Large irrigation streams can be efficiently used.
(v) Adequate surface drainage is provided if outlets are available.
❖ Width & Length of Border:
❖ Width of border strip: It varies from 3-15 m
❖ Border Length:
Slope
0.25 - 0.60%
0.20 - 0.40%
0.05 – 0.20%
Soil
Sandy and sandy loam
Medium loam soil
Clay loam and clay soil
Length
60-120 m
100-180 m
150-300 m
❖ Border strip method: In these methods the field is divided into number of strips which are
separated by ridges. It is suitable for close growing like check basin but not suitable in sandy
soil. Soil with a slope of 0.5-1% are suitable for this method.
Check basin:
Classification of Check Basin:
Rectangular
Contour
Ring
Check basin irrigation:
➢ It is the most common method.
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➢ Here the field is divided into smaller unit areas so that each has a nearly level surface.
➢ Bunds or ridges are constructed around the area forming basins within which the irrigation
water can be controlled.
➢ The water applied to a desired depth can be retained until it infiltrates into the soil.
➢ The size of the basin varies from 10 m2 to 25 m2 depending upon soil type , topography,
stream size and crop.
Adaptability:
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
Small gentle and uniform land slopes.
Soils having moderate to slow infiltration rates.
Adapted to grain and fodder crops in heavy soils.
Suitable to permeable soils.
Suitable for the crops which have less plant-to-plant distance. Example: wheat, groundnut,
Pearl millet, Barley etc.
Advantages:
➢
➢
➢
➢
Check basins are useful when leaching is required to remove salts from the soil profile.
Rainfall can be conserved, and soil erosion is reduced by retaining large part of rain
High water application and distribution efficiency.
Field with slope up to 3% can be irrigated by using this method.
Limitations:
(i) The ridges interfere with the movement of implements.
(ii) More area occupied by ridges and field channels.
(iii) The method impedes surface drainage
(iv) Precise land grading and shaping are required
(v) Labour requirement is higher.
(vi) Not suitable for crops which are sensitive to wet soil conditions around the stem
➢ Ring Basin methods: Basin around the tree is made. This method is used for horticultural
corps. It enhances the water use efficiency.
Furrow method:
➢ Furrow irrigation avoids flooding the entire field surface by channeling the flow along the
primary direction of the field using ‘furrows.
➢ Furrow irrigation is suitable to most type of soil except sands that have a very high infiltration
rate.
➢ Furrow is mostly suitable for root and tuber crops.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
It is ideal for slopes varying from 0.2-0.5%.
Used in the irrigation of row crops.
The furrows are formed between crop rows.
The dimension of furrows depends on the crop grown, equipment used and soil type.
Water is applied by small running streams in furrows between the crop rows.
Water infiltrates into soil and spreads laterally to wet the area between the furrows.
In heavy soil furrows can be used to dispose the excess water.
Adaptability:
1. Wide spaced row crops including vegetables.
2. Suitable for maize, sorghum, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, groundnut, potatoes
3. Suitable to most soils except sand.
Advantages
1. Water in furrows contacts only one half to one fifth of the land surface.
2. Labour requirement for land preparation and irrigation is reduced.
3. Compared to check basins there is less wastage of land in field ditches.
Based on Irrigation Furrow irrigation is being divided into:
➢ All Furrow Irrigation
➢ Alternate Furrow Irrigation
➢ Skip Furrow Irrigation
➢ Surge Irrigation
❖ All Furrow Irrigation: Water is applied evenly in all the furrows and are called furrow system
or uniform furrow system
❖ Alternate Furrow Irrigation: It is not an irrigation layout but a technique for water saving.
Water is applied in alternate furrows. E.g. During first irrigation if the even numbers of furrows
are irrigated, during next irrigation, the odd number of furrows will be irrigated
Skip Furrow Irrigation:
➢ They are normally adopted during the period of water scarcity and to accommodate
intercrops. In the skip furrow irrigation, a set of furrows are completely skipped out from
irrigation permanently. The skipped furrow will be utilized for raising intercrop. The system
ensures water saving of 30-35 per cent. By this method, the available water is economically
used without much field reduction.
➢ Surge method of irrigation: Surge irrigation is the intermittent application of water to the
field surface. Due to this method or we can say ON OFF water supply (Intermittent irrigation)
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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minimized the percolation and runoff loses. This methods in not much famous in India. The
irrigation efficiency is in between 85-90%.
➢ Corrugation methods: Small and shallow furrows are known as corrugation, Suitable for
crops with less plant-to-plant distance.
2. SUB-SURFACE IRRIGATION: In subsurface irrigation, water is applied beneath the ground
by creating and maintaining an artificial water table at some depth, usually 30-75 cm below the
ground surface.
➢ Moisture moves upwards towards the land surface through capillary action.
➢ Water is applied through underground field trenches laid 15-30 m apart.
➢ Open ditches are preferred because they are relatively cheaper and suitable to all types of
soil.
➢ The irrigation water should be of good quality to prevent soil salinity.
Advantages:
1. Minimum water requirement for raising crops
2. Minimum evaporation and deep percolation losses
3. No wastage of land
4. No interference to movement of farm machinery
5. Cultivation operations can be carried out without concern for the irrigation period.
Disadvantages:
1. Requires a special combination of natural conditions.
2. There is danger of water logging
3. Possibility of choking of the pipes lay underground.
4. High cost
3. Sprinkler Irrigation: The sprinkler (overhead or pressure) irrigation system conveys water to
the field through pipes (aluminum or PVC) under pressure with a system of nozzles.
➢ This system is designed to distribute the required depth of water uniformly, which is not
possible in surface irrigation.
➢ Water is applied at a rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil hence the runoff from
irrigation is avoided.
Parts of Sprinkler System:
➢ A pumping unit
➢ Debris removal equipment
➢ Pressure gauge / water-meter
➢ Pipelines (mains – sub-mains and laterals)
➢ Couplers
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Raiser pipes
➢ Sprinklers
➢ Other accessories such as valves, bends, plugs, etc.
Types of Sprinkler system:
➢ Rotating head (or) revolving sprinkler system.
➢ Perforated pipe system
Advantage of sprinkler system
➢ Saving of water from 25-30% for different crops.
➢ Water saving (35-40%) compared to surface irrigation methods.
➢ Reduces erosion.
➢ Saving in fertilizers - even distribution and avoids wastage.
➢ Suitable for coarse textured soils (sandy soils)
➢ Frost control - protect crops against frost and high temperature
➢ Drainage problems eliminated
➢ Discharge rate is more than 1000 lit/hr.
➢ Sprinkler pressure 2.5-4.5 kg/cm2.
➢ Water use efficiency can be as high 60% much higher to surface method.
➢ About 40-60% saving in labor compared with surface.
➢ Suitable for undulating topography (sloppy lands).
➢ Fertilizers and other chemicals can be applied through irrigation water.
Disadvantages:
➢ High initial cost
➢ Efficiency is affected by wind
➢ Higher evaporation losses in spraying water
➢ Not suitable for tall crops like sugarcane
➢ Not suitable for heavy clay soils
➢ Poor quality water cannot be used (Sensitivity of crop to saline water and clogging of
nozzles
Steps to be taken for reducing the salt deposits on leaves and fruits during sprinkler
irrigation:
➢ Irrigate at night
➢ Increase the speed of the sprinkler rotation
➢ Decrease the frequency of irrigation
DRIP IRRIGATION:
➢ This irrigation method is developed in Israel and well suited in acute water shortage. (RRB
SO 2018)
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
Drip or trickle irrigation is one of the latest methods of irrigation.
It is suitable for water scarcity and salt affected soils.
Water is applied in the root zone of the crop.
Standard water quality test needed for design and operation of drip irrigation system.
This method was first introduced in Israel.
In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing
evaporation, and is also a means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known as fertigation.
Components
➢ A drip irrigation system consists of a pump or overhead tank, main line, sub-mains,
laterals and emitters.
➢ The mainline delivers water to the sub-mains and the sub-mains into the laterals.
➢ The emitters which are attached to the laterals distribute water for irrigation.
➢ The mains, sub-mains and laterals are usually made of black PVC (poly vinyl chloride)
tubing.
➢ The emitters are also made of PVC material.
➢ The other components include regulator, filters, valves, water meter, fertilizer
application components, etc.
➢ The discharge rate of emitters usually ranges from 2 to 10 liters per hour at 2.5 kg/cm2
pressure.
Advantages:
➢ Water saving - losses due to deep percolation, surface runoff and transmission are
avoided. Evaporation losses occurring in sprinkler irrigation do not occur in drip irrigation.
➢ Uniform water distribution
➢ Application rates can be adjusted by using different size of drippers.
➢ Suitable for wide spaced row crops, particularly coconut and other horticultural tree
crops.
➢ Water saving 50-70% as compared to surface.
➢ Water use efficiency is 95 %
➢ Irrigation at variable topographic conditions.
➢ Fertilizer (fertigation) and herbicides (Herbigation) also possible to apply with drip.
➢ Soil erosion is reduced
➢ Better weed control
➢ Land saving
➢ Less labour cost
Disadvantages:
➢ High initial cost
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢
➢
➢
➢
Drippers are susceptible to blockage
Interferes with farm operations and movement of implements and machineries
Frequent maintenance
Trees grown may develop shallow confined root zones resulting in poor anchorage
Typhoon system of drip irrigation:
➢ In sugarcane modified drip, in this method a particular water depth maintained at a particular
growth stage.
Slopes for Irrigation methods
Surface irrigation methods
Border irrigation
Border strip method
<2-3% slope
0.05- 0.60 %
0.5-1%
Check basin
Furrow method
up to 3%
0.2-0.5%.
Water Use Efficiency
Particulars
Conveyance efficiency
Application efficiency
Surface water moisture
evaporation
Overall Efficiency
Surface irrigation Sprinkler
irrigation
50-70 %
NA
40-70 %
60-80 %
30-40 %
30-40 %
Drip irrigation
30-35 %
80-90 %
30-70 %
NA
90 %
20-25 %
Field Application efficiency rate:
Surface method
Sprinkler method
Drip method
60%
75%
90-95%
CLASSIFICATION OF IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY:
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Quality of waterEC(m. mhos
cm)
Excellent
0.5
Good
0.5 – 1.5
Fair
1.5 – 3.0
Poor
3.0 – 5.0
Very poor
5.0 – 6.0
Unsuitable
>6.0
pH
/
Na (%)
Cl (me/l)
SAR
6.5 – 7.5
7.5 – 8.0
8.0 – 8.5
8.5 – 9.0
9.0 – 10.
> 10
30
30 – 60
60 – 75
75 – 90
80 – 90
>90
2.5
0 2.5 – 5.0
5.0 – 7.5
7.5 – 10.
10.0 – 12.5
>12.5
1.0
1.0 – 2.0
2.0 – 4.0
4.0 – 8.0
8.0 – 15.0
>15
DRAINAGE
➢ Drainage is the artificial removal of water in excess of the quantity required for the crop
➢ It is the process of removal of excess water as free or gravitational water from the surface and
the sub surface of farmlands with a view to avoid water logging and creates favourable soil
conditions for optimum plant growth.
ROLE OF DRAINAGE
➢ Draining the land provides conditions favourable for crop production.
➢ The greatest benefit of drainage relates to aeration. Good drainage facilitates the ready
diffusion of oxygen to the root zone and escape of carbon dioxide from the root zone into the
atmosphere.
➢ The activity of aerobic organisms which influence the availability of nutrients such as nitrogen
and sulphur to plants depends on soil aeration and hence, drainage improves aerobic
organisms.
➢ Toxicity in acid soils due to excess iron and manganese is decreased by drainage (due to
presence of oxygen in the root zone).
➢ Drainage permits roots to grow deeper and spread wider thereby increasing the volume of soil
from which nutrients can be extracted
➢ The removal of excess water helps in drying of the soil quickly and optimum soil temperature
permits timeliness of field operations.
Drainage is required under following conditions:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
84
High water table
Water ponding on the surface for longer periods
Excessive soil moisture content above F.C, not draining easily as in clay soil
Areas of salinity and alkalinity where annual evaporation exceeds rainfall and capillary rise
of ground water occurs
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
(e) Humid region with continuous of intermittent heavy rainfall
(f) Flat land with fine texture soil
(g) Low lying flat areas surrounded by hills.
Characteristics of good drainage system
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
It should be permanent
It must have adequate capacity to drain the area completely
There should be minimum interference with cultural operated
There should be minimum loss of cultivable area
It should intercept or collect water and remove it quickly within shorter period.
Methods of drainage: There are two methods
1. Surface method
2. Sub surface method
1. Surface drainage: This is designed primarily to remove excess water from the surface of soil
profile. This can be done by developing slope in the land so that excess water drains by gravity.
❖ It is suitable for:
➢ Slowly permeable clay and shallow soil
➢ Regions of high intensity rainfall
➢ To fields where adequate out lets are not available
➢ The land with less than 1.5% slope
❖ It can be made by
a) Land smoothing
b) Making field ditches
❖ The surface drainage can be further classified as
a) Lift drainage
b) Gravity drainage
c) Field surface drainage
d) Ditch drainage
2. Sub surface drainage system: Sub surface drains are underground artificial channels through
which excess water may flow to a suitable outlet. The purpose is to lower the ground water level
below the root zone of the crop.
❖ The movement of water into sub surface drains is influenced by
1. The hydraulic conductivity of soil
2. Depth of drain below ground surface
3. The horizontal distance between individual drains
❖ Underground drainage is mostly needed to the
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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➢ Medium textured soil
➢ High value crop
➢ High soil productivity
❖ There are four types of sub surface drainage
1. Tile drainage
2. Mole drainage: Mole drainage is not effective in the loose soil since the
channels produced by the mole will collapse. This is also not suitable for heavy plastic
soil where mole seals the soil to the movement of water
3. Vertical drainage
4. Well Drainage / or Drainage wells
❖ Advantage of sub surface
1. There is no loss of cultivable land
2. No interference for field operation
3. Maintenance cost is less
4. Effectively drains sub soil and creates better soil environments.
❖ Disadvantage
5. Initial cost is high
6. It requires constant attention
7. It is effective for soils having low permeability
❖ Important Points:
➢ Surface drainage is suitable with the land with less than 1.5% slope
➢ In drainage of flat areas where slope is less than 2% and in broad bed and furrow system
the slope is about 0.5%.
➢ Broad bed furrow method is widely practiced in groundnut (Clay Soil)
ROLE OF WATER IN PLANT GROWTH
❖ Kinds of soil water:
1. Hygroscopic water-Water held tightly to the surface of soil particles by adsorption forces.
2. Capillary water-Water held by forces of surface tension and continuous films around soil
particles and in the capillary spaces.
3. Gravitational water-Water that moves freely in response to gravity and drains out of the
soil.
❖ Adhesion is the attraction of solid surfaces for water molecules.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Cohesion is the attraction of water molecules for each other.
❖ The principal factors influencing the amount of capillary water in soils are the structure,
texture and organic matter. The finger the texture of the mineral soil particles, the greater is
likely its capillary capacity.
❖ Granular soil structure produces higher capillary capacity.
❖ Presence of organic matter increases the capillary capacity.
SOIL WATER MOVEMENT
➢ Hydraulic equilibrium of water in soil It is the condition for zero flow rate of liquid or film
water in the soil. This condition is satisfied when the pressure gradient force is just equal and
opposite to the gravity force
➢ Movement of water under saturated conditions
Sand > loam > clay
❖ Moisture movement under unsaturated conditions
➢ In the ‘moist range’, the range of unsaturated flow in soils of various textures is in the
following order: Sand < loam < clay
➢ However, in the ‘wet range’ the unsaturated conductivity occurs in the same or similar order
as saturated conductivity. Sand > loam > clay
➢ In the ‘dry range’ water movement exists, but there is so little water in the soil that the rate
of movement is very small.
SOIL MOISTURE MEASUREMENT
1. Oven drying method:
2. Volumetric method:
3. Tensiometer:
➢ Tensiometer is used to measure soil moisture (AFO 2021)
➢ One bar is equal to 100 centibars (cb).
➢ As the suction approaches approximately 0.8 bar (80 cb)
➢ Tensiometers are quite affordable for scheduling irrigation.
➢ The cost ranges from $25 to $50 each, depending on length of the barrel, which ranges from
6 to 72 inches
➢ Tensiometers are not recommended for clayey and silty soils
4. Gypsum block or Electrical resistance blocks:
5. Neutron moisture meter:
➢ This meter scans the soil about 15 cm diameters around the neutron probe in wet soil and
50 cm in dry soil.
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6. Pressure membrane and pressure plate Apparatus:
➢ The required pressure of 0.33 or 15 bar is applied through a compressor.
CRITICAL STAGE OR PHONOLOGICAL STAGE APPROACH:
❖ The growth period of an annual crop can be divided into four growth stages,
Initial stage
Crop development stage
Mid-season stage
Late season stage
from sowing to 10% ground cover
10 to 70% ground cover
flowering to grain setting stage
ripening and harvesting stage
❖ Critical stage approach:
Crop
Rice
Wheat
Maize
Cotton
Gram
Groundnut
Pigeon pea
Safflower
IW/CPE Ratio
1.2 (Highest)
0.9
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.4 (Lowest)
❖ Climates are classified based on reference ET as follows:
1. 4 – 5 mm/day – Low
2. 6 – 7 mm/day – Medium
3. 8 – 9 mm/day – High
❖ Reference ET (mm/day) for different climatic zones:
Mean daily temp
Climatic zone
Desert/arid
Semiarid
Sub humid
Humid
88
150C Low
4-6
4-5
3-4
1-2
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15 – 250C Medium
7-8
6-7
5-6
3-4
> 250C High
9-10
8-9
7-8
5-6
AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES
❖ An agro-climatic zone is a land unit uniform in respect of climate and length of growing
period (LGP) which is climatically suitable for a certain range of crops and cultivars (FAO,
1983).
❖ Planning Commission in 7th Plan (1985-1990) divided the country into 15 ACZs based on
physiography and climate.
❖ The State Agricultural Universities were advised to divide each state into sub-zones,
under the National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) under ICAR. Based on the
rainfall pattern, cropping pattern and administrative units, 127 agro-climatic zones are
classified.
❖ Ecological regions:
➢ The whole country is divided into (15) 127 agro-climatic divisions & 20 agro-ecological
regions implying that there are several agro climatic zones in same ecological region, these
twenty agro-ecological zones were sub- divided into 60 sub-zones.
❖ Agro ecosystems of India:
Extent and special feature of agro ecosystems of India
Agro ecosystem
Arid
Rainfed
Irrigated
Coastal
Area (m ha)
38.7
67
52
8129 km
Special features
Severe water deficits
Occasional water deficits
No water deficits
Sandy soils, high rainfall
prone to cyclones Steep
slopes and valleys
Agro-ecological regions are given by the National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use
Planning (NBSS & LUP).
1
Western Himalayan Region
J&K, HP, UP, Uttaranchal
2
Eastern Himalayan Region
3
Lower Gangetic Plains Region
Assam Sikkim, West Bengal & North-Eastern
states
West Bengal
4
Middle Gangetic Plains Region
UP, Bihar
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90
5
Upper Gangetic Plains Region
UP
6
Trans-Gangetic Plains Region
Punjab, Haryana, Delhi & Rajasthan
7
Eastern Plateau and Hills Region
Maharashtra, UP, Orissa & West Bengal
8
Central Plateau and Hills Region
MP, Rajasthan, UP
9
Western Plateau and Hills Region Maharashtra, MP & Rajasthan
10
Southern Plateau and Hills Region AP, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
11
East Coast Plains and Hills Region Orissa, AP, TN,& Pondicherry
12
West Coast Plains and Ghat Region TN, Kerala, Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra
13
Gujarat Plains and Hills Region
Gujarat
14
Western Dry Region
Rajasthan
15
The Islands Region
Andman & Nicaobar, Lakshya Deep
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AGROMETEOROLOGY
❖ Basic Terms:
➢ Absolute humidity: Absolute or actual quantity of water vapour by weight present in a given
volume of air is called absolute humidity.
➢ Adiabatic lapse rate: Rate of decrease in temperature of air with increase in height, as or
moved upward due to adiabatic cooling is termed adiabatic lapse rate.
➢ Agricultural drought: When available soil moisture is inadequate for healthy crop growth
and cause extreme stress and wilting, it is called agricultural drought.
➢ Albedo: The ratio of the amount of visible light reflected by a body to the amount incident
upon it is termed albedo. The albedo of crop is ranging between 23-30%.
➢ Ambient temperature: The temperature of the surrounding atmospheric air.
➢ Atmospheric pressure: Pressure exerted by a column of air with a cross sectional area of a
given unit extending from the earth surface to the upper boundary of the atmosphere is called
atmospheric pressure.
➢ Cloud seeding: Application of foreign material to clouds to induce precipitation is called
cloud seeding.
➢ Convection: Process of transfer of heat through air or liquid by means of currents is called
convection.
➢ Insolation: Amount of direct solar radiation incident per unit on a horizontal area at a given
level OR radiant energy that strikes the earth from the sun is called insolation.
➢ Isobars: Imaginary lines joining the places of equal atmospheric pressure on the weather map
is known as isobars.
➢ Lapse rate: Vertical temperature decreases, or gradient is called lapse or vertical temperature
gradient.
➢ Latent heat: The heat released or absorbed per unit mass by a system during change of phase
is called latent heat.
➢ Leeward direction of wind: The direction to which the wind blows is known as leeward
direction.
➢ Rain: Precipitation in the form of liquid water drops larger than 0.5 mm in diameter falling
on the earth is called rain.
➢ Rime: When fog droplets freeze on objects it is called rime.
➢ Sleet: Solid precipitation in the form of small particles of clear ice which are originally formed
as rain drops and later frozen as they fall through a layer of cold air is termed as sleet. (NET)
➢ Snow: Solid precipitation in the form of ice crystals or flakes is termed snow.
➢ Sensible heat flux: It is the flux of the sensible heat between the surface and air near the
surface.
➢ Weather: Physical state of the atmosphere at a given place and given time. Eg. Cloudy day
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➢ Climate: Long term regime of atmospheric variables of a given place or area. Eg. Cold season
➢ The climatic normal is generally worked out for a period of 30 years.
Particle size
Particle
microns)
size
Vapor
00.001-0.01
Thermal energy
Smoke
0.01-1.0
Thermal energy
Fog or Aerosol
1.0-50
Thermal energy
Mist
51-100
Gaseous energy
Fine spray
101-200
-
Medium spraying
201-400
-
Coarse spray
400
-
(InUseful energy
❖ Moisture Index (Im):
Im Quantity
Climate Classification
100 and above
Per humid
20-100
Humid
0-20
Moist sub humid
-33.3 to 0
Dry sub humid
-66.7 to -33.3
Semi-Arid
-100 to -66.7
Arid
Arid regions
Semi-arid zones
The arid zones will have MDI between – They have moisture index values between –
66.7 to –100.
33.3 to –66.7.
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Precipitation is less than potential Crop production is possibly by adopting
evaporation for the greater part of the year. moisture conservation practices.
Arable crop production is not possible
without irrigation.
Growing period is between 1 to 74 days.
Growing period is between 75 to 119 days.
❖ Arid and Semi arid regions of India
➢ Total area under arid and semiarid regions in India extends over 135.8 million hectares
Area (m ha) States
Arid Tropics
31.7
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Parts of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
Arid Temperate
7.0
Jammu and Kashmir
Semiarid Tropics
95.7
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra, Rajasthan,
Tamilnadu, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
Semiarid Temperate 1.4
Jammu and Kashmir
➢ Another classification by Troll (1965) based on number of humid months, said to be of more
➢ Agricultural use was modified by ICRISAT for India.
➢ Humid month is one having mean rainfall Exceeding the mean Potential evapotranspiration.
Climate
Number of humid months % geographical area of
India
Arid
<2
17
Semi-arid- dry
2-4.5
57.17
Semi-arid-wet
4.5-7
12.31
Humid
>7
1.10
❖ Heat Units:
➢ It is a measure of relative warmth of growing season of a given length.
➢ The minimum threshold temperature is the temperature below which no growth takes place.
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➢ Usually ranges from 4.5 to 12.5 ºC for different crops (Most commonly used value is 6.0ºC)
❖ Temperature: Most of the higher plants grow between 0°C – 60°C and crop plants are
further restricted from 10 – 40°C, however, maximum dry matter is produced between
20 and 30°C
❖ Storm: Low pressure center surrounded by winds having their velocities in the range of
40 to 120 km/hour.
❖ Hurricane: A severe tropical cyclone with wind speed exceeding 120 km per hour.
ATMOSPHERE
❖ Structure of Atmosphere:
➢ Troposphere:
✓ Troposphere is the lower layer of the atmosphere extending up to a height of 8 to 18 km from
the earth depending on latitude.
✓ It is thicker at the equator than at poles.
✓ Troposphere is the densest part of the atmosphere and contains 85% of the atmosphere's mass.
✓ All weather phenomena like louds, fog, dew, mist, rain etc. Occur in this layer.
✓ Tropopause is a thin of transition that separates the troposphere from the above lying
stratosphere.
➢ Stratosphere:
✓ Stratosphere is a layer of atmosphere which lies above the tropopause.
✓ It lies beyond the height of 8 to 18 km extending up to 50 km depending on latitude.
✓ It is dust free, cloudless and warmest layer.
✓ It is the seat of most of the photochemical reactions in air.
✓ Less convection takes place in the stratosphere because it is warm at the top and cold at the
bottom.
✓ There is a maximum concentration of ozone between 30 and 50 km above the surface of the
earth and this layer is known as ozonosphere.
✓ A property of ozone is that it absorbs ultraviolet rays. Had there been no layer of ozone in the
atmosphere, the ultraviolet rays would have reached the surface of the earth and no life on it.
➢ Mesosphere:
✓ Mesosphere lies above the stratosphere.
✓ The stratosphere and mesosphere are separated by a narrow transitional layer called
stratopause.
➢ Thermosphere:
✓ Thermosphere is separated by mesopause from the mesosphere. It is the outermost layer,
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extending from the top of the mesosphere.
✓ The lower layer of thermosphere is called ionosphere. Long distance radio communication is
made possible through this ionized layer.
✓ The temperature of the ozonosphere is high (warm) due to selective absorption of ultraviolet
radiation by ozone.
✓ The ionosphere reflects radio waves because of one or multiple reflections of short-wave radio
beams from the ionized shells. So, long distance radio communication is possible due to this
layer.
WEATHER ELEMENTS:
❖ Solar Radiation:
➢ This is the process of transmission of energy from one body to another without the aid of a
material medium (solid, liquid, or gas).
➢ Solar constant: (1.94 cal/cm2/min)
➢ Solar constant is defined as the energy falling in one minute on a surface area of one square
centimeter at the outer boundary of the atmosphere, help normal to the sunlight, at the mean
distance of the earth from the sun.
1. Radiation
➢ This is the process of transmission of energy from one body to another without the aid of a
material medium (solid, liquid, or gas).
➢ Example: The energy transmission through space from the sun to the earth.
2. Conduction
➢ This is the process of heat transfer through matter without the actual movement of molecules
of the substances or matter. Heat flows from the warmer to cooler part of the body so that
the temperature between them is equalized.
➢ Example: The energy transmission through an iron rod which is made warmer at one end.
3. Convection
➢ This is the process of transmission of heat through actual movement of molecules of the
medium.
➢ This is the predominant form of transmission of energy on the earth as all the weather-related
processes involve this process.
➢ Example: Boiling of water in a beaker
4. Net radiation:
➢ The difference between the incoming radiation from the sun and the outgoing radiation from
the earth is known as net radiation.
❖ Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR)
➢ Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR - 0.4 – 0.7µ) is essential for production of
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carbohydrates and ultimately biomass.
PAR value (µ)
Color
0.4 to 0.5
0.5 to 0.6
Blue – violet
Green –yellow
0.6 to 0.7
Orange – red
❖ Spectrum of radiation:
Band
Ultra
Spectrum
Wavelength(µ)
Cosmic Rays
<0.005
Gamma Rays & X-Rays0.005-0.20
Ultraviolet rays
0.20-0.39
Visible
Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red
Infra-red rays
Infra-red
0.39-0.42
0.42-.049
0.49-0.54
0.54-0.59
0.59-0.65
0.65-0.76
>0.76
Importance
Shorter wavelength of
spectrum
&
Chemically
active,
unless filtered there is
danger of life on earth.
Visible
spectrum
known
as
Light
essential for all plant
processes.
Essential for thermal
energy of the plant
(Source of heat)
➢ The principal wavelength absorbed and used in photosynthesis are in the violet –blue and the
orange - red regions.
➢ Among this, short rays beyond violet such as X rays, gamma rays and larger rays beyond red
such as infrared, are detrimental to plant growth.
➢ Red light is the most favourable light for growth followed by violet – blue.
➢ Ultra – violet and shorter wave lengths kill bacteria and many fungi.
5. Absorptivity:
➢ For an object this is the ratio of the electromagnetic radiant power absorbed to the total
amount incident upon the same object.
➢ Like emissivity the values are less than one for other than a black body and one for a black
body
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6. Reflectivity:
➢ The ratio of the monochromatic beam of electromagnetic radiation reflected by a body to
that incident upon it. The units of expression are by %.
7. Transmissivity:
➢ This is the ratio of transmitted to the incident radiation on a surface preferably a crop canopy.
8. Albedo:
➢ Solar radiation that is reflected without any change in its quality is known as albedo.
➢ It is defined as the ratio between reflected radiation to the incident radiation on a crop field,
snow, leaves etc.
➢ For white bodies the albedo values are high. For fresh snow cover the albedo values range
between 75 and 95
❖ Lapse rate: The rate of decrease of temperature with increase in height at a given place and time
is called Lapse rate.
The normal lapse rate is 6- 6.5 degree C per km (3.5 degree C/1000 ft.) increase in height.
❖ Adiabatic Lapse Rate:
➢ The rate at which the temperature changes as air rises or falls is called adiabatic lapse rate.
➢ This rate is constant for dry air. The dry adiabatic lapse rate is 10o C per km.
❖ Humidity: The amount of water vapor in the air is called humidity. When air contain water
vapor as its potential, the air is to be known as saturated air.
➢ It is three types1. Absolute Humidity: (JRF)
➢ It is defined as the weight of water vapors in a given volume of air.
➢ It is expressed as grams of water vapors per cubic meter of air (g m-3)
➢ Absolute humidity is rarely used because it varies with the expansion and contraction of air.
2. Specific Humidity: (JRF)
➢ It is the ratio of mass of water vapors actually present in the air to a unit mass of air including
the water vapour (dry air + moisture).
➢ It is expressed as grams of water vapour per kg of moist air mass.
➢ The amount of water vapour that air can hold depends upon temperature.
➢ Unit - g/kg
3. Relative Humidity: The ratio between the amount of water vapor present in the air and
amount of water vapor required for saturation at a particular temperature and pressure
expressed in %. Important for agricultural crop production (40-60 % is ideal) (IBPS AFO
2018)
CLOUD CLASSIFICATION:
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❖ World Meteorological Organization and published in the International Cloud Atlas
(1956).
Genera
The main characteristic forms of clouds
Species
the peculiarities in shape and differences in internal
structure of clouds
Varieties
special characteristics of arrangement and
transparency of clouds
Supplementary features and
accessory clouds
appended and associated minor cloud forms
Mother-clouds
the origin of clouds if formed from other clouds.
❖ The 4 clouds families, which are in different heights of the troposphere are
High level clouds
Medium level clouds
Low level clouds
Clouds with large vertical extending
altitudes of 5-13 km
2-7 km
0-2 km
0-13 km
❖ Artificial rain making/Cloud seeding:
➢ Application of foreign material to clouds to induce precipitation is called cloud seeding.
❖ Cold seeding:
➢ Silver iodide (AgI) or dry ice is applied at one nucleus for a liter of air.
➢ In dynamic cloud seeding, massive quantities of l or 1000 nuclei for a liter of cloud air are
applied.
❖ Warm clouds:
➢ Generally used Sodium chloride (NaCl).
PRECIPITATION:
➢ Hail: Precipitation of small pieces of ice with diameter ranging from 5 to 50 mm or something
more is known as hail. In India, the period from March to May
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WEATHER ABERRATIONS
➢ DROUGHT: A situation of no precipitation in a rainy season for more than 15 days
continuously. Such length of non-rainy days can also be called as dry spells.
➢ Deficiency of available soil moisture which produces water deficits in the plant sufficient to
cause a reduction in plant growth.
➢ “Drought is a period of inadequate or no rainfall over extended time creating soil moisture
deficit and hydrological imbalances.”
Classification of Drought
A. Based on water availability:
1. Meteorological drought: Indian Metrological Department (IMD) has defined
meteorological drought as the situation when actual rainfall is less than 75% of the normal
rainfall over an area. This is accepted principally because of its simplicity.
The IMD uses two measures to define drought conditions.
(i) Rainfall conditions
(ii) Drought severity
❖ Rainfall conditions:
Excess
20% more than average of 70-100 yrs.
Deficient
20% less than average of 70-100 yrs.
Deficient
20 to 59% less than average of 70-100 yrs.
Scanty
60% less than average of 70-100 yrs.
❖ Drought severity: The IMD classifies droughts as follows from rainfall departures.
Slight drought
When rainfall departure is 11 to 25% from normal rainfall.
Moderate drought
When rainfall departure is 26 to 50% from normal rainfall.
Severe drought
When rainfall departure is 50% and more from normal rainfall.
Drought years the year is considered drought when less than
75% of the normal rainfall is received.
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2. Hydrological drought: Hydrological drought is considered as “a period during which stream
flows are inadequate to supply established used under given water management system”. The
frequency and severity of hydrological droughts often defined based on water depletion or
shortage in reserve basins, reservoirs, lakes, wells etc. This drought affects industry and power
generation.
3. Agricultural drought: This is a situation resulted from inadequate rainfall when soil moisture
falls short to meet the water demands of the crop during the growing period. This affects the
crop growth or crop may wilt due to moisture stress resulting in yield reduction.
4. Socio-Economic drought: The Socio-economic effects of drought can also incorporate
features of meteorological hydrological and Agricultural droughts. They are usually associated
with the supply and demand of some economic goods. This drought should be linked not only
to precipitation but also trends of fluctuations in demand.
B. Based on time of occurrence:
1. Permanent drought : this is the drought area of permanent dry arid or desert regions. Crop
production due to inadequate rainfall is not possible without irrigation in these areas. Vegetation
like cactus thorny shrubs, xerophytes etc are generally observed.
2. Seasonal drought: In the regions with clearly defined rainy (wet) and dry climates seasonal
droughts may result due to large scale seasonal circulation. This happens in monsoon area.
3. Contingent drought: These results due to irregular and variability in rainfall especially in
humid and sub humid regions. The occurrence of drought may coincide with critical crop
growth resulting in severe yield reduction.
4. Invisible drought: This can occur even when there is frequent rain in an area. When rainfall is
inadequate to meet the evapo-transpiration losses, the result is borderline water deficiency in
soil resulting in less than optimum yield. This occurs usually in humid regions.
C. Based on medium
1. Soil drought: it is the condition when soil moisture depletes and falls short to meet the potential
Evapotranspiration (PET) of Crop.
2. Atmospheric drought: This results from low humidity dry and hot winds and causes
desiccation of plants. This may happen even when rainfall and moisture supply is adequate.
❖ Based on relevance to the users (National Commission on Agriculture, 1976)
➢ Meteorological drought:
✓ If annual rainfall is significantly short of certain level (75 per cent) of the climatologically
expected normal rainfall over a wide area.
✓ It is defined as a condition, where the annual precipitation is less than the normal over an
area for prolonged period (month, season or year).
➢ Atmospheric drought:
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✓ It is due to low air humidity, frequently accompanied by hot dry winds.
✓ It may occur even under conditions of adequate available soil moisture.
✓ It refers to a condition when plants show wilting symptoms during the hot part of the day
when transpiration exceeds absorption temporarily for a short period.
➢ Hydrological drought:
✓ Meteorological drought, when prolonged results in hydrological drought with depletion of
surface water and consequent drying of reservoirs, tanks etc.
✓ It results in deficiency of water for all sectors using water.
✓ This is based on water balance and how it affects irrigation as a whole for bringing crops to
maturity.
➢ Agricultural drought (soil drought):
✓ It is the result of soil moisture stress due to imbalance between available soil moisture and
evapotranspiration of a crop.
✓ It is usually gradual and progressive
❖ Based on time of occurrence
➢ Early season drought:
✓ It occurs due to delay in onset of monsoon or due to long dry spells after early sowing
➢ Mid-season drought:
✓ Occurs due to long gaps between two successive rains and stored moisture becoming
insufficient during the long dry spell.
➢ Late season drought:
✓ Occurs due to early cessation of rainfall and crop water stress at maturity stage.
❖ Other terms to describe drought
➢ Relative drought:
✓ The drought for one crop may not be a drought situation for another crop.
✓ This is due to mismatch between soil moisture condition and crop selection.
➢ Physiological drought:
✓ Refers to a condition where crops are unable to absorb water from soil even when water is
available, due to the high osmotic pressure of soil solution due to increased soil
concentration, as in saline and alkaline soils.
✓ It is not due to deficit of water supply.
Crop Adaptation for Dry Growing conditions
❖ Escaping Drought
➢ Ephemerals Drought
➢ Early Maturing Variety
❖ Drought Resistance:
➢ Avoiding stress: (Conserving water, Water Savers)
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➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
Early closure of stomata
Increased photosynthetic efficiency
Low rates of cuticular transpiration
Lipid deposits on leaves, e.g., Soybean: sorghum
Reduced leaf Area
Morphology of leaf surface (Thick cuticle: Waxy surface; Spines etc)
Effects of Awn: Awned varieties yield more in dryland. Awns contribute 12% of
photosynthates to grain
➢ Water storage in plants: The pineapple leaves contain substantial amounts of water in
special nonchlorophyllous tissue which is utilized during drought.
❖ Improving water uptake (Water spenders)
➢ Efficiency root system
➢ High root/top ratio
➢ Increased plant
MONSOON
➢ The word monsoon comes from the Arabic word ‘mausim’ meaning season.
➢ It is the seasonal reversal of wind direction over the earth surface due to the differential heating
of land, oceans & earth rotation.
➢ India is situated in the north-east trade wind zone and these trade winds continue throughout
the year.
South-West monsoon:
➢
➢
➢
➢
Also known as summer monsoon occurs from June to September.
S. W. monsoon reach south India (in Kerala) around 1st June of every year
It moves at average speed 30 km/hour.
It comprises the month June, July, August and September which contributes about 75% of
rainfall to India except for extreme North of Jammu and Kashmir and extremes South of
Tamil Nadu.
➢ It's called as 'Grand period' of rainfall in India.
➢ These winds are divided in two parts.
Arabian Sea branch & Bay of Bengal branch
➢ Arabian Sea branch first causes rainfall in the Western Ghats of the coastal area of Kerala.
Therefore, Kerala is he first state of India to receive rainfall from S-W monsoon. Then it moves
northwards (Delhi).
➢ Bay of Bengal Branch flows over the Bay of Bengal towards northeast Indian and Bengal and
rainfall occur in Eastern Himalayas after that wind turns towards the west over Indo- Gangetic
Plains.
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Northeast monsoon
➢ Also known winter monsoon or retreating monsoon.
➢ Northeast Monsoon (NEM) contributed rainfall to Southeastern part of peninsular India Tamil
Nadu, J&K, south part of AP, Telangana receives its 60% of rainfall from NEM (Northeast
Monsoon).
➢ North -east monsoon is limited mostly to southern states (AP & TN).
➢ It comprises the months of October, November, and December.
➢ River who utilizes maximum flow: Ganga
➢ This season is also called as Rabi season monsoon.
❖ Western Depression: It contributes only 3-4 %
CLIMATOLOGY:
❖ Influence of Climate on Crops
➢ Climate is the most important dominating factor influencing the suitability of a crop to a
particular region.
➢ The yield potential of the crop mainly depends on climate.
➢ More than 50 per cent of variation of crops is determined by climate.
➢ The most important climatic factors that influence growth, development and yield of crops
are solar radiation, temperature and rainfall.
❖ Growing Period: Length of growing period is defined as a period in which the available soil
moisture is enough to meet the evapotranspiration requirement of dry land crops and hence
the dry land productivity is assured.
Length of growing period
< 5 weeks
Minimum of 14 weeks
(98 days)
14 weeks
14 to 20 weeks
> 20 weeks
Crop Status
Crop failures will occur
Permit the dry land crop to attain its
potential productivity
A single dry land crop can be cultivated
Suitable inter cropping system can be
cultivated
Long duration crop / double crop can be
cultivated
Different Seasons
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Spring
January to March - Fresh leaves form in trees.
Summer
April to June . Flowering and fruiting take place
Autumn
July-September
Winter
October-December.
➢ Precipitation: Precipitation includes all forms of water that reach the earth from the
atmosphere.
Precipitation has forms such as rainfall, snowfall, hail, frost, and dew. The first two of these
contribute significant amounts of water.
Types of Precipitation:
Cyclonic
precipitation
Orographic
precipitation
Convective
precipitation
❖ Cyclonic precipitation: It is caused by the lifting of air mass due to pressure difference. A
cyclone is a large low-pressure region with circular wind motion. There are two types of
cyclones – viz. tropical cyclones and extra tropical cyclones. Extra tropical cyclones are
formed in locations outside the tropical zone. These are associated with a frontal system.
❖ Convective Precipitation: It is caused due to upward movement of air that is warmer than
the Surrounding air due to localized heating. This generally occurs in the tropics on hot days
resulting in vertical air currents of large velocity.
❖ Orographic Precipitation: It is responsible for most of the heavy rains in large parts of
India. It is caused by moist air masses that strike natural topographic barriers like mountains,
causing them rise upwards, causing cooling, condensation and precipitation. The leeward side
receives very little precipitation whereas the windward side receives good rain.
➢ Raindrops generally have a diameter greater than 0.2 mm. They range in size up to about
3 mm (about 0.13 in) in diameter, and their rate of fall increases, up to 7.6 m (25 ft) per sec
with their size.
❖ Sea breeze – Movement of wind from sea to land that occurs during daytime.
❖ Land breeze – Movement of air from land to sea that occurs during night-time.
WEATHER FORECASTING
104 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Forecasting
Validity
Main Users
Short range (SRWF) 1-3 days (up to 72 Farmers marine
hours)
Agencies, general
public
Medium
(MRWF)
range3-10 days
Farmers
Uses
Forecasting of
cyclone, dust
storms, snow etc. it
is issued twice a
day.
Forecasting of
rainfall, maximum
& minimum
temperature, used in
agriculture
Long range (LRWF)) >10 days (A month Planners
or a season)
❖ Forecasting information:
➢ Terminology used for different amount of cloudiness is:
when the sky is almost clear with 90 to
Sunny conditions
100 percent sunshine
Partly cloudy or scattered cloudiness
50 to 90 percent sunshine
Cloudiness
20 to 50 % sunshine
Mostly cloudy
20% or less of sunshine.
❖ Method of forecasting:
Synoptic Method
This method is useful for short range
forecasts.
Statistical methods
These techniques are useful for short as
well as for long range forecasting
Numerical Weather Predication Method These techniques are found suitable for
medium range forecasts.
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DRYLAND AGRICULTURE
❖ Dryland Agriculture refers to growing of crops entirely under rainfed conditions or
entirely under natural rainfall without irrigation.
❖ Based on the amount of rainfall received, dryland agriculture can be grouped into three
categories:
1. Dry Farming:
➢ Cultivation of crops in areas where rainfall is less than 750 mm per annum. (NABARD
2021)
➢ Crop failure is most common due to prolonged dry spells during the crop period.
➢ These are arid regions with a growing season (period of adequate soil moisture) less than 75
days.
➢ Moisture conservation practices are necessary for crop production.
2. Dryland Farming:
➢ Cultivation of crops in areas receiving rainfall above 750 mm
➢ These are semi-arid tracts with a growing period between 75 and 120 days.
➢ Moisture conservation practices are necessary for crop production.
➢ Adequate drainage is required especially for vertisols or black soils.
3. Rainfed Farming:
➢ Cultivation of crops in regions receiving more than 1,150 mm.
➢ Crops are not subjected to soil moisture stress during the crop period.
➢ Emphasis is often on disposal of excess water.
➢ These are humid regions with growing period more than 120 days.
❖ Note: If rainfall is < 750 mm monocropping will be followed but if it is more than 750 mm
then we can practice intercropping.
Particulars
Dryland farming
Rainfed farming
Rainfall (mm)
<800mm
>800
Moisture availability to
the crop
Shortage
Enough
Growing season (days)
<200
>200
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Growing regions
Arid and semiarid as well as Humid and sub humid
uplands of sub-humid and regions
humid regions
Cropping system
Single crop or intercropping Intercropping
cropping
Constraints
Wind and water erosion
or
double
Water erosion
❖ Techniques to reduce evaporation and transpiration loss:
1. Mulches
2. Anti transpirants: Any material that is applied on transpiring plant surface for reducing water
loss is called Antitranspirants. The best anti transpirants reduce transpiration losses up to 3040%.
➢ Stomata closing:
✓ Transpiration mostly occurs through stomata on the leaf surface.
✓ Some fungicides like PMA (phenyl mercuric acetate) and herbicides like atrazine in low
concentrations serve as anti transpirants by closing of stomata.
✓ PMA is known to inhibit mesophyll photosynthesis.
✓ Examples: PMA, Atrazine and Co2
➢ Film forming Antitranspirants:
✓ The plastic and waxy materials, which form a thin film on the leaf surface, retard the escape
of water due to formation of physical barrier.
✓ The success of these chemicals is limited since they also reduce photosynthesis.
✓ The desirable characteristics of film forming type of Antitranspirants are they should form a
thin layer; they should be more resistant to the passage of water vapour than carbon dioxide
and the film should maintain continuity and should not break.
✓ This film forming anti transpirants may be of either thin film or thick film.
✓ Thin film forming type: Hexadecanol
✓ Thick film forming type: Mobi leaf, Polythene S-60
✓ Other examples: silicon, oils and waxes
➢ Leaf Reflecting type:
✓ These are the white materials, which form a coating on the leaves and increase leaf reflectance
(albedo).
✓ By reflecting the radiation, they reduce leaf temperatures and vapour pressure gradient from
leaf to atmosphere and hence reduces transpiration.
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✓ About 5% of kaolin spray reduces the leaf temperature by 3-4°C and decrease in transpiration
by 22 to 28 per cent.
✓ Celite and hydrated lime are also used as reflectant type of anti transpirants.
➢ Growth retardant type:
✓ These chemicals reduce shoot growth and increase root growth and thus enable the plants to
reduce transpiring surface and resist drought conditions.
✓ They increase root/shoot ratio.
✓ Eg : Cycocel – (2-chloroethyl) Trimethyl ammonium chloride (CCC), Phosphon–D, Maleic
Hydrazide (MH)
3. Wind breaks
4. Weed control
5. Zero Tillage
PLASTIC MULCHING FOR CROP PRODUCTION
❖ Mulching is the process or practice of covering the soil/ground to make more favourable
conditions for plant growth, development and efficient crop production. Mulch technical term
means ‘covering of soil’
❖ Types of mulch film:
➢ A wide range of plastic films based on different types of polymers have all been evaluated
for mulching at various periods in the 1960s.
➢ LDPE, HDPE and flexible PVC
➢ Today the vast majority of plastic mulch is based on LLDPE because it is more economic in
use.
❖ Basic properties of mulch film:
➢ The early mulch film used were of 60–75-micron (240-300 gauge) thickness, and today it is
possible to have 15-micron thick film due to advent of film extrusion technology.
➢ Normally a one to one and half meter width film can be easily adopted to different conditions.
❖ Mulch colour: The colour of the mulch affects
1. Soil temperature
2. Temperature of air around the plants
3. Soil salinity
a) Due to lesser quantity of water used
b) Due to reduction in evaporation and prevention of upward movement of water.
c) Transparent film - Deposits more salt on soil surface
d) Black film - Restricts water movement and upward movement of salt is reduced.
1) Weed flora - Black film
2) Insect control - Opaque while film acts as golden colour and attracts insects.
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❖ Selection of mulch:
➢ The selection of mulches depends upon the ecological situations and primary and Secondary
aspects of mulching.
Rainy season
Perforated mulch
Orchard and plantation
Thicker mulch
Soil solarization
Thin transparent film
Weed control through solarization
Transparent film
Weed control in cropped land
Black film
Sandy soil
Black film
Saline water use
Black film
Summer cropped land
White film
Insect repellent
Silver colour film
Early germination
Thinner film
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WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
➢ Watershed management is a term used to describe the process of implementing land use
practices and water management practices to protect and improve the quality of the water
and other natural resources within a watershed by managing the use of those land and water
resources in a comprehensive manner.
❖ Water harvesting
➢ Water harvesting (WH) is a technique of collection and storage of rainwater into natural
reservoirs or tanks, or the infiltration of surface water into subsurface aquifers (before it is
lost as surface runoff).
❖ Dryland Agriculture:
➢ All India Co-ordinated research project for Dryland Agriculture was launched by ICAR in
1970 in collaboration with Government of Canada and later Central Research Institute for
Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) was established at Hyderabad.
WATER SENSITIVE CROP
➢ The crops which are grown for their fresh leaves or fruits are more sensitive to water shortage
than the crops which are grown for their dry seeds or fruits. Based on their sensitivity the
crops can be indexed as below.
Low
Cassava
Millets
Low to Medium
Alfalfa
Cotton
Red gram
Maize
Groundnut
Medium to high
Beans
Citrus
High
Banana
Cabbage (IBPS
AFO 2019)
Soybean
Fresh Green
Wheat (IBPS AFO Vegetables
2019)
Rice
Sugarcane
Tomato
FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION
❖ Temperature requirement of different crops
❖ Nearly 50% of yield is attributed to the influence of climatic factors.
110 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Precipitation includes all water which falls from atmosphere such as rainfall, snow, hail,
fog and dew.
❖ The range of temperature for maximum growth of most of the agricultural plants is
between 15 and 40ºC.
❖ The temperature of a place is largely determined by its distance from the equator (latitude)
and altitude. If relative humidity is 100% it means that the entire space is filled with water
and there is no soil evaporation and plant transpiration.
❖ Relative humidity influences the water requirement of crops.
❖ Relative humidity of 40-60% is suitable for most of the crop plants. (AFO-2018)
❖ Wind movement for 4 – 6 km/hour is suitable for more crops.
❖ When wind speed is enormous then there is mechanical damage of the crops (i.e.) it
removes leaves and twigs and damages crops like banana, sugarcane.
❖ Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by microbes in the soil and is available to crop plants
through symbiotic (Rhizobium) or non-symbiotic (Azospirillum) association.
❖ Soils with low pH is injurious to plants due high toxicity of Fe and Al.
❖ Edaphic factors affecting soil. Plants grown in land completely depend on soil on which
they grow. The soil factors that affect crop growth are:
1. Soil moisture
2. Soil air
3. Soil temperature
4. Soil mineral matter
5. Soil organic matter
6. Soil organisms
7. Soil reactions
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IMPORTANT SUMMARIZED DATA
First in India
First hybrid variety in India
Pusa meghdoot (Bottle gourd)
First hybrid variety of maize
Ganges-1 & Ganga-101 (1961)
First
Single
Hybridization
Maize(single cross) variety
of Paras
First hybrid variety of sorghum (1964)
CSH-1
First hybrid variety of millet (1965)
HB-1
First hybrid variety of cotton (1970)
H-4 & Varalakshmi
First hybrid variety of safflower
DSH-1
First hybrid variety of mustard
NRCHB-506
First Tomato Hybrid Variety
Karnataka hybrid-1
First hybrid variety of tobacco
GTH-1
First hybrid variety of Bt cotton -
Bollguard (cry 1AC gene)
First semi-dwarf variety of Basmati Pusa Basmati1
riceWhich variety came first in India
(introduced) - (1966)
IR-8
First dwarf variety of rice developed in Jaya
India(1969)
First super rice variety for saline and Lunishree
alkaline soils
First virus disease
TMV (Tobacco Mosaic Virus)
First plant parasitic bacteria
Fire blight of apple
112 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Zero tillage was invented in which America
country?
First Herbicide -
2, 4-D
The first commercial fertilizer is
Single super phosphate (SSP)
The first man-made cereal-
Triticale (wheat X Rye) (1890)
World's first transgenic crop
Bt Cotton
The first hybrid variety of commercially Mallika
grown mango isIn which year conducted
agricultural census in India -
first 1970
World food Prize First winner '-
Dr. M.S. Swaminathan
First Director General of ICAR-
Dr. B.P. Pal
First hybrid varieties of crops
S.No.
Crop name
Variety Name
1.
Maize
Ganges-1, 1961
2.
Sorghum
CSH-1 (1964)
3.
Pearl Millet
HB-1 (1965), Atwal
4.
Cotton
H-4, (1970), CT Patel
5.
Rice
CORH-1, 1994
6.
Tobacco
GTH-1
7.
Sunflower
BSH-1, 1980
8.
Pigeon pea
ICPH-8, 1991
9.
Sugarcane
CO-205, 1926
10.
Castor
Aruna
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11.
Basmati rice
PRH-10
12.
Mango
Amrapali, Mallika, RN singh
13.
Mustard
NRCHB-506
14.
Safflower
DSH-129
MUTANT VARIETIES OF CROPS:
Crop
Rice
Chickpea
Pea
Arhar
Wheat
Cotton
Tobacco
Moong
Urd
Mango
Turmeric
Mutant Varieties
Jagannath, Prabhavati
BGM-48, BGM-413
Hans
Trombay, Vishakha-1
Sarbati sanora
MCU-7, MCU-10
Jayshri, Bhavya
Dhulli, Pant mung 2, MUM 2
CO-1, Sarla
Rosica
BSR-1
MOISTURE CONTENT IN CROP SEEDS:
Crops
Rice
Wheat
Soybean
Groundnut
Sorghum
Maize
Barley
Pearl millet
Pulse
Oilseeds
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At harvesting (%)
23
25-30
16-17
30-40
21-24
20-25
18-20
20
18-20
At storage (%)
14
12
13-14
<8
12
12
12
10-12
10-12
<8
MOISTURE CONTENT OF GRAINS FOR SAFE STORAGE
Crops
Moisture Content (%)
Paddy, raw rice
14
Parboiled rice
15
Wheat, barley, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, finger 12
millet and pulses
Groundnut pods, rape and mustard
6
TEMPERATURE REGIMES
Particular
Cool season crop (0c)
Warm season crop(0c)
Minimum
0-5
15-20
Optimum
25-30
30-38
Maximum
30-38
45-50
Optimum temperature regimes for different stages of crop (oc)
Crop stage
Rice
Blooming
Panicle initiation
Ripening
Average growth Period
Wheat
Germination
Tillering/vegetative
Accelerated growth
Proper grain filling
Sugarcane
Germination
Optimum temp. (0c)
26.5-29.5
20-22
20-25
21-37
20-25
16-20
20-23
23-25 for 4-5 weeks
21
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Tillering/formative
Vegetative
Ripening
Pigeon pea
Germination
Vegetative growth
Flowering & pod setting
Maturity
Potato
Germination
Vegetative growth
Tuber growth
Highest tuberization
Tuber development stop
Other cereals
Maize germination
Maize entire growth
Sorghum germination
Sorghum growth
Pearl millet growth
Other crop
Chickpea entire growth period
Growth of pea
Growth of green gram
Entire growth period of jute
Growth of groundnut
Soybean germination
Growth of soybean
Sunflower growth
Cotton germination
Cotton vegetative growth
Tobacco germination
According to TNAU
116 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
26.6
29.4
18.8
30-35
20-25
15-18
35-40
25
20
17-19
20 (day)
14 (Night)
29
21
32
18-21
26-30
27-30
15-25
13-18
25-32
18-30
21-26.5
22
26-29
20-25
>16
21-27
27-32
Crops
Rice
Wheat
Maize
Sorghum
Tobacco
Minimum
Temperature (o C)
10
4.5
8-10
12-13
12-14
Optimum
Temperature (o C)
32
20
20
25
29
Maximum
Temperature (o C)
36-38
30-32
40-43
40
35
Cardinal temperature for the Germination of some important crops
Sr. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Plant
Rice
Sorghum
Maize
Wheat
Barley
Sugar beat
Tobacco
Carrot
Peas
Oats
Lentil
Cardinal Temperature 0C
Minimum
Optimum
10-12
30-32
8-10
32-35
8-10
32-35
3-4.5
25
3-4.5
20
4-5
25
13-14
28
4-5
8
12
32-34
4-5
25
4-5
30
Maximum
36-38
40-42
40-44
30-32
38-40
28-30
35
25
40
28-30
36
Protein Content in Pulses
Crop
Gram
Pea
Arhar
Lentil
Urd
Moong
Cowpea
Protein %
21.1
22.5
21-25
25
24
25
23.4
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Protein Content in Cereals
Crop
Rice
Maize
Bajra
Wheat
Sorghum
Barley
Protein %
6-7 %
10 %
11-12 %
11-12 %
10-12%
11.5 %
Protein Content in Oilseeds
Crop
Soybean
Groundnut
Sesame
Linseed
Safflower (Cakes)
Protein %
42 %
26%
18-20 %
36 %
40-45 %
Oil Content in Crops
Crops
Coconut
Sesame
Groundnut
Castor
Rape seed and Mustard
Soybean
Sunflower
Niger
Maize
Cottonseed
Protein Known as
118 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Oil %
60 %
46-52%
45- 58 % (AFO 2022)
35-58 %
33-35 %
20 %
45-50 %
35-45 %
4–5%
15 – 25 %
Structural Protein
Muscle protein
Silk protein
Hair and wool protein
Soybean protein
Wheat Protein
Rice
Barley
Maize
Known as
Collagen
Fibrolin
Keratin
Glycinin
Gluten
Oryzein
Albuminodes
Zein
Toxic chemicals and their relation to plants
Gossypol
Cotton
Neurotoxin (BOAA)
Lathyrus
Erucic acid
Mustard
Aflatoxin
peanut
CN glucoside dhurin / HCN /
Fever
Resins
Mango
Polyphenolics
Safflower,
Lathiragins
Lathirus Sativus
Cucurbitacins
Cucurbits
Toxic Substances found in different fodder and Food crops:
Crop/plants
Toxic substance
Sorghum
HCN/Dhurin/Prussic acid
Alfalfa/Lucerne, Berseem
Saponins
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Pearl millet, Napier grass
Oxalic acid
Sweet clover (Melilotus sp.)
Coumarins
Leucaena leucocephela (Subabul)
Mimosine
Lathyrus/Khesari
Lathogen/Neurotoxin (BOAA)
Safflower
Polyphenolics
Sudan grass, White clover, Sorghum
Cyanogenic glycosides
Mustard
Erucic Acid
French bean
Hemagglutinin Trypsin and Amylose
inhibitors
Pigeon pea and Cowpea
Trypsin inhibitors
General Recommended Fertilizer Doses (N:P: K Ratio):
Crops
N:P: K Ratio
Cereal Crops
4: 2: 1
Pulse Crops
1: 2: 1 or 1: 2: 2
Oilseed crops
3: 2: 1
Fodder/Fibre crops
2: 1: 4
Root crops
2:1:1
Fruit types and edible parts of different crops:
All cereals crops and grassesCaryopsis
Endosperm and Embryo
Most of leguminous crops
i.e., gram, pea, Arhar
Seed/Cotyledons
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Legume/Pod
Groundnut
Lomentum
Seed/Cotyledons
Qualitative prospects of different crops
Process
Value (%)
Milling of rice
60
Hulling in Rice
66
Shelling in wheat
60
Milling of wheat
70-74
Shelling in pea
49
Shelling in chickpea
49
Shelling in Groundnut
70
Inflorescence of crops
Inflorescence
Arrow
Axillary
Axillary raceme
Raceme
Crop
Sugarcane
Cotton
Pulses- Black gram, Chickpea, Green gram, Pea, Pigeon
pea, moth bean, Lentil, Soybean
Ground nut, Mustard, Castor, Sun hemp, Tobacco
Cymose
Capitulum
Head
Panicle
Spike
Ear
Sesame, Linseed, Jute, Potato
Sunflower, Niger
Sorghum, Safflower
Rice, Porso millet
Wheat, Barley (NSC 2018)
Pearl millet
Terms related to specific crop:
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Crop
Sugarcane
Term
Wrapping, Tying,
Propping
Detail
The act of giving support to sugarcane
Sugarcane
Trashing/Detrashing
Removal of extra dry and green lower leaves from
sugarcane
Sugarcane
Sugarcane
Arrowing
Ratooning
Sugarcane flower
Second crop from first crop’s vegetative part
(IBPS AFO 2020)
Removal of all top branches in fodder
The act of giving support to Banana
Removal of suckers
Lucerne
Looping
Banana
Propping
Tobacco, BananaDe-suckering
Maize
Groundnut
Groundnut
De-tasseling
Pegging
Popping
Groundnut,
Potato,
Sugarcane
Earthing up
Cotton
Cotton
Cotton
Gram
Ginning
Delinting
Topping
Nipping or
Topping
Separation of fibre from cotton seed
seeds are removed from kapas (Cotton fibre)
Removal of upper buds
Removal of upper buds
Sunflower
pinching/
nipping
To promote more and longer branches
Castor
Nipping
Removing of apical meristem buy hand or knife to
promote only one bud development (40-45 DAS)
Tobacco, Tea
Tea
Tobacco
Curing
Tipping
Rabbing
Drying of leaves
Plucking of leaves from tea (A normal process)
Burning of straw on the surface to make seedbed
free from pest.
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Removal of male part from flower
Formation of peg from flower (IBPS AFO 2019)
When kernel (Edible part) are not developed in
pod of groundnut, occurred due to calcium
deficiency.
Act of giving more soil for growth as well as
support (Growth in groundnut and potato and
support in sugarcane)
Jute
Retting
Tied bundles of jute stalks are taken to the tank by
which fibres get loosened and separated from the
woody stalk (RRB SO 2020)
Jute
Stripping
Process of removing the fibers from the stalk after
the completion of retting
Jute
Ribboning/
Ribbon retting
In ribbon retting, ribbons are stripped out
mechanically from the stem of mature jute plants,
coiled and allowed to ret under water.
Tomato
Stalking
Tie the stems of tomato plants to the support
structure every 6 or 8 inches as they grow.
Rice
Sunflower
Parboiling
heliotropism
Process of partially boiling of rice in the husk.
The fascinating phenomenon of flowers following
the sun across the sky
Paddy
Potato
Banana
Banana
Beushening
Dehaulming
Denavelling
Choke/Choking
Cross ploughing in paddy field
Cutting of plant before the harvesting of potato
Removal of male bud in banana
A condition in banana
plants in which the fruit bunch fails to emerge, or
emerges abnormally twisted
Sorghum
Paddy
Nicking
Rope pulling/
Flag leaf clipping
Synchronisation of flowering in the two parents
Removal of youngest flag leaf of paddy
Bajra
Jerking
First tillers are pulled out or removed which will
result in uniform flowering of all the tillers
Tobacco
Leguminous
pastures
Flooping
Ley Farming
Refers to wilting of tobacco due to waterlogging.
the growing of grass or legumes in rotation with
grain or tilled crops as a soil conservation
measure. (IBPS AFO- 2020)
Sensitive stage
Crop
Rice
Wheat
Sensitive stage
Panicle initiation
CRI (IBPS AFO 2019)
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Maize
Groundnut
Sunflower
Cotton
Tasseling & silking
Peg penetration & Pod development
Head formation & Early grain filling
Square formation & Boll formation & development
Tobacco
Soybean
Flower crops
Ornamental
Topping
Flowering & pod filling
Bud formation & development
Flowering
Water requirement in crop
S. No.
Corps
1
2
3
4
Rice
Wheat
Groundnut
Sorghum
Duration
days
135
110
105
100
inWater requirementNo. of irrigations
(mm)
1250
18
500-650
5-7
550
10
350
6
5
Maize
110
500
8
6
Sugarcane
365
2000
24
7
Ragi
100
350
6
8
Cotton
165
550
11
9
Black gram
80-90
280
Depends upon season
10
Soybean
110-120
320
5-7
11
Sesame
90-120
150
3-4
12
Sunflower
120-130
450
5-6
13
Pulses
90-120
350
4
Test weight of crop seeds (grams)
Crop
Rice
Basmati rice
124 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Test weight(g)
25
21
Wheat, barley
Cotton, pigeon pea
Pea
Mustard
Sorghum
Tobacco
Linseed, safflower
Lucerne
Sunflower
Soybean
Cowpea
Green gram
Pearl millet
French bean
30-40
72
100
3-5
25-30
0.25- 0.30
10
2-4
40-50
55
80
34-36
5-7
38-44
Note: Test weight= 1000 seed and seed index= 100 seed
Optimum pH range for different crops
Crop
Tea
Rice
Wheat, Barley, Oats, Sorghum, Maize, Sugarcane,
Berseem, Sunflower
Chickpea, lentil, Soybean, French Bean
Sugar beet
Potato
Tobacco
Pearl millet, cotton, Cowpea, Groundnut
Soil pH
4.0-6.0
5-6.5
6.0- 7.5
5.5-7.0
6.5-8.0
5.0-5.5
5.5-7.5
5.0-6.5
Indicator Crops
Deficiency
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Indicator Crop
Maize , Sorghum ,Leguminous plants (Pulses)
Tomato ,Maize, Lucerne, Cereals, Duranta
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Potassium
Magnesium
Calcium
Sulphur
Zinc
Copper
Iron
Boron
Manganese
Molybdenum
Maize, Lucerne , Cotton, Potatoes, Banana, Cucurbits
Cotton (leaf reddening)
Cauliflower, tomato (blossom end rot of fruits), sugarbeet
Lucerne , Clover , Cereals, Tea
Maize, Paddy(Khaira disease), Tomatoes , Potatoes, Beans, Citrus
Citrus, Cereals
Ornamental plants, Acacia, Eucalyptus, Gooseberry, Sugarcane,
sorghum, citrus
Lucerne, Coconut, Guava, Cauliflower (RRB SO 2018)
Citrus, sunflower, sugarbeet
Cauliflower (whiptail) (RRB SO 2018), Cabbage
Size Classes and Broad Size Groups of Holdings:
S. No.
Size-Groups
Classes (in hectares)
1
2
3
4
5.
Marginal
Small
Semi medium
Medium
Large
0.50-1.00
1.00-2.00
2.00-4.00
4.00-10.00 (NABARD-2021)
10.00 and above
Percentage of number of
land holding
67.1%
17.9%
10%
4.3%
0.7%
Units of Measurement:
Weather element
Temperature
Vapour pressure
Relative humidity
Wind direction
Wind speed
Rainfall and evaporation
Bright sunshine duration
Cloud cover
Atmospheric pressure
126 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Units
o
C
Mm of Hg
Percentage (%)
Degree (0 t0 360o) directions
Km hr-1
Mm day -1
Hrs.
Okta (0 to 8)
Milli bars/mm of Hg/Pascals
Isolation distance (Meter) of different crops for seed production
Crop
Wheat
Rice
soybean
groundnut
Barley
Oat
Small millet
Linseed
Taramira
Sesame
Maize (OPV)
Pearl millet(OPV)
Pearl millet (Hybrid)
Safflower
Sunflower
Self-Compatible rapeseed & mustard
Foundation seed
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
50
100
100
400
400
1000
400
400
50
Certified seed
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
25
50
50
200
200
200
200
200
25
Chickpea, green gram, Urad bean,
cowpea, Field pea, Rajma, Cluster bean,
Moth bean, Indian bean, Methi,
Lathyrus
10
5
Potato
Cotton
Jute
Self-incompatible rapeseed & mustard
5
50
50
100
5
30
30
50
Lucerne, Berseem,
Pigeon pea, Sorghum, Rice hybrid
400
200
100
100
Castor, Sorghum hybrid,
300
150
Important act
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Act
DIPA: - Destructive insect pest act
Essential Commodity Act
Seed Act
Insecticide Act
Fertilizer control order
Seed control order
Seed policy
Year
Feb. 1914 (madras)
1955
1966, enforce in 1969
1968, enforce in 1971
1957 (redefined 1985)
1983
2002
Types of chemical toxicity:
S.No.
1234-
Poison color
Red
Yellow
Blue
Green
Type of poisoning
Extremely toxic
Highly toxic
Moderately toxic
Less toxic
Particle size in spraying chemicals (Droplet size):
For the control of flying insects
For the control of surface living insects
10 to 50 microns
1- 30 to 150 microns
For the control of plant diseases
30 to 150 microns
For the control of weeds
100 to 300 microns
ICAR awards related to agriculture:
➢
➢
➢
➢
Sardar Patel Outstanding ICAR Institution Award
National and Zonal Krishi Vigyan Kendra Awards
ICAR Norman Borlaug Award
Panjab rao Deshmukh Outstanding Woman Scientist Award
128 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Jag jivan Ram Abhinav Kisan Puraskar/ Jagjivan Ram Innovtive Farmer Award
(National/Zonal)
➢ N. G. Ranga Farmer Award for Diversified Agriculture
➢ Chaudhary Devi Lal Outstanding All India Coordinated Research Project Award
➢ Jawaharlal Nehru Award for P.G. Outstanding Doctoral Thesis Research in Agricultural
and Allied Sciences
➢ Lal Bahadur Shastri Outstanding Young Scientist Award
➢ Vasantrao Naik Award for Research Application in Dryland Farming System (IBPS AFO
2016)
➢ Rafi Ahmed Kidwai Award for Outstanding Research in Agricultural Sciences
➢ Swami Sahajanand Saraswati Outstanding Extension scientist
➢ Dr. Rajendra Prasad Award for technical books in agriculture and allied sciences in hindi
Important Facts:
➢ Cereal grain contains 60-70% of starch.
➢ Only 5% of starchy staple food comes from root crops.
➢ Whole cereal grains contain 20-30% of the daily requirements of the minerals such as
selenium, calcium, zinc and copper.
➢ The wastes or stalk of pulses is called the ‘haulm’ or ‘stover’.
➢ Fiber obtained from fiber crops is a elongation of epidermal cells/hairs.
➢ Very few crops can perform well when relative humidity is 80% and above.
➢ Cereals are deficient in Lysine amino acid and legumes are deficient in methionine amino
acid.
➢ Reclamation disease of cereals is due to copper deficiency.
➢ Bench terracing is done when slope is more than 15% (Range will be 16-33%)
➢ Sowing pattern used in dry land is broadcasting.
➢ Maize is known as erosion permitting crop.
➢ Cowpea and groundnut are known as erosion resistant crops.
➢ Phenyl Mercuric acetate (PMA) is a chemical used in agriculture crops in order to reduce
transpiration.
➢ Agronomic measures are used to reduce erosion where slope is less than 2% and mechanical
measures are used to supplement the agronomical practices where the land slope is more
than 2%.
➢ Contour bunding has slope of 6% and used in arid and semi-arid areas, graded bunding has
slope of 2-10% and zing terracing has slope of 3-10%.
➢ Contour and graded bunding mostly used in India.
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➢ Mostly used soil & water conservation method in hilly & mountain areas: Contour
bunding (AFO-2022)
➢ Harvesting Index: Economic yield (Grain)/ Biological yield (Grain + Straw) ×100
➢ National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) is located at: New
Delhi
➢ Directorate for Farming system research is located at Modi Puram, Uttar Pradesh
➢ Evapotranspiration (ET) constitute nearly 99% of the total water uptake.
➢ Fertiliser Association of India (FAI) was established in 1955 with the objective of bringing
together all concerned with the production, marketing and use of fertilisers.
➢ National Academy of Agricultural Research Management is located at Hyderabad,
Telangana, India. It was established by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research in 1976,
to address issues related to agricultural research and education management, in India.
➢ Chairman of National Commission for Farmers- Dr. M.S. Swaminathan
➢ Generally, kharif pulse have chromosome number 2n = 22 (except horse gram 2n = 24).
➢ Generally, Rabi pulses have chromosome number 2n = 14 (except chickpea 2n = 14, 16).
In case of Kabuli channa it is always 2n= 16
➢ Mode of germination in pulses:
➢ Rabi pulses shows hypogeal kind of germination in which cotyledons remain in soil (except
rajma).
➢ Kharif pulses shows epygeal kind of germination in which cotyledons emerge out from soil
(except arhar)
➢ Most of the legumes fulfil their 75% nitrogen requirement through root nodule (symbiosis).
➢ Highest consumption of phosphorus in pulses.
➢ Payable interest rate on KCC is 7%.
➢ Seed rate of Bt cotton is 1.5 kg/Ha.
➢ Common crop grown in paira & utera system is lathyrus.
➢ Nutrient needed for peg formation in groundnut is calcium.
➢ Rotavator is used for primary and secondary tillage implement.
➢ Seed requires light for germination are known as positive photoblastic.
➢ Beusening practice is related to rice done at 30-45 days after sowing (to reduce straw and
increase grain).
➢ Nutrient require for biological N fixation is Molybdenum
➢ Most outstanding crop for green manuring is Sunhemp.
➢ 2.471 Acres=1 hectare or 1 acre = 0.405 hectare, 1 Kanal = 0.051 ha.
➢ C=(F-32) ×5/9
➢ F= C (9/5) + 32
➢ K = C+273
130 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ “Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay Unnat Krishi Shiksha Yojana” for training of farmers
in organic farming and sustainable farming.
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DOUBTS ASKED BY STUDENTS
1. Difference between Critical stage and Sensitive stage?
➢ Critical stage and Sensitive stages are same in case of irrigation. The critical stages or
otherwise known as sensitive stages of different crops for irrigation water requirement.
2. Is there any difference between photo insensitive and day neutral plants?
➢ The variety which flowers at specific photoperiod is called photosensitive and which does
not require a specific photoperiod for flowering is called photo - insensitive. Day neutral
plants can be also called as photo – insensitive plants.
3. Difference between watershed, catchment area and command area?
➢ Watershed: A watershed is an area of land that drains all the streams and rainfall to a common
outlet such as the outflow of a reservoir, mouth of a bay, or any point along a stream channel.
➢ Catchment Area: Catchment areas are locations in low lying regions in which water from
higher areas collect into a single water body.
➢ Command Area: Command area is a part of catchment area.
4. Agroecological zones: 15,127, 20, 60(sub zones) explain?
➢ With the 329 million hectares of the geographical area the country presents a large number
of complex agro-climatic situations. Planning commission has divided the country into 15
broad agro-climatic zones based on physiography, soils, geological formation, Climate and
cropping patterns.
➢ In Agro-climatic zones under National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) the country
was divided into 127 agro-climatic zones.
➢ Agro-ecological regions by the National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS
& LUP): The National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP) came up
with 20 agro-ecological zones based on the growing period as an integrated criteria of
effective rainfall, soil groups, delineated boundaries adjusted to district boundaries with a
minimal number of regions. Subsequently, these twenty agro-ecological zones were subdivided into 60 sub-zones.
5. Sunflower- short day plant or day neutral?
➢ According to TNAU: These plants flower in all photoperiod ranging from 5 hours to 24 hours
continuous exposure.
➢ E.g., Tomato, cotton, sunflower, cucumber, peas and certain varieties of tobacco.
6. What is difference between milking stage and dough stage in Rice?
➢ The milk stage is observed when a milky white substance begins to accumulate, usually
seven to 10 days after heading. The dough stage occurs about a week later as the milky
substance begins to change and become the texture of bread dough. When rice grains first
become firm, they are at the physiological maturity stage.
132 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
7. Epigeal and Hypogeal germination explanation
➢ Seedlings that raise their cotyledons above the soil surface are said to be epigeal, while those
whose cotyledons remain in the soil are termed hypogeal.
➢ Kharif Pulses: epigeal except Arhar
➢ Rabi Pulses: Hypogeal except Rajma
8. Chart on seed multiplication ratio
➢ Seed Multiplication Ratio is the number of seeds to be produced from a single seed when
it is sown and harvested.
Crop
Wheat
Paddy
Maize
Sorghum
Bajra
Ragi
Gram
Blackgram
Cowpea
Red gram
Potato
Groundnut
Cotton
Seed Multiplication Ratio
1:20
1:70 to 1:80
1:80 to 1:100
1:100
1:200
1:80 to 1:100
1:10 to 1:12
1:40
1:40
1:100
1:4
1:8
1:50
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Mustard
Jute
1:100
1:100
9. What is LEISA
➢ LEISA - Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture
➢ Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) is agriculture which makes
optimal use of locally available natural and human resources (such as soil, water, vegetation,
local plants and animals, and human labour, knowledge and skill)
10. Classification by Troll
➢ Trolls’ climate classification is suitable for agriculture purpose.
➢ Troll classified climate based on temperature and humid months.
➢ Main drawback of Troll’s classification is continuity of humid months is not considered.
➢ Climatic regions based on modified Troll’s Classification:
Climate
Number of humid months
Arid
Semiarid-dry
Semiarid-wet
Humid
<2.0
2.0-4.5
4.5-7.0
>7.0
Per cent of geographic
al area of India
17.00
57.17
12.31
1.10
11. Examples of important intercrops ex: Wheat-Mustard etc.
➢ Intercropping is divided into: Row intercropping, Strip intercropping, Mixed intercropping
or Mixed cropping, Relay intercropping or Relay cropping.
➢ Example: Sorghum, pearl millet and cowpea are mixed and broadcasted in rainfed
conditions; Maize + greengram (1:1), Maize + blackgram (1:1), Groundnut + Rredgram
(6:1); Groundnut + redgram (6:4) strip; Black gram/ Green gram + Maize;
Mustard/Potato/Onion + Sugarcane; Sugarcane+Mustard+Onion; Sugarcane + Potato
12. Typhoon system of drip? (asked in ACC mock test)
➢ In the subsurface system, the laterals are buried in the soil at desired depth along the crop
rows. These laterals have emitters fixed inside and are known as inline drippers. They are
fixed at desired intervals which emit the water right in the root zone of the crop and only a
little quantity of this water comes to the surface. Hence, in this system, the chance for the
loss of water through surface evaporation is very less. Different types of sub-surface laterals
with emitters are available commercially. Biwall and Typhoon are some of them. Typhoon
is type of emitter of drip, mostly used in sugarcane.
13. Examples of trap crops (asked in daily test)
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1. Okra in cotton for bollworm
2. Castor in Soybean for Spodoptera
3: Mustard in cabbage for Diamond back moth
4. Marigold in tomato for borer
14. Types of sprayers, their efficiency and where they can be used?
➢ Given in Entomology and engineering Notes
15. Please tell us about aquifers and related terms.
➢ Aquifer is defined as “a single geologic formation or a group of geologic formations that
can transmit and yield water in usable quantities”
➢ Aquiclude is defined as a geologic formation that can store significant amount of water but
does not have the capability to transmit a significant amount of water. Clay is an ideal
example of aquiclude.
➢ Aquitard is defined as a geologic formation that can store some water as well as can transmit
water at a relatively low rate compared to aquifers. Sandy clay is an ideal example of
aquitard.
➢ Aquifuge is defined as a geologic formation that can neither store nor transmit water. Solid
granite is an ideal example of aquifuge.
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FIELD CROPS
Cereals crop
Rice
Common name: Rice
Botanical name: Oryza sativa (AFO
2021)
Family: Gramineae
❖ Important Facts about Rice
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
Chromosome no.: 2n= 24
Rice stem is called Culm.
The rice inflorescence known as panicle.
Fruit type is caryopsis.
Rice is a self –pollinated crop and short-day plant.
Germination type: Hypogeal.
Hulling percent in rice is 66 %.
Protein in white rice - 6-7%,
Protein in brown rice - 7-9%
The main protein in Rice is Oryzenin.
136 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
Highest nitrogen loss in rice field occurs due to denitrification process.
Aroma in rice is due to presence of “Di-acetyl 1 propaline” chemical.
Phalguna variety tolerance to Fe toxicity.
Most dominated weed species in rice field is Echinochloa spp.
''Regional center of international rice Research Institute'' is recently established in
India at: Varanasi (NSC-2018).
➢ Golden rice is genetically modified and is rich in: Vitamin-A (NSC-2018)
➢ IRRI and its national research partners have developed Golden rice to complement
and to address the deficiency of: Vitamin A (AFO-2022)
❖ Oryza sativa has 3 varietal types
Indica
Japonica
Grown in India (Tropical rice)
Grown in Japan (Subtropical rice)
Javanica
Grown in Indonesia. (Wild rice)
❖ Climate:
➢ Rice crop needs a hot and humid climate.
❖ Temperature:
Max= 36-380C
Optimum = 30-320C
Minimum= 10-120C
➢ The average temperature required throughout the life period of the crop ranges from 21
to 370C.
➢ At the time of tillering the crop requires a higher temperature than for growth.
➢ At the time of ripening, the temperature should be between 20-25 0C.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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➢ Temperature requirement for blooming is in the range of 26.5 to 29.5 0C.
❖ Soil:
➢ Clay or clay loams are most suited for rice cultivation.
➢ A major part of rice crop in India is grown under low land condition.
❖ Acidic soil is good for rice cultivation it grows well in soil having a pH range between 56.5. (As per the norms by IRRI)
❖ Sowing Time:
Local name Season
Aus (cultivated inKharif
Bihar and Bengal)
Aman (paddy of Rabi)Winter
Boro (cultivated inSpring
West Bengal and
Orissa)
Sowing Time
May- June
Harvest Time
Sept.-Oct.
June-July
Nov-Dec
Nov.-Dec
March-April
❖ Seed rate:
Method
Broadcasting
Drilling
Hybrid rice
Dapog method
SRI system
Seed Rate
100kg/ha
60 kg/ha
15 kg/ha
1.5-2 kg/m2
5-6 kg/ha
❖ Paddy cultivation in low land: ➢ Cultivation in Low land Soils - these are of two types.
✓ Direct sowing method - In this method, sowing the seeds of paddy in the field through
broadcast method.
✓ Transplanting method - Preparation of seedlings in nursery and transplanting to field.
➢ Cultivation in row planting method - In this method, sowing is done in rows or broadcast
in fields.
138 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Paddy cultivation in upland soils - This method is adopted on 60 percent of the total
arable land in the country. In this method, 40 percent of the total yield of rice is obtained.
This method is prevalent in rainfed areas or in non-irrigated areas.
✓ Its main methods are.
➢ Broadcasting method
➢ Sowing in rows / behind plow / sowing through drills
➢ Row planting Method
❖ Types of Paddy Cultivation: -Sowing of seeds directly in the field. It has the following
methods ✓ Direct sowing in no-till land
✓ Broadcasting method
✓ In line sowing
❖ Transplanting of paddy plants: - Nursery preparing in about 1/10 of the total area under
paddy transplantation. And in the age of 20-30 days, they transplant in the fields.
✓ It has the following methods ✓ Nursery for transplanting
(a) Wet method
(b) Dry method
➢ SRI (System of Rice Intensification)- This technique was invented in 1983 by Father Henry
U Laulaini in Madagascar. SRI method is a technique of paddy cultivation, through which
particularly good production of paddy is possible even with very little use of water. It is also
called System of Rice Intensification - SRI method. In India, 7-10 tonnes per hectare
production have been taken at many places.
➢ Dapog / Mat Nursery:
✓ This method of raising nurseries has been introduced in India from Philippines.
✓ It is also called an upland nursery.
✓ In Mat nursery seedlings are established in a layer of soil mix, arranged on a firm surface
(Concrete floor/ polythene sheet/ seedling trays).
✓ Seedlings are ready for planting within 11-14 days after seeding (DAS).
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❖ Spacing
Method
Spacing
Transplanting
20 ×10 (cm.)
Hybrid rice
20 × 15(cm.)
SRI method
25× 25 (cm.)
❖ Transplanting of Rice:
Season/Method
Kharif season
Rabi season
SRI method
Dapog method
Dry land areas
DAS
21-25 DAS
30-35 DAS
10-12 DAS
11-14 DAS
30-35 DAS
❖ Oil content in rice bran:
Raw Rice bran
12-18 percent
Parboiled bran
20-28 percent
De-oiled bran
1-3 percent
140 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Manure & fertilizer:
FYM: 250300 q/ha
N: 100 kg
/ha
P: 60 kg
/ha
K: 50
kg/ha
➢ Use of organic fertilizers:
✓ BGA - Use it often in those paddy fields in which the water is abundant. This gives about
20-30 kg of nitrogen per hectare to the paddy crop, which saves 50 - 60 kg of urea
fertilizer.
✓ Azospirillum - This non-symbiotic bacterium collects environmental nitrogen for
plants. This culture is particularly suitable for crops that are grown in waterlogged or
overly moist land. With the use of Azospirillum, up to 10 percent increase in yield of
paddy crop can be achieved.
❖ Water Requirement:
➢
➢
➢
➢
Total water requirement is 1100-1250.
Average Water requirement – 1100 mm
Average Water requirement (SRI) – 700 mm
The daily consumptive use of rice varies from 6-10 mm
Stages of growth
Water requirement Percentage of total water
(mm)
requirement
Nursery
40
3.22
Main field preparation
200
16.12
Planting to panicle
initiation
458
37.00
Panicle initiation to
flowering
417
33.66
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Flowering to maturity
125
10.00
➢ Rice field submergence in 5cm deep water during the reproductive and grain formation
stage is beneficial.
➢ Stage-wise water requirement for paddy:
➢ Operation wise water requirement of paddy :
Operation
Nursery
Land preparation
Field irrigation
Total
Water requirement (mm)
40
200
1000
1240
❖ Critical Irrigation stage:
➢ Panicle initiation (Most critical), Heading and flowering.
➢ Primordia growth to flowering (40-60 days) in dwarf rice. At these stages, submergence
(5 cm) of water is must.
❖ Varieties:
➢ First hybrid variety - CORH - 1 (MGR - 1)
➢ First Basmati hybrid variety - PRH - 10
➢ World’s first high yielding dwarf variety of rice evolved through conversion breeding by
IRRI is Pusa Basmati-1.
➢ Protein rich rice variety is Sabarmati.
➢ IR-8 = Dee-geo-woo-gen X Peta (from Indonesia)
➢ First time in India, TN-1 (2kg in 1964-65) was introduced from IRRI.
➢ IR-8 (World's magical paddy variety) was introduced in India in 1966 and IR-8 outyielded
TN-1.
➢ Literally meaning of Dee-gee-woo-gene: Brown tipped short legged.
➢ Jaya (Variety of Magical Paddy in India) = T.N.-1 (from Taiwan) X T-141 (Indian Variety)
, first rice variety is developed under India’s rice programme. It outyielded T.N.-1 & IR-8
both; hence called ‘Miracle Rice’ in India.
➢ Padma is the reverse cross product of the parent of Jaya.
➢ Padma = T.141 X TN-1
142 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Jagannath: Mutant Variety of T.141
➢ Pusa Basmati-1: World’s first high yielding dwarf variety under quality rice has been
developed by IARI through convergent breeding.
➢ Deep water rice varieties: Chakia-59, Madhukar, Jalamgan, Jaisuria, jaladhi 1 & Jaladhi
2, Pantdhan II. Jalapriya.
➢ Aromatic (scented) Rice: Sabarmati, Basmati-370, Karnal local, Dehradun Basmati (T-3),
Pusa Basmati-1, Kasturi, Taraori Basmati, Basmati-385, Haryana Basmati-1.
➢ Non Basmati superfine rice➢ IR-64, PR-’106, Gaurav & Punjab No. – 1
❖ Disease:
Akiochi disease (AFO 2022)
H2S toxicity
Khaira disease
Zn deficiency
Montek disease
rice root nematode
White eye
Fe deficiency
➢ Dead heart and white ear are caused by yellow stem borer or rice.
➢ Killer disease of rice is Bacterial Leaf Blight (BLB) and tungro virus.
➢ Iron toxicity is the major problem to rice production in highly acid Ultisols, Oxisols and
acid-sulphate soils. Varietal tolerance is only solution. ‘Phalguna’ variety exhibits some
tolerance to Fe-toxicity.
❖ Major Disease:
Disease
Pathogen
Blast of Rice
Pyricularia oryzae
Brown Spot
Helminthosporium oryzae
Sheath blight
Rhizoctonia solani
False smut
Ustilaginoidea virens
Udbatta disease
Ephelis oryzae
Foot rot or Bakanae disease
Fusarium moniliforme
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Bacterial leaf blight (Kresek”)
Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Oryzae
❖ Major Insect:
Zoological Name
Insect
Green leafhopper
Brown plant hopper
Rice Gundhi bug
White backed plant hopper
Thrips
Nephotettix virescens
Nilaparvata lugens
Leptocorisa acuta
Sogatella furcifera
Stenchaetothrips biformis
❖ Moisture at storage:
➢ Different varieties of paddy mature in about 100 - 150 days. The grain contains about 20 25 % moisture at harvesting time.
❖ Yield:
Region
India (Average yield)
Yield
3. 62 tonnes/ha
Indigenous variety
25-30 q / ha
Broadcast method
15-20 quintal / ha
Dwarf varieties
50-80 q / ha
Punjab & southern state
55-60 q/ha
144 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
WHEAT
Common Name: Wheat
Botanical name: Triticum spp.
Family : Gramineae/Poaceae
❖ Important facts about Wheat:
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
Chromosome number: 2n =42
Wheat crop is hexaploid and developed by using outcrossing. (RRB SO 2020)
In India it is second important stable food crop.
C3, Long day plant
Germination type: Hypogeal
The flower portion of wheat is known as -Head/Ear/Spike.
Fruit type of wheat is Caryopsis.
Test weight of wheat grain is about 40 gm. While test weight of Phalaris minor is only
2gm.
➢ Protein content in wheat 10-11% (Gluten).
➢ Harvest index = 40-45 per cent
➢ Minimum germination percentage of wheat is 85 % (IBPS AFO 2020)
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➢ Dwarf gene introduced in wheat to develop dwarf wheat is Norin.
➢ Norin-10 is a source of: Dwarf gene in wheat (AFO-2022)
➢ Norin- Nor (Rht) = Reduced height (Rht1 and Rht2).
➢ Grain: Straw ratio in Mexican wheat – 1: 1.5, in new plant types of cereals 1: 1.
❖ Wheat classification
Diploid
2n = 14
Triticum bioticum, Triticum monococcom
Tetraploid
2n= 28
Triticum dicoccom (Emmer wheat), Triticum
durum (Macroni wheat)
Hexaploid
(RRB SO
2020)
2n = 42
Triticum aestivum (bread wheat) (Mexican dwarf
species)
Triticum spharococcum (Indian dwarf species)
❖ Triticum species grown in India:
Common Name
Botanical Name
Remarks
Common Bread
wheat, Mexican
Dwarf Wheat.
Emmer wheat
T. aestivum
It is most commonly grown in India
T dicoccum
Suitable for preparation of south Indian
dish Uppumav.
Indian dwarf wheat
T. sphaerococcum
Macroni wheat
T. duram
Best wheat for drought conditions or
under restricted irrigation conditions
❖ Climate:
➢ Wheat is a Rabi season crop.
➢ Cool and moist weather during the vegetative growth period.
➢ Warm and dry weather during grain formation.
❖ Temperature:
146 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Minumum= 4.50C
Optimum = 210C
Maximum= 320C
❖ Soil:
➢ Soils with a clay loam or loam texture, good structure and moderate water holding capacity
are ideal for wheat cultivation.
➢ Optimum pH: 6-7.5
❖ Seed Rate:
Sowing in the Furrow behind
the plow
Broadcasting
By Seed drill
By Dibbler
Late Sowing
Timely Sowing
Dwarf Variety
Indigenous long growing
Variety
FIRBS (Furrow Irrigated
Raised Bed)
90-100 kg per hectare
150 kg
80-100 kg per hectare
25-30 kg per hectare
125-150 kg per hectare
100 kg per hectare
100 kg per hectare
75-80 kg per hectare
75 kg per hectare
❖ Spacing:
➢ It varies with varieties.
➢ Tillering variety requires wider spacing.
Type of Wheat
Spacing
Irrigated wheat
22.5 cm & 8-18 cm between plants
Rain fed wheat
25-30 cm x 5-6cm.
Late sown
15-16cm
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❖ Depth: 5cm depth is ideal for wheat sowing. The dwarf wheats should be sown only at 5-6
cm depth as they have shorter coleoptiles. Seeding depth of 8-10 cm results in poor
germination and produced yield.
❖ Manure and fertilizer:
FYM: 10-15
tonnes/ha
N For irrigated
crops:120-150 kg
Rainfed: 40-60kg
60kg P2O5 at
planting is good
K: 40 kg/ha
❖ Critical phases for irrigation are:
Type of Stage
Name of Stage
DAS
Most Critical Stage
CRI (AFO 2019)
20-25 DAS
Second most critical Stage Flowering
85-90 DAS
Third Important stage
100-105DAS
Jointing & Milk Stage
❖ Irrigation: - In wheat generally 6 irrigations recommended:
Irrigation
First irrigation
Second irrigation
Third irrigation
Fourth irrigation
Fifth irrigation
Sixth irrigation
Availability of irrigation
148 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Stage
CRI stage
Late jointing stage
Tillering stage
Flowering stage
Milking stage
Dough stage
Number of irrigations
Time
21-25 days
40-45
60-65
80-58
100-110
115–120
Having an irrigation
Two irrigations available on
the
Three irrigations available on
the
Four irrigations available on
the
Five irrigations available on
the
On the availability of six
irrigations
CRI
CRI, Late jointing
CRI, Blooming, Milking
CRI, Late tillering, Flowering, Milking stage
CRI, Late Tillering stage, Late jointing, Flowering,
Milking stage
CRI, Tillering stage, Late
jointing,
Flowering,
Milking stage, Dough stage
❖ Growth stages in wheat in North India
Vegetative
✓ Germination: 5-7 days
✓ CRI: 20-25 DAS
✓ Tillering: from 15 days at 4-5 days
until 45 DAS
✓ Jointing: Peak plant growth 45-60
DAS
Reproductive
✓ Boot leaf: 70-75 DAS
✓ Flowering: 85-90 DAS
✓ Milking: 100-105 DAS
✓ Dough: 105-110 DAS
✓ Maturity: 115 – 120 DAS
❖ Sowing time: October to December
➢ First week of November
➢ Late sowing- second fortnight of November
➢ Sowing methods
✓ There are mainly four methods of sowing (i) Broadcasting method: - is the oldest and simplest method of sowing.
(ii) Sowing in the Furrow behind the plow - these are of two types.
✓ Kera method - This method is adopted where moisture is high.
✓ Pora method - is adopted in areas with low humidity.
(iii) Seed drill: - By this method, seed rate and plant distance can be adjusted at will.
Dwarf variety’s germination is good with this method.
(iv) Dibbler: - This method is adopted by scientists. This method costs more than the
dwarf.
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(v) FIRB method (Furrow Irrigated Raised bed): - In this method, raised beds and
drains are made for the purpose of saving irrigation water. In this way, half the
irrigation water is saved.
❖ Moisture Percentage:
➢ At the Time of Storage: For safe storage moisture content of grain should be ranges from
10 -12 %
➢ At the time of Harvesting: Moisture content at harvesting stage in wheat is: 25-30 %
❖ Water requirement:
➢ 550-650 mm
➢ Average no. of irrigation required is 6.
➢ In heavy soil-4 irrigation, each of 6 cm.
➢ IW/CPE ratio is 0.90.
❖ Weeds of wheat crop:
Objectional weed
Convolvulus arvensis (Hirankhuri)
Associated weed
Phalaris minor (Mimicry weed), Avena fatua
and Chenopodium album
Horrible weed
Sorghum halepense
Satellite weed
Phalaris minor & Avena fatua
➢ Phalaris minor (weed) is controlled by Tribunil/Dosanex/Isoprturon @ 2 kg a.i. /ha 32-35
days after sowing (DAS). Dosanex and Isoprturon also control wild Oat (Avena fatua).
❖ Wheat Varieties:
Single gene dwarf
Sonalika, UP-262, WL-711, Girija
Double gene dwarf
Kalyansona, UP-215, Arjun, Pratap, Janak
Triple gene dwarf
Jawahar, Jyoti, Hira, Moti, Sangam, UP-301, UP-319
Timely to be sown
HD 2967, HD-CSW-18 DBW-187, Pusa - 3226 (Pusa
Glorious)
Late sown
Sarbati sanora, Sonalika, Safed lerma, UP-301, Sanora64, Raj 3765, UP 2425, UP-2338
150 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Rainfed timely sown
C-306, Sujata, Mukta, K-8027, HW 2004, N59
Marconi wheat
Jayraj, Meghdoot, Malvika, HD-4530, Bansi
Bred wheat
C-306, C-3, K-65, K-68,
For salt affected soil
Lok1, Raj 3077, KRL 1-4, PBW 19
❖ Major Disease:
Disease
Black or stem rust Brown or leaf rust
Yellow or stripe rust
Loose smut
Karnal bunt Hill bunt or Stinking smut
Pathogen
Puccinia graminis tritici
Puccinia triticina (P. recondita
Puccinia striiformis
Ustilago nuda tritici
Neovassia indica
Tilletia caries / T.foetida
Flag smut
Tundu or yellow ear rot(Bacteria
+Neamtode)
Molya disease
Ear-Cockle of wheat
Powdery mildew -
Urocystis tritici
Corynebacterium tritici + Anguina
tritici
Heterodera avenae (Nematode)
Anguina tritici
Erysiphe graminis var. tritici
Blight disease (Fungal)
Alternaria triticina
➢ Treatment (For Rust): - Growing resistant variety - UP-115, HD-204, W-147, Pratap
✓ Sow at the right time. Do not irrigate more and give less nitrogen fertilizer.
✓ Dithane-m-45 or Dithane Z-78 spraying 0.2 per cent.
❖ Major Insect:
Wheat Aphid
Macrosiphum miscanthi
Climbing cutworm/armyworm
Mythimna separata
Ghujhia Weevil
Tanymecus indicus
Termites
Odontotermes obesus
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❖ Harvesting - Harvesting of wheat grains when there is 20-25 percent moisture in the grains.
Let it dry 2-3 days after harvesting.
❖ Yield:
Irrigated area
40-45q/ha.
Non- Irrigated area
15–20 quintals per hectare
Rainfed condition
20-25q/ha
Grain
40 -50 quintal/ ha
Straw
80 -90 quintal/ ha
India (Average Yield)
30q/ha
MAIZE
Common Name: Maize/Makki
Botanical Name: Zea mays
Family : Poaceae
152 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Important facts of Maize:
➢ Origin: Central America and Mexico
➢ Chromosome number: 2n=20
➢ Maize is Protandrous, monoecious plant and cross-pollinated crop.
➢ Day length- Short day plant
➢ Germination type: Hypogeal type
➢ It is C4 plant.
➢ Maize protein is called zein.
➢ Protein content of Maize: 10 %
➢ Oil % in maize: 4-5 %
➢ Rabi maize is extensively grown in: Bihar
➢ Maize is known as Queen of cereals.
➢ Quality protein maize varieties released by using “Opaque 2”
➢ White Bud: Zinc Deficiency.
➢ Maize protein is Zein and deficient in tryptophan and Lysine.
❖ Maize grain types:
Common Name Botanical Name
Remarks
Flint corn
Zea mays indurata
Entire outer portion of kernel is hard
starch. Commonly cultivated in India.
Dent corn
Zea mays indentata
About 95% of production in USA is
dent corn
Sweet corn
Zea mays saccharata
Sweetest among all
Flour corn
Zeamays amylacea
Kernel is largely composed of soft
starch with little or no hard starch.
Popcorn
Zea mays everta
Its kernel is small and extreme form of
flint corn. When heated to 170°C, the
grain swells and burst and turning
inside out.
Waxy corn
Zea mays ceretina
Due to waxy appearance of the kernel,
it is called as waxy corn.
Pod corn
Zea mays zunicata
Husked primitive type.
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❖ Climate:
➢ Maize is a warm weather plant.
➢ Kharif season is the main growing season in northern India.
➢ Maize requires considerable moisture and warmth from germination to flowering.
❖ Temperature:
Minimum= 8-100C
Optimum = 32-350C
Maximum= 40-440C
➢ The temperature should be 24-30 0C, suitable for maize growth.
➢ The appropriate temperature is 250 C at the time of flowering and grain preparation.
❖ Soil:
➢ Maize is best adapted to well drained sandy loam to silty loam soil.
➢ The crop is very sensitive to water logging.
➢ It can be grown successful in soils whose pH ranges from 5.5 to 7.5.
❖ Reproductive Part:
➢ Tassel: The terminal male flower clusters are called tassel.
➢ Silk: The style is an exceptionally long silky filament, bears the female hairy cluster of
which is known as silk.
❖ Time of sowing:
154 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Rabi
Between October and the end of
November
Zaid
February - March
Kharif
June - July
❖ Methods of sowing - There are mainly three methods of sowing ✓ Broadcasting method
✓ Row method
✓ Dibbler Method
❖ Seed rate for Normal:
Type of Maize
Kharif crop
Hybrid maize
Fodder purpose
Composites
Zayed
Seed Rate
15-20 kg /ha
25 kg/ha
40-50 kg/ha (IBPS AFO- 2016)
18-20 kg / ha
20-25 kg / ha (for cobb)
❖ Irrigated maize:
Seed Rate
Spacing
Grain Maize: 20 Kg/Ha
Baby Corn: 25 Kg/Ha
60cm ×25 cm (Row ×Plant)
❖ Rainfed Maize:
Seed Rate
Hybrids: 20 Kg/Ha
Varieties: 25 Kg/Ha
Spacing
45cm ×20 cm (Row ×Plant)
❖ Critical stages of growth:
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For Nitrogen application (1) Germination (2) Knee high (3) Tasseling stage.
❖ Critical stage of water:
➢ For moisture and nutrients point of view period between tasseling and silking stage is
critical.
❖ Depth:
➢ Dibble or drill the seeds at a depth of 4 cm.
❖ Root system:
➢ The root system of maize is fibrous and deep. It is usually well developed.
❖ Three types of root system
✓ Seminal roots
✓ Crown roots
✓ Brace or prop roots
❖ Total water requirement: 500 – 600 mm.
❖ Varieties of different maize type:
Fodder maize
African tall, J1006
Sweet corn
Composite Madhuri, Composite Priya
Pop corn
Amber pop, V L Amber. Pop, Pearl pop corn
Baby corn
Quality protein corn
Flood prone area
Drought resistant
Prakash, Parvati, VL 42
Shakti, Shakti man 1 and 2, HQPM 1
Diara3
Prakash, Megha
➢ Composite varieties are Jawahar, Vikram, Kisan, Amber, Sona, Vijay.
➢ Lysine rich varieties: Protina, Shakti, Rattan released in 1971.
➢ First time in 1961, four double cross hybrids were released: Ganga-1, Ganga 101,
Deccan, Ranjeet. Later on, other double cross hybrid were released – VL54, Himalayan
123, Hi-starch, Ganga 2, Ganga 3 and Ganga 5.
➢ Top cross is produced by crossing a single cross (A x B) with an open pollinated variety
and such cross is commonly used for testing the General Combining Ability (GCA) of the
inbreeds. Trop cross varieties are Ganga 2 and Hi-starch.
➢ Composites are Jawahar, Vikram, Kisan, Amber, Sona and Vijay.
➢ Among composites, Amber has highest yields potential (50-55 q grain/ha). In 1967 these
were released for the first time in the world.
156 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Lysine rich composites (around 10-11% protein and 3.5 to 4% lysine) are Protina, Shakti,
and Rattan; released in 1971, such varieties are called opaque-2 composites. Quality protein
maize (QPM) are released by using Opaque -2 gene e.g., Shakti man 1, Shakti man 2, and
HQPM 1
❖ Major Disease:
Disease
Pathogen
Leaf blight
Helminthosporium maydis
Head smut
Sphacelotheca reiliana
Charcoal rot
Macrophomina phaseolina
Downy mildew/Crazy top
Peronosclerospora philippinensis
❖ Major Insect:
Insect
Zoological Name
Maize shootfly
Atherigona orientalis
Stem borer
Chilo partellus
Pink stem borer
Sesamia inferens
Shoot bug
Peregrinus maidis
Web worm
Cryptoblabes gnidiella
❖ Harvesting & Threshing ✓ Harvesting of the crop should be done within 90-110 days of sowing. Flowering starts
30–50 days after sowing and can be used to eat green corn after 60–70 days. Maturity
comes after 45 days of fertilization. Maize is harvested at 20-25 percent moisture in the
grains.
❖ Yield:
Type/Region
Yield
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Hybrid
50-60 q/ha
Composites
40-50 q/ha
Fodder
300-400 q/ha
Average yield in India
2.75 tonnes/Ha
❖ Baby corn: ➢ When silk comes out on the upper part of the plant two to three days after the corn is present,
this system is called baby corn. Baby corn is a good source of calcium iron and vitamins
21-57 g / 100 g of phosphorus in most vegetables are found in, but 86 milligrams are found
in baby corn. Baby corn cultivation first started in Thailand in the world.
❖ Suitable varieties: - VL-42, MEH-135, HIM-129, Golden Baby, Mridula etc. are the main
varieties.
❖
❖
❖
❖
Sowing Time: - February to September
Suitable distance: - 45x20 cm
Irrigation: - This crop requires 400-450 ml of water.
Harvesting and harvesting: - Harvesting 45-50 days after sowing. An average yield of 1520 quintals per hectare of peeled baby corn is obtained.
158 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
SORGHUM
Common Name: Sorghum, Jowar
Botanical Name: Sorghum bicolor
Family: Gramineae
❖ Important facts of Sorghum:
➢ Origin: East Central Africa
➢ Chromosome number: 2n=20, n=10
➢ Sorghum is known as “Camel crop” because it has the capacity to withstand against
drought.
➢ Sorghum crop for fodder purpose should be used after 50 % flowering because sorghum
leaves at knee stage possess a high amount of Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) which is
poisonous to the animals.
➢ Under draught condition if animals are grassed of sorghum leaves with 0.5gm of HCN
may be die.
➢ The best high yield variety of Rabi Jowar: M 35-1
➢ Drought and Salinity tolerant variety of sorghum: CSH-1
➢ First hybrid in 1964: CSH-1
➢ Most important male sterile variety: Combine kafir -60
➢ Sorghum is a C4 plant.
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➢ Sorghum is an often-cross pollination crop.
➢ Germination type: Hypogeal
❖ Climate:
➢ Sorghum requires warm climate but can be grown under a wide range of conditions.
➢ Sorghum plants can tolerate high temperature throughout their lifecycle.
➢ Total water requirement: 350 mm
❖ Temperature:
Minimum= 8-100C
Optimum = 32-350C
Maximum= 36-380C
❖ Soil:
➢ Soils with clay loam or loam texture.
➢ It does well in pH range of 6.0-8.5 as it tolerates considerable salinity and Alkalinity.
➢ The black cotton soil of central India is very good for its cultivation.
❖ Seed Rate, Spacing & Sowing Time:
Particulars
Optimum Quantity/Time
Seed Rate
Common
12-15 kg /ha
Fodder Purpose
30 -35 kg/ha
Depth
3-4 cm
Spacing
(45 × 12) cm
Plant Population
1,80,000 plants (Approx.)
Sowing Time
Last June to first week of July
160 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Manure & Fertilizer:
FYM : 10-15
tonnes/ha
N : 100 kg /ha
P : 50 kg /ha
K : 40 kg/ha
❖ Major Disease:
Disease
Downy Mildew
Anthracnose and red rot Rust
Ergot or Sugary disease
Grain smut / Covered smut
Pathogen
Peronosclerospora sorghi
Colletotrichum graminicolum
Puccinia purpurea
Sphacelia sorghi
Sphacelotheca sorghi
❖ Major Insect:
Insect
Shoot fly
Sorghum midge
Shoot bug
Zoological name
Atherigona varia soccata
Contarinia sorghicola
Peregrinus maidis
❖ Moisture at the time of Harvesting: The right stage for harvest is when grains have become
hard having less than 25 % moisture.
❖ Yield:
Type
Yield
Rainfed condition
25-30 q/ha
Fodder
300-400 q/ha
Hybrid sorghum (Grain)
40-50 quintal per hectare
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BARLEY
Common Name: Barley
Botanical Name: Hordeum vulgare
Family: Gramineae
❖ Important Points
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
Chromosome - 2n = 14 (diploid)
Origin Place - Ethiopia (Northwestern Asia)
Dwarf gene - UJU
Husk free varieties - Dolma
Country to find dwarf gene of barley - Japan
Inflorescence - spike or spikelet (it is a type of racemose inflorescence) (NSC 2018)
162 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Stem - culm
➢ Fruit – Caryopsis
➢ Nutritive value: 11-12 percent protein, 1.8 percent phosphorus, 0.08 percent calcium, 5
percent fiber.
➢ Climate ✓ Temperate climate, cold weather at the time of growth and hot weather at the time of
ripening are required.
✓ Barley is a Rabi season crop.
✓ 12–15°C is required for crop growth and 30°C for ripening.
➢ Soil:
✓ Fertilizer is a deep loam soil / barley salt tolerant crop.
✓ pH: 6.5-8.5
➢ Improved species:
✓ Three species of it are found in India.
✓ Hordeum vulgare (six row barley)
✓ Two rows barley.
✓ Hordeum Irregular & H. distichon
➢ Major Varieties: ✓ Dolma - It is a non-peeled variety.
✓ Rekha - It holds high quality malt.
✓ BSH - 46 These are frost tolerant variety. There is no possibility of rotting the seeds.
✓ RD - 2052 - It is resistant to Molya disease.
✓ RD-387 - It is tolerant to nematode and Molya disease.
✓ HB - I - This is the first hybrid species.
➢ Sowing Time: Sowing Time
Spacing
Depth
nonirrigated
15 - 30
November
line to line
20-22
cm
irrigated
condition
15 - 20
November
plant to plant
10 cm
Line to line
(unirrigated
areas)
23-25
cm
irrigated
areas
nonirrigated
areas
Seed Rate
45
cm
6-8
cm
irrigated
areas
(Early)
75 kg
per
ha
irrigated
areas
(Late)
100
kg /
ha
nonirrigated
areas
80 100
kg /
ha
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Sowing in
Saline Soil
➢ Sowing methods
✓ In line sowing ✓ Kera (for irrigated areas)
✓ Pora funnel method (for non-irrigated areas)
✓ Broadcasting method
✓ By seed drill
➢ Manures and Fertilizers: ✓ Dung manure - 120 - 150 quintal / ha
✓ For irrigated area - 80: 50: 50 NPK per hectare
✓ For non-irrigated area - 50: 30: 30 NPK per hectare
✓ For late sowing - 40: 30: 20 NPK per hectare
➢ Water management: ✓ Water requirement - 250-300 mm
➢ Major Disease
Leaf strip Disease
Helminthosporium graminium
Yellow rust
Puccinia dalumaram
Brown rust
Puccinia hordei
Black rust
Puccinia graminis tritici
Loose smut disease
Ustiligo nuda (Seed Borne)
Powdery mildew disease
Erysiphi gramanis
Molya disease
nematode, (Heterodera avenae)
➢ Yield:
Grain yield
30-35 q / ha
Straw yield
40-45 q / ha
164 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
100
kg /
ha
PEARL MILLET
Common Name: Bajra
Botanical Name: Pennisetum glaucum
Family : Gramineae
❖ Important facts about Pearl Millet:
➢ Origin: Africa
➢ Chromosome number: 2n=14, n=7
➢ Germination type: Hypogeal type
➢ 80 per cent phosphorus in grain stored in the form of ‘phytate’
➢ 1st Hybrid: HB-1 (Tift 23A x BIL 3B) in 1965
➢ HB-4 -1st hybrid developed by using local male parent, duration 80-85 days.
❖ Climate:
➢ Pearl millet is a rapid-growing warm weather crop.
➢ It has a high degree of resistance for drought conditions.
➢ The rainfall at flowering time is harmful as it washes off the pollen and consequently there
is poor seed setting.
➢ Temperature of 28 to 32ºC is optimum for vegetative growth.
❖ Bajra grains contain about –
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Moisture:
12.4%
Protein: 11.6 %
Minerals: 2.7%
Fat: 5%
Carbohydrates: 67%
❖ Soil:
➢ It does best on well drained sandy loams.
➢ It is sensitive to waterlogging.
➢ Pearl millet is sensitive to acidic soils.
❖ Seed rate:
Particulars
Optimum Quantity/Time
Seed Rate
Common
4-5 kg /ha
Fodder Purpose
10-12 kg/ha
Depth
2-3 cm
Spacing
(45 × 12-15) cm
Plant Population
166000 plants/ha (Approx.)
Sowing Time
June-July (It is chiefly a rainfed crop during monsoon
season.)
❖ Manure & Fertilizer:
FYM: 1015
tonnes/ha
P: 50 kg
/ha
166 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
N: 100 kg
/ha
K: 40 kg/ha
❖ Major Disease:
Disease
Pathogen
Downy mildew
Sclerospora graminicola
Smut
Tolyposporium penicillariae
Rust
Puccinia pennisetti
Ergot or Sugary disease
Claviceps fusiformis
❖ Moisture at the time of Harvest: Harvest the crop when grains are hard enough having
about 20 % moisture.
❖ Yield:
Type of Bajra
Yield
Rain fed crop
12 to 16 quintals/ha
Irrigated crop
25 to 35 quintals/ha
Fodder
300-400q/ha
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FIBER CROPS
COTTON
Common Name: Cotton, Kapas
Botanical Name: Gossypium spp.
Family: Malvaceae
❖ Important facts about Cotton:
➢ Chromosome number:
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
Desi Cotton
26
American Cotton
52
Origin: India
Cotton is known as white gold.
King of Appraisal fiber.
Cotton length is measured by Arealometer.
It is a facultative short day.
168 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
Germination type: Epigeal
The oil content in the cotton seed ranges from 15-25 % depending on the verities.
Cotton seed cake is a good organic manure and contains about 6.5% N, 3% P, 2% K.
Honeybees are principal pollinators.
Seed cotton (Seed + lint) and cotton seed (Without lint)
Cotton fiber is simply an elongation/outgrowth of an epidermal cell of seed coat. The long
outgrowth forms the ‘staple or lint’.
➢ Sympodial/cymose – Cotton growing branches.
➢ Monopodial/racemose – cotton stem branches or lateral branches.
➢ Square is the appearance of flower bud in cotton.
➢ Fibre quality is judged by- Staple length and fibre fineness.
➢ Micronaire is an instrument to measure fineness.
➢ Maturity of fibre is judged by Arealometer.
➢ The staple length of cotton fibre of short staple grade is less than 19 mm (PRE-PG-2018)
➢ Chemical Delinting of cotton seed can be done with Sulphuric Acid (IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ It is a highly salt tolerant crop (IBPS AFO 2018)
➢ For the agronomic production cotton is the main crop of Western plateau and hills
agroclimatic zone: (NABARD- 2021)
❖ Type of Cotton:
Desi Cotton
Gossypium arborium
Gossypium harbaceum
American Cotton
Gossypium hirsutum
Gossypium barbadense
❖ Comparative study of Desi and American Cotton:
Particulars
Indian cotton
American cotton
Seed rate (kg/ha)
10-12
18-20
Ginning per cent
36-42
28-32
Oil content (per cent)
26.0
18.0
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Cotton Name
Gossypium
arborium
Gossypium
harbaceum
Gossypium hirsutum
Gossypium
barbadense
Plant height (m.)
1.5-2.0
Fiber length(cm.)
1.25-2.0
1-1.5
1.5-2.50
1.5
1.5
1.8-3.0
3.6-5.0
❖ Climate:
➢ Cotton is a warm season crop.
➢ Minimum temperature of 16 oC is required for germination.
➢ For Proper vegetative growth 21-27 oC
➢ It can tolerate temperature as high as 43 oC.
❖ Soil:
➢ Black soil is best suitable for cotton.
➢ Cotton can be successfully grown on all soil except sandy, saline, and waterlogged soil.
➢ Cotton needs a fertile soil with good moisture holding capacity.
➢ Water requirement: 550 mm
❖ Seed rate, Spacing & Plant Population:
Type of Cotton
Seed Rate
Spacing
Plant Population (Per
Hectare)
Desi Cotton
10-15 kg/ha.
60×15cm
1,11,111 plants
American Cotton
18-20 kg/ha.
60×30cm.
55600 plants
Hybrid Cotton
2-3 kg /ha.
100×60cm
1,66,666 plants
Bt Cotton
1-1.5 kg/ha.
Ultra-Narrow Row
(Developed in USA)
❖ Sowing Time:
170 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
10,000 plants
19×19cm
2,77,000 plants
Region
Month
Irrigated condition
April - May
Non-irrigated condition
June - July
North India
1st fortnight of May
Central India
Last week of June to 1st week of July
In Tamil-Nadu
September - October
❖ Manure & Fertilizer:
FYM: 15-20
tonnes/ha
N: 40-60 kg /ha
P: 25-30 kg /ha
K: 25-30 kg/ha
❖ Critical stage of Irrigation: Flowering, Boll formation
❖ Ginning:
➢ Separation of fiber from the seed cotton is known as Ginning.
➢ In general, its range 33% (30-35%)
❖ Topping:
➢ Removal of terminal growing point once from each plant at a height of 1-1.2m (80-90 DAS)
to protect further terminal growth and to encourage sympodial branching and boll
development by diverting the energy flow.
❖ Nipping:
➢ Nipping is done 80-90 days after sowing.
❖ Bt. Cotton:
➢ Bacillus thuringensis is a soil bacterium that produces proteins lethal to insect larvae
affecting the digestive system of boll worms.
➢ GM cotton is only crop permitted by Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee
(GEAC) under Ministry of Environment and Forestry first permitted on March, 2002.
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➢ Varieties of cotton:
Interspecific
Intraspecific
Varalaxmi, DCH-32 (hybrid), HB-224, DHB-105
H-4, 6, Savita, Surya(hybrid), JKHY-1
➢ Cotton Management: Application of plant modifiers such as planofix (α-NAA) and
Cycocel (CCC) at 10 ppm near flowering (80-90 DAS) to protect further terminal growth
and to encourage sympodial branching and boll development by diverting the energy flow.
➢ Bad opening of bolls or Tirak: Bad opening of bolls is known as ‘tirak’ due to growing
cotton in soil with saline subsoils, decrease in N-content and increase in tannin content
during flowering and boll-formation phase and water starvation.
➢ Nepiness: Sometimes fibre thickness is not uniform, and knots present on the fibre are
also not distributed uniformly. It causes low grade.
❖ Major Disease:
Disease
Angular Leaf Spot or Black Arm
Disease:
Vascular Wilt Disease
Anthracnose Disease
Root Rot
Pathogen
Angular Leaf Spot or Black Arm Disease:
Fusarium oxysporum sp. Vasinfectum
Colletotrichum gossypii
Rhizoctonia bataticola
❖ Major Insect:
Insect
Zoological name
American bollworm (Fruit borer)
Helicoverpa armigera
Pink bollworm
Pectinophora gossypiella
Spotted bollworms
Earias vittella
Cotton Stem Weevil
Pempheres (Pempherulus) affinis
Leaf roller
Sylepta derogata
Leafhopper
Red cotton bug
Amrasca (Biguttula biguttula)
devastans
Dysdercus cingulatusi
Whitefly
Bemisia tabaci
172 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Cotton aphid
Aphis gossypii
❖ Yield:
Type of Cotton
Yield
Average yields
11–17 quintals / ha
Common
15-20 q/ha.
Hybrid
25-30 q/ha
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JUTE
Common Name: Jute
Botanical Name: Corchorus spp.
Family: Tiliaceae
❖ Important Facts of Jute
➢ Origin: India
➢ Chromosome number: 2n= 14
➢ Jute is a parenchymatous fibre.
➢ Jute crop does not have hybrid seeds.
❖ Two types of cultivated varieties:
➢ Corchorus capsularis :
✓ It is hardy in nature and can grow well both on high and lowlands and able to tolerate
waterlogging conditions.
✓ It is also known as white Jute/Tita.
✓ Covers 70 % area of total Jute cultivation.
➢ Corchorus olitorius:
174 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
✓ Grown on well drained high lands only.
✓ It is also known as Mitha Pat/Tossa.
❖ Climate:
➢ Jute thrives best under a warm and humid climate with temperature range from 24 to 37oC.
➢ Optimum temperature being around 34oC.
❖ Soil:
➢ Jute can be grown on all kinds of soils from clay to sandy loam but loamy alluvial soil suits
it most.
➢ Laterite and gravely soils are not suitable for Jute crop.
➢ Normal soil pH 6-7.5.
❖ Sowing time:
Type of Jute
Month
Capsularis
March-April
Olitorious
April –May
✓ Generally, April sowing gives the best results in both types of Jute.
❖ Seed rate:
Jute type
Line sowing (kg/Ha) Broadcasting (kg/Ha)Spacing (cm)
Olitorius/ Tossa
5
Capsularis/
Jute
White7
❖ Production:
Green plant yield
Fiber yield
7
25 x 5
10
30 x 5
45 to 50 tons per hectare
2.0 to 2.5 t (20-25 q) per hectare
❖ Steeping/Soaking:
➢ After 2-4 days of harvesting the plants are shaken for complete leaf shedding and they are tied
in bundles of about 20-22cm in diameter.
❖ Process of Fibre Extraction:
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Bundle
stalk
Retting
Strepping
Washing
Squeezing
excess
Storage/
Transport
Kucha
Packing
Bailing
Sundry
❖ Retting (RRB SO 2020):
➢ Retting of jute is a micro biological (Microbial) process.
➢ The fibre is obtained from Phloem by retting. Retting consists of disintegration of tissues by
micro-organism. Disintegration starts from cambium and extends to phloem and cortex.
➢ Retting is a process in which the tied bundles of jute stalks are taken to the tank by which
fibers get loosened and separated from the woody stalk.
➢ The bundles are steeped in water at least 60 cm to 100 cm depth.
➢ Gently flowing, deep, clear, and soft water are congenital for an ideal retting.
➢ The retting process is completed in 8 to 30 days, when the barks separate out easily from the
stick or wood and the fibers are ready for extraction.
➢ Optimum temperature for retting is about 34 oC.
➢ It completes within 10-15 days during July while 18-20 days during August-September
and 21-30 days after sept. (i.e., Oct.-Oct.)
❖ Stripping (Fiber Extraction):
➢ Stripping is the process of removing the fibers from the stalk after the completion of retting.
❖ Ribboning:
➢ This practice is very common in China and Taiwan, but not popular in India.
➢ It consists of peeled out of raw bark from the green plant, immediately after harvest and
bundles of the ribbons thus obtained are retted.
❖ Harvesting:
➢ For fibre purpose – Jute is harvest before flowering.
➢ Fiber crop based on economic use- JUTE (RRB SO 2018)
➢ Ideal stage for harvesting – small pod stage/initiation of pod formation (135-140 DAS)
➢ Ideal stage of jute harvesting is small pod formation or initiation of pod formation (130135 DAS).
➢ Jute harvesting lasts from June to October.
➢ Olitorius species grow in 4-5 months and Capsularis in 6-7 months.
➢ Jute is harvested any time between 120 days to 150 days when the flowers have been
shed, early harvesting gives good healthy fibers.
176 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ The plant from 8 to 12 feet high are cut with stickles at or close the ground level.
➢ The harvested plants are left in field for 3 days for the leaves to shed.
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LEGUME CROPS
CHICKPEA
Common Name:
• Chickpea
Botanical Name:
• Cicer arietinum(Desi gram/Brown)
• Cicer Kabulium(Kabuli/Whitegarm)
Family:
• Leguminaceae / Papilonaceae
❖ Important facts about Chickpea:
➢ Chromosome no.: 2n =14 (Desi gram/Brown),16 (Kabuli/White gram)
➢ Kabuli/White gram- bold seed, yield poor, taller plant, branching poor.
➢ Origin: S.W. Asia
➢ India is the largest producer of Gram in the world sharing 65% area & 70 % of total
global production.
➢ Gram is major pulse crop in India followed by Pigeon pea.
➢ The sour taste of leaves and pods is due to the presence of Malic acid 90-96% and oxalic
acid 4-10%.
➢ Gram is a C3 plant.
➢ Gram is a long day plant.
➢ Gram fruit is known as Pod.
178 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Protein content in Gram 21.1 %
➢ Germination type: Hypogeal
❖ Climate:
➢ Chickpea is a winter season crop.
➢ It is highly susceptible to frost at flowering stage.
➢ It is generally grown under rainfed condition.
❖ Soil:
➢ Gram is grown on all kinds of soil, sandy loam to clay is considerable to be most suitable.
❖ Seed rate, Sowing Time, Spacing, Plant Population & Depth:
Seed Rate
Sowing Time
Early sown 75-80kg/ha
2nd fortnight
Late sown 80-100 kg/ha October
Spacing
Plant
Depth
Population
of30 ×10 cm 3,33,333 plants8-10cm
❖ Depth: The seed should be placed 8-10cm deep because the shallow sown crop is more liable
to be damaged by wilt.
❖ Varieties:
➢ Pusa 256 (BG256): Most common and best for rainfed condition.
➢ C-235: Widely adopted for dryland, tolerant to Ascochyta blight.
➢ Gaurav: resistant to Ascochyta blight
➢ Avrodhi: resistant to wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) (and JG-74)
➢ Kabuli chamatkar and Udai are chickpea varieties from Haryana (IBPS-AFO 2016)
❖ Root system:
➢ The roots usually include a central strong tap root, with numerous lateral branches that
spread out in all directions in the upper layer of soils.
➢ There are numerous nodules on roots.
➢ The rhizobium bacteria present in these nodules fix up atmospheric nitrogen.
❖ Nipping/Topping:
➢ Nipping is the process of plucking the apical buds after 30-40 DAS, in order to stop apical
growth for promotion of lateral bud branching, yielding more pods, and yields.
➢ It can be done by a flock of sheep.
➢ Chemical for nipping TIBA @ 75 PPM Tri-iodo- benzoic Acid.
❖ Critical Stage: Pre flowering, Pod Development
❖ Major Disease:
Disease
Pathogen
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Wilt
Stem Rot
Botrytis Grey mold
Rust
Fusarium oxysporium sp. ciceri
Sclerotinia sclerotinia
Botrytis cineria
Uromyces cicer
Powdery mildew
Ascochyta Blight
Oidiopsis taurica
Ascochyta rabiei
❖ Major Insect:
Insect
Zoological name
Gram Pod Borer
Helicoverpa armigera
Cut worm
Agrotis ipsilon
Termites
Odontotermes obesu
Semilooper
Autographa nigrisigna
❖ Yield:
Desi gram
Kabuli
180 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
20-25 q/ha
12- 15 q/ha
PIGEON PEA
Common Name:
• Pigeon Pea
Botanical Name:
• Cajanas cajan
Family:
• Leguminaceae / Papilonaceae
❖ Important Facts about Pigeon Pea:
➢ Chromosome number: 2n = 22
➢ Origin: Africa
➢ Pigeon pea is also called as Arhar, Tur, Red gram.
➢ After chickpea, Arhar is the second most important pulse crop.
➢ The flowers are often cross-pollinated but some time cross pollinated. An average cross
pollination is 20 percent. A plant produces many flowers of which only 10 percent set pods.
➢ C3 , Short day plant.
➢ Hardy crop, most drought tolerant crop among major pulse.
➢ Harvest index is 19 % lowest in among pulses.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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➢ Germination type: Hypogeal
➢ Arhar crop works as mini fertilizer crop.
➢ It has the capacity to tolerate moisture stress to a greater extent because of its deep/ tap
rooted system.
➢ Protein content is 25 percent.
➢ Comparison between Arhar and Tur:
Plant characters
Plant height (meter)
Flowering
Maturity
Arhar
5-6
In Dec-Feb
Late (150-180 days)
Tur
2-3
In Sept-Nov
Early (100-150 days)
❖ Climate:
➢ Pigeon Pea is mainly grown in tropical & Sub-tropical.
➢ The crop prefers a moist and warm climate during the periods of its vegetative growth.
➢ It is highly susceptible to frost at flowering stage.
➢ Temp of 18 – 27°C is desirable
➢ However, it may vary to tolerate <10°C & >35°C
❖ Soil:
➢ It does best on fertile and well drained loamy soils.
➢ The saline- alkaline and waterlogged soils are unfit for its cultivation.
❖ Critical stage of Irrigation: Pre-flowering, Pod development
Seed Rate
Sowing
Time
Spacing
12-15 kg/ha- 15 June- Irrigated Early
Pure Crop
July
crop
Irrigated late
crop
Mixed crop- 6In unirrigated
8 Kg/ ha
areas
Plant Population Depth
60×
Kharif- 55,000 4-6 cm
30cm
plants/ha
75 x 30
cm
90 x 30
cm
❖ Varieties of Pigeon pea with different characters:
Characteristics
182 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Varieties
Early maturing (120 DAS)
UPAS 120, Manak, Paras, Prabhat
Suitable for Rabi planting
Sharad, bahar, Pusa 9
Drought and temperature tolerant
Manak
Wilt resistant
Amar, Azad, Maruthi, Pusa 9, Mukta
➢ Alachlor and Pendimethalin (as pre-emergence) and Basalin (as post-emergence) are
used to control weeds in pigeon pea field.
❖ Major Disease:
Disease
Pathogen
Sterility mosaic
Virus (Vector : Eriophyid mite-Aceria
cajani)
Fusarium wilt
Fusarium oxysporium
Rust
Uredo cajani
❖ Major Insect:
Insect
Zoological name
Gram pod borer
Helicoverpa armigera
Plume moth
Exelastis atomosa
Spotted pod borer
Maruca testulalis
Field bean pod borer
Adisura atkinsoni
Red gram pod fly
Melanagromyza obtusa
Eriophyid mite:
Aceria cajani (Vector of red gram
sterility mosaic virus)
❖ Harvesting and Sowing:
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➢ Early crop of Arhar is harvested in December January and late crop is harvested in MarchApril.
➢ About 75 percent of the pods should be harvested when cooked. Its threshing is done with
the Pullman thresher.
❖ Yield:
Grain (Irrigated areas)
Sticks
Mixed crop
20-25 quintals/ha
50-60 quintals/ha
2-8 quintals/ha
➢ In storage time grain moisture should be 10-11%.
184 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
PEA
Common Name:
• Pea
Botanical Name:
• Pisum sativum
Family:
• Leguminaceae / Papilonaceae
❖ Important Points:
➢ Chromosome no. : 2n =14, n=7
➢ Origin: Mediterranean region of southern Europe and to western Asia.
➢ Germination type : Hypogeal
❖ Two types of peas are generally cultivated:
Garden pea
Field Pea
Pisum sativum var. Hortense
Pisum sativum var. arvense
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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It is also called table pea.
In this type the ripe, mature seeds are used as
the pulse (Dal)
In this type young, green seeds are mostly in
vegetables and also for canning purpose.
❖ Climate:
➢ Field pea requires a cool growing season, moderate temperatures are essential
throughout the growing season.
➢ For germination about 22 oC temperature is considered favorable.
➢ The optimum monthly temperature suitable for its growth is 13-18 0C
❖ Soil:
➢ A well-drained soil is essential for successful production of field pea.
➢ Field pea is highly sensitive to water logging; hence a well-drained loam soil is
considered best for pea cultivation.
➢ They tolerate a moderate soil pH range (6.5-7.5). The optimum pH is 6.5
❖ Seed rate, Spacing & Sowing Time:
Seed Rate
Spacing
Sowing Time
Garden pea
100-120 kg/ha 30x10cm
Second fortnight of
October (For Field
Peas)- North India
Field pea
75-80 kg/ha
Sowing after
October- Drastic
Yield reduction
❖ Critical stage of Irrigation: Pre-flowering, Pod development
❖ Maturity of pea is measured by: Tendrometer
❖ Variety:
➢ Arkel variety is sickle shaped pods.
➢ Sylvia: Whole pod is edible.
➢ Aparna is first dwarf variety.
❖ Major Disease:
Disease
186 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Pathogen
Fusarium wilt
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. pisi
Powdery mildew
Erysiphe polygoni
Rust
Uromyces fabae
❖ Yield:
Garden pea
80-120 q/ha.
Field pea
20-25 q/ha
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OILSEED CROPS:
SOYBEAN
Common Name:
• Soybean
Botanical Name:
• Glycine max
Family:
• Leguminaceae / Papilonaceae
❖ Important Points
➢ Origin: Eastern Asia or China. (State exam Rajasthan-2017)
➢ It is also known as wonder crop or yellow jewel and meat for the poor.
➢ Inflorescence: Raceme
➢ Fruit: Pod
➢ Soybean is C3 and short-day plant.
➢ Soybeans contain 42 % protein and 20 % oil.
188 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Germination type: Epigeal
➢ Due to presence of enzyme Lipoxidase, soybean is not used as dal which produces off
flavour.
➢ Linoleic acid: 56-60% (Soybean) (Unsaturated fat), in Sunflower: 64%, in safflower
78% (highest)
➢ Greenness in soybean grains is due to chlorophyll and yellowness to anthocyanin
pigments.
❖ Climate:
➢ Soybean grow well in warm and moist climate.
➢ Minimum Temperature : 10 0c
➢ Optimum temperature : 26.50c-30 0c
➢ Soil temperatures of 15.5 0c or above favor rapid germination and vigorous seedling
growth.
❖ Soil:
➢ Well drained and fertile loam soils with a pH between 6.0-7.5 are most suitable for the
Soybean.
➢ Sodic and saline soils inhabit germination of seeds.
❖ Seed rate & Spacing:
Seed Rate
Spacing
Common
70-80
kg/ha
Late
planting
Kharif
100-120
kg/ha
70-80
kg / ha
100 kg /
ha
spring
season
30x10cm
Plant
Depth
Population
Sowing
3-4
lakh3-4 cm
plants/ha
ofSowing Time
3rd week of June to
1st fortnight of July
Kharif
June July
Spring
February
March
-
❖ Critical stage of Irrigation:
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Sprouting
stage.
Flowering
stage.
Pod filling
stage.
Grain
development
stage.
➢ Nodule formation starts 2-3 weeks after sowing and nitrogen fixation start 2 weeks after
nodule formation up to 6-8 weeks.
➢ Nodule formation by Rhizobium japonicum.
➢ First nodules are visible on 10th days after sowing.
❖ Weed control:
➢ Nitrofen (TOK-25) Pre-emergence selective herbicide for all annual grasses and broadleaved weeds, @ 1.5-2.0 kg a.i./ha in 800-1000 lit. water.
➢ Fluchloralin (Basalin): Pre-plant incorporation @ 1kg a.i./ha
➢ Metribuzin (sencor): Pre emergence herbicide effective against annual grasses and broad
leave weeds @ 1 kg a.i. /ha.
❖ Major Disease:
Disease
Charcoal rot
Collar rot / Sclerotial blight
Yellow mosaic
Pathogen
Macrophomina phaseolina
Sclerotium rolfsii.
Virus (Vector: white fly –Bemisia
tabaci)
❖ Major Insect:
Insect
Zoological name
Girdle beetle
Oberea (Obereopsis) brevis
Stem Fly
Melanagromyza sojae
Tobacco caterpillar
Spodoptera litura
Bihar hairy caterpillar
Spilosoma obliqua
190 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Harvesting:
➢ Soybean crop takes 90-140 days to prepare.
➢ Done at 20 percent seed moisture, when leaves start dropping pods dried.
➢ Pod formation stage is ideal to harvest for fodder purpose.
❖ Yield:
➢ At harvest the moisture content of the seeds 15-20 %.
➢ Improved varieties of Soybean yield 30-35 quintals of grain per hectare.
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GROUNDNUT:
Common name: Groundnut
Botanical name: Arachis hypogea
Family: Leguminosae
❖ Important Points:
➢ Origin: Brazil in south America
➢ Chromosome no.: 2n= 40, n=20
➢ Known as Peanut/earthnut/monkey nut
➢ Groundnut is a modified fruit. Fruit of groundnut is Nut and fruit type is Lomentum.
➢ Gynophore of groundnut is known as Peg (Intercalary meristem from fertilized flower).
➢ Ratio of flower: Pegs: Pods is 7: 4: 1.
➢ Self-Pollinated
➢ C3, Short day plants
➢ Germination type: Hypogeal
➢ Groundnuts contain 45 % oil in kernel and 26 % protein in kernel.
➢ Shelling %: 70 %
➢ Groundnut cake contains 7-8 percentage nitrogen.
➢ Generally, Groundnut grown during Rabi season gives higher yield as compared to kharif
season crops due to fewer incidences of insect and pests and diseases.
➢ Check Basin irrigation is most suitable irrigation method for groundnut.
192 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ IW/CPE ratio of groundnut is 0.6.
➢ Earthing-up is done in groundnut crop at 35 to 45 days after sowing to facilitate proper
development of pegs beneath soil and increases number of seeds per pod.
➢ Groundnut has lowest Seed Replacement ratio (IBPS AFO 2019)
❖ Classification:
Classification:
Erect/Bunch
type
Spreading/traili
ng type
Arachis
hypogaea var.
fastigiata
Arachis
hypogaea var.
procumbens
❖ Climate:
➢ Groundnut is essentially a tropical plant.
➢ It requires a long and warm growing season.
➢ It seems that plant will grow best. A temp range of 25-30°C
➢ < 20°C and > 35°C growth gets retarded
❖ Soil:
➢ Groundnut thrives best in well-drained sandy and sandy loam soils, as light soil helps
in easy penetration.
➢ Clay or heavy soil are not suitable for this crop.
➢ Soil with pH between 6.0-6.5.
❖ Seed rate:
Bunch varieties
100-120 kg/ha
Depth
Spreading varieties
80-100 kg/ha
5 cm
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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❖ Depth: Sowing should be done about 5 cm deep behind the plough or with the help of dibbler
or seed planter.
❖ Sowing time, Spacing and Plant Population:
Sowing Time
Kharif
Rabi
Spacing
Last week of Bunch
June to 1st week
of July
November
– Spreading
December
Plant Population
30 x15
cm
Bunch
45 x 15 Spreading 1.48
cm
lakh/ha
Rabi
❖ Methods of sowing: ➢ Sowing behind plow
➢ Dibbler method
➢ By seed planter method
❖ In groundnut:
In
groundnut
7-8% N
❖ Critical Irrigation stage:
194 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
1.5 % P
2.22
lakh/ha
1.5 % K
4.44
lakh/ha
Flowering
Pegging
Pod
formation
❖ Aflatoxin: Aflatoxin is produced in groundnut when infected by Aspergillus flavus group of
fungi mainly during in storage.
❖ Bitterness of kernel is due to aflatoxin (toxic substances) developed by two reasons:
➢ When pod moisture content is > 8 percent
➢ Fungus namely Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus.
❖ Resistant varieties against Aflatoxin are CGC-2,7 and Faizpur.
❖ Major disease:
Disease
Pathogen
Early leaf spot (Fungal)
Cercospora arachidicola
Late leaf spot (Fungal)
Cercospora personatum
Rust
Puccinia arachidis
Stem rot
Sclerotium rolfsii
❖ Major Insect:
Insect
Zoological name
White grubs (Major pest):
Holotrichia consanguinea,
Aphids
Aphis craccivora
Groundnut bud borer
Anarsia ephippias
Pod borer
Anisolabis stalli
Pod bug
Aphanus sordidus
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Groundnut leaf miner
Aproaerema modicella
Note: Bud necrosis of Groundnut is caused due to thrips (RRB SO 2018)
❖ Yield:
Bunch Type
Spreading Type
196 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
15-20 q/ha
20-30q/ha
MUSTARD:
Common name: Mustard
Botanical name: Brassica spp.
Family: Cruciferae (AFO 2021)
❖ Important Points:
➢ B.N: Brassica spp.
➢ Family: Cruciferae
➢ Origin: China
❖ Harvest Index- 25%
❖ Pungency is due to isothiocyanate, enzyme hydrolysis product of Glycosinolates
❖ Mustard species:
B. campestris
Sarson
B. napus
Rapeseed
B. juncea
Brown mustard (Indian)
B. nigra
Black mustard
B. carinata
Ethiopian mustard
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B. rapa
Toria
Eruca sativa
Taramira
❖ Climatic requirements:
➢ Mustard thrives well in dry and cool climate, therefore mustard mostly grown as Rabi
season crop.
➢ This crop does not tolerate frost.
➢ Mustard crop requires the temperatures between 10°C to 25°C.
➢ Optimum 18-25°C with cool, dry clear weather
❖ Soil:
➢ Mustard can be grown in wide varieties of soils that ranges from light to heavy loamy
soils.
➢ Soil ideal pH range for Mustard is 6.0 to 7.5.
❖ Sowing time, Depth, seed rate and spacing:
Sowing Time
Depth
Sept – Oct
months
6 cm (For better Pure
germination)
mustard
Toria: last
fortnight of
September
Seed Rate
Mixed
crop
Rapeseed
Spacing
4-6 kg/ha Mustard
/Rai
45cm x
20cm
2 – 3 kg/ Toria
hectare
/Rapeseed
4 kg / ha
30
x
10cm.
Note: Mustard crop planted at a spacing of 50 × 20 cm will have 100000 plants per hectare
(BHU-2018)
❖ Total water requirement - 400mm
❖ Critical stage of irrigation:
➢ Rosette stage (20-30 DAS)
➢ Siliqua formation stage
➢ Moisture at pre-flowering and pod filling stage is critical.
❖ Varieties:
➢ Pusa Jai Kisan: Its first variety Brassica juncea developed in the world. Variety
development is through somatic hybridization
➢ NRCHB-506 : It is the first hybrid of mustard in India developed from Directorate of
Rapeseed and Mustard Research ,Bharatpur Rajsthan
198 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Major Disease:
Disease
Pathogen
Sclerotinia Stem Rot
White Rust
Downy Mildew
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Albugo candida
Peronospora parasitica
Alternaria Black Spot
Alternaria brassicae
❖ Major Insect:
Insect
Diamondback moth
Leaf webber
Mustard saw fly
Cabbage head borer
Mustard aphid
Painted bug
Zoological name
Plutella xylostella
Crocidolomia binotalis
Athalia lugens proxima
Hellula undalis
Lipaphis erysimi
Bargrada hilaris cruciferarum
❖ Harvesting and Threshing:
➢ The rapeseed crop is ripened in 90-100 days and the mustard crop 120-150 days.
❖ Yield:
Rapeseed
14-20 q/ha
Mustard
20-25 q/ha
Mustard + Rapeseed
3-5 quintals
pure unirrigated crop
10-12 quintal
irrigated crop
12-15 quintal
unirrigated rye
15-20 quintal
irrigated rye
20-25 quintal / ha
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SESAMUM:
Common name: Sesamum
Botanical name: Sesamum indicum
Family: Pedaliaceae
❖ Important Points:
➢ Origin: India
➢ Sesame crop contains 18-20 % Protein and 50 % oil.
➢ It is regarded as queen of oilseeds
❖ Climate:
➢ It is generally cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical.
➢ Ideal temperature for sesame cultivation is between 25 °C – 27 °C
➢ A rainfall of 500-650 mm
❖ Soil:
➢ Soil is well drained and light loamy soil for better growth performance.
➢ Adding well rotten Farmyard Manure to the soil is beneficial in getting higher yields.
➢ Sandy soils and saline are not suitable for sesame cultivation.
❖ Seed rate, depth and spacing:
200 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Seed rate
Depth
Spacing
3-4 kg/Ha
Not more than 3 cm
30 x 30 cm
➢ Critical stage of Irrigation: 4-5 leaf stage, Flowering, Pod formation
❖ Major Disease:
Disease
Sesamum phyllody
Bacterial blight
Cercospora leaf spot / White
spot
Pathogen
Phytoplasma(Transmitted by the
vector Orosius albicintus)
Xanthomonas campestris pv. sesami
Cercospora sesami
❖ Major Insect:
Insect
Zoological name
Leaf Webber, roller and capsule borer Antigastra catalaunalis
Hawk or Dead head moth
Acherontia styx
Linseed gall fly
Dasyneura sesame
Gall fly
Asphondylia sesami
Leaf hopper
Orosius albicinctus
Aphids
Aphis gossypii
❖ Yield:
➢ Average: 8-10 q/ha.
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SUNFLOWER
Common name: Sunflower
Botanical name: Helianthus annus
Family: Compositae
❖ Important Points
➢ Chromosome no.: 2n= 34
➢ Origin: Southern United states & Mexico
➢ Auxin activity is more in Apical portion of flower.
➢ Sunflower is a facultative short-day plant.
➢ The head of sunflower is called as Capitulai.
➢ Sunflower contains 45-50% oil.
➢ Germination type: Epigeal
❖ Climate: The crop requires a cool climate during germination and seedling growth.
➢ Seedlings tolerate frosts moderately well until they reach the four to six leaf stage of
development.
➢ It requires warm weather from the seedling stage up to flowering stage and warm and
sunny days during flowering to maturity.
202 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Temperature:
➢ Temp range 8-34°C
➢ Optimum 20 & 25°C
➢ Requires cooler (15-20°C) growing period and warmer maturing period (20-25°C)
➢ Base minimum is 10°C
❖ Soil:
➢ Sunflower can be grown on a wide range of soils and tolerates a moderate pH range
and some salinity.
➢ It thrives best on deep loam soils with good drainage and irrigation facilities.
➢ The optimum range of soil pH for this crop is 6.5 to 8.5.
➢ Complete failure in sandy soil with pH 4.6
❖ Sowing time, Seed Rate, depth and spacing:
Sowing Time
Kharif
Rabi
Summer
Seed Rate
July to 1st Normal
week
of
August
November Hybrid
1st to 2nd Varieties
week
February
2nd week
Depth
Spacing
810 3-4 cm depth for Kharif
kg/ ha
better stand.
60 x 20
cm
6-7 kg /
ha
45 x 20
cm
Rabi
❖ Critical stage of irrigation:
➢ Bud initiation (35-40 DAS)
➢ Flower opening (55-65 DAS)
➢ Seed filling (65-90 DAS)
Disease
Pathogen
Alternaria blight
Alternaria carthami
Leaf spot
Cercospora carthami
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Powdery mildew
Erysiphe cichoracearum
❖ Major Disease:
❖ Major Insect:
Insect
Zoological name
Capitulum borer (Head borer)
Helicoverpa armigera
Bihar hairy caterpillar
Spilosoma obliqua
Shield bug
Galeatus scrophicus)
Green jassid
Amsacta biguttula
❖ Yield:
➢ The sunflower crop is ready for harvest when moisture in seed is 20 percent.
➢ Average yield: 18-20 q/hectare.
Package variety
15-20 q / ha
Hybrid variety
20-30 q / ha
204 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
SUGARCANE
Common Name: Sugarcane
Botanical Name: Saccharum spp.
Family: Gramineae
❖ Important Points:
➢ Chromosome no.: 80
➢ Sugarcane is octoploid in nature and propagated by vegetative outcrossing: (NABARD2021)
➢ Origin: Indo-Burma.
❖ Sugarcane is also known as:
➢ Heavy feeder crop,
➢ Intermediate day length & perennial plant,
➢ Most important cash crop,
➢ Highest water consuming crop.
❖ India’s position in area and production of Sugarcane is 2nd.
❖ Brazil > India > Cuba > China
❖ Cuba is known as Sugarcane bowl of world.
❖ India’s leading sugarcane producing states are UP>MH>TN.
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❖ Sugarcane has highest P2O5 consumption (IBPS AFO 2018)
❖ Classification:
➢ S. officinarum: Noble/thick/and juicy cane, low fiber, content, 2n:80
➢ S. barberi: Indian cane, medium sucrose and high fiber content. 2n: 82-124
➢ S. sinense: Chinese cane, medium sucrose, high fiber content. 2n: 118
➢ S. spontaneum (Wild)
➢ S. robustum (Wild)
❖ Classification:
Classification
Tropical cane
Saccharum
officinarum
Indian cane
Saccharum
barberi
Wild cane
Saccharum
sinensis
Saccharum
spontaneum
Saccharum
robustum
❖ Climate:
➢ Sugarcane is a tropical plant.
➢ It grows most successfully in those regions where the climate is more or less tropical.
➢ Water requirement is 2000 mm.
➢ It is a long duration crop.
➢ Best temperature suited for sugarcane is 28-32°C.
➢ For ripening, relatively low temperatures in the range of 12° to 14° are desirable.
❖ Soil:
➢ Sugarcane cane be grown on all types of soil ranging from sandy loam to clay loam.
➢ Well drained loamy soil is best suitable for sugarcane.
➢ Saline, alkaline and acidic soil are not suitable for this crop.
➢ Optimum soil pH required is 6.5-7.5
❖ Planting season: In India, sugarcane is planted thrice a year –
Season
Month
206 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Planted in region
Crop Duration
Spring (About 85 Feb.- March
percent of the area
in India is sown in
this season)
North India
12 Month
Autumn (Sowing Sept.- October
in this season
yields
15-20
percent
more
yield.)
North India
12 Month
Adsali/Eksali
South India
18 Month
July-Aug.
❖ Prominent sugarcane-based cropping system in tropical and subtropical regions of the
country
Sub-tropical
Tropical region
Paddy- Autumn Sugarcane-ratoonwheat
Bajra-Sugarcane(pre-seasonal)-Ratoonwheat
Green gram- Autumn Sugarcaneratoon-wheat
Paddy-Sugarcane-Ratoon- Finger millet
Maize- Autumn Sugarcane-ratoonwheat
Paddy-Sugarcane-Ratoon- Wheat
Kharif Crops-Potato-Spring
Sugarcane-ratoon-Wheat
Paddy-Sugarcane-Ratoon- gingelly
Kharif Crops-Mustard-Spring
Sugarcane-ratoon-Wheat
Paddy-Sugarcane-Ratoon- urd
Kharif Crops-Pea/Coriander-Spring
Sugarcane ratoon-Wheat
Cotton-Sugarcane-Ratoon–wheat
Kharif Crops-Wheat-late Planted
Sugarcane-ratoon-Wheat
Sugarcane-Ratoon-Kharif rice-Winter rice
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❖ Seed rate:
➢ Planted setts should have 3 buds with 10-to-12-month age.
3 budded
35,000-40,000 setts/ha
2 budded
80,000 setts/ha
1 budded
1, 20,000 setts/ha
➢ Immature crop of sugarcane gives better germination because due to nitrogenous substances
and glucose.
➢ Upper 1/3 portion of sugarcane plant is mainly used for sowing. The upper 1/3 of the
sugarcane contains a high amount of soluble nitrogen-rich substances, moisture, glucose.
Normally only 50-60 percent of the sugarcane buds germinate.
➢ Zero tillage is mostly practiced in Sugarcane.
➢ Saline soil is unfit for cultivation of sugarcane.
➢ Blind/light hoeing is done at 1 week after planting.
➢ Earthing up is done at 4 months after planting to protect from lodging, facilitate irrigation
and economical water use efficiency.
❖ Planting method:
➢ Flatbed planting: Shallow furrow 8-10 cm deep, spacing 75-90 cm, generally 3 budded
setts, end to end planting. Popular in North India and some part of south India.
➢ Furrow method: Deep furrow 10-15 cm in North India while 20 cm deep furrow in
south India. Practiced in eastern UP and peninsular India in heavy soils.
➢ Trench/Java method: u shaped trenches, 20-15 cm deep furrow at 75-90 cm, common
in java and coastal areas.
➢ Partha method: South TN, field is divided into ridges and furrow and 3 budded setts
are planted at an angel of 45o on ridges, leaving at least one bud above the soil. After
germination or shoots are emerges from buds when plants attain a height of 20-25 cm,
the setts are pressed horizontally.
➢ Spaced planting techniques: developed at IISR, Lucknow, single budded setts are
planted in nursery @ 20 q/ha or 18000 setts/ha, after 45-60 days single budded setts are
transplanted in field.
➢ Winter nursery system: developed at IISR, Lucknow, 3 budded setts let close together
in the nursery bed in the month of December. After 5-6 weeks when setts are sprouted,
polythene sheets are removed. Such type of setts is called ‘Slip setts’ and the sett rate is
70 sq/ha for 3 budded thick variety and 50 q/ha for thin variety.
208 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Rayungans method: Indonesian team meaning a developed cane shoot with single
sprouted bud. A portion of field is selected for Rayungan production is left at harvesting
time. Top of the cane is cut off which results auxiliary buds began to sprout. After 3-4
weeks sprouted buds are separated in a single bud sett and transplanted on ridges. It is
not practiced in India due to high cost.
➢ Sablang/sprouting method: Tillers, soon after they develop their own root are separated
from the mother plants are planted separately. It is successfully grown in java and Cuba.
➢ Tjeblock method: Improvement over Rayungans method because it takes care of proper
availability of energy and nutrient to all the buds. Upper buds of both Tjeblocks and
mother canes, which sprout in due course of time are planted by cutting them into setts
a Rayungans.
➢ Algin method: Upper most nodes are collected while stripping the canes of crusting,
then is planted in wheat field in rows after every 4 rows of wheat at 90 cm x 50 cm.
Developed by Allahabad Agricultural Institute, Allahabad.
❖ Nutrient management:
N
150-250 KG
50% Basel Dose
25% after 3 months of planting
25% after tillering stage
P
100-150 KG
K
100-150 KG
S
15-20 KG
ZnsO4
10 KG
➢ Higher dose of nitrogen enhances vegetative growth, resulting in reduced sucrose
content.
➢ Application of nitrogen fixing (Azospirillum and Glucan acetobacter) and phosphate
solubilizing (Phospho bacteria) bio-fertilizers were found to reduce the requirement of
chemical fertilizers to the extent of 25%.
❖ Irrigation Phases of Sugarcane:
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Germination phase – 0 to 60 DAP
Formative phase – 60-130 DAP
Grand phase – 130-250 DAP
Maturity phase – 250-365 DAP
➢ Most critical stage for irrigation is Formative stage.
➢ Formative (Tillering) and Grand phase are the most sensitive for water stress.
Crop stages
Time (day)
Water requirement (cm)
Germination
60 days from sowing
30
Tillering
60 to 130 days
55
GGP
130 to 250
100
Ripening
250 to 365
65
❖ Improved varieties: - improved varieties were developed in India in 1912 at SBI
Coimbatore. Sir T S Venkataraman developed the first Interspecific sugarcane hybrid
in India is CO-205.
❖ Major varieties: CO-419 - wonder varieties are CO-313, CO - 392, CO-327, CO - 1148,
COJ-671, CO - 8371, CO - 85004, etc.
❖ Co8152 is the gamma ray mutant of sugarcane from Co527 (RRB SO 2018)
❖ Symptoms for Judging Sugarcane maturity:
➢ Arrowing and plant’s growth is stopped.
➢ Cane become brittle, produces metallic sound and breaks easily at nodes (most
important symptoms)
➢ Buds swell out at nodes.
210 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖
❖
❖
❖
➢ Sugarcane crop is considered matured, if samples of juice taken from the middle
portions of the stalks show the hand refractometer (Brix (Brix
hydrometer/Refractometer)) reading from 18 to 22. (PRE-PG-2018).
➢ TSS for sugarcane ripening determination- brix: 20 (AFO-2022)
➢ Glucose content is < 0.5 per cent when tested by Fehling solution.
Crop Logging:
➢ Crop Logging is a method of plant analysis for assessing nutrient requirement of crops,
given by H.F. Clements.
➢ It was used in sugarcane in Hawaii.
➢ Potassium (K) is responsible for translocation of sugar in sugarcane.
Institute/Organization related to sugarcane:
➢ Breeding Institute (SBI), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
➢ Institute of Sugarcane Research, (IISR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
➢ Indian Sugar Institute (ISI), Kanpur
➢ Indian Sugar Mills Association, New Delhi
➢ National Federation of Cooperative Sugar Factories Ltd (NFCSF), New Delhi
➢ AICRP on sugarcane was stated in 1970-71.
International:
➢ International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, Mauritius,
➢ Brazilian Society of Sugar and Ethanol Technologists, Brazil.
Recovery: In north India, the crop is harvested earlier (in 10-12 months) yields about 6001000 Quintals per hectare and in south India harvested later (in 18 months). It yields about
800-1300 Quintals per hectare.
Juice by ordinary crusher
50-65%
Juice by Power crusher
60-70%
Juice by Vacuum crusher
70-75%
Sucrose Content in Cane
13-24%
Gur recovery from Juice
10 %
Crystallized Sugar from Gur
62.5%
Molasses
3.5-4 %
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Rab
18 -20 %
❖ Major disease:
Disease
Pathogen
Red rot
Colletotrichum falcatum (Perfect stage:
Physalospora tucumanensis)
Smut
Ustilago scitaminea
Sett rot or Pineapple disease
Ceratocystis paradoxa
Wilt
Cephalosporium sacchari
Gummosis
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vasculorum
Red stripe
Pseudomonas rubrilineans
Ratoon stunting
Clavibacter xyli sub sp. xyli
Grassy shoot
Phytoplasma
❖ Major Insect:
Insect
Zoological name
Early shoot borer
Chilo infuscatellus snellen
Internode Borer
Chilo sacchariphagus indicus
Top Shoot Borer:
Scirpophaga excerptalis
Sugarcane Wooly Aphid
Ceratovacuna lanigera
Mealybug
Saccharicoccus sacchari
Scale Insects
Melanaspis glomerata
Whiteflies
Aleurolobus barodensis
212 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Yield:
N. India
60-100 tonnes/ha
S. India
80-130 tonnes/ha
With proper management
700-900 quintal / ha
Average yield
60-70 t/ha
Unseeded sugarcane
1000–1200 q / ha
Juice yield
65-75 percent
Sugar yield
6-10 per cent from juice
Sucrose content
14-17 per cent
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TOBACCO:
Common Name: Tobacco
Botanical Name: Nicotiana tabacum
Family: Solanaceae
❖ Important Points:
➢ Chromosome no. : 2n=48
➢ Origin : Central America.
➢ Its fruit is the capsule.
➢ It is a self-pollinated crop.
➢ 2000–5000 seeds are produced in a flower.
➢ There are about 11 million seeds in one kg.
❖ Indian tobacco has two spp.:
Nicotiana tabacum
214 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Nicotiana rustica
Plant height 150-250 cm, Large and
narrow leaf
Plant smaller than tabacum
Nicotine content is 0.5-5.5 %
Nicotine content is 3.5 – 8%
Used for smoking and chewing
purpose
Used for hookah, chewing, and snuff
purpose.
Grown on light soils
Mostly grown on heavy soils.
❖ Classification Based on Use of tobacco’s:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Hookah tobacco (0.2–1.5% nicotine)
Bidi tobacco (6-8% nicotine)
Cigar tobacco (2-3% nicotine)
Cheroot Tobacco (3-4% Nicotine)
Inhale tobacco (from 3.2 to 4.8% nicotine)
Wrapping a tobacco (2 - 3.5% of nicotine)
Cigarette tobacco (1-2% nicotine)
❖ Climate:
➢ Tobacco is a tropical crop.
➢ Sensitive Waterlogging.
➢ Average temp of 26°C.
➢ Tobacco seeds require about 21°C temperature for germination.
➢ Rainfall / irrigation during active vegetative growth is essential
❖ Soil:
➢ Tobacco is adapted to moderately acidic soils with a pH ranging from 5.5 to 6.5.
➢ Tobacco is cultivated in light to heavy loam soils.
➢ Sodic soil is unfit for tobacco production because the plants absorb a lot of chloride
ions which results a poor burning quality of leaves.
Tobacco 's type
Suitable soils
Bidi tobacco
Light loam to mid loam
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Cigarette tobacco
Smooth loam , red loam, and alluvial soil
Cigar - Filler
Heavy soil
Cheroot
Sandy to sandy loam
Cigar wrapping
Light to loam soil
Chewing and hookah
Loamy loam to smooth loam
❖ Sowing time and seed rate:
Sowing Time
Seed rate
Second fortnight of August
2-3 kg/ha
❖ Planting time:
➢ In the nursery, sowing of seeds is done at different times according to the areas.
Cigarette Tobacco
August or September
Beedi Tobacco
First week of July
Cheroot Tobacco
Early August
Hookah Tobacco
Mid-November to Mid-December
Sowing in Uttar Pradesh (done
twice)
(a)
August to mid-September
(b)
February to March
❖ Transplanting of plants in the field:
➢ When the plants reach 10-15 cm height, they can be planted in the field.
➢ The plants become transplantable in 35-45 days.
➢ Transplanting should always be done in the evening.
Tobacco variety
Distance (in cm)
Cigarette tobacco
216 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
85 x 85
Bidi tobacco
90 x 90
Hookah tobacco
60 x 45
Chewing tobacco
75 x 75
Cheroot tobacco
60 x 60
Sniffing tobacco
75 x 60
Cigar tobacco
90 x 45
❖ Improved varieties of tobacco based on use ➢ Cigarette Tobacco (Flue cured Virginia) Bhagya Shree, Godavari Special, Dhanadevi,
Kanak Prabha, Virginia Gold etc. 7
➢ Bidi Tobacco: Kalayu, Pilayu, Gandhayu, Kalipat, Anand-2, Anand-119, Nipani,
Sangli, Mirji, S-20 etc.
➢ Chewing Tobacco: Bhagyalakshmi, Vairam Thangam, Maraga Dhan, Bhavani Special,
Gandak Bahar, Sona, Prabha, Anand - 145 (Chewing Zarda), Gujarat Calcutta - 1
➢ Cigar Tobacco - Wrapper - Dakshi Shed Ring, Rangpur Sumatra Filling - Havana - 381,
Olor - 10.
➢ Hookah tobacco (kolkatiya): Jeti, Chama, Motihari, Hemati, Sonar, Betri etc.
❖ Important Operation:
➢ Topping: Removal of flower heads either alone or with few upper/top leaves from the
plant to improve the size and quality of leaves.
➢ De-suckering:
✓ After topping auxiliary bud grow; removal of such lateral branches or suckers/
auxiliary buds is called de-suckering.
✓ The main aim of topping and de-suckering is to divert energy and nutrient from flower
head to leaves.
➢ Priming:
✓ Removal of mature leaves
✓ Entire harvest needs 5-6 priming.
✓ Used in cigarette and wrapper tobacco.
➢ Curing:
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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✓ It is essentially a drying whereby most of the moisture of leaf is removed to impart
required color, texture, and aroma to the final product.
✓ 85-90 percent relative humidity is best for tobacco curing.
✓ E.g., Flue curing used for cigarette process.
❖ Curing:
Types of Tobacco
Related curing process
Cigarette
Flue curing
Cigar, Cheroot, Chewing
Rack curing
Hookah and Snuff
Ground/ Sun curing
Chewing /Hookah
Pit curing
Bidi, Snuff, Chewing, Hookah
Fire curing
❖ Methods of curing:
(a) Air curing:
✓ In this method, ropes are tied on them by wearing thick bamboo. And 4-5 leaves hang
together. This work is done in an open place, but thatch etc. is also used in the rainy
season.
✓ This process is completed in 45-60 days.
(b) Sun curing:
✓ In this method, before planting in some places, the plants hang the sticks on the poles
and then collect the plants in a heap. The fermentation process occurs by gathering in
a pile. Stacks are kept in reverse at 4-5 days interval. This action is completed in 4-5
months.
(c) Flue curing:
✓ This method of preparation is used in cigarette tobacco. The work of making is done in
a special type of room. In which wood and coal are burnt to produce heat and smoke.
Due to these, the starch of the leaves turns into sugar.
(d) Fire curing:
✓ It is used in chewing tobacco.
✓ This action is completed in 5-6 months.
✓ At the time of hatching, brown spots appear on the leaves, which is called spawning.
218 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Harvesting:
❖ Priming Method:
✓ Ripe leaves are removed many times in this method.
✓ The first priming is done in cigarette tobacco, 70-75 days after transplanting and the
next priming at a difference of about one week. 2-3 leaves are plucked in a priming.
✓ A total of 5-6 priming crops are harvested, depending on the number of leaves (may be
18 - 26) and the season.
❖ Harvesting of entire plant:
✓ Beedi tobacco is cooked in 145 days and cheroot tobacco is cooked in about 90-100
days after transplanting.
✓ Hookah and food tobacco are cooked 100-120 days after transplanting.
❖ Yield:
✓ Its economic yield is the weight of the leaves of tobacco. The yield per hectare from
different varieties of tobacco are as follows –
Bidi Tobacco
650 – 900
chew tobacco
800-1600
Hookah (cherry)
1200-1600
Cigarette Tobacco
750 – 900
Cigars and Cheroot
1000 to 1200
Hookah Tobacco (desi)
750-800
❖ Storage:
✓ Tobacco leaves can be stored for 1-2 years without any damage, due to 10-12 percent
moisture in the tobacco before storage.
✓ It is beneficial to store in air-conditioned rooms at 15-20 0C and 65-70 percent relative
humidity.
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FACTS FROM PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMS
➢ Mustard crop planted at a spacing of 50 × 20 cm will have......... plants per hectare (BHU-2018):
100000
➢ Sugarcane crop is considered matured, if samples of juice taken from the middle portions of the
stalks show the hand refractometer reading from (PRE-PG-2018): 19 to 22
➢ The staple length of cotton fibre of short staple grade is (PRE-PG-2018): less than 19 mm
➢ Vitavax is used as a seed treatment for the control of (PRE-PG-2019): smut
➢ Which one of the following is the peculiarities of Indian agriculture: dependence of seasonal
rainfall (AAO-2018)
➢ The inflorescence of Barley is (NSC -2018): racemose
➢ Golden rice, which is genetically modified, is rich in: (NSC-2018): Vitamin-A
➢ ''Regional centre of international rice Research Institute'' is recently established in India at:
(NSC-2018): Varanasi
➢ Thiram is a? (BHU-2016): Copper fungicide
➢ Origin place of soybean? (AU Jodhpur farm manager-2017): China
➢ Algae which is used to monitor the water quality of estuaries: Ulva(IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ In north India, rivers are perennial during the period of: Whole year (IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ Which seed rate (kg/ha.) should be adopted for maize crops grown for fodder purposes: 50
(IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ Vasantrao Naik Award is given by ICAR for research application in: Dryland Agriculture
(IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ Chemical Delinting of cotton seed can be done with: Sulphuric Acid (IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ Which of the following is not a criteria for selection of watershed: Watershed, where
minimum wages are significantly lower than the actual wages (IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ Kabuli chamatkar and Udai are chickpea varieties from: Haryana (IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ In Agronomy classification of Crop plants is done as a class for better understanding which of
the following crop is fiber crop based on economic use: Jute (RRB SO- 2018)
➢ Certified seeds are used for better yield of crops. What is the viability of certified tagged seed
from the date of sample testing for all seeds: 9-month (RRB SO- 2018)
➢ In agronomy classified crop plants is done as a classified for better understanding. Which of the
following crop is medicinal crop based on economic use: Mint (RRB SO- 2018)
➢ Which of the following crop had highest yield in ( Kg/ha) during to 2016-17 as per annual
report (2017-18) of Government of India department of Agriculture: Sugarcane (RRB SO2018)
220 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Dormancy of seeds occur due to various reasons, and this can be removed by suitable process.
When are seeds subjected to very low temperature of 0-5 degree Celsius to break the embryo
dormancy it is known as: Stratification (RRB SO- 2018)
➢ What is the minimum germination percentage of wheat: 85% (AFO-2020)
➢ Golden revolution related to: fruit (AFO-2020)
➢ Stubble sprout to form next new crop: Ratooning (AFO-2020)
➢ Blue colour tag for which seed type: Certified (AFO-2020)
➢ Ley farming is related to: Leguminous pastures with grain crops (AFO-2020)
➢ Which among the following is highly irrigation sensitive crop: Cabbage (AFO-2019)
➢ Which among the following is medium to high irrigation sensitive crop: Wheat (AFO-2019)
➢ Pegging and pod formation stage has occurred in which among the following crop: Groundnut
(AFO-2019)
➢ Which among the following crop has lowest seed replacement ratio: Groundnut (AFO-2019)
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Which among the following crop has CRI as critical irrigation stage: Wheat (AFO-2019)
What is the optimum Relative humidity range for Crop production: 40-60% (AFO-2018)
Highest P2O5 consumption is in which crop: sugarcane (AFO-2018)
Which of the following is a perennial crop: Coconut (AFO-2018)
In Banana, Which nutrient is given in largest amount through fertigation: K (AFO-2018)
What is the annual rainfall of the Humid area in mm : More than 1000 mm (AFO-2018)
Which of the following is a highly salt tolerant crop: cotton (AFO-2018)
Silver fibre Revolution is related to.: Cotton (RRB SO- 2018)
What is envisaged in the concept of lay farming: Leguminous pastures with grain crops
(RRB SO- 2018).
Which crop shows the symptoms of particular nutrient if it is deficient: Cauliflower -Boron
and molybdenum, wheat- magnesium and copper(RRB SO- 2018):
Ratio of rainfall weekly/monthly at 50% probability and potential evapotranspiration is known
as: Moisture Available Index (RRB SO- 2018)
Which one is the gamma ray mutant of sugarcane from Co527: Co8152(RRB SO- 2018)
Which disease of groundnut is caused due to thrips: Bud necrosis (RRB SO- 2018)
Which method of irrigation is developed in Israel and well suited in acute water shortage:
Drip/Trickle Irrigation (RRB SO- 2018)
What is the family of mustard: Cruciferae (AFO-2021)
What is the scientific name of Paddy: Oryza sativa (AFO-2021)
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➢ PM Kisan is a Central Sector scheme with 100% funding from Government of India. Under the
scheme an income support of 6,000/- per year will be provided to all institutional land holders:
PMKISAN (AFO-2021)
➢ What is the premium rate in PMFBY for rabi crops, oilseeds and……: 1.5% of SI or Actuarial
rate, whichever is less (AFO-2021)
➢ Which of the following instrument used to measure soil moisture: Tensiometer (AFO-2021)
➢ Which agency helps in the price policy of major agricultural crops for Government: CACP
(AFO-2021)
➢ Seeds are dropped in furrows in continuous flow and are covered with soil: Drilling (AFO2021)
➢ The credit of success for KVK goes to: Chandrika Prasad (AFO-2021)
➢ What is smother crop: crop which suppresses weeds growing under it with quick growing
ability and dense foliage (AFO-2021)
➢ Which among the following crop is hexaploid and developed by using outcrossing : Wheat
(RRB SO 2020)
➢ Which of the following is used to map subdivisions of land and gives length and direction to
owner’s land and boundaries : Cadastral map (RRB SO 2020)
➢ Which among the following scheme is related to organic farming in the country:
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (RRB SO 2020)
➢ Retting is related to which crop : Jute (RRB SO 2020)
➢ Farming system which provides more time to absorb runoff water and later it is supplied to
crops: Contour farming (RRB SO 2020)
➢ Mostly used soil & water conservation method in hilly & mountain areas : Contour bunding
(AFO-2022)
➢ Method of drainage that is used in high water table areas, hilly areas, under the surface : Tile
drainage (AFO-2022)
➢ IRRI and its national research partners have developed Golden rice to complement and to
address the deficiency of: Vitamin A (AFO-2022)
➢ Norin-10 is a source of: Dwarf gene in wheat (AFO-2022)
➢ Oil content in groundnut : 44 to 58 (AFO-2022)
➢ TSS for sugarcane ripening determination- brix : 20 (AFO-2022)
➢ Akiochi disease in rice due to toxicity of: H2S (AFO-2022)
➢ Potato tubers are cured at __for 2 days and then at 7 -10 ℃for 10-12 days at 90% relative
humidity: 18o C (AFO-2022)
➢ Which of the following legume fodder: Cowpea and Lucerne (NABARD- 2021)
➢ Which of the following is related to dry farming: Cultivation of crop where the rainfall is
<750 mm (NABARD- 2021)
222 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Agriculture census will be released after how many years every time: 5 years (NABARD2021)
➢ Which of the following Conservation measure practice is practiced in hilly and Himalayan
Mountain region : Terrace/Contour terracing (NABARD- 2021)
➢ For the agronomic production cotton is the main crop of which of the following agroclimatic
zone : Western plateau and hills (NABARD- 2021)
➢ According to Agricultural budget 2020-21 economic survey of India what is the agricultural
GVA % of India :19.9 (NABARD- 2021)
➢ ______ is classified as medium farmer according to land holding classification : 4–10-hectare
(NABARD- 2021)
➢ Which of the following is coarse cereal millets: Jowar, bajra, ragi (NABARD- 2021)
➢ Which of the following is not true for mixed cropping: All crops have same life duration and
harvested at same time (NABARD- 2021)
➢ Which type of rain has a drop size <0.5 mm : drizzle (NABARD- 2021)
➢ Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas: Neon (NABARD- 2021)
➢ The target specific use of inputs for production according to crop requirement on localized
basis: Precision farming (NABARD- 2021)
➢ What is the isolation distance for foundation seed of Onion crop in m : 1000 (NABARD- 2021)
➢ Maximum premium payable by farmer for rabi season for cereals, oilseeds, millets and pulses
will be : 1.5% of SI or Actuarial rate, whichever is less (NABARD- 2021 , RRB SO 2021)
➢ Which among the following crops is octoploid in nature and propagated by vegetative
outcrossing: Sugarcane (NABARD- 2021)
➢ Still well is present in which meteorological instrument: Evaporation pan
➢ Cryopreservation: The process of cooling and storing cells, tissues, or organs at very low
temperatures to maintain their viability.
➢ Silver shoots in Paddy are caused by -Gall midge
➢ Pink boll worm of cotton belongs to Which family -Gelechiidae
➢ Dimorphic Chloroplast present in – Sugarcane
➢ Vivipary problem is more acute in which pulse crop - Green gram
➢ Jute fibre is obtained from - Secondary phloem
➢ Which finger millet variety posses higher harvest index - Shakti
➢ Moong variety 'Pusa Baisakhi' Was developed through - Pure line selection
➢ Which of the following plant crop is the most efficient converter of solar energy- Millet
➢ On which one growth stage competition between weed and crop is more- Germination stage
➢ Sesame plant is- Qualitative short-day plant
➢ Irrigation method is developed by ICRISAT- Furrow irrigation (ridge bed)
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➢ IR-8 rice variety is cross of Which one of the following millets can withstand drought and water
logging - little millet
➢ Power tiller is most suitable for the cultivation of: - Paddy
➢ Crop canopy temperature is measured by :- Infra-red thermometer.
➢ Ratio of flower, peg, pod in groundnut is – 7:4:1
➢ Sugandha-5 is a variety of which crop—RICE
➢ Famous variety of rice that is grown in Kerala is—POKKALI
➢ Sahydri Megha is a newly released variety – Rice.
➢ TETRAZOLIUM TEST is able to examine the viability of the seed.
➢ Contour bund is a short term runoff water harvesting technique.
➢ Phule Kalyani is variety of ___ crop- soyabean
➢ Fodder crop Lucerne contains about 15-20 percent crude protein
➢ Root interception occurs by-Ca
➢ Fluff is the seed produced in sugarcane.
➢ Some flowers open during day and closed during night this is called Photonasty
➢ Heterostyly is observed in Brinjal, linseed.
➢ “Paira & Utera” cropping system is closely related to Paddy.
➢ Chief pollinating agent in onion is – Honey bee
➢ Perennial legume fodder is= Stylo (ADO-2020)
➢ Free floating fresh water fern is = Azolla(NSC-2019)
➢ Stem nodulation occurs in which green manure crop=Sesbania aculeata
➢ Guttation occurs in plant through = Stomata and Hydathodes
➢ It is a form of overhead irrigation - Centre pivot irrigation
➢ Ratio of evaporation to potential evapotranspiration is known as - Crop coefficient
➢ XYZ system for hybrid production was proposed for- wheat
➢ Which variety of sugarcane is a gamma ray induced mutant from Co 527- CO 8152
➢ The plant indicator which shows the presence of gold in soil is – VALLOZIA CANDIDA
➢ Rice inflorescence has- 6 Stamen
➢ BBF method widely practiced in Groundnut crop
➢ Sunflower and Buckwheat are example of Green leaf Non-legume manure.
➢ Parboiling of paddy is a Hydrothermal process.
➢ Dead furrow is made by One way MB plough.
➢ Diara cultivation method is associated with- Cucurbits
➢ Tuber crop which is rich protein is Colocasia
➢ SRR (seed replacement rate ) of cotton crop is – 100 %.
➢ Yellow Mosaic variety of Moong is Pant Moong-4.
➢ The gene responsible to high quality maize protein is Opaque -2
224 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Blast resistant variety of rice is – Sabarmati
The frost tolerant crop- Sugar beet
Groundnut plants are self pollinated at : morning
The father of hybrid rice is : Yuan Longping
Sugar recovery from sugar beet is 10 -12 percent.
‘Parawilt’ of cotton is a physiological disorder
Weight of 1 cotton bale is 170 KG and 1 Mesta bale is 181KG
In maize, soft starch is called amylose and hard starch is called amylopectin
Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of the major oilseeds produced in the
country.
Aravali is a variety of wheat crop.
Taungya cultivation started for the 1st time in –Burma
System of planting is most suitable for sloppy lands in hilly areas=contour system
Cotton and pigeon pea are: =often cross pollinated
Jute is obtained from phloem
First dwarf variety of rice developed in world is TN-1
Maize is sown by corn planter
The micronutrient which takes part in the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by legumes isMolybdenum
The element involved in the synthesis of tryptophan and IAA is Zinc
Green ear' disease is commonly occurred in the crop of -Bajra
Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) is used to evaluate -Intercropping system
The husk : seed ratio of Isabgol by weight is : 25: 75
scented variety of rice is kasturi
One hectare cm water is equal to 1,00,000 liters
cotton variety with colour lint is –coconadal
Triticale is Intergeneric cross
Pellet Application is used in Paddy Only
The maximum amount of element required for berseem fodder is Phosphorus
seed multiplication ratio for brinjal 1:450.
Vertical mulching is mostly practice in which crop - coffee garden
Plant growth is measured by - crescograph
Leaf colour Chart indirectly tells us the status of in crops = Nitrogen
The branches in cotton which bear fruits are called as = Monopodial Branches
Sugarcane is considered mature, if Brix ratio is = more than 1
In case of sugarcane, the planting material is obtained from -Top one-third of the cane.
Blue chaff disease of oats due to deficiency of-Molybdenum
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Best nitrogenous fertilizer for rice crop-Ammonium Sulphate
Father of pink revolution-Durgesh Patel
Canola is group of plants belongs to – Mustard
The nutrient removed in maximum quantity by paddy crop is:- Potash
Yellow mosaic resistant variety of Moong is:-Pant moong 4
Aroma in rice is due to presence of “Di-acetyl-1-propanil” Chemical
The complimentary interaction between intercrops in the intercropping system is known as
annidation
Father of golden rice is – Dr Ingo potrychus
The most popular method for mango planting is - Sauare
Stomatal transpiration account for how much percent of water loss -80 to 90%
In wheat Rht3 gene is derived from- tom thumb
Indian Institute of Rice Research is located in Hyderabad
Tift-24 A and Kafir-60 are the important sources of male sterility in pearl millet and sorghum
respectively
Wild oat (Avena fatua) exhibit all 3 kinds of dormancy
Queen of Genetics’ is – Drosophila
The pink colour of legumes nodules is due to – Leghemoglobin
Waterlogging in soil favors production of – Ethylene
Harvest index is = Economic yield/Biological yield*100
Mn deficiency occurs in rice grown in- Upland soil
MHAT (Moist and Hot Air Treatment is done to check- Grassy shoot disease in sugarcane
Sugar beet contains 15-16 and sugarcane – 20 sugars
The percentage of bran received from paddy is.: 9-11 % (10%)
Recommended N:P: KCROPS
N:P: K
➢ CERALS
4:2:1
➢ PULSES
1:2:1
➢ OIL SEED
4:1:4
➢ FODDER
2:1:4
➢ ROOT
2:1:1
Photo respiration rate is highest in C3 plants
Which bioherbicide used for rice crop -Collego
Mesta is second most important crop after jute in India
Seed requirement of true potato seed: 150 g/ha.
Seed replacement rate is higher for wheat crop
226 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Sugarcane is the most efficient converter of solar energy
which type of cutting all branches of fodder crop well be cut- Pollarding
Highest cropping intensity is in Punjab & Lowest cropping intensity is in Manipur
Chemical used for dehaulming of potato is CuSO4
Albedo for rice is 12
Post-harvest losses in cereals accounts for 10%
Jawahar, Vikram, kisan and Sena, the important varieties of maize are Composite varieties.
Concept of natural farming given by Masanobu Fukuoka
WUE - Pineapple - 20gm dry matter /kg water use
C4 plant - 3-5gm dry matter /kg water use & C3 plant - 2-3ghm dry matter /kg water use
Phosphorus response - Cereals > Pulses > Oilseed > Cotton > Jute
T.S. Venkataraman is known as sugarcane Wizard
By-products of sugarcane are bagasse, press mud, molasses
Particle density of soil is always greater than bulk density in cultivated soil
Part per million is equals to mg/kg.
Indian institute of rice research has its national headquarters in Hyderabad.
SRI system of rice cultivation was introduced from which country-: Madagascar
Micronaire in cotton is used to measure :- Fibre fineness
BBF method is widely practiced in which crop:- Groundnut
Podu, Beewar, Penda are local names in various parts of India to denote which kind of
cultivation - Shifting
Asia's first Rice Technology Park to be established in - Karnataka
Which aromatic rice is from North East Region (NER) of India - Joha and Black rice
Which crop species is used in phytoremediation –Mustard
In maize Ganga Safed-2 is a-Double top cross hybrid
flame peeling is used- Onion and Garlic
The highest award presented to an agricultural scientist in the country are Rafi ahmad kidwai
award
Phyllody is the problem of sesame
Seed lot certificate is orange and green
Impurity percentage of the real value of the seed called dockage.
Acid scarification done in cotton crop
Some flowers open during the day and close at night .this is known as :photonasty
To make thread from a mass of jute , cotton etc. – Spanning
Fiber of linseed is called as – Reflx
Recommended dose of sulphosulfuron (g/ha) for wheat is:-25
Ephemerals are those plants that can – evade the drought
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Excess of zn, MN, cu induces Fe deficiency in crops
Highly lime required crops -Soybean and Sugar beet
Recently developed Terminator technology is used in cotton
The first GM potato (Proteto) developed at CPRI, Shimla for increasing protein content in
tubers consists of genes form Grain Amaranthus.
Ratio of ET to PET is known as Crop Coefficient
Water logged and drought susceptible crop = Maize
Father of Jaya first Indian variety of rice Dr shastry
the variety of wheat which is resistant to all rust -choti lerma
JAYA - TN-1* T-141, developed by Shastri,1968 & Padma variety T-141*TN-1
Salt tolerant variety of barley: Amber
Linolenic acid content in Linseed: 66%
Mono unsaturated fatty acid content in safflower is :14%
When the sugarcane crop Ripens, the maximum leaves begin To dry up and fall. Which machine
is used to test the maturity of sugarcane?:-Spectrometer &Refractometer
Father of white revolution or operations flood: ---Dr. Varghese Kurian
Father of Blue revolution: - Dr. Arun Krishnan and Dr. Harilal Chaudhari
Father of golden revolution: -- Nirpakh tutaj
Atrazine is pre emergence herbicide which is recommended for Maize.
Sesbania Aculata is the stem Nodulating Legume.
Paraboiling of Paddy is a Hydrothermal process.
Tile drainage is a form of agricultural drainage system that removes excess sub-surface water
from fields to allow sufficient air space within the soil, proper cultivation, and access by heavy
machinery to tend and harvest crops.
Clean tillage: It refers to working of the soil of the entire field in such a way no living plant is
left undisturbed. It is practiced to control weeds, soil borne pathogen and pests.
Conservation tillage, or minimum tillage, is a broadly defined practice that includes no-till,
strip till, ridge till, and mulch till systems. These techniques maintain plant residues on at least
30% of the soil surface after tillage activities.
The Parshall flume is an open channel flow metering device that was developed to measure
the flow of surface waters and irrigation flows.
228 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Horticulture
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
1
Copyright © 2020 by Agri Coaching Chandigarh
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any
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permission requests, write us at info@agricoaching.in or contact us at below address:
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Sco-7, Kharar Landran road, Kharar (Mohali)
Contact Number: 98288-22277, 95-200-90-200
www.agricoaching.in
2
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Index
S. No.
Topic
Page Number
1.
Introduction
5
2.
Horticultural Institutes
5
3.
Important Definitions
8
4.
Pollination
9
5.
Pomology
14
6.
Crop’s Special names
16
7.
Classification of Fruits
18
8.
Propagation
30
9.
Training & Pruining
32
10.
Fruit Crops
37
11.
Plantation Crops
71
12.
Olericulture
75
13.
Vegetable Crops
86
14.
Floriculture
108
15.
Food preservation
125
16.
Spices and Condiments
134
17.
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
142
18.
Previous Year Questions
150
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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4
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
WHAT IS HORTICULTURE?
Horticulture is classically evolved from the Latіn words: ‘Hortus' (garden plant) and ‘Cultura'
(culture), which means cultivation of Garden plants.
AREAS OF STUDY IN HORTICULTURE:
Pomology
Olericulture
Floriculture
Landscape Horticulture
Post- Harvest Physiology
Study of fruit crops
Cultivation of Vegetables
Cultivation of floriculture
Landscape plants, such as trees, plants, shrubs, turfs,
herbaceous perennials etc. are studied under this category
of horticulture.
Field of horticulture is relevant to crops reaping,
maintaining their quality, reducing spoilage etc.
HORTICULTURE INSTITUTES
❖ Central Institutes of horticulture (CIH), Mediziphema, Nagaland. (JAN-2006)
❖ Institutes of Horticulture Technology (IHT), Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh.
❖ Indian Institutes of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Hessaraghatta, Bangalore, Karnataka.
(1967)
❖ National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resource Centre (NBPGR), New Delhi.
❖ National Horticulture Board (NHB) established in 1984, HQ in Gurgaon, Haryana.
❖ National Horticulture Mission (NHM): 2005-06.
❖ The ministry of Agriculture has announced 2012 as the “Year of Horticulture".
POMOLOGICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTES:
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Central Institute of Subtropical Horticulture (CISTH), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. (1995)
Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture (CITH), Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir. (1994)
Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan (1952).
Central Institute of Arid Horticulture (CIAH), Bikaner, Rajasthan. (1994)
National Research Centre for Banana (NRCB), Trichy, Tamil Nadu.
National Research Centre for Citrus (NRCC), Nagpur, Maharashtra. (1985)
National Research Centre for Grapes (NRCG), Pune, Maharashtra
National Research Centre for Pomegranate (NRCP), Solapur, Maharashtra. (2005)
National Research Centre for Litchi (NRCL), Muzzafarpur, Bihar.
National Research Centre for Makhana (NRCM), Darbhanga, Bihar.
OLERICULTURE RESEARCH INSTITUTES:
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
5
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Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. (1971)
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI), Sreekariyam Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI), Shimla, Himachal Pradesh. (1949)
National Horticultural Research and Development Foundation (NHRDF), Nasik, Maharashtra.
Directorate on Onion and Garlic Research (DOGR), Pune, Maharashtra.
Directorate of Mushroom Research (DMR), Solan, Himachal Pradesh.
FLORICULTURE RESEARCH INSTITUTES:
❖
❖
❖
❖
Directorate of Floriculture Research (DFR), Pune, Maharashtra.
National research Centre for Orchids (NRCO), Pakyong, Gangtok, Sikkim.
National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
Institute of Himalayan Bio-resource Technology (IHBT), Palampur, Himachal Pradesh.
PLANTATION CROP RESEARCH INSTITUTES:
❖
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Central plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI), Kasargod, Kerala. (1974)
Central Coffee Research Institute (CCRI), Chikmaglur, Karnataka.
Directorate of Cashew Research (DCR), Puttur, Karnataka.
Directorate of Oil Palm Research (DOPR), Pedavegi, Eluru, Andhra Pradesh.
United Planters Association of Southern India (UPASI), Glenview, Conoor, Nilgiri District,
Tamil Nadu.
UPASI Tea Research Foundation (UPASI TRF), Valparai, Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu.
Tea Research Institute (TRI), Nirar dam, Valparai, Tamil Nadu.
Central Arecanut and Cocoa marketing and Processing Co-operative Limited (CAMPCO),
Mangalore, Karnataka.
Directorate of Cashew and Coconut Development (DCCD), Cochin, Kerala.
Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development (DASD), Calicut, Kerala.
BOARDS:
❖
❖
❖
❖
Coconut Development Board (CDB), Cochin, Kerala. (Jan-1981)
Tea Board of India, Kolkata, West Bengal. (1954)
Coffee Board of India, Chikmagalur, Karnataka. (1942)
Cashew Export Promotion Council of India (CEPC), Ernakulam, Kerala.
SPICE RESEARCH INSTITUTES:
❖ Indian Institutes of Spices Research (IISR) (Previously, NRC on Spices), Calicut, Kerala.
(1975)
❖ National Research Centre for Seed Spices (NRCSS), Tabiji, Ajmer, Rajasthan.
❖ National Cardamom Research Institute (ICRI), Myladumpara, Idukki, Kerala.
❖ Spices Board established in 1987, Cochin, Kerala (Ministry of commerce and industry)
MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS RESEARCH CENTRES:
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
❖ Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research (DMAP), Anand, Gujarat
(Previously known as National Research Centre for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
(NRCMAP)).
❖ National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB), New Delhi.
POST-HARVEST RESEARCH CENTRES IN INDIA:
❖
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❖
❖
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Indian Institutes of Crop Processing Technology (IICPT), Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu.
Fruit Preservation and Canning Institute (FPCI), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
Central Post Harvest Engineering and Technology (CIPHET), Ludhiana, Punjab. (1989)
Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI), Mysore, Karnataka.
Central Food Laboratory (CFL), Kolkata, West Bengal.
Food Research and Standardization Laboratory (FRSL), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh.
Defence Food Research laboratory (DFRL), Mysore, Karnataka.
National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management (NIFTEm),
Kundli, Haryana.
National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Ltd. (NAFED), New Delhi.
(1958)
Regional Research Laboratory (RRL), Jammu.
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Trombay, Bombay.
Public Health Laboratory (PHL), Pune, Maharashtra.
Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), New
Delhi. (1986)
HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES:
❖ Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) was founded in London, England: 1804
❖ Agri-horticultural society of India (AHSI): 1820, Kolkata, India.
❖ American Society of Horticultural Science (ASHS): 1903, Duke Street Alexandria, United
States of America.
❖ Horticultural Society of India (HIS): 1942, Pusa, New Delhi.
❖ International Society of Horticultural Science (ISHS), Leuvien, Belgium.
❖ Indian Society of Ornamental Horticulture (ISOH): 1990
❖ Indian Society of Vegetable Science (ISVS): 1973.
INTERNATIONAL HORTICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTRES:
❖ Global Horticulture Initiative (GHI), Rome, Italy.
❖ Horticulture Research International (HRI), Wellesbourne, United Kingdom: 2004
❖ International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP), Montpellier,
France.
❖ Biodiversity International, Rome, Italy.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
7
❖ World vegetable Centre (WVC), Taiwan (Previously known as Asian Vegetable Research and
Development Centre, AVRDC) (1971)
❖ International Potato Centre (CIP), Peru (1971).
❖ International Registration Authority for Rose (IRAR), USA.
❖ International Registration Authority for Bougainvillea (IRAB), New Delhi.
❖ International Flower Market (IFM), Alsmeer, Netherland.
❖ International Flower Auction Centre (IFAC), Bangalore, Karnataka.
❖ International Cut Flower Grower Association: USA.
❖ International American Spice Trade Association, Washington, D.C., USA.
❖ Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture (RNZIH), Canterbury, New Zeland.
AICRP HEADQUARTERS:
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AICRP on Tropical Fruits, Bangalore, Karnataka.
AICRP on Sub-Tropical Fruits, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.
AICRP on Arid Zone Fruits, Bikaner, Rajasthan.
AICRP on Vegetable Crops, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
AICRP on Tuber Crops, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
AICRP on Potato, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh.
AICRP Mushroom, Solan, Himachal Pradesh.
AICRP on Floriculture, Pune, Maharashtra.
AICRP on Cashew, Puttur, Karnataka.
AICRP on Palms, Kasaragod, Kerala.
AICRP on Spices, Calicut, Kerala.
AICRP on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants including Betel vine, Anand, Gujarat.
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
❖ Typical flower: The flowers commonly consist of four organs namely sepsis, petals, stamens
(male organs) and pistil (female organ). Both stamens and pistil are known as reproductive
parts.
❖ Complete Flower: The flower contains all four floral organs: Sepals, Petals, Stamens (Male
organ), Pistil (Female Organ) are called complete flower. E.g., Hibiscus, Soybean, etc.
❖ Incomplete flower: The flower lacks one or two of these floral organs. Crops belonging to
grass family including corn, sorghum, and paddy lack petals and sepals. The flowers of
buckwheat and sugar beet lack petals.
❖ Perfect flower: They bear only the stamen and pistil .For example: Cotton, Wheat, etc.
❖ Imperfect flower: These contain either stamens or pistil but not in the same flower.
❖ Dioecious: The plants which bear male and female flowers on different plants are called
dioecious. E.g., Papaya.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Monoecious: The plants which bear male and female flowers on same plant are called as
monoecious. E.g., Cucurbits, strawberries etc.
❖ Fertilization: The Fusion of male and female gamete is known as fertilization. The pollen
grains germinate on the stigma and slender pollen tube grows through the style and enters
embryo sac, where fusion of male and female gametes occurs which is called fertilization.
❖ Development stages of fruit and seeds:
Ovary
Ovule
Integuments
Nucleus
2 Polar nuclei + sperm nucleus
Egg nucleus + sperm nucleus
Fruits
Seed
Seed coat
Perisperm
Endosperm (triploid, 3n)
Zygote- embryo (diploid, 2n)
POLLINATION
The process by which pollen grains are transferred from anthers to stigma is referred as pollination.
❖ Pollination is carried by Agents
Agents carry Pollens
Air
Water
Insects
Animals
Birds
Pollination
Anemophily
Hydrophily
Entomophily
Zoophily
Ornithophily
TYPES OF POLLINATION:
❖ Self-Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of same flower is
known as autogamy or self-pollination. Autogamy is the closest form of inbreeding. Autogamy
leads to homozygosity. For Example: Tomato, Brinjal, Okra, Soybean, Potato etc.
❖ Geitonogamy: Geitonogamy is another form of self-fertilization. In this form, pollination
occurs between two flowers of the same plants which has same genetic consequence as
autogamy.
❖ Cross Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains of one plant to the flower of another plant is called
cross pollination. The resultants fertilization is known as cross fertilization or allogamy. For
example: Radish, Cabbage, Spinach, Onion, Garlic, Muskmelon, Watermelon etc.
MECHANISM PROMOTING SELF POLLINATION:
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
9
❖ Bisexuality: Presence of male and female organs in the same flower is known as bisexuality.
The presence of bisexual flowers is a must for self-pollination. All the self-pollinated plants
have hermaphrodite flowers.
❖ Homogamy: Maturation of anthers and stigma of a flower at the same time is called
homogamy. As a rule, homogamy is essential for self-pollination.
❖ Cleistogamy: When pollination and fertilization occur in unopened flower bud, it is known as
cleistogamy. It ensures self-pollination and prevents cross pollination. Cleistogamy has been
reported in some varieties of wheat, barley, oats and several other grass species.
❖ Chasmogamy: Opening of flowers only after the completion of pollination is known as
Chasmogamy. This also promotes self-pollination and is found in crops like wheat, barley, rice
and oats.
❖ Position of Anthers: In some species, stigmas are surrounded by anthers in such a way that
self-pollination is ensured. Such situation is found in tomato and brinjal. In some legumes, the
stamens and stigma are enclosed by the petals in such a way that self-pollination is ensured.
Examples are green gram, black gram, soybean, chickpea and pea.
MECHANISM PROMOTING CROSS-POLLINATION
❖ Dicliny: It refers to unisexual flowers. This is of two types: Monoecy, Dioecy
❖ Monoecy: When male and female flowers are separate but present in the same plants.
❖ Two conditions in Monoecy:
➢ When present on same inflorescence: In some crops, the male and female flowers are
present in the same inflorescence such as in mango, castor and banana.
➢ When present on different inflorescence: In some cases, they are on separate inflorescence
as in maize. Other examples are cucurbits, grapes, strawberry, cassava and rubber.
❖ Dioecy: When staminate and pistillate flowers are present on different plants, it is called
dioecy. It includes papaya, date palm, Betel vine, Nutmeg, Kiwi, Palmyra palm spinach, hemp
and asparagus.
❖ Dichogamy: It is derived from Greek word. It refers to maturation of anthers and stigma of the
same flowers at different times. Dichogamy promotes cross pollination even in the
hermaphrodite species.
TYPES OF DICHOGAMY:
❖ Protogyny: When pistil matures before anthers, it is called protogyny such as in Banana, fig,
pomegranate, Plum, Annona sp. except A. muricata.
❖ Protandry: When anthers mature before pistil, it is known as protandry. It is found in coconut,
Aonla, sapota, walnut, A. muricata and passion fruit and several other species.
❖ Duo dichogamy: Flowering plants commonly separate male and female function in time, but
rarely are the two stages synchronized within and among individuals. One such temporal
mating system is duo dichogamy in which each plant produces two batches of male flowers
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖
❖
❖
❖
that are temporally separated by a batch of female flowers, with within-individual synchrony
and among-individual asynchrony to ensure mating partners. E.g.: Chestnut
Heterostyly: When styles and filaments in a flower are of different lengths, it is called
heterostyly. It promotes cross pollination such as linseed.
a. Pin type: Sapota, Litchi, Pomegranate
b. Thrum Type: Almond, carambola, litchi
Herkogamy: Hinderance to self-pollination due to some physical barriers such as presence of
hyline membrane around the anther is known as herkogamy. Such membrane does not allow
the dehiscence of pollen and prevents self-pollination such as in alfalfa.
Self-Incompatibility: The inability of fertile pollens to fertilize the same flower is referred to
as self-incompatibility. It prevents self-pollination and promotes cross pollination. Selfincompatibility is found in several crop species like Brassica, Radish, Nicotiana, and many
grass species.
Male sterility: In some species, the pollen grains are nonfunctional. Such condition is known
as male sterility. It prevents self-pollination and promotes cross pollination. It is a useful tool
in hybrid seed production.
CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS AS PER POLLINATION:
❖ Natural or Normally Self-Pollinated crops: These crops show high degree of self-pollination
(>95%) and cross pollination is <5%. E.g., Barley, Ragi, Wheat, Beans, Grams, Groundnut,
Sesamum and Tobacco.
❖ Naturally or normally Cross-Pollinated Crops: In these crops cross pollination occurs
predominantly (>95%) with a very little (i.e., 5 %) self-pollination.
➢ Horticulture Crops: Almond, Apples, Banana, Cherries, Chestnut, Citrus, Date palm,
Grapes (muscadine), Fig, Papaya, Mango, etc.)
➢ Vegetables: All Cruciferous plants.
❖ Often Cross- Pollinated Crop: These crops are normally self-pollinated. However, cross
pollination in these crops usually exceeds 5 % to 30 % due to various agency. E.g., Sorghum,
Cotton, Safflower, etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUIT BASED ON TYPE OF BREEDING SYSTEM (WHICH
PROMOTES AUTOGAMY/ALLOGAMY):
Self Pollination
(Autogamous)
Cleistogamy
Homogamy
Monoecious
Papaya, Grape (Vitis), sapota
Apricot, citrus, peach, phalsa, dwarf
coconut
muscadine grape
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Cross Pollination
(Allogamous)
Dichogamy
Dioecious
Papaya, kiwi, pistachio nut, betel vine,
nutmeg
Mango
Fig
Coconut, sapota, Walnut, Annona
muricata
Andromonoecious
Gynodioecious
Protandry
Protogyny
Heterostyly
Self incompatibility
Vivipary
Banana, fig, pomegranate, plum,
Annona sp excepy A. muricata
Peacanut, Pistachionut
Chestnut
Avocado
Heterodichogamy
Duodichogamy
Protogynous diurnally
synchronous dichogamy
(PDSD)
Pin type
Thrum type
Heteromorphic
Homomorphic
Sapota, Litchi, pomegranate
Almond, carambola
No fruit crop
Sporophytic
Mango, aonla, cocao
Gametophytic
Ber, pineapple,
apple, pear, apricot,
almond, cherry,
loquat
Grapefruit, Cocao, Jack fruit
❖ Asexual Propagation:
➢ Parthenogenesis:
✓ Fruits develop parthenocarpically still they produce viable seeds e.g., mangosteen,
strawberry.
✓ Produce genetically uniform seedlings.
➢ Parthenocarpy: Parthenocarpy refers to the development of fruit without fertilization. The
process produces a sterile fruit that lacks seeds. This means that the pollination results in a
production of berries that are completely seedless
➢ Differnece between parthenocarpy and parthenogenesis
Parthenocarpy
It is the process of fruit development without
fertilization of seeds in plants
This process leads to the formation of seedless
fruits
12
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Parthenogenesis
It is the process of development of a new
organism without fertilization of an ovum
The organism produced by this process are
a clone of female and they cannot
reproduce sexually
Cannot produce the offsprings
It occurs only in plants
Only haploid offsprings can be produced
It occurs in invertebrate animals and lower
plants.
➢ Apomixis:
✓ Apomixis: Asexual reproduction through seeds
Parthenocarpy
Natural
Parthenocarpy/Obligatory
Parthenocarpy/automatic
parthenocarpy
Facultative Parthenocarpy
Vegetative Partenocapy
Stimulative Parthenocarpy
Polyembrony
Apomixis
Parthenogenesis
Sterno spermocarpy
Mango, Citrus, Jamun
Recurrent apomixis
Non-recurrent apomixis
Nucellar embryony or
adventitious embryony
Vegetative apomixis
Mangosteen
Banana, Japanese persimmon,
Pineapple
Grapes, Tomato mutants, citrus
cultivars, cucumber, watermelon
Banana, Fig, Pineapple, apple
Litchi, Grape (Black corianth),
Bread fruit, watermelon
Grape, Mango (Sindhu)
Nucellar
Citrus, Mango
Polyembryony/
Adventives
polyembryony
Cleavage
Coconut
Polyembryony
Apple, raspberry
Solanum nigrum, Lilium spp.
Citrus spp.
Garlic, Agave, Dioscorea bulbifera
➢ Artificial Parthenocarpy:
Crops
Tomato
Loquat
Orange, Lemon, Grapes
Brinjal
Hormone
Growth Regulator
IAA, GA3
GA3
IAA
2,4- D, IAA
Site of Production
Precursor
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Auxin
Gibberellins
Cytokinins
ABA
Shoot and root tips,
young expanding leaves
and seeds
Young leaves
Root tips
Terminal bud
Ethylene
_________________
Tryptophan
Terpenoids
5’AMP (isopentenyl group)
Sesquiterpenoid pathway
(Mevalonic acid)
Methionine
POMOLOGY
Botanical Classification of Fruit crops
Family
Common
name
Scientific
name
Chromos
ome no.
2n
Origin
Fruit
types
1. Monocots
Bromeliaceace
Pineapple
Sorosis
Banana
50, 75,
100
22, 33, 44
Brazil
Musaceae
Indo- Burma
Berry
Arecaeae
Datepalm
Ananas
comosus
Musas
balbisiana
Phoenix
dactylifera
36
West Asia
Drupe
2. Dicots
Actinidiaceae
Kiwi
58
China
Berry
Anacardiaceae
Mango
40
14
Apocynaceae
Custard
apple
Karonda
Southeast
Asia
Bolivia
Drupe
Annonaceae
22
-
Caricaceae
Papaya
Actinidia
deliciosa
Mangifera
Indica
Annona
squamosal
Carissa
carandas
Carica papaya
18
Berry
Diileniaceae
Elephant
apple
Aonla
Dillenia
indica
Emblica
officinalis
Phyllanthus
acidus
Garcinia
mangostana
-
Tropical
America
Southeast
Asia
Southeast
Asia
Madagascar
Malayan
Archipelogo
Berry
Euphorbiaceae
Clusiaceae
14
Star
gooseberry
Mangosteen
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
28
28
Aggregate
berries
Berry
Fleshy
calyx
Capsule
(Drupe)
Berry
Lauraceae
Avocado
Malhighiacae
Moraceae
Barbados
cherry
Jack fruit
Myrtaceae
Monkey
Jack
Fig
Mulberry
Guava
Jamun
Oleaceae
Pineapple
guava
Olive
Oxalidaceae
Bilimbi
Carambola
Passifloraceae
Punicaeae
Rhamnaceae
Rosaceae
Passion
fruit
Pomegranat
e
Indian
jujube
Almond
Apple
Apricot
Loquat
Quince
Peach
Pear
Persea
Americana
Malphigia
punicifolia
Artocarpus
heterophylla
Artocarpus
lakoocha
Ficus carica
Morus alba
Psidium
guajava
Syzygium
cuminii
Feijoa
sellowiana
Olea euorpaea
24
Berry
56
Central
America
Trinidad and
Tobago
India
56
Wetern Ghats
Sorosis
26
308
22
Syconus
Sorosis
Berry
40
Tropical
America
India
-
-
Berry
46
Drupe
24
Mediterranea
n region
-
Avrrhoe
bilimbi
Averrhoa
carambola
Passiflora
edulis
Punica
granatum
Ziziphus
maurititiana
Prunus
amygdalus
Malus ×
domestica
Prunus
armeniaca
Eriobotrya
japonica
Cydonia
oblonga
Prunus persica
Pyrus
communis
24
Srilanka
Capsule
18
Brazil
Berry
18
Iran (Persia)
Balausta
-
India
Drupe
16
Central Asia
Drupe
34
South Wetern
Asia
Northeastern
China
Central
Eastern China
Caucasus
region
China
Western
China
Pome
40
16
34
34
16
34
Drupe
Sorosis
Drupe
Berry
Drupe
Pome
Pome
Drupe
Pome
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Plum
Strawberry
Rutaceae
Bael
Mandarin
Rutaceae
Sweet
orange
Acid lime
Prunus
domestica
Fragraia
annonosa
32
China
Drupe
56 (8X)
France
Etaerio of
drupes/
achenes
Amphisari
ca
Hesperidiu
m
Hesperidiu
m
Hesperidiu
m
Hesperidiu
m
Amphisari
ca
Hesperidiu
m
Berry
Aegle
18
marmelos
Citrus
18
reticulate
Citrus sinensis 18
India
Southeastern
Asia
Indo-China
Citrus
aurantifolia
Grape fruit Citrus
paradise
Wood apple Feronia
limonia
Lemon
Citrus limon
18
Iran (Persia)
18
West Indies
18
India
18
Vitaceae
Grapes
Vitis vinifera
38
Tiliaceae
Phalsa
36
Sapindaceae
Litchi
30
South China
Sapotaceae
Juglandaceae
Sapota
Walnut
Peacan nut
Grewia
subinequalis
Litchi
chinensis
Achras zapota
Juglans regia
Carya
illinoensis
Southeast
Asia
Southeast
Asia and
Central
Europe
India
26
32
32
South Mexico Berry
Central Asia
Nut
North
Nut
America
Drupe
-
CROPS WITH THEIR SPECIAL NAMES
Common Name Special Name
Mango
16
King of tropical fruits/National fruit of Indian/pride fruit of India/Hindustan
fruit of India/
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Banana
Antique fruit crop/Tree of wisdom/Tree of paradise/Adams fig/plant of
virtue/Apple of paradise
Grapes
Sophisticated fruit crop
Papaya
Melon Tree
Guava
Apple of the tropics/Poor man's apple
Sapota
Chikku/sapodilla
Mandarin
Fancy fruit
Pineapple
Heaven fruit/Friendship fruit
Jackfruit
National fruit of Bangladesh/Poor man's food/Monkey jack
Mangosteen
Queen of tropical fruits/Fruits of the gods or energy tablet/ Finest fruit of the
world/Mystery fruit
Avocado
Litchi
Alligator pear/21st century fruit/Fruit of New world/Butter fruit
Kind of fruits/Queen of subtropical fruit/Lychee/Fruit of high commerce
Rambutan
Rambutan/ hairy litchi
Loquat
Japanese medlar/japanese plum
Durian
King of fruit in Indonesia/Durian
Persimmon
National fruit of japan/Persimmon/Ebony tree
Apple
King of temperate fruits/Symbol of health/premier fruit of the world
Kiwi fruit
Chinese gooseberry/China’s miracle fruit/Horticultural wonder of New
Zealand
Apricot
Coppery fruit /apricot
Walnut
King of nut/ walnut
Peacanut
Queen of nut/Pecanut
Ber
King of Arid fruits/ Poor man's fruit/Summer deciduous fruit
Aonla
Amla/ /Indian goose berry/Amritphal fruit/scared tree
Annonaceous
Fruits
Custard Apple/Fruit of poor people/Evening flower scent bearing fruit crop
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Pomegranate
Pomegranate/ fruit of paradise/ Fuit of love/Anaar/National fruit of Iran
Date palm
Datepalm/head in fire and foot in water crop/Tree of life
Fig
Fig/forbiden fruit
Bael
Bael/Symbol of lord shiva fruit
Phalsa
Phalsa/Dhamani
Jamun
Java plum/jamun/indian Black berry/ Black Plum
Karonda
Karonda/Christ thorn
Coconut
Kalpavriksha
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS
1. BASED ON NATURE OF GROWTH
Herbaceous
Shrubaceous
Woody
Banana, Pineapple.
Karonda, Phalsa, Pomegranate.
Mango, Ber, Sapota, Jamun, Guava, Apple, Peach, Pear and many other
fruits.
2. BASED ON GERMINATION:
Epigeal Germination
Hypogeal germination
Mango, Jackfruit, Tamarind, Cashewnut
Peach
3. BASED ON CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT
Tropical fruits
Subtropical fruits
Temperate fruits
Arid and semi-arid fruits
Mango, banana, papaya, sapota, guava, grapes, pineapple,
jackfruit, Cashew, Coconut, custard Apple, Carambola,
Carambola, Mangosteen
Citrus, grapes, avocado, litchi, rambutan, loquat, durian,
persimmon, fig, and passion fruit.
Apple, pear, quince, peach, plum, Strawberry, almond, apricot,
cherry, Kiwi, walnut and pecanut.
Ber, aonla, annonaceous fruits, pomegranate, date palm, fig, bael,
phalsa, jamun
4. BASED ON CONTINUATION OF GROWTH
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Evergreen
Deciduous
Mango, Citrus, Litchi, Sapota
Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, Apricot
5. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS BASED ON FRUIT MORPHOLOGY
Type of Fruit
A. Simple Fruits
1. Berry
Examples
Arecanut, Avacado, Grape, guava, banana, papaya, sapota.
a. Modified berry
i. Balausta
ii. Amphisarca
b. Pome
c. Pepo
2 Drupe (Stone)
Pomegaranate
Wood apple, Bael
Apple, pear, quince, loquat
Watermelon
Plum, apricot, peaches, almond, ber, mango, coconut, jamun, phalsa,
Barbados cherry, olive, date palm, Aonla (green aonla) Coffee,
Cherry
3. Hesperidium
Oranges, citrus
4. Nut fruit
Litchi, Rambutan, Cashewnut, Walnut, Pecanut
5. Capsule
Aonla (used for seed and other purpose), Carambola, Okra
B. AGGREGATE FRUITS (Develops from numerous ovaries of the same flower)
1. Etaerio of berries
Custard apple, Raspberry
2. Etaerio of drupelets Blackberry, longan berry
3. Etaerio of achenes
Strawberry
C. MULTIPLE/ COMPOSITE FRUITS
1. Syconus
Fig
2. Sorosis
Pineapple, jackfruit, mulberry, breadfruit.
6. BASED ON PARTS USED
Citrus
Banana
Coconut
Custard apple
Fig
Guava
Mango
Litchi
Pomegranate
Pear
Almond
Juicy placental hairs
Mesocarp and endocarp
Endosperm
Fleshy pericarp of individual berries
Fleshy receptacle
Thalamus and pericarp
Mesocarp
Aril
Juicy covering of seed
Stalk of fruit and thalamus
Seed
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Walnut
Fig
Pineapple
Bael
Jamun
Seed
Fleshy receptacle and thalamus
Fleshy axis, bracts, perianth and seed
Fleshy layer of pericarp
Pericarp and thalamus
7. BASED ON BOTANICAL RELATIONSHIP
A. Monocot
Musaceae
Bromeliaceae
Arecaceae
B. Dicot
Anacardiaceae
Myrtaceae
Caricaceae
Sapindaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Moraceae
Sapotaceae
Rutaceae
Rhamnaceae
Vitaceae
Apocynaceae
Rosaceae
Punicaceae
Juglandaceae
Annonaceae
Tiliaceae
Fabaceae or Leguminasae
Banana
Pineapple
Date palm, coconut
Mango, Cashewnut
Guava, Jamun, Pineapple Guava
Papaya
Litchi, Rambutan
Aonla, Star Gooseberry
Mulberry, Jackfruit, Monkeyfruit, Fig
Sapota, Khirni
Citrus, Woodaple, Bael, Grapefruit
Ber
Grape
Karonda
Loquat, Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, Apricot
Pomegranate
Walnut, Pecanut
Custard apple
Phalsa
Tamrind
8. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS BASED ON THEIR PLOIDY LEVEL:
Euploidy
Allo-polyploidy
Autopolyploidy
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Allotetraploid/
Amphidiploid
Allo-hexaploid
Allo-octaploid
Auto-triploid
Mango
European plum
Cultivated strwaberry
Cultivated banana,
Tahiti lime
Auto-tetraploid
Aneuploidy
Aneuploid-82
Aonla, Jack fruit,
litchi, phalsa, bael, ber
cv Umran
Auto- hexaploid
Persimmon, Kiwi
Auto- Octaploid
Ber cv. Gola, Illaichi
Pusa Srijan (Guava Dwarf
rootstock)
8. BASED ON SALINITY TOLERANCE
Tolerant
(8 mmhos)
Moderately tolerant
(6 to 3 mmhos)
Sensitive
(3-1.5 mmhos)
Datepalm
Ber
Coconut
Phalsa
Aonla
Custard apple
Kair
Khirni
Guava
Fig
Orange
Lemon
Pomegranate
Grapefruit
Grape
Banana
Cashew
Jamun
Grape
Peach
Apricot
Avocado
Almond
Plum
Apple
Lime
Papaya
Strawberry
Pear, Mango
9. BASED ON RELATIVE ACID TOLERANCE:
Highly tolerant
Stawberry, Raspberry,
Fig, Bael, Plum
Medium tolerant
Pineapple, Avocado,
Litchi
Highly sensitive
-
10. BASED ON RIPENING BEHAVIOUR
Climacteric
Non-climacteric
Fruits experiencing sudden upsurge in rate of respiration at the
time of ripening, e.g: Mango, Guava, Papaya, Jackfruit, Fig,
Sapota, Passion fruit, Banana, Apple, Tomato, Apricot, KiwiFruit,
Blackberry, Annona, Muskmelon Plum and Pear
Fruits experiencing simple gradual decline in rate of respiration at the
time of ripening, e.g: Litchi, Lemon, Lime, Oranges, Grape,
Pomegranate, Pineapple, Watermelon, citrus, Cashew, Strawberry,
Cherry, Jamun, Ber
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11. BASED ON ETHYLENE EVOLUTION
Class
Range at 200 C
µ1c2h4 per kg/hr.
Less than 0.1
0.1-1.0
1.0-10.0
10.0-100.0
More than 100
Very low
Low
Moderate
High
Very high
Name of fruits
Citrus, Grape, Pomegranate
Pineapple
Banana, Fig, Guava, Mango
Avocado, Papaya
Passion fruit, Sapota
12. BASED ON BEARING BEHAVIOUR:
BEARING
BEHAVIOUR
Terminal
bearing
Bearing on new
growth
Loquat ,
Jackfruit, Bael,
Pecannut
Axilliary bearing
Bearing on old
growth
Bearing on new
growth
Bearing on old
growth
Mango, Litchi
Morus, Fig,
Phalsa, Ber,
Guava, Aonla,
Sapota, Karonda
Apple, Peach,
Pear, Plum,
Tamarind,
Hazelnut
Mixed bearing
Star fruit
Pomegranate
Citrus
13. ALTERNATE BEARING HABIT: Mango, Olive, european Plum, Date palm, Apple,
Persimon, Pecannut
14. BASED ON GROWING ENVIRONMENT
Lithophyte
Epiphyte
Terrestrial
Psammophyte
Petrophyte
22
Plant which grows on stone, e.g., sphagnum, fern.
Plant which grows on another plant, e.g., sandal, orchid.
Plant which grows on earth.
Plant growing in soil having sand and gravel.
Plant able to grow on rocks.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
15. BASED ON WATER REQUIREMENT
Hydrophytes
Mesophytes
Xerophytes
Those plants which grow partially
or fully submerged in water
Plants which grow in situation where
water is neither abundant nor scarce
Banana
Mango, Papaya, Guava, Citrus,
Aonla, Custard apple, Apple, Pear,
Peach, Plum etc.
Plants which grow in extremely scarce Ber, Kair
condition of water
16. BASED ON LIGHT REQUIREMENT
Heliophytes
Sciophytes
Facultative sciophytes
Obligate sciophytes
Faculative heliophytes
Obligate heliophytes
Plants which grow in open sunny situation
Plants which grow in shade
Plant which grows in shade and also grow in sun.
Plant which always grow in shade.
Can grow well in full sunlight also grow in shade.
Plants which always grow in sun.
17. BASED ON PHOTOPERIODIC REQUIREMENT
Short day plants (Light period of 12
hrs. or less)
Long day plants (Light period of 12
hrs. or more)
Day neutral plants
Strawberries, Pineapple, Coffee
Apple, PassionFruit
Banana, Papaya & Guava
18. BASED ON BRANCHING HABIT
Heliotropic branching
habit
Geotropic branching
habit
Plants with branches emerging
high-up on the stem and growing
upward (in the direction of sun).
Plants with branches emerging in
near proximity to the ground and
growing parallel to the ground
surface.
Example: Hog plum
(Spondias mombin)
Example: Banyan
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23
19. BASED ON LONGEVITY FRUITS ARE CLASSIFIED AS:
Very Long longevity
>100 yrs
Long longevity
Medium longevity
Short longevity
50-100 yrs
10-50 yrs
-
Datepalm, Coconut,
Arecanut
Mango, Tamarind
Litchi, Guava, Pomegranate
Pineapple, Banana
20. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS BASED ON TYPES OF INFLORESCENCES:
Types
Raceme
Solitary
Raceme
Catkins
Corymbose
Cymose
Panicle
Solitary
Fascicle
Spadix
Hypanthodium
Fruit crops
Guava, peach, quince, apricot, almond, trifoliate orange
Blackberry, Gooseberry, raspberry
Peacanut, walnut, chestnut, mulberry
Pear
Grapes, litchi, mango, loquat, pistachio nut
Papaya, sapota, citrus, phalsa, persimmon, strawberry
Sweet orange, ber, plum, cherry
Banana, arecanut, coconut, date palm
Fig, pomegranate
21. BASED ON TYPE OF PLACENTATION:
Type of Placentation
Axil
Marginal
Parietal
Basal
Crops
Banana, citrus
Litchi
Papaya
Ber
22. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS BASED ON TOLERANCE TO SHADE:
Level
Slightly tolerant to acid soil
Examples
Mango, citrus, banana, guava, papaya, apple, peach, kiwi
Moderately tolerant to acid soil
Highly tolerant to acid soil
Tolerant to alkaline soil
Orange, pineapple, jack, avocado, litchi, loquat
Wood apple, bael, strawberry
Guava, date palm, aonla, custard apple, coconut
23. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS BASED ON RATE OF RESPIRATION RATE:
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Level of respiration
Rate of respiration (mg of
CO2/kg/hr
<5
5-10
10-20
20-40
Very low
Low
Medium
High
Fruit crops
Nut, dried fruits
Citrus, grapes, apple
Mango, banana, pear, peach fig
Strawberry, avocado
24. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUIT CROPS BASED ON STORAGE LIFE:
Very perishable (0-4
weeks)
Apricot, banana,
berry fruit, cherry, fig,
loquat, mango,
strawberry
Perishable (4-8
weeks)
Avocado, grape,
mandarin,
nectarine, passion
fruit, peach,
pineapple, plum
Semi-perishable
(6-12 weeks)
Coconut, oranges
Non-perishable (> 12
weeks)
Apple, grapefruit,
lemon, pear
25. MAJOR COLOUR COMPOUNDS PRESENT IN FRUIT CROPS:
Colour
Orange
Red purple
orange
Red
Orange yellow
Yellow green
Green
Yellow
Pigments
𝛃- carotene
Anthocyanins
Caricaxanthin
Lycopene
Flavonoids
Lutein and zeaxanthin
Chlorophyll
Xanthophyll
Examples
Mango, pineapple
Grapes, pomegranate, blackberries, raspberries
Papaya
Papaya, guava var. Arka Kiran
Peach, papaya, orange, tangerine
Avocado
Guava
Guava
26. AROMA COMPOUNDS RESPONSIBLE FOR FRUITS:
Fruits
Apple-Ripe
Apple-Green
Banana-Green
Banana-Ripe
Banana-Overripe
Lemon
Orange
Raspberry
Compounds
Ethyl 2-methylbutyrate
Hexanal, 2-hexenal
2-hexenal
Eugenol
Isopentanol
Citral
Valencene
1-(p-Hydroxyphenyl)-3-butanone
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27. VOLATILE COMPOUNDS (AROMA):
Fruits
Banana
Orange
Almond
Apple
Volatiles
Isopentyl acetate
Citral
Benzaldehyde
2-methyl butyrate
28. AROMA IS DUE TO ESTERS:
Fruits
Apple
Grape
Banana
Orange
Strawberry
Raspberry
Esters
Pentyl valerate
Methyl salicylate
Pentyl acetate
Octyl acetate
Ethyl butyrate
Butyl acetate
29. BITTERNESS IS DUE TO FLAVONOIDS AND TERPENOIDS:
Fruits
Orange
Grapefruit
Flavonoids
Hesperidin (Tasteless)
Naringenin (Bitter Taste)
Terpenoids
Neral and Geranial
Nootkatone
30. ACID PRESENT IN FRUIT CROPS:
Citric Acid
Mallic acid
Berries, Citrus, Guava, Pear, Pineapple
Apple, Banana, Cherry, Plum, Melon
EDIBLE PART OF SOME FRUITS
Fruits
Almond
Apple
Apricot
Banana
Cashewnut
Coconut
Custard apple
26
Morphological category
Drupe
Pome
Drupe
Berry
Drupe
Drupe
Etaerio (Aggregate fruits)
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Edible part
Seed
Thalamus
Mesocarp
Mesocarp and endocarp
Peduncle, cotyledon and seed
Endosperm
Fleshy pericarp of berries
Date palm
Grape
Guava
Jackfruit
Litchi
Loquat
Mango
Mulberry
Oranges
Papaya
Peach
Pear
Pineapple
Plum
Pomegranate
Quince
Raspberry
Strawberry
Sweet cherry
Walnut
Drupe
Berry
Berry
Sorosis
Nut
Pome
Drupe
Sorosis
Hesperidium
Berry
Drupe
Pome
Sorosis
Drupe
Balausta
Pome
Etaerio of drupelets
Etaerio of achenes, berries
Drupe
Drupe
Mesocarp
Pericarp and placenta
Thalamus and pericarp
Bracts, perianth and seeds
Aril (Juicy covering of seed)
Fleshy thalamus
Mesocarp
Fleshy sepals
Juicy placental hairs
Epicarp and mesocarp
Mesocarp
Thalamus
Receptacle, bracts and peranth
Mesocarp
Juicy covering of seed
Thalamus
Pericarp
Fleshy thalamus
Mesocarp
Seed
CARBOHYDRATES
❖ Carbohydrates is important and chief source of energy in human diet.
❖ Carbohydrates care classified in 3 groups:
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
(Reducing Sugar)
(Glucose, Fructose and
Mannose)
Fruit Sources
Raisins
Apricot (dry)
77.3%
72.8%
Disaccharides
(Non-Reducing Sugar)
(Sucrose, Lactose and
Maltose)
Polysaccharides
(Starch, Cellulose and
Saccharin)
Vegetable Sources
Cassava
Sweet Potato
38.1%
28.2%
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Date
Karonda (dry)
Banana
Bael
67.37%
67.1%
36.4%
30.6%
Potato
22.6%
PROTEINS
❖ Proteins are extremely complex nitrogen containing organic compounds. They constitute major
part of protoplasm.
❖ Daily requirement of protein is 60-70 g.
Fruit Sources
Cashew nut
Almond
Walnut
21.20%
20.88%
15.60%
Vegetable Sources
Lima Bean
Pea
Cow Pea
7.9g/100g
7.2g/100g
4.3g/100g
Vegetable Sources
Bengal Gram
Potato
Small Bitter gourd
1.40g/100g
1.18g/100g
1.0g/100g
FAT
❖ Fat is stored energy source of our body.
❖ 1 g fat liberates 9.0 calories energy.
Fruit Sources
Pecan nut
Walnut
Almond
Cashew nut
Avocado
70.0%
64.5%
58.9%
46.9%
22.8%
VITAMINS
❖ Vitamins can be classified in two groups:
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Vitamins
Water soluble
(Vitamib B complex
and Vitamin C)
Fat soluble
(Vitamin A, D, E and
K)
❖ VITAMIN-A (Retnol, Carotene)
➢ Deficiency symptons: Night blindness (Nyetapolia), Xeropthalmia for children,
Keratnisation of epithelia cell of eyes.
➢ Vegetable is rich in ‘Vitamin-A’ than fruit.
➢ Carrot provides maximum Vitamin-A per unit area.
➢ Precursor of Vtamin-A is carotenoids.
➢ Mango and papaya have higher vitamin A in fruits.
❖ VITAMIN –B1 (Thiamine)
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Beriberi, Muscular weakness, loss of weight, Neuritis, Loss of
appetite and dilion of heart.
➢ Cashew, walnut and Almond are good source of VITAMIN –B1
❖ VITAMIN –B2 (Riboflavin)
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Dry scaly skin, crack in corners of mouth, cracking of lips etc.
➢ Bael, papaya and cahshewnut are good source of VITAMIN –B2
❖ VITAMIN –C (Ascorbic acid)
➢ Daily requirement is 70 mg/100g.
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Scurvy
➢ Approximately 90% vitamin-C is obtained from fruit and vegetables.
➢ Barbedos cherry, Aonla and guava are the good source of VITAMIN C
❖ VITAMIN –B3 (Nicotinic acid)
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Pellagra. Nervous breakdown, stomach and intestinal disorder.
❖ VITAMIN –B6 (Pyridoxine)
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Lack of energy, Decrease in Brain function, High levels of
Homocysteine.
➢ Excellent sources of vitamin-B6 include summer squash, bell peppers, turnip greens,
shiitake mushrooms, and spinach.
❖ VITAMIN –B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Pernicious anemia (Reduction in RBCs), Autoimmune disorders.
➢ VITAMIN –B12 is providing by animal food. It is not found in vegetables and fruits.
❖ VITAMIN –D (Cholecalciferol)
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
29
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Rickets, Pigeon chest in children, ostcomalcia (adult).
➢ Vitamin –D is synthesized by the body through sunlight.
❖ VITAMIN –E (Tocopherol)
➢ Anti-sterility vitamin.
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Degeneration of kidney, Necrosis of liver.
➢ Sweet corn is rich source of vitamin E.
❖ VITAMIN –K (Phylloquinone)
➢ Anti-morrhagic vitamin.
➢ Deficiency symptoms: Delayed and faulty coagulation of blood.
MINERALS
❖ Calcium
➢ Daily requirement is 500-600 mg/day.
➢ Litchi and karonda are the good source of calcium.
❖ Iron
➢ Dry karonda and date are the good source of Iron.
❖ Phosphorus
➢ Almond, Cashew and Walnut are good source.
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat
Vitamin A
Vitamin B1
Vitamin B2
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Calcium
Iron
Phosphorus
Fruit: Raisins> Apricot (dry)>
Date> Karonda
Fruit: Cashew nut> Almond
Fruit: Pecan nut> Walnut>
Almond
Mango> Papaya
Cashew> Walnut
Bael> Papaya
Barbados Cherry> Aonla> Guava
Sweet Corn
Litchi> Karonda
Dry Karonda> Date
Almond> Cashew
Vegetable: Cassava> Sweet Potato>
Potato
Vegetable: Lima bean> Pea> Cowpea
Vegetable: Bengal Gram> Potato>
COMMERCIAL METHODS OF PROPAGATION OF MAJOR FRUITS
Fruit crop
Commercial method of propagation
Apple
Whip and tounge, grafting, stooling
Peach
Plum
T budding
T budding
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Pear, Apricot
Acid lime, Coconut, Arecanut, Papaya, Phalsa,
Coffee, passionFruit
Avocado
Muscadine grape
Aonla
Bael, Pecannut
Ber
Custard apple
Grape
Grapefruit
Guava
Tongue or whip grafting
Seed
Litchi
Mandarin
Mango, Mangosteen
Pomegranate
Air layering
T/shield budding
Veneer grafting, Inarching, Softwood
grafting
Hardwood stem cutting, Air layering
Pummelo
Sweet orange
Date palm
Tea, Cashewnut
Rubber
Persimon
Jackfruit, Loquat, Sapota
Seed, T-budding
T-budding, Patch budding
Offshoots
Softwood Cutting
Forket Budding
Crown grafting
Inarching
Seed
Hardwood cutting
Softwood cutting
T budding
Air Layering
Stooling
Leaf node cutting
Sword sucker
Offshoot sucker
Layering, T-budding
Serpentine layering
Patch budding
Patch budding
Ring and T-budding
T-budding, Inarching, Offshoots
Hardwood stem cuttings
T-budding
Stooling, Inarching, Air layering
Acid Lime, Coconut, Arecanut, Papaya, Passion fruit, Karonda,
Phalsa, Mangosteen, Pummelo, wood apple, Oil Palm, Cocao,
Coffee, Date Palm
Karonda, Fig, Grape, Pomegranate
Tea, Cashewnut (Softwood grafting)
Pummelo, Almond, Aonla, Ber, Custard Apple, Grapefruit,
Mandarin, Sweet Orange, Peach, Plum, Olive, Apple, Pear, Apricot
Pomegranate, Litchi, Avocado, Cherry.
Guava
Tea
Banana
Date Palm
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
31
Suckers, Slips
Patch budding
Pineapple
Bael, Jamun, Pecannut,
TRAINING AND PRUNING
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
32
Trunk: The main woody stem of a tree, from which its branches grow.
Head: Point on the trunk from which first branch arise.
Scaffold Branches: Main branches arising from the head are known as scaffold branches.
Low Headed Tree: Trees in which scaffold branches arise within 0.7-0.9 m height from
ground level. Low headed trees come into bearing comparatively much earlier, are able to resist
stormy winds more effectively and their spraying and harvesting expenses are less.
High Headed Tree: Trees in which scaffold branches come out from the trunk above 1.2 m.
In the tropical climate, high headed trees are unsuitable as their exposed trunks are subjected
to sunscald in summer.
Crotch: The angle made by scaffold limb to the trunk or the secondary branch to scaffold limb
is called crotch. The crotch should be broad and not narrow.
Leader: The main growing branch from ground level up to the tip dominating all other
branches.
Spur: Numerous shoot growth which are abundant over the fruit trees and upon which most of
the fruit is borne.
Water Shoots: These are extraordinary vigorous vegetative shoots which grow from the high
points on the main branches in upright direction at the expense of main branches.
Training: Training is a practice in which tree growth is directed into a desired shape and form.
Training is started from nursery stage of plant. Training young fruit trees is essential for proper
tree development. It is better to direct tree growth with training than to correct it with pruning.
Some fruit crops like grape vines, ber, fig, guava, apple, pear etc. require training.
Pruning: Pruning may be defined as the art and science of cutting away of portion of plant to
improve its shape, to influence its growth, flowering and fruitfulness and to improve the quality
of the product. It is done to divert a part of plant energy from one part to another part of plant.
Seasons of Pruning:
Dormant Pruning:
➢ Most often done during the winter- commonly referred to as dormant pruning.
➢ Dormant pruning is an invigorating process.
➢ Heavy dormant pruning also promotes excessive vegetative vigour.
➢ Timing of dormant pruning is critical.
➢ Pruning should begin as late in the winter as possible to avoid winter injury.
Summer Pruning:
➢ Pruning done during summers- referred to as summer pruning.
➢ Its severity is much less, less common, more specific and selective.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Eliminates an energy or food producing portion of the tree and results in reduced tree
growth.
➢ For most purposes, summer pruning should be limited to removing the upright and
vigorous current season's growth; only thinning cuts should be used.
➢ To minimize the potential for winter injury, summer pruning should not be done after the
end of July.
METHODS OF TRAINING SYSTEM:
❖ Open center system is also known as vase shaped system.
❖ Central leader system is also known as closed centered one.
❖ Modified leader system: Most acceptable for commercial fruit cultivation. Intermediate
between the open and central leader system.
OTHER SYSTEMS OF TRAINING:
❖ Bower system is also known as pandal or arbour or pergola system- Commonly practiced in
grapes.
❖ Telephone system is also known as overhead trellis system.
❖ Cordons are single stemmed tree system.
❖ Commercial planting of apples and pears has been successfully done as primitive espalier
system.
COMMERCIAL TRAINING SYSTEMS IN FRUITS CROPS
Training systems
Examples
Central leader
Walnut, pecan, nut, apple, pear, mango and
sapota
Peach, Japanese plum, nectarine, Guava,
apricots and ber
European plum, sweet cherry, pear, Apple
Open center or vase system
Modified leader
Bower system
Espalier system
Cordons
Single stem system
Multiple stem system
Two arm kniffin system
Pergola
Grapes
Apple
Peach, Grape and passion fruit
Citrus, fig, Annona
Pomegranate
Passion fruit
Grape, Passion Fruit, Small Guard, Ponited
guard
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PRUNING SYSTEM
❖ Pruning is the removal of a portion of a tree to correct or maintain tree structure.
❖ Main objective:
➢ Regulation of shape and growth of tree.
➢ Enhance the production and quality fruits.
❖ Pruning is done in two ways:
Types
Thinning out
Heading back
1. Thinning out: Removal of undesirable shoots or branches without leaving any stub.
Encourage the tree growth e.g., Mango, loquat, quince, olive.
2. Heading back: Removal of terminal portion of the shoots, branches or limb leaving its
basal portion.
✓ Reduce the tree size by topping and hedging.
✓ It is also called pinching.
➢ Skirting: Removal of low hanging branches e.g., Mango.
➢ Tip pruning: The young vegetative flushes are cut back to mature wood just prior to
flowering e.g., Mango.
➢ Renewal Pruning: This pruning is done in old trees like mangoes which shows decline. In
this case severe pruning is required.
SPECIAL PRUNING TECHNIQUES IN FRUIT CROPS
Special techniques
Root pruning: Removal of
roots 40 cm away from the base
of the plant.
Purpose
To make dwarf, to induce
flowering, fruitfulness and
determining the flowering
time.
Ringing: Removal of complete To increase fruit bud
ring of bark from a branch or a formation.
trunk.
Dehorning: To removal of
To induce flowering
overcrowding and
intermingling of branches
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Examples
Mandarin
Mango, Grapes.
Mango (Vidharbha region
of Maharashtra)
Notching: Partial ringing of a
branches above a dormant
lateral bud.
Nicking: Partial ringing of a
branches below a dormant bud.
Smudging: Practice of smoking
under the trees.
Bending: Bending of branches
or shoots.
To induce the fruit branches
& increase the bearing area
of the plant.
To increase the flowering
shoots.
To induce spurs from buds
To induce the off season
flowering
To increase the lateral
branches and fruit
production.
To increase the fruit size.
To reduce the alternate
bearing tendency.
To increase the berry size.
Thinning: Removal of part of
flower bud or small fruits from
a heavy crop.
Girdling: Removal of 2-3 mm
white strip of barks around the
stem.
Leaf pruning: Removal of old
and senescence leaves.
Top working or top grafting or top budding: Changing the
established plants, trees, shrubs
or vines with a desirable
cultivar.
Poona Fig (Pune Region of
Maharashtra)
Apple. Poona Fig (Pune
Region of Maharashtra)
Mango (Philippines)
Guava (Allahabad region in
UP, Deccan region)
Grapes, Peach, Plum,
Quince.
Grapes, Litchi
Date palm
Mango, Apple
PRUNING TIME AND TECHNIQUES IN FRUIT CROPS
Sl.
No.
Crop
Time
Technique
1
Apple
Late winter
Light thinning coupled with heading back.
2
Peach
Late winter (Dec-Jan)
3
Plum
Late winter (Dec-Jan)
A combination of thinning out and heading
back.
A combination of thinning out and heading
back.
4
Grape
North India
Late winter (Jan)
Heading back of cane.
South India
Summer pruning (Aug)
Heading back to one or two buds which is
almost thinning out.
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Winter pruning (SeptOct)
After harvest
Heading back to cane.
North
Late winter early spring
Heading back.
South
Dec-Jan
Heading back.
Ber
Summer (April-May)
Heading back and thinning out of old
branches.
5
Mango
6
Phalsa
7
Thinning.
SPECIALIZED PLANT\PARTS
Rhizome (Modified stem)
Sucker (Shoot)
Crown or split
Runners (Specialized stem)
Offset or offshoot (Lateral shoot or branch)
Slips
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banana
Pineapple, banana.
Strawberry
Strawberry
Date palm, pineapple
Best planting material from pineapple.
FRUITS CROPS
1. MANGO
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Botanical name: Mangifera indica
Family: Anacardiaceae
Origin: Indo-Burma region
Ideal temperature for mango cultivation 24-270c.
Viability of Stone 30 Days
Soil- alluvial to lateritic soils except in black cotton soil having poor drainage.
PH -slightly acidic (does not perform well in soils having pH beyond 7.5.)
The temperature of 5-16°C for different varieties is ideal for storing.
Mangoes are highly susceptible to low temperature injury. Loss of flavor and development
of undesirable softening are major symptoms of chilling injury.
Mango fruits contain highest Vitamin-A (4800 IU) followed by papaya (2020 IU).
Training is done in 2-3-year-old plants.
Mango seed kernels contain 9.5% protein.
In India, mango is available from March to mid-August.
Intercropping can be done up to 5-6 years in mango orchard.
Conventional system: Square system, Spacing: 10 x 10 m, 100 plants/ha.
Propagation methods:
➢ Veneer grafting popular method in Northern India.
➢ Mango stones take about 15-25 days for germination.
➢ Inarching grafting is the most popular method in South India (Commercial propagation).
➢ Epicotyl grafting commercially practiced in Konkan region of Maharashtra.
➢ Polyembryonic rootstocks: Mylepalium, Goa, Kurrnukan, Olour, Chandrakaran, Bellary,
Bappakkai
➢ Bappakkai is the best polyembryonic rootstocks for Neelum cultivar.
Pruning time in south India: August-September.
Heading back in mango done at November-December.
Types of flowers: Male and hermaphrodite.
Type of pollination: Cross pollination
Pollinator: House Fly
Prevention of pre-harvest fruit drop in mango: 2,4-D @ 20 ppm, NAA @ 50 ppm
Fruit type: Fleshy drupe
Optimum storage temperature: 13°C
Good mango varieties contain 20% of TSS
Kent, Tommy Atkins, Alphonso and Kesar varieties are more demand in the international
market.
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❖ Alphonso (Ratnagiri), Dashehari (UP), Kesar (GJ) and Banganapalli (AP) that are currently
in demand in the in the international markets are produced and exported from India.
❖ Dwarfing cultivars: Ambalavi, Kalapady
❖ North Indian mangoes Langra and Dashehari are alternate bearers
❖ "Off season mango (Fruit maturity: January to February) : Kanyakumari district of Tamilnadu
due to microclimate; Cultivars: Neelum, Rumani, Bangalora
❖ " Ideal mango varieties should have a high ration of edible to non-edible matters (3.31 to 4.0)
❖ Most popular varieties in North India: Dashahari, Chausa
❖ Canning variety: Alphonso
❖ Off season variety: Niranjan
❖ Mutant variety: Rosica
❖ Promising dwarfing genotype: Creeping
❖ Most suitable variety for canning purpose: Alphonso and Dashehari
❖ The combination of waxing (3%) along with hot-water treatment results in good quality fruits
with extended storage life.
❖ Individual wrapping of fruit imparts uniform colour and reduces shrinkage.
❖ Hydro-cooling at 12°-15°C and holding for 2 weeks at 15°C followed by storage for 1 week
at ambient temperature gives good storage life to fruits.
❖ VARITIES AND ITS HYBRIDS:
38
Hybrids
Ambika
Parents
Amrapali × Janardhan Pasand
Arunika
Pusa Peetembar
Amrapali × Vanraj
Amrapali × Lal sundari
Pusa Arunima
Pusa lalima
Amrapali × sensation
Dashehari × sensation
Pusa pratibha
Amrapali × sensation
Pusa Shreshth
Mallika
Amrapali × sensation
Neelum × Dashehari
Amrapali
Dashehari × Neelum
Ratna
Sindhu
Neelum x Alphanso
Ratna × Alphonso
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Special features
Late ripening variety
Yellow colour variety,
suitable for uniform
packaging (due to oblong
fruit shape)
Regular bearer
Red colour variety (bright
red peel colour)
Regular bearer (red peel
colour)
Regular bearer
Regular bearer- Mid season
Regular bearer, Desert
variety
Regular bearer
1St Seedless Variety in
World
Arka Udaya
Arka Aruna
Amrapali × Arka Anmol
Banganapalli × Alphonso
Arka puneet
Alphonso × Banganapalli
Arka anmol
Alphonso × Janardhan Pasand
Manijra
Sai Sughanda
Rumani × Neelum
Totapuri x Kesher
Regular bearer- suitable for
HDP
Regular bearer- Suitable for
canning
Regular bearer- Suitable for
export
Free From Malformation
❖ VARIETIES AND ITS POPULAR REGION
Variety
Alphonso
Banganpali
Bombay Green
Chausa
Dasehari
Fazli
Gulabkhas
Himsagar
Kesar
Kishenbhog
Langra
Neelum
Pairi
Totapuri
Zardalu
Laxmanbhog
Malda
Mulgoa
Popular region
Ratnagiri (Maharashtra)
Andhra Pradesh
North India
North India
North India (U.P.)
Bihar & West Bengal
Bihar
West Bengal
Saurashtra, Gujrat
West Bengal
North India
South India
Maharashtra
S. India (Karnatka)
Bihar
West Bengal
Punjab
Karnatka
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2. BANANA
❖ It is also known as Antique fruit crop/Tree of Wisdom/Tree of Paradise/Adams
fig/Kalpataru/Plant paradise: Musa spp
❖ Origin of Musa acuminata: Malaysia
❖ Origin of Musa balbislana: Burma
❖ Humid tropical herb.
❖ It is a day neutral plant.
❖ Monocotyledonous, monocarpic, herbaceous perennial herb.
❖ Banana fruit rich source of Potassium (450 mg)
❖ Rich source of energy (137 K. Ca/100g)
❖ Edible bananas are mostly hybrids of the two species.M. acuminata, M. balbisiana.
❖ They set fruits by parthenocarpy.
❖ Ripe banana Contain 27% Sugar
❖ Chilling injury occurs less than 12 oC
❖ Optimum temperature for banana cultivation: 20-30 oC
❖ Climate: Humid tropic plant. Temperature with an average of 23°C.
❖ Soil: Deep well – drained soil with abundant organic matter.( Depth – one meter)
❖ Soil pH: 6.5 – 7.5 found to be optimum.
❖ Better quality banana: Mid subtropical condition (Better aroma and crisp pulp).
❖ Fruit type: Berry
❖ Inflorescence type. Spadix (Female and Hermaphrodite flower)
❖ Botanically, rhizome is a modified form of stem
❖ Propagation: sword suckers mostly preferred, 4 months old Sword sucker of 1-2 kg weight
and 80-120 cm heights having a piece of underground stem.
❖ Emerging new suckers is known as "peepers"
❖ Most widely used tissue culture in banana: shoot tip culture.
❖ Popular tissue culture variety in India- Grand Naine
❖ Season of planting
➢ Wet land – Feb-April: Poovan, Rasthali, Monthan
➢ April – May: Nendran, Robusta
❖ Water requirement for banana: 1,800-2,200 mm per Plant per Year
❖ Irrigation: Drip irrigation – 15 lit/ plant/ day from planting to 4th month.
❖ 20 lit/plant / day from 5th to shooting and 25 lit/plant/day from shooting till 15 days prior to
harvest.
❖ Banana exhausting crop it requires large quantity of fertilizer.
❖ Banana is a heavy feeder of potassium.
❖ Multi-storey system is commonly followed in coastal Karnataka and Kerala.
❖ Banana is grown as a rain fed crop in west coast and hills South India
❖ Special practices:
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➢ Mettoking: After harvesting, the pseudostem should be cut leaving a stump of about 0.6 m
height, the left-over stump with its stored food material continues to nourish the daughter
sucker gtill it withers & dries up.
➢ Propping: Pseudostem requires support at the time of bunch emergence
➢ Bunch cover: covering bunches with dried leaves or perforated polythene sheet enhances the
fruit quality. Bunch covering is essential practice in Dwarf Cavendish and Silk group for
attractive fruits.
➢ Denavelling: Removal of male bud after completion of the female phase.
➢ Desuckering: Removal of surplus and unwanted suckers from banana plant. Two ways of desuckering: Pouring of Kerosene oil and damaging with crowbar, 2,4-D
➢ Desuckering is done at 3 times in a year
➢ Thrashing: Removal of old, dry & diseased parts of plant.
➢ Dehandling: Removal of false fingers of bunch.
❖ Climacteric fruit
❖ Spacing: Tallest varieties: 3m×3m
Dwarf varieties: 1.8m×1.8m
❖ Harvesting stage: 100-150 Days from flower emergence, disappearance of angles.
❖ Storage temperature 13 oCAnd 85-95% RH For 2-3 Weeks
❖ Varieties: Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Grand naine, Poovan, Champa, rasthali, Lady finger
❖ Nendran And Chipsona is suitable for chips.
❖ Lady finger (Resistant to bunchy top virus)
❖ Viral diseases of banana
❖ Banana Streak - Transmitted by citrus mealy bug –Planococcus citri
❖ Bacterial diseases
❖ Tip over or heart rot (Erwinia carotovora)
❖ Seen mostly in tissue cultured plants.
❖ Physiological disorders:
➢ Hard lump: pinkish brown, firm pulp than the usual soft pulp occurs in cv.Rasthali, tastes
like immature or unripe fruits..
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3. CITRUS
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Citrus: Citrus spp: Rutaceae: 2n-18
Cross Pollinated crop.
Inflorescence: cymose
Citrus is Micronutrient loving Plant
Citrus is a mesophyte tree
Study of cultivation of citrus: Citriculture
3rd most important fruit crop after Mango, Banana
Classification:
Acid group
Orange group
Acid lime: Citrus
aurantifolia
Rangpur lime: C.
limonia
Lemon: Citrus limon
Sweet orange: Citrus
sinensis
Sour orange: Citrus
aurantium
Multiple leaf orange:
C. multifolia
Mandarin group:
(loose jacket)
Coorg mandarin,
Nagpur
Santra and Kodai
orange: C. reticulata
Willow leaf
mandarin: C.
deliciosa
King mandarin: C.
nobilis
Kinnow mandarin:
King x willow leaf
Pummelo and
grapefruit group
Pummelo: C.
grandis
Grapefruit: C.
paradise
FOR LIME AND LEMON:
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pH: 6.5-7
Planting: Dec-Feb & June-Sep
Healthy Seedling may be planted during June-Dec.
Acid Lime is propagated by seeds due to polyembryony.
Lemons can be propagated by budding on trifoliate orange or Rangpur Lime (Citrus limonica)
Commonly used rootstocks:
➢ Rough Lemon: Trifoliate orange
➢ Rangpur Lime: Sour Lime
➢ Crop starts bearing from 3rd year after planting.
➢ Acid lime can be stored for 6-8 weeks at 8-10oC & 85 % RH.
➢ Lemons for 8-12 weeks at 7-8.5oC at 85-90 % RH.
➢ Yield: 25 t/ha/year.
MANDRIN ORANGE:
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❖ Temperature: 10-35oC
❖ pH- 5.5 to 6.5.
❖ Varieties and their Region:
Varieties
Khasi Orange
Coorg Orange
Desi
Kinnow
Nagpur Santra
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Region
Assam & Meghalya
Karnatka
Punjab & H.P.
Punjab
Nagpur (Mature in January-February)
Season: November – December
Spacing: (6×6) m
Planting during May-June & Sep- Oct
Kinnow HDP- (1.8×1.8) m
Commercially propagated by seeds.
Harvest: Starts bearing from 3-5 years after planting in budded plants.
In case of seedlings 5-6 years.
Yield: 15-20 t/ha/year.
A smll crop can be obtained from 4-year-old tree & yield will be higher from 7th year.
From flowering to maturity: 9 months
Storage: Stored for many months at 8-10oC & 85-90 % RH.
Under room temperature, they can be stored well for 3-4 weeks.
SWEET ORANGE:
❖ pH-6.6-7.5
❖ Varieties and their regions:
Varieties
Region
Mosambi
Maharashtra & Andhra Pradesh
Malta (Common)
Punjab & Haryana
Satgudi
Andhra Pradesh
Malta (Blood red)
Punjab
❖ Ideal season- July to September
❖ Propagation by budding and rootstocks used are Rangpur Lime and Rough Lemons.
❖ Spacing: (7×7) m
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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❖ Harvest: yield of crop starts bearing from 5th year after planting.
❖ Economic yield: upto 20 years after planting.
❖ Yield: 25-30 t/ha
GRAPEFRUIT:
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Origin: Malaysia
Monoembryonic spp.
Propagation- Air Layering
Other important varieties of citrus fruit:
➢ Citrus unshui: Satsuma Mandrin (Seedless)
➢ Ponkan
➢ Citrus nobilis (King Mandrin)
➢ Emperor
➢ Clementine (Monoembryonic)
➢ Kinnow (King× Willow Leaf)
➢ Dancy tangerine
❖ Rootstocks used in citrus:
➢ Rough Lemon: Resistant to tristeza
➢ Sour Orange
➢ Sour Lime
➢ Cleopatra mandarin
➢ Trifoliate orange
➢ Citranges: Resistant to citrus nematode
➢ Rangpur lime: tolerant to Phytophthora foot rot resistant to tristeza virus.
➢ Karna Khatta: Mostly cultivated in North India.
a) Mandarin: Citrus reticulate, known as santra orange and Fancyfruit.
❖ Mandarian are highly susceptible to: Water logging.
❖ Mandarin, sweet orange, acid lime, and grapefruit are highly polyembrynic.
❖ Spacing of lime, lemon, and sweet orange is 6m×6m.
❖ Kinnow (King Orange x Willow Leaf) Devloped in USA in 1935 and introduced in India
in 1959 In Panjab.
❖ Kinnow can be grown in HDP by using Troyer citrange as a rootstock by spacing the plants
at 1.8m×1.8m.
❖ Sweet orange: C. sinensis
❖ Rangpur lime is the best rootstock for mosambi.
❖ ‘T’ budding, or patch budding are most common methods for propagation of sweet
orange.
❖ Kagzi lime: C. aurantifolia known as Acid lime/Sour lime.
❖ Acid lime is commonly propagated by seeds
44
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Kagzi lime is the indicator plant for Tristeza
❖ Citrus canker is most serious disease of Acid lime.
❖ Kinnow mandarin, however, commercially successful in north Indian states like Punjab,
Haryana and Rajasthan (under subtropical climate with winter season)
❖ All citrus fruits are tree ripened (non-climacteric)
❖ TSS of most of the citrus groups: 8-12%
❖ Varieties of Kagzi lime(Acid lime): Pramalini(Tolerant to canker)
➢ Vikram(Offseason and bunch bearing habit)
➢ Chakradhar(Seedless variety)
➢ Sai sarbati(Tolerant to tristeza and canker)
➢ Balaji
❖ Varieties of sweet orange: Mosambi, Blood red malta, Hamlin, Jaffa, Valencia, Satgudi,
Pineapple, Shamouti
❖ From flowering to maturity, it takes 9 months.
❖ Storage: Green coloured fully ripe mandarins can be stored successfully at 8 -10º C with
85 – 90% RH
➢ Lime and lemons are stored at 10-12oC with 90-95% RH
4. GRAPES
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Botanical name: Vitis vinifera
Chromosome no.: 2n-38
Cross Pollinated crop
Origin: Caucasia-Asia minor
Study of wine/Cultivation of grapes is known as Viticulture
Science of wine making: Enology
Well – drained rich loamy soil with pH of 6.5-7.0.
Soil depth should be almost 1 m.
Aroma (Muscat Flavour) In grape due to Methylantranilate.
Skin Of berry is coverd with wax layer which is called cutin.
It is subtropical fruit crop but adopted to tropical conditions.
Summer temperature should not exceed 35°C for grapes cultivation.
Temperature range for flowering: 18-21°C.
Tartaric acid is commercially extracted from grapes.
Type of inflorescence Panicle.
Type of fruit: Berry
Type of parthenocarpy: Stermospermocarphy
Edible portion: Pericarp and placenta.
Leading raisin grape variety: Thompson seedless.
Propagation and rootstocks:
➢ Commercially propagation – Hardwood stem cutting
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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➢ Phylloxera resistant root stock: Vitis riparia, V. rupestris
➢ Nematode resistant root stock: Dogridge, Salt creek
➢ Saline tolerant : Solanis, 1616
Commercially used growth regulator for cutting : IBA @ 2000 in 10 seconds by Quick dip
method preferred.
Time of planting: North India- Feb to March
Time for cutting: October
Best grafting for rootstocks: Wedge grafting
Ready for harvest: 100-120 days after pruning.
Training: Bower system best for production of potential yield. (80 % in India)
Pruning:
Single Pruning: Mostlyin North India (Jan-Feb)
Double Pruning: Mostly in Maharashtra. Also called as back pruningor foundation pruning or
summer pruning.
Pruning in Sep.-Oct is called as Forward pruning or fruit pruning or winter pruning.
Girdling: Removal of ring bark from the trunk: increase the fruit set and fruit size.
Time of pruning in North India: December to January
Ideal TSS for processing grapes: 15 0 Brix
Ideal TSS for raisin grapes: 17° brix Brix
Export purpose: TSS more than 180 Brix
20-23°brix is the standard.
Grapes can economically be stored up to 40-45 days in cold storage. The optimum storage
temperature recommended is -2 to -1.5°C.
Fe deficiency of grapes is most common in Black soil.
Major nutrient deficiency in grapes growing area in the world: Mg
Arka Hans (White Wine) - Bangalore Blue x Anab-e-Shahi
Arka Neelmani (Red Wine)- Black Champha x Thompson seedless
Important varieties:
➢ Seedless varieties: Crimson seedless, Flame seed less, Thompson seedless, Perlette, Arka
vati, Arka Neelamani, Sonaka Seedless
➢ Seeded variety: Arka Kanchan, Arka shyam, Muscat, Red globe, Bangalore Blue, Anab-eShahi
➢ IARI Varieties: Pusa Urvashi, Pusa Navrang, Pusa Swarnika, Pusa Aditi, Pusa Trissar
➢ IIHR varieties: Arka Swaeta, Arka majesty, Arka chitra, Arka soma, Arka trishna, Arka
Krishna
Varieties of special purpose:
➢ Rasin grapes: Thompson seedless, Arkavati
➢ Wine grapes: Bangalore blue, Thompson seedless
➢ Coloured seeded: Banagalore blue, Gulabi
➢ Coloured seedless: Beauty seedless, shared seedless
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ White seeded: Anab-e-shahi, Dilkhush (Clone of Anab-e shahi)
➢ White seedless: Perlette, Pusa seedless, Thompson seedless.
❖ Varieties and their region:
Varieties
Anab-e-shahi
Bangalore Blue
Bhokri
Gulabi
Kali Sahebi
Perlette
Thompson seedless
Region
Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Karnatka
Karnatka
Tamilnadu
Tamilnadu
Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
Punjab, Haryana & Delhi
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu,
Karnatka
❖ Yield
➢ Seedless: 15 t/ha/yr
➢ Muscat: 30 t/ha/yr
➢ Anab-e-shahiand Arka hybrids: 20 t/ha/yr
❖ Storage Life:
➢ Anab-e-shahi: 40 days
➢ Muscat-45 days
➢ Thompson seedless- 30-60 days
❖ Storage life in room temperature-7 day
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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5. PAPAYA
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Botanical name: Carica papaya
Family: Caricaceae
Origin- Tropical America
Chromosome no.: 2n= 18
The edible fruits are found only in Carica papaya. C. candamarcensis known as 'mountain
papaya'
❖ Tropical fruit tree, mainly grown as a backyard tree.
❖ Introduced in India during 16th century.
❖ Soil and climate
➢ Papaya performs well in tropical climates where summer temperature ranges from 35 to
38oC.
➢ It cannot tolerate very hot summer or frost, this limits cultivation in Northern India.
➢ Dry warm climate tends to increase sweetness of the fruits.
❖ Tamil Nadu is an ideal home for growing papaya because of the mild temperatures and
freedom from mosaic and leaf curl virus diseases.
❖ Papaya is a highly cross-pollinated crop.
❖ Sensitive to frost, strong winds and highly susceptible to water logging or stagnation.
❖ Yellow fruit colour pigment of papaya: Due to presence of caricaxanthin.
❖ Latex is obtained from green papaya fruit.
❖ Enzyme present in dry latex of papaya (Papain)- Pepsin
❖ Papain can be also dried artificiaIly at temperature of 50 to 55°c which will attain better colour
and quality.
❖ Optimum temperature for:
➢ Papaya cultivation: 30-35oC
➢ Seed germination: 300C
➢ Vegetative growth: 21-330C
➢ High temperature (>350C) leads to female sterility.
❖ Type of fruit: Large fleshy berry.
❖ Type of inflorescence: Axillary panicles
❖ Papaya seed is enclosed with gelatinous layer: Sarcotesta.
❖ Commercially propagated by Seeds
❖ Seed rate – 500 g/ha.
❖ Gynodioecious variety: 400-500 gm/ha.
❖ Dioecious variety: 250-300 gm/ha.
❖ Two seeds in gynodioecious type or 5 to 6 seeds in dioecious type' should be sown per poly
bag.
❖ In dioecious varieties: 1:15-20 (male: female).
❖ At low temperature perfect flowers on the male tree.
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Spacing: 1.8×1.8 m and Pits of 45cm x 45cm x 45cm size
High density planting (HDP): 1.2 m×1.2 m (6400 plants/ha): Suitable variety : Pusa Nanha.
Spacing for papain production: 1.6m×1.6m
Best time for planting: Beginning of the South- West monsoon in most parts of India.
In south India, June to October and January to March are suitable for planting.
Planting time:
➢ Spring: Feb- March
➢ Monsoon: June- July (Best time)
➢ Autumn: Oct- Nov
Irrigation: Water stagnation should be avoided. In most parts of India, papaya are irrigated
once in 8 or 10 days.
K is required for TSS content of latex and the enzyme activity.
Best storage of seeds at 10oC (Best for retention of seed viability)
Growth regulators: GA (50 ppm), ethrel (200ppm) SADH (250ppm) and phosphon - D
(2500ppm) increase the femaleness in dioecious types.
Milky latex obtained from 70-90 days old mature fruits.
Transgenic variety: Sunup and Rainbow, Hawaii
Gynodioecious cultivars: Solo, Sunrise solo, Taiwan (blood red coloured), Thailand,
Waimanalo, Pusa delicious, Pusa majesty, Coorg honey dew,
Dioecious varieties: Pusa giant, Pusa dwarf, Co-5, Pant C-1, Betty, Hatras gold, Pusa nanha.
Surya: Sunrise Solo × Pink flesh Sweet
High carotene content: Sunrise Solo
Suitable for papain production: Pusa Majesty
Highest papain variety: CO-5
The world first transgenic papaya variety: SunUp
First transgenic commercially variety: Rainbow
Harvesting and yield: First crop available in 12-14 months from the time of planting.
Papaya gives economic crop upto 2 years and thereafter it declines drastically.
Fruits can be stored for a period of 1-3 weeks at a temperature of 10-13oC & 85-90 % RH.
High humidity: 80-85 % and temperature 24-26oC promote powdery mildew.
6. GUAVA
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Apple of tropics/Poor man’s apple
Botanical name: Psidium guajava
Origin- Peru
Family: Myrtaceae
Introduced by Portuguese 17th century in India.
It is a self-pollinated crop.
PH ranging from 4.5 to 7.5
Optimum temperature -23-28oC
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Most suitable fruit crop for Jelly making due to presence of high pectin content.
Highly sensitive to water logging and frost.
Trees are resistance to drought.
Type of fruit: Multiple seeded berry
Type of inflorescence: Cyme
Highly cross-pollinated crop (Honeybees)
Method of propagation: Stooling
Commercially propagated method: Inarch grafting
When propagated through seeds, starts bearing from 4-5 years and from vegetative method it
takes 2-3 years.
Recently CISH, Lucknow recommended wedge grafting suitable for rapid multiplication.
Best time of planting: June to July
Planting: spacing of 5m x 5m.
Preferable training system: Open center
Guava yields thrice in a year viz., rainy, Winter and summer
Guava flowers twice a year, first in April-May for rainy season crop and then in August –
September for winter season crop, In South India, there is a third crop with flowers appearing
in October.
Bahar Treatment:
Bahar
Water stress
Flowereing
Fruiting
Ambe Bahar (Feb)
December-Jan
Feb-March
July- Aug
Hast Bahar (Oct)
August- September
Oct- Nov
March- April
Mrig Bahar (June)
3 weeks of April
June- July
Nov.- Dec
❖ Preferred bahar season:
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South India- Ambe bahar
North India- Mrig bahar
Mrig bahar: Most preferred (winter crop) because fruits highly superior in quality.
Crop Regulation- Practice of Taking winter crop instead of rainy season crop (To escape the
attack of Fruit Fly)
Harvesting: Time required from flowering to fruit maturity: 130-150 days.
Harvesting stage: Green firm stage
For long time: Half mature fruit
Yield: 800 number of fruits weighing 20-25 kg may be obtained from guava.
Average yield: 9t/ha
10-year-old plant yields: 1000-1500 fruits/year.
Storage: Mature green & partially ripe guavas are stored at 8-10oC for 2-3 weeks
Fully ripe guavas- 5-8oC for 1 week at 90-95 % RH
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Varieties:
➢ Hybrid-45- Allahabad Safeda x Sardar
➢ Behat Coconut – Seedless Variety
➢ Arka Mridula- Soft seeded Dwarf Var,
➢ Pant Prabhat, Harijha (Popular in Bihar),
➢ Allahabad Safeda (Most popular in Allahabad UP)
➢ Allahabad Surkha (Pink flesh and large fruited variety
➢ Chittidar (Highest TSS guava variety (Small red dot presence in skin
➢ Lucknow-49 known as Sardar
➢ Arka kiran, Arka Rashmi (Both are pink flesh)
➢ Apple color (Red skinned variety)
➢ Lalit (Red color pulp)
➢ Hafsi (Red flesh)
7. LITCHI
❖ Queen of subtropical fruit/Fruit of high commerce
❖ Botanical name: Litchi chinensis
❖ Family: Sapindaceae
❖ Chromosome no.: 2n=30
❖ Origin: South China
❖ Introduce to India during 18th century period.
❖ Climatic and soil requirements
➢ A warm subtropical climate is ideal for the growth and flowering in litchi.
➢ The winter should be cool as well as dry and devoid of frost (minimum temperature 150C).
➢ For flowering – 16-22o C with light rainfall.
➢ For fruit set - 18-24o C with medium humidity.
➢ During harvest - 24-28o C with bright sunlight and high relative humidity.
➢ During new flush, 28-30o C with high RH and heavy rainfall.
❖ The soil pH should be around 5.5.
❖ Major acid present in the fruits is malic acid.
❖ Largest producer of litchi in the world: China
❖ Red colour skin of fruits is due to anthocyanin.
❖ Starts bearing 6th year onwards.
❖ Type of inflorescence: Branched panicle
❖ Flower are petalless.
❖ Type of fruit: One seeded nut.
❖ Edible portion: Aril
❖ Seedlessness is due to stimulative parthenocarpy.
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❖ Commercially propagated by air layering or gootee or marcottage (July to September) from
1 year old shoots.
❖ Girdling done to control the timing of flushes to start when temperatures are ideal for flowering.
❖ Harvesting time: May to June
❖ Highly perishable fruit.
❖ Post-harvest losses in litchi production about 20-25%
❖ Non-climacteric fruit.
❖ Swarna roopa (Seedless)- Highest resistant to fruit cracking 1st variety developed in India
❖ Regular bearer varieties: Shahi, Rose Scented & Dehradun
❖ Alternate bearing: China
❖ Fruit bunch bearing clone: Shahi
❖ Flowering, harvest and yield:
➢ Litchi trees vegetatively propagated come to flower at the age of 3 –5 years.
➢ Fruits are harvested as bunches, precooled and then stored at 0oC to 1oC.
8. APPLE
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Botanical name: Malus domestica
Family: Rosaceae
Cidar- Fermented wine prepared from apple
Start Bearing from 8yr And the Economic life 30 yr
Chromosome no.: 2n=34
Origin: Southwestern Asia
King of temperate fruit/Symbol of health/Premier fruit
of the world.
It requires 1000 hours of uninterrupted chilling below 7oC.
A well drained, slightly acidic (pH 6.5 – 6.7)
Most widely grown temperate fruit in the world.
Dry temperate region is most suitable for apple cultivation.
Warm days with 12-15 o C and cool night with 7 – 8o C is favorable for production of quality
fruits in large quantities.
Apple bowl in India: Himachal Pradesh
Ideal temperature for growing season is around 21-240C
Tempreture for pollen germination and Fruit setting- 21.1-26.7 C
Among the fruits Apple have long storage Life.
Type of fruit: Pome
Edible portion: Fleshy thalamus(mesocarp)
Varieties: Red Delicious, Golden Delicious, Mclntosh, Lal Ambri
Dwarfing Rootstocks: M9, M27, M4, M26, MM-106
Tongue grafting is the ideal method of grafting scion cultivar on the root stock
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Common method of propagation of clonal rootstock of apple: Stooling or mound layering.
Most critical period of water requirement in apple: April to august
Most common method of planting system: Square system
Major problem: Alternate bearing
Apple is climacteric fruit.
Storage temperature: -1.1 to 00c, 85-90% RH, Storage period: 4-8 month
Harvesting Time- Sep- Dec
Red delicious is most popular variety in India.
Ambri: Longest shelf life and indigenous variety of India
Harvest and yield
➢ Fruit matures within 130-150 days- after full bloom stage.
➢ Fully mature when start developing color can be harvested. The normal yield ranges from 100
– 150 tonnes/ ha in medium density planting.
9. BER
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Botanical name: Zyzyphus mauritiana
Family: Rhamnaceae
Chromosome no.: 2n=48
Origin: India or Indochina
Hardy salt tolerant fruit
Ideal tree for arid and semi-arid culture.
❖ Climatic and soil requirements:
➢ India ber- tropical and subtropical regions
➢ Chinese ber-temperate region.
➢ It can tolerate a high temperature of even 40 oC. It can be grown in an extreme moisture stress.
➢ In alkaline soils with high PH (even upto 9.5) and sodic soil.
➢ It tolerates salinity even to an extent of 21m.mhos per cm. Z.jujuba can be used even for
biological reclamation of saline soils.
❖ Flower colour: Greenish to yellow.
❖ Seed dormancy due to hard endocarp.
❖ Commercially propagated: T or shield budding.
❖ Best time of planting: July to September
❖ Type of training system: Modified leader system
❖ Pruning time for north Indian condition: Mid to end of may
❖ June to august is the best period for budding for getting maximum bud-take
❖ Spacing for HDP: 5m*5m
➢ Low rainfall- 6x6 m
➢ High rainfall- 8x8 m
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Flowering time: Sept. to Nov.
Non-climacteric fruit
Varieties: Gola, Seb , Kaithali, Mehrun, Darakhi, Banarasi, Dandan, Elachi,
Gola: Early variety(Tolerant to Saline soil)
Mid-season: Kaithali, Mundia
Late variety: Umaran
Katta Paul: Apple’ variety-fruit resembles in shape and colour with apple.
The tree is a host plant for rearing lac insect (Tachardia laccad). Lac insect rearing helps in the
production of lac. The powder of ber roots has very many medicinal properties such as cure for
ulcer, fever and wounds. The stem bark powder is a remedy for diarrhea.
Normal harvesting: Oct-Nov
Harvesting in North india: Dec- April
Average yield of 10-20-year-old tree- 100-200 kg/year
Storage at 3oC, 85-90 % RH for 30-40 days.
10. AONLA
❖ Fruit of the 21st century /Indian Goose Berry/ Amritphal fruit
❖ Botanical name: Emblica officinalis
❖ Family: Euphorbiaceae
❖ 2n=28
❖ Origin: Central to southern India
❖ Climate and soil requirements:
➢ A subtropical fruit can thrive very well in tropical humid conditions also.
➢ If young plants are protected from both extremes of temperature, the mature trees can tolerate
right from freezing (00C) to as high as 460C.
➢ In a well-drained loamy soil, the amla trees grow faster
➢ They also fairly tolerate alkalinity in soils (pH 8.5) and irrigation water.
❖ Type of fruit: capsule
❖ Type of inflorescence: Racemose
❖ Edible portion: Mesocarp & Endocarp
❖ Propagation by patch budding in north India
❖ Training System use Modified central leader system
❖ Budding time: Mid May to mid-August
❖ Planting time: February to march
Varities
Banarasi
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Specific feature
Early maturity, Shy bearing, Prone to
heavy dropping of fruits, Best For
Murramba
Krishna(NA-5)
Balwant(NA-10)
Fransis(Hanthi Jhool)
Kanchan(NA-4)
NA-6
Chakiya
Big fruited variety
Fruits skin yellowish with pink tinge
Highly susceptible to necrosis TSS of
120brix
Regular bearing, Preferred for pulp
extraction industries
Best for candy
Alternate bearer, Ideal for making pickles
❖ Flowering to fruiting: 8 months
❖ Irrigation during April-June one in 15 days will help to encourage fruit set and prevent fruit
drop. Annual water requirement of 777.6 liters per tree.
❖ Harvesting time: December to Jan
❖ Economic yield starts at 4-5 year after planting.
❖ Harvest and yield:
➢ Grafted or budded plants -from 5th year or 6th year.
➢ Average yield -150 kg/tree/year.
11. POMEGRANATE
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Fruit of paradise/National fruit of Iran
Botanical name: Punica granatum
Family: Punicaceae
Origin: Southwest Asia (Iran)
Pomegranate yields the best quality fruits in areas of cool winter and hot dry summer.
For proper fruit development and maturity and sweetness, a temperature of 35 – 38 oC is
needed.
❖ Pomogranate juice is usefull for Leprosy Disease
❖ Red colour in aril and skin due to presence of Anthocyanin.
❖ National Research center for Pomegranate is located at Solapur, Maharashtra.
❖ Pomegranate taste is due to Citric acid
❖ Fruit type: Balusta (Fleshy berry)
❖ Type of Inflorescence: Hyphanthodium
❖ Common method of propagation: cutting or Air layering
❖ Ideal Time for Planting – July – Aug
❖ Multistem training system is followed in India
❖ Wild type Anar is known as Daru
❖ Three distinct flowering season➢ Ambe Bahar: January to February flowering & June- August Harvesting (Most common
favoured by farmers, practised in high rainfall and humid areas.)
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➢ Mrig Bahar: June to July flowering and nov-jan Harvesting (Preferred in dry Areas)
➢ Hasth Bahar: Sept. to Oct. flowering and Feb. to April harvesting (Preferred for Export
purpose)
❖ Non climacteric fruit
❖ Fruit ready for harvest : 120-130 days After fruit set
❖ Harvesting stage: Colour change to Yellowish red.
❖ The fruits are ready for harvest in about 5-7 months after the appearance of blossoms.
❖ During 4th year the tree bears25-30 fruits
❖ After 10th year tree bears 150-200 fruits per year.
❖ Cultivars and varieties :
➢ Hard seeded types :
✓ Kandhari
✓ Musker Red
✓ Alandi or Vadki
✓ Kabul
➢ Soft seeded types:
✓ Dholka: It is the commercial variety of Gujarat.
✓ Paper Shell
✓ Spanish Ruby
✓ Ganesh - Selection from Alandi, Very soft seeded, well known as cultivar.
✓ CO-1: It is a selection developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
with purple aril and soft seeds.
✓ Miridula : Fruit weight about 250 g juice sweet, TSS 16.32%, acidity 0.47%. Seeds softer
than Ganesh.
✓ Ruby: A multiple cross hybrid developed at IIHR, for aril colour and seed mellowness.
Ganesh x Kabul
✓ Amlidana : It is an F1 hybrid (Ganesh x Nana)
❖ Other varities
➢ Bhagwa(Kesar): Leading variety in Maharashtra, Also known as Sinduri, Mastani, Jai
Maharashtra
➢ Jyoti: Grow in Gujrat
➢ Phule arkata, Goma Khatta, Hyti, Muscat
➢ Wonderfull – Origin from USA Avg. Fruit Size -700 gm
➢ Solapur Lal: Biofortified variety (High Fe & Zn)
❖ Storage:
➢ At 0oC, 80-85% RH for 2 months
➢ At 5oC, 90-95 % RH for 2 months
➢ Internal Break down/Blackenning of arils: Disintegration of arils in matured fruits is
serious malady
➢ Fruit cracking of pomegranate is due of deficiency of
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✓ Calcium, boron and potash
✓ Soil moisture imbalance
✓ Sudden fluctuation of day and night temperature
12. Datepalm (Century Plant)
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Botanical name: Phoenix dactylifera
Origin- Iraq And Egypt
Family: Palmae
Monocotyledons, unbranched stem tree
Dioecious fruit crop
Fermented Product- Arrack
Drink of Datepalm- Debbis
Date palm tolerate high soil salinity.
Ideal mean temperature for flowering and ripening
of fruits: 25-290c.
Type of Inflorescence: spadix
Type of Fruit: Drupe
Type of pollination: Highly cross pollination
Male: Female- 2-3:100
Commercially propagation: Seeds, Offshoots
Wt. of Matured Offshoots 25-35 kg
❖ Spacing:
➢ Commercially spacing of 6 to 8 metre is adopted.
➢ In India a spacing of 3–4 metre is adopted.
❖ Metaxenia is a common problem in Datepalm.
❖ In India date harvested at Doka Stage (70-80% moisture).
❖ Soft dates harvested at pind stage
❖ For fresh eating dates are harvested or preferred at dang (Translucent and starts softening)
stage.
❖ For fresh consumption dates are harvested at peak of Doka (Colour turns green to yellow) stage
❖ For storage purpose dates are harvested at tamar or pind (Attain full mature) stage.
❖ Varities-Halawy (Most popular variety in India) and Khunezi.
❖ Semi-dry: Dayari, Thoory.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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❖ Processing:
➢ The fruits have to be harvested at doka stage during June – August.
➢ The fruits harvested at doka stage have to be dipped in boiling water for 5 minutes followed
by dehydration in electric oven at 500C for 160 hours or in solar drier to obtain best quality
‘Chhuhara’ which is the commercial date or produce of commerce.
➢ Doka fruits are useful for processing of Chhuhara (recovery would be 33 – 35%.)
❖ The different stages of development of fruit are as follows:
Name
Arabic name
Gandara Chimiri
Doka
Khalal
Dang
Rutab
Pind
Tamer
Stage
4-13 Weeks after
pollination
13-17 weeks after
pollination
17-21 weeks after
pollination
21-22 weeks after
pollination
Fruit quality
Hard, Green Colour
Hard, yellow, pink or red may
be sweet or astringent, Edible
stage.
Fruits soften at tip, edible
stage.
Fully ripe 60-84% TSS,
edible stage.
13. PINEAPPLE
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BN: Ananas comosus
Varieties: Kew, Mauritius and Queen
Recently State Fruit of Tripura.
Soil and Climate:
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Mild tropical climate is best suited.
Can be grown in plains under shade.
Soil pH 5.5 to 7.0 is preferable
Optimum temperature is from 15oC to 32oC.
High temperature over 35oC is unfavourable
for development.
Exposure of pineapple to temperature < 7oC results in chilling injury.
❖ Planting: Use suckers and slips of 300-350 g weight for planting.
❖ Season: July – September
❖ Propagation:
➢ Main propagated materials; crown, slips, suckers
➢ Crowns (fruit tops) produces fruits at after 18-24 months
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➢ Slips (shoots borne on vestigial fruits at the base of the fruit), produces fruits at after 15-20
months.
➢ Suckers (shoots borne at any position on the stem) produces fruits at after 12-17 months
➢ Ideal plant material: slips (350 g) and sucker (450 g)
➢ Best planting material: slips (300-450 g)
❖ After cultivation: To increase the size of the fruit, 200-300 ppm NAA should be sprayed
after fruit formation.
❖ Crop duration: 18-24 months
❖ Yield: 50 t/ha
➢ A plant crop and two ratoon crops are normally taken and in Mauritius variety up to five
crops can be taken.
➢ For long distance transportation, fruits are held at 7oC for 10-20 days.
❖ Storage:
➢ In tropical areas, partially ripe, healthy and undamaged pineapple could be stored for almost
20 days when refrigerated at 10-13oC, with RH 85-90 %.
➢ Fruits harvested in early stage of ripening are stored at 7-10oC.
❖ Disorders:
➢ Multiple crowns: In variety kew
➢ Fruit and crown fascination: Ca or Zinc deficiency or high fertility of soil.
14. JACK FRUIT
❖ BN-Artocarpus heterophyllus
❖ Recently declared as State fruit of Kerela
❖ Edible portion: The fleshy carpel (which is botanically the perianth) .
❖ Hundred-gram edible portion contains (88 Kcal of energy)
❖ The timber is valuable in construction and furnishing.
❖ Climatic and soil requirements:
➢ Jack grows well and gives food yield in warm humid climate.
➢ Temperature-22-35o C will be ideal.
➢ It cannot tolerate frost as well as drought.
PH 6.0 – 6.5 and perfect drainage is ideal.
❖ Propagation and planting:
➢ Commercially inarching on 10 months old jack seedlings is done to produce vegetative
progenies.
➢ Rudrakshi and A. hirsute are also used as rootstocks.
➢ Training: Jacks are trained to single stem, for a height of 1.5 – 2 M and then scaffold branches
should be permitted to arise.
➢ The male inflorescence (catkins) is seen in the current season growth while female catkins
are produced as cauliflorus (on trunk and main scaffold).
❖ Harvest and yield:
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Normally jack starts producing fruits from 7th – 8 th year onwards.
Grafted plants can start yield from 4th to 5th year itself.
Normally the fruits will be available from March to June.
Even in plains certain genotypes bear an off-season crop during October – December.
The yield ranges from 20 to 100 fruits/tree.
The fruit weight varies from 10 to 30 kg.
15. SAPOTA
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Botanical name: Manilkhara achras
Climate and soil requirement: Tropical fruit.
It prefers dry and humid areas. Coastal climate is the best suited. It is a hardy tree.
Optimum temperature-11°C and 34°C.
Propagation: Grafted plants on Manilkhara hexandra (Pala) root stock.
Commericial Propagation: Inarching/ Approach grafting
Season of planting-June to December.
Spacing: 8 x 8 m.
High density planting 8 x 4 m
Harvest: Mature fruits are dull brown in colour. Dried spines like stigma at the tip of fruit falls
off easily when touched.
❖ Yield: 20-25 t/ha/year
❖ Yield starts from 3 rd year of planting.
16. JAMUN
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BN: Syzygium cumini
Family: Myrtaceae.
It is a evergreen tree of tropical and subtropical regions.
Origin: India or East Indies.
Hardy fruit. It is drought tolerant.
Flowering and fruiting: The flowering start in first week of March and continues upto April
end.
The pollination is done by honeybee, houseflies and wind.
Harvest and yield: The seedling trees start bearing after 10 years, while the vegetatively
propagated progenies come to bearing in 5- 6 years.
However, if necessary they can be stored for 3 weeks at 9oC and 85 – 90% RH.
They yield ranges from 70 – 100 kg /tree/ year.
17. MANGOSTEEN
❖ BN: Garcinia mangostana
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Mangosteen is queen of fruits
Large tree growing up to 10-15 m.
It is considered as the finest fruit of the world.
Native to Malay Archipelago and Moluccas islands.
Fleshy soft, well-developed aril is the edible portion
Propagation:
➢ Vegetative propagation: Air-layering, grafting or budding
➢ Plants are planted at 10 m x 10 m spacing.
❖ Harvest and yield:
➢ Harvested at 90 days after full bloom when they are completely mature but still green.
➢ Starts bearing in 7 years.
➢ 2 crops (August – October (main crop) and April-June)
➢ A 20 years old tree will yield 23-25 kg.
❖ Physiological disorders
➢ Gamboge and fruit splitting
➢ Heavy and continuous rains during fruit ripening favour gambodge and fruit splitting in
certain locations
18. PEAR
❖ Climatic and soil requirements:
➢ Temperature –26oC (in dormancy) and as high as 45oC (in growing period).
➢ A neutral pH range of 6.0-7.5 will be ideal.
➢ Requires chilling hours below 7oC for 1200 hours during winter.
❖ Harvest, yield and storage:
➢ Fully mature fruits are harvested while still firm and green for distant market.
➢ From a well-maintained orchard and yield of 30 – 40 tonnes/ha/year can be expected.
19. PLUMS AND PRUNES
❖ Prune: Plum with high sugar content.
➢ Wine and brandy from varieties of high sugar and sorbitol
➢ Seed oil -40-50%.
❖ Climate:
➢ Japanese plum – sensitive to frost (spring flowering) if no spring frost – good.
❖ Origin
➢ European plum – Europe
➢ Japanese plum - China
➢ Cherry plum
- Europe, West Asia
➢ American plum - N. America
➢ Modified leader – more common in India.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
61
❖ Harvest
➢ Total economic life span 25-35 years.
➢ Maturity indices: TSS – 12.5°B for European plum
20. PEACH AND NECTARINES
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
Soil: Ideal pH – 5.8 to 6.8.
Yield: 7-10 tonnes/ha
Precooling + 0°C storage with 85-90% RH 28-36 days storage.
Chilling hours at 7.2oC.
Temperatutre less than 2-3oC does not break dormancy
DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Name of disease
Casual
organism
Scientific name
Remark
1. MANGO
i). Powdery mildew
Fungus
Oidium mangiferae
Loss upto 30-90%
ii). Anthracnose
Fungus
-
iii). Canker
Bacteria
Colletorichum
gloesporoides
Xanthomonas competris
pv. mangiferae
iv). Rust
2. BANANA
i). Panama wilt
Algal
Cephaleoros mycoides
-
Fungus
(Acidic soil)
Fusarium oxysporum pvcubensis
Soil borne fungus
(Basrai dwarl Immune,
Pooyan-Resistant)
ii). Sigatoka leaf spot
Fungus
Cercopora musicola
(Asexual)
iii). Bunchy top
Virus
iv). Moko disease
Bacteria
v). Tipover/ Heart Rot Bacteria
Transmitted through
aphids
Pseudomonas
solanacearum
Erwinia crotovora
AAA clonessusceptiable
ABB clones- Resistant
Resistant variety
virupakshi
Vector-insect.
3. CITRUS
i). Gummosis
Phytophthora spp.
62
Fungus
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
-
Seen in tissue cultured
plants.
-
ii). Bacterial Cankar
Bacteria
Xanthomonas campestris
pv. citri
iii). Triestiza
Virus
(Acid lime indicator
plant)
iv). Greening
MLO’s
v). Exocortis
Viroids
vi). Xyloporosis
4. GUAVA
i). Guava canker
Rang pur lime and citronindicator
Bud wood transmission
Transmitted by leaf
miner Resistant varietyTenali
Transmitted by aphids
Transmitted by citrus
psylla.
-
Fungus
Pestaloyiopsis psidii
-
Fungus
(Alkanine
soil)
Fusarium oxysporum pv.
psidi
-
5. GRAPE
i). Downy mildew
ii). Powdery mildew
Fungus
Fungus
Major disease
-
iii). Pierce’s disease
Fungus
Plasmopora viticola
Uncinula necator/
Erisiphe necator
Xyllela fastidiosa
Fungus
Cerotolium fici
-
Virus
Transmitted thorugh lace/
mealy bug
-
Fungus
Virus
Virus
Pythium aphanidermatum Transmitted by Aphids
Mottling of leaves
Trnasmitted by white fly. -
Fungus
Ravenelia emblica
-
Fungus
Oidium jujube var indica
-
Fungus
Phleopheospora indica
-
Fungus
Cercospora pinicae
-
ii). Guava wilt
6. FIG
Fig rust
7. PINEAPPLE
Wilt
8. PAPAYA
i). Damping off
ii). Ring Spot
iii). Leaf Curl
9. AONLA
Ring rust
10. BER
Powdery mildew
11. SAPOTA
Leaf spot
12. POMEGRANATE
Leaf spot
13. BANANA
Resistant rootstocktemple
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
63
i). Streak Virus
Virus
ii). Bract mosaic
Virus
Transmitted by citrus
mealy bugs
Transmitted by aphids
iii). Kokkan disease
14. APPLE
i) Crown gall
BM Virus
-
Nendran-highly
susceptible
-
Bacteria
ii). Fire blight
iii). Apple scab
15. PEACH
i). Peach leaf curl
ii). Bacterial gummosis
Bacteria
Fungus
Agrobacterium
tumefaciens
Erwinia amylovera
Venturia subineqalis
-
Fungus
Bacteria
Taphrina deformens
Pseudomonas-spp.
iii). Wisker’s rot
16. PEAR
Pear decline
Fungus
Rhizopus stolonifer
MLO’s
Transmitted by pear
psylla
-
17. COCONUT
i). Root wilt
MLO’s
Transmitted by lace bug
-
ii). Basal end rot
Fungus
Ganoderma lucidum
-
Fungus
-
Fungus
Pytopthora palmivora
Vector-spindle bug
Gonaderma lucidum
Fungus
Hemelia vestratrix
Introduced from
Srilanka Resistant
variety- Coffee liberica
Fungus
Pellicularia 64almon
color
-
18. ARECANUT
i). Mahali or koleroga
or Fruit Rot
ii). Bud rot or Anab-aroga
19. COFFEE
Leaf rust
20. CASHEW
Dieback or pink
disease
PEST MANAGEMENT
64
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Planococcus citri
Nacked asci present
Mashobra paste is
applied
-
-
Pest
Scientific name
Nature of damage
Remark
1. MANGO
i) Hoppers
Amritodus atkinsoni
Nymph and adult,
most serious pest of
North & East India
Nymph and adult,
most serious pest of
North & East India
-
ii). Stem borer
Batocera
rufomaculata
iii). Fruit fly
Dacus dorsalis
iv). Stone weevil
Sternochetus
mangiferae
v). Mealy burg
Drosicha mangiferae
2. BANANA
i) Rhizome weevil
Vapour heat
treatment
Vapour heat
treatment
Use of irradiations
Alphonso
susceptible
Tillage
Cosmopolites
sordidus
Pentalonia
nigronervosa
Fruits become
undersized
Vector of Bunchy top virus
3. CITRUS
i) Psylla
Diaphorina citri
-
ii). Leaf minor
Phyllocnistis citrella
iii). Aphids
Toxoptera auranii
iv). Lemon butterfly
Papilio demoleus
Vector of greening
disease
Vector of citrus
cankar
Vector of tristiza
disease.
-
Quadraspidious
perniciosus
-
Introduced in India
in 1906 from France
Notorious pest
ii). Wooly Apple
Aphids
5. GUAVA
i). Sytriped mealy bug
Eriosoma lanigerum
Infestation period
Aug-oct
Serious pest
Ferrisia virgate
ii). Fruit fly
Bactrocera dorsalis
Serious pest in South India
Infested fruit rot and fall
ii). Aphids
4. APPLE
i). San Jose scale
Bagging
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
65
iii). Green shield scale
Chloropulvinaria
psidii
-
-
Adoretus
lasiophagus
Rhipiphorothrips
cruentatus
-
-
-
-
Pseudococus
breviceps
Vector for pineapple
wilt disease
-
8. PAPAYA
Aphids
Aphis gossypii
Transmit mosaic
virus
-
9. POMEGRANATE
i). Anar butterfly
Virachola isocrates
Major pest
Covering fruit with
butter paper
Aceria litchi
-
-
6. GRAPE
i). Defoliating beetles
ii). Thrips
7. PINEAPPLE
Mealy/ lace bug
10. LITHCHI
Litchi mite
11. BER
i). Fruit fly
ii). Fruit borer
12. AONLA
i). Shoot gall maker
ii). Bark eating
caterpillar
13. JACK FRUIT
Shoot and fruit borer
14. PEACH
Leaf curl aphid
15. COCONUT
i). Rhinocerous beette
66
Carpomya vesuviana Damage upto 80% in Resistant variety
North India
Mehrun, Katha,
Tikadi, Dodhia
Meridarchis
Major pest in South Resistant variety
scyrodes
India
Gola, Kadaka
Pewandi
Betanosa styloffera
Gall formation
Indarbela
quadrinotata
Damage upto 80%
All varities
susceptible
-
Diaphania caesalis
Major pest
-
Brachycaudus
helichtysi
-
-
Oryctes rhinoceros
Fan like appearance
of leaves larval
parasitis- bracon
bremic orynae
-
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
ii). Red palm weevil
Iii) Black headed
caterpiller
iv). Eryophide
16. CASHEW
i) Tea mosquito bug
ii). Leaf minor
17. COFFEE
i). White stem borer
ii). Coffee cherry borer
Rhynchophorus
ferrugineus
Opisinia arenosella
-
Monophagous pest
-
-
Helopeltis antonii
-
-
Conopomorpha
syngramma
-
-
Xylotrechus
quadripes
Hypothenemus
hampei
Serious pest of
Arabia coffee
-
-
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Name of disorder
Cause
Control
measure/remarks
Borax spray (0-6%)
iii). Spongy tissue
Due to smoke of brick kilns+
deficiency of B.
Due to low temperature
Bombay green-highly susceptible
Due to heat convection
iv). Alternate bearing
Alphonso is highly susceptible
v). Jhumka (clustering)
-
vi). Leaf scorch
Low temperature in Feb- march +
Improper pollination & fertilization
Chloride toxicity, Deficiency K
vii). Internal necrosis
B. deficiency
viii). Jelly seed
-
ix). Taper tip
x). Girdle necrosis
-
Highly susceptibleDashehari Free-Neelam,
langra
Highly susceptible variety
Tomy atkins
Deshehari is susceptible
1. MANGO
i) Black tip
ii). Malformation
Resistant vars-Bahaduran,
Illaichi, Mangeera, Aliff.
Resistant variety: Rtan,
Arka Aruna, Arka Puneet,
Arka Anmol major
problem in Alhonso
-
-
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
67
xi). Softnose
2. BANANA
i). Neer vazhai
(water banana)
ii). Kotta vazhai
(seed banana)
iii). Hard Lump
iii). Improper bunch
filling
3. CITRUS
i). Granulation
ii). Leaf mottling/
Frenching
iii). Exanthema/
Ammoniation or
dieback
iv). Yellow leaf of citrus
4. GUAVA
i). Bronzing
5. GRAPE
i). Hen & Chicken
disease
ii). Millerandage in
Grape
iii). Berry or Blossom
drop in Grape
iv). Coulure & shot
berries
v) Calyx end rot
vi) Pink berry formation
vii). Uneven ripening
6. LITCHI
i). Little leaf + leaf
bronzing
ii). Fruit cracking
7. AONLA
Fruit Necrosis
68
Excess of Ca and N2 deficiency
-
-
Nendran-susceptible
-
Poovan-susceptible
Deficiency of K
Cultivar rasthali
-
fluctuation in temperature & high RH Spray of lime
during ripening
Zn deficiency
Cu deficiency
-
Mo deficiency
-
Zn deficiency
L-49 is more tolerant than
Aallahabad Safeda
Bo deficiency
-
Bo deficiency
-
Improper pollination & fertilization
-
Bo deficiency, Improper pollination
-
Ca deficiency
High temperature
Common in Thomson
seedless and its clone
Application of Ethephon
(250 PPM)
Gulabi, Bangalore blue, susceptible
Zn deficiency
-
Excessive water + high temperature
-
Bo deficiency
-
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
8. POMEGRANATE
i) Fruit cracking
Bo deficiency + moisture imbalance
more in Mrig bahar
Tolerant varieties :
Khandari, Alandi, Bedana
Bosee
Ca deficiency
-
-
-
Bo deficiency
Ca deficiency
Cu deficiency
Zn deficiency
Mg deficiency
Water deficiency
-
viii). Scald
ix). Internal browning
Improper pollination and
fertilization.
Storage at high temperature
-
x). Storage breakdown
-
xi). Jonathan spot
12. PEAR
i). Black end
ii). Pear scald
Water Deficiency
Susceptible variety:yellow
newton
Susceptible variety:
Golden delicious, yellow
newton
-
Water Deficiency
Prolong handling of fruit in storage
Susceptible: Conference
Due to high temperature
-
-
Heavy rainfall
Yellow exudation of gun
on fruits
Genetics/ Nutritional factor
Susceptible variety Kew
Exposure of fruit to sun rays
-
Lack of fruit colour during ripening
-
9. PERSIMMON
Calyx end rot
10. AVOCADO
Dry neck
11. APPLE
i). Water core
ii). Bitter pit+ cracking
iii). Wither tip
iv). Rossette leaves
v). Interveinal choloris
vi). Endoxerosis
(June drop)
vii). Early drop
13. APRICOT
i). Tip burning
ii). Apolexy
14. MANGOSTEEN
Gamboge
15. PINEAPPLE
i). Multiple crown
(fasciation)
ii). Sun scald
16. STAWBERRY
Albinism
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
69
17. COCOA
Cherelle wilt
18. COFFEE
Black bean/ Black
Jolloo/ Normal Jolloo
19. RUBBER
Traping Panel dryness
(TPD) or brown blast
20. TEA
Tea yellow disease
21. SAPOTA
Cock’s comb
22. COCONUT
i). Crown chocking
ii). Little leaf
23. ARECANUT
Band disease
24. CUSTARD APPLE
Stone fruits
25. PEACH
Woolliness
70
-
-
Depletion of carbohydrates reserve
during bean development
-
Excessive harvesting of latex
Trapping rest
Sulphur Deficiency
-
-
-
Boron Deficiency
Zinc Deficiency
-
Improper drainage
-
High relative humidity, low
temperature
-
-
-
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
PLANTATION CROP
1. TEA
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
Botanical name: Camellia sinensis
Family: Theaceae/ Camaliaceae
Origin: China
Tea is also known as Golden leaf/Queen of Beverage crop
Study of Tea is Known as Tsiology
Compound responcible for colour – Theaflavins and Thearufigens
Best soil pH for cultivation of Tea 4.5-5.5
Optimum temperature: is 20-27oC
Fresh tea leaves contain approximately 36% polyphenolic compounds.
Three main types of tea produced from leaves:
1. Green tea (Non-Fermented)
2. Oolong tea (Partly fermented)
3. Black tea (Fermented) Commonly consumed in India)
❖ Flowers: Bisexual
❖ Fruit: Capsule
❖ Commercial propagation: Softwood cutting/Single node cutting
❖ Cuttings are taken on April-May & august to September. Semi hardwood cuttings most
adopted.
❖ Methods of Planting: Single Hedge system & Double Hedge system.
❖ Season of planting: June to July and October to November.
❖ Pruning: April to May or Aug-Sep
❖ Types of Pruning:
➢ Rejuvination Pruning
➢ Hard pruning
➢ Medium Pruning
➢ Light Pruning
❖ Tipping: Done at a height of 35 cm from the base and 2nd tipping at 60 cm from ground.
❖ Centering: is a training method, Removal of main stem at a height of about 20cm from the
ground, Promotes the auxiliary bud or lateral branches.
❖ Skiffing: is the lightest form of pruning and collar pruning is the severe most pruning for
rejuvenation of tea garden.
❖ Tipping is the practice of removal of terminal portion of shoot (four leaves and a bud).
❖ Plucking starts when tea bush is 3-year-old.
❖ Yield: Green leaves 10 t/ha
❖ Storage: 3 % moisture when packed. If 6 % then keeping quality is impaired.
❖ Varieties: UPASI-9 most suitable for higher pH
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
71
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
UPASI-1,2,8: Biclonal Varieties
Tea research: UPASI started in 1893
UPASI: United planters Association of South India, connor, Tamilnadu
UPASI tea research station, Valparai, TN
UPASI is a apex body of tea, Coffee, pepper and Cardamom in the Southern states
Red coffee borer (Zeuzera coffeae) is the major pest of tea.
Mites is a serious problem: Pink mite- Acaphylla theae)
Yellowing of tea is due to Sulphur Deficiency
Imperta cylinderica (thatch Grass) Important weed of Tea
2. COFFEE
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
Botanical name: Coffea spp.
Family: Rubiaceae
Origin: Ethiopia
Also known as King of Beverage crop
Coffee Introduced 16th century.
Species:
➢ Coffea arabica, Self-Pollinated
➢ Coffea robusta, Cross pollination
Short day plant
45 Days required for germination.
Fruit type: Drupe
Flowering time: September to march
Training system in Coffee is single stem system: Most common method in India.
Varieties: Kents (Earliest variety of Arabica), San Roman (Mutant variety), Sln795,9, Cauvery
Coffee is propagated by Seed
Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) serious pest of coffee.
3. COCONUT
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
72
Botanical name: Cocos nucifera
Family: Araceae
Origin: Southeast Asia
Also known as Kalpavriksha/ Tree of life
Humid tropical perennial monoecious palm
Heliophile plant
Optimum temperature is 20-32 oC
pH range is 5.2-8.0 (5.5-7.0 is ideal)
Optimum RH is 80-85%
It Takes 12-13 Month for ripening from opening of inflorescence.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Fully matured nut has 30-40% coir (Fibre is called coir)
❖ Moisture content in copra is 5-6 % and oil content: 70 %
❖ Copra obtained by drying the kernel of coconut is the richest source of vegetable oil containing
65 % tp 70% oil.
❖ India’s largest agricultural imports is Edible oils.
❖ The main roots may go as deep as 10m
❖ Coconut oil contain lauric acid.
❖ Highest production: Kerala
❖ World coconut day 2nd September
❖ Type of fruit: Drupe
❖ Type of Inflorescence: Spadix
❖ Coconut is propagated by only through seeds
❖ Square system spacing: 7.5 × 7.5 m
❖ Tall varieties: Long Live for an age of 80-90 years. It begins to bear in about 8-10 years after
planting.
❖ Dwarf varieties: Flower as early as 3rd year after planting and come to regular bearing in 9th
year.
❖ Average life span: 40-50 year.
❖ Varieties:
➢ Tall varieties: Kalpa Mitra, Kalpa Pratiba, Kalpa Thenu, Kalpa Tharu, Kalpa Haritha,
Chandra Kalpa
➢ Dwarf varieties: Kalpa Raksha, Chowghat orange Dwarf, Kalpa Sree, Kalpa jyothi, Kalpa
surya
❖ Yield:
➢ Average yield: 80-100 nuts/palm/year
➢ Dwarf variety: 70-80 nuts/palm/year
➢ Tall variety: 80-100 nuts/palm/year
➢ Hybrid: 100-130 nuts/palm/year
4. RUBBER
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
Botanical name: Hevea brasiliensis
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Origin: Brazil
Most important commercial source of natural rubber: Para rubber
RRII-105: Highest yielding hybrid clone in the world.
Commercial propagation: Forket budding
Spacing: 4.9 × 4.9 meter
Latex is obtained from the bark of the rubber tree by tapping.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
73
❖ Tapping: Rubber tapping is the process by which latex is collected from rubber tree. The latex
is harvested by slicing a groove into the bark of the tree at a depth of a quarter inch with a
hooked knife and peeling back the bark.
❖ Tapping depth: 1mm close to cambium.
❖ Tapping time Early morning
❖ Measuring of Rubber Percentage: Metrolac, Latex meter
❖ The Rubber Research Institute of India(RRII-1955) is located at kottyam, Kerala
❖ International Rubber Research and Development Board (IRRDB), Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
74
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
OLERICULTURE
❖ India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world (surpassed only by China).
VEGETABLE CLASSIFICATION BASED ON HARDINESS:
❖ This classification is based on ability to withstand frost and low temperature and it will be
useful to know season of cultivation of a crop.
Hardy
Asparagus
Crucifers
Garlic
Leek
Onion
Parsley
Peas
Radish
Rhubarb
Spinach
Semi hardy
Carrot
Celery
Beet root
Globe artichoke
Lettuce
Palak
Parsnip
Potato
Tender
Amaranth
Okra
Brinjal
Chilli
Cluster bean
Cucurbits
Tomato
Colocasia
Amorphophallus
Yams
Sweet potato
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION
Family
Crops
Scientific name
Edible part
Chromoso
me no. (2n)
Monocotyledoneae
Alliaceae
Onion
Garlic
Leek
Allium cepa
Allium sativum
A. porrum
Bulb
clove
Blanched stem
and leaves
16
16
32 (4X)
Carrot
Daucus carota
Enlarged and
fleshy taproot
18
Celery
Apium graveolens
Leaf stalk and
leaf
22
Coriander
Coriandrum sativum
Young leaves
22
Beet root
Beta vulgaris
Fleshy tap root
18
Dicotyledoneae
Apiaceae/
Ambeliferae
Chenepodiaceae
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
75
Palak
Asteraceae
Lettuce
Chicory
Beta vulgaris var.
bengalensis
Lactuca sativa
Cichorium intybus
Convolvulacae
Sweet potato
Ipomea batatus
Root tuber
90(6X)
Brassicaceae/
Cruceferae
Cabbage
Brassica oleracea var.
capitata
Brassica oleracea var.
botrytis
B. oleracea var.
gemmifera
B. oleracea var. italica
Head
18
Curds
18
Immature heads
18
Fleshy flower
stalk
Enlarged stem
portion
Rosette leaves
18
Swollen root
20
38
Cauliflower
Brussels
sprout
Sprouting
brocoli
Knol-khol
Leaves
Leaves
18
18
Rutabaga
Radish
Raphanus sativus
Cucumber
Cucumis sativus
Enlarged and
elongated tap
root
Fleshy swollen
primary root
Immature fruit
Musk melon
Cucumis melo
Ripe fruit
24
Gherkin
Cucumis anguria
Young fruits
24
Watermelon
Citrullus lanatus
Ripe fruit
22
Round melon
C. lanatus var.
fistulosus
Cucurbita moschata
Immature fruit
22
Ripe fruit
40
Summer
squash
Winter
squash
Bottle gourd
Cucurbita pepo
Immature fruit
40
Cucurbita maxima
Ripe fruit
40
Lagenaria siceraria
Immature fruit
22
Bitter gourd
Momordica charantia
Immature fruit
22
Balsam apple
Momordica balsamina
Immature fruit
22
Turnip
Pumpkin
76
18
B. oleracea var.
gongylodes
B. oleracea var.
acephala
B. campestris spp.
rapifera
Brasicca napobrassica
Kale/collard
Cucurbitaceae
Leaves
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
18
18
18
14
Ride gourd
Immature fruit
26
Sponge gourd Luffa cylindrica
Immature fruit
26
Pointed gourd Trichosanthes dioica
Immature fruit
22
Snake gourd
T. anguina
Immature fruit
22
Euphorbiaceae
Casava
Manihot esculenta
Tuberous roots
36
Fabaceae/
leguminocae
Garden pea
Pisum sativum var.
hortense
Phaseolus vulgaris
Tender seeds
14
Tender pod and
seeds
Tender pod and
seeds
Tender pod,
immature seed
and mature seed
Tender and dry
seed
Root tuber
22
French bean
Cluster bean
Luffa acutangula
Cowpea
Cyamopsis
tetragonolobus
Vigna unguiculata
14
Soybean
Glycine max
Yam bean
Pachyrrhizus erosus
Fenugreek
Tender leaves
16
Tender fruit
130
Leaves
18
22
40
22
Malvaceae
Okra
Rutaceae
Curry leaf
Trigonella
foenumgraceum
Abelmoshchus
esculentus
Murraya koenigii
Solanaceae
Potato
Solanum tuberosum
Stem tuber
48(4X)
Brinjal
Solanum melongana
Fruit
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Tomato
Solanum lycopersicum
Fruit
24
Currant
tomato
(Cherry
Tomato)
Chilli
Solanum
pimpinellifolium
Fruit
24
Capsicum annuum
Fruit
24
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE PLANT PARTS USED AS VEGETABLES
Flower
Flower head
Prefloral apical meristem
Agathi, male flowers of pumpkin
Brocoli, globe artichoke
Cauliflower
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Modified above ground stem
Spears
Modified stem
Modified root
Modified tap root
Modified adventitious root
Fruits
Corms
Knolkhol, asparagus
Asparagus
Potato, jerusale, artichoke, yam, elephant foot
yam, taro, onion, garlic
Radish, carrot, beetroot, turnip, sweet potato
Chinese artichoke
Chinese potato
Brinjal, tomato, chilli, peas and beans, all
cucurbits, okra
Colacasia, elephant foot yam
DERIVATION OF VEGETABLE FOR PLANT TISSUE
Plant Part
Inflorescences
Stem sprout
Auxiliary bud
Petiole
Swollen leaf base
Leaf blade
Terminal leaf buds
Swollen tap root
Stem
Swollen hypocotyl
Modified stem
Flower bud
Placental intralocular tissue (septum)
Vegetable
Broccoli, cauliflower
Asparagus
Brussels sprout
celery
leek
Spinach
cabbage
carrot
Potato
Beetroot
Onion
Artichoke
Tomato
EDIBLE PORTION OF VEGETABLE CROPS
EDIBLE PARTS
Placenta
Endocarp
Mesocarp
VEGETABLES
Cucumber, watermelon
Ridge gourd, sponge gourd, ash gourd
Pumpkin, musk melon
USEFUL COMPOUNDS PRESENT IN VEGETABLES:
Vegetables
Onion, garlic
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Compounds
Sulphur compounds
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Role in disease prevention
Reducing blood cholesterol
Cole crops
Bittergourd
Onion
Celery
Yams
Indoles and dithiolthiones
Cheratin
Diphenyl amine
3-n-butyl pthalide
Diosgenin
Onion, garlic
Quercetin (Bioflavonoids)
Lettuce
Onion
Cabbage
Broccoli
French bean, broccoli
Lutein
Allicin
Indole -3- carbinol
Sulphoraphane
Kaemferol
Brinjal
Broccoli
Nasunin (Anthocyanin)
Glucoraphinanin
Prevention of cancer
Effective against diabetes
Effective against diabetes
Effective aginst hypertension
Manufacture of contraceptive
drugs
Protection against cancer & heart
diseases
Nutritional antioxidant
Antibacterial activity
Against bowl cancer
Anticancer activity
Anticancer and cardiovascular
disease
Anticancer activity
Anticancer activity
TOXIC SUBSTANCES PRESENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS:
Toxic substances
Trypsin inhibitors
Cyanogenic glycosides
Protease inhititors
Ipomeamarone
Phytic acid
Oxalic acid
Oxalates
Calcium Oxalate
Hydrocyanic acid
Dioscorine
Solanine
Solasodine
Serotonin
Cholinesterase inhibitors
Sinigrin
Saponine
Cucurbitacins
Apiin
Crops
Soybean
Lima bean
Lima bean, faba bean
Sweet potato
Peas and beans (Mature seeds)
Amaranth, portulaca, celosia, basella,
Colocasia
Rhubarb, beets, chard, spinach, New Zealand
spinach
Elephant foot yam, colocasia
Tapioca (more in leaves)
Yams
Potato
Brinjal
Watermelon
Pumpkin and squash
Cole crops
Spinach, Asparagus, Tomato
Cucurbits
Celery
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Hemagglutinins
Vicine and covicine
Tomatine
lactucopicrin
Common beans
Broad bean
Tomato
Lettuce
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PHOTOPERIODISM
i. Short day plants (SDP)
ii. Long day plants (LDP)
iii. Day neutral plants (DNP)
Sweet potato, clusterbean, winged bean,
hyacinth bean, Indian spinach
Potato, onion, lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower,
knolkhol, radish, carrot, turnip, beetroot
Tomato, brinjal, chilli, cowpea, okra, French,
bean, cucurbits
TYPE OF INFLORESCENCE IN VEGETABLE CROPS
Type of inflorescence
Raceme
Cyme
Panicle
Spike
Compound Umbel
Capitulum
Crops
Cole crops, cucurbits, radish
Tomato, brinjal, chilli, potato, spinach, sweet
potato, broccoli
Moringa, Palak
Beet root
Carrot, Coriander
Lettuce
DICHOGAMY MECHANISM IN VEGETABLE CROPS:
Protandry
Onion, carrot, muskmelon, pointed gourd
rhubarb, parsnip, leek, garden beet,
swisschard
Protogyny
Chilli, cole crops, okra, cassava, amaranthus,
taro Elephant foot yam
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TOLERANCE TO SOIL ACIDITY
i. Less tolerant
ii. Moderately tolerant
iii. very tolerant
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Okra, onion, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli,
Chinese cabbage, musk melon
Brinjal, tomato, chilli, radish, carrot, summer
squash, winter squash
Potato, sweet potato, rhubarb
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TOLERANCE TO SOIL SALINITY
i. Less tolerant
ii. Moderately tolerant
iii. Highly tolerant
Brinjal, sweet pepper, potato, pea, radish,
snakegourd, beans
Tomato, chilli, watermelon, cucumber,
summer squash, bottlegourd, cabbage,
cauliflower, broccoli, muskmelon, onion,
sweet potato,
Sugarbeet , Kale, turnip, Bittergourd,
Ashgourd, palak, lettuce, asparagus French
been
SOIL REACTION (pH)
Slightly tolerant
(6-6.8 pH)
Asparagus
Onion
Broccoli, Leek
Lettuce, Muskmelon
Celery
Moderately tolerant
(5.5 to 6.0pH)
Pea, Chilli, Radish
Cucumber
Pumpkin,
Turnip, Parsely
Highly tolerant
(5.0-5.5 pH)
Sweet potato
Water melon
Chicory
Rhubarb
pH OF VEGETABLE CROPS:
Crops
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Brinjal
Garlic
Tomato
Beet Root
Carrot
Okra
Potato
Sweet Potato
Knol Khol
Pea
French bean
pH
6-6.5
5.5-6.6
6-7
6.5- 7
6-8
5- 6.5
5.2
5.5-6.8
6-7.5
5.5- 6
ROOTING DEPTH
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Shallow rooted
(30-40 cm)
Broccoli
Brussels sprout
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Garlic, Leek, Lettuce
Onion, Potato, Radish
Spinach
Moderately deep rooted
(50-60 cm)
Beet
Carrot
Cucumber
Brinjal
Muskmelon
Pea, Pepper
Summer squash, Turnip
Deep rooted
(80-100 cm and above)
Artichoke
Asparagus
Cluster bean
Cow pea
French bean
Lima bean
Pumpkin, Sweet
potato, Tomato, Water melon
❖ Vegetable forcing - Production of off- Season vegetable
➢ Forcing: Cool forcing vegetables: Asparagus, Beetroot, Cauliflower, Celery, Lettuce, Onion,
Pea, Raddish, Spinach
➢ Warm forcing vegetables: Bean, Cucumber, Brinjal, Muskmelon, Pepper, Tomato
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON RESPIRATORY ACTIVITY OF THE PRODUCE:
Levels
Very low
Low
Moderate
High
Rate of
respiration (mg of
CO2 /kg/hr)
5
5-10
10-20
20-40
Very high
40-60
Extremely high
>60
Vegetable crops
Potato, onion
Sweet potato, turnip, cucumber, cabbage
Tomato, chilli, sweet pepper, carrot, beet
Radish, Indian bean, French bean, peas, lettuce, lima
bean
Green onion, Muskmelon, watermelon, Cauliflower,
Broccoli, okra, brussels sprout
Spinach, asparagus, green peas, mushroom
BASED ON EXISTING STORABILITY OF SEEDS:
Group
Poor storer
Intermediate
Good storer-1
Storability period (years)
1-2
2-3
3-4
Good storer-2
4-5
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON WATER REQUIREMENT
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Vegetables
Onion
Chilli, carrot, okra, french bean
Cucurbits, radish, garden pea,
beet root
Tomato, brinjal, cole crops
i. High
ii. Moderate
iii. Low
iv. Very low
Sweet pepper, cole crops, radish, ridge gourd, turnip, beetroot
Tomato, brinjal, chilli, cucumber, onion, carrot, potato
Peas and beans
Watermelon, muskmelon, pumpkin, ashgourd
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CLIMATERIC PATTERN
Climacteric vegetable
Tomato, Muskmelon
Non climacteric vegetable
Pumpkin, cucumber, pointed gourd, chilli,
capsicum, tamarillo, watermelon, brinjal
CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLE BASED ON STORAGE LIFE
Very perishable
(0-4 weeks)
Asparagus, beans,
broccoli, Brussels
sprout, cauliflower,
cucumber, lettuce,
pea, rhubarb,
spinach, sweet corn,
tomato, mushroom
Perishable
(4-8 weeks)
Semi-perishable
(6-12 weeks)
Less Perishable
(>12 weeks)
Cabbage
Celery, leek,
marrow
Beetroot, carrot, onion,
parsnip, pumpkin, potato,
sweet potato, swede turnip
RESPIRATION RATE OF VEGETABLES
Very high
Asparagus
Broccoli
Pea
Spinach
High
Bean
Lettuce
Lima bean
Monoecious Vegetable
Dioecious Vegetable
Moderate
Beet
Carrot
Celery
Cucumber
Low
Cabbage
Sweet potato
Turnip
Very low
Onion
Potato
Pumpkin
Ashgourd
Cucurbits, Cassava, Amranthus
Pointed Guard, beetroot, Spinach
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METHODS OF RAISING:
Direct sown crops
Okra, Carrot, Radish, Beans, Peas,
Garlic
Tomato, Brinjal, Chillies, Cabbage,
Cauliflower
Sweet potato, Cassava, Pointed gourd,
Coccinia
Potato, Yams.
Transplanted crops
Vines and cuttings
Bits of tubers and corms
MINIMUM ISOLATION OF DISTANCE OF VEGETABLE CROPS
Sl. No.
Name of
group(crops)
Isolation (m)
Foundation seed
Certified seed
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Chinese cabbage
Knol-khol
1600
1600
1600
1600
1000
1000
1000
1000
Brinjal
Capsicum(Chillies)
Tomato
Okra
200
400
50
400
100
200
25
200
Garlic
Onion
10
1000
5
800
Beetroot
Carrot
Radish
Turnip
1600
1000
1600
1600
800
800
1000
1000
Sweet potato
Potato
10
10
5
5
Ginger
Turmeric
10
10
5
5
Cluster bean
10
5
Cole crops
Fruit vegetables:
Bulbous vegetables:
Root vegetables:
Tuber vegetables:
Rhizomatous vegetables:
Legume vegetables:
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Cowpea
French bean
Indian bean
Lima bean
Peas
10
10
10
10
10
5
5
5
5
5
Amaranthus
Beet leaf
Coriander
Fenugreek
Lettuce
Spinach
Cucurbits
400
1600
800
50
50
1600
1000
200
1000
400
25
25
1000
500
Leafy vegetables:
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VEGETABLE CROPS
1. CABBAGE
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Botanical name: Brassica oleracea var. capitate
Family: Brassicaceae
Cabbage is harder than cauliflower.
Anticancer property due to presence of Indol-3-Carbinol
Cabbage is shallow rooted crop and highly irrigation sensitive crop.
Edible part of Cabbage: Head
Fruit Type- Siliqua
pH- 6.0- 6.5
Cabbage is highly cross pollinated.
Flavour in cabbage leaves is due to the glucoside “Sinigrin”
Seed rate:
➢ Early varieties: 600-700 g seeds/ha.
➢ Late varieties: 375-400 g/ha.
Storage temperature of cabbage: 00C and 90-95% RH for 2-8 Weeks.
Optimum temperature seed germination of Cabbage: 22-260C.
Minimun temperature seed germination of Cabbage: Just above 0oC
Optimum range for growth and head formation in cabbage: 15-210C
Whereas temperature above 43.2oC, growth is arrested in most of the cultivars.
Variety of Cabbage: Golden Acre (earliest), Drumhead, Pusa mukta, Pusa ageti(1st tropical
vari), Pusa sambandh, Pride of India (early and round), Copenhagen
market,September(german)
Seed yield: 500-600 kg per hectare
2. CAULIFLOWER
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Botanical name: Brassica oleracea var. botrytis
Family: Brassicaceae
Edible part of cauliflower is known as “curds”.
Thermosensitive crop.
It is very sensitive to Deficiency of Boron and Molybdanum
Type of inflorescence: Racemose
Seed rate: 1kg /ha (Early crop)
Mid and late crops: 300-500gm/ha
Optimum temperature: for growth of young plants is around 23oC, but in later stages 17-20oC
are most favourable.
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The tropical cultivars show growth even at 35oC
pH is 5.5-6.6
Common herbicide used in Cauliflower: Basalin (3.3lit/ha)
Blanching is common practice in cauliflower for protect curd from yellow colour after their
direct exposure to sun and to arrest enzymatic activity.
Seedlings are ready for transplanting: 3-6 weeks DAS
Early crops: 5-6 weeks DAS
Scooping is special operation done in cauliflower for initiation of flower stalk e.g. Darjeeling
hills in west Bengal. Scooping means removal of central portion of curd for easy initiation of
flower stalk.
Storage temperature: 0oC and 90-95% RH 2-4 weeks
Pusa Betakesari: Orange colour cauliflower variety. It is countr’s Ist biofortified variety.
Self- Blanced variety of cauliflower: Pusa Deepali, Pusa Snowball
Self-Blanced and offseason variety: Pusa Himjyoti and Hisar-1
Tolerant to curd and inflorescence blight: Pusa Synthetic
Varities: Pusa kartiki, Pusa meghana, Pusa Early Syntheitc, Arka kranti, Kashi kunwari, Pusa
deepali, Pant subhra, Pusa sharad.
Knol-Khol: Edible part of knol-khol is swollen stem called “tuber” or “Knob”.
Yield:
➢ Early maturing cultivars: 80-120 q/ha
➢ Main season: 150-200 q/ha
➢ Snowball group: 250-300 q/ha
Pinking: It is due to the exposure of curds to high light.
3. CUCUMBER
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Botanical name: Cucumis sativus
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Origin: India
Introduced in India in 1822 AD
Chrmosome no: 2n= 14
Day neutral plant, Thermophilic crop
Most common sex from: Monoecious
Most favourable temperature for cucumber: 18-240C.
In cucumber bitterness in fruit is due to cucurbitacins.
Economic sex ratio of cucumber: 15:1
Seed rate: 2.5-4 kg/ha
Harvesting can be done 45 days after sowing.
Pillow Disease Is Due to Calcium Deficiency
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❖ Yield: About 8-10 t/ha can be obtained.
❖ Varities: Pusa Uday, Pusa Barkha, Pusa Sanyog (Gynoecious Var.), Sheetal, Pusa shubangi
4. MUSKMELON
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Botanical name: Cucumis melo
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Origin: Tropical Africa
Edible portion of melons contain water 90% and CHO 10%
Muskmelon seed does not germinate at temperature lower than 180C
High quality melons should have TSS: 12-15%
Seed rate: 2-3 kg/ha
Dibbling Method- 1kg/Ha
Harvested at full slip stage.
Long distance: Half Slip stage
Full slip stage of muskmelon contains maximum sugar.
Climacteric fruit
Varities developed by IIHR: Arka jeet(Very Sweet Var.), Arka Rajhans( Excellent Transport
Var.)
❖ Varities developed by IARI: Pusa Madhuras, Pusa sharbati, Pusa madhurima, Pusa sarda
❖ Varities developed by IIVR: Kashi madhu, Punjab Raseela, Punjab Sunheri, Hisar madhur,
Hisar madhur, Hara madhu, Durgapura Madhu
5. WATERMELON
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Botanical name: Citrullus lanatus
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Origin: Tropical Africa
Edible portion: Placenta
The watermelon fruit contain 93% water.
TSS - 8- 13 %
Seed rate: 3-5 kg/ha
Metallic sound at the time of harvesting shows: Immaturity
Heavy Dull sound at the time of harvesting shows: maturity
The drying of Tendril at the base of the fruit is also a sign of maturity.
The fruit stored for 2 to 3 weeks at 10 to 15 oC and 90% humidity after harvest
Bud Necrosis Transmitted by Aphids
Varities- Suger baby (11-13% Tss)
➢ Pusa bedana-Triploid and Seedless hybrid Var.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Varities developed by RAU, Rajsthan: Durgapura Meetha, Durgapura Kesar( Yellow Flesh
Var.), Durgapura lal
❖ Varities developed by IIHR: Arka Muthu, Arka Akash, Arka Manik,
6. BITTER GOURD
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Botanical name: Momordica charantia
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Bitter Principle - Memordicin
Rich in Fe Content
Optimum temperature for bittergourd cultivation: 24-27oC
Seed rate: 4.5-6 kg/ha
Varities of Bitter gourd: Pusa Aushadhi, Pusa Purvi, Pusa Rasdar, Pusa vishesh, Arka Harit,
Arka anupama.
Temp. above 35OC induce female sterility
Growth and flowering temp. 25-30 o C
Germination affected below 10OC
Harvesting done After 55-60 DAS
7. ONION
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Botanical Name: Allium cepa
Family: Alliaceae
Origin: Central Asia
Onion belongs to monocotyledon family.
Cool season crop and a biennial herb
Shallow rooted crop
It is Usefull Against Sunstroke
Flowering structure: Umbel
Inflorescence: Cyme
Long day plant for bulb formation.
Cultivars grown in plains of North India afre short day.
pH- 5.8 to 6.5
Highly Cross-Pollinated crop. Due to Protoandry, pollination by Honeybee (93 % increase in
seed Yield)
Edible Portion of onion is modified stem is known as bulb
Types of onion:
Common Onion
Shallot (Allium cepa var. ascolonicum)- Perenial onion
Chive (Allium schoenoprasum)- Perennial buching herb
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It does not thrive when the average rainfall exceeds 75-100 cm during monsoon period.
The Ideal temperature for vegetative growth is 12.8 – 23.0c.
For bulb formation it requires long days and still higher temperature (20-25oC).
Antifungal factor - Catechol
Pungency in onion is due to allylpropyl disulphide.
Yellow colour of the outer skin of onion bulb is due to quercetin
National Research center for onion and Garlic (NRCOG) is located at Rajgurunagar
,Nasik-pune highway, Maharashtra.
NRCOG established in 1994
Flower colour: White or Bluish
Seed rate varies from 8 to 10 kg/ha.
Broadcasting or drilling method seed requirement is as high as 25 kg / ha
Planting of bulbs- 10-12 quintals of bulbs /ha
Raito between nursery area and main field is about 1:20.
Required bulbs: 1000-1200 kg/ha
Yield and Harvesting season: Rabi: 25-30 t/ha(April to May)
Kharif: 15-20 t/ha(January to February)
Onion bulb stored temperature: 00C at 60-75% RH
Spray MH @2500 PPM, 15 – 20 Days After Storage to Avoid Sprouting
Varieties: Rabi season: Arka bindu, Pusa ratnar, Pusa red, Nasik red, Patna red, Pusa madhvi,
Kharif season: Agrifound dark red, Arka kalyan, N-53
Arka prgati: Grow in both season
Arka Kalyan: suitable for kharif season only
PAU: Punjab Naroya- Tolerant to purple blotch
Agrifound Rose: Suitable for export bulbs
Common in onion trade: Poona Red, Nashik Red, Patna Red, Patna White
Lasalgaon: Biggest onion market in India.
Onion is ready for harvest in 3-5 months after transplanting.
Harvesting - 3-5 months after planting
Storage- At 0-2-2.2oC under cold storage, bulbs can be stored for long period.
8. GARLIC
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Botanical name: Alliium sativum
Family: Alliaceae
Origin: Central Asia
Commercial propagation: Cloves
pH – 6-7
Flavor due to Sulphur compound- Di-Allyl-Di- Sulphide
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Antibacterial Substance – Allicin
Water soluble Amino Acid- Allin
Seed rate – 500Kg/ha
Garlic is produced only in winter season
Varieties: Agrifound White, Agrifound parvati, Pant lohit
Average yield: 8-10 t/ha
Planting - Cloves of 8-10 mm diameter since give increased yield
9. CARROT
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Botanical name: Daucus carota
Family: Umbelliferae (Apiaceae)
Origin: Southwest Asia
Edible portion is enlarged fleshy taproot.
The ideal soil pH is 6.6 – 7.1
Beverage prepared from Black Carrot called as Kanji
The taste of carrot is mainly due to presence of glutamic acid.
Carrot is cool season crop.
A temperature range of 15.5 – 21.1oC is the best for colour development.
Carotene content decreases above 21.1oC and below 15.5oC.
for germination of seeds is 7.2-23.9o C,
for root growth and development 18.3-23.9oC.
Seed stalk formation 12.2 – 21.1oC.
Carrot pigmentation: Red colour of carrot: Lycopene
Orange colour of carrot: Beta-Carotene
Purple colour of carrot: Anthocyanin
Yellow colour of carrot: Xanthophyll
Carrot is an annual herb for root production and biennial for flowering and fruit set.
Type of fruit: Schizocarp
Type of inflorescence: Compound umbel
Seed rate: - 6 to 10 kg/ha
Carrot is gross feeder of Potash (K).
Forking of carrot is due to hard pan/ impedes root growth.
Highest vit. A content Variety- Pusa Meghali
Canning and storage purpose var. – Chanteney
Fresh Carrot roots can be stored for 3-4 days under ordinary conditions and for six months at
0oC and 93-98% RH.
❖ Carrot is sensitive to salt as well as boron in soil and water.
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10. RADISH
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Botanical name: Raphanus sativus
Family: Brassicaceae
Origin: Mediterranean region
Aroma Due to Isothiocynate
Stackling- Roots of Radish prepared for seed Production is known as Stackling.
Ideal temperature for growth and development of quality roots in radish is 10-15.5oC
Radish root develops from primary root and hypocotyl
Radish is an ancient root crop.
Suitable intercrops or Companion planting.
The fleshy root radish is modified form of root is known as Fusiform.
The edible portion of radish root develops from both primary and hypocotyl
Pigmentation in Radish: Pink, Red colour is due to Anthocyanin pigments.
Purple colour: Cyanidin
Red colour: Pelargonidin
Type of inflorescence: Terminal Raceme
Seed rate
➢
Large varieties 10kg/ha
➢
Temperate European types 12kg/ha
➢
Seeds of large cultivars are sown 1.5-3.0 cm deep.
❖ Varieties: Round cherry berry- Red Variety
➢ Pusa Chetki(Summer Var.), Pusa safed, Arka nishant, Pusa himani(MultiSeason Var.),
Scarlet Globe, Pusa mridula, White Icicle
❖ Radish roots can be stored for 2-3 days under room temperature without impairing
quality. Roots can be stored for about 2 months at 0oC and 90-95% RH.
❖ Seed yield- 600-800 kg/ha.
11. TOMATO
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92
Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicum
Family: Solanaceae
Origin: South America
Chromosome no.: 2n=24
Optimum temperature –
➢ 21-28oC during day
➢ 15-20oC during night.
➢ Optimum temperature for colour development of fruit is 21-24oC.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Development of colouring pigment, lycopene will be hampered above 27oC.
➢ Seed germination and pollen germination are adversely affected below 10oC.
➢ Set fruit at 15-20oC
❖ It is moderately tolerant to acid soil having pH 5.5 and ideal pH requirement is 6-7oC.
❖ Day Neutral crop and Self-Pollinated Crop
❖ Universally treated as Productive Food
❖ Tomato is considered as Poor man’s Orange in India while love of Apple in England And Wolf
Apple
❖ Tomato pigments: Red colour- Lycopene
❖ Yellow colour: Carotenoids pigment
❖ Tangerine: Pro-lycopene
➢ The normal tomato varieties TSS ranged to 4-6% (minimum TSS should be 4.5OB)
❖ Tomato acidity is due to citric acid.
❖ Type of fruit: Berry
❖ Type of Inflorescence: Cymose
❖ Stalking is the most important process in Tomato.
❖ Total nursery area for tomato: 250m2
❖ Seed rate: 400-500g/ha
❖ Hybrid seed rate: 100-150g/ha
❖ The optimum relative humidity for green house tomatoes is 60-70%
❖ Maturity indices: For distant market: Mature green stage
❖ For local market: Breaker stage/turning stage 1/4th portion changes to pink color.
❖ Pink stage: 3/4th of whole fruit turns pink
❖ Light red: Harvested for local market
❖ Red ripe: Harvested for processing and for seed extraction
❖ Assessment of tomato fruit firmness by Durometer
❖ Tomato is a climacteric fruit.
❖ Mature green fruit can be stored at 12.7-15.50C
❖ Sowing Time: Hills- March to April
❖ Plains: June to November
❖ Crop starts yielding after 70 days of planting.
❖ Fruits can be stored for 2 weeks and 4 weeks at 10-13oC when harvested at red stage and green
stage respectively.
❖ Varieties of tomato:
➢ Pusa Ruby- Sioux x Improved Meeruti
➢ Developed by IARI: Pusa Ruby, Pusa early dwarf, Pusa rohini, Pusa Sheetal (Winter
Season), Pusa sadabahar
➢ Developed by IIHR: Arka vikas, Arka abha, Arka Abhijit, Arka Ashish, Arka Saurabh, Arka
Meghali
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
93
➢ Other varieties: Hisar lalit, Hisar Anmol, Punjab Chhuhara (Proccesing Purpose), Arka
vardan, Arka Shreshta, Arka samrat, Arka Rakshak, Arka Ananya, Arka Abhijit
12. BRINJAL
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❖
➢
➢
➢
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❖
Botanical name: Solanum melongena
Family: Solanaceae
Origin: India
Good Source of Vit. B
Brinjal is also known as Eggplant or Baigan or Aubergine
Day neutral plant
Ideal pH of crop is 5.5-6.6
Most favorable temperature for brinjal production: 21-270C
Optimum temperature of brinjal seed germination: 250C
Bitter taste in Brinjal is due to glycoalkaloids.
White brinjal is preferred for diabetic patients.
Type of fruit is fleshy berry.
Seed rate: 300-400g/ha
Hybrid seed rate: 150-200g/ha
1 gm seeds of brinjal contain about 250 seeds
Varieties:
Developed by IARI: Pusa purple long, Pusa purple round, Pusa kranti, Pusa bhairav, Pusa
uttam, Pusa Upkar, Pusa bindu, Pusa Ankur, Pusa shyamala
Developed by IIHR: Arka Shirish, Arka sheel, Arka kesav,
Other varieties: Pant samart, Pusa Anmol, Arka Navneet
Yield: In common: 350-500 quintals per hectare
Hybrid: 500-625 q/ha.
Fruits can be stored for 7-10 days in a fairly good condition at 7.2-10°C with 85-90% RH.
It is better to store at 20°C than at 6°C and in perforated polythene bags than under open
condition.
13. CHILLI
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94
Botanical Name: Capsicum annum
Family: Solanaceae
Origin: Tropical America
Commonly known as peppers
Andrapradesh is Pioneer in chilli Production.
Transplanting after 45 DAS
Chilli flower drop is highest at >350C
Major pigment in red fruit colour: Capsanthin
Pungency of chilli is due to: Capsaicin
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
Type of fruit: Berry
Seed rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha
Seed Rate for C. Annum (Hybrid)= 250 gm/ha
Main planting season of chilli: June-July
Varieties: Pusa Jwala, Pusa sadabahar, Punjab Lal, Bhagyalakshmi, Arka Suphal, Arka lohit,
Bhaskar, Konkan kirti
❖ Resistance to mosaic disease: Puri Red
❖ Suitable For HDP- Jwalamukhi
14. OKRA
❖
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Botanical name: Abelmoschus esculents
Family: Malvaceae
Origin: Tropical America
Warm season vegetable
Fruits rich source of Iodine
The ideal pH for growth of plants is 6-8.
Dried fruit contain 13-22% edible oil and 20-24% protein
Oil content in okra seeds: 40%
Type of Fruit: Capsule
Seed rate: normal- 8.0 kg / ha, Hybrids: 2.5 kg / ha
Rainy season: 10-12 kg/ha
Isolation distance for foundation seed: 400 m and certified seed 200 m
Fruits of 6-8 cm long are preferred for export purposes.
Varieties: Harbhajan, Azad kranti, Hisar Naveen, Pusa Makhmali, Pusa Sawani(Day Neutral &
Spineless), Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay, Varsha uphar, Hisar Unnat
15. POTATO
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Botanical name: Solanum tuberosum
Family: Solanaceae
Origin- Peru
Chromosome no: 2n=48
Potato introduced in India 17th centuary by Portuguese
They are well suited to acidic soils (pH 5.0 to 6.5)
Solanin content 5mg/100 gm in potato and unfit when its is more than 20mg / 100 gm
Potato tubers borne at stolen ends.
Basically, a crop of temperate regions.
Potato is a dicot plant.
King of vegetables/Poor man’s friend
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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❖ Optimum temperature require for tuberization in potato is 200C And Not exceed than 23 oC at
Night because potato do not tuberise
❖ Potato is self-pollinated crop.
❖ Vegetative propagated through tuber
❖ Generally earthing up done 40 DAP
❖ Aroma due to Di-methyl pyrazine
❖ Seed plot technique was given by Pushkarnath(1965)
❖ Seed plot technique was developed by CPCRI for multiplication of seed tubers free from viruses
in North Indian Plains.
❖ True potato seed (TPS) concept was given by Dr.S. Ramanujan
❖ TPS is botanical seed produced through sexual reproduction.
❖ TPS seed rate: 100-120g/ha
❖ Seed rateLarge size- 25-30 q/ha
Small size- 10-15 q/ha
Medium size- 15-20 q/ha
Out tubers- 8-12 q/ha
Diameter of tuber from longer axis
Planting distance (row x seed)
2.5-3.5 cm
50 x 20 cm or 60 x 15 cm
3.5-5.0 cm
60 x 25 cm
5.0-6.0 cm
60 x 40 cm
❖
❖
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❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
➢
➢
Potato is planted in hills from the third week of February to second week of April.
Warehouse potato stored at: 8-100C, 80% RH
Potatoes can be stored in the cold storage at the temperatures of 4 to 7oC.
Best method storage for potato: Cold storage
Best cold storage temperature for seed potato 2-40C,
Potato tubers have a dormancy of nearly 8-10 weeks.
Potato tuber dormancy broken by soaking tubers in 1% thiourea + 1 PPM GA3 @ 1 hour.
International Potato Center (CIP) is located at Lima in Peru, Started in 1971.
Central Potato Research Institute is located at Shimla, HP (1949)
New Variety: Kufri sadabahar, Kufri himalini, Kufri girdhari, Kufri himsona
Early variety: Kufri chandramukhi, Kufri laukar, Kufri sheetman, Kufri khyati, Kufri surya,
Kufri Ashoka,
➢ Medium variety: Kufri bahar, Kufri Sutlej, Kufri Anand, Kufri lalima, Kufri Arun
➢ Late varieties: Kufri sinduri, Kufri badsah
96
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
16. SWEET POTATO
❖ B.N.: Ipomoea batatas (2n = 90)
❖ Soil➢ Sandy loam soils with clay sub soil are ideal for tuber production. In heavy soils, tuber
size is reduced.
➢ Ideal soil pH is below 5.2, liming is necessary.
❖ Botany-Fruit is a capsule with false septa.
❖ Yield:
➢ 6-9 t/ha for rain fed crop
➢ 12-15 t/ha under average management.
❖ Storage
➢ Red skinned varieties store better than white skinned varieties. Tubers are stored better at 15oC
and 85% RH.
➢ Tubers can also be stored for 2-3 months in a pit covered with straw.
17. PEA
❖ Climate➢ Optimum temperature for seed germination is 22oC.
➢ Optimum monthly mean temperature for growth of plants is 10-18.3oC.
❖ Soil➢ Crop prefers well drained, loose and friable loamy soil for early crop and clayey soil for high
yield.
➢ Ideal pH is 6.0-7.5 and it grows under alkaline soil.
❖ Season➢ In plains of North India, -beginning of October to middle of November.
➢ In hills, pea is sown in March for summer crop and in May for autumn crop.
❖ Sowing ➢ Seeds are sown in flat or raised beds by broadcasting or by dibbling at 2.5-5.0 cm depth.
❖ Seed rate➢ Normal 100-120 kg/ha.
➢ late varieties are 80-90 kg/ha.
❖ Harvesting
➢ Toughness of seeds is determined using Tendrometer, especially for processing purposes.
➢ Peas with low tendrometer reading is offered high price.
❖ Yield
Early variety
Mid season variety
2.5 -4.0 t/ha
6-7.5 t/ha
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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Late variety
8-10 t/ha
➢ Shelling percentage ranges from 35-50.
➢ Seed yield varies from 2.0 to 2.5 t/ha.
➢ Fresh unshelled peas can be stored for two weeks at 10oC and 90-95% RH.
QUICK REVISON OF VEGETABLE CROPS
Crop
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Cucumber
Muskmelon
Watermelon
Bitter gourd
Bottle gourd
Onion
Garlic
Carrot
98
pH
6-6.5
Temperature
Storage temperature: - 0o C & 90-95% RH @ 2-8 weeks
Optimum Temp.: seed germination of cabbage: 22-26%
Minimum temp for germination: Just above 0o C.
Optimum range for growth & head form of cabbage : 15-21oC
Temp. above 43.2 oC for growth arrested in most of the cultivars.
5.5-6.6 Optimum temp. for growth of young plants – 23 oC.
But in later stages: 17-20o C
Tropical cultivars show growth even at 35oC.
Storage temperature: 0o C & 90-95% RH, RH-2, 4 weeks
High temperature - > 25 oC to formation of yellow curd.
18-24o C → most favourable temperature.
Seed does not germinate at temperature lower than 18oC.
Fruit stored for 2-3 weeks at 10-15 oC & 90% RH.
Optimum for cultivation – 24-27o C
Temperature: > 35 oC induce female sterility.
Growth & flowering temperature: 25-30oC
Germination affected below 10oC.
Optimum temperature for seed germination: 25-30o C.
Ideal temperature for vegetative growth: 12.8-23oC.
Bulb formation – Requires long days – High temperature – 20-25
o
C.
Onion bulb stored temperature: 0oC at 60-75 % RH.
Storage: 2-2.2 oC under cold storage.
6-7
6.5-7
For colour development: 15.5 to 21o C
Carotene content decreases above 21oC & below 15.5o C
Germination of seeds: 7.2 – 24 o C
Root growth & development: 18.-24 oC
Seed stalk formation: 12.2-21oC]
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Radish
Turnip
Tomato
Brinjal
5.5 –
6.6
Chilli
Okra
Potato
6-8
5-6.5
Sweet potato
5.2
Ridge gourd &
smooth gourd
Knol- khol
Pea
French bean
Cowpea
Beet root
Fresh carrot roots can be stored for 3-4 days under ordinary
conditions & for 6 months at 0o C & 93-98 % RH
Ideal temperature for growth & development of quality roots in
radish: 10-15.5 oC.
Can be stored for 2-3 days under room temperature.
Can be stored for 2 months at 0o C & 90-95%.
Roots development best flavour, texture & size at a temperature:
10-15oC.
Stored for 8-16 weeks @ 0o C with 90-95% RH
Optimum temperature: Day-21-28o C, Night – 15-20 o C
Optimum temperature for colour development: 21-24 oC
Development of lycopene, hampered at: 27 o C.
Seed germination & pollen germination adversely affected below
10 oC.
Mature green fruit can be stored at12.7 – 15.5 o C.
Most favourable temperature for production: 21-27 o C.
Optimum for seed germination: 25 oC.
Stored for 1-10 days @ 7.2-10o C- 85-90 % RH.
Better to store at 20 oC than @ 6 oC & in performed polythene
bags than in open condition.
Chilli flower drop: hight at > 35 oC.
Warehouse potato stored at 8-10 oC, 80% RH.
Stored in cold storage: 4-7 oC.
Best cold storage temperature for potato: 2-4 oC.
Potato tubers have dormancy of 8-10 weeks.
Red skinned variety store better than white skinned variety. –
Tubers are stored better at 15 oC & 85% RH.
Tubers are also stored in pit covered with straw for 2-3 months.
25-27 oC
5.5-6.8 Average: 15-20 oC
Maximum: 24o C
Minimum: 4.5 o C
6-7.5
Optimum temperature for seed germination: 22 oC
Monthly mean temperature for growth: 10-18.3 oC
Unshelled peas can be stored for 2 weeks at 10 oC & 90-95% RH
5.5-6
Optimum: 15-25 oC.
Warm season crop: Grows well between 21-35 oC
6-7
Tubers store well at 0 oC & 90% RH.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
99
SEED RATE:
Crop
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Cucumber
Muskmelon
Watermelon
Bittergourd
Bottle gourd
Onion
Garlic
Carrot
Radish
Turnip
Tomato
Brinjal
Chilli
Okra
Potato
Ridge gourd
Sponge gourd
Pea
French bean
100
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Seed Rate
Early: 600-700 g/ha
Late: 375-400 g/ ha
Early: 1 kg/ ha
Mid & Late: 300- 500 g/ ha
2.5-4 kg/ ha
Normal: 2-3 kg/ ha
Dibbling: 1 kg/ ha
3-5 kg/ ha
4.5- 6 kg/ ha
3-6 kg/ ha
Normal: 8-10 kg/ ha
Broadcasting or drilling: 25 kg/ ha
Planting of bulbs: 10-12 q/ ha
500 kg/ ha
6-10 kg/ ha
Large varieties: 10 kg/ ha
Temperate European: 12 Kg/ ha
3-4 kg/ ha
Normal: 400-500 g/ ha
Hybrid: 100-150 g/ ha
Nursery area: 250 m2
Normal: 300-400 g/ha
Hybrid: 150-200 g/ ha
Normal: 1-1.5 kg/ha
C. annum (Hybrid): 250 g/ha
Normal: 8 kg/ ha
Hybrid: 2.5 kg/ ha
Rainy season: 10-12 kg/ha
TPS: 100-120 g/ha
Large Size: 25-30 q/ha
Medium: 15-20 q/ ha
Small: 10-15 q/ ha
Out tubers: 8-12 q/ ha
3.5- 5 kg/ha
2.5- 5 kg/ ha
Normal: 100-120 kg/ha
Late: 80-90 kg/ ha
Early variety: 80- 90 Kg/ha
Pole type: 25-30 kg/ha
5-6 kg/ha
Beet Root
DISEASE MANAGEMENT
(A) POTATO
Sr. Common name
No.
1
Late blight
Causal organism
Scientific name
Remarks
Fungus
Phytopthora infestans
Most serious disease
of potato. Immune
variety : Kufri Jyoti,
Kufri Kuber Resistant variety
Confined to the
Darjeeling hills of
west bengal
2
Wart
Fungus
Synchytrium
endobioticum
3
4
5
6
7
8
Black scurf
Dry rot (wilt)
Bacterial wilt
Soft rot
Potato scab
Leaf roll
Fungus
Fungus
Bacteria
Bacteria
Bacteria
Virus
Rhizoctonia solani
Fusarium spp.
Ralstonia solanacerum
Erwinia crotovera
Steptomyces spp.
-
Causal organism
Scientific name
Remarks
Virus
-
Transmitted by thrips
Most serious disease
Reduced by
application of CCC
(500 ppm)
Transmitted by white
fly
Transmitted by
contact and seed
(B) TOMATO
Sr. Common name
No.
1
Spotted wilt
2
Leaf curl
Virus
-
3
Mosaic
Virus
-
Alkaline- favourable
Transmitted by
aphids
(C) CHILLI
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
101
Sr.
No.
1
Common name
Causal organism
Scientific name
Remarks
Little leaf
Mycoplasma
-
Transmitted by leaf
hoppers
2
Anthracnose or
dieback
Leaf curl
Mosaic
Fungus
Collectotrichum capsici
Virus
Virus
-
Transmitted by thrips
Transmitted by
Aphids
Causal organism
Scientific name
Remarks
Bacteria
Psedomonas
solanacearum
Cercospora solani
melongenae
Alternaria melonganae
3
4
(D)BRINJAL
Sr. Common name
No.
1
Bacterial Wilt
2
3
4
Cercospora Leaf
Spot
Alternaria leaf
spot
Damping Off
5
Tobacco mosaic
virus
(E) OKRA
Sr. Common name
No.
1
Yellow vein
mosaic
(F) CUCURBITS
Sr. Common name
No.
1
Powdery mildew
Fungal
Fungal
Fungal
Viral
Pythium species,
Rhizoctonia solani
-
Transmitted by aphid.
Causal organism
Scientific name
Remarks
Virus
-
Most serious disease
transmitted by white
fly
Causal organism
Scientific name
Remarks
Fungus
Erysiphe
cichoracearum
Pseudoperanospora
cubensis
Transmitted by leaf
hoppers
Transmitted by seeds
and Aphids
Transmitted by seeds
and Aphids
-
2
Downy mildew
Fungus
3
Witches broom
Mycoplasma
4
Green Mottle
mosaic
Bud Necrosis
Virus
5
Virus
(G) COLE CROPS
102
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Mostly occur in bitter
gourd
Mostly occurs in
cucumber
Mostly occurs in
water melos
Sr.
No.
1
Common name
Causal organism
Scientific name
Remarks
Black rot
Bacteria
V-shape chlorosis on
margin of leaves
Curd rot or soft
rot
3
Stalk rot
4
White rust or
white blisters
5
Black leg or
dryrot
(H) PEAS
Sr. Common name
No.
1
Powdery mildew
2
Ascochyta
3
Wilt
Bacteria
Xanthomonas
compestris pv
compestris
Erwinia crotovera
Bacteria
Fungus
Sclerotonia scleratium
Albugo candida
Fungus
Fusarium spp.
Most destructive
during storage
Acidic soil –
favourable
Transmitted by seeds
Causal organism
Scientific name
Remarks
Fungus
Fungus
Fungus
-
4
Rust
(I) BEANS
Sr. Common name
No.
1
Anthracnose
Fungus
Erysiphe polygoni
Ascochyta pisi
Fusarium oxysporum
pv pisi
Uromyces pisi
Causal organism
Scientific name
Remarks
Fungus
-
2
3
4
5
Web blight
Angular leaf spot
Floury leaf spot
Yellow flecks
Fungus
Bacteria
Bacteria
MLO’s
6
Phyllody
MLO’s
Colletotrichum
lindemuthianum
Rhizoctonia solani
Isariopsis griseola
Ramularia phaseoli
Transmitted by white
fly
Transmitted by leaf
hoppers
Scientific name
Remarks
Alternaria porii
Most favourable
temperature for
disease is 280-300 C
Resistant Variety
Nasik Red, Arka
kalyan
2
(J) ONION and GARLIC
Sr. Common name
Causal organism
No.
1
Purple Blotch
Fungus
-
Cow pea
French bean
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
103
2
Black mould
Fungus
Aspergillus niger
3
Yellow dwarf
MLO’s
-
Very common storage
disease
-
PEST MANAGEMENT
Sr.
No.
1
Crop
Common Name
Scientific name
Remark
POTATO
Tuber moth
Pthorimea
opercullela
Cut worm
Aphids
Agrolis ipsilon
Vector of potato
virus
Hemitarsonemus
lotus
Globodera latus
30-70% damage
in tuber in
storage
-
Mite
2
TOMATO
3
RADDISH
4
OKRA
Cyst Nematode or
Golden Nematode
Fruit borer
Major pest in
Deccan Plateau
Kuffri SuvarnaResistant variety
-
White fly
Helicoverpa
armigera
Bemisia tabacii
Serpentine leaf miner
Mustard saw fly
Painted bug
Shoot and fruit borer
Leaf hoppers
Liriomyza trifoli
Athalia lugens
Bagrada cruciferum
Earias vittela
Amarasca bigultula
Bister Beetle
Stem and bulb Nematode
Mylabris pustulata
Ditylen-chus dipsaci
Transmitted by
leaf curl virus
Most serious
pest of okra
-
5
GARLIC &
ONION
Thrips
Mite
Onion fly
Bulb nematode
Thrips tabacii
Aceria tulipae
Delia antiqua
-
-
6
FRENCH
BEANS &
COWPEA
CUCURBITS
Stem fly
Ophiomyia phaseoli
80-90%
mortality of plant
Red pumpkin Beetle
Aulacophora
foveicollis
-
7
104
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Fruit fly
Bactocera cucurbitae
Thrips tabaci
Scirtothripsm
dorsalis
Plutella xylostella
8
CHILLI
Thrips
Thrips
9
COLECROPS
Diammond Black moth
BRINJAL
Stem borer
Fruit and shoot borer
10
Stem borer
Ash weevil
11
12
13
14
15
Epilachna (Hadda) beetle
Leaf eating caterpillar
LEAF
VEGETABLES
TOMATO &
Root knot Nemtode
BRINJAL
SWEET
POTATO
BLACK
PEPPER
CARDAMON
TURMERIC &
GINGER
E. vigintictopunctata
Hymenia recurvalis
Melido gyne spp.
Sweet potato weevil
Cylas formicarius
Pollubeetle
Longitarsus
nigripenis
Pentalomia
nigronervroa
Dichocracis
puntiferalis
Mimegralla
coeruleferons
Aphids
Shoot capsule borer
16
Hellula undalis
Leucinodes
orbanalis
Euzophera perticella
Myllocerous
subfaseiatus
Rhizome- Fly
Arka
SuryamukhiResistant variety
Transmits leaf
curl of chilli
Most damaging
pest
Toelrant varietyPunjab barsati
Saw like
damage in the
margin of leaves
Tomato
Resistant variety:
Hissar lalit, Arka
vardan, maangla
sekection-120
Brinjal Resistant
Variety: Black
beauty
Mangrigota
Monophagous
pest
40% damage in
Black pepper
Transmit vector
of katte disease
Cause Rhizome
rot of Ginger
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
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Sr.
No.
1
Crop
Name of Disorder
Cause
POTATO
2
TOMATO
Internal Brown spot
Greening
Black Heart
Hollow Heart
Chilling injury
Freezing injury
Cracking
Blotchy ripening
Puffiness or pocket
Moisture deficiency
Excessive exposure to sunrays
Poor ventilation/ Oxygen deficiency
Excessive nitrogen
Low temperature
Low temperature
Boron deficiency
Potassium deficiency
Low or high temperature + lack of
fertilization + poor pollination
Calcium deficiency + high temperature
+ irregular moisture supply
Excessive exposure to sunrays (above
40oc)
Abnormal growing conditions
Excessive of co-oxalate/ low K:Ca
ratio
Fluctuation in temperature, High
humidity, excess Nitrogen
Cultivation in abnormal time
Frost
High temperature
Nitrogen deficiency, sowing early
variety in late season
Excessive nitrogen and Boron
deficiency
Molybdenum deficiency
Magnesium deficiency
Boron deficiency
Blossom end rot
Sun scald
Cat face
Golden flake
3
Radical cracking
CAULIFLOWER Ricyness
Fuzziness
Blindness
Leafyness
Buttoning
Hollow stem
4
CARROT
Whiptail
Chlorosisi
Browning or brown rot or
Red rot
Splitting
Cavity spot
Bitterness
Forking
Pithiness
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Boron deficiency, Excessive nitrogen,
Change in soil moisture
Calcium deficiency, excessive
Nitrogen, change in soil moisture
Excessive ethylene
Hard soil pan
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5
6
7
8
BEET ROOT
Brown Heart or crown
RADDISH
heart or heart rot
WATERMELON Blossom end rot
9
COLOCASIA
SWEET
POTATO
CELERY
10
FENCH BEAN
11
GARLIC
12
LETTUCE
13
CHILLI
14
15
RADDISH
CUCUMBER
Metsurbe
Growth crack
Black heart
Cracked stem
Pencil strip
Blossom drop
Hypocotyl cracking
(necrosis)
Bulb sprouting
Splitting
Tip burn
Rossette spotting
Blossom end rot
Frog eye rot
Akashin
Pillow
Boron deficiency
High temperature + irregular water
supply + calcium deficiency
Calcium deficiency
Moisture imbalance
Calcium deficiency
Boron deficiency
Excess of phosphorus
High temperature
Calcium deficiency
Excess nitrogen + soil moisture
Delays harvesting
Ca deficiency + Unfavorable climate
Ethylene injury
Excess Nitrogen + water stress
Boron deficiency
Calcium deficiency
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FLORICULTURE
❖ History and development of gardening in India
➢ During the 16th Century when British came to India, they introduced the styles of gardening
of England and continental Europe.
➢ Hindu, Buddhist and Japanese garden are non-formal.
➢ 1st centre of excellence for cut flower under Indo-Israel agriculture project is in Tamil
Nadu state.
SOME IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY
❖ Hedges: Shrub is planted on boundary for fencing and is used for ornamental and protective
purpose. E.g.: Karonda, Mehndi, Hibiscus and lantana.
❖ Edges(20-30cm): Low growing perennial plants are grown on the border of plots or beds e.g.:
Irisine, Alternanthera
❖ Topiary: Art of training plants into different shapes like birds, animal, domes and
umbrellas.
❖ Trophy: Arrangement of potted colorful foliage/Flowering, Shrubs/Flowering,
Annuals/herbaceous perennial around a tree or any central object.
❖ Herbaceous border: Planting of herbs in the border of plots.
❖ Carpet bedding: Covering on area of bed or series of beds with dense low growing herbaceous
plants e.g.: Alternanthera, Coleus, Portuluca
❖ Floral carpet: Art depiciting a carpet design in the ground with help of floral materials.
❖ Formal garden: Symmetrical pattern e.g.: Persian garden, Mughal garden,
❖ Informal garden: A Symmetrical pattern e.g.: Japanese garden
❖ Free style garden: Rose Garden of Ludhiana
❖ Add height of herbs & shrub.
CLASSIfiCATION OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS ORNAMENTAL PLANTS CAN BE
CLASSIFIED IN THE FOLLOWING MANNER.
❖ Based on life span
➢ Annuals: Plants, which complete their life cycle — from seed germination to seed production
in one growing season, are called ‘annuals’. They are mostly grown through seeds for example
China aster, coreopsis, gomphrena, marigold, petunia, tithonia, verbena, zinnia, etc.
➢ Biennials: These are plants that complete their seed-to-seed life cycle in two seasons or years.
such as amaranthus, celosia, hollyhock, pansy, snapdragon, etc. These require replanting.
➢ Perennials: These are plants having a life cycle that is more than two years. Perennials are
usually, categorised into two groups
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✓ Woody perennials: These comprise most of the trees, shrubs and vines, which have woody
stems and branches, such as Cassia siamea, C. fistula, Peltophorum, Cassia biflora, Lawsonia
alba, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Petrea volubilis, Quisquallis indica, Vernonia eleagniaefolia, etc.
✓ Herbaceous perennials: These include plants with soft and herbaceous (non-woody) main
stalk, such as anthurium, bird of paradise, geranium, gerbera, heliconia, pelargonium,
periwinkle, portulaca, perennial balsam, sweet violet, viola, etc.
❖ Based on season of growth:
➢ Winter season annuals: Winter season annuals are hardy. The seeds of annuals are sown in
September-October and the seedlings are transplanted during October-November. Examples
are candytuft, antirrhinum, larkspur, nasturtium, pansy, petunia, phlox, sweet sultan, verbena,
etc.
➢ Summer season annuals: These annuals are grown during the summer season The seeds are
sown in February−end or the beginning of March, and the seedlings are transplanted in the
end of March or April. Examples are cosmos, gaillardia, gomphrena, kochia, portulaca,
sunflower, tithonia, zinnia, etc.
➢ Rainy season annuals: These are grown in the rainy season The seeds are sown in June
and the seedlings are transplanted in July. Examples are Amaranthus, balsam, celosia, cock’s
comb, gaillardia, etc.
❖ Based on market value:
➢ Loose flowers: Loose flowers are harvested without stalk. Examples are barleria, bedding
dahlia, calotropis, chrysanthemum (spray type), chandni, crossandra, eranthemum, gaillardia,
jasmine, kamini, kaner (yellow and red), lotus, marigold, rose (fragrant desi type), shoe flower
(hibiscus), sunflower, tuberose, water lily, Crossandra, Tuberose, Hibiscus. etc.
➢ Cut flowers: Cut flowers are fresh flowers, flower buds or spikes harvested along with their
stalks attached to the flowers, Examples of cut flowers are alpinia, anthurium, antirrhinum, bird
of paradise, carnation, freesia, gerbera, gladiolus, gypsophila, heliconia, iris (bulbous), lupins,
narcissi, orchid, rose (improved varieties), scabiosa, statice, tuberose, watsonia, etc. They are
mostly used for bouquets and for vase arrangements.
❖ Based on plant type:
Herbaceous
Shrubs
Trees
Climbers and creepers
Lilium, verbena, viola, etc.
Bougainvillea, jasmine, lawsonia, hamelia, nyctanthes, rose,
tecoma, etc.
Gulmohar, palash, amaltas, kadamb, pride of India, etc.
Adenocalymma, antigonon, Rangoon creeper, madhulata,
petrea, thunbergia, etc
❖ Based on mode of propagation:
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Bulbous plants
Cormous plants
Rhizomatous plants
Tuberous plants
Lily, narcissus, tuberose, tulip, etc.
Crocus, gladiolus, tritonia, watsonia, etc.
Canna, hedychium, iris, lotus, etc.
Begonia, dahlia (root tuber), etc.
❖ Some Different Kind of annuals
➢ For Fragrant flower: 1. Mignonette 2. Carnation 3. Sweet pea 4. Sweet sultan 5. Sweet
william 6. Sweet alyssum 7. Stock
➢ For hanging Basket: 1. Daisy 2. Nasturtium 3. Verbena 4. Phlox 5. Sweet Alyssum 6.
Portulaca 7. Torenia 8. Lobelia 9. Hymenatherum
➢ For shady situation: 1. Salvia 2. Cineraria
➢ For rock garden: 1. Ice plant 2. Nasturtium 3. Verbena 4. Phylox 5. Gamolepis
➢ For screening purpose: 1.Hollyhock 2. Sweet pea
➢ For peculiar shape: 1. Clianthus
➢ For pots: 1. Carnation 2. Antirrhinum 3. Aster 4. Petunia
➢ For Dry flower : 1. Statice 2. Helichrysum 3. Acroclinum 4. Nigella 5. Lady's lace
➢ Herbaceous border: planting annuals in the border of a plot is called as herbaceous border.
➢ Self pollinated annuals: 1. Lupin 2. Sweet pea 3. Salvia
➢ Often cross pollinated: 1. Antirrhinum. 2. Larkspur 3. Linaria 4. Phlox 5. Pansy (50-100m
Isolation distance)
MUGHAL GARDEN (FORMAL GARDEN)
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Introduction of Mughal garden to India: Baber
Famous garden style of India is Mughal garden: Replica of the ancient Persian garden.
Running water is the life of Mughal garden.
Baradari is a canopied structure with 12 doors, specific feature of Mughal garden.
Chabutras or stone platforms, High proterting wall, Terminal building, Entrance gate, Terraces
and Baradari are important features of Mughal garden
❖ Garden shape: Rectangular or square style
MUGHAL GARDEN IN INDIA
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Pinjore garden or Yadavindra garden, Pinjore (Haryana)
Taj Mahal, Agra, Uttar Pradesh (UP)
RamBagh, Agra (UP)
Mehtab Bagh, Agra (UP)
Khusro Bagh, Allahabad (UP)
Roshanara Garden, New Delhi
Humayun's tomb, Nizamuddin, New Delhi
Rashtrapati Bhavan (President House), New Delhi
Safdarjung's Tomb, New Delhi
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❖ Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir)
❖ Nishat Gardens, Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir)
JAPANESE GARDENS:
❖ Also known as 'Nature in miniature’
❖ Famous in the world for their unique style, natural, spiritual beauty and calmness
❖ Japanese natural landscape elements of the country: Mountains, Islands, Rivers, Lakes,
Streams, Bridges
❖ Prominent features of Japanese gardens: Water, stones and evergreen plants
❖ Type of Japanese gardens: Hill garden, Tea garden and Flat garden
❖ Example of Japanese Garden: Ryoanji garden, Budha jyanti park,
ENGLISH GARDEN:
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Formation of formalism and naturalism
Amongst all European gardens most beautiful garden is English garden.
Main feature of English gardens: Lawn, Herbaceous garden, Rockery
Rockery: An idea of a mountain or alpine garden with plants growing in the crevices of rocks.
Royal Botanical Garden (1757) is located at Kew, England
Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) was established in 1804
Indian Horticultural Society (IHS) was established in 1942
Royal Agri-Horticultural Society garden is located at Kolkata (1820)
BONSAI: ORIGIN: CHINA
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Bonsai is the ancient Japanese craft of dwarfing trees
Japanese art of growing miniature tree and shrubs in containers.
Optimum size of bonsai: 30 to 60 cm
Wiring needs to bonsai to get different shape
Root pruning and repotting is a necessary practice in bonsai culture.
GARDENS IN INDIA:
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Bryant Park is located at Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu
Botanical Garden is located at Ooty, Tamil Nadu
Sim's Park, Conoor, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu
King Hyder Ali established most famous Lal Bagh garden in Bangalore, Karnataka
Floral clock is the special feature of Lal Bagh garden
Brindavan Gardens, Krishnarajasagara dam, Mysore, Karnataka (Bigest formal garden )
Baradari garden is located at Patiala, Punjab
Rose Garden of Chandigarh and Ludhiana, Punjab
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❖ Flower arrangement: Term flower' in flower arrangement includes fresh flowers, foliage, dried
twig and fruits (dry and fresh)
❖ Veni: A special kind of flower arrangement is widely used in South India to decorate to decorate
the long plait of hair (Veni) at the time of Bharat Natyam or during marriage ceremonies
❖ 2 styles of flower arrangement: Occidental and Oriental style
❖ Occidental or western or British style: Massing of flowers
❖ Oriental or Eastern Style: Line arrangement with foliage and flowers
❖ Japanese style flower arrangement is called as "Ikebana
❖ 3 basic lines in Japanese flower arrangement: Earth (Hikae), Man (Soe), Heaven (Shin)
1. MARIGOLD
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Botanical name: African marigold: Tagetus erecta, 2n=24
French marigold: Tagetus patula, 2n=48
Family: Asteraceae
African marigold is also known as Rose of India
French marigold is dwarf in nature and profuse flowering.
Essential oil content of fresh matured flower: 1.25%
Optimum temperature for seed germination: 18-30 degree Celsius.
Pinching is done 40 days after transplanting.
Marigold is cross pollinated crop.
Seed rate: 1-1.5 kg/ha
Yield: African: 11-18 t/ha
French: 8-12 t/ha
2. CHRYSANTHEMUM / GULDAUDI
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Botanical name: Chrysanthemum cineraraefolim/ Dendranthema grandiflora
Family: Asteraceae
Origin: Europe & Asia / china
Also known as Glory of east/Queen of the east/National flower of Japan
Cut flower Chrysanthemum produce one flower per stem.
Inflorescence botanically known as capitulum.
It is a short-day plant
In India small- flowered varieties are mostly propagated by Suckers or Stolons.
Commercially method of propagation: Suckers and terminal cutting
C. cineraraefolim in the temperate regions for making an insecticide called ‘Pyrethrum’.
Flowering time:
➢ South India: July to January
➢ North India: November to January
❖ Most critical technique in formation of a cascade: Pinching
❖ Pinching is one of the most important operation in chrysanthemum.
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Main purpose to reduce the plant height and promote axillary branches.
Pinching done at 14-21 DAS or 8-10cm tall plants.
Pusa guldasta – open pollinated, do not require pinching
RH for cultivation is 70-90%.
3. ROSE
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Botanical name: Rosa spp.
Family: Rosaceae
Origin: India
Its also called symbol of beauty
National flower of England, Iran, UK
Type of fruit: Hips
Rose seed: Acenes
pH of 6.0 and 7.5.
Rose colour: Anthocyanin pigments
Night temperature between 15 to 18°C and day temperature of 20 to 25°C.
Best time for planting – sep- oct
For cut flower production, a spacing of 60 x 30 cm is recommended. Normally roses are planted
at 60 x 60 cm spacing.
Growth regulators: IBA/NAA improving rooting
Season for raising cutting: June to November
Best rooting media for rose: Sand
‘T’ budding is the common method
Pruning: Exactly 45 days prior to the date of requirement of flowers during October-December.
Best time for Budding: November to February
Rosa Multiflora most commonly used rootstock of western India.
Rosa indica var odorata- most commonly used rootstock in North India.
Special practices:
Wintering
Pinching
Disbudding
Deshooting
Defoliation
Bending
Bud capping
Gulkand
➢ Wintering (root pruning) practice is followed for early flowering in pune region of
Maharashtra. After root pruning it takes 45 days to flower.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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➢ Pinching: Removal of terminal growing portions and is mainly done to reduce the plant height
and encourage lateral branching.
➢ Disbudding: Undesirable bud is removed keeping only the central bud intact.
➢ Deshooting: Mainly done in Hybrid and increase the yield to 50-75%.
➢ Defoliation: is the removal of leaves during pinching manually/using chemicals for improves
the flower production.
➢ Bending: is done in 3 months old plants, to induce the new sprouts (Balance between source
and sink)
➢ Bud capping: Bud caps are placed on the flower bud at pea size. Increase the bud size and
shape.
➢ Gulkand is prepared by mixing petal and sugar in 1:1 ratio.
➢ Trimming – Removal of undesired plant part, general practice done in rose and marigold
➢ Pulsing- treating the flower with high conc. of sucrose and germicide for short period of time
in order to improve self-life and promote flower opening
❖ Varieties:
➢ Developed by IARI varieties: Pusa shatabdi, Pusa Ajay, Pusa Mohit (Thornless variety), Pusa
Arun, Pusa ranjana, Pusa Abhishek
➢ Hybrid: Pusa bahadur, Pusa mahak, Pusa garima,
❖ Harvesting:
➢ Flowering starts from 1st year onwards.
➢ Economic yield 2nd to 10th year.
4. GLADIOLUS
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Botanical name: Gladiolus grandifloras
Family: Iridaceae
Origin: Africa
Optimum temperature for growth 16-300C
Planting time: Sept.-December
Commercial propagation: Corms and tissue culture
Corms size: 4-5 diameter
Harvesting – 60-100 DAP
Varieties:
➢ Developed by IARI: Pusa unnati, Pusa Srijana, Pusa shubham, Pusa sweta, Pusa kiran, Pusa
swarinma,
❖ New varieties: Arka Aayush, Arka manorama,
➢ Developed by NBRI: Archna, Arun, Hans, Indrani, Kalima, Kohra, Manohar, Manisha,
Mohini, Mukra
➢ Developed by IIHR: Arka amar, Arka gold, Arka Naveen, Apsara, Nazrana, Shobha, Sindu
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5. DAHLIA
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Botanical name: Dahlia variabilis
Family: Asteraceae
Origin: Mexico
Commercial propagation: Terminal cutting
Dahlia is propagated by seeds, tuberous roots, and cuttings
Planting time: North India: September to December
South India: May-June
Decorative varieties: Bappaditya, Glory of India, Pranti, Nirmal Chandra,
Natural mutant cultivar: Junita
6. ORCHIDS
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Botanical name: Vary according to variety
Family: Orchidaceae
Origin: India
NRC for Orchids located at Pakyong, Sikkim
Most of the orchids are day neutral.
Group of orchids- Epiphytes: Dendrobium, Vanda, Bulbophyllum
Lithophytes(terrestrial): Cymbidium
Temperate zone: Terrestrial orchids
Tropical zone: Epiphytic orchids
Rhizomatous orchids: require Terrestrial climate e.g., Habenaria, Eulophia
Main characteristic of the orchids is the layer of spongy tissue known as Velamen around the
root.
Velamen common feature of Epiphytic orchids
Modified tapel of orchids is known as lip or labium
Pollen in orchids is generally waxy masses known as pollinia (2-8)
Type of Inflorescence: Simple Raceme or Spike
Type of Fruit: Capsule
Pollination: Insects
No. Seeds range per capsule: 50000 to 60000.
7. JASMINE
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Scientific name: Jasminum spp.
Hindi name: Juhi, Chameli, Mogra, Champa Bela etc.
Family: Oleaceae
Introduced in the mid sixteenth century.
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❖ Jasminum sambac is considered as a native of the East Indies
❖ The world-famous jasmine oil is extracted from the flowers of Spanish jasmine (J.
grandiflorum).
❖ Some important jasmine is:
➢ J. grandiflorum- Subtropical Himalayan Region
➢ J. multiflorum-India, China, Myanmar, Malaysia, U.S.A
➢ J. officinale -Iran, India, China
❖ They also contain yellow pigments and hence used as substitute for saffron.
❖ Fruit is a berry
❖ temperature of 7-13º C
❖ J. grandiflorum and J. sambac are sensitive to frost.
SUMMARY OF FLOWER CROPS
❖ Family
Crop
Mariglod, Chrysenthemum and Dhalia
Orchid
Jasmine
Gladiolus
Rose
Flower
Asteraceae
Orchidaceae
Olaceae
Iridaceae
Rosaceae
❖ Inflorescence
Crop
Orchids
Chrysenthemum
Inflorescence
Raceme/Spike
Capitulum
❖ Type of Fruit
Crop
Orchid
Rose
Jasmine
Type of fruit
Capsule
Hip
Berry
❖ Propagation
Crop
Marigold
Chrysenthemum
Rose
116
Propagation
Seed
Sucker and terminal cutting
T budding
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Gladiolous
Dhalia
Corm/ Tissue culture
Terminal cutting/ seeds/ tuberous roots
❖ Temperature of flower crops
Crop
Jasmine
Gladiolus
Rose
Marigold
Temperature
7-13 oC
16-30 oC (Optimum growth)
Night- 15-18oC
Day- 20-25oC
18-30oC (Seed germination)
❖ Season:
Crop
Chrysenthemum (Flowering Time)
Rose
Gladiolus (Planting)
Dhalia (Planting)
Season
South India: July- Jan
North India: Nov- Jan
Planting
Raising cutting
Budding
Pruning
Sep- Dec
N. India: Sep- Dec
S India: May- June
Sep- Oct
June- Nov
Nov- Feb
Oct- Dec
MATURITY INDICES, HARVESTING AND POST HARVEST HANDLING OF FRUITS
AND VEGETABLES
❖ Horticultural maturity
It is a developmental stage of the fruit on the tree, which will result in a satisfactory product
after harvest.
❖ Physiological maturity
It refers to the stage in the development of the fruits and vegetables when maximum growth
and maturation has occurred. It is usually associated with full ripening in the fruits. The
Physiological mature stage is followed by senescence.
❖ Commercial maturity
It is the state of plant organ required by a market. It commonly bears little relation to
Physiological maturity and may occur at any stage during development stage.
❖ Harvest Maturity
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It may be defined in terms of Physiological maturity and horticultural maturity, it is a stage,
which will allow fruits / vegetables at its peak condition when it reaches to the consumers and
develop acceptable flavour or appearance and having adequate shelf life.
MATURITY OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
❖ Banana
The fruit is harvested when the ridges on the surface of skin change from angularity to round
i.e., after the attainment of 3% full stages. Dwarf banana are ready for harvest within 11-14
months after planting while tall cultivars take about 14-16 months to harvest. Peel colour change
from dark green to light green the remaining style ends were dry, and brittle and fruits were less
angular in shape.
❖ Pomegranate
Sugar percentage should be 12-16% and acid percentage 1.5—2.5%, variety Ganesh harvest
when seed colour becomes pink. In this stage TSS 12.5% and sugar acid ratio 19.5%.
❖ Mango
This can be judged when one or two mangoes ripen on the tree are fall on the ground of their
own accord. This process of fallen is known as tapaca specific gravity 1,01—1.02 and TSS 1014%.
MATURITY INDICES OF VEGETABLE CROPS
Root, bulb and tuber crops
Radish and carrot
Potato, onion and garlic
Yams, bean and ginger
FRUIT VEGETABLES
Cowpea, snap bean, sweet pea,
winged bean
Lima bean and pigeon pea
Okra
Egg plant, bitter gourd, slicing
cucumber
Tomato
Muskmelon
Watermelon
FLOWER VEGETABLES
Cauliflower
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Maturity indices
Large enough and crispy
Tops beginning to dry and topple clown
Large enough
Well filled pods that snap readily
Well filled pods that are beginning to lose their greenness.
Desirable size reached and the tips of which can be snapped
readily
Desirable size reached but still tender
Seeds slipping when fruit is cut, or green colour turning pink
Easily separated from vine with a slight twist leaving clean
cavity (full slip stage).
Dull hollow sound when thumped
Curd compact
Broccoli
Bud cluster compact
❖ Maturity index of important horticultural crops:
Horticultural crops
Mango
Banana
Jackfruit and watermelon
Muskmelon
Onion and Garlic
Citrus
Avocado
Apple
Pineapple
Maturity index
Tapka
Finger filling/Angularity
Tapping
Netting or full slip stage
Neck fall (50%)
Juice content (50%)
Oil Content
T stage
Flattening of eyes
❖ Optimum stages of harvesting for important flowers:
Flower name
Rose
Gladiolus
Lilium
Carnation
Narcissus
Anthurium
Chrysanthemum-standard
Gerbera
Alstroemaria
Dendrobium
China Aster
Stage of harvest
1-2 petals beginning to unfold
1-5 florets show colour
Coloured buds
Paint brush stage
Goose neck stage
Spadix almost fully developed
When outer florets fully expanded
Flowers open but outer 2 rows show shedding of pollens
(fully mature)
4-5 florets open
Fully open flowers
Fully open flower
❖ Post harvest technology of Flower crops:
Particulars
Highly sensitive to ethylene
Insensitive to ethylene
Highly sensitive to chilling injury
Less sensitive to chilling injury
Flowers
Alstromeria, carnation, freesia, gypsophila,
lily, narcissus, orchids, antirrhinum
Anthurium, gerbera, rose
Anthurium, bird of paradise
Chrysanthemum, gerbera, china aster
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Highly susceptible to grey mould
Highly toxic to fluorides
Gladiolus, bird of paradise
Gladiolus, freesia, gerbera, chrysanthemum
and rose
Sensitive to geotropic bending
Freesia, snapdragon and gladiolus
Flowers sensitive to geotropic bending must be transported in upright position
POST HARVEST TREATMENTS:
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
Most commonly used sugar in the vase solution: Sucrose
Floral preservatives have two basic constituents viz., sugar and biocide.
Most commonly used acidifying agent in the vase solution: Citric acid
New promising fresh flower preservatives are amino-oxyacetic acid (AOA)
Best preservative for cut flowers: silver thiosulphate (STS)
'Pulsing' refers short duration (16-24 hr) pre-shipment or pre-storage treatment
Bud opening solutions: Lower concentrations of sucrose
Holding or Vase solutions are meant to hold flowers continuously, till the terminaition of their
vase life
➢ Biocide inhibit the growth of bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms in the vase solution
➢ Most commonly used biocide in the vase solution: Quinoline salts
➢ Important biocides used for treating cut flowers:
✓ 8-hydroxy quinoline citrate (8-HQC), 8-hydroxy quinoline sulphate (8-HQS) silver nitrate,
aluminium sulphate, citric acid
➢ Gibberellin (GA3): Promotes the bud opening in carnation
➢ Important post harvest disease is due high dumidity and temperature: Grey mould (Botrytis
cinerea)
IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN POST-HARVEST TREATMENTS FOR FLOWERS:
❖ Light requireing flowers: chrysanthemum, alstroemeria, marguerite daisy (darkness leads to
yellowing)
❖ Air embolism: Air embolism occurs when small bubbles of air (emboli) are drawn into the
stem at the time of cutting. E.g., Rose
❖ Water quality:
➢ Sodium sensitive/toxic to flower crops: carnation, rose
➢ Fluoride (F) is very toxic to gerbera, gladiolus, roses and freesia
➢ Ethylene sensitive flowers: Carnation, gypsophila
❖ Pulsing/ loading:
➢ Pulsing is done by standing the freshly harvested cut flowers in solution for a short period
e.g., Gladiolus
➢ Time of pulsing: 12-24 hrs, under a light intensity of 1000 lux and 20 to 270C
➢ Pulsing treatment promote opening and increase the shelf life of flower
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➢ Sugar and other chemicals used for pulsing
➢ Sucrose (2 to 20%) is most commonly used for pulsing (Osmoregulation)
➢ Pulsed with silver thiosulphate (STS) e.g., ethylene-sensitive flowers e.g., carnation,
delphinium and gypsophila
➢ Pulsed with GA: prevent leaf yellowing e.g., Alstroemeria
❖ Bud opening solutions:
➢ Bud-cut flowers must be opened in bud-opening solutions before they are sold to the
consumer.
➢ Bud opening method is identical to pulsing, longer duration and low concentration fo sugar
➢ 8-HQC, silver thiosulphate (STS), KCl, Al2SO4, 4% sucrose are used for bud opening
❖ Vase solution:
➢ Holding solutions used in the vases to keep flowers for extending their vase life
➢ Solutions: Sugar+Germicide +Growth regulator +organic acid + Ethylene inhibitor
➢ Commonly used: sucrose + Citric acid + Quinoline salt (8-HQC, 8-HQS)
❖ Holding solution:
➢ Prepared by mixture of chemicals (sugar, germicides, salt, growth regulator)
❖ Conditioning/Hardening:
➢ Flowers are kept standing loosely in a big container, so that air can circulate around the stems.
➢ Purpose: Restore the turgidity of cut flower from water stress during storage and
transportation
➢ Water + Germicides + Citric acid @500 ppm pH: 4.5-5.0
❖ Impregnation:
➢ Ends of the cut flower stems are impregnated for short time with chemicals
➢ Prevents blockage of xylem vessel in the stem by microbial growth and stem decay.
➢ Commonly used chemicals for impregnation: AgNO3, NiCl2, CoCl2 @ 10-15 minutes
❖ Post Harvest Technology of fruit crops:
➢ Storage techniques for fruits:
✓ Normally storage temperature for temperate fruits: 0-1.10 C
✓ Relative humidity inside the cold room should preferably be maintained high (90-95%)
✓ For perishable commodities, the RH is kept in the range of 90 to 95%
➢ High-cost storage technology:
✓ Controlled atmosphere storage (CA storage)
✓ Modified atmosphere storage (MA storage)
✓ Low pressure storage (LPS) / hypobaric storage (HBS)
✓ Refrigerants commonly used in refrigerated storage: Freon, ammonia and methyl chloride
✓ Freon is most popular, odourless, nontoxic
➢ Controlled atmospheric storage (CAS storage):
✓ Low O2 and high CO2 stored at gas tight containers at optimum storage temperature e.g.,
Mango, pear and tomato.
✓ Generally, above 1% of CO2 and below 8% of O2 used in CA storage
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✓ CA storage was first suggested by W.R. philips, Canada.
✓ Apple: CA storage: 10% of CO2 and 11% o2 with a temperature of 40 C
➢ Modified Atmospheric storage (MAS):
✓ Recently in MAS method maintaining the RH at 90 to 95% is recommended for the storage
of green vegetables and other root and tuber vegetables to prolong the storage life.
✓ Most commonly used oxygen absorbers in MAS: hydrated lime, activated charcoal,
magnesium oxide.
✓ Most commonly used ethylene absorbers in MAS: Potassium permanganate absorbed on
celite, vermiculite, silica gel or alumina pellets.
❖ Recommended storage temperature, relative humidity, and storage life of fresh fruits for
commercial storage:
Fruit
Apple
Apricot
Grape
Guava
Kiwifruit
Lemon
Litchi
Mango
Olive
Papaya
Peach
Pomegranate
Mandarin
Strawberry
Temperature (0C)
-1 – 4
-0.5-0.0
-1.1
7.2-10.0
-0.5-0
8.9-10.0
2.1
11.7-12.8
7.2-10.0
7.2
0.0-3.0
0.0
0.0-4.2
0.0
Relative humidity(%)
85-90
85-90
90-95
90
90-95
85-90
90-95
85-90
85-90
85-90
85-90
90
85-90
90-95
Approx. storage life
4-8 months
1-2 weeks
3-6 weeks
2-3 weeks
3-5 months
1-6 months
3-5 weeks
2-3 weeks
4-6 weeks
1-2 weeks
2-4 weeks
2-4 weeks
2-4 weeks
5-7 days
❖ Storage techniques for flowers:
➢ Storage temperature for tropical flower: 10-150 C e.g., Anthurium, cattleya and poinsettia
➢ Storage temperature for sub-tropical flowers: 2-80 C e.g., Gladiolus, strelitzia and anemone
❖ Refrigerated storage for flowers:
Storage
Dry
Wet
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Crop
Carnation
Chrysanthemum
Gerbera
Gladiolus
Rose
Anthurium
Carnation
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Storage temperature
0-10C
10 C
20 C
40 C
0.5 to 20 C
130C
40C
Max storage period
16-24 weeks
3 weeks
2 days
2-3 weeks
2 weeks
2-4 weeks
4 weeks
Dendrobium
5 to 70C
10-14 days
0
Gerbera
4 C
3-4 weeks
0
Gladiolus
0.5 to 1.6 C
10 days
0
Tuberose
7 to 10 C
3-6 days
❖ Seed storage:
➢ Orthodox seeds: Desiccation tolerance during development and may be stored in the dry
state for predictable periods under defined conditions
➢ Recalcitrant seeds do not survive drying to any large degree and are thus not amenable to
long term storage
➢ Classification of fruit seeds based on storage behaviour
Orthodox seeds
Recalcitrant seeds
Apple, grapes, ber, peach, plum,
phalsa, pomegranate, passion fruit,
custard apple, date palm, fig, guava
Mango, Mangosteen, citrus, jackfruit, loquat,
litchi, rambutan, avocado, barbados cherry,
carambola, durian, bread fruit, rubber, cocoa,
oil palm
➢ Cryopreservation:
✓ Storage of seed material in liquid nitrogen N2 @ -1960 C and liquid dioxide -430C
✓ Most commonly used cryoprotecatants: Glycerol and Dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO)
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
❖ Curing: Curing is done immediately after harvesting. It strengthens the skin. The process is
induced at relatively higher temperature and humidity, involving suberization of outer tissues
followed by the development of wound periderm which acts as an effective barrier against
infection and water loss. It is favoured by high temperature and high humidity. Potato, sweet
potato, colocasia, onion and garlic are cured prior to storage or marketing. Potato tubers are held
at 18°C for 2 days and then at 7°—10°C for 10—12 days at 90% relative humidity. Curing also
reduces the moisture content especially in onion and garlic. Drying of superficial leaves of onion
bulbs protects them from microbial infection in storage.
❖ Degreening: It is the process of decomposing green pigment (Chlorophyll) in fruits usually
applying ethylene or similar metabolic inducers to fruit. It is applicable to banana, citrus and
tomato. Degreening is carried out in special treating rooms with controlled temperature and
humidity in which low concentration of ethylene (20 ppm) is applied.
❖ Pre-cooling: High temperatures are detrimental to keeping quality of fruits and vegetables,
especially when harvesting is done during hot days. Pre-cooling is a means of removing the field
heat. It slows down the rate of respiration, minimizes susceptibility to attack of micro-organisms,
and reduces water loss. Peas and okra which deteriorate fast need prompt pre-cooling.
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❖ Blanching: Blanching is used for variety of purposes. It is defined as a mild heat treatment
applied to tissue (usually plant) primarily to inactivate enzymes prior to freezing, drying or
canning. It is also known as scalding.
❖ Lye peeling: Fruits like peaches, apricots, sweet oranges, mandarin oranges and vegetables like
carrots and sweet potatoes are peeled by dipping them in 1 to 2 per cent boiling caustic soda
solution (lye) for 30 seconds to 2 minutes depending on their nature and maturity.
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FOOD PRESERVATION
❖ High temperatures used for preservation are usually:
1. Pasteurization temperature – below 100oC
2. Heating at about 100oC
3. Sterilization temperature above 100oC.
METHOD OF FOOD PRESERVATION
❖ PHYSICAL METHODS:
Refrigeration
Freezing
Pasteurization
Sterilization
Drying and dehydration
Irradiation
1. Refrigeration: In this method, foods are preserved at a temperature of 0 to 5°C.
2. Freezing: Freezing temperature of -18 to -40°C reduces the growth of microorganisms and
enzyme activity is also reduced.
3. Pasteurization: Foods are heated at boiling water temperature, under pasteurization method.
Pasteurization is a heat treatment that kills part but not all the microorganisms present
4. Sterilization: Foods are held at a temperature higher than 100°C. Through this method, all
possible microorganisms are destroyed completely.
5. Drying and dehydration: In these methods, attempt is made to remove the moisture.
Removal of moisture prevents the growth of spoilage causing microorganisms in the food.
Eg. Raisins (<17 % moisture)
6. Irradiation: Irradiation is very potent mode of prevention of spoilage of food. The reaction
between ion particle and food, forms the basis of prevention of spoilage of food. Through this
method.
❖ Canning temp.
1. Fruit processing- 100 oC
2. Veg. processing- 115-121 oC
❖ Cryopreservation – Preserved in liquid nitrogen at -196oC
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METHODS OF PRESERVATION
❖ Preservation by high temperature:
Pasteurization
Partial destruction of microbes
Temperature < 1000 C
Commonly used for fruit juices
Sterilization
Complete destruction of microbes
Temperature > 1000C
Commonly used for canning of vegetables
❖ Preservation by low temperature:
➢ Low temperature preservation methods:
✓ Cellar storage (150C): e.g., Root crops, potatoes, onions and apples are most suitable
✓ Refrigeration or chilling method: o to 50 C
✓ Freezing method: 180C to -400C
➢ Best way preserving pure fruit juice: Freezing
❖ Preservation by chemical preservatives:
➢ Any substances added to food by the process of curing is known as smoking
➢ Salt act as a preservative: 15-25%
➢ Sugar act as a preservative: 62-65%
➢ Alcohol acts as a preservative in wines: 14%
➢ Vinegar contains 5% acetic acid
CHEMICAL METHODS
This method is based on utilization of various chemicals for preservation of foods. Salt, Sugar,
Acetic acid and Chemical preservatives like Potassium met bisulphite and Sodium Benzoate are
known chemicals for food preservation.
❖ Class I preservatives or natural preservatives: salt, sugar, vinegar, syrup, spices, honey and
edible oil
❖ Class II Preservatives or chemical preservatives: benzoates, sorbates, nitrites and nitrates of
sodium or potassium, sulfites, glutamates, glycerides. Maximum limit for these substances under
FPO (Fruit Products order) in different fruit and vegetable products vary between 40 to 2000
ppm (SO2), 120 to 750 ppm (benzoic acid) and 50 to 500 ppm (sorbic acid) depending upon the
type and category of foods.
❖ Both, natural and chemical preservatives are categorized into 3 types:
1. Antimicrobial: that destroy or delay the growth of bacteria, yeast and molds. E.g. nitrites and
nitrates, sulphurdioxide, Benzoates and sorbates are anti-fungals used in jams, salads, cheese
and pickles.
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2. Antioxidants that slow or stop the breakdown of fats and oils in food that happens in the
presence of oxygen (Oxidation) leading to rancidity. Examples of antioxidants include BHT,
BHA, TBHQ, and propyl gallate.
3. Anti-enzymatic preservatives that block the enzymatic processes such as ripening occurring
in foodstuffs even after harvest. E.g., Erythorbic acid and citric acid
❖ Two important chemical preservatives are permitted to beverages according to the FPO
(1955).
1. Sulphur dioxide: It is widely used throughout the world in the preservation of juice, pulp,
nectar, squash, crush, cordial and other products. It has good preserving action against bacteria
and moulds and inhibits enzymes, etc. it acts as an antioxidant and bleaching agent. It is
generally used in the form of its salts such as sulphite, bisulphate and metabisulphite. Potassium
metabisulphite (K2O 2SO2 (or) K2S2O5) is commonly used as a stable source of SO2. According
to FPO, the maximum amount of SO2 allowed in fruit juice is 700 ppm, in squash, crush and
cordial 350 ppm and in RTS and nectar 100 ppm.
The advantages of using SO2 are
a.
b.
c.
d.
It has a better preserving action than sodium benzoate against bacterial fermentation
it helps to retain the colour of the beverage for a longer time than sodium benzoate
being a gas, it helps in preserving the surface layer of juices also
being highly soluble in juices and squashes, it ensures better mixing and hence their
preservation
e. any excess of So2 present can be removed either by heating the juice to about 71oC or bypassing air through it or by subjecting the juice to vacuum. This causes some loss of the
flavouring materials due to volatilization, which can be compensated by adding flavours.
Disadvantages (or) limitations
a. It cannot be used in the case of some naturally coloured juices like those of jamun,
pomegranate, strawberry, coloured grapes, plum etc. on account of its bleaching action.
b. It cannot also be used for juices which are to be packed in tin containers because it not only
corrodes the tin causing pinholes, but also forms H2S which has a disagreeable smell and
reacts with the iron of the tin container to form a black compound, both of which are highly
undesirable and
c. SO2 gives a slight taste and colour to freshly prepared beverages but these are not serious
defects if the beverage is diluted before drinking.
2. Benzoic acid: Benzoic acid is more effective against yeasts than against moulds. It does not
stop lactic acid and acetic acid fermentation.
❖ Permissible limits of Class II preservatives in food products (FPO) Sulphurdioxide
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Fruit pulp
1.
2. Fruit juice concentrate
3. Dried fruits viz., apples, peaches pears and other fruits
4. Raisins
5. Squashes, cordials, crushes, fruit syrups and fruit juices
6. Jam, marmalade, preserve
7. Crystallized and glazed fruits
8. RTS
9. Pickles and chutneys
10. Dehydrated vegetables
11. Syrups and sherbets
12. Wines
Benzoic acid
1. Squashes, crushes fruit, syrups, cordials
2. Jam, jelly, marmalade
3. Pickles and chutneys
4. Tomato and other sauces
5. Tomato puree and pasta
2000-3000 ppm SO2
1500 ppm SO2
2000 ppm SO2
750 ppm SO2
700 ppm of KMS
40 ppm SO2
150 ppm SO2
70 ppm
100 ppm SO2
2000 ppm SO2
350 ppm SO2
450 ppm SO2
600 ppm
200 ppm
250 ppm
750 ppm
250 ppm
❖ Sulphuring or sulphiting: Sulphur dioxide is used to preserve the colour and increase the
shelf life of dried foods. There are two main methods of adding sulphur to foods - sulphuring
and sulphiting. Sulphuring is more common for fruits and sulphiting for vegetables.
Sulphuring uses rock sulphur which may be more readily available than sodium or potassium
metabisulphite. One of the disadvantages of sulphiting is that it wets the fruit (the fruit is
dipped into a solution of metabisulphite). This prolongs the drying period required.
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES BASED ON pH:
➢ Lacquering is the process of coating the inside of can with lacquer (Golden coloured enamel)
which prevents discolouration
➢ Acid resistant lacquer or R-enamel or AR cans: Acidic fruits and vegetables
➢ Sulphur resistant lacquer or C-enamel or SR cans: Used for vegetables and Non-acid foods
➢ SR cans used for non acid foods only like pea, corn, lima bean and red kidney bean
❖ Lactic acid fermentation: sauerkraut → Cabbage
❖ Pickles:
➢ Pickling is the result of fermentation by "lactic acid bacteria"
➢ Lactic acid bacteria are most active at 300C
➢ Lactic acid bacteria grow in 8-10% of salt solution
➢ Growth of majority of spoilage organisms is inhibited by 15% of salt
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➢ Advisable to place vegetables in 10% salt solution for vigorous lactic acid bacteria
➢ Preservation by salt (15% or above) method of preservation is mostly used in vegetables
➢ Pickles preserved by oil: Mango, Cauliflower
➢ Finished pickle should not be less than 2% acetic acid
❖ Fermented beverages:
➢ Optimum temperature for fermentation of grape wine is 22-280C
➢ Common yeast used in wine: Saccharomyces cerevisiasae var. ellipsoideus (20 ml/kg of
grapes)
➢ Feni is a fermented wine made from cashew apple in Goa
Salt
Sugar
Vinegar
Potassium Meta bisulphite
and sodium benzoate
Fermentation
1. Salt. Salt at a concentration of 15-16 % is used for preservation of food and minimum 12
%
2. Sugar. Any product containing 65 % or more sugar can be kept in good condition for quite
longer period.
3. Vinegar. Vinegar contains acetic acid, and it turns the medium acidic. Acidic medium not
favour the growth of many microorganisms. Food material containing 1-5 % acetic Solution
can be kept fresh for longer period.
4. Potassium Meta bisulphite and sodium benzoate. These chemicals are used widely for
preservation of foods.
5. Potassium Meta bisulphite (KMS): It used against colour less fruit juices/pulp.
6. Sodium benzoate: Used in colored fruit
7. Fermentation: Decomposition of carbohydrate by microorganism or enzyme into organic
acid or alcohol is termed as fermentation. Eg. Grape wine (7-20 % alcohol)
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ASEPSIS: Prevent
entry of microbes.
PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION OF SOME COMMON PRODUCTS
JAM
❖ Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with sufficient quantity of sugar to a reasonably thick
consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position.
❖ It should contain not less than 68% per cent total soluble solids (TSS) & 45% portion of
prepared fruit. (Determined by a refractometer).
❖ Jam contains 0.5%-0.6% acid.
❖ Jam may be made from a single fruit (apple, strawberry, banana, pineapple etc.) or from a
combination of two or more fruits.
❖ The preparation of jam requires several unit operations viz., selection of fruit, preparation of
fruit, and addition of sugar, addition of acid, mixing, cooking, filling, closing, cooling and
storage.
❖ Jam may be made from a single fruit (apple, strawberry, banana, pineapple etc.) or from a
combination of two or more fruits.
❖ Sugar is added according to acid content.
❖ Process: Ripe firm fruits → Washing → Peeling →Pulping (Remove seed and core) →
Addition of sugar and acid → Boiling (with continuous stirring) → Judging of end point by
further cooking up to 105 C (or) 68% TSS (or) by sheet test → Filling hot into sterilized bottles
→ cooling → Sterilized bottles → cooling → Waxing → Capping → Storage (at ambient
temperature).
❖ Judging of end point in JAM: Sheet test, TSS test, Temperature test
JELLY
❖ Jelly is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear, strained solution of pectin containing
fruit extract with sufficient quantity of sugar and measured quantity of acid.
❖ A perfect jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too stiff and should have the original
flavor of the fruit.
❖ Sugar is added according to Pectin content.
❖ Red colour of jelly is due to charring of sugar.
❖ Pectin is determined by Alcohal test and Jelmeter test.
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❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
Different fruits like guava, plum, papaya, and gooseberry.
Jelly contains 0.5-0.75% acid.
Pectin content in jelly 0.5-1%
As per FPO specification, jelly should have 65% TSS and 45 % portion of fruit juice.
Final ph of jelly is 3.8
MARMALADE
❖ Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which slices of the citrus fruit, or its peels are suspended.
❖ Marmalades are generally made from citrus fruits like oranges and lemons in which shredded
peels are suspended.
❖ End point of Marmalade 65% TSS @1050C.
SQUASH
❖ It is concentrated beverage prepared from juice of fruits after mixing it with strained sugar syrup
and preservative.
❖ As per FPO specification, squash contain 25% fruit juice and 40% TSS.
Preserves
❖ Preserves (Murabbas) are prepared from whole fruits and vegetables or their segments by
addition of sugar followed by evaporation to a point where microbial spoilage can’t occur.
❖ The finished product can be stored without hermetic sealing and refrigeration.
❖ Sodium Benzoate: Check growth of yeast.
❖ KMS: Check the growth of bacteria and Fungi.
Syrup
❖ A solution of sugar in water is called a syrup and process of adding syrup in fruit product is
called as syruping.
❖ White, refined sucrose is used for making syrup.
❖ Syruping is commonly done in fruits.
❖ Syruping is to improve the flavor of product and to serve as a medium of heat transfer during
canning.
Brining
❖ Brine is a solution of salt in water is called a brine.
❖ The objective of brining is similar to syruping; however, brining is done only in vegetables.
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Pickling is the result of fermentation by lactic acid forming bacterial which are generally present
in large numbers on the surface of fresh vegetables and fruits. Theses bacteria can grow in acid
medium and in the presence of 8-10% salt solution whereas the growth of a majority of undesirable
organisms is inhibited. Minimum of 12 % salt (ICAR).
The FPO specifications of sauces are TSS – 25% and acidity – 1%.
Syrup: This type of fruit beverage contains 25% fruit juice (or) pulp, 65% TSS, 1.3 to 1.5% acidity
and 350 ppm of So2 or 600 ppm of KMS.
RTS: contains atleast 10% fruit juice and 10% total soluble solids besides about 0.3 per cent acid.
Squash: atleast 25 per cent fruit juice (or) pulp, 45% TSS, 1.0% acidity and 350 ppm of So2 (or)
600 ppm of sodium benzoate.
Cordial: contains atleast 25% juice, 30% TSS, 1.5% acid and 350 ppm of So2.
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES CAN BE CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING FOUR
GROUPS ACCORDING TO THEIR PH VALUE
Class
Low acid (called nonacid)
pH
Above 5.0
Product
Vegetables such as peas, lima bean, asparagus,
cauliflower, potato, spinach, beet, corn, french bean
Medium acid
4.5-5.0
Turnip, carrot, okra, cabbage, pumpkin, beet, green
bean, etc., and products like soups and sauces
Acid
3.7-4.5
Tomato, pear, banana, mango, jackfruit, pineapple,
sweet cherry, peach, apple and other fruits
High acids
Below 3.7
Citrus juice, rhubarb, prune, sauerkraut, pickle,
chutney, etc.
FPO SPECIFICATIONS FOR SOME PRESERVED FOODS:
Food
Jam
Jelly
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TSS
68 %
65%
Fruit juice or Pulp
45%
45%
squash
40%
25%
RTS (Ready to Serve)
10%
10%
Cordial
30%
25%
Marmalade
65%
TSS
25%
TYPE OF SPOILAGE IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES:
Grey mould rot
Rhizopus soft rot
Blue mould rot
Black mould rot
Slimmings or soury
Botrytis cinerea
Rhizopus nigricans
Penicillium italicum
Aspergillus niger
Saprophytic bacteria
IMPORTANT MOULDS:
Blue moulds
Black moulds
Grey Moulds
Spoilage of canned fruits
Penicillium
Aspergillus
Mucor sp.
Byssochlamys fulva
pH RANGE OF GROWTH:
Moulds
Yeasts
Bacteria
1.5-8.5
2.5-8.5
4.0-7.5
❖ Browning reaction: Browning reactions is due to enzymatic and non enzymatic
➢ Enzymatic browning: Apple, Bananas, Brinjal
➢ Brown colour due enzymes: polyphenol oxidase (PPO), tyrosinase and catecholase
➢ Non-enzymatic browning: Sugar and sugar related compounds
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS
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Common Name
Scientific Name
Family
Black Pepper/ King
of spices
Piper nigrum
Piperaceae
Cardamom/ True
cardamom
Ginger
Elettaria
cardamomum
Zingiber
Officinale
Curcuma longa
Zingiberaceae
Syzygium
aromaticum
Cinnamomum sp
Crocus sativus
Myrtaceae
Chromosome Origin
number
52
Western
Ghats of
India
48
Western
Ghats
22
Southeast
Asia
2n = 3X = 63 Southeast
Asia
2n = 22
Indonesia
Lauraceae
Iridaceae
2n= 24
2n = 3X= 24
Turmeric
Clove
Cinnamon
Saffraon
Zingiberaceae
Zingiberaceae
Sri Lanka
Greece or
Iran
CLASSIFICATION OF SPICES
❖ Classification of spices based on growth habit:
Growth habit
Herbs
Shrubs
Trees
Climbers
Perennial
herbs/Rhizomatous
herbs
Spices
Coriander Cumin, Fennel, Fenugreek, Chilli, Parsley
Rosemary, perennial chilli, pomegranate
Garcinia, nutmeg, clove, Cinnamon, tamarind
Black pepper, Tailed pepper, vanilla
Ginger, Turmeric, mango ginger, asafoetida
❖ Commercial Classification based on Production/ importance:
Importance/Production basis
Major spices
Major seed spices
Minor seed spices
Major tree spices
Minor tree spices
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Spices
Black pepper, cardamom, Ginger, turmeric,
chilli
Coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek
Ajowan, celery, parsley, dill, caraway, black
cumin, black caraway
Nutmeg, clove, cinnamon, tamarind, allspice,
kokum, curry leaf
Blimbi, carambola
Herbal spices
Basil, rosemary, thyme, horseradish, garlic,
sage, oregano
❖ Classification based on useful part:
Useful Fruit
Whole fruit
Bark
Aril
Unopened flower bud
Tripartite Funnel shaped stigma/stigma
Kernel
Leaves
Rhizome
Dried latex
Root
Seeds/fruits
Fruit pulp/rind
Spices
All spice, Black pepper, chilli, cumin, fennel,
Ajowan
Cinnamon, cassia
Mace of nutmeg
Clove
Saffron
Nutmeg
Basil, bay leaf, Marjoram, sage, curry leaf,
rosemary
Ginger, turmeric, mango ginger, rosemary
Asafoetida
Horse radish, angelica
Aniseed, caraway, coriander, dill, fenugreek,
mustard
Tamarind, Garcinia
❖ Basic uses of spices and herbs:
Basic Uses
Flavouring
Masking/deodorizing
Pungency
Colouring
Spices
Allspice, cardamom, cinnamon, cumin, mint, nutmeg
Clove, garlic, bay leaves, coriander, onion, thyme, sage, rosemary
Chilli, pepper, ginger, horse radish, mustard
Paprika, saffron, turmeric
❖ Major flavour, taste and colour contributing compounds:
Spices
Black pepper
Cardamom
Chilli
Turmeric
Ginger
Coriander
Cumin
Fenugreek
Fennel
Predominant flavour, taste and colour compounds
Piperine
α-terpenyl acetate, 1,8-cineole
Capsaicin, capsanthin, capsorubin
Curcumin
Zingiberene
Linalool
Cuminaldehyde
Trigonellin
Anethole
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Cinnamon
Clove
All spice
Nutmeg
Star Anise
Horse radish
Basil
Celery
Rosemary
Thyme
Parsley
Vanilla
Saffron
Asafoetida
Cinnamaldehyde
Eugenol
Eugenol
Sabnene
Anethole
Sinigrin
Methyl chavicol
Limonene
Cineol
Thymol
1,3,8-p-Menthatreiene
Vanillin
Crocin
Ferulic acid
❖ Colour compounds present in spices:
Colour compounds
β-Carotene
Colour
Reddish orange
Crytoxanthin
Lutein
Violaxanthin
Zeaxanthin
Capsanthin
Capsorubin
Crocetin
Crocin
Neoxantin
Cucurmin
Flavonoids
Red
Dark red
Orange
Yellow
Dark red
Purple red
Dark red
Yellow orange
Orange yellow
Orange-yellow
Yellow
Spices
Chilli, paprika, saffron,
mustard
Paprika, Chilli
Paprika, parsley
Paprika, parsley
Paprika
Paprika, chilli
Paprika, chilli
Saffron
Saffron
Parsley
Turmeric
Ginger
MAJOR SPICES:
BLACK PEPPER:
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King of spices: Piper nigrum:
Family: Piperaceae
2n = 52:
Origin: western Ghats of India
Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) christened as the 'King of spices']
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Black pepper is a humid tropic crop it requires high rainfall and humidity
Perennial climbing vine
Inflorescence type: Catkin
Fruit type: Single seeded berry
Pepper is naturally self-Pollinated crop due to presence of geitonogamy.
Edible portion: Fleshy pericarp and hard endocarp
For commercially propagation mainly cuttings selected from: Runner shoots.
Cuttings taken from middle of 1/3rd of the shoot.
Rapid multiplication ratio: 1: 40
Cultural Practices:
➢ Lopping: done for regulation of shade, it provides optimum light to the vines and standard
trees to grow straight
❖ Spacing: 2.7 m x 2.7 m = 110 vines/ha (mono-cropping system)
❖ Majority of the cultivated varietal types are monoecious.
❖ Karimunda is the most popular cultivar in Kerala.
❖ Duration of flowering to fruiting: 6 months.
❖ Full bearing stage of vine: 7-8 year after planting
❖ Pepper vine starts yield from 3-4th year of planting.
❖ Pepper vines yield decline starts after 20-25 years.
❖ Pepper fruit setting percentage: 50%
❖ Spikle shedding percentage: 14-65%
❖ Harvesting stage: Fully mature and nearly ripe
❖ Maturity Index:
➢ Black Pepper: Fully mature and 1-2 berries start turning from yellow to red in each spike.
❖ Pungency in black pepper is due to piperine.
❖ Oleoresin is produced by solvent extraction of pepper powder.
CARDAMOM:
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Queen of Spices/True cardamom: Elettaria cardamomum
Family: Zingiberaceae
2n = 48
Origin: Western Ghats
Cardamom, is a herbaceous perennial bushy herb with underground (Subterranean) Rhizomes
and aerial leafy stems (tillers) made of leaf sheaths
Cardamom is commercially cultivated for its dried fruits (capsules)
Highly prized spices in the word
Shade loving plant (pseophyte)
Humid tropical climate is ideal for cardamom cultivation
Type of pollination: Cross pollination
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Mode of pollination: Honeybees (Apis cerana indica)
Propagation: suckers (Most preferred method)
Trench system of planting is generally preferred.
1 kg of seed capsules (500-800 fruits) produces 3000-5000 seedlings.
Acid scarification with 25% nitric acid for 10 minutes: increases the germinatin percentage.
Peak period of harvest is October-November.
Average yield of dry capsules: 500 kg/ha
Economic age of plantation: 12-15 years
Major constituents for cardamom oil: 1,8-cineole and terpenyl acetate
Volatile oil content of cardamom seeds: 6.6-10.6%
Most of cardamom varieties contain 5-9% oil
Curing temperature for cardamom: 500 C (Moisture of freshly harvested capsules reduced from
8-12%)
❖ Generally cured cardamom has 12% moisture
❖ Flue curing: 45-500 C @ 18-22 hrs. it is one of the best methods of drying (getting high quality
green cardamom)
❖ Bleached cardamom:
➢ Prepared by using SO2, KMS(25% containing 1% HCl for 30 min) and H2O2 (4-6% at pH
4.0)
❖ Pest and Diseases:
➢ Mosaic or katte viral disease is transmitted by aphids (Pentalonia caladii)
➢ Cardamom thrips is the most destructive and persistent pest of cardamom
GINGER:
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Ginger: Zingiber Officinale
Family: Zingiberaceae
2n= 22
Origin: Southeast Asia
Ginger is an herbaceous perennial, having underground branched rhizome with small scales.
Rhizomes used as a spice.
Ginger: exhaustive Crop (it is not desirable to grow ginger in the same soil year after year)
Major pungent principle of ginger: Gingerol
Type of inflorescence: Spike
Seed rate: 1500-1800 kg/ha
Ginger attains full maturity in 210-240 days (7-8 months) after planting
Vegetable purpose: after 5-6 months
Moisture content: Fresh ginger: 80-82%, Storage purpose: 10%
Yield of dry ginger: 19-25% of fresh ginger
Recovery of dry ginger: 16-18%
Average yield: 15-25 t/ha
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Fibre content of ginger: 5-19%
Ginger Oil (0.5%-3.0%) possesses only aroma and not the flavour of spice.
Unbleached ginger: Peeled rhizomes washed and sun drying
Oleoresin content in ginger: 3.5-9.5%
Drying recovery: 16-18%
Dry ginger is harvested between at 6-7 months after planting
TURMERIC:
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Turmeric: Curcuma longa
Family: Zingiberaceae
2n = 3X = 63
Origin: Southeast Asia
Turmeric is the dried underground rhizome of perennial herbaceous herb.
It is used as a condiment, dye, drug and cosmetic in addition to its use in religious ceremonies.
Curcumin is the golden-yellow pigment present in turmeric. It is used at levels of 5-20 ppm.
Shade loving condiment crop.
Curcumin (4-7%) is the principal colouring pigment in turmeric.
Curcumin is used as therapeutic effects and anti-cancer property.
Processing 3 steps: Curing = > polishing => colouring
Average curcumin content in rhizomes 1.8 to 5.5%
Optimum sowing time: May-June or July-August
Essential oil content: 2.5 to 7.2%
Seed rate: 2500 kg/ha (35-45 g of weight)
Average yield of green turmeric 25-25 tonnes /ha
Drying recovery: 20-25%
Yield of oleoresin: 7-15%
SEED SPICES:
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Major seed Spices in India: Cumin, coriander, Fenugreek, fennel
Suitable spice for eroded soils: Dill
Suitable for nutritionally eroded soil: Coriander, cumin and fenugreek
National Research Center for seed Spices (NRCSS), Ajmer, Rajasthan
TREE SPICES:
CLOVE
❖ Clove: Syzygium aromaticum
❖ Family: Myrtaceae
❖ Origin: Indonesia
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Economic part: Unopened flower bud
Tropical evergreen tree, grown in humid tropics.
Type of fruit: Single seeded drupe
Propagation: Seeds
Clove trees starts yield on 7-8 year after planting.
Full bearing stage Clove attains after 15 year.
Harvesting stage: Unopened flower bud begin to turn pink colour
Average annual yield : 2 kg/tree
Clove oil contains 70-80% of tree eugenol and 5-12% of eugenyl acetate
Leaves oil content: 1.5-1.8% oil
Stem oil has 5-7% oil (70-90% eugenol)
Bud oil (17%) is superior in odour and flavour to stem oil and leaf oil
Clove bud oil contains 85% eugenol
Mehtyl-n-amyl ketone: Present only in bud oil
Volatile oil content of oleoresin is usually 70-80%
CINNAMON:
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Cinnamon: Cinnamomum sp.
Family: Lauraceae
Origin: Srilanka
Cinnamon is hardy plant.
Edible part: Bark
Mainly cultivated as a rainfed crop
Oleoresin content in cinnamon: 7-10%
Cinnamon Bark has 0.5-2.5% oil (75% cinnamaldehyde & 5-10% Eugenol)
Major constituent of cinnamon leaf oil: Eugenol
Common method of propagation leaf oil: Eugenol
Common method of propagation: seeds
Bark is used to extract oil and oleoresin.
Cinnamon has 7-10% oleoresin.
Average yield: 200-300 kg/ha (Dried barks)
CONDIMENTS:
SAFFRON:
❖ Saffraon: Crocus sativus
❖ Family: Iridaceae
❖ 2n = 3X= 24
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Origin: Greece or Iran
Economic part: Dried (Strikingly dark red or orange tripartite funnel shaped) stigma.
Perennial herb with globular underground corm
Propagation: Corms (Planted in August)
Flowering time: End of October
Yield: 160kg of fresh flowers/ha (5kg of dried saffron)
Drying percentage: 20%
MAJOR DISEASES IN SPICES:
Disease
Major Spices:
Black pepper
Quick wilt/foor rot
Pollu disease/berry spot
Slow decline/slow wilt
Cardamom
Katte disease
Azhukal capsule rot
Damping/rhizome rot
Ginger
Soft rot/ Rhizome rot
Bacterialwilt
Turmeric
Rhizome and root rot
Seed spices
Coriander
Powdery mildew
Grain mould
Fenugreek
Root rot
Tree spices
Causal Organisms
Remarks
Phytophthora capsici
Colletotrichum
gloeosporiodides
Fusarium sp., Rhizoctonia
sp, pythium sp., Diplodia
sp.,
Sudden collapse of vines
Malformation of Berries
Virus
Vector: Pentalonia
nigronervosa
Vector: Radopholus similis
Meloidogyne incognita
Phytophthora meadii, P.
nicotianae var. nicotianae
Pythium vexans,
Rhizoctonia solani
Pythium aphanidermatum
Pseudomonas
solanacearum
Yellowing of leaves
Major disease in Kerala
Pythium graminicolum
Erysiphe polygoni
Helminthosporium sp,
Alternaria sp., Carvularia
sp., and Fusarium sp.,
Major foliage disease
Storage disease
Rhizoctonia solani
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Nutmeg
Dieback
Thread blight
Fruit rot
Diplodia natalensis
Marasmius sp.,
Diplodia natalensis and
phytophthora spl.,
Cinnamon
Pink disease
Seedling blight
Leaf spot
Corticlium javanicum
Diplodia sp.,
Gloeosporium sp.,
MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS
Common Name
Aloe/First aid
medicine plant
Scientific Name Family
Aloe vera
Liliaceae
Origin
Indian
ginseng/winger
cherry/Ashgand
King of bitters/Rice
bitters/kalmegh
Safed musli
Withania
somnifera
Solanaceae
India
Andrographis
paniculata
Chlorophytum
borivilianum
Acanthaceae
India
Liliaceae
India
Guggul/Indian
Bdellium Tree
Medicinal Yam
Commiphora
wightii
Dioscorea
floribunda
Digitalis lanata
Burseraceae
Opium
Papaver
somniferum
Papaveraceae
Eastern
Europe
Sarpagandha
Rauvolfia
serpentina
Cassia
angustifolia
Apocynaceae
India
Fabaceae
South
Africa
Foxglove
Senna
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Africa
amnd Asia
Dioscoreaceae Central
America
Scrophularacea Europe
e
Usage
Used as a biogenic
stimulators and
wound healing
hormone
Immuno-Modulator,
Anti-stress, Improve
the male potency
To treat snake bites,
acute jaundice
Aphrodisiac, helpful
in curing impotency,
diabetes, as alternative
to viagra
Treatment of arthritis
and obesity
Digoxin: used for
heart diseases/life
saving medicine
Painkiller, used for
analgesia and
hypnotic effects
Controlling blood
pressure
used for laxative and
purgative purpose
Pipali/Long pepper
Piper longum:
Piperaceae
Indian
liquorice/Mulhati
Glycyrrhiza
glabra
Fabaceae
western
Ghats of
India
India
Deadly
Nighshade/Bellado
nna
Atropa
belladonna
Solanaceae
Europe
Medicinal Solanum Solanum
khasianum
Solanaceae
India
Psyllium/ isabgol
Plantaginaceae
Persia
Plantago Ovata
Stimulant, appetizer,
tonic
Chronic viral
hepatitis, taste
modulator, antiinflammatory,
treatment of peptic
ulcers
Leaves are widely
used for the
manufacture of
tinctures, extract,
plasters. Treatment of
gout, rheumatism
parkinson's disease
Contraceptives,
corticosteroids and
sexhormones
Used for antidiarrhoea drug, due to
property of absorbing
and retaining water
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MEDICINAL PLANTS:
Economic Part
Fruits
Leaves
Flowers
Stems
Roots
Seeds
Bark
Medicinal and aromatic plant
senna, S. viarum, Datura
Senna, Datura, Periwinkle, Tylophora
Butea, Bauhinia
Liquorice, Ginger, Dioscorea, Costus, Garlic
Rauvolfia, Periwinkle, Ginseng
Isabgol, Abrus, Nuxvomica
Cinchona
ALOE/FIRST AID MEDICINE PLANT : ALOE VERA
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Family: Liliaceae
Perennial succulent plant
The source of the drug: Aloin and C-glucosides (Barbaloin)
Aloe vera gel contains a glucomannan: Used as a biogenic stimulators and wound healing
hormone.
INDIAN GINSENG/WINGER CHERRY/ASHGAND/ASWAGANDHA: Withania
somnifera
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Family: Solanaceae
2n = 48
Origin: India
Economic part: Roots
Uses: Immuno-Modulator, Anti-stress, Improve the male potency
Major alkaloids: withanine and somniferine
Withaferin: antibiotic and antitumor activities found highest in leaves.
KING OF BITTERS/RICE BITTERS/KALMEGH: ANDROGRAPHIS PANICULATA
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Family: Acanthaceae
Origin: India
Economic part: Whole herb
Uses: To treat snake bites, acute jaundice
Alkaloids:
Major alkaloids in leaves: Andrographolide
Major alkaloids in roots: Andrographidin A, B, C, D, E and F
SAFED MUSLI: Chlorophytum borivilianum
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Family: Liliaceae
Origin: India
Saponin is the chief medicinal compound present in the roots.
Uses: Aphrodisiac, helpful in curing impotency, diabetes, as alternative to Viagra
Propagation: root cuttings
GUGGUL/INDIAN BDELLIUM TREE: COMMIPHORA WIGHTII
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Family: Burseraceae
Origin: Africa and Asia
Economic part: Gum resin
Uses: Treatment of arthritis and obesity
Propagation: Semi-wood stem cuttings
MEDICINAL YAM: DIOSCOREA FLORIBUNDA
❖ Family: Dioscoreaceae
❖ Origin: Central America
❖ Economic part : Tubers
FOXGLOVE: DIGITALIS LANATA
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Family: Scrophularaceae
Origin: Europe
Economic part: leaves
Digoxin: used for heart diseases/life saving medicine
Propagated by seeds (8 kg/ha)
OPIUM: PAPAVER SOMNIFERUM
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Family: Papaveraceae
Origin: Eastern Europe
Uses: Painkiller
Opium and codeine are used for analgesia and hypnotic effects.
Heroine is a semi-synthetic derivative of morphine.
Fruit type: Capsule
Lancing: Latex obtained from the matured capsules ( 40 alkaloids)
Propagation: Seeds (Broadcasting- 7-8 kg/ha, Line sowing – 4-5 kg/ha)
SARPAGANDHA: RAUVOLFIA SERPENTINA
❖ Family: Apocynaceae
❖ Origin: india
❖ Economic part: Dried root (Total alkaloids: 55 alkaloids)
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❖ Uses: Controlling blood pressure
❖ Average total alkaloid content: Root bark: 2.4% Wood: 0.40% and Fibrous root: 2.52%
❖ Propagation: Seeds (6kg/ha), root cuttings, stem cutting
SENNA: CASSIA ANGUSTIFOLIA
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Family: Fabaceae
Origin: South Africa
It is a leguminous crop but lack of nodule formation.
Economic parts: Leaves and pods (Contains Sennosides A, B, C, D)
Sennosides is used for laxative and purgative purpose
PIPALI/LONG PEPPER: PIPER LONGUM
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Family: Pieraceae
Origin: western Ghats of India
Economic part: Unripe female spikes (i.e., catkins)
Uses: Stimulent, appetizer, tonic
The roots contain alkaloids piper longuminine (0.2-0.25%) and piper longumine (0.02%)
Inflorescence type: Spike
INDIAN LIQUORICE/MULHATI: GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA
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Family: Fabaceae
Origin: india
Economic part: Roots-sweet substance is glycyrrhizin (5- times sweeter than sugar)
Uses: Chronic viral hepatitis, taste modulator, anti-inflammatory, treatment of peptic ulcers
Glycyrrhizin is high in older roots
Yellow colour of roots is due to isoliqril
DEADLY NIGHSHADE/BELLADONNA: ATROPA BELLADONNA:
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Family: Solanaceae
2n = 72(Hexaploid)
Origin : Europe
Tropane alkaloids: Hyoscine, Hyoscyamine and Atropine- Anticholinergic
Uses: Leaves are widely used for the manufacture of tinctures, extract, plasters
Treatment of gout, rheumatism parkinson's disease
Medicinal Solanum: Solanum khasianum
❖ Family: Solanaceae
❖ Origin: India
❖ Steroid bearing perennial bush
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❖ Economic part: seed
❖ Uses: Contraceptives, corticosteroids and sex hormones
PSYLLIUM/ ISABGOL: PLANTAGO OVATA
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Family: Plantaginaceae
2n= 8
Origin: Persia
Economic part: Seed and husk
Used for anti-diarrhoea drug, due to property of absorbing and retaining water (40-90%)
Husk (Odourless and tasteless) yields a colloidal mucilage consisting of xylose, arabinose and
galacturonic acid
➢ Type of flowers: Protogynous
➢ Type of fruit: Capsule
➢ Propagation: Seed (4-6 kg/ha)
MEDICINAL PLANTS:
S.no
Medicinal
plants
Aloe vera
Part used
Variety
Alkaloids
Uses
Leaves
-
Aloin
Asgand
(Aswagandha)
Indian Ginseng
Roots
Jawahar
Asgandh-20
Withanine
Somniferine
Medicinal Yam
Tubers
Arka Upkar,
FB (c)-1
Diosgenin
Fox-Glove
Opium
Telia, Dholia
Digoxin
Codeine
Dill or sowa
Leaves
Capsule
(Latex)
Seeds
Laxative
Purpose
Aphrodisiac
property
ImmunoModulator Antistress
Production of
contraceptive
pills
Heart disease
Painkiller
-
Carvone
Guggul
(Kiluvai)
Olegum
Resin
-
Improve
digestion,
control
vomiting,
Carminative
property
Z and EAntiGugglusteroids inflammatory
Hypoglycaemic
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Henbene
Leaves
-
Hyoscyamine
Isabgol
Husk, seed
Mucilage
Khasi-Kateri
Fruits
Gujarat
Isabgol-1,2
Arka
Sanjeevani
Liquorice
Roots
Haryana
Mulathi 1
Glycyrrhizin
Periwinkle
Roots and
Leaves
Nirmal,
Dhawal
Pipali
Unripe fruit
(Female
spike)
Roots
Vishwam
Vinblastine
Vincristine
Ajmalcine
Piperine
Leaves and
pods
Whole
plants
Seeds
KKM-1
Bark
Sarpagandha
Senna
Kalmegh (King
of Bitterness)
Lory Lily (state
flower of Tamil
Nadu)
Cinchona
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Datura
Whole plant
Abroma
Root bark
Datura (Umattai
Datura
stamonium
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
RS-1
Solasodine
Anti-asthma
Antichloicgenic
Anti-diarrhoea
Laxative
Production of
contraceptive
pills
Antiinflammatory
Spasmolytic
activity
Tranquilizer
Anticancer
Anti-Neoplastic
Improve
appetite laxative
Anti-Blood
pressure
-
Serpentine
Ajmalicine
Reserpine
Sennosides
(A,B,C)
-
-
Colchicine
Anti-Gout (Joint
pain)
-
Quinine
Solanaceae
Laxative and
constipation
Jaundice
Treatment of
Malaria
Hyoscine,
Preanasthetic
Tropane
surgery
Intra-uterine
disease and
other
gynaecological
disorders
Economic part: Leaves and fruits
Alkaloids: Stramonium
(Hyoscyamine and scopolamine)
Uses: pre-anaesthetic in surgery
and childbirth
Madhunasini
Gymnema
sylvestris
Cinchona
C.
officinalis
Asclepiadaceae Economic parts: Leaves
Uses: anti-diabetic property
Alkaloids: Gymnemic acid
Rubiaceae
Economic part: Bark
Uses: Anti-malarial drugs
Alkaloids: Quinine
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PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
❖ Symptom of citrus canker appear on which of the plant parts: Leaves, Fruits, Branch (AFO2015)
❖ Which of the following variety of Gladiolus: Jwala, Gazal, Priyadarshani (AFO-2015)
❖ Which of the following is pear shaped variety of tomato: Pant bahar (AFO-2015)
❖ The time of planting main crop of potato in Northern plain: First fortnight of October (AFO2015)
❖ Little leaf in mango and cashew is due to deficiency of: Zinc (AFO-2016)
❖ Propping in banana is: Giving the support (AFO-2016)
❖ The finest and most popular variety of Mandarin orange: Clementine (AFO-2016)
❖ Back hurt and hollow heart in potato occur due to: Environmental condition (AFO-2016)
❖ What should be the spacing for standard variety of apple tree: 20-30 feet (AFO-2016)
❖ Which state has the largest area and production of potato in India: UP(AFO-2016)
❖ Which mango variety yields on an average 16 t/ha and about 1600 plants can be accommodated
in one hectare: Amrapali (AFO-2016)
❖ Dieback in citrus and cracking of apple is due to the deficiency of: Boron (AFO-2016)
❖ In India, micro propagation in fruits crops is most common and popular in: Banana (AFO-2016)
❖ Which of the following onion variety is suitable for kharif crop: Super (AFO-2016)
❖ Pramalini, Vikram and Chkradhar are varieties of: Lime (AFO-2016)
❖ To get maximum yield the spacing of Banana plantation for Robusta verities is (in cm): 1.8× 1.8
(AFO-2016)
❖ What is the ideal time for planting the unrooted cutting of grapes direct in the field: October
(AFO-2016)
❖ Chausa, Dassehari, langra verities of mango are available from: May-June (AFO-2016)
❖ The most popular grape variety in India is: Thompson seedless (AFO-2016)
❖ Internal necrosis in mango and internal cork in apple is due to the deficiency of: Boron (AFO2016)
❖ Which of the following is an example of sorosis type of fruit: Jackfruit (AFO-2016)
❖ The pungency in uninjured garlic is due to the presence of: Allinase (AFO-2016)
❖ Spongy tissue is a serious problem of which mango cultivar: Alphonso (AFO-2016)
❖ Which nutrient deficiency is responsible for little leaf in mango and mottle leaf of citrus: Zinc
(AFO-2016)
❖ Money allocated for 1 ha horticulture crop as per national horticulture mission programme: 15
lakh per nursery (AFO-2017)
❖ Causal agent of Black mildew in mango plant: Meliola mangiferae (AFO-2017)
❖ Causal agent of Bacterial spot in citrus: Xanthomonas campestris pv. Citri (AFO-2017)
❖ Economic Life span of coconut in years for coconut palm: 60 years (AFO-2017)
❖ Which one is variety of onion: Agri found(AFO-2017)
❖ Black heart of potato is a: Oxygen deficiency disorder (AFO-2017)
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❖ Citrus cracking is due to: Deficiency of boron (AFO-2017)
❖ What is the minimum amount of assistance under National horticulture Mission for adoption of
organic farming: 10000/ha (AFO-2017)
❖ Which of the following is disease causing pathogen in citrus group: Phytophthora parasitica
(AFO-2017)
❖ Which of the following is disease causing pathogen in mango group: Colletotrichum
gloeosporiodes (AFO-2017)
❖ Under PMFBY the premium % to be paid by Farmer of the total cost for Commercial and
Horticultural crops: 5 % (AFO-2018)
❖ Totapuri variety of Mango belongs to which state: Karnataka (AFO-2018)
❖ Ratna variety of Mango is a cross of: Neelam × Alphanso(AFO-2018)
❖ What is the optimum pH required for Grapes: 5.5-6.5 (AFO-2018)
❖ What is the optimum pH required for Guava: 6.5-8 (AFO-2018)
❖ What is the optimum pH required for Banana: 6.5-7.5 (AFO-2018)
❖ In Banana, which nutrient is given in largest amount through fertigation: K (AFO-2018)
❖ Which of the following is a perennial crop: Coconut (AFO-2018)
❖ Which among the following propagation method is used in droopy/viney: Serpentine layering
(AFO-2019)
❖ Banana is exported to gulf area. India export maximum banana to which among the following
Arabian country: Saudi Arabia (AFO-2019)
❖ What is the premium rate for commercial/ horticultural crops under PMFBY: 5 (AFO-2019)
❖ Which among the following horticulture crop has lowest production: Medicinal (AFO-2019)
❖ Which among the following horticulture crop has lowest productivity: Medicinal (AFO-2019)
❖ Which among the following horticulture crop has highest productivity: Vegetable (AFO-2019)
❖ Golden revolution related to: Fruit (AFO-2020)
❖ What is the propagation method in Banana: Sucker (AFO-2020)
❖ Crown cleaning related to: Coconut (AFO-2020)
❖ Disease of rose greyish white powdery patches are seen on the tender leaves and flower buds,
mature leaves get malformed and flower bud fail to open and plant present wilted appearance:
Powdery mildew (AFO-2020)
❖ Pulsing is related to: Processing of flowers (AFO-2020)
❖ Tropical fruit is: Papaya (AFO-2020)
❖ Removal of Male bud in banana: Denavelling (AFO-2020)
❖ Grape training system where the vines connected with each other: Telephone (AFO-2020)
❖ What is the Isolation distance required for foundation seed production of okra: 400 m (AFO2020)
❖ Guava pest which deposit eggs on soft skin of ripening fruit , on hatching maggot bore into fruit
and feed on the soft pulp , the infested show depressions with dark green puncture and when cut
opens the maggots are visible and finally fruit rot and fall: Fruit fly (AFO-2020)
❖ Botanical name of pomegranate: Punica granatum (AFO-2020)
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❖ Irregular bearing mango variety is: Kesar (AFO-2020)
❖ Which of the following medicinal plant is known as laxative medicinal plant: Isabgol (AFO2020)
❖ Aesthetic and shady plantation for decoration purpose: Arboriculture (AFO-2020)
❖ In which grafting Rootstock debarked 45 cm from ground level two slopes cut given and wedge
is made tongue shape scion inserted:Wedge grafting (AFO-2020)
❖ Pungency in onion is due to: Allyl propyl disulphide (AFO-2021)
❖ What is the fruit type of Pineapple: Sorosis (AFO-2021)
❖ Rose fruit type is known as: Hip (AFO-2021)
❖ Blossom End Rot is in Tomato and is due to the deficiency of Ca (AFO-2021)
❖ What is the ICMR recommendation of Vegetables (g/day): 300 (AFO-2021)
❖ Disorder in Pomegranate in which arils are disintegration, where arils become soft, light creamy
– brown to dark blackish brown and unfit for consumption and the deficiency is not seen
externally: Internal breakdown (AFO-2021)
❖ Symptoms of Powdery mildew of pea are first seen on which part of the plant: Leaves (AFO2021)
❖ Late blight is the disease of: Potato (AFO-2021)
❖ Pusa Nanha variety of papaya is developed by: Mutation(AFO-2022)
❖ Coorg is a commercial variety of: Coffee (AFO-2022)
❖ When plant is propagated by small tissue or part of plant is termed as: Micropropagation (AFO2022)
❖ Amrapali variety of mango is made by the cross of: Dasehari X Neelam (AFO-2022)
❖ Cricket ball & Kalipatti variety of which crop: Sapota (AFO-2022)
❖ Guava flesh pink spot variety which is also known as sardar: L-49 (AFO-2022)
❖ Immature green fruits turned into edible, desirable flavour, quality, colour, palatable nature with
ethylene treatment: Ripening (AFO-2022)
❖ Condition where two batches of male flower and two batches of female flower are separated
temporally this condition is known as: Duo dichogamy (RRB-SO 2019)
❖ Which among the following does not belong to a umbelliferae family: Lettuce (RRB-SO 2019)
❖ Tongue Grafting is done in which fruit crop: Malus domestica (RRB-SO 2019)
❖ Dark green streak on the lower portion of leaf midrib and later on the secondary vein’s disease
called “Morse code”. This disease of banana will be called as: Bunchy top virus (RRB-SO
2019)
❖ Which instrument is used to cut the hard branches and Woody shrubs of plants: Bill Hook (RRBSO 2019)
❖ Syconus is the fruit type of which of the following fruit:Fig (RRB-SO 2019)
❖ Horticulture nursery soil should be well drained, which of the following type of soil is not
suitable for nursery: Black cotton soil (RRB-SO 2018)
❖ Fruit of different varieties and grown in different states which of the following is variety of
citrus: King Mandarin (RRB-SO 2018)
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❖ Mango is a tropical fruit, but high humidity and rain should be avoided during flowering. What
is the temperature range for the cultivation of fruit: 24 to 27oC (RRB-SO 2018)
❖ In agronomy classified crop plants is done as a classified for better understanding. Which of the
following crop is medicinal crop based on economic use: Mint (RRB-SO 2018)
❖ Pomegranate is a favourite table food of tropical and subtropical countries. The different
varieties cultivated for both seeded type and soft seeded type. Which of the following variety is
soft seeded type: Dholka (RRB-SO 2018)
❖ Pineapple is mainly growing in tropical and subtropical climate. What is the pH for pineapple:
5.5-7 (RRB-SO 2018)
❖ There is different mother plant for varieties Guava cultivation. Which of the following mother
plant for Guava for cultivators in Maharashtra and South India: Sardar L-49 (RRB-SO 2018)
❖ Which the following method for layering for vegetative propagation of plants is to propagate
many of the thick stemmed or closely branched plants especially when it is desirable to root all
the branches: Mound layering
(RRB-SO 2018)
❖ Which among the following operation is conducted in pseudo stem of banana after bunch
harvesting: Mettocking (RRB-SO 2020)
❖ When to harvest gerbera flower: Few florets open (RRB-SO 2020)
❖ Grafting method in which germinating seeds less than 2 weeks are wedge or splice graft on
success depends on temperature and high RH: Stone Grafting (RRB-SO 2020)
❖ Coorg honey dew variety of : Papaya (RRB-SO 2020)
❖ Which is correct Bacterial wilt of tomato symptom: Leaves do not turn yellow, but wilting is
seen. Vascular bundles show brownish discoloration(RRB-SO 2020)6. Which is natural
mutant variety of coffee: Caturra (RRB-SO 2020)
❖ What is the isolation distance for foundation seed of Onion crop in m: 1000 (RRB-SO 2021)
❖ The physiological disorder of strawberry, due to lack of fruit color during ripening in which fruit
remain irregular pink or even totally white and sometimes swollen beside having acid test and
less firm: Albinism (RRB-SO 2021)
❖ The tree species which is rich in vitamin C and has a good medicinal property in Ayurveda is:
Emblica Officinalis (RRB-SO 2021)
❖ Endosperm is the edible portion of which fruit crop: Coconut (RRB-SO 2021)
❖ Anthurium flower is harvested at which stage: When the spathe is completely unfurls and the
spadix is developed (RRB-SO 2021)
❖ Which crop is related to term CTC processing: Tea (NABARD 2021)
❖ Which of the following is a practice of selective removal of dead parts of the plants to manipulate
plants for horticultural production: pruning (NABARD 2021)
❖ In temperate climate, trees which leaves shade during autumn /winter: deciduous (NABARD
2021)
❖ First fully organic state and also state of flower: Sikkim (NABARD 2021).
❖ Which branch of horticulture deals with production, processing and storage of vegetables:
olericulture (NABARD 2021).
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REASON TO STUDY NOW NOT LATER
1. It could be the difference between the pass and failure
2. I deserve better than other who are my competitor.
3. This is all I have ever wanted throughout my life.
4. I’ll have to do this to be proud of myself and other to be proud of me.
5. To get a job because it was my dream before coming to Agri coaching Chandigarh and after
joining here now it is stronger.
6. To be a successful person so that I can represent myself among others.
7. To prove the haters wrong.
8. To have better things in my life.
9. To get all those things which I can’t afford now but definitely I shall get the same when I have
my dream job.
10. To be free to love and enjoy my life all the remaining years without these exams and stress
hanging over me, I don’t want to continue it for one more year.
So guys it’s not easy to go through it but your hard work will decide you final destination. Your
today’s work will decide your future as a WINNER or LOSER.
D.K. Wadhwa
154
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
SEED
TECHNOLOGY
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Seed Technology is the methods through which the genetic and physical characteristics of seeds
could be improved. It involves such activities as variety development, evaluation and release, seed
production, processing, storage and certification.
TERMS RELATED TO SEED TECHNOLOGY
❖ Pure seed: The pure seed means the seeds of kind/species stated by the sender, or found to
predominate in the test. It includes all botanical varieties and varieties of that kind/species.
❖ Abnormal seedlings: Those seedlings which do not show the potential to develop into a normal
plant when grown in good quality soil under favourable conditions.
❖ Achene: a dry indehiscent, one seeded fruit, with the seed coat distinct from the fruit wall.
❖ Caryopsis: Naked grass-fruit in which the seed coat is united with the fruit wall.
❖ Cold test: A seed vigour test that measures the potential of a seed lot subjected to low
temperature during emergence.
❖ Embryo: The generative part of a seed that develops from the union of egg cell and sperm cell
and during germination becomes the young plant.
❖ Endosperm: Nutritive tissue originating from fertilization and retained at maturity in some
seeds as a storage tissue for food reserves an provides nutrition to the growing embryo. It
develops from sexual fusion of the polar nuclei of the ovule and the second sperm cell.
❖ Epigeal germination: A type of germination in which cotyledons and shoot are carried above
the soil by the hypocotyl's elongation.
❖ Ergot: Dark spur shaped sclerotium that develops in place of a healthy seed in a diseased
inflorescence. It is a disease of cereals and grasses.
❖ Foreign seed: Undesirable seed. It includes weed seed and other crop seed.
❖ Germination: The resumption of growth by the embryo and development of a young plant from
the seed. Germination, in a laboratory test, is the emergence and development from the seed
embryo of those essential structures which for the kind of seed being tested indicate the ability
to develop into a normal plant under favourable conditions.
❖ Germination index: summation of number of seedlings emerging on a specific day divided by
a number of day on which the germination was counted.
❖ Genetic purity: Trueness to type or cultivar.
❖ Gibberellic acid: A group of plant growth promoting chemicals used to overcome seed
dormancy.
❖ Hilum: A scar remaining on the seed at the place of its detachment from the seed stalk.
❖ Hypocotyl: the part of the embryo axis between the cotyledons and primary root which gives
rise to the stalk of the young plant.
❖ Inert matter: Inert matter includes seed units and all other matter and structures that are not
declined as pure seed, other crop seed or weed seed.
❖ Infection: Entrance and spread of disease organisms in living material (e.g., seedling structures),
not necessary but often causing disease symptoms and decay.
156 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Lot: A seed lot is a physically identifiable quantity of seed which is homogeneous.
❖ Micropyle: Opening of the ovule through which the pollen tube enters prior to fertilization.
❖ Pericarp: The outer covering, the ovary wall. It may be thin and fused with the seed coat as in
maize, fleshy as in berry or hard and dry as in pods of legumes.
❖ Physiological race: One of a group of forms alike in morphology but unlike in certain
physiological, Pathological, biochemical or other character.
❖ Plumule: The major young bud of the embryo from which will develop the aerial portion of the
plant, that part of the embryonic plant axis above the cotyledons.
❖ Positive geotropism: Downward growth (e.g., normal primary root).
❖ Primary leaf: The first leaf or pair of leaves found after the cotyledons.
❖ Primary root: Main root of the seedling, developing from the radicle of the embryo.
❖ Scarification: process of mechanically scarring or rubbing the hard seed coat to make it more
permeable to water.
❖ Schizocarp: A dry fruit which separates into two or more unite (Mericarps) at maturity (e.g.,
Umbelliferae).
❖ Seed vigour: Sum total of those properties of the seed which determine the level of activity and
performance of the seed lot during germination and seedling emergence.
❖ Stratification: Exposing seed imbibing water to low temperature conditions (5-10o) for a few
days prior to germination for breaking dormancy.
❖ Tetrazolium vigour test: A bio-chemical vigour test which measures the intensity of
dehydrogenase group of enzymes present in the seed.
❖ Testa: The outer covering of seed, the seed coat.
WHAT IS SEED?
Seed is defined as fertilized, matured ovule consisting of an embryonic plant together with a store
of food, all surrounded by a protective coat.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD QUALITY SEED
➢ It must be genetically pure
Type of seed
Breeder/Nucleus
Foundation
Certified
Purity %
100%
99.5%
99%
➢ It should have the required level of physical purity for certification
Crop
Minimum Physical Purity (%)
Carrot
95
Okra, Watermelon, and other cucurbits
99
Ground nut
96
Rapeseed and Mustard, Sesame and Soybean
97
All other crops
98
It should have high pure seed percentage
Crop
Bhindi
Other crops
Sesame, soybean & Jute
Groundnut
Pure seed Percentage
99%
98%
97%
96%
➢ It should have optimum moisture content for storage:
✓ Long term storage - 8 % & below
✓ Short term storage -10-13%
➢ Moisture Content of the Seeds: Seeds with high moisture content will lose its germination
vigour and viability soon. Hence, it is necessary to maintain correct moisture content of the
seeds to ensure the good germination capacity and viability. Seeds should be stored at a safe
moisture level of 8– 13%.
PURITY OF SEEDS
❖ Physical Purity of Seeds: The physical purity of the seeds should be maintained at 96-98% and
the seeds should be of uniform size and shape without any damage.
❖ Genetic Purity: Genetic purity of the seed should be maintained in order to ensure the quality
of the seeds.
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❖ MINIMUM GERMINATION % OF SEEDS
Crops
Maize
Hybrid bajra, Arhar, Mung, peas and
Cowpeas
Hybrid jowar, Rice, Sesamum and linseed
Wheat, Barley, Gram, Rapeseed and mustard
Ground nut, Soybean, Tomato, onion,
Radish and Brinjal
Urid, Cauliflower and Bhindi
Cotton, Sunflower, Watermelon, carrot and chilies
Germination % (min)
90
75
80
85
70
65
60
SEED GERMINATION AND PURITY STANDARDS:
Variety
Cowpea
Cluster beans
Field beans
Beans
Lady finger
Bitter gourd
Bottle gourd
Cucumber
Watermelon
Pumpkin
Cauliflower
Cabbage
Carrot
Radish
Brinjal
Tomato
Chillies
Capsicum
Greens
Fenugreek
Onion
Germination Minimum
Percentage
75
70
75
75
65
60
60
60
60
60
65
70
60
70
70
70
60
60
70
70
70
Purity Minimum
Percentage
98
98
98
98
99
99
99
99
99
99
98
98
95
98
98
98
98
98
95
98
98
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MINIMUM SEED STANDARDS
Crop
Physical
purity %
Germination %
Moisture %
Paddy
Cumbu- Hy & var
Ragi, Sorghum
Maize - inbred
Maize - others
Barley, oat, wheat
Red gram-Hy &var, cowpea
Bengal gram
Peas, Bean
Ground nut
Sunflower-Variety/Hybrid
Soybean
Cotton (Hybrid)
cotton (variety)
Cucurbits
Brinjal V/Hy
Chillies
Bhindi
Tomato V/Hy
Cole crops
Onion V/Hy
Carrot V/Hy
Radish V/Hy
Papaya
98
98
97
98
98
98
98
98
98
96
98
98
98
98
98
98
98
99
98
98
98
95
98
98
80
75
75
80
90
85
75
85
75
70
70
70
65
65
60
70
60
65
70
70
70
60
70
60
13
12
12
12
12
12
9
9
9
9
9
12
10
10
7
8
8
10
8
7
8
8
6
12
ISOLATION DISTANCE:
Crop
F.S (m)
C.S (m)
Self pollinated crops
Cereals and Millets
Paddy
Wheat
Pulses
Green gram
3
3
3
3
10
5
160 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Black gram
Soya bean
Bengal gram
Cowpea
Lab lab
Oil Seeds
Groundnut
Vegetables
Tomato
Cluster beans
French beans
Peas
lettuce
Potato
Often Cross-Pollinated crops
Millet
Sorghum Variety
Sorghum hybrid
Pulses
Red gram
Oil Seeds
Sesame
Cotton (variety)
Vegetables
Brinjal
Chillies
Okra
Cross Pollinated Crops
Millets
Maize (varieties)
Inbred line
Single cross hybrid
Double cross hybrid
Bajra variety
Bajra hybrid
Sun hemp
Castor
Sunflower variety
Sunflower hybrid
10
3
10
10
10
5
3
5
5
5
3
3
50
10
10
10
50
5
25
5
5
5
25
5
200
300
100
200
200
100
100
50
50
30
200
400
400
100
200
200
400
400
400
400
1000
200
300
400
600
200
200
200
200
1000
150
200
400
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Cabbage
Beetroot
Radish
Cauliflower
Onion
Carrot
Amaranthus
1600
1600
1600
1000
1000
400
1000
1000
1000
1000
500
800
200
500
SEED PRODUCTION:
Systemized crop production is known as seed production. In seed production adequate care is given
from the purchase of seeds upto harvest adopting proper seed and crop management techniques.
❖ Classes of Seed:
The Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA) has defined these seed
classes as follows:
The Indian seed programme adheres to the limited three generation system of seed
multiplication, namely, breeder, foundation and certified seed.
❖ Breeder seed: It is the progeny of nucleus seed.
➢ Breeder seeds are produced using nucleus seeds in the Research institutes or Universities
under the supervision of a breeder. The entire production process will be monitored by the
Scientists and Officers of the Seed Certification Department and by the representatives of
the National Seed Corporation. The genetic purity of the breeder seeds is 100% and the tag
provided for the breeder seed is golden yellow in colour.
➢ Breeder seed is the seed material directly controlled by the originating or the sponsoring
breeder or Institution for the initial and recurring production of foundation seed.
➢ Nucleus seed is the seed produced by the breeder to develop the particular variety and is
directly used for multiplication as breeder seed.
❖ Foundation seed: Foundation seeds are produced from the breeder seeds. Foundation seed
may also be produced from foundation seed. Production of foundation seed stage-I and stageII may thus be permitted, if supervised and approved by the Certification Agency and if the
production process is so handled as to maintain specific genetic purity and identity.
➢ It is produced at Government farms or by private seed producers. Its production can also be
taken up by the farmers by getting suitable breeder seeds. Genetic purity of the foundation
seeds is 99.5% and its certification tag is white in colour.
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❖ Registered seed: The progeny of the foundation seed so handled as to maintain its genetic
identity and purity and approved and certified by a certifying agency. It should be of quality
suitable to produce certified seed.
❖ Certified seed: Certified seed is the progeny of foundation seed or the progeny of certified
seed. If the certified seed is the progeny of certified seed, then this reproduction will not exceed
three generations beyond foundation stage-I and it will be ascertained by the Certification
Agency that genetic identity and genetic purity has not been significantly altered. The
production of certified seeds is taken up by the National and State Seed Corporation, private
seed companies and also by farmers. The certified seeds should possess uniformity and purity
as defined by the Department of Seed Certification. The genetic purity of the certified seeds is
99% and the certification tag provided is blue in colour.
❖ Truthful labelled seed: One more class of seeds is truthfully labelled seeds. This type of seeds
does not come under the purview of the Department of Seed Certification. This kind of seeds
are tested only for its physical purity and germination. By this method, any farmer can produce
seeds and market it as truthfully labelled seeds. Labelling is compulsory but certification is
voluntary.
❖ Class of seed and its source:
Class of Seed
Foundation class
Certified class
Source of seed
Breeder seed
Foundation seed
❖ The benefits of seed production are:
➢ Higher income
➢ Higher quality seed for next sowing
❖ There are two types (major) of seed production ie. varietal and hybrid
➢ Seed production based on the type of seed used for multiplication. The difference between
varietal and hybrid seed production are as follows
Varietal seed production
It is single parent multiplication
Isolation distance requirement is less
Production is by open pollination
Seed can be used continuously for ¾/5
generations
Production technique is uniform
(multiplication)
Production care is less
Hybrid seed production
It needs two to many parents
Isolation distance requirement is more
Production is by managed control pollination
(Female)
Seed has to be changed every time
Technique differs with crop
Production care is more
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Yield will be lower
Profit is less
Yield will be higher
Profit is higher
FACTORS INFLUENCING PRODUCTION
❖ Seed Multiplication Ratio (SMR): It is the number of seeds to be produced from a single seed
when it is sown and harvested.
Crop
Wheat
Paddy
Maize
Sorghum
Bajra
Ragi
Gram
Blackgram, green gram
Cowpea
Red gram
Potato
Soybean
Groundnut
Cotton
Mustard
Jute
Seed Multiplication Ratio
1:20
1:70 to 1:80
1:80 to 1:100
1:100
1:200
1:80 to 1:100
1:10 to 1:12
1:40
1:40
1:100
1:4
1:16
1:8
1:50
1:100
1:100
❖ Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) Seed replacement rate is the percentage of area sown out of
total area of crop planted in the season by using certified / quality seeds other than the farm
saved seeds.
❖ Seed Replacement rate of all over India (2016):
Crop
Wheat
Paddy
Maize Hybrid Var.
Jowar Hybrid Var.
Bajra Hybrid Var.
Gram
Urad
Moong
Arhar
164 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
SRR
40.3
39.8
64.68
38.22
57.09
31.83
37.97
33.55
48.11
Groundnut
Rapessed /Mustard
Soybean
Sunflower Hybrid Var.
Cotton
25.24
68.03
38.17
30.67
SEED DORMANCY
Seed dormancy is the temporary suspension of growth of viable seeds accompanied by reduced
internal metabolic activity. It is the resting stage of the seed, and it delays germination of the seed.
Unfavourable climatic conditions like temperature, variation and lack of water leads to seed
dormancy. Dormancy may occur due to the presence of a hard seed coat, immature embryo and
also due to the presence of germination inhibitors in the seeds.
DORMANCY BREAKING TREATMENTS
❖ Physical dormancy
I. Scarification
i.
ii.
iii.
Acid
Mechanical
Physical treatment – hot water treatment
1. Scarification: Any treatments may be physical or chemical that weakens or softens the seed
coat is known as scarification. This method is more applicable to Malvaceae and Leguminosae
group of seeds.
a) Acid scarification : By using concentrated H2SO4 @ 100 ml/kg of seed for 2-3 minutes
treatments dormancy can be overcome in the above group of seeds. The duration of treatment
will vary, and it depends on type and nature of seed coat. E.g., Tree crops 1-3 hours, Rose
seeds, treat the seed partially with acid and then given with warm stratification.
b) Mechanical scarification: Seeds are rubbed on a sandpaper or with a help of mechanical
scarifier or by puncturing on seed coat with the help of needle to enhance / increase the moisture
absorption by seeds.
➢ E.g., Bitter gourd for sand scarification, sand and seed 2:1 ratio should be followed. Rub
against hard surface of seed for 5 to 10 minutes.
2. Hot water treatments : It is effective in case of leguminous tree crop seeds. The seeds
should be soaked in boiled water for 1-5 minutes for 60-80 minutes. Some crops like Bengal
gram and Groundnut, hot water treatment for more than 1 minute is found injurious to seed.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
165
3. Stratification treatment: When seed dormancy is due to embryo factor, seeds can be
subjected to stratification treatments.
a) Cold stratification: Incubate the seed at low temperature of 0-5 oC over a moist
substratum for 2-3 days to several months. It depends on the nature of seed and kind of
dormancy.
➢ e.g., Cherry and oil palm seeds, Cole crops.
b) Warm stratification
➢ Some seeds require temperature of 40-50oC for few days e.g., paddy.
➢ In case of oil palm, it requires temperature of 40-50oC for 2 months for breaking dormancy.
➢ Care should be taken during the treatment and moisture content of seed should not be more
than 15%.
4. Leaching of metabolites (Inhibitors)
➢ The seeds can be soaked in water for 3 days.
➢ But once in 12 hours fresh water should be changed to avoid fermentation or seeds can be
soaked in running water for a day to leach out the inhibitors.
➢ (e.g.) Coriander (Coumarin), Sunflower (Hydrocyanic acid)
5. Temperature treatments
a) Low temperature treatments
➢ Plants which grow in temperate and cooler climates, require a period of chilling for
breakage of dormancy.
➢ E.g., Apple seed dormancy can be released by low temperature treatment by storing the
seeds at 5oC.
b) High temperature treatment
➢ Normally high temperature treatments are exhibited by early flowering "winter " annuals.
➢ E.g., Blue bell (Hyacinthoides nonscripta). Their seeds are shed in early summer and do
not germinate until they have been exposed to the heat during high summer.
❖ Classification of seed dormancy
Types
Causes
166 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Embryo
character
Pre-treatment
Physical
Physiological
Combinations
Morphological
Morphophysiological
Seed coat
impermeable
Physiological
inhibiting mechanism
of germination in the
embryo
Physical +
Physiological
Underdeveloped
embryo
Underdeveloped
embryo, physiological
Fully developed,
non-dormant
Fully developed
dormant
Fully developed
dormant
Underdeveloped
non-dormant
Underdeveloped
dormant
Scarification
(Mechanical and acid)
Seed soaking in growth
regulators (GA3, Ethrel,
and chemical solutions
(KNO3, Thiourea)
Scarification followed by
chemical treatment
Cold stratification
Stratification followed
by chemical soaking.
❖ Seed Processing: Seed processing is necessary in order to dry the seeds to safe moisture level;
remove or reduce to the extent possible the various undesirable material, weed seeds, other
crop seeds, deteriorated or damaged seeds.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
167
❖ Requirements in seed processing
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
There should be complete separation
Minimum seed loss
Upgrading should be possible for any particular quality
Efficiency
It should have only minimum requirement
Movement of seed in a processing plant
❖ Handling of seed at the processing plant adheres to a definite path irrespective of crop for
easy management of seed which is sensitive at each and every step of handling and ready to
lose or gain its quality all through the steps.
❖ The types of materials removed from harvested produce during processing.
168 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Processing equipment used for improving the quality of the seed: From harvest up to final
stage of seed storage, the seeds are to pass through various seed processing equipment
depending upon the speciality and specificity. But some equipment like driers and seed cleaner
cum graders are common for all types of seed.
S.
No.
A.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
B.
C.
14.
15.
D.
16.
Processing
Usage with reference to specific seed management
equipment
Threshing with extraction equipment
Thresher
To remove the seeds from the inflorescence especially in
cereals
Ginning machine
To separate the lint and seed from kapas in cotton
Maize sheller
To shell the seed from the cobs
Pulse thresher
To remove seed from the pods
Tomato seed
To extract tomato seed from fruit without wasting the pulp
extractor
Chilli seed extractor For easy removal of seed from chilli fruits
Groundnut
To shell the kernel (seed from the pods
decorticator
Sunflower thresher For removal of seeds from the head
Debearder
To remove the awns form (Barley) the seed
Mechanical
To scarify the hard seed mechanically to improve the
scarifier
germination of seeds
Pebble mill
To remove webby hairs from grasses
Timothy bumper
To remove weed seed from timothy seed
mill
Hammer mill
To remove the hook or appendages from the seeds (i.e.
Stylosanthus)
Driers
To reduce the moisture content to lower or needed level
for safe handling both for processing and for storage at the
final stage
Grading equipments
Cleaner cum grader This homogenize the precleaned seed based on size and is
known as basic grading in seeds. The sieve sizes
requirement varies with crop
Precleaner and
This removes the inert material and dust particles from
aspirator
seed and improve the grading efficiency
Upgrading
machines
Specific gravity
Improve the quality of graded seed further using its
separator
weight or specific gravity. Heavier seeds are good storers
and expresses maximum field establishment
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
169
17.
Indent cylinder
18.
Disc separator
19.
Roll mill
20.
Magnetic separator
21.
Inclined draper
22.
24.
Electronic colour
sorter
Electrostatic
separator
Spiral separator
25.
26.
Polishers
Picker belts
27.
28.
29.
Vibratory separator
Seed treater
Seed packing
machine
Conveyors /
Elevators (Belt ,
Bucket)
23.
30.
In lengthier seeds it maintains the size of seed (breadth
and length). The broken / damaged are removed and good
seeds are selected
It is for removal of weed seeds and to improve the general
appearance of seed
To separate smooth seed from rough seed based on the
surface texture especially the weed seed
Removal of weed seed from clovers, alfalfa, trefoils and
vetch
Separation of smooth or round seeds from rough, flat or
elongated seeds
Separation of off-coloured seed
Based on electrical properties removes Johnson grass
from sesamum seeds (Specific utility)
Separation of seeds based on shape (eg.) separation of
rape, vetch and soybean seed form wheat, oat or rye grass
To improve the luster of seed
To remove undesirable ears / pods from shelled seeds
(eg.) Groundnut, Corn
Removal of weed seed
To treat the seed with fungicide and pesticide
To easier the work and to avoid human error of mixing
Easier the transfer of seed from machine to machine and
avoids the contamination of seed at various level.
❖ Establishing seed processing unit
➢ Post-harvest seed handling is a vital component of the total technology in marketing
available good quality seeds of improved varieties.
➢ Seed processing and packaging is very important aspect in seed production. The location of
seed processing centers is based on the available infrastructure and convenience. Such a
place will be well connected with roads and transportation facilities.
❖ Each seed processing centre will have the following infrastructure
➢ Seed garden cum clearer
➢ Bag closer, trolleys, scales and furniture
170 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Building to house equipment
➢ Seed storage structure
➢ Seed threshing and drying yard
➢ Information center
SEED TREATMENT:
Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide, or a combination of both, to seeds
so as to disinfect and disinfect them from seed-borne or soil-borne pathogenic organisms and
storage insects. It also refers to the subjecting of seeds to solar energy exposure, immersion in
conditioned water, etc.
❖ Types of Seed Treatment:
1. Seed disinfection: Seed disinfection refers to the eradication of fungal spores that have
become established within the seed coat, or i more deep-seated tissues. For effective control,
the fungicidal treatment must actually penetrate the seed in order to kill the fungus that is
present.
2. Seed disinfestation: Seed disinfestation refers to the destruction of surface-borne organisms
that have contaminated the seed surface but not infected the seed surface. Chemical dips,
soaks, fungicides applied as dust, slurry or liquid have been found successful.
3. Seed Protection: The purpose of seed protection is to protect the seed and young seedling
from organisms in the soil which might otherwise cause decay of the seed before
germination.
❖ Seed storage
➢ Preservation of seed with initial quality until it is needed for planting.
❖ Types of storage:
➢ Storage of commercial seeds: This storage of commercial seed requires the largest storage
need from harvest until planting. The storage period ranges from 8-9 months. Seed must
be dried to 14 per cent moisture content for starchy seed and 11 percent for oilseeds.
➢ Carryover seeds: About 20-25 per cent of stored seed may have to be carried over through
one season to the second planting time. The storage period may range 1-1½ year. Storage
of seeds in metal bins with tight fitting lids or in a moisture proof bag will solve the problems
of moisture penetration, provided the seeds are already dry enough for sealed storage.
➢ Foundation stock and enforcement seed sample: It is desirable to store foundation and
enforcement seeds for several years since genetic drift are minimized by reproducing
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
171
foundation or stock seeds. Since the quantity of seeds involved is not large, the storage room
is only a small part of the total storage area and in fact, is often a small room within a large
warehouse. Relative humidity and temperature combination has to be provided for
maintaining the viability. A combination of 25 per cent RH at 30oC temperature or less or
a RH of about 45 per cent at 20oC or less will be ideal. The required RH can be achieved
by making the room moisture proof and by using a dehumidifier.
➢ Germplasm seed storage: Germplasm seeds are required to be kept for many years, perhaps
very long periods. Basic requirements for such long-term storage are the coldest temperature
economically possible and seed moisture is in equilibrium with 20-25 per cent RH.
Germplasm storage built up so far have rooms which can be maintained at 5oC to 10oC and
30 per cent RH. In addition, the stored samples are dried to perfect moisture level.
➢ Seed Storage on the basis of moisture content: The drier the seed the higher will be the
storage life.
Seed moisture content (%)
11-13
10-12
9-11
8-10
Storage life
½ year
1 year
2 years
4 years
❖ Cryopreservation
➢ It is also called as cryogenic storage. Seeds are placed in liquid nitrogen at -196°C.
➢ The National Seeds Policy 2002 clearly emphasizes that “It has become evident that in
order to achieve the food production targets of the future, a major effort will be required to
enhance the seed replacement rates of various crops. This would require a major increase in
the production of quality seeds.” According to the National seeds Policy 2002, the thrust
areas have to be i. Varietal Development.
ii. Seed Production.
iii. Seed Replacement Rate Enhancement.
iv. Primary responsibility for production of breeder seed to be that of the ICAR/State
Agriculture Universities.
v. An effective seed production programme.
vi. Popularization of new varieties.
vii. Availability of newly developed varieties to farmers with minimum time gap.
viii. Provision of incentives to domestic seed industry to enable it to produce seeds of high
yielding varieties and hybrid seeds at a faster pace to meet the challenges of domestic
requirements.
172 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
NATIONAL SEEDS CORPORATION
NSC was initiated under ICAR and Registered on 7th March 1963 as a limited company in the
public sector.
❖ Seed Certification
➢ Seed Certification is a legally sanctioned system for the quality control of seed during seed
multiplication and production. The seed certification is voluntary.
❖ Validity period of certification is for a period of nine months from date of testing the samples.
➢ The seed can be revalidated as long as it meets the required seed standards (for six months).
❖ Process and Procedure of certification of seeds
➢ Receipt and scrutiny of application.
➢ Verification of seed source, class and other requirements of the seed used for raising the seed
crop.
➢ Field inspections to verify conformity to the prescribed field standards.
➢ Supervision of post-harvest stages including processing and packaging.
➢ Seed sampling and analysis, including genetic purity test and/or seed health test, if any, in
order to verify conformity to the prescribed standards.
➢ Grant of certificate and certification tags, tagging and sealing.
❖ Steps Involved in Seed Certification
1. Application for seed production
2. Registration of sowing report
3. Field inspection
4. Seed processing
5. Seed sample and seed analysis
6. Tagging and sealing
❖ International Seed Analysis Certificate
International Seed Testing Association's Certificates were introduced in 1931 at the request of
the International Seed Trade Federation (FIS). They greatly facilitate the international trade of
seed, because the buyer of seed can rely on the results reported on the certificates. The
certificates are accepted as important document by a great part of world's seed trade.
❖ An accredited laboratory must satisfy two additional conditions before it can be authorized
to issue ISTA certificates:
1. The laboratory must not have any financial interest in the production, processing and/or
distribution of seeds.
2. The laboratory must have taken part, usually for at least three years, in the ISTA referee
testing programme with conclusive results.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
173
Certificate
Certificated
related to
Sampling
Testing
Issuance of
certificate
Orange
Seed lot
done by a member
station as per
ISTA procedure
in the same
country o by the
same station
who has done
sampling
by the
station
which had
done
testing.
Green
Seed lot
done by a member
station as per
ISTA procedure
in another
country by a
member station.
by the
station
which had
done testing
Blue
Seed Sample
sample submitted and not
done under the
responsibility of a
member station
by a member
station in the
same country.
by the
station
which has
done
testing.
174 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
IMPORTANT FACTS
❖ Journal, Seed Science and Technology publishes by ISTA.
❖ Central seed testing laboratory- Banaras (1960).
❖ The Seed Act was passed on 29th December 1966.
❖ The Seed Act came into force throughout the country on 2nd October 1969.
❖ The seed act is applicable only to notified kinds/varieties of seed.
❖ International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) was established
by International Convention for Protection of New varieties of plants, which was signed in Paris
in 1961.
❖ The GOI enacted our own legislation on the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmer’s
Rights Act (PPV&FR) in 2001.
❖ PPV&FR act is a unique model in the World as it provides equal rights to farmers along with
breeders.
❖ National Seeds Corporation (NSC) was registered on 7th March 1963 as a limited company
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
in the public sector.
NSC handled foundation and certified seeds of many varieties of crops.
AOSCA (Association of Official Seed Certification Agency) was established in 1919.
Isolation is required to avoid natural crossing with other undesirable types, off types in the
field and mechanical mixtures.
Testing of variety for providing protection under PPV&FR act- NDUS test.
NDUS test stand for- Novelty, Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability test.
A new variety is registered under the act after NDUS test.
Association of Official Seed Analysts (AOSA) was formed in 1908.
Father of seed testing- Frederick Nobbe
Endosperm results of – Double fertilization.
Genetic purity maintains during hybrid seed production- Isolation distance.
Heterostyled flower is present in- Brinjal.
In which crop plot technique is use in- Potato.
Malachite green test use to identify- Mechanical damage.
Percent of absorbed water used in photosynthesis- 0.2%.
Seed control order was passed in- 1983.
Seed year was celebrated during – 1993.
TZ test was 1st formulated by- Laken in 1942.
Warm stratification is carried out for- Cashew.
Longest phase of mitotic division is Interphase (NSC exam)
Smallest phase of mitotic division is Anaphase (Net 2018)
Chromosomes arranged on equatorial plate at Metaphase (net 2018)
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
175
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
Longest phase of meiosis is Prophase
Crossing-over takes place in Pachytene stage (ADO exam)
Top cross is a cross between an inbred and open pollinated variety (Question bank Seed tech)
Crossing of hybrid with one of the parents is called Back cross (Net 2018)
Crossing of hybrid with recessive parent is called Test cross (Net 2017)
Linkage is the opposite of crossing over (Seed tech question bank)
Cell wall of fungi is made up of chitin (State exam)
Most abundant form of RNA is rRNA (80%)
Single gene affecting more than one character is known as Pleiotropy
Powerhouse of the cell mitochondria (MSC entrance)
Seed is a fertilised Ovule (IBPS)
Impurity percentage of seed lot is called Dockage
Seed plot technique used in potato by Pushkarnath in 1967. (Seed tech net exam)
Superiority of F1 hybrid over its parent is known as heterosis or hybrid vigour (Net)
Loss or reduction of vigour and fitness as a result of inbreeding is called inbreeding
depression
Development of seed from anther is Androgenesis
Tetrazolium test is used for Seed viability (NET)
Grow out test is useful for Genetic purity (SRF)
Rudimentary root of Seed or seedling that forms the primary roots of young plant is called
Radicle (NSC)
In tetrazolium test colour of living tissue of Seed changed to Red (NET)
In India generally Three generation system of seeds are used.
In maize the effect of foreign pollen of same generation on development of fruit or on
phenotype of endosperm is called Xenia (NET Exam)
Pure Seed percentage in Abelmoschus esculentus is 99% (MSC entrance)
Slow drying seeds are Pulses (IBPS Exam)
Physical basis of life is known as Protoplasm (NSC)
Tift 23A is a male sterile line of bajra (IBPS AFO)
Application of principles of genetics for the improvement of humankind is called Eugenics
Adaptation or adjustment of an introduced to a new variety is called Acclimatization
Seed control order was passed in 1983 (NSC)
Detasseling is the technique used for hybrid Seed production in Maize
Rope pulling is practised for good Seed set in hybrid Seed production of Rice
Isolation distance for hybrid rice Seed production is 200
176 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Soil Science
Seventh Edition
For
M.Sc. Entrance || AFO || IFFCO || JRF ||
NABARD || RRB-SO || State Exam ||
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
1
OFFLINE CLASSES FACILITIES AT CHANDIGARH
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Digital Classes
Air-Conditioned classroom
Library for boys and girls
Face to face classes by Wadhwa sir & team
Printed books
PRE+MAINS+INTERVIEW classes
Daily fixed study hours after class
Recorded classes facility to all offline students
One year test series
All exam covered
Daily newspaper
Free WiFi for all
Monthly current affairs magazine
Sco-7, Kharar Landran road, Mohali
(Punjab)
Contact: 95-200-90-200 (9-6 PM)
2
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Index
S.No.
Topic
Page No.
1
Soil science introduction
5
2
Minerals
8
3
Soil formation factors and processes
21
4
Soil physical properties
26
5
Soil water
34
6
Types of soil in India
49
7
Problematic soil
58
8
Soil erosion and conservation
70
9
Manures, fertilizers and biofertilizers
77
10
Carbon cycle
107
11
Plant nutrients
122
12
Tillage
144
13
Watershed management
152
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
3
14
Important facts
155
15
Facts from previous year exams
163
16
Doubts asked by students
169
17
Weed science
174
The battle of preparation you are doing today,
will be the reason of your selection tomorrow.
D.K. Wadhwa
4
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
SOIL SCIENCE
❖ Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth including
soil Formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility
properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils.
APPROACHES OF SOIL STUDY
❖ Pedological Approach: The origin of the soil, its classification and its description are
examined in Pedology. (From Greek word pedon, means soil or earth).
❖ Edaphological Approach: Edaphology (from Greek word edaphos, means soil or ground)
is the study of soil from the standpoint of higher plants. Edaphologists consider the various
properties of soil in relation to plant production.
IMPORTANT INSTITUTES RELATED TO SOIL SCIENCE:
Indian Institute of Soil Sciences; (IISS)
Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh)1988
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI)
Karnal (Haryana) 1969
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Nagpur (Maharashtra) 1976
Planning (NBSSLUP)
Central Soil and Water Conservation Research Dehradun (Uttarakhand) 1974
Institute (CSWCRI)
National Institute of Organic Farming (NIOF)
Ghaziabad (Uttar Pradesh) 2003
➢ Composition of soil on volume basis (Soil components)
Mineral matter (45%)
Organic matter (5%)
Soil water (25%)
Soil air (25%)
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
5
➢ Composition of atmospheric air
N2
• By volume (78.08%)
• By weight (76.5%)
O2
• By volume (20.9%)
• By weight (23.1%)
CO2
• By volume (0.033%)
• By weight (0.04%)
Other gases
• By volume (0.93%)
• By weight (1.36%)
➢ Composition of soil and atmospheric air
Nitrogen
• Soil air (79.2%)
• Atmospheric air (78.08%)
Oxygen
• Soil air (20.6%)
• Atmospheric air (20.97%)
Carbon
• Soil air (0.30%)
• Atmospheric air (0.03%)
❖ Composition of Earth’s Crust:
Non- Metallic (75 %)
Oxygen, Silica
Metallic (25 %)
Aluminium, Iron, Calcium, Sodium,
Potassium, Magnesium, Others
ROCKS AND MINERALS
➢ Rocks are the materials that form the essential part of the Earth’s solid crust.
6
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ “Rocks are hard mass of mineral matter comprising one or more rock forming minerals”.
Rocks are formed from the molten material known as magma.
➢ The study of rocks is called Petrology
➢ Petrology (Greek word) deals with the description of rocks; petrogenesis is the study of
the origin of rocks.
FORMATION OF ROCKS
1. Cooling and consolidation of molten magma within or on the surface of earth =Igneous
or Primary rocks
2. Transportation and cementation of primary rocks = Sedimentary or Secondary Rocks
3. Alteration of the existing primary and secondary rocks = Metamorphic rocks
TYPES OF ROCKS
Igneous rocks
(primary or
massive rocks)
Sedimentary
rocks
Metamorphic
rocks
•Granite (AFO-2021)
•Gabbro
•Dolerite
•Basalt
•Synenite
•Sandstone
•Shale
•Limestone
•Dolomite
• Gneiss - Formed from granite
• Schist- Formed from basalt or
Shale
• Quartzite: Formed from sand
stone
• Slate: Formed from shale
• Marble: Formed from lime
stone
❖ Based on Silica Content Rocks are classified as:
Acid Rocks (>65% SiO2)
Granite, Rhyolite
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
7
Intermediate rocks (56- 65 %)
Syenite and Trachyte (Sub acid), Diorite
and Andesite (Sub basic)
Basic rocks (40-55 %)
Gabbro, basalt
MINERALS
➢ Minerals are naturally occurring solids with a definite chemical composition and crystal
structure. “Solid substances composed of atoms having an orderly and regular arrangement”
➢ Minerals that are original components of rocks are called primary minerals. (Feldspar,
mica, etc.).
➢ Minerals that are formed from changes in primary minerals and rocks are called secondary
minerals (clay minerals) (e.g., illite, montmorillonite, kaolinite, etc.).
➢ Those minerals that are chief constituents of rocks are called as essential minerals
(Feldspars, pyroxenes micas etc)
➢ Those which are present in small quantities, whose presence or absence will not alter the
properties of rocks are called accessory minerals (tourmaline, magnetite etc).
8
Primary Minerals
Secondary Minerals
Quartz
Geothite
Muscovite
Hematite
Orthoclase
Gibbsite
Biotite
Clay minerals
Hornblende
Dolomite
Augite
Calcite
Anorthite
Gypsum
Olivine
Chlorite
Mica
Illite
serpentine
Montmorillonite
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS IN THE SOIL
Mineral
Source
Nitrogen (N)
Organic matter
Magnesium
Dolomite, Muscovite
Boron (RRB SO-2019)
Tourmaline, Borax
Sulphur (S)
Gypsum, Pyrite, Organic matter
Iron
Pyrite, Hematite & Magnetite
Manganese
Magnetite
Silica
Quartz
Phosphorus
Apatite
Calcium
Limestone, Dolomite and Gypsum
Zinc
Sphalerite
Chlorine (Cl)
Apatite
Potassium
Sylvite, Micas, Feldspar, Biotite
Molybdenum
Olivine & Molybdenite
Aluminum
Bauxite
❖ Types of Clay minerals: - Clay minerals in soils are formed from primary minerals due to
weathering processes. These clay minerals are of size <0.002 mm and are the most reactive
part of soil.
Expanding type
Smectite group (e.g., Montmorillonite)
and vermiculite
Non-expanding type
mica group (e.g.) Muscovite and biotite
(illite).
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➢ The sum of the exchangeable cations that a soil can absorb is called as cation exchange
capacity (CEC).
➢ CEC: It is also defined as “the number of cationic species bound at pH 7.0
TYPES OF SOIL COLLOIDS
➢ Layer silicate clays, iron, and aluminum oxide clays, allophane and associated amorphous
clays are inorganic colloids while humus is an organic colloid.
1:1 type mineral
kaolinite, halloysite.
Kaolinite exhibits very little plasticity (capability of being
moulded), cohesion, shrinkage, and swelling.
2:1-Type Minerals
Expanding type
Smectite
Fully
group
(montmorillonite:
expanding)
and
vermiculite
(Partially expanding)
Non-expanding type
Black mica (Biotite), White mica
(Muscovite), Weathered mica (Illite),
2:1:1 Type Minerals
chlorites.
❖ Based on Weathering
Slow weathered
Moderate weathered
Easy weathered
Quartz, Tourmaline, and Magnetite.
➢ Apatite, Orthoclase and Muscovite.
Olivine, Hornblende and Biotite
❖ Weathering minerals
Most resistant
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Quartz
Moderate resistant
Feldspar
Least resistant
Calcite
➢ Best soil contains 10-20% clay, 5-10% OM, 30% Silt or Sand called clay Loam.
➢ A soil is considered to be fertile when the base saturation percentage is more than 80. Each
percent of humus contributes about 2 C mol /kg of CEC.
➢ The decomposition of organic matter is accelerated in warm climates as compared to cooler
climates. For each 10oC decline in mean annual temperature, the total organic matter and N
increases by two to three times.
Questions from Previous Year Exams
1. Which one is not sedimentary rock? (AFO 2021)
a. Granite
c. shale
b. Gneiss
d. conglomerate
e. limestone
2. Which among the following is a Rock mineral of boron? (RRB SO 2019)
a. Pyrolusite
c. Apatite
b. Orthoclase
d. olivine
e. Tourmaline
3. Which of the following is the example of igneous rock (UPCATET PG, BHU, AFO)
a. Granite
b. Limestone
c. Dolomite
d. Sandstone
4. The inherent capacity of soil to supply nutrients to plants in adequate amount is called
(UPCATET PG, BHU, AU PG, IFFCO AGT)
a. Soil productivity
b. Soil fertility
c. Pedology
d. Edaphology
5. Which of the following mineral is the source of phosphorus (AU-PG, IFFCO AGT)
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a. Mica
b. Dolomite
c. Apatite
d. Biotite
ANSWERS
1. 1. a
2. 2. e
3. 3. a
4. 4. b
5. 5. c
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY:
➢ The ability of a soil to retain cations (positively charged ions) in a form that is available to
plants is known as cation exchange capacity (CEC). Although type of clay is important, in
general, the more clay or organic matter present, the higher the CEC.
➢ The higher the CEC, the more resistance soil has to changes in pH.
➢ The CEC and buffering capacity are directly related to the amount of liming material required
to produce a desired change in pH.
➢ Higher CEC soils require more lime than those with low CEC's to achieve the same pH
change.
➢ CEC increases with fineness of the soil particles. This means increasing clay content will
increase the CEC
➢ When pH of the soil solution increases the CEC will also increase.
➢ Soil dominated with montmorillonite and vermiculite have higher CEC than those
dominated with kaolinite, chlorite or illite.
➢ Most of the microbes grow best at pH 6 to 8 but are severely inhibited below pH 4.5 and
above pH 8.5.
➢ CEC of Mica is Zero.
➢ The CEC and specific area of the clay minerals are in the order: smectite > fine mica >
kaolinite.
➢ The amount of lime required to raise the pH of an acidic soil is greater as the CEC is greater.
➢ Cation exchange sites hold fertilizer K+ and NH4+ and greatly reduce their mobility in soils.
➢ Soils with high CEC can adsorb higher amounts of nutrients. Hence, in clay soils we can
apply larger quantities of fertilizers in a single dose.
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➢ Sandy soils have very low CEC, and, in such soils, fertilizers should be applied in splits.
➢ In general, the power of replacement of cations is
H+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > NH4+ > K+ >Na
❖ Clay mineral and their CEC{Cmol(+)/kg}
Clay Mineral
CEC (Cmol(+)/kg)
Kaolinite
3-10
Illite
10-40
Chlorite
10-40
Montmorillonite
80-150
Vermiculite
100-150
Organic Colloids
>200
❖ CEC of different textural classes: -
Type of soil
CEC (Cmol(+)/Kg)
Sand
0-5
Sandy Loam
5-10
Loam
10-15
Clay Loam
15-30
Clay
30
Humus
200-400 (Highest)
ANION EXCHANGE CAPACITY
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➢ Some anions such as H2PO4 are adsorbed very readily at all pH values in the acid as well as
alkaline range.
➢ Cl and SO4 ions are adsorbed slightly at low pH but none at neutrality, while NO3 ions are
not adsorbed at all.
➢ A low percent base saturation means acidity, whereas a percent base saturation of 50-90 will
result into neutrality or alkalinity.
➢ Between pH 6-7, phosphorus fixation is at minimum and availability to higher plants is
maximum.
➢ Anion exchange is pH dependent. Lower the pH greater is the anion exchange.
➢ Soils with Kaolinite dominant clay have higher anion exchange capacity than
montmorillonite or illite.
➢ The relative order of anion exchange is: OH- > H2PO4- > SO4- > NO3-> Cl-
SOIL pH AND BUFFER pH
➢ Most plants perform best in a soil that is slightly acid to neutral (pH 6.0 to 7.0). Some plants
like blueberries require the soil to be more acid (pH 4.5 to 5.5), and others, like alfalfa will
tolerate a slightly alkaline soil (pH 7.0-7.5).
➢ If a soil has a pH of 6.5 and this pH is lowered to pH 5.5, the acid content of that soil is
increased 10-fold. If the pH is lowered further to pH 4.5, the acid content becomes 100 times
greater than at pH 6.5.
➢ The reasons that a soil may require differing amounts of lime to change the soil pH relates
to the soil CEC and the "reserve" acidity that is contained by the soil.
➢ Soil acidity is controlled by the amount of hydrogen (H+) and aluminum (Al3+) that is
either contained in or generated by the soil and soil components.
➢ Soils with a high CEC have a greater capacity to contain or generate these sources of acidity.
Therefore, at a given soil pH, a soil with a higher CEC (thus a lower buffer pH) will normally
require more lime to reach a given target pH than a soil with a lower CEC.
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➢ The preferred pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.0.
➢ Legumes prefer higher pH's (pH values of 6.2-7.0) than do grasses (pH values of 5.8-6.5).
❖ Buffer in soil:
➢ Soil buffering is the ability of the soil to stop nutrient or pH changes by absorption.
➢ For soils, it is the capability of absorbing nutrients and also releasing them (cation exchange
capacity).
➢ Humic acids and clay minerals have good buffer qualities.
NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY AND SOIL pH
➢ Nutrient availability is influenced strongly by soil pH.
➢ This is especially true for phosphorus, which is most available between pH 6.0 and 7.5.
➢ Elements such as iron, aluminum, and manganese are especially soluble in acid soils.
➢ Above pH 7.0, calcium, magnesium, and sodium are increasingly soluble.
➢ In general, the availability of nitrogen, potassium, calcium, and magnesium decreases rapidly
below pH 6.0 and above pH 8.0.
➢ Aluminum is only slightly available between pH 5.5 and pH 8.0.
➢ Manganese, zinc, and iron are most available when soil pH is in the acid range.
NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY IN RELATION TO SOIL PH:
pH value
Available nutrient
< 6.0
Al, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Co
6.0-6.5
P, B
> 6.5
Ca, Mo
❖ Soil pH and nutrient availability
➢ Most of nutrients are absorbed at 6.5-7.5pH
➢ N.P.K. Ca, Mg, S-6.5-7.5 pH
➢ Mn, Cu, Zn, B -<6.0 pH
➢ Mo more available at high pH.
➢ P availability is maximum at 6.7 pH.
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➢ H2PO4- is available at 5.5 pH
➢ HPO4 2- at 7.0 pH.
➢ Both H2PO4 and HPO42- are available in -equal proportion at 7.2 Ph
➢ PO4 3are available at > 7.5.
➢ At<5.0 pH P are fixed on colloid by Fe and Al oxides
➢ Fungi prefer < 5 pH.
➢ Bacteria > 5 and actinomycetes prefer alkaline > 8 pH.
➢ pH for best nitrification process 8.5
❖ Soil pH and soil organisms
➢ Earthworms do best when soil pH >6.5
➢ Nitrification greatly inhibited at pH <5.5
➢ N fixation greatly restricted a pH <6
➢ Decomposition of plant residues and OM may be slow in acid conditions (pH <5.5)
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT OF CROPS:
➢ Nutrient Requirement (kg) to produce Crop 100 kg of economic produce:
Nutrient
Crop
Nitrogen
Soybean> Groundnut> Chickpea
Phosphorus
Cotton>Groundnut>Soybean
Potassium
Cotton>Chickpea>Soybean
SOIL ORGANIC MATTER (ORGANIC COLLOID)
➢ Substances containing carbon are organic matter. Soil organic matter consists of
decomposing plant and animal residues. It also includes substances of organic origin either
leaving or dead.
➢ Plant tissue is the major source. Animals are considered as the secondary sources.
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➢ OM on decomposition by humidification process gives humus. Humus is amorphous in
nature.
➢ In hilly and high altitudes, OM is above 1%.
➢ Organic Matter: - Organic carbon x 1.724 (Bamalen factor) (AFO-2016)
➢ The amount of organic matter in peat soil is 10-40%
➢ Organic matter content in alluvial soils: - 0.4-0.7%
➢ Organic matter limit in Indian soils - 1 to 5 percent
➢ CN ratio OM is 10: 1, whereas an average of 14: 1 of Indian Soil.
➢ Histosols are called Organic soils.
➢ The range of organic carbon in the soil: ✓ Low Range: - <0.5%
✓ Medium Range: -0.5 - 0.75%
✓ Higher grade: -> 0.75%
✓ Average organic carbon content in Indian soil - 0.5 percent
❖ Composition of organic residues:
Plant residues contain:
➢ 75% moisture
➢ 25% dry matter: Carbon > Oxygen >Hydrogen >N
❖ Composition of plant tissues:
➢ Carbohydrates (Cellulose (20-50 %), Hemi Cellulose, Starch & Sugar (1-5 %) ) > Lignins >
Proteins > Fats, waxes, tannins
❖ The organic matter is also classified based on their rate of decomposition
Rapidly decomposed
Sugars, starches, proteins etc.
Less rapidly decomposed
Hemicelluloses, celluloses etc.
Very slowly decomposed
Fats, waxes, resins, lignins etc.
➢ Organic matter has 58% organic carbon and 5-6% nitrogen.
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❖ Humus components:
➢ Fluvic acid - soluble in both acid and base
➢ Humic acid - soluble in base only
➢ Humin - insoluble in both acid and base.
Some of the reactions involved in decomposition of soil organic matter:
(i) Ammonification: The transformation of organic nitrogenous compounds (amino acids,
amides, ammonium compounds, nitrates etc.) into ammonia is called ammonification. This
process occurs as a result of hydrolytic and oxidative enzymatic reaction under aerobic
conditions by heterotrophic microbes.
(ii) Nitrification: The process of conversion of ammonia to nitrites (NO2) with the help of
Nitrosomonas and then from nitrite to nitrate (NO3-) with the help of Nitrobacter is known
as nitrification. It is an aerobic process by autotrophic bacteria. (AFO-2015)
(iii) Denitrification: The process, which involves conversion of soil nitrate into gaseous
nitrogen or nitrous oxide with the help of Pseudomonas or bacillus, is called Denitrification.
Water logging and high pH will increase N loss by Denitrification. (AFO-2015)
❖ Mineralization: The biological conversion of organic forms of C, N, P and S to inorganic
or mineral forms is called mineralization.
❖ Immobilization: The conversion of inorganic forms of C, N, P and S by the soil organism
into organic forms is called Immobilization.
➢ Soil in which the amount of organic matter is found to be less than 20 percent are known
as mineral soil.
➢ Soil in which organic matter content is more than 20 percent is known as organic soil.
Decomposition of organic material causes humus to form. Humus is a storehouse of
nutrients. Organic Soil Order is Histosol.
❖ When C: N is:
➢ >30: then immobilization
➢ <20: then mineralization will occur.
➢ 15-30 or 20- 30: then both mineralization and immobilization will occur.
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➢ Proteins are rapidly decomposed while lignins are Very slowly decomposed.
❖ The nutrient index value for N, P, K, and S were 1.22, 1.06, 2.04 and 1.40 respectively against
the nutrient index values < 1.6 for low, 1.67-2.33 for medium and >2.33 for high fertility
status.
Nutrient index:
Nutrient
Low
Medium
High
Organic carbon
< 0.5 %
0.5 – 0.75%
> 0.75%
Available nitrogen (N)
< 240Kg/ha
240- 480kg/ha
> 480Kg/ha
Available Phosphorus (P)
< 11.0 Kg/ha
11 – 22 Kg/ha
> 22 Kg/ha
Available potassium (K)
< 110Kg/ha
110-280Kg/ha
> 280Kg/ha
The C: N ratio:
Particulars
C: N
Cultivated soils
8:1 to 15:1
Average
10:1 to 12:1
Arable soil
5:1 to 15 :1
Legumes & Farm Manure
20:1 – 30:1
Straw
100:1
Saw Dust
400:1
Microorganisms
4:1 to 9:1
➢ The C: N ratio is lower in soils of arid regions than humid regions.
Questions from previous year Exams
1. Microbial conversion of nitrate into chemical nitrogen is called (AFO 2015)
a. Denitrification
b. Nitrate reduction
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c. Nitrogen fixation
d. Both a & b
e. Nitrification
2. Nitrification is a process of (AFO 2015)
a. Reduction
b. Hydrolysis
c. Oxidation
d. both a & c
e. None of these
3. Which of the following organic material has lowest C: N ratio? (RRB SO 2020)
a. Rye straw
b. Wheat straw
c. Saw dust
d. Solid cattle manure
e. Soil microbes
4. Conversion factor for conservation of organic carbon to organic matter is usually taken
as (AFO 2016)
a. 0.45
b. 0.91
c. 1.36
d. 1.72
e. 2.04
ANSWERS
1. a
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2. c
3. c
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4. d
SOIL FORMATION FACTORS AND PROCESSES
The weathering of rock (R) into Regolith
The formation of true soil from Regolith
➢ The soil formation is the process of two consecutive stages
➢ The first step is accomplished by weathering (disintegration & decomposition
➢ The second step is associated with the action of Soil Forming Factors
Weathering
Rock
Regolith
True soil
FACTORS
❖ Soil factors divide two groups
➢ Passive: Parent material, Relief or Topography and Time
➢ Active: Climate and Vegetation & organism
TYPES OF PARENT MATERIAL
➢ Parent material (P.M.) develops from plant residue known as Cumulose Ex-Peat, Muck.
Colluvial
By Gravity (RRB SO-2020)
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Alluvial, Marine
By Water
Aeolian
By Wind (Sand)
Glacial
By Ice
Eoline
By Wind (Silt)
Lacustrine
Sedimentation of mineral in fresh
water like Lake
➢ Relief or Topography: The topography refers to the differences in elevation of the land
surface on a broad scale. The prominent types of topography designations, as given in FAO
Guidelines:
Land Surface
Slope
Flat to Almost flat
0–2%
Gently undulating
2-5%
Undulating
5 – 10 %
Rolling
10 – 15 %
Hilly
15 –3 0 %
Steeply dissect
> 30 % with moderate range of elevation
(<300 m)
Mountainous
> 30% with great range of elevation (>300
m)
❖ Soil Forming Processes: Humification, Eluviation (O & A Horizon), Illuviation ( B
horizon),
Horizonation, Calcification, Decalcification,
Podzolization, Laterization,
Gleization, Salinization
1. Humification: Humification is the process of transformation of raw organic matter into
humus. It is extremely a complex process involving various organisms.
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2. Eluviation: Eluviation means washing out. It is the process of removal of constituents in
suspension or solution by the percolating water from the upper to lower layers.(O & A
Horizon) (RRB SO-2019)
3. Illuviation: Means washing in. The process of deposition of soil materials in the lower layer
is termed as Illuviation.( B horizon) (AFO-2020)
4. Horizonation: It is the process of differentiation of soil in different horizons along the
depth of the soil body.
5. Calcification: It is the process of precipitation and accumulation of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) in some part of the profile.
6. Decalcification: It is the reverse of calcification that is the process of removal of CaCO3 or
calcium ions from the soil by leaching.
7. Podzolization: Accumulation of Silica and leaching of sesquioxide (Al & Fe ) into the lower
layers.
8. Laterization: Laterization is the process that removes silica, instead of sesquioxide from
the upper layers and thereby leaving sesquioxide to concentrate in the solum. (Removal of
Silica and Accumulation of sesquioxide ( Al & Fe )
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9. Gleization: The Gleization is a process of soil formation resulting in the development of a
glei (or gley horizon) in the lower part of the soil profile above the parent material due to
poor drainage condition (lack of oxygen) and where waterlogged conditions prevail.
10. Salinization: It is the process of accumulation of salts, such as sulphates and chlorides of
calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium, in soils in the form of a salty (salic) horizon. It
is quite common in arid and semi-arid regions.
11. Desalinization: It is the removal by leaching of excess soluble salts from horizons or soil
profile by ponding water and improving the drainage conditions by installing artificial
drainage network.
❖ Some another term:
➢ Dealkalization (Solodization): The process refers to the removal of Na+ from the exchange
sites. This process involves dispersion of clay. Dispersion occurs when Na+ ions become
hydrated, the process is effected by intensive leaching and degradation which takes place in
older soils.
➢ Solonization or Alkalization: The process involves the accumulation of sodium ions on the
exchange complex of the clay, resulting in the formation of sodic soils.
➢ Pedoturbation: It is the process of mixing of the soil.
SOIL PROFILE
The vertical section of the soil showing the various layers from the
surface to the unaffected parent material is known as a soil profile.
The various layers are known as horizons. A soil profile contains
horizons O, A, B, C and R horizons and all the possible subhorizons.
1. O horizon:
➢ It is called as organic horizon. It is formed in the upper part of
the mineral soil, dominated by fresh or partly decomposed
organic materials.
➢ If the mineral fraction has > 50% clay, then OM is > 30 %
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➢ If the mineral fraction has < 50% clay, then OM is > 20 %
➢ The organic horizons are commonly seen in forest areas and generally absent in grassland,
cultivated soils.
➢ Such O horizon is visible in virgin soil and absent in Arable soils.
2. A horizon:
➢ Horizon of organic matter accumulation adjacent to surface and that has lost clay, iron and
aluminum. It is zone of washing out/maximum leaching.
3. B horizon:
➢ Horizon of maximum Illuviation. Horizon in which the dominant features are accumulation
of clay, iron, aluminum or humus alone or in combination.
4. C horizon:
➢ It is the horizon below the solum (A + B), relatively less affected by soil forming processes.
It is outside the zone of major biological activity. It may contain accumulation of carbonates
or sulphates, calcium and magnesium.
5. R:
➢ Underlying consolidated bed rock and it may or may not be like the parent rock from which
the solum is formed.
❖ Note:
➢ Master horizon: 5 (O, A, E, B, C)
➢ A+B/A+E+B: - Solum/True soil
➢ A+B+C: - Regolith (Unorganized parent material)
S.N.
1.
Horizon
Description
O
Higher mineral soil, occurs commonly in forest areas,
absent in arable land.
2.
A
Topmost mineral horizon
3.
E or A2
Horizon of maximum Eluviation of clay, Fe and Al,
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Maximum leaching take place so also called as Washout.
4.
B
Absent in black soil, Maximum accumulation
(Illuviation so also called as Wash-in.
5.
C
Rock, Regolith
6.
R
Tied rock
Questions from previous year Exams
1. Which of the following refers to the zone of illuviation? (AFO 2020)
a. A
b. B
c. R
d. C
e. O
2. What is the term used when the constituent of soil in solution form percolate from the
upper layer to the lower layer? (RRB SO 2019)
a. Illuviation
b. Eluviation
c. Percolation
d. Leaching
e. Run off
3. Deposition of soil by gravity- (RRB SO 2020)
a. Colluvial Soil
b. Alluvial soil
c. Aeolian soil
d. Red Soil
e. Black Soil
ANSWER
1. b
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2. b
3. a
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SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Physical properties (mechanical behavior) of a soil greatly influence its use and behavior
towards plant growth. The plant support, root penetration, drainage, aeration, retention of
moisture, and plant nutrients are linked with the physical condition of the soil.
❖ Important physical properties of soils:
Soil texture
Soil structure
Surface area
Soil density
Soil porosity
Soil colour
Soil consistence
1. Soil texture: Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of particles or it is the relative
percentage by weight of the three soil separates viz., sand, silt and clay or simply refers to
the size of soil particles. It is basic property of a soil; it can’t be changed.
❖ A/C to USDA:
USDA
ISSS
Soil separates
Diameter (mm)
Diameter (mm)
Clay
< 0.002 mm
< 0.002 mm
Silt
0.002 – 0.05
0.002 – 0.02 mm
Very Fine Sand
0.05 – 0.10
NA
Fine Sand
0.10 – 0.25
0.02 – 0.2 mm
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Medium Sand
0.25 - 0.50
Coarse Sand
0.50 - 1.00
Very Coarse Sand
1.00 – 2.00
Gravel
NA
2.0 – 75 mm
Cobble
NA
75- 250 mm
Stone
NA
>250
0.2 – 2.0 mm
❖ Soil Textural Classes
These are grouped into three main fractions viz., Sand, Silt and Clay.
Sands
➢ The sand group includes all soils in which the sand separates make up at least 70% and the
clay separate 15% or less of the material by weight.
➢ Two specific textural classes are recognized in this group sandy and loamy sand although
in practice two subclasses are also used Loamy fine sand and loamy very fine sand.
Silt:
➢ The silt group includes soils with at least 80% silt and 12% or less clay.
➢ Naturally the properties of this group are dominated by those of silt.
➢ Only one textural class - Silt is includedin this group.
Clays
➢ To be designated a clay a soi1 must contain at least 35% of the clay separate and in most
cases not less than 40%.
➢ In such soils the characteristics of the clay separates are distinctly dominant, and the class
names are clay, sandy clay and silty clay.
➢ Sandy clays may contain more sand than clay.
➢ Likewise, the silt content of silty clays usually exceeds clay fraction.
Loams
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➢ An ideal loam may be defined as a mixture of sand, silt and day particles that exhibits the
properties of those separates in about equal proportions.
➢ Loam soils do not exhibit dominant physical properties of sand, silt or clay.
➢ Loam does not contain equal percentage of sand, silt and clay. However, exhibit
approximately equal properties of sand, silt and clay.
SOIL TEXTURAL CLASSES
S.N.
SOIL
CLASSES OR
TEXTURAL
NAMES
RANGE IN
S.N.
RELATIVE
PERCENTAGE
OF SOIL
SEPARATES
SAND
SILT
SOIL
CLASSES OR
TEXTURAL
NAMES
CLAY
1
Sandy soil
85-100
0-15
0-10
2
Loamy sand
70-90
0-30
0-15
3
Sandy loam
43-80
0-50
0-20
4
Loam
23-52
28-50
7-27
5
Silt loam
0-50
50-88
0-27
6
Silt
0-20
40-100
0-12
7
Sandy clay loam 45-80
0-28
20-35
8
Clay loam
20-45
15-53
27-40
9
Silty clay loam
0-20
40-73
27-40
10
Sandy clay
45-65
0-20
35-45
11
Silt clay
0-20
40-60
40-60
12
clay
0-45
0-40
40-100
2. Soil structure: The arrangement and organization of primary and secondary particles in a
soil mass is known as soil structure. In fact, the important physical changes imposed by the
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farmer in ploughing, cultivating, draining, liming, and manuring his land are structural rather
than textural.
➢ Naturally occurring aggregates of soil are called – Peds.
➢ Artificially formed (by Tillage) called- Clod.
➢ Granular and crumb structures are commonly found in the A-horizon of the soil
profile.
➢ Prismatic and columnar structures are Found in high clay containing soils
➢ And mostly found in soil having high Na content in dry climate.
➢ Platy soil: It is commonly found in forest soils, in part of the A- horizon, and in claypan
soils.
➢ Wedge structure found in soils having high clay minerals like Montmorillonite.
➢ Single grain soil: Found at beaches
➢ Granular and Crumby Structure, platy Structure are found in A horizon.
➢ Blocky and Subangular blocky structure, prismatic and columnar structure are
found B horizon.
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL STRUCTURE
Climate
Organic matter
Tillage
Plants, Roots and
Residues
Animals
Microbes
Fertilizers
Wetting and drying
❖ Soil Consistence:
➢ Soil consistence is defined as “the resistance of a soil at various moisture contents to
mechanical stresses or manipulations”.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ It combines both the ‘cohesive’ and ‘adhesive’ forces, which determine the ease with which
a soil can be reshaped or ruptures. (AFO-2015)
➢ Soil consistence is described at three moisture levels namely ‘wet’, ‘moist’ and ‘dry’.
SOIL PLASTICITY AND COHESION:
➢ Plasticity is the capacity of the soil to change its shape under moist conditions.
➢ The capacity of the soil to stick together is known as Cohesion.
➢ Plastic soils are cohesive.
➢ The soil contains at least 15% clay will have plasticity.
BULK DENSITY AND PARTICLE DENSITY OF SOILS
❖ Particle density
➢ The weight per unit volume of the solid portion of soil is called particle density.
➢ Generally, particle density of normal soils is 2.65 grams per cubic centimeter.
➢ Particle density is also termed as true density.
➢ Solid space + pore space = 100
➢ Solid space (%): - BD / PD x 100
➢ Particle Density of Organic soil - 2.1 to 2.4 g/cc
➢ P.D of Organic matter- 1.1 to1.4g/cc
❖ Particle density of different soil textural classes
Textural class
Particle density (g/ cm3)
Coarse sand
2.655
Fine sand
2.659
Silt
2.798
Clay
2.837
❖ Bulk Density:
➢ The oven dry weight of a unit volume of soil inclusive of pore spaces is called bulk density.
➢ The bulk density of a soil is always smaller than its particle density.
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➢ Bulk density of OM is 0.5.
➢ B.D of problematic soil is < 1 and hard Soil > 2 g/cm3
➢ B.D. of compact subsoil is 2 g/cc
➢ Bulk density normally decreases, as mineral soils become finer in texture.
➢ The bulk density varies indirectly with the total pore space present in the soil and gives a
good estimate of the porosity of the soil.
➢ Generally, soils with low bulk densities have favorable physical conditions.
➢ Percent Solid space = BD/PD X100
➢ % Pore space = 100 – BD/PD X100
❖ Bulk density of different textural classes
Textural class
Bulk density (g/cc)
Pore space (%)
Sandy soil
1.6
40
Loam
1.4
47
Silt loam
1.3
50
Clay
1.1
58
❖ Factors influencing pore space
Soil Texture
Pore Space %
Sandy Surface soil
35 to 50 %
Medium to Fine Textured Soils
50 to 60 %
Compact Subsoils
25-30 %
➢ Porosity: - The space that is free of solids inside the soil volume is called soil porosity and
the percentage of the total volume of soil that remains empty is called soil porosity.
➢ The porosity of the soil increases by adding organic matter, which reduces the bulk density
(B.D.)
❖ POROSITY %:
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Soil
Porosity
Clay
50-60%
Clay loam
30-50%
The sand
20-30%
➢ Some crops like blue grass increases the porosity to 57.2% from the original 50%
➢ Virgin soils have more pore space.
➢ Continuous cropping reduces pore space than intermittent cropping
➢ More the number of crops per year, lesser will be the pore space particularly macro pores.
➢ Conservation tillage and no tillage reduces porosity than conventional tillage.
➢ Macro pores (non-capillary pores): diameter >0.05 mm
➢ Micro pores (capillary pores): diameter < 0.05 mm (Sometimes it is written 0.06 mm)
❖ Effect of continuous cropping on total pore space
Soil
Organic
Pore space %
Treatment
matter %
Total
Macro
Micro
Virgin Soil
5.6
58.3
32.7
25.6
Cultivated Soil 2.9
50.2
16.0
34.2
SOIL COLOUR
➢ Soil colour indicates many soil features.
➢ A change in soil colour from the adjacent soils indicates a difference in the soil`s mineral
origin (parent material) or in the soil development.
➢ Determination of soil colour: The soil colors are best determined by the comparison with
the Munsell colour.
➢ Munsell colour chart has 175 colour Strips
Hue
It denotes the dominant spectral colour (red, yellow, blue and
green).
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Value
It denotes the lightness or darkness of a colour (the amount of reflected
Light) 0 = black, 10 = white (range: 0-10)
Chroma
It represents the purity of the colour (strength of the colour). range: 0-8
SOIL WATER
A. Physical classification of soil water:
Gravitational
water
Capillary
water
Hygroscopic
water
❖ Gravitational water:
➢ Gravitational water occupies the larger soil pores (macro pores) and moves down readily
under the force of gravity. Water in excess of the field capacity is termed gravitational
water.
➢ Gravitational water is of no use to plants because it occupies the larger pores.
➢ Soil moisture tension at gravitational state is less than 1/3 atmosphere.
❖ Capillary water:
➢ Capillary water is held in the capillary pores (micro pores).
➢ Capillary water is retained on the soil particles by surface forces.
➢ It is held so strongly that gravity cannot remove it from the soil particles.
➢ Plant roots are able to absorb it.
➢ The capillary water is held between 1/3 and 31 atmosphere pressure.
❖ Hygroscopic water:
➢ The water that held tightly on the surface of soil colloidal particle is known as hygroscopic
water.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ It is essentially non-liquid and moves primarily in the Vapour form.
➢ Hygroscopic water held so tenaciously {31 to 10000 atmosphere) by soil particles that
plants cannot absorb it.
B. Biological Classification of Soil Water:
(i)
Available water: The water which lies between wilting coefficient and field capacity. It
is obtained by subtracting wilting coefficient from moisture equivalent. 1/3 – 15 Atm
(ii) Unavailable water: This includes the whole of the hygroscopic water plus a part of the
capillary water below the wilting point. 15- 10000 Atm
(iii) Super available or superfluous water:
➢ The water beyond the field capacity stage is said to be super available.
➢ It includes gravitational water plus a part of the capillary water removed from larger
interstices.
➢ This water is unavailable for the use of plants.
➢ The presence of super-available water in a soil for any extended period is harmful to plant
growth because of the lack of air.
➢ Less than 1/3 atm.
Physical classification
Biological classification
Hygroscopic water: - 31-10,000 bar
Available water - 1/3 - 15 atm
Wilting coefficient: 15 atm
Ultimate wilting point: 60 atm
Capillary water : 1/3 to 31 bar
unfrozen water (not-available) > 15
Field Capacity: 0.33 or 1/3 times
bar
permanent wilting point (PWP): 15atm
Moisture Equivalent: > -1/3 bar
Gravitational water: 1/3 bar
Excess Water: <1/3 bar
❖ Terms Related to water
➢ Hollard- Total available water
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➢ Chresard- Available to plant
➢ Echard- Not available to plant
❖ Soil moisture constants and range of tension
Moisture class
Tension (atm)
pF
Water vapour
Held at saturation point in the
NA
soil air
Hygroscopic
31 to 10,000
4.50 to 7.00
Hygroscopic coefficient
31
4.50
Wilting point
15
4.20
Capillary
1/3 to 31
2.54 to 4.50
Moisture equivalent
1/3 to 1
2.70 to 3.00
Field capacity
1/3
2.54
Sticky point
1/3 (more or less)
2.54
Gravitational
Zero or less than 1/3
<2.54
Soil water capacity
SOIL MOISTURE CONSTANTS
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1. Field capacity: When macrospores drain their water and are filled by air, but microspores
or capillary pores are still filled with water then soil is called field capacity. The matric
tension is around 0.1-0.3 atm.
2. Wilting coefficient: As the moisture content falls, a point is reached when the water is so
firmly held by the soil particles that plant roots are unable to draw it. The plant begins to
wilt. The stage at which this occurs is termed the Wilting point and the percentage amount
of water held by the soil at this stage is known as the Wilting Coefficient. Water at wilting
coefficient is held with a force of 15 atmosphere.
3. Hygroscopic coefficient: (AFO-2020)
➢ The hygroscopic coefficient is the maximum amount of hygroscopic water absorbed by 100
g of dry soil under standard conditions of Humidity (50% relative humidity) and
temperature (15°C).
➢ Soil moisture tension is extremely low between 1/100th to 1/1000th of an atmosphere or pF
1 to 0.
➢ After the removal of liquid water completely from microspores, the remaining water is
associated with the surface of soil particles.
➢ This tension is equal to a force of 31 atmospheres.
ENTRY OF WATER INTO SOIL
❖ Infiltration:
➢ Infiltration refers to the downward entry or movement of water into the soil surface.
➢ It occurs in unsaturated soil.
➢ It is a surface characteristic and hence primarily influenced by the condition of the surface
soil.
➢ Soil surface with vegetative cover has more infiltration rate than bare soil.
➢ Warm soils absorb more water than colder ones.
➢ Coarse surface texture, granular structure and high organic matter content in surface soil,
all help to increase infiltration.
➢ Infiltration rate is comparatively lower in wet soils than dry soils.
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❖ Percolation: (AFO-2016, 2017)
➢ The movement of water through a column of soil is called percolation.
➢ It occurs in saturated soil.
➢ This is the only source of recharge of ground water which can be used through wells for
irrigation.
➢ Percolating waters carry plant nutrients down and often out of reach of plant roots
(leaching).
➢ In dry region it is negligible and under high rainfall it is high.
➢ Sandy soils have greater percolation than clayey soil.
➢ Vegetation and high-water table reduce the percolation loss
❖ Permeability:
➢ It indicates the relative ease of movement of water within the soil.
➢ The characteristics that determine how fast air and water move through the soil is known
as permeability.
❖ Drainage:
➢ The frequency and duration of periods when the soil is free from saturation with water. It
controls the soil cum water relationship and the supply of nutrients to the plants.
❖ Hysteresis:
➢ The moisture content at different tensions during wetting of soil varies from the moisture
content at same tensions during drying. This effect is called as hysteresis.
❖ Seepage:
➢ Horizontal flow of water channel is called seepage.
➢ Water loss from the irrigation channel or canal is mainly due to seepage.
QUESTIONS FROM PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMS
1. Forces responsible for retention of soil water (AFO 2015)
a. Cohesion
b. Adhesion
c. Cohesion & Adhesion both
d. Radiation
e. Attraction
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2. The movement and filtration of water through soils and permeable rock is termed as
(AFO 2016)
a. Osmosis
b. Percolation
c. Sedimentation
d. Neutralization
e. Diffusion
3. Reinfiltration through soil surface is called- (AFO 2017)
a. Seepage
b. Cumulative infiltration
c. Runoff
d. Percolation
e. leaching
4. Soil moisture decreased to wilting point water held tightly by soil particles condition is
called. (AFO 2020)
a. Hygroscopic coefficient
b. Wilting point
c. Permanent wilting point
d. Saturation point
e. None of These
5. Water holding capacity decreasing order. (AFO-2021)
a. Clay> silt> sand
b. Sand> silt> clay
c. Silt> Sand> Clay
d. Clay> sand> silt
e. Silt> Clay> sand
6. Available water in plant roots is greatly influenced by the hydro physical properties of
soil which of the following soils have maximum available water capacity (cm/cm of
soil)? (RRB SO 2018)
a. Sandy loam
b. Silt loam
c. Loam
d. Loamy sand
e. Sandy clay loam
7. The soil is highly permeable and excessively well drained with low water retention
capacity and needs irrigation frequently for successful crop growth in comparison to
fine texture soil. (RRB SO 2021)
a. Silt loam
b. Clay
c. Clay loam
d. Sandy
e. Silty clay
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8. The soil moisture is decreasing below the wilting point in such a way that the water is
held very tightly, and water vapors are surrounding the soil colloids is known as. (RRB
SO 2021)
a. PWP
b. Gravitational water
c. Atmospheric water
d. Hygroscopic coefficient
e. Field Capacity
9. Type of soil texture with kaolinite as clay mineral? (NABARD-2021)
a. Laterite
b. Sandy soil
c. Alluvial
d. Black soil
e. Dessert soil
10. The texture of soil influences the water retention capacity of soil. How much suction
pressure will deplete 98% of the available water in light soil? (RRB SO 2018)
a. 2.5bar
b. 1bar
c. 3bar
d. 1.5bar
e. 5bar
11. Which of the Following soil property cannot changed by tillage operation (ICAR UG,
IFFCO, UP-TA)
1. c
40
a. Soil structure
b. Soil texture
c. Soil colour
d. Soil density
2. b
3. d
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4. a
5. a
6. b
7. d
8. d
9. a
10. e
11. b
ASSESSMENT OF IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY
➢ Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC): The effect of bicarbonate together with carbonates is
evaluated through RSC.
➢ MeL-1 is Milli Equivalent per Liter
RSC (me L-1)
Water quality
<1.25
Water can be used safely
1.25 - 2.5
Water can be used with certain management
>2.5
Unsuitable for irrigation purposes
➢ Alkalinity hazard should be determined through the index called Residual Sodium
Bicarbonate (RSBC).
❖ Based on RSC/ RSBC ratio there are 6 alkalinity classes
Water Class
MeL-1
Non-alkaline water
-ve
Normal water
0
Low alkalinity water
2.5
Medium alkalinity water
2.5-5.0
High alkalinity water
5.0-10.0
Very high alkalinity water
>10.0
❖ Chlorides: The occurrence of chloride ions in irrigation water increases with increase in EC
and sodium ions. Therefore, these ions are most dominant in very high salinity water. Unlike
sodium ions, the chloride ions neither effect on the physical properties of the soil, nor are
adsorbed by the soil.
Chloride concentration (me L-1)
Water quality
4
Excellent water
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4-7
Moderately good water
7-12
Slightly usable
12-20
Not suitable
>20
Not suitable
❖ Chloride tolerance of selected crops:
➢ Listing in order of increasing tolerance: (low tolerance) dry bean, onion, carrot, lettuce,
pepper, corn, potato, alfalfa, Sudan grass, zucchini squash, wheat, sorghum, sugar beet,
barley (high tolerance).
❖ Chloride content:
Chloride (ppm)
Effect on Crops
Below 70
Generally safe for all plants.
70-140
Sensitive plants show injury.
141-350
Moderately tolerant plants show injury.
Above 350
Can cause severe problems.
❖ Important fact
➢ As with boron, sulfate in irrigation water has fertility benefits, and irrigation water often has
enough sulfate for maximum production for most crops. Exceptions are sandy fields with <1
percent organic matter and <10 ppm SO 4– S in irrigation water.
❖ Potential salinity
Potential salinity (me L-1)
Remarks
3-15
Can be recommended for medium permeability soils
3-7
Recommended for soils of low permeability
❖ Boron- The permissible Limit is in Part Per Million(ppm)
Boron class
42
Crops
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Remarks
Sensitive
Semi tolerant
Tolerant
Very low
<0.33
<0.67
<1
For safely use
low
0.33-0.67
0.67-1.33
1-2.0
Can be managed
medium
0.6-1
1.33-2
2-3
Unsuitable
high
1-1.25
2-2.50
3-3.75
Unsuitable
Very high
>1.25
>2.50
>3.75
Unsuitable
❖ Nitrate
MeL-1
Remarks
<5
No problem
5-30
Intensity of problem is moderate
>30
Intensity of problem is severe
❖ Sulphate
MeL-1
Class of Water
<4
Excellent water
4-12
Good to injurious
>12
Injurious to unsatisfactory
❖ Based on soil salinity: The concentration of soluble salts in irrigation water can be classified
in terms of Electrical Conductivity (EC) and expressed as dS m-1. There are four classes of
salinity viz., C1, C2, C3 and C4.
Water Class
EC (dS m-1) Remarks
C1 - Low salinity
0-0.25
Can be used safely
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C2 - Medium salinity0.25-0.75
Can be used with moderate leaching
C3 - High salinity
Can be used for irrigation purposes with
0.75-2.25
some management practices.
C4 - Very high
2.25-5.00
Cannot be used for irrigation purposes
❖ SODICITY HAZARD:
➢ The sodium hazard of irrigation water expressed through SAR.
➢ Sodicity hazard also classified as S1, S2, S3 and S4.
Water Class
SAR
Remarks
S1: low sodium hazard
0-10
Little or no hazard
S2: medium sodium
10-18
Appreciable hazard but can be used
Hazard (RRB SO 2018)
with appropriate management
S3: High sodium hazard
18-26
Unsatisfactory for most of the crops
S4: Very high sodium
>26
Unsatisfactory for most of the crops
hazard
❖ Sodium to Calcium Activity Ratio (SCAR)
➢ The classification of SAR/ SCAR ratio has following 6 classes of Sodicity
Class
Sodicity
Non-sodic water
<5
Normal water
5-10
Low sodicity water
10-20
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Medium sodicity water
20-30
High sodicity water
30-40
Very high sodicity water
>40
SOIL AIR:
➢ Soil air contains 10 times Co2 concentration (0.3 percent) as that of air.
➢ Ideally 2/3rd of soil pores is filled with water and 1/3rd with air.
➢ Fick's law deals about the diffusion of gases in soils.
➢ Soil air is characterized by ODR – Oxygen Diffusion Rate.
❖ Oxygen Diffusion Rate (ODR): It refers to the rate at which O in the soil exchange with O2
in the ATM.
➢ ODR increase with decrease in soil moisture.
➢ ODR decrease with the soil depth.
➢ When ODR is less than 20 x 10-8 g/cm-/min plant root growth is ceased.
➢ Range of ODR 22.9 to 39.5 x 10-8 g/cm2/min.
➢ ODR for irrigated pea 39.5 x 10-8 g/cm2/min. (Highest ODR)
➢ ODR for rice is 22.1 x 10-8 g/cm2/min. (Lowest)
➢ 30 to 60 percent of the soil area is in the soil volume.
➢ Most of the air exchange in the soil is by diffusion.
➢ As the depth increases, the amount of CO2 increases.
➢ The amount of CO2 in soil air is 10 times that of CO2 in the atmosphere.
SOIL TEMPERATURE:
➢ In soil, heat is mainly transferred through conduction.
➢ Fourier's law deals with heat conduction in soil.
➢ Sandy soils absorb more heat than clays soils.
➢ Soil temperature is stable below 80 cm of soil.
❖ Thermal conductivity:
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➢ Thermal conductivity of soil forming materials is 0.005 thermal conductivity units, and that
of air is 0.00005 units, water 0.001 units.
➢ Thermal energy from soil is utilized for the evaporation of water, thereby reducing the soil
temperature. This is the reason that surface soil temperatures will be sometimes 1 to 6C
lower than the sub-surface soil temperature. That is why the specific heat of a wet soil is
higher than dry soil.
➢ Heat passes from soil to water about 150 times faster than soil to air.
➢ Compact soils have higher thermal conductivity than loose soils.
➢ Natural structures have high conductivity than disturbed soil structures.
➢ Mineral soils have higher conductivity than organic soils.
➢ Moist soil will have uniform temperature over depth because of its good conductivity than
dry soils.
➢ T.C. (Thermal Conductivity) increased with increased B.D.
➢ T.C. (Thermal Conductivity) increased with increased moisture.
➢ Addition of Organic matter and tillage also reduce T.C (Thermal Conductivity).
➢ Order of T.C. = Sand> Loam>Clay.
➢ The larger the albedo, the cooler is the soil.
❖ Specific heat➢ Specific heat- Specific heat, ratio of the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
a body one degree to that required to raise the temperature of an equal mass of water one
degree.
➢ Its Unit is Cal/g:
➢ The specific heat of water is 1.00 cal g-1 where the specific heat of a dry soil is 0.2 cal g-1
➢ Increasing water content in soil increases the specific heat of the soil and hence a dry soil
heats up quickly than a moist soil.
➢ The evaporation of water from soil requires a large amount of energy, 540 kilocalories kg-1
soil.
➢ Rough surfaced soil absorbs more solar radiation than smooth surface soils.
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Particulars
Specific Heat (Cal/g)
Water
1
Soil
0.2
Humus
0.5
Mineral (Iron)
0.1 (Least)
➢ Free energy of saturated soil is always zero.
❖ Measuring soil moisture content in laboratory
➢ Gravimetric method: This consists of obtaining a moist sample, drying it in an oven at
105°C until it losses no more weight and then determining the percentage of moisture.
➢ Electrical conductivity method: This method is based upon the changes in electrical
conductivity with changes in soil moisture. Gypsum blocks inside of with two electrodes at
a definite distance are apart used in this method.
❖ Soil fertility: “Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to supply essential plant nutrients during
growth period of the plants, without toxic concentration of any nutrients”. i.e “the capacity
of soil to supply nutrient in available to crop”.
❖ Soil productivity:
➢ “Soil productivity is ability of soil to produce a particular crop or sequence of crops
under a specified management system” i.e the crop producing capacity of soil”.
➢ All the productive soils are fertile, but all the fertile soils may not be productive
➢ For evaluating soil fertility status, several techniques are commonly employed.
1. Nutrient deficiency symptoms of plants
2. Analysis of tissue from plants growing on the soil
3. Biological tests in which the growth of either higher plants or certain micro-organisms is
used as a measure of soil fertility
4. Soil fertility
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QUESTIONS ASKED FROM PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMS
1. Which of the following instrument used to measure soil moisture? (AFO 2021)
a. Tensiometer
b. Hygrometer
c. Anemometer
d. Aerometer
e. Pycnometer
2. SAR is used to assess the alkali related hazards of the water. Which of the following
SAR range is termed as SAR class S2? (RRB SO 2018)
a. 11-18
b. Less than 10
c. 19-26
d. Greater than 26
e. None of the above
3. If an irrigation water source has the concentration of Na+, CA++& Mg++ as 20, 10 &
8 milliequivalents per liter respectively, then sodium absorption ratio of this water
(AFO-2022)
(a) 6.67
(b) 6
(c) 5.1
(d) 4
(e) None of these
ANSWERS
1. 1. a
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2. 2. a
3. 3. a
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
TYPES OF SOIL IN INDIA:
❖ Major classification of Indian soils:
Alluvial soil [43%]
Red soil [18.5%]
Black / regur soil [15%]
Arid / desert soil
Laterite soil (12%)
Saline soil
Peaty / marshy soil
Forest soil
❖ Major soils of India and their orders:
Soil
Order
Alluvial Soil
Entisol, Inceptisols and Alfisols
Black Soil
Vertisol (RRB SO-2019)
Red Soil
Alfisols
Laterite Soil
Ultisols
Desert Soil
Aridisol
1. Classification of Indian Soil as per USDA
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The ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) has classified the Indian soil on the
basis of its nature and characteristics as per the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA) Soil Taxonomy.
S.No
Order
Percentage
1.
Inceptisols
39.74
2.
Entisols
28.08
3.
Alfisols
13.55
4.
Vertisols
8.52
5.
Aridisols
4.28
6.
Ultisols
2.51
7.
Mollisols
0.40
8.
Others
2.92
Total – 100
➢ Largest area in India: - inceptisols>Entisols>alfisols>Vertisols>Aridsols
➢ Area in the world: - Aridsols> Alfisols> IncePtisols> Mollisols
1. Alluvial soil:
➢ It is the most important type of soil found in India.
➢ Alluvial soils are deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus therefore it requires
fertilizers.
➢ Highly fertile.
➢ Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern plains and river valleys.
➢ Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputhra plain, Narmada-Tapi plain etc. are examples.
➢ They are depositional soil – transported and deposited by rivers, streams etc.
➢ Both Khadar and Bhangar soils contain concretion (kankars) of impure calcium carbonate.
➢ New alluvium is termed as Khadar is sandy, light colour and less Kankar nodules.
➢ Old alluvium is termed as Bhangar full of clay, dark colour and more Kankar nodule
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➢ Newly formed alluvium may not have distinct soil horizons while older alluvium may have
soil horizons.
➢ The khadar soil is sandy and light in colour, while the bhangar soil is clayey and dark.
➢ The khadar soil is more fertile but less organic matter.
➢ The bangar soil is less fertile but high in organic matter.
➢ Alluvial soils of plains are medium in phosphorous content and high in potassium content.
➢ Rich in: Potash.
➢ Colour: Light Grey to Ash Grey.
➢ Texture: Sandy to silty loam or clay
➢ Alluvial soils are suitable for production of crops of rice, wheat, maize, sugar cane,
tobacco, cotton, jute, oilseeds etc.
2. Red soil: 18.5 %
➢ Red soil is formed by the breakdown of granite rock.
➢ Seen mainly in low rainfall area (eastern and southern parts of the Deccan Plateau), semiarid areas
➢ The pH values of most red soils (water extracted) range from 4.5-6.5. The pH value of soils
is influenced by parent materials. Soils formed in limestone are normally higher than 5.5,
but those from shale and slate lower than 5.0.
➢ Also Called Early soil.
➢ Well drained with moderate permeability.
➢ Low cation exchange capacity and low water holding capacity.
➢ Porous, friable structure.
➢ Absence of lime, kankar (impure calcium carbonate).
➢ The red colour is due to the presence of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
➢ The fine-grained red and yellow soil is usually fertile while the coarse-grained soil is less
fertile.
➢ Red soil is always in acidic nature.
➢ Highly suitable for groundnut crop cultivation.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
51
➢ This type of soil is generally deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus.
➢ Colour: Red because of Ferric oxide. The lower layer is reddish yellow or yellow.
➢ Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy.
➢ Crops like millets, pulses, oil seeds (ground nut, gingelly, castor) and tuber crops like
cassava are commonly cultivated.
➢ The state of Kerala has the highest number of yellow soils in India.
3. Black soil / Regur soil: 15 %
➢ Regur means cotton – best soil for cotton cultivation.
➢ Mature soil, Also Called as Late Soil.
➢ Dark-grey in colour due to clay-humus complex.
➢ The highest black soil in India is in Maharashtra and the second place is Gujarat province.
➢ It covers most of the Deccan Plateau – parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat,
Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu. In the upper reaches of the Godavari and
Krishna, and the north-western part of Deccan Plateau, the black soil is very deep.
➢ The soil is rich in clay (montmorillonite) particles and has neutral to alkaline reaction.
➢ pH of black soil is 7.2-8.5
➢ Black soil holds more moisture and available for a long time.
➢ Black soil contains high proportion of clay (30-40%), so, the water holding/retaining
capacity is high that means Drainage is very poor.
➢ Typical characteristics of this black soil are swelling (during wet period) and shrinkage (dry
period)
➢ Self-ploughing is a characteristic of the black soil as it develops wide cracks when dried.
➢ The soils are fine grained contain high proportion of Calcium and Magnesium carbonates.
They are poor in N, medium in P and medium to high in K (Characteristic feature of typical
Indian soil)
➢ Colour: Deep black to light black.
➢ Crops Grown: Cotton, Bengal gram, mustard, millets, pulses, oil seeds (sunflower,
safflower)
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Texture: Clayey.
4. Laterite soil: 12 %
➢ Laterite soils are formed due to the process of laterization. i.e., leaching of all cations leaving
Fe and Al oxides.
➢ Mostly found in hills and foothill areas. (AFO-2017)
➢ Self-ploughing is characteristics like black soil (Shrink well potential)
➢ Name from Latin word ‘Later’ which means Brick.
➢ pH- 5-6
➢ Become so soft when wet and so hard when dried.
➢ Seen in the areas of high temperature and high rainfall.
➢ Formed as a result of high leaching, Lime and silica will be leached away from the soil.
➢ Laterite soils are found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and hilly regions
of Assam and Odisha.
➢ Red laterite soil in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are well suited for tree crop
cultivation like cashew nuts.
➢ Organic matters of the soil will be removed fast by the bacteria as it is high temperature and
humus will be taken quickly by the trees and other plants. Thus, humus content is low.
➢ Rich in: Iron and Aluminum
➢ Deficient in: Nitrogen, Potash, Phosphorous, Lime, Humus
➢ Colour: Red color due to iron oxide.
➢ Acid loving crops (Plantation crops) and fruits (pineapple, avocado) are more cultivated.
➢ Tea, rubber, pepper, spices are cultivated.
➢ At lower elevation places, rice is grown.
5. Desert / arid soil:
➢ Desert soil is sandy soil and is found in low rainfall areas.
➢ Seen under Arid and Semi-Arid conditions.
➢ Deposited mainly by wind activities.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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➢ Such soil is alkaline in nature with high pH value and is unproductive.
➢ These soils are saline in nature and in certain regions the salt content is so high that common
salt is obtained by evaporating water.
➢ High salt content, Lack of moisture and Humus.
➢ Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers because of the increasing calcium
content downwards. The ‘Kankar’ layer formation in the bottom horizons restricts the
infiltration of water, and as such when irrigation is made available, the soil moisture is readily
available for a sustainable plant growth.
➢ Impure Calcium carbonate content is high which restricts the infiltration of water.
➢ Nitrogen is insufficient and Phosphate is normal.
➢ Texture: Sandy
➢ Color: Red to Brown.
6. Peaty / marshy soil:
➢ Peaty soil - >50 % OM (Undecomposed)
➢ Muck Soil- 20-50 %OM (Well decomposed) and pH of muck soil is >4.0.
➢ Peaty Soils are seen in areas of abundant rainfall and unusual humidity, where there is a
healthy growth of vegetation.
➢ Thus, a large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates in these areas, and this gives rich
humus and organic content to the soil.
➢ Peaty soil found in Kerala called as kari.
➢ Peaty soils are generally copper (Cu) deficient.
➢ pH of peat soil is less than 4. (Organic matter is 10-40 %)
➢ These are marshy soils and are a result of water logging and anaerobic conditions (which
leads to partial decomposition of organic matter).
➢ These soils are characterized by a rich humus and organic content.
➢ Areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity.
➢ Growth of vegetation is very less.
➢ Heavy soil with black color.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ These are generally submerged during the rainy season and utilized for the cultivation of
rice.
➢ Marshy soils are Zinc (zn) deficient. The marshy soil is not considered good for crop
production.
7. Forest soil:
➢ Regions of high rainfall.
➢ Humus content is less and thus the soil is acidic.
➢ These soils are very shallow, stony, and less fertile for the production of field crops.
However, this type of soil is useful for forest produce such as timber, tropical fruits and fuel.
8. Chalka soils:
➢ The red sandy loam soils “Chalka soils” which cover a large area in Andhra Pradesh become
very hard on drying with the result that growth of the crops is adversely affected.
➢ Incorporation of slow decomposing crop residues and other materials such as powdered
ground nutshell, paddy husk improves these types of soils.
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56
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Red colour due to iron Red to Brown
oxide.
Nitrogen moisture
and Humus
Phosphate is normal
_________
Nitrogen, Potash,
Phosphorous, Lime,
Humus
Iron and Aluminium
In low rainfall area
(eastern and southern
parts of the Deccan
Plateau), semi-arid
areas
Sandy to clay and
loamy
Red
nitrogen, Phosphorus,
and humus
_________
Deccan Plateau – parts
of Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh and some parts
of Tamil Nadu
Clayey
Deep black to light
black
Nitrogen
Medium in P and
medium to high in K
Northern plains and
river valleys, IndusGanga-Brahmaputra
plain, Narmada-Tapi
plain
Sandy to silty loam or
clay
Light Grey to Ash
Grey
Nitrogen, humus, and
phosphorus
Potash
Location
Texture
Colour
Deficient mineral
Rich mineral
Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Kerala,
Madhya Pradesh and
hilly regions of Assam
and Odisha.
Sandy
Low rainfall areas.
Under Arid and
Semi-Arid conditions
Aridisol
Ultisol
Alfisol
Vertisol
Entisol, Inceptisols
and Alfisols
Soil Order
In hills and foothill
areas.
Dessert soil
Laterite soil
Red Soil
Black soil
Alluvial soil
Particulars
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Crops
Important remark
➢ Most important
type of soil found
in India.
➢ Highly fertile.
➢ New alluvium is
termed as Khadar
is sandy, light
colour and less
Kankar nodules.
➢ Old alluvium is
termed as Bhangar
full of clay, dark
colour and more
Kankar nodules.
Rice, wheat, maize,
sugar cane, tobacco,
cotton, jute, oilseeds
etc.
Cotton, Bengal gram,
mustard, millets,
pulses, oil seeds
(sunflower, safflower)
➢ Best soil for cotton
cultivation.
➢ Soil is rich in clay
(montmorillonite)
particles.
➢ pH is 7.2-8.5.
➢ Swelling (during
wet period) and
shrinkage (dry
period).
➢ Self-ploughing
Millets, pulses, oil
seeds (ground nut,
gingelly, castor) and
tuber crops like
cassava
Acid loving crops
(Plantation crops) and
fruits (pineapple,
avocado)
➢ Formed by the
➢ Formed due to the
breakdown of
process of
granite rock.
laterization.
➢ pH: 4.5-6.5.
➢ Self-ploughing.
➢ Low cation
➢ pH- 5-6
exchange capacity
and low water
holding capacity.
➢ Red colour is due to
the presence of iron
in crystalline and
metamorphic rocks.
Alkaline in nature
PROBLEMATIC SOIL
❖ Types of problematic soils:
Physical problem soils
Chemical Problem soils
Biological Problem soils
Nutritional problem soils as a
result of above constraints.
Soil Types
pH
Acids (AFO-2019)
< 6.0
Normal to Saline
6.0 to 8.5
Tending to become Alkaline (AFO-2016)
8.9 to 9.0
Alkaline
> 9.0
❖ Chemical Problematic soils:
➢ The salt-affected soils occur in the arid and semiarid regions where evapo-transpiration
greatly exceeds precipitation.
➢ The accumulated ions causing salinity or alkalinity include sodium, potassium, magnesium,
calcium, chlorides, carbonates and bicarbonates.
➢ The salt affected soils can be primarily classified as saline soil and sodic soil.
DISTRIBUTION OF SALT AFFECTED SOILS IN AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Highest: Gujarat Plain and Hills Region> East Coast Plains and Hills Region> Upper
Gangetic Plains Region.
❖ Lowest: Eastern Plateau & Hills Region> West Coast Plains and Hills Region> Island
Region
TYPES OF SALT AFFECTED SOILS
1. Saline soil/White alkali/ Solan Chalk➢ Formation: Common in arid and semi – arid regions having annual rainfall less than 55cm.
➢ Lots of salts are deposited on soil surface in saline soils and saline soil layer shines white
in dry season.
➢ Formerly these soils were called white alkali soils because of surface crust of white salts.
➢ In India, these soils are known as ‘reh’ and in others as ‘thur’.
❖ Characteristics:
➢ Toxic concentration of soluble salts in the root zone.
➢ Soluble salts are Cl- and SO42- of ions of sodium and calcium in root zone.
➢ For these soils with electrical conductivity of more than 4 ds/ m at 25oc.
➢ The exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) is less than 15 % and pH less than 8.5
➢ Soluble Salt conc. = >0.1 %
❖ Reclamation of saline soil:
➢ Flooding or leaching of soluble salts by good irrigation water.
➢ Removal of excess salts to a desired level in the root zone.
➢ Use of FYM for saline soil.
➢ Crops are to be chosen based on the soil salinity level.
❖ The relative salt tolerance of different crops is given in the table:
Plant species
Threshold salinity (dS m-1)
Field crops
Canola /Rapeseed
11
Gaur
8.8
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Barley
8
Cotton (AFO-2018)
7.7
Sugar beet
7.0
Sorghum
6.8
Wheat
6.0
Rice
3.0
Maize
1.7
Sugarcane
1.7
Vegetables
Tomato
2.5
Cabbage
1.8
Potato
1.7
Carrot
1.0
2. Alkali soil /Sodic soil:
➢ Also known as Solanetz
➢ Soluble Salt conc.is < 0.1%
➢ Dominant in mean annual rainfall 55-90 cm and relatively low-lying areas with insufficient
drainage.
➢ Alkali or sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of the saturation extract less
than 4 dS m-1 and an exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15.
➢ The pH is usually between 8.5 – 10.0 (AFO-2015)
➢ Most alkali soils, particularly in the arid and semi-arid regions, contain CaCO3 in the profile
in some form and constant hydrolysis of CaCO3 sustains the release of OH ions in soil
solution.
➢ Developed due to excess NaCO3 and NaHCO3 ions in soil.
➢ Due to high ESP, the soils are dispersed and deflocculated.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ In some parts of India, they are called Usar and in others Kallar. In India, these soils are
mainly distributed in arid and semi-arid regions.
Tolerant crops
Rice, Sugarbeet, Dhanicha
Medium tolerant crops
Wheat, Barley, Oats, Millets
Sensitive crops
Legume, Maize, Ground nut
3. Calcareous soil:
➢ EC – 1.74 ds/m
➢ Calcareous soil that contains enough free calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
➢ The pH of calcareous soil is > 8.5 and it is also regarded as an alkaline (Basic) soil.
➢ Sulfuric acid can be used instead of Gypsum on calcareous soil.
❖ Reclamation of Alkali soil: (AFO-2021)
➢ Gypsum used for reclamation of sodic or alkali soil.
➢ Iron pyrite can be used for amendments of alkali soil.
➢ Green manuring should be adopted.
➢ Cultivation of salt tolerant crop.
➢ In case of saline soils Gypsum should not be recommended because sulphate also increases
salt concentration.
❖ Relative tolerance of crops to sodicity:
ESP (range*)
Crop
2-10 (Least)
Deciduous fruits, nuts, citrus, avocado
30-50
Oats, mustard, cotton, wheat, tomatoes
50-60
Beets, barley, sesbania
60-70 (Highest)
Rice
❖ Parameters of different problematic soil:
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Soil
pH
EC (dS /m)
ESP
Saline
< 8.5
>
4< 15
Alkali
> 8.5
<4
> 15
Saline-Alkali
< > 8.5
>4
> 15
(AFO-2018)
➢ In general, irrigation water with EC values less than 750 micro-mhos/cm is safe for plant
growth.
4. Acidic soil:
➢ The acidity developed due to concentration of H+ and Al3+ ions in the soil solution is active
acidity
➢ The acidity developed due to adsorbed H and Al ions on soil colloids is exchangeable
acidity.
➢ Aluminum hydroxyl ions and H and Al ions present in non – exchangeable form with
organic matter and clay account for the residual acidity.
➢ Total acidity = Active acidity + Exchangeable acidity + Residual acidity.
➢ Root activity and metabolism may also serve as sources of CO2, which ultimately helps the
soil to become acidic.
➢ A fine textured acid soil requires much larger quantity of lime than does a sandy soil or a
loamy soil with the same pH value.
➢ Calcitic or dolomitic limestone reacts slowly with soil colloids, whereas burnt lime and
hydrated lime react faster and bring about changes in soil pH within a few days.
➢ Acidity due to absorption of Al 3+, Fe2+, Mn on soil colloids.
➢ Predominance of H+ and Al3+ cause acidity resulting in increase Fe, Mn, Al, H ions and
deficiency of P, K, Ca, Mg, Mo and B.
➢ In acid soil regions (ASR) precipitation exceeds the evapotranspiration and hence leaching
is predominant causing loss of bases from the soil.
➢ Percentage wise the highest acidic soil is found in Kerala and area wise highest acidic
soil is found in West Bengal.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Reasons for becoming acidic soil: ✓ Nature of Ancestral Rocks: - Soils composed of granite rock and quartz mineral are
acidic.
✓ Leaching of alkali substances: - Lime and other alkali move downwards due to excess
rainfall.
✓ Use of acid fertilizers.
✓ Most ammoniacal fertilizers are acidic in nature.
✓ Ammonium ions come to the soil silt, displacing and leaching calcium, which leads to Ca
deficiency.
✓ Quantity of organic matter: - Organic acids are formed by the breakdown of organic
matter.
✓ Acid rain: -In acid rain, SO2 (70%) o NO2 (30%) gas reacts with water to form H2SO4 and
HNO3 acids, which make the soil acidic.
❖ Production constraints:
➢ Increased solubility and toxicity of Al, Mn and Fe
➢ Deficiency of Ca and Mg.
➢ Reduced availability of P and Mo.
➢ The acid soils are generally low in available phosphorus and have high P fixation capacity.
The status of available micronutrient elements, except molybdenum, is generally adequate
in these soils.
➢ The crop species which are more tolerant to soil acidity and problems associated with it
should be grown.
Sensitive Crops
Arhar, soybean, cotton
Semi-tolerant crops
Gram, maize, sorghum, peas, wheat, barley
Tolerant crops
Paddy, potato, tea, millets.
❖ Acidic soil management:
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
63
➢ Use of Agriculture liming material such as oxide, hydroxide, carbonates of Ca and Mg.
➢ Application of lime as per the lime requirement test. Liming factor = 1.5-2.0
➢ Proper drainage
➢ Growing acidic resistance crops: - Rice, Potato etc.
➢ Use of alkaline fertilizers: - Sodium nitrate, calcium nitrate and rock phosphate.
➢ Mixing limestone materials in the soil: - slaked lime, slaked lime, limestone.
SOIL ACIDITY
pH range
Nature of acidity
3-4
Very strong
4-5
Strong
5-6
Moderate
6-7
Slight
❖ Relative tolerance of crops to soil acidity
Crops
Optimum pH range
Cereals
Maize, sorghum, wheat, barley
6.0-7.5
Millets
5.0-6.5
Oats
5.0-7.7
Rice
5.0-6.5
Low acidity tolerant crop
Medium acidity tolerant
High acidity tolerant crop
crop
64
Cauliflower, Sugar beet,
Wheat, Barley, Oat, Maize,
Berseem, Lucerne
Bajra, Jowar, Potato
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Rye, Grasses
❖ Relative tolerance of fruit trees to sodicityTolerance to sodicity ESP
Trees
High
40-50
Ber, tamarind, sapota, wood apple, date palm
Medium
30-40
Pomegranate
Low
20-30
Guava, lemon, grape
Sensitive
20
Mango, jack fruit, banana
❖ Total Soluble Salts (Conductivity in milli mhos/cm2):
<1
Normal
1-2
Critical for Germination
2-4
Critical for Growth of the Sensitive Crops
Above 4
Injurious to most crops
❖ Electrical Conductivity (dS m-1) of the soil saturation extract:
<2
Salinity effects mostly negligible
2-4
Yield of very sensitive crops may be restricted
4-8
Yields of many crops restricted
8-16
Only tolerant crops yield satisfactorily
>16
Only a few tolerant crops yield satisfactorily
QUESTIONS ASKED FROM PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMS
1. pH of alkaline soil (AFO 2016)
a. 6
b. 7
c. 8
d. 9
e. None of these
2. Which soil is maximum in hills and gigantic plans? (AFO 2017)
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
65
a. Black Soil
b. Clay loamy soil
c. Lateritic soils
d. None of these
e. Silt loam soil
3. Which among the following states have highest Alkali problematic soil? (AFO 2018)
a. Chhattisgarh
b. MP
c. Haryana
d. MH
e. Gujarat
4. What is the electrical conductivity of saline soil? (AFO 2018)
a. Less than 4
b. More than 8.5
c. More than 4
d. Less than 8.5
e. None of these
5. What is the ESP of saline-alkaline soils? (AFO 2018)
a. Less than 15
b. 8.5
c. Less than 8.5
d. 11-15
e. More than 15
6. Which among the following state has highest alkaline soil? (AFO 2019)
a. UP
b. Gujarat
c. Punjab
d. West Bengal
e. Odisha
7. What is the pH of acidic soil? (AFO 2019)
a. Less than 5.5
b. 7
c. 8
d. 11
e. 12
8. What is the cost of reclamation of acidic soils under RKVY? (AFO 2019)
a. 15000
b. 30000
c. 40000
d. 50000
e. 60000
9. Vertisol is maximum in which state? (AFO 2020)
a. Gujrat
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
b. Maharashtra
c. Andhra Pradesh
d. Madhya Pradesh
e. Karnataka
10. Which of the following chemical is used for reclamation of alkaline soil? (AFO 2021)
a. Gypsum
b. Lime
c. Calcium Carbonate
d. Sodium
e. Iron sulfate
11. Horticulture nursery soil should be well drained, which of the following type of soil is
not suitable for nursery? (RRB SO 2018)
a. Silt loam soil
b. Black cotton soil
c. Sandy loam soil
d. Clay loam soil
e. Loamy soil
12. What is the order of black cotton soil? (RRB SO 2019)
a. Alfisols
b. Vertisol
c. Oxisols
d. Entisol
e. Aridisol
13. Which is NOT correct about Saline soil? (RRB SO 2020)
a. In saline soil due to precipitation Salt content increase
b. EC of saline soil is more than 4
c. ESP of saline soil is less than 15
d. Accumulation of Na & Ca chloride in saline soil
e. In saline soil even if water available in root zone but plant can't uptake it
14. The liming material which is used for reclaiming of acidic soil is (RRB SO 2021)
a. Limestone
b. Ammonium chloride
c. Super Phosphate
d. Gypsum
e. Pyrites
15. Rock phosphate is applied in: (AFO 2022)
a. Saline
b. Alkaline
c. Neutral
d. Acidic soil
e. None of these
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
67
16. Which soil ameliorants is used in sodic soil reclamation which is cheaper and easily
available? (AFO 2022)
a. Gypsum
b. Ammonium sulphate
c. Lime
d. Iron pyrite
e. Ammonium nitrate
17. The pH value of alkali soil (AFO 2016)
a. 0
b. 3
c. 5
d. 7
e. 8
18. Alkali soil having pH of- (AFO 2017)
a. 6-7
b. >8.5
c. <8.5
d. less than 5
e. None of these
19. Which of the following is a highly salt tolerant crop? (AFO 2018)
a. Lime
b. Cotton
c. Mango
d. Jute
e. Apple
20. What is the pH range of the alkali soil? (AFO 2018)
a. Less than 8.2
b. More than 8.2
c. 7-8.2
d. 5.5 - 7
e. 6.5 – 8.2
21. Total soluble solid (TSS) is measured as electric conductivity (EC) and expressed as
ds/m at temperature of 25 degree Celsius. What is the EC value at extremely high TSS?
(RRB SO 2018)
a. 2.5
b. 3.1-6
c. 6
d. 1.6-3
e. Less than 1.5
TSS (mmol/l) = EC (ds/m) ×10
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
22. There are some crops which are either salt tolerance or semi salt tolerance. which of
the following crop is a salt sensitive? (RRB SO 2018)
a. Maize
b. Wheat
c. Apple
d. Cotton
e. Sugarcane
23. Crop which is sensitive to soil alkalinity ESP less than 15: (RRB SO 2019)
a. Rhode grass
b. Oat
c. Wheat
d. Maize
e. Cotton
ANSWERS
1. c
2. c
3. e
4. c
5. e
6. a
7. a
8. a
9. b
10. a
11.
12. b
13. a
14. a
15. d
16. a
17. e
18. b
19. b
20. b
21. c
22. c
23. d
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
69
SOIL EROSION AND CONSERVATION
❖ Soil erosion
➢ The process of the removal of soil particles from the parent body and transportation of such
particles by wind or water.
❖ Type of soil erosion: ➢ Natural erosion: Soil erosion and soil formation occur in equal amounts; it is also called
geographical erosion.
➢ Accelerated erosion: Vegetation is caused by interference of water and air factor and
animals in the vast land.
➢ Wave erosion: A combined form of water and air erosion.
➢ Anthropogenic: caused by human activities.
❖ Water Erosion
➢ Rain drop erosion: It is also known as splash erosion. It results from soil splash caused by
the impact of falling raindrops. It is first stage of water erosion.
➢ Sheet erosion: Removal of the uniform layer of soil from the land surface by the action of
rainfall and runoff. It is unnoticed by farmer hence most serious form of water erosion.
➢ Rill erosion (AFO-2020): It is sometime known as micro channel erosion. It is the removal
of soil by running water with the formation of an areas of small branching channels. Can be
removed normal tillage operation.
➢ Gully erosion: formation of channels ranging in size from 30cm to 10m or gully. It can’t be
removed by normal tillage operation.
Particulars
Very small
Small (G2)
Medium (G3)
gully (G1)
Depth (in
Deep and
narrow (G4)
Up to 1m
1-3 m
3-9 m
>9 m
<18 m
<18 m
18 m
>18 m
Meter)
Width (in
meter)
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Side slope (%)
<6
<6
6-12
>12
➢ Ravine erosion: Its advanced stage occurs at the mouth of rivers.
❖ Other forms of erosion
➢ Glacial erosion : due to mass of ice moving very slowly.
➢ Snow erosion : due to slow and creeping movement of snow towards slope
➢ Anthropogenic erosion: due to activities of human being
❖ Wind erosion
Suspension
Suspension occurs when
Saltation
➢ The movement of soil
Surface creep
The large particles which
very fine dirt and dust
particles through
are too heavy to be lifted
particles are lifted into the
bounces/jump on ground.
into the air are moved
wind.
through a process called
surface creep.
Floating of small size
Particles 0.1-0.5mm
particles <0.1 mm in size.
diameter is moved by
Particle size >0.5 mm
saltation.
Soil loss account 3-4% by
Soil loss account 50-75%
Generally, 5-25% loss by
suspension.
by saltation.
surface creep.
❖ Four Methods that must be adopted for Conserving Soil:
1. Afforestation
2. Checking Overgrazing
3. Constructing Dams
4. Changing Agricultural Practices
SOIL CONSERVATION MEASURES
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A. Agronomic Measures: are adopted where slope is less than 2% and erosion problems are
not severe. These measures help to(i)
Intercept raindrops and reduce the splash effect.
(ii)
To obtain a better intake of water rate by improving the content of organic matter and soil
structures.
(iii) To retard and reduce the over land runoff using:
a) Contour cultivation: Cultivation of crops along the contours of a slope.
❖ It has following advantages:
➢ Conserve soil and water
➢ Conserve soil fertility
➢ Increase crop yield
➢ Much less power required.
➢ Less wear and tear of implements and less time is required.
❖ Disadvantages:
➢ The establishment of contour farming on undulating land is tedious.
B. Mechanical measures are adopted to supplement the agronomical practices and when land
slope is more than 2%.
❖ Objectives:
(i) To increase the time of concentration by intercepting the runoff and thereby providing an
opportunity for the infiltration of water.
(ii) To divide a long slope into several short ones to reduce the velocity of runoff and thus prevent
erosion.
a) Basin-Listing: Making of small, interrupted basin along the contour; effective on retentive
soils having mild slopes.
b) Sub-soiling: Breaking of hardpan by the sub soiled at 30-60 cm depth and 90-180 cm
interval.
c) Contour bunding: making a comparatively narrow based embankment at intervals across
the land slope on a level that is along the contour, contour bunding is adopted in arid and
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
semi-arid areas with high infiltration and permeability and slope of about 6%. Spacing
between bunds should not exceed 150 cm vertical drop or 67.5 cm horizontal spacing.
d) Graded bunding/channel terraces:
➢ Recommended where rainwater is not readily absorbed either due to high rainfall low intake
of the soil e.g., in areas receiving rainfall of more than 800 mm per year irrespective of soil
texture but in clay soil even less than 800 mm/year rainfall.
➢ There are two types of Graded bunding viz. Narrow based and Broad based.
➢ Graded bunds are spaced at the same intervals as contour bunds.
➢ Broad based bunding is recommended where farming is practiced with tractors.
➢ In general, bunding is suitable for lands having slopes from 2-10%.
➢ Contour and graded bunding are extensively used in India.
e) Broad bed and furrow (BBF) system: suitable for managing rainwater in black soils
where surface drainage during the monsoon period is a problem.
f) Bench terracing: Usually practiced on slope ranging from 16 to 33% on steep sloping and
undulating land intensive farming is possible only with bench-terracing. The vertical drop
may vary from 60 to 180 cm depending on the slope and soil conditions.
g) Zing terracing: adopted in lands with 3 to 10% slopes. Zing terraces are constructed in
medium to deep soils in moderate to high rainfall areas. It is adopted to cut down from upper
area for the benefit of crops grown in lower side and to ensure adequate drainage during
periods of heavy rainfall.
❖ Conservation Measures for Hilly Slopes:
a) Contour Trenching and Afforestation:
➢ Trenches are made along the contour or along a uniform level, used both on hill slopes and
on degraded and bare waste lands for soil and moisture conservation and afforestation
purposes.
➢ These trenches break the slope lengths, reduce the velocity of surface run-off, and
consequently retard its scouring action and carrying capacity.
➢ The size of trenches varies with slope, rainfall, and depth of soil available.
➢ The trenches are usually of 60 cm to 48 cm in size. The spacing varies from 10 to 30 m.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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➢ The trenches are half refilled diagonally with excavated material and remaining half of the
soil forms the spoil bank.
➢ The water retained in the trenches help in conserving the moisture and provide advantageous
sites for sowing and planting.
➢ Such trenches are not advisable when slope is more than 20% either technically or
economically.
b) Bench Terracing:
➢ Consists of construction of series of platforms along contours cut into hill slope in a step like
formation.
➢ These platforms are separated at regular intervals by vertical drops and protected by
vegetation and sometimes by packed stone.
➢ Bench terraces convert the long-intercepted slope into several small strips and make
protected platforms available for farming.
➢ It is adopted for converting sloping lands to irrigated fields or for orchard plantations.
➢ Bench terracing is the suitable and common measure in hilly areas for the conservation of
soil and water.
➢ The crop is cultivated in hilly areas like Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir,
Uttarakhand, Assam and other eastern states of India by adopting bench terracing
measure.
➢ Bench terrace reduces the slope length and gradient and is easily adopted up to 15% slope
but may be used up to 33% slope.
➢ Bench terrace is possible only where depth of soil is more so that cutting and filling of land
work can be performed.
❖ Type of Bench Terraces:
1. According to purpose:
(i) Hill-type bench terraces
(ii) Irrigated bench terraces: Level benches are adopted under irrigated conditions and
where slope is up to 8%.
(iii) Orchard bench terraces
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Slopes in different Agricultural soil conservation measures:
Agronomic measures
Less than 2%
Mechanical measures
More than 2%
Contour bunding
6%
Graded bunding/channel terraces
2-10 %
Bench terracing
16 to 33%
Zing terracing
3-10 %
Sub soiling
2- 8 %
➢ Universal soil loss equation (USLE) by Wischmier and Smith, 1978
A = RKLSCP, where
A = Computed soil loss per unit area (tonne/ha/yr)
R = Rainfall - erosivity factor
K = Soil erodibility factor
L = Slope length factor (21.13 length identical)
S = Slope percentage factor
C = Crop management factor
P = Erosion control (or) soil conservation practice factor
QUESTIONS ASKED FROM PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMS
1. After sheet erosion minute finger like structures are formed if not taken care? (AFO
2021)
a. Rill
b. Gully
c. Sheet
d. Splash
e. Ravine
2. Soil strength can be measured by. (AFO-2021)
a. Penetrometer
b. Dynamometer
c. Hydrometer
d. Tensiometer
e. None of These
3. Which of the following Conservation measure practice is practiced in hilly and
Himalayan Mountain region? (NABARD 2021)
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a. Channel terracing
b. Contour bunding
c. Graded trenching
d. Bench terracing
e. Furrowing
4. In universal soil loss equation (A= RKL.SCP) K denotes ? [Bank of Maharashtra -2021]
a. Soil erodibility factor
b. Slope gradient
c. Rainfall factor
d. Vegetation cover
ANSWERS
1. a
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2. a
3. d
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
4. a
MANURES, FERTILIZERS AND BIOFERTILIZERS
❖ Manures are plant and animal wastes that are used as sources of plant nutrients. They release
nutrients after their decomposition.
Bulky organic manures
Concentrated organic
manures
Other Concentrated
Organic Manures
Green manure
1. Bulky organic manures: These contain small percentage of nutrients, and they are applied
in large quantities. Farmyard manure (FYM), compost and green manure are the most
important and widely used bulky organic manures.
❖ Farmyard manure: Highest production in Karnataka
➢ Farmyard manure refers to the decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along
with litter and left-over material from roughages or fodder fed to the cattle.
➢ Farmyard manure contains 0.5-0.75 per cent N, 0.2 per cent P2O5 and .0.5 per cent K2O
❖ General Properties of Commercially Accepted Compost
Remarks
N%
Color
C: N
Odour
Ash%
Water Holding Capacity (%)
Moisture%
CEC
Amount
>2
Brown, Black
< 20 (RRB SO-2020)
Earthy
10-20
150-200
10-20
75-100
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P%
0.15-1.5
METHODS OF COMPOST MAKING:
❖ Bangalore Method: ➢ The best method of compost manure preparation, preparation of compost in anaerobic
condition.
➢ This Dr. C.N. by Acharya.
❖ Indore Method: - Pneumatic stage (ready in 4 months)
➢ Length (10 feet), width (6-8 feet) depth 2-3 feet.
➢ This method was given by Howard and Yashwant D Ward.
❖ NADEP Method: ➢ This method was developed by NADEP Kaka, a farmer from Maharashtra.
➢ The compost is ready in 3-4 months.
➢ The length of the pit is 10 feet, the width is 6 feet, and the depth is 3 feet.
❖ Sheep and Goat Manure➢ The droppings of sheep and goats contain higher nutrients than farmyard manure and
compost. On an average, the manure contains 3 per cent N, 1 per cent P2O5 and 2 per cent
K2O
❖ Poultry Manure
➢ The excreta of birds ferment very quickly. Poultry manure contains higher nitrogen and
phosphorus compared to other bulky organic manures.
➢ The average nutrient content is 3.03% N: 2.63 %P2O5 and 1.41 % K2O with C/N ratio of
10-16.
❖ Vermicompost- 3%N: 1% P: 1.5%K
➢ Vermicompost is the product of the decomposition process using various species of worms,
usually red wigglers, white worms, and other earthworms, to create a mixture of
decomposing vegetable or food waste, bedding materials, and vermicast.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Local species used in India for vermicomposting are Perionyx excavatus and Lampito
mauritii. African earthworm (Eudrillus engenial), Red worms (Eisenia foetida) and
composting worm (Peronyx excavatus) are promising worms used for vermicompost
production.
➢ The earthworm, which lives below the soil, is not suitable for vermi compost production.
2. Concentrated organic manures: Concentrated organic manures have higher nutrient
content than bulky organic manure. The important concentrated organic manures are
oilcakes, blood meal, fish manure etc. These are also known as organic nitrogen fertilizer.
❖ Oil cakes after oil is extracted from oilseeds, the remaining solid portion is dried as cake
which can, be used as manure.
❖ The oil cakes are of two types:
(i) Edible oil cakes which can be safely fed to livestock, e.g.: Groundnut cake, Coconut cake
etc.
(ii) Nonedible oil cakes which are not fit for feeding livestock, e.g.: Castor cake, Neem cake,
Mahua cake etc.
❖ Average nutrient content of oil cakes
Oilcakes
Nutrient content (%)
N
P2O5
K2 O
Castor cake
4.3
1.8
1.3
Cotton seed cake (undecorticated)
3.9
1.8
1.6
Karanj cake
3.9
0.9
1.2
Mahua cake
2.5
0.8
1.2
Safflower cake (undecorticated)
4.9
1.4
1.2
Nonedible oilcakes
Edible oilcakes
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Coconut cake
3.0
1.9
1.8
Cotton seed cake (decorticated)
6.4
2.9
2.2
Groundnut cake (decorticated)
7.3
1.5
1.4
Linseed cake
4.9
1.4
1.3
Niger cake
4.7
1.8
1.3
Rapeseed Cake
5.2
1.8
1.2
Safflower cake (Decorticated)
7.9
2.2
1.9
Sesamum cake
6.2
2.0
1.2
3. Other Concentrated Organic Manure
➢ Blood meal when dried and powdered can be used as manure. The meat of dead animals is
dried and converted into meat meal which is a good source of nitrogen. Average nutrient
content of animal based concentrated organic manures is given as follows.
❖ Average nutrient content of animal based concentrated organic manures
Organic manures
Nutrient content (%)
N
P2O5
K2O
Blood meal
10 - 12
1-2
1.0
Meat meal
10.5
2.5
0.5
Fish meal
4 - 10
3-9
0.3 - 1.5
Horn and Hoof meal 13
-
-
Raw bone meal
3-4
20 - 25
-
Steamed bone meal 1 - 2
25 - 30
-
0.75 – 4
0.3 – 0.6
Sludge
1.5 – 3.5
4. Green manure:
➢ Green undecomposed material used as manure is called green manure.
➢ It is obtained in two ways: by growing green manure crops or by collecting green leaf
(along with twigs) from plants grown in wastelands, field bunds and forest.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ The most important green manure crops are sunnhemp, haincha, pillipesara,clusterbeans
and Sesbania rostrata.
➢ Sesbania rostrata is a stem nodulating green manure crop. As it is a short-day plant and
sensitive to photoperiod, the length of vegetative period is short when sown in August or
September.
➢ Sunhemp has highest nitrogen fixation while Dhaincha has highest nutrient content in its
body.
➢ Best Fertilizer - Sunhemp
➢ For saline-alkaline, submerged soil: - The manure of Dhincha is suitable.
➢ Rajma is the only crop which despite being a pulse does not fix N.
➢ Dhaincha A crop in which N fixation glands are found in its stem.
❖ Biomass production and N accumulation of green manure crops
Crop
Age (Days)
Dry matter (t/ha) N accumulated
Sesbania aculeata
60
23.2
133
Sunnhemp
60
30.6
134
Cow pea
60
23.2
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Sesbania rostrata
50
5.0
96
❖ Nutrient content of green manure crops
Plant
Scientific name
Nutrient content (%) on air dry basis
N
P2O5
K
Sunhemp
Crotalaria juncea
0.5
0.1
0.4
Dhaincha
Sesbania aculeata
1.1
0.2
0.4
Sesbania
Sesbania speciosa
0.7
0.1
0.6
Cowpea
Vigna unguiculata
0.7
0.2
0.6
GREEN LEAF MANURE
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➢ Application of green leaves and twigs of trees, shrubs and herbs collected from elsewhere is
known as green leaf manuring.
➢ Forest tree leaves are the main sources for green leaf manure. Plants growing in wastelands,
field bunds etc., are another source of green leaf manure.
➢ The important plant species useful for green leaf manure are neem, mahua, wild indigo,
Glyricidia, Karanji (Pongamia glabra) calotropis, avise(Sesbania grandiflora), subabul
and other shrubs.
❖ Nutrient content of green leaf manure
Plant
Scientific name
Nutrient content (%) on air dry
basis
N
P2O5
K
Gliricidia
Gliricidia sepium
2.76
0.28
4.60
Pongania
Pongamia glabra
3.31
0.44
2.39
Neem
Azadirachta indica
2.83
0.28
0.35
Gulmohur
Delonix regia
2.76
0.46
0.50
FERTILIZER
➢ Fertilizer is any material of natural or synthetic origin added to the soil to supply one or more
plant nutrients.
❖ CLASSIFICATION OF FERTILISERS:
1. Straight fertilizer
Fertilizer which contains only one primary or major
nutrient, e.g., Urea, Ammonium Sulphate, potassium
chloride and potassium sulphate
2. Binary fertilizer
Fertilizers which contain two major nutrients. These fertilizers
are usually produced in granular form.
e.g., Potassium nitrate, Diammonium phosphate, nitro
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
phosphates and ammonium phosphate.
3. Complete fertilizer
Those fertilizer having two or three major nutrients viz. N, P &
K. Such fertilizer contains more than one primary or major
nutrient element e.g., DAP, Ammonium phosphate.
4. Mixed fertilizers
Mixed fertilizers are physical mixtures of straight fertilizers.
They contain two or three primary plant nutrients. Mixed
fertilizers are made by thoroughly mixing the ingredients either
mechanically or manually.
5. Low analysis fertilizer Contain less than 25 % of primary nutrients, e.g., SSP (16%),
Sodium Nitrate (16%).
6. High analysis
Contain more than 25% of primary nutrient, fertilizer e.g., Urea
(46%), DAP (18% N & 46 % P2O5).
❖ Some definitions related Fertilizers
➢ Acidic fertilizer: Fertilizer capable of increasing the acidity of the soil by continued
applications.
➢ Basic fertilizer: Fertilizers which increase the pH and the soil on continued use by leaving
a basic residue in the soil.
➢ Neutral fertilizer: Materials which are neither increasing nor decreasing the pH of the soil.
➢ Filler: It is called as the ‘make-weight’ material added to the fertilizer mixtures. Filler
materials are inert materials like sand, saw dust etc., are added to make up the difference
between weight of ingredients added to supply the plant nutrients in a tonn and the final
weight viz., 1,000 kg.
➢ Fertilizer Grade: "The minimum guarantee for the plant nutrient content in terms of total
n2, available P2O5 and K2O".
➢ Fertilizer ratio: "The relative percentage of N2, P2O5 and K2O" in a fertilizer.
➢ Unit value: The unit value of a fertilizer or manure is the cost of that quantity of material
capable of supplying one per cent of the plant food ingredient in one tonne of the material.
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❖ Fertilizers can also be classified based on physical form:
➢ Solid
➢ Liquid fertilizers
❖ Solid fertilizers are in several forms viz.
➢ Powder (single superphosphate),
➢ Crystals (ammonium sulphate),
➢ Prills (urea, diammonium phosphate, superphosphate),
➢ Granules (Holland granules),
➢ Super granules (urea super granules) and
➢ Briquettes (urea briquettes).
Ammonium sulphate
Fertilizer:
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Urea Prills
Granulated urea
NITROGENOUS FERTILIZER
Ammoniacal
Nitrate
Ammoniacal
and Amide fertilizer
Nitrate
Ammonium
Sodium Nitrate
Ammonium Nitrate
Sulphate
Calcium Nitrate
Calcium Ammonium Calcium Cynamide
Ammonium chloride Potassium Nitrate
Nitrate
Anhydrous
Ammonium Sulphate
ammonia
Nitrate
Urea
1. Ammoniacal fertilizers
➢ Ammoniacal fertilizers contain the nutrient nitrogen in the form of ammonium or ammonia.
➢ Ammoniacal fertilizers are readily soluble in water and therefore readily available to crops.
➢ Except rice, all crops absorb nitrogen in nitrate form.
a. Ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2 S04] (RRB SO- 2018,2019)
➢ It is a white salt completely soluble in water containing 20.6 % of nitrogen and 24.0 %
of Sulphur.
➢ It is used advantageously in rice and jute cultivation.
➢ It is easy to handle, and it stores well under dry conditions. But during rainy season, it
sometimes forms lumps.
➢ It can be applied before sowing, at the time of sowing or as a top-dressing to the growing
crop.
b. Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
➢ It is a white salt contains 26.0 per cent of nitrogen.
➢ It is usually not recommended for tomato; tobacco and such other crops as may be injured
by chlorine.
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c. Anhydrous ammonia (NH4)
➢ It is a colorless and pungent gas containing 82.0 per cent nitrogen. (JRF)
➢ It is the cheapest and can be applied directly to soil by injection using blade type applicator
having tubes.
➢ It becomes liquid (anhydrous ammonia) under suitable conditions of temperature and
pressure.
2. Nitrate Fertilizers
➢ Nitrate fertilizers contain the nitrogen in the form of NO3
➢ These ions are easily lost by leaching because of the greater mobility of nitrate ions in the
soil.
➢ Continuous use of these fertilizers may reduce the soil acidity as these nitrogenous fertilizers
are basic in their residual effect on soils.
a. Sodium nitrate (NaNO3)
➢ Sodium nitrate is a white salt containing about 15.6 per cent of nitrogen.
➢ It is completely soluble in water and readily available for the use of plants as such, without
any chemical change in the soil.
➢ It is easily lost by leaching and denitrification.
➢ Sodium nitrate is particularly useful for acidic soils
b. Calcium nitrate [Ca (NO3)2]
➢ It is a white crystalline hygroscopic solid soluble in water containing 15.5 per cent nitrogen
and 19.5 per cent calcium.
➢ The calcium is useful for maintaining a desirable soil pH
3. Both Ammonium & nitrate fertilizer:
a. Ammonium nitrate
➢ It contains 33% N (Half of ammonium form and half nitrate)
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Highly hygroscopic nature
➢ Explosive Fertilizer
b. Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) (AFO-2015, 2019)
➢ Commonly known as Kisan khad
➢ It contains 25% N
➢ Neutral in Nature
c. Ammonium sulphate nitrate [(NH4)2S04 NH4NO3]
➢ It contains 26 per cent nitrogen, three fourths of it in the ammoniacal form and the rest
(6.5 per cent) as nitrate nitrogen.
➢ In addition to nitrogen, it contains 12.1percent Sulphur.
➢ It is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate.
➢ It is readily soluble in water and is very quick-acting.
➢ Its keeping quality is good, and it is useful for all crops
➢ It can be applied before sowing, at sowing time or as a top-dressing.
4. Amide fertilizers
➢ Amide fertilizers are readily soluble in water and easily decomposable in the soil.
➢ The amide form of nitrogen is easily changed to ammoniacal and then to nitrate form in the
soil.
a. Urea [CO (NH2)2]
➢ It is the most concentrated solid nitrogenous fertilizer, containing 46 per cent nitrogen.
➢ Biuret percentage by weight- 1.5 %
➢ It is a white crystalline substance readily soluble in water.
➢ It absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and has to be kept in moisture proof containers. It
is readily converted to ammoniacal and nitrate forms in the soil.
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➢ The nitrogen in urea is readily fixed in the soil in an ammoniacal form and is not lost in
drainage.
➢ Urea sprays are readily absorbed by plants.
➢ It may be applied at sowing or as, a top-dressing.
➢ It is suitable for most crops and can be applied to all soils.
 Neem Coated Urea✓ Nitrogen – 46 %
✓ Biuret – 1.5 %
✓ Azardirachtin content (Min) – 150 PPM
b. Calcium cyanamide (CaCN2)
➢ Calcium cyanamide or nitro lime contains 20.6 per cent of nitrogen.
➢ It is a greyish white powdery material that decomposed in moist soil giving rise to ammonia.
PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZERS
a. Single Super phosphate [Ca (H2PO4)2)
➢ This is the most important phosphatic fertilizer in use.
➢ It contains 16 Per cent P2O5, 19 Per cent Ca & 12 per cent S in available form.
➢ It is a grey ash like powder with good keeping or storage qualities.
➢ Phosphatic fertilizer hardly moves in the soil and hence they are placed in the root zone.
b. Triple super phosphate:
➢ The concentrated super phosphate is called as Triple super phosphate and it contains 46 per
cent P2O5.
➢ This fertilizer is suitable for all crops and all soils.
➢ In acid soils, it should be used in conjunction with organic manure.
➢ It can be applied before or at sowing or transplanting.
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c. Di-Ammonium phosphate:
➢ It is water soluble fertilizer.
➢ It may be applied at sowing time or prior to sowing
➢ It contains 18 percent nitrogen & 46 percent P2O5
d. MAP: Mono-ammonium phosphate
➢ It contains 10-12 % Nitrogen and 48 % P2O5
➢ Mono-ammonium phosphate is new grade P fertilizer
➢ It is water soluble fertilizer.
➢ Di calcium phosphate: (RRB SO-2019)
✓ It contains total 34-38 % P2O5
✓ Available P2O5 is only 34%
✓ It is citrate soluble fertilizer
➢ Basic slag:
✓ It is citrate soluble fertilizer
✓ It contains 14-18 P2O5
e. Ammonium poly phosphate: It has 15% nitrogen and 62% P2O5.
❖ Based on Solubility of the Phosphate:
Water soluble phosphate
Citric soluble phosphate
Insoluble or tricalcium
(or) Monocalcium
or dicalcium phosphate
phosphate
phosphate
1. Super phosphate (16%
P2O5)
2. Concentrated SP
1. Basic Slag
(14-18 % P2O5)
2. Dicalcium phosphate
1. Rock Phosphate
(30-40% P2O5)
2. Raw bone meal
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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(48 % P2O5 )
3. Ammonium
Phosphate
(34-38% P2O5)
(20-25% P2O5)
3. Rhenania PO4
(23-26% P2O5)
(20% P2O5)
➢ Monocalcium Phosphate: Water Soluble
➢ Dicalcium Phosphate: Citric acid soluble
➢ Tricalcium Phosphate: Soluble in Strong Acid
POTASSIC FERTILIZERS
❖ Potassic fertilizers are chemical substances containing potassium in absorbed form (K+).
❖ There are two potassium fertilizers viz., Murate of potash (KCI) and sulphate of potash
(K2SO4).
a. Potassium chloride (KCI)
➢ Potassium chloride or Murate of potash is a white or red, crystal containing 60.0 per cent
K2O.
➢ It is completely soluble in water and therefore readily available to the crops.
➢ It is not lost from the soil, as it is absorbed on the colloidal surfaces.
➢ It can be applied at sowing or before or after sowing.
➢ The chlorine content is about 47.0 per cent.
➢ Its chlorine content is objectionable to some crops like tobacco, potato, etc. where quality
is the consideration.
b. Potassium sulphate (K2SO4)
➢ Potassium sulphate or sulphate of potash is a white salt and contains 48 per cent K2O and
17.5 percent Sulphur.
➢ It is soluble in water and therefore readily available to the crop.
➢ It does not produce any acidity or alkalinity in the soil.
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➢ It is preferred for fertilization of crops like tobacco, potato etc., where quality is of prime
importance.
➢ It is costly because it is made by treating potassium chloride with magnesium sulphate.
c. Potassium Nitrate:
➢ It contains 44% K2O, 13 % Nitrogen
➢ It is an excellent source of potassium and nitrogen and mainly used for fruit trees, tobacco,
and vegetables.
MICRONUTRIENTS:
a. Iron fertilizers:
➢ It is a water-soluble fertilizer containing 20 % Fe
➢ Suitable for application as foliar nutrients
b. Manganous Sulphate (MnSO4 7H2O)
➢ It is the well-known water-soluble Mn Fertilizer
➢ It is pink salt containing 24% Mn.
➢ It dissolves in water and is suitable for foliar application.
c. Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4 7H2O)
➢ It is water soluble whitish salt containing 23 % Zn.
➢ It is applied as foliar nutrient.
➢ Its acidic action causes corrosion damage to plants.
➢ Zinc-oxide (ZnO) contain 70% Zinc
d. Copper Fertilizers
➢ It is commonly used for both spraying on plants & applying in Soil
➢ Copper sulphate (CuSO4 5H2O) – 25 % Cu
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e. Boron Fertilizers:
1. Borax (Na2B4O 10H2O):
➢ It contains 11 % B
➢ It is water soluble white salt
➢ It can be applied as a soil dressing
or foliar application
2. Boric acid (H3BO3):
➢ It contains 18 % B
➢ It is a white crystalline powder
➢ It is applied as a foliar nutrient
f. Molybdenum Fertilizers
➢ Sodium molybdate (Na2MoO42H2O): It contains 40 % Mo
➢ Ammonium molybdate it contains 54 % Mo
❖ Nitrification Inhibitors
For lowland
Oxamide (31 percent N) & Thiourea (36.8 % N)
For upland
N-serve
Others
Nitropyrene, Neem cake (Mimbiolin)
❖ Slow-Release Fertilizer:
➢ Slow-release fertilizers are the natural fertilizers which release nutrients over a long period
of time.
➢ The fertilizer which has long persistence in soil or in plant body in pellet or in any other form
due to any added material is known as slow-release fertilizer.
❖ List of Slow-Release Fertilizer:
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Urea
formaldehyde(
UF)
Sulphur coated
urea
Sulfonyl
urea(SU)
Methylene
urea(MU)
Isobutylidene
diurea(IBDU)
Natural
organics
Polymer coated
urea
Note: Urea formaldehyde (UF – Urea form): 38-42 percent N
❖ The ill effects of unbalanced use of fertilizers
1. Excess of elements (Mn, Cu and Zn) may be toxic to living materials (protoplasm) of the
plant.
2. Excess of one plant food element may cause deficiency of another such as:
(a) Excess of N causes K starvation in certain crops like potato,
(b) Excess of K causes deficiency of Mn in tomato
(c) Excess of P causes deficiency of Zn in most of the crops.
❖ N fertilizer sources and formulations
Fertilizer
N
Anhydrous ammonia (NH3)
82%
Ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2SO4]
20.6 %
Urea
46%
Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3)
33%
Urea ammonium nitrate (UAN)
28%
P
K
Other
24 % S
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❖ Ammonium fertilizers
Fertilizer
N
Anhydrous
82%
P
K
Others
Ammonia
Ammonium
20.6%
24% S
sulphate
Ammonium
17%
bicarbonate
❖ Nitrate fertilizers
Fertilizer
N
P
Calcium nitrate
15. 5%
Sodium nitrate
16%
K
Others
19.5 % Ca
❖ Ammonium nitrate fertilizers
Fertilizer
N
P
K
Others
Ammonium nitrate 33%
Calcium ammonium25 %
nitrate
Ammonium
26%
12.1 % S
Sulphate nitrate
❖ Amide fertilizers
Fertilizer
N
Urea
46%
Calcium cyanamide 20.6%
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P
K
❖ Multi-nutrient fertilizers containing N
Fertilizer
N
P2O5
Nitro phosphate
20-23%
20-23%
Monoammonium
11%
48%
18%
46%
ammonium12%
40%
K
phosphate
Diammonium
phosphate
Liquid
polyphosphates
❖ Phosphorus (P)
Fertilizer
N
Single
P2O5
Ca
S
16%
19%
11 to 12%
superphosphate
Triple
48%
superphosphate
Partly acidulated
23-26%
phosphate rock
Mono ammonium
10 to 12%
48 to 61%
18%
46%
phosphate
(NH4H2PO4)
Diammonium
phosphate
❖ K fertilizers and formulations
Fertilizer
N
P2O5
K2O
other
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Potassium chloride
60
(KCl) or Murate of
Potash (MOP)
Potassium sulphate
48 to 53%
17 to 18% S
21-22%
10-11% Mg
(K2SO4), also called
sulphate of potash
(SOP),
Potassium
magnesium sulphate
21-22% S.
(K2SO4·2mgso4)
Potassium nitrate
13%
44-46%
(KNO3) or Salt peter
❖ Secondary nutrients
Fertilizer
N
P2O5
K2O
other
Ammonium
21%
0
0
24% S
sulphate
Calcium sulphate
18 % S
(Gypsum)
Ammonium
45% S
polysulfide
Ammonium
26% S
thiosulphate
❖ Ca, Mg and S contents of different fertilizer materials:
Fertilizer
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Nutrient content (%)
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Form
Ca
Mg
S
Others
Calcium nitrate 19.4
-
-
-
Gypsum
29.2
-
18.6
-
-
Rock
33.1
-
-
25.2
(P2O5)
19.5
-
12.5
16.0
(P2O5)
14.0
-
1.0
43.5
(P2O5)
Epsom salt
-
9.6
13.0
-
Potassium
-
11.1
22.32
31
(K2O)
-
-
17.5
48
(K2O)
-
-
24.2
21
(N)
-
-
12.1
26
(N)
Basic slag
-
-
3.0
15.6
(P2O5)
Copper
-
-
11.4
21
(Cu)
-
-
16.0
6
(N) 16 (Fe)
-
-
18.8
32.8
(Fe)
-
-
100.0
-
phosphate
Single
superphosphate
Triple
superphosphate
magnesium
sulphate
Potassium
sulphate
Ammonium
sulphate
Ammonium
sulphate nitrate
sulphate
Ferrous
ammonium
sulphate
Ferrous
sulphate
Elemental
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sulphur
Urea-gypsum
4.6
-
0.6
36.8
(N)
Urea-sulphur
-
-
10.0
40
(N)
Zinc sulphate
-
-
17.8
36.4
(Zn)
❖ Sources of fertilizer iron:
Source
Ferrous sulphate
Ferric sulphate
Ferrous oxide
Ferric oxide
Iron content (%)
19
23
77
69
❖ Sources of manganese:
Source
Manganese (%)
Manganese sulphate
26
Manganous oxide
41
Manganese oxide
63
❖ Source of zinc:
Source
Zinc
Source
(%)
Zinc sulphate monohydrate
35
(ZnSO4. H2O)
Zinc sulphate hepta hydrate
(ZnSO4. H2O)
23
(ZnSO4.7H2O)
Basic Zinc sulphate
g. Boron Fertilizer:
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Zinc sulphate hepta hydrate
(ZnSO4.7H2O)
55
(ZnSO4.4Zn (OH2)
Zinc oxide (ZnO)
Zinc sulphate monohydrate
Basic Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4.4Zn
(OH2)
78
Zinc oxide (ZnO)
❖ Sources of boron:
Source
Boron (%)
Borax
11
Boric acid
17
Solubor
20
h. Copper fertilizer:
❖ Source of copper:
Source
Copper (%)
Copper sulphate
21
Copper ammonium phosphate
30
Copper chelates (Cu EDTA)
varying
❖ NATURE OF FERTILIZERS: Nitrate Fertilizer (NO3)
Alkaline
Ammonium Fertilizer (NH4)
Acidic
Ammonium Nitrate Fertilizer
Acidic
❖ Efficiency of nutrient:
Nitrogen (N)
30 to 40 in paddy and 40 to 50 percent in
others.
Phosphorus (P)
20 to 25 percent
Potassium (K)
40-70%percent
Sulphur (S)
10-12%
Micronutrient
3-5%
METHOD OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION:
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❖ Solid fertilizers:
1. Broadcasting: Broadcasting is the method of application of fertilizer uniformly over the
entire field. It may be at planting or in standing crops as top dressing. Broadcasting is divided
into two types
a) Basel Dressing: Application of fertilizer in the field before sowing or at the time of sowing.
Phosphorus and potassium fertilizers are mainly used by this method. Examples -SSP, DAP,
MOP
b) Top Dressing: Top dressing is application of fertilizer to the standing crop, especially nitrate
nitrogenous fertilizers.
2. Placement: Inserting or drilling or placing the fertilizer below the soil surface by means of
any tool or implement at desired depth to supply plant nutrients to crop either before sowing
or in the standing crop is called placement. The following methods are most common in this
category:
a) Plough-sole placement: The fertilizer is placed in a continuous band on the bottom of the
furrow during the process of ploughing. This method has been recommended in areas where
the soil becomes quite dry up to a few inches below the soil surface during the growing
season, and especially with soils having a heavy clay pan a little below the plough sole. By
this method, fertilizer is placed in moist soil where it can become more available to growing
plants during dry season.
b) Deep placement: This method of application of nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers is
adopted in paddy fields on a large scale in Japan and is also recommended in India. In this
method, ammoniacal nitrogenous fertilizer like ammonium sulphate or ammonium forming
nitrogenous fertilizer like urea is placed in the reduced zone to avoid nitrogen loss in lowland
rice and is available to the crop during the active vegetative period.
c) Sub-Soil Placement: This refers to the placement of fertilizers in the sub-soil with the help
of heavy power machinery. This method is recommended in humid and sub-humid regions
where many sub-soils are strongly acidic. Due to acidic conditions the level of available plant
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nutrients is extremely low. Under these conditions, fertilizers, especially phosphatic and
potassic are placed in the sub-soil for better root development.
d) Localised Placement: This method refers to the application of fertilizers into the soil close
to the seed or plant. Localised placement is usually employed when relatively small
quantities of fertilizers are to be applied. Localised placement reduces fixation of phosphorus
and potassium.
e) Contact or Drill Placement: It refers to drilling seed and fertilizer simultaneously at
sowing. Seed cum ferti drill is popular in dryland agriculture for drill placement.
f) Band placement: It consists of applying the fertilizer in continuous or discontinuous bands
close to the one or both sides of seed or plant. This method is well suited for wider spaced
crops i.e., sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, castor, maize and vegetables.
g) Pellet application: Application of fertilizer, especially nitrogen in pellet form to the lowland
rice to avoid nitrogen loss. Soil and fertilizer are mixed in the ratio of 1 : 10 in the form of
small pellets and placed in the reduced zone.
QUESTIONS ASKED FROM PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMS
1. Which fertilizer is known as Kisan Khad? (AFO 2015)
a. Ammonium nitrate
b. Urea
c. DAP
d. CAN
e. MOP
2. Chemical formula of Gypsum is (AFO 2015)
a. CaSO4
b. CaSO4.1/2 H2O
c. CaSO4. 5H2O
d. CaSO4. 2H2O
e. CH4N2O
3. What is the nitrogen content in CAN fertilizer? (AFO 2019)
a. 25
c. 20.6
b. 28
d. 30
e. 22
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4. Various fertilizers are applied to provide plant nutrient. What is the Nitrogen
percentage in Ammonium Sulphate? (RRB SO 2018)
a. 32%
b. 25%
c. 20.6%
d. 28%
e. 46%
5. Among these which one is not a slow-release fertilizer: (RRB SO 2019)
a. urea formaldehyde
b. ammonium sulphate
c. natural organics
d. Sulphur coated urea
e. sulfonyl urea
6. Citrate Soluble fertilizer but water insoluble fertilizer is: (RRB SO 2019)
a. DCP
b. MAP
c. Rock Phosphate
d. Ammonium Phosphate
e. DAP
7. Which of the following is not correct regarding fertilizer? (RRB SO 2020)
a. soil having same available nutrient may not supply same amount of nutrient even if to the
same crop
b. same amount of fertilizer to same soil
c. Organic fertilizers are not the only route to plant nutrition
d. Hidden hunger is seen in plantation crops liked tea, coffee for Zn,
e. None of these
8. Highest P2O5 consumption is in which crop? (AFO-2018)
a. Groundnut
b. Sugarcane
c. Apple
d. Jute
e. Pineapple
9. Pesticidal property of neem is due to which among the following content? (RRB SO
2021)
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a. Kinetin
b. Nicotine
c. Albumin
d. Azadirachtin
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e. Dhurin
ANSWER
1. d
2. d
3. a
4. c
5. b
6. a
7. a
8. b
9. d
BIOFERTILIZERS
I.
II.
I. Nitrogen fixers:
Type
III.
Particulars
Associative symbiotic
Endophytic
Aerobic – Azotobacter, Beijerinckia, Anabaena,
Anaerobic – Clostridium
Facultative anaerobic – Klebsiella
Rhizobium, Frankia, Anabaena Azollae
1. Aerobic: Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Mycobacterium,
Azommas.
2. Anaerobic-Clostridium, Chloribium, Chromatium
3. Facultative anaerobic - Bacillus, Rhodospirillum,
Enterobacter
Azospirillum (RRB SO-2019)
Gluconacetobacter, Burkholdria
Legume (nodule forming)
Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium
Non-Legume (Nodule
forming)
Actinomycetes of the genus Frankia
Non-Legume (NonNodule forming)
II. Phosphorus solubilizers
Azospirillum, Azotobacter, and Azorhizobium,
Beijerinckia
Bacteria
Bacillus megaterium var. phosphaticum
B. subtilis, B. circulans
Pseudomonas striata
Penicillium sp.
Aspergillus awamori
1. AM fungi
2. Ectomycorrhizal fungi
3. Ericoid Mycorrhiza
4. Orchid mycorrhiza
Bacillus sp
Free living
Symbiotic (AFO-2020)
Non-Symbiotic
Fungi
III. P mobilizers
IV. Silicate and Zinc
solubilizers
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V. Plant growth promoting
Rhizobacteria
Pseudomonas spp., and many more
➢ The quantity of N fixed by properly nodulated legume averages about 75% of the total N
used for the plant growth.
➢ Non-legume (non-nodule forming): Azospirillum, Azotobacter, and Azorhizobium in
cereals like rice, wheat, corn, sorghum, millets. The organism Beijerinckia fixes N on leaf
surfaces of tropical plants.
➢ The Anabaena blue green algae (Cyanobacteria) inhabit cavities in the leaves of the
floating water fern Azollae It could fix about 30-105 kg N/ season taking care of 75% N
requirement of rice.
➢ Non-symbiotic N fixation: In wetland floodwater photoautotrophic Cyanobacteria
independently do photosynthesis and fix N up to 20–30 kg N/ ha/ year.
➢ Free-living heterotroph bacteria like Azotobacter and Beijerinckia (aerobic upland soils)
and Clostridium in anaerobic wetland soils.
➢ Use of bio fertilizers Increase the crop yield by 10-50%.
➢ Biofertilizer used in Wheat and Sugarcane is Azotobacter and in Sorghum and grasses
Azospirillum.
❖ Based on type of Microorganism
Bacterial bio fertilizer
Fungal biofertilizer
Algal biofertilizer
Actinomycetes
Phosphorus Absorber micro-organism
Potash solubilizing bacteria
Denitrifying bacteria
Rhizobium, Azospirillum, Azotobacter,
Phosphobacteria.
Mycorrhiza
BGA (AFO-2015) Azollae
Frankia (Nodule formation in nonlegume plant like casuarina and Alnus.)
VAM in Apple, Rubber, Coffee, Tea, Oil
palm
Frateuria aurantia (first time observed in
banana field).
Bacillus and Pseudomonas
❖ Microbes are of three types:(Based on temperature)
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Psychrophilic
10°C
Mesophilic
20-40°C
Thermophiles
>45°C
❖ Nitrogen fixers and their host plants:
Fixer
Host Plant
Rhizobium
Alfalfa, clover, peas, bean, soybean
Brady rhizobium
Cowpea, groundnut, red gram
❖ A list of common legumes and the Rhizobium strains by which they are inoculated:
Rhizobium spp.
Rhizobium meliloti
Legumes inoculated
➢ Melilotus (sweet clover)
➢ Medicago (Alfalfa)
R. Trifoli
Trigonella (Fenugreek)
➢ Trifolium (clover)
R. leguminosarum
➢ Pisum (pea)
➢ Vicia (vetch)
➢ Lathyrus (sweet peas)
➢ Lens (lentil)
R. phaseoli
➢ Phaseolus (beans)
R. lupini
➢ Lupinus (Lupine)
➢ Ornithopus (serradella)
R. Japonicum
➢ Glycome )spubeam
➢ Vigna (cowpea)
➢ Arachis (Groundnut)
➢ Crotolaria
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QUESTIONS ASKED FROM PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMS
1. Which of the following micro-organism grows well in waterlogged soil? (AFO 2015)
a. Clostridium
b. Azotobacter
c. Rhizobium
d. Radiobacter
e. Azola
2. Which of the following manure is considered as bio fertilizer (AFO 2016)
a. FYM
b. Compost
c. Green manure
d. Blue green algae
e. Poultry Manure
3. Which among the following biofertilizer do not provide nitrogen (AFO 2019)
a. Trichoderma viride
b. Rhizobium
c. Azotobacter
d. Acetobacter
e. Aspergillum
4. Which one of the following is a symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria? (AFO 2020)
a. Rhizobium
b. Cyanobacteria
c. Azotobacter
d. Clostridium
e. Azospirillium
5. Symbiotic bio fertilizer for cereal grains and grasses? (RRB SO 2019)
a. Azospirillium
b. Cyanobacteria
c. Rhizobium
d. Azotobacter
e. VAM
1. b
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2. d
3. a
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4. a
5. a
CARBON CYCLE
❖ Carbon is a common constituent of all organic matter (plant and animal residues).
Carbon is continually being fixed into organic form by photosynthetic organisms under the
influence of light.
SOIL ORGANISMS
❖ Bacteria:
➢ Bacteria are the most abundant group of microorganisms in the soil.
➢ Bacteria oxidize or reduce many chemical reactions such as N fixation, sulphur oxidation,
nitrification etc.
➢ Conditions affecting the growth of bacteria:
✓ pH 6.0-8.0 optimum. Some bacteria function at pH <3.0.
✓ The bacterial population may be 10-8 - 10-9/gram.
✓ The biomass may vary from 450-4500 kg/h
❖ Actinomycetes
➢ Heterotrophic optimum temperature 25-30OC, pH 6.5 – 8.0.
➢ The aroma of freshly ploughed land at certain times of the year is probably due to
actinomycetes as well as certain molds.
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➢ Microbes Population in soil- Bacteria>Actinomycetes>fungi
❖ Fungi:
➢ They are dominant in acid soils (some can tolerate a pH up to 9.0).
➢ Fungi are strictly aerobic.
➢ Fungi may also be classified as molds:
MOLDS, YEAST, MUSHROOMS
❖ Algae
➢ Their mass in soil may be 50-600 kg/ha
➢ Blue green algae are numerous in rice soils
➢ Blue green algae growing within the leaves of aquatic Fern.
➢ Azollae can also fix atmospheric N.
SOIL FAUNA - MACRO FAUNA❖ Earthworm
➢ The common earthworms found in India are Pheretima posthuma, P.elongater Lampita
mautritii etc.
➢ Their population- 1, 25000 to 1000000/ha.
➢ They are active in monsoon season.
➢ Earth worms prefer warm (21oC) well aerated soils.
➢ The biomass or live weight - 110-1100 kg/ha.
❖ Mycorrhizae
➢ The symbiotic association between numerous fungi and the roots of higher plants is
called mycorrhizae which means fungus roots”.
➢ There are 2 types of mycorrhizal associations: Ecto mycorrhizae and endo mycorrhizae
➢ The vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) are the most important endo mycorrhizae.
❖ Some points
➢ Bacteria grow well within pH 6.5 to 8, fungi in the range of 4.5 to 6.5 & actinomycetes in
slightly alkaline pH.
➢ In general soil, Population is Bacteria> Actinomycetes> Fungi> Algae
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➢ In acidic soil: Fungi> Bacteria> Actinomycetes
➢ In alkaline soil: Actinomycetes> Bacteria> Fungi.
BOTANICALS
1. Azadirachtin –
➢ Neem – derived from Persian word Asad-dilakt-I-hind, which means free tree of India.
➢ Full-grown neem tree yields 50 kg fruit and 350 kg of leaves annually.
2. Nicotine (C10 H14 N2)➢ Among the twelve alkaloids present in tobacco, nicotine is the most important one
contributing about 97 %.
➢ Nicotine is found in the leaves of Nicotiana tabacum and N. rustic a in the range of 2 to 14
%
3. Pyrethrum➢ The flowers of chrysanthemum are dried at 54.4°C.
4. Miscellaneous compounds➢ Picrotoxinin (PTX) has been isolated from the seeds of Anamirtacocculus.
➢ Neem: Neem oil contains limonoids, a class of compounds that act as antifeedants or
growth regulators in insects. They do not kill instantly but wipe out a whole generation of
insects by preventing the young ones from maturing and the adults from reproducing. The
most effective of the limonoids is a compound called azadirachtin.
➢ It works at a concentration of 1-10 ppm by blocking ecdysone’s action, thereby preventing
the larvae from shedding their external skeletons and maturing.
➢ Some examples of neem formulations are Neemguard, Margocode, Nimbicidine,
Neemplus, Sukrina, Achook etc
❖ Synthetic pyrethroids➢ Pyrethrum is derived from the dried flowers of the plant Chrysanthemum cineariaefolium.
➢ The name given to the active insecticidal components of the dried flowers is known as
pyrethrins.
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➢ Chemically pyrethrins are organic esters formed by the combination of two carboxylic acids
and three keto alcohols.
❖ List:
➢ Allethrin
➢ Bioresmethrin
➢ Permethrin
➢ Decamethrin
➢ Cypermethrin
➢ Fenvalerate
➢ flucythrinate and fluvalinate.
➢ Tefluthrin
❖ Herbicides1. The yield loss due to weeds is estimated to be 9-10%.
Amides and
E.g., Alachlor, Butachlor, Propanil, propachlor,
acitamides
metolachlor(1974),
Bipyrdiliums
Eg. Paraquat, Diquat,
Thiocarbamate
E.g., di-allate, tri-allate, thiobencarb (1970).
Substituted ureas
Eg. Diuron(1954), Fenuron(1957), Fluometuron.
Triazines
Eg. Simazine(1956)- selective residual pre-emergence,
Atrazine(1958)
Organophosphorus
Eg. Glyphosate(1971), Piperophos, bensulid
compounds
Dinitro anilines
Eg. Fluchoralin(Basalin), Pendimethalin
❖ Copper compounds➢ Copper sulphate has been used since 18th century.
➢ Bordeaux mixture -Millardet in 1882 discovered the Bordeaux mixture.
➢ Ratio of copper sulphate: lime: water(gallon) is 4:4:50
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➢ Burgundy mixture (1887)-copper sulphate: sodium carbonate crystals in 1:1 ratio.
➢ Other copper fungicides- Copper oxy chloride, Copper hydroxide
❖ Organic FungicidesDithiocarbamates (Organicsulphurcompounds)➢ Zineb(Dithane-A 78)- Zineb can be of great use on Zn deficient soil as it contains Zn
➢ Maneb(Dithane-M 45, Manzate)- contains Mn
➢ Mancozeb(1962)- contains both Mn as well as Zn
➢ Other – Thiram, Metham-sodium.
➢ Heterocyclic N compounds-eg. Captan, Dichlofluanid.
❖ Systemic fungicides➢ Commercial systemic fungicides came to market in 1960.
➢ Benzimidazoles- benzoyl (1967), Benlate, thiobendazole, carbendazim, Metalaxyl(1977).
➢ Antibiotics-Glitoxin, Streptomycin, cycloheximide, Griseofulvin(1939),polyoxin D.
➢ Organo phosphorus fungicides-Iprofenfos, Edifenphos, Triclophos – methyl.
❖ Some Important points➢ “An adjuvant is an ingredient that aids or modifies the action of the principal active
ingredient.”
➢ Formulation adjuvants are added to the active ingredient flora number of reasons including
better mixing and handling, increased effectiveness and safety, better distribution, and drift
reduction.
➢ Spray adjuvants are added to the tank to improve pesticide performance.
➢ Surfactants- to reduce the surface tension of the spray solution to allow more intimate
contact between the spray droplet and the plant surface.
➢ Surface tension is a measure of the surface energy in terms of force measured in. Water has
a surface tension of 73 dynes/cm.
➢ Surfactants typically lower the surface tension of a solution to between 30 to 50 dynes/cm.
➢ Traditional crop oils are more commonly used in insect and disease control than with
herbicides. Crop oils are typically used at 1 - 2 gallons/acre.
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➢ Nitrogen Fertilizer- Ammonium salts (NH4+) improve the performance consistency on
some weeds.
➢ Absorption is the uptake of pesticides and other chemicals into plants or microorganisms.
➢ Adsorption is the binding of pesticides to soil particles. Soil adsorption is measured by Koc.
➢ Higher values (>1000) indicate strong binding between soil and chemical while Lower
values (<300-500) indicates vice-versa.
➢ Two main alleged health hazards are blue baby disease of young babies and cancer due to
nitrate ingestion in food and water.
➢ According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), CO2,
CH4 and N2O emissions in agriculture at global level are estimated to account for 14 per
cent of the total emission of GHGs.
➢ FERTILIZERS CONTROL ORDER (FCO) came in 1985.
➢ Predominant classes of pesticides used in India are insecticides, which accounted for about
57 per cent of total pesticide consumption followed by fungicides (29%) and herbicides,
which constituted about 14 per cent.
➢ Fertilizer like Sodium Nitrate destroys granulation by reducing the stability of aggregates.
Few fertilizers eg, CAN help in development of good structures.
➢ Bluish and greenish colors of soil are generally due to poor drainage of soil.
➢ Gliotoxin, an antifungal antibiotic produced by the soil fungus Trichoderma.
➢ The process of laterization operates most favorable in warm and humid climate with 2000 to
2500 mm rainfall and continuous high Temperature (25°C) throughout the year.
➢ Growth of Azotobacter or Aspergillus niger reflects nutrient deficiency in the soil.
➢ Ideal pH for available P = 6.5 - 7.5. If pH > 8.5 the fixation will be more. < 6.5 the fixation
will be more.
➢ Rock Phosphate is highly suited to plantation crops.
➢ Fixation of P by Fe and Al oxides decreases with increasing pH.
➢ Above pH 7.0, Ca2+ can precipitate with P as Ca –PO4 mineral and P availability again
decreases.
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➢ Both organic and Inorganic anions can compete with P for adsorption sites, resulting in
decreases the fixation of P.
❖ Order of hygroscopic nature of fertilizers:
Ammonium nitrate>urea>ammonium sulphate> CAN
❖ Acidic residual nature of fertilizer:
Anhydrous ammonia > ammonium chloride > ammonium sulphate
> Urea> Ammonium nitrate.
❖ Basic residual nature of fertilizer:
Calcium cyanamide> Sodium nitrate> DCP> Calcium nitrate.
FERTILIZERS- USE AND LEGISLATION
➢ The Union Government of India promulgated the fertilizer Control Act (F.C.O) in 1957
under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (section 3) with a view to regulate fertilizer
business in India.
❖ Fertilizer uses on different crops
Share in
Fertilizer
Fertilizer Consumption (Kg/Ha)
N
P2O5
K2O
Total
Consumption
(%)
Paddy > Wheat Sugarcane
➢ Sugarcane
Wheat >
Cotton
>Sugarcane > Groundnut > Sugarcane >
Sugarcane >
Wheat
Paddy
>Wheat >
Groundnut
Paddy
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❖ Sources of N
1. Addition through rainwater: A small amount of about 10 to 12 kg of N per year per acre
is added to the soil
2. Soil organic matter: This is the main sources of N in the soil and the N content of any soil
will depend upon the quality and quantity of organic matter of that soil.
3. N fixing organism: The non- symbiotic bacteria are found to fix 50 – 55 kg of N per year
per acre while the symbiotic organisms fix about 300-350 kg of N per year per acre.
4. Industrial source
❖ Nitrogen losses
➢ Volatilization/ non biological loss of NH3+: ✓ When Ph > 8 nitrogen is lost in the form of NH3 (ammonia) in alkaline medium.
✓ Volatilization increases in poor drainage e.g., Rice field.
✓ About 60% of nitrogen loss in India is due to volatilization, hence in alkali soil the N
application is raised at least by 25%
❖ Ammonia
1. Anhydrous NH3
2. Aqua or aqueous NH3
➢ Application of liquid NH3 through irrigation water is called ‘Nitrogation’ and application
of gaseous NH3 directly to the field by using special devices is called ‘Nitrojection’.
POTASSIUM
❖ Potassium fixation
➢ The presence of K+ ions can block the release of fixed NH4 + and vice visa.
❖ Factors affecting K fixation.
1. Soil texture: Increases the texture greater will be fixation and vice visa.
2. Wetting and drying: Fixation is more under dry condition than wet condition.
3. Type of clay mineral: Fixation is more in 2:1 type than 1: 1 type
4. Freezing and thawing: Enhances the fixation of K depends on their clay mineralogy and
degree of weathering
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5. Soil pH: A decreases in pH reduces the K fixation as result of competition of H3O+ for the
inter layer exchange position. Liming also favors for the fixation of K.
❖ Factors affecting plants K availability in:
a. Kind of clay minerals: Soils containing vermiculite or montmorillonite will have more K
than kaolinite clay soils.
b. Cation exchange capacity: Increases texture soils having higher CEC and can hold more
exchange K.
c. Amount of exchangeable K: More K in soil solution leads to higher fixation.
d. Subsoil K and rooting depth: Low soil temperature may exhibit K release and diffusion,
thus increasing crop response to K
e. Soil moisture: fertilization increasing K levels or moisture contain will accelerate K
diffusion.
❖ Plant factors affecting K availability
1. CEC of Roots: Important for determining the ability of plants to absorb like more slowly
available forms of soil K
2. Root system and crop: Higher root density, higher the removal of exchange K and soil
solution K. Fibrous root system absorbs more K than tap root system.
3. Variety or Hybrid: Hybrid absorbs more K than variety.
4. Plant population: Higher plant population and closer spacing increased the K removal
❖ Factor affecting K fixation in soils:
2. Nature of Colloids
➢ The ability of various soil colloids to fix K varies widely. Kaolinite fixes little, while
montmorillonite and illite fix more.
2. Wetting and Drying
3. Influence of lime
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PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
❖ Auxins:
➢ Auxins are a group of phytohormones produced in the shoot and root apices and they
migrate from the apex to the zone of elongation.
➢ Auxins promote the growth along the longitudinal axis of the plant.
➢ Auxins are widely distributed throughout the plant however, abundant in the growing tips
such as coleoptile tip, buds, root tips and leaves.
➢ Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) is the only naturally occurring auxin in plants.
➢ Typical auxin concentration ranges from 0.01 to 10 mg/L.
➢ Low concentration of auxin results in the growth whereas high concentration will inhibit
the growth of the same organ.
➢ Some synthetic auxins especially 2, 4- D and 2, 4, 5-T are useful in eradication of weeds at
higher concentrations.
➢ TIBA ( Triidobenzoic acid) and PCIB (p-chlorophenoxy isobutyric acid) inhibits auxin
activity.
➢ Synthetic Auxin:
✓ IBA: Indole Butyric Acid
✓ NAA: Naphthalene Acetic acid
✓ MENA: Methyl ester of Naphthalene acetic acid
✓ MCPA: 2 Methyl 4 chloro phenoxy acetic acid
✓ TIBA: 2, 3, 5 Tri iodo benzoic acid
✓ 2, 4-D: 2, 4 dichloro phenoxy acetic acid
✓ 2, 4, 5-T: 2, 4, 5 – Trichloro phenoxy acetic acid
❖ Cytokinins: (RRB SO-2019)
➢ Cytokinins, besides their main effect on cell division, also regulate growth and hence they
are considered as natural plant growth hormones.
➢ Some of the very important and commonly known naturally occurring cytokinins are
Coconut milk factor and Zeatin.
➢ It is an antiaging hormone.
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➢ Cytokinin can be employed successfully to induce flowering in short day plants.
➢ The ratio of high cytokinin and low auxin promote shoot buds in tissue culture.
➢ Cytokinins promote cell division, stimulate shoot proliferation, and activate gene expression
and metabolic activity in general.
➢ At the same time, cytokinins inhibit root formation.
➢ Cytokinins slow the aging process in plants.
➢ Concentrations of cytokinin used for horticulture vary between 0.1 to 10 mg/L.
❖ Gibberellins➢ The primary precursor for the formation of gibberellins is acetate.
➢ It helps in seed germination.
➢ They are natural plant hormones and promote flowering, stem elongation and break
dormancy of seeds, speeding up germination.
➢ Gibberellins are found in all parts of higher plants including shoots, roots, leaves, flower,
petals, anthers and seeds.
➢ In general, reproductive parts contain much higher concentrations of gibberellins than
the remaining parts.
➢ Immature seeds are especially rich in gibberellins (10-100 mg per g fresh weight).
➢ Low levels of gibberellins will prevent plants from reaching their natural height.
❖ Abscisic Acid- (RRB SO-2020)
➢ Abscisic acid (ABA) is a plant growth inhibitor and an antagonist of gibberellins.
➢ It induces dormancy, prevents seeds from germinating and causes abscission of leaves, fruits,
and flowers.
➢ High concentrations of abscisic acid can be induced by environmental stress such as
drought.
➢ Elevated levels of abscisic acid will eventually induce dormancy
➢ It causes closing of stomata.
➢ Including bud dormancy and seed dormancy
➢ Includes tuberization
➢ Induces senescence of leaves fruit ripening, abscission of leaves, flowers and fruits
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➢ Increasing the resistance of temperate zone plants to frost injury.
❖ Ethylene➢ Ethylene is unique in that it is found only in gaseous form.
➢ High concentration of auxin leads to the formation of ethylene.
➢ The main role of ethylene is it hastens the ripening of fleshy fruits eg. Banana, apples,
pears, tomatoes, citrus etc.
➢ It stimulates senescence and abscission of leaves
➢ It is effective in inducing flowering in pineapple
➢ It causes inhibition of root growth
➢ It stimulates the formation of adventitious roots
➢ It stimulates epinasty of leaves
➢ It induces ripening, causes leaves to abscess, and promotes senescence.
➢ Plants often increase ethylene production in response to stress and before death.
❖ Growth Retardants:
➢ Cycocel (2- chloroethyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (CCC)
➢ Phosphon D – (2, 4 – dichlorobenzyl – tributyl phosphonium chloride)
➢ AMO – 1618
➢ Morphactins
➢ Maleic hydrazide
❖ Polyamines➢ Polyamines are unique as they are effective (and are applied) in relatively high
concentrations.
➢ Typical concentrations range from 5 to 500 mg/L. Polyamines influence flowering and
promote plant regeneration.
➢ Indian soil is deficient in Nitrogen and zinc.
Hormone
118
Major Function
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Where Produced
Auxin
➢ Stimulates Cell
elongation
➢ Involved in Phototropism,
Gravitropism
➢ Meristems of apical
buds
➢ Embryo of seeds
➢ Young Leaves
➢ Apical Dominance
➢ Vascular differentiation
➢ Stimulates ethylene
synthesis
➢ Induces adventitious roots
on cuttings
Cytokinin
➢ Stimulates cell division
Synthesized in roots and
➢ Reverses apical dominance
transported to other organs
➢ Involved in shoot growth
➢ Delays leaf sequence
Ethylene
➢ Stimulates fruit ripening
➢ Leaf and flower senescence
➢ Abscission
➢ Tissues of ripening
fruits
➢ Nodes of Stems
➢ Senescent leaves and
flowers
Abscisic Acid ➢ Inhibits growth.
Gibberellin
➢ Leaves
➢ Stimulates stomatal closure.
➢ Stems
➢ Maintains dormancy.
➢ Green fruits
➢ Stimulates shoot elongation.
➢ Meristems of apical
➢ Stimulates bolting and flowering
in biennials.
➢ Regulates production of
buds and roots.
➢ Young leaves.
➢ Embryo.
hydrolytic enzymes in grains.
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Hormone
Site of Production
Precursor
Auxin
Shoot and root tips, young
Tryptophan (RRB SO-2019)
expanding leaves and seeds
Gibberellins
Young leaves
Terpenoids
Cytokinins
Root tips
5’AMP (isopentenyl group)
ABA
Terminal bud
Sesquiterpenoid pathway
(Mevalonic acid)
Ethylene
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_________________
Methionine
Antitranspirants
Growth retardants
Hydroxylamine hydrochloride
Abscisic acid
Phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA)
a-NAA
Silicon
Phosphon
Cetyl alcohol
Daminozide
Stearic acid
DAMS, TIBA, MH & CMH
Chlormeunat chloride
Methyl ester
Alachlor
Alkenyl succinic acid, 2,4-dinitrophenol.
Desiccants or defoliants
Crop ripener
2,4-D
Picloram
Paraquat
Ammonium isobutylate
H2SO4
CCC, Carbanyl urea,
Na-chlorate
Bromacil, Endothal
Diquat
Bacitracin
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QUESTIONS ASKED FROM PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMS
1. What is the Precursor of indole Acetic Acid? (RRB SO 2019)
a. Methionine
b. Tryptophan
c. Methyl cobalmine
d. Cyanocobalamin
e. Methylene
2. Which hormone is responsible for cell division and plant new growth? (RRB SO 2019)
a. Auxin
b. Cytokinin
c. Gibberellin
d. ABA
e. Ethylene
3. Which of the following matching is correct with respect to its site of synthesis (RRB SO
2020)
1. ABA- Old leaf
2. gibberellin- root
3. cytokinin- young fruits
a. 1 and 2
b. 1,2 and 3
c. only 1
d. 1 &3
e. only 2
4. Hormone playing the major role in the abscission of plant leaves and flowers and
abiotic stress tolerance. This hormone is also known as stress hormone. (RRB SO 2021)
a. Auxin
b. Gibberellin
c. Cytokinin
d. Ethylene
e. ABA
ANSWER
1. b
2. b
3. c
4. e
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PLANT NUTRIENTS
❖ Essential and Beneficial elements:
➢ There are seventeen essential elements (AFO-2015) required for plant growth viz., C, H, O,
N, P, K,Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl, Ni,
❖ Beneficial Nutrients/Elements:
➢ Beneficial elements are the mineral elements that stimulate the growth and exhibit beneficial
effects at very low concentration, or which are essential only for certain plant species or
under specific conditions are called as “beneficial elements”.
➢ E.g., Na, Va, Co, Si
❖ Essential Nutrients:
❖ Non mineral
Macronutrients(AFO-2017,2020)
Primary
Secondary
❖ Nutrients
C
Micronutrients (AFO-2018)
N
Ca
Fe
B
H
P
Mg
Mn
Cl
O
K
S
Zn
Mo
Cu
Ni
❖ Chemical nature
Metals
K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu,
Non-metals
C, H, O, N, P, S, Cl, Mo, B
❖ ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS FOR PLANT GROWTH AND THEIR PRINCIPAL
FORMS FOR UPTAKE
S.N.
1.
122
Nutrients
Quantity in plants
Key nutrients (major nutrient):
Carbon(C)
45%
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Receivable form
CO2
2.
Hydrogen(H)
6%
H2 O
3.
oxygen
45%
H2O, O2
1.
Primary nutrient: Nitrogen(N)
1.5%
NO3-, NH4+
2.
Phosphorus (P)
0.2%
H2PO4-, HPO4-2
3.
Potassium(K)
1.0%
K+
1.
secondry nutrient: Calcium(Ca)
0.5%
Ca+2
2.
Magnesium(Mg)
0.2%
Mg+2
3.
Sulphur(S)
0.1%
SO4-2
1.
Micronutrients: Iron(Fe)
100 ppm
Fe+2 > Fe+3
2.
Manganese (Mn)
50 ppm
Mn+2 > Mn+4
3.
Zinc (Zn)
20 ppm
Zn+2
❖ Classification based on the role of element in plant system- (According to TRUOG, 1954)
(i)
Structural Elements: C, H, O
(ii) Accessory structural elements: N, P, S
(iii) Regulator & Carriers: K, Ca, Mg
(iv) Catalyst & Activators: Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, Cl, B
❖ These elements are catalyzers and activators.
Elements
C, H, O
C, H, O, N, P, S
Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu
N, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, S
P, K, Ca, Mg, Cl
K, Mg, Ca, Cl
Ca, Mg, P
H, O
Major role
Provide basic structure
Tissue Building elements
Chlorophyll element
Chlorosis element
Necrosis element
Electrolytic Balance
Skeletal elements
Energy exchange elements
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N, P, S
C, N, S, P
Fe, Co, Mn, Cu, Zn
Cu, Fe, Mn, S
Nitrogen
Energy Storage, Transfer & Bonding
Plastic and storage (of energy) elements
Oxidation Reduction (Redox) regulators.
Catalytic elements
Mineral and non-mineral element
❖ Important facts about nutrients:
➢ Mo is a helpful element in nitrogen fixation.
➢ Ca is used in cell wall formation.
➢ Vit. Co (cobalt) is helpful in the manufacture of B12.
➢ Sulfur (S) is helpful for the production of protein in pulse crops and oil in oilseed crops.
➢ Mg is helpful in chlorophyll.
➢ Creator of organisms = C, H, O, N, P, S
➢ As enzyme cofactor = Mn, Cu, Mo
➢ In controlling the permeability of cell membrane = Ca + 2, Mg + 2
➢ Structural Element: CHO
➢ Critical Element: NPK
➢ Major Nutrient (major/macro): > 1PPM
➢ Fertilizer nutrient: N, P, K, S
➢ Lime nutrient: - Ca, Mg
➢ Energy exchange nutrient: - H, O
➢ Energy storage: - N, P, S, C
➢ Translocation regular: - K, Na, Ca, Mg
➢ Oxidation – reduction regulator –Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B
❖ General absorption of nutrients for foliar applied nutrients:
Rapid
Moderate
Slow
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Nitrogen, Potassium, Zinc
Calcium, Sulphur, Manganese, Boron
Magnesium, Copper, Iron, Molybdenum
HIDDEN HUNGER
Hidden hunger refers to a situation in which a crop needs more of a given nutrient yet has shown
no deficiency symptoms. The nutrient content is above the deficiency symptom zone but still
considerably needed for optimum crop production. With most nutrients on most crops,
significant responses can be obtained even though no recognizable symptoms have appeared.
❖ Luxury consumption: Increase in nutrient concentration above the critical range indicates
that the plant is absorbing nutrient above that needed for maximum yield. (It is for potassium)
❖ FUNCTION OF ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS:
Nutrient
Functions
Carbon
Basic molecular component of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids.
Oxygen
Oxygen is somewhat like carbon in that it occurs in virtually all
organic compounds of living organisms.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen plays a central role in plant metabolism. Important in
ionic balance and as main reducing agent and plays a key role in
energy relations of cells.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a component of many important organic compounds
ranging from proteins to nucleic acids. Main component of protein,
nucleic ATP, NADP. Basic component of proteins and chlorophyll
(the pigment that gives plants their green colour).
Phosphorus
Central role in plants is in energy transfer, protein metabolism and
(AFO-2017)
in the manufacture of ATP (energy currency), key of life. Plays an
important role in root growth and promotes the establishment of
young plants, flowering, fruiting and ripening, photosynthesis,
respiration and overall plant growth.
Potassium
Helps in osmotic and ionic regulation. Potassium functions as a
cofactor or activator for many enzymes of carbohydrate and protein
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metabolism. Main role in stomatal movement and transpiration.
Increases resistance to drought, frost, insect, and disease. Helpful in
opening the pores. Promotes the movement of sugars, turgor and
stem rigidity.
Calcium
Plays a vital role in plant structure because it is part of cell walls and
holds them together. Calcium is involved in cell division and plays
an major role in the maintenance of membrane integrity. Found in
the growing parts of plants (apex and buds).
Magnesium
Component of chlorophyll and a cofactor for many enzymatic
(AFO-2018)
reactions.
Sulphur
Sulphur is somewhat like phosphorus in that it is involved in plant
cell energetic. Main parts of amino acids. Sulphur possessing amino
acids: - cysteine, cysteine, and methionine (former substance
ethylene). S-rich vitamins: Thiamine and Biotin
Iron
An essential component of many enzymes and carries, including the
cytochromes (respiratory electron carriers) and the ferredoxins. The
latter are involved in key metabolic function such as N fixation,
photosynthesis, and electron transfer. Fe helps in the formation of
hemoglobin
Zinc
Essential component of several dehydrogenases, and peptidases,
including carbonic anhydrase, alcohol dehydrogenase, glutamic
dehydrogenase, and malic dehydrogenase, among others.
Manganese
Involved in the O2 – evolving system of photosynthesis (Main
constituent of chlorophyll) and is a component of the enzymes
arginase and phospho transferases. Promotes seed germination and
speeds plant maturity. Essential for nitrogen assimilation and protein
formation.
Copper
126
Constituent of a number of important enzymes, including
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cytochrome oxidize, ascorbic acid oxidase, and laccase.
Boron
Involved in carbohydrate metabolism and synthesis of cell wall
components.
Molybdenum
Required for the normal assimilation of N in plants. An essential
component of nitrate reductase as well as nitrogenase (N2 fixation
enzyme)
Chlorine
Essential for photosynthesis and as an activator of enzymes involved
(AFO-2018,
in splitting water. It also functions in osmo-regulation of plants
RRB SO 2018)
growing on saline soils.
Beneficial elements
Silicon
Strengthens cell walls, energy transfer & drought resistance
Reduces water loss & prevents fungal infection.
Cobalt
Essential in N fixation
Sodium
Na replaces K in certain functions in halophytes plants
For C4 plants having dicarboxylic photosynthetic pathway
Vanadium
Essential for green algae
GENERALIZED SYMPTOMS OF NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY AND EXCESS IN
CROPS
❖ Visual symptoms of deficiency may take various forms, such as:
1. Stunted or reduced growth of the entire plant with the plant itself either remaining green or
lacking an over-all green colour with either the older or younger leaves being light green to
yellow in color.
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2. Chlorosis of leaves, either interveinal or of the whole leaf itself, with symptoms either on
the younger and/or older leaves, or both (chlorosis is due to the loss or lack of chlorophyll
production).
3. Necrosis or death of a portion (margins or interveinal areas) of a leaf, or the whole leaf,
usually occurring on the older leaves.
4. Slow or stunted growth of terminals (rosetting), the lack of terminal growth, or death of the
terminal portions of the plant.
5. Reddish purpling of leaves, frequently more intense on the underside of older leaves due to
the accumulation of anthocyanin.
❖ Toxicity symptoms
➢ Visual symptoms of toxicity may not always be the direct effect of the element in excess on
the plant, but the effect of the excess element on one or more other elements.
➢ For example, an excessive level of potassium (K) in the plant can result in either a
magnesium (Mg) and/or calcium (Ca) deficiency, excess phosphorus (P) can result in a
zinc (Zn) deficiency, and excess Zn in an iron (Fe) deficiency
➢ These effects would compare to elements, such as boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu),
and manganese (Mn), which create visual symptoms that are the direct effect of an excess
of that element present in the plant.
➢ Some elements, such as aluminum (Al) and copper (Cu) can affect plant growth and
development due to their toxic effect on root development and function.
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Deficiency
symptoms
Old Leaves
New Leaves
Old and New
Leaves
Terminal
Buds
N, P, K, Mg,
Mo
S, Fe, Mn,
Cu
Zn
Ca, B
With Dead
spots
No dead
spots
K, Mo
N, P, Mg
Green Veins
(Mg)
Green Veins
(Fe, Mn)
Yellow
Veins (S,
Cu)
Yellow
Veins (N)
Fig.: Identification of deficiency symptoms
❖ Deficiency Symptoms
➢ When nutrient is not present in sufficient quantity, plant growth is affected.
➢ Plants may not show visual symptoms up to a certain level of nutrient content, but growth
is affected, and this situation is known as hidden hunger.
➢ When a nutrient level still falls, plants show characteristic symptoms of deficiency. These
symptoms, through vary with crop, have a general pattern.
➢ These are generally masked by diseases and other stresses and so need careful and patient
observation on more number of plants for typical symptoms.
➢ The deficiency symptoms appear clearly in crops with larger leaves.
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❖ Identification of Deficiency Symptoms
➢ The deficiency symptoms can be distinguished based on the:
1. Region of occurrence,
2. Presence or absence of dead spots, and
3. Chlorosis of entire leaf or interveinal chlorosis.
➢ The region of appearance of deficiency symptoms depends on mobility of nutrient in plants.
➢ The nutrient deficiency symptoms of N, P, K, Mg and Mo appear in lower leaves because
of their mobility inside the plants. (AFO-2016, 2017)
➢ These nutrients move from lower leaves to growing leaves thus causing deficiency symptoms
in lower leaves.
➢ Zinc is moderately mobile in plants and deficiency symptoms, therefore, appear in middle
leaves.
➢ The deficiency symptoms of less mobile elements (S, Fe, Mn and Cu) appear on new leaves.
➢ Since Ca and B are immobile in plants, deficiency symptoms appear on terminal buds.
Chlorine deficiency is less common in crops.
❖ Deficiency symptoms on old leaves
➢ The symptoms that appear on old leaves can be further distinguished based on the presence
or absence of dead spots.
❖ Without Dead Spots.
➢ The characteristic deficiency symptoms of nitrogen is uniform yellowing of the leaves
including the veins.
➢ The leaves become stiff and erect especially in cereals. The leaf may detach after a little
forceful pull in extreme deficiency in dicotyledonous crops.
➢ Cereal crops show characteristic 'V' shaped yellowing at the tip of lower leaves.
➢ In phosphorus deficiency, leaves are small, erect, unusually dark green with a greenish red,
greenish brown or purplish tinge. The rear side develops bronzy appearance.
➢ Magnesium deficiency also causes yellowing but differs from that of nitrogen. The yellowing
takes place in between the veins and the veins remain green. The leaf is not erect.
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➢ The leaf detaches very easily and may be shed by blowing wind. Necrosis (death of tissues)
occurs in extreme cases only in the margins.
❖ With Dead Spots.
➢ In potassium deficiency, yellowing starts from tips or margins of leaves extending to the
center of leaf base. These yellow parts become necrotic (dead spots) very soon.
➢ There is sharp difference between green and yellow and yellow and necrotic portions. The
dead spots appear particularly on margins and tips.
❖ Molybdenum.
➢ Deficiency causes translucent spots of irregular shape in between the veins of leaves. These
spots are light green, yellow or brown in colour.
➢ The affected spots are impregnated with resinous gum which exudes from rear side of the
leaf from the reddish-brown spots.
❖ Deficiency Symptoms on New Leaves
➢ These symptoms may be spread over entire leaf, or the veins may remain green.
❖ Veins Remaining Green. (AFO-2019,2020)
➢ Veins remain green in iron and manganese deficiency.
➢ In iron deficiency, the principal veins remain conspicuously green and other portions of the
leaf turn, yellow tending towards whiteness.
➢ Under severe deficiency, most part of the leaf becomes white.
➢ In manganese deficiency, the principal veins as well as the smaller veins are green.
➢ The interveinal portion is yellowish, not tending towards whiteness. Dead spots also appear
at a later stage. There is a chequered appearance to the leaf.
❖ Veins not Remaining Green.
➢ The leaf becomes yellowish due to Sulphur deficiency but looks like nitrogen deficient leaf.
➢ The leaf is small, and the veins are paler than interveinal portion. No dead spots appear.
➢ Plant does not lose the lower leaves as in the case of N deficiency.
➢ In copper deficiency, leaf is yellowish tending towards whiteness.
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➢ In extreme deficiency, chlorosis of veins occurs, and leaf loses luster.
➢ Leaf is unable to retain its turgidity and hence, wilting occurs.
➢ Leaf detaches due to water-soaked conditions of the base of petiole.
❖ Terminal Buds
➢ The deficiency symptoms of Ca and B are many times seen on new leaves. However, it is
easy to recognize their deficiency symptoms on the terminal buds or growing points than on
new leaves.
➢ In calcium deficiency, the bud leaf becomes chlorotic white with the base remaining green.
About one-third chlorotic portion of the tip hooks downward and becomes brittle. Death of
terminal bud occurs in extreme cases.
➢ Boron deficiency causes yellowing or chlorosis which starts from the base to tip. The tip
becomes very much elongated into a whip like structure and becomes brownish or blackish
brown. Death of the terminal bud occurs in extreme cases.
❖ Deficiency on both old and new leaves
➢ In zinc deficiency, the leaf becomes narrow and small.
➢ Lamina becomes chlorotic and veins remain green.
➢ Subsequently, dead spots develop all over the leaf including veins, tips and margins.
➢ In cereals, zinc deficiency generally appears in 2-4 leaves from the top during vegetative
stage.
➢ Plants appear bushy due to reduced internodal elongation. Subsequently, panicle fails to
emerge completely or emerges partially.
❖ Toxicity Symptoms
➢ When a nutrient is present in the soil in excess of plant's requirement, the nutrient is absorbed
in higher amounts which causes imbalance of nutrients or disorder in physiological
processes. Unlike deficiency symptoms, toxicity symptoms are less common.
➢ Nitrogen Excess nitrogen causes delay in maturity and increases succulence. The adverse
effects of excess nitrogen are lodging and abortion of flowers. Crop becomes susceptible to
pests and diseases.
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➢ Phosphorus: Excess phosphorus causes deficiency of iron and zinc. In some crops like
maize, leaves develop purple coloration and plant growth is stunted. In cotton, leaves become
dark green in colour, maturity of bolls delayed, and stems turn red.
➢ Iron: Tiny brown spots appear on the lower leaves of rice starting from tips and spreading
towards bases. Leaves usually remain green. In extreme case, the entire leaf turns purplish
brown in colour.
➢ Manganese: The plant is stunted, and tillering is often limited. Brown spots develop on the
veins of the leaf blade and leaf sheath, especially on lower leaves. Manganese toxicity occurs
in lowland rice.
➢ Boron: Chlorosis occurs at the tips of the older leaves, especially along the margins. Large,
dark brown, elliptical spots appear subsequently. The leaves ultimately turn brown and dry
up.
❖ GENERALIZED VISUAL SYMPTOMS OF PLANT NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY
AND TOXICITY:
Element/Status
Visual Symptoms
Nitrogen (N)
Deficiency
Uniform yellowing of older leaves including veins, leaves that will
eventually turn brown and die. Plant growth is slow; plants will be
stunted, and will mature early, Cereal crops show 'V' shaped pale
yellowing at lower leaf tips. Deficiency causes 'Buttoning in
Cauliflower'.
Excess
Plants will be dark green in colour, and new growth will be
succulent; susceptible if subjected to disease and insect infestation;
and subjected to drought stress, plants will easily lodge. Blossom
abortion, lack of fruit set, Bud break in garlic, bursting in carrots
will occur.
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Phosphorus (P)
Deficiency
Plant growth will be slow and stunted, and the older leaves will have
a purple coloration, particularly on the underside, rear sides develop
bronzy appearance, premature leaf falling is most common.
Deficiency causes 'Sickle leaf disease'.
Excess
Phosphorus excess will not have a direct effect on the plant but may
show visual deficiencies of Zn, Fe, and Mn. High P may also
interferer with the normal Ca nutrition, with typical Ca deficiency
symptoms occurring.
Potassium (K)
Deficiency
Yellowing starts from tip/margin of lower leaves and extend to centre
of leaf base. Yellowing parts become dead spots (necrotic). The edges
of older leaves will look burned, margins of bottom leaves are most
common. Displays hidden hunger and luxury consumption. Blochy
Ripening in Tomatoes and Insufficient bunching of bananas
(Improper finger filling) occur.
Excess
Plants will exhibit typical mg, and possibly Ca deficiency symptoms
due to a cation imbalance.
Calcium (Ca)
Deficiency
Terminal bud leaf becomes chlorotic white with base remains green.
1/3 chlorotic portion of tip hooks downward and brittle. Death of
terminal buds. Deficiency causes 'Blossom end rot' in Tomato, Ber
and 'Tip hooking in Cauliflower', 'Hypocotyl Necrosis in kidney
beans', 'Cavity spot in carrot' and Pillow in cucumber.
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Excess
Plants may exhibit typical Mg deficiency symptoms, and when in
high excess, K deficiency may also occur.
Magnesium (Mg)
Deficiency (AFO-Older leaves will be yellow between veins and veins remain green
2017)
(Interveinal chlorosis). Leaves become mottled. Also affects
chlorophyll formation. Deficiency causes ' Sand drawn disease' in
tobacco, V shaped chlorosis in lemon, Interveinal Chlorosis of Apple
Excess
Results in a cation imbalance showing signs of either a ca or K
deficiency.
Sulphur (S)
Deficiency
Yellowing of leave, leaves are paler than interveinal portion.
Occurrence of 'Downward cupping of leaves in Tobacco and Tea'.
Excess
A premature senescence of leaves may occur.
Boron (B) (AFO-2016 , 2017)
Deficiency
Yellowing/ chlorosis starts from base of terminal bud leaf and
extends to tip results in appearance of 'Whip like structure' and
become brownish/blackish brown. Deficiency causes 'Internal
necrosis in Aonla and Mango', 'Hen and Chicken disorder of Grape'
and 'Heart rot in Sugar beet, turnip and radish, browning in
cauliflower, Splitting Carrots, Fruit Cracking in Pomegranate,
Tomato and Apple and Top Sickness in Tobacco
Excess
Leaf tips and margins will turn brown and die.
Chlorine (Cl)
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Deficiency
Younger leaves will be chlorotic, and plants will easily wilt. For
wheat, a plant disease will infest the plant when Cl is deficient.
Deficiency cases leaf scorching in mango
Excess
Premature yellowing of the lower leaves with burning of the leaf
margins and tips. Leaf abscission will occur, and plants will easily
wilt. Excess of Cl ions in water or excess of MOP (KCl) causes 'Leaf
scorching'.
Copper (Cu)
Deficiency
Leaves including veins become yellow and tending towards
whiteness. Occurrence of 'Marginal leaf burning'. Deficiency causes
'Dieback and Little leaf disease in Citrus'.
Excess
Fe deficiency may be induced with very slow growth. Roots may be
stunted.
Iron (Fe)
Deficiency
Veins remain conspicuously green and other leaf portion turn yellow
and tending towards whiteness. Interveinal chlorosis will occur.
Deficiency causes 'Leaf bleaching in sugarcane and 'Ivory white of
paddy'.
Excess
A bronzing of leaves with tiny brown spots on the leaves, a typical
symptom frequently occurring with rice.
Manganese (Mn)
Deficiency
Interveinal yellowing of young leaves but not tending towards
whiteness. Veins remain green. Deficiency causes Marsh spot disease
in Pea, Gray spike in oats, Pahala Blight of sugarcane
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Excess
Older leaves will show brown spot surrounded by a chlorotic zone
and circle.
Molybdenum (Mo)
Deficiency
Older and middle leaves become chlorotic first. Translucent spots of
(RRB SO-2019) irregular shape between veins; spots become impregnated with
resinous gum. Occurrence of Typical interveinal chlorosis'
Deficiency causes Whiptail disease, Browning in Cauliflower,
Yellow spot-on leaf in lemon and Whiptail in Col crop and Turnip
Excess
Not of common occurrence.
Zinc (Zn) (AFO-2016)
Deficiency
Upper leaves will show chlorosis on midrib. Veins green and dead
spots occur in all parts of leaf (Veins, tips and margins). Plants
appear bushy due to reduced internodal elongation. White bud of
Maize, Khaira disease of rice, Little leaf of mango, litchi and
cashew, Leaf Bronzing in Litchi and guava, Leaf mottling in citrus
fruits. is caused by the deficiency.
Excess
Fe deficiency will develop.
❖ Nutrient mobility in soil
Very Mobile
NO3-, SO42-, Cl-, BO32-, Mn2+, Mo
(Prone to leaching)
Less Mobile
NH4+, Mg2+, K+, Fe2+
Immobile
H2Po4- , HPO42-, Zn2+ , Cu2+
❖ Nutrient mobility in plants
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Very mobile
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Mo
Potassium, Magnesium deficiency
symptoms appear first in older
leaves and quickly spread throughout
the plant)
Moderately mobile
Zinc
Less mobile
S, Fe, Mn, Cu
Immobile
Boron, Calcium (Calcium is very immobile)
❖ Common nutritional disorders in horticultural crops:
Deficient element Disorder
Crop
Symptoms
Boron (B)
Brown heart
Turnip
Rotting of centre of root
Heart rot
Beets
Death of centre of crown,
rotting of centre of root
Calcium (Ca)
Hollow stem
Cauliflower
Rotting of centre of stem
Bitter pit
Apple
Decay or corking of the flesh
under the skin
Blossom-end rot
Manganese
Speckled yellows
Tomato,
Decay of the blossom-end of
Pepper
the fruit
Sugar beet
Chlorosis
(Mn)
Zinc(Zn)
between
leaf
veins, inward curling of leaves
Marsh spot
Pea
Brown area in centre of seed
Little leaf
Apple
Small, malformed leaves
shortened internodes
Molybdenum
Whiptail
(Mo)
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Cauliflower Reduction or suppression of
leaf blades
❖ ADVERSE EFFECTS OF NUTRIENTS (Antagonistic Effect)
Excess of Nutrient
Causes Deficiency
N, P & K
Cu
P
Fe, Zn & Cu
N, K & Ca
B
K, NH4
Mg
Ca
P
Ca, Mg
K
Fe, SO4
Mo
Zn & Al
Cu
Zn, Mo, Cu & NO3
Fe
B
Mo
P
Zn Availability Reduction
K
B Reduction in availability
Zn, Cu
Decreased Fe Availability
Fe
Decreased Mn Availability
N, Mg
P increased availability
P
Mo increase in availability
❖ INDICATOR PLANT SPECIES/CROP FOR VARIOUS DEFICIENCY:
Deficient Element
Indicator plant/crop
N
Maize, Mustard, Small millets
P
Maize, Barley, Mustard
K
Maize, Potato, Tobacco, lucerne, Beans
Ca
Lucerne & Other legumes
Mg
Potato, Maize, Oat, Wheat, Pea, Beans
Fe
Sorghum, Barley
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S
Lucerne, Raya
Co
Oat, Maize, Tobacco
Bo
Sunflower, lucerne
Mo
Oat, Brassica spp.
Na
Sugar beet, Beetroot
N & Ca
Cauliflower and Cabbage
Zn
Maize, Linseed
Cu
Wheat and lemon
Mn
Oat
QUESTIONS ASKED FROM PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMS
1. How many elements are essential for the growth and development of plants? (AFO
2015)
a. 14
b. 15
c. 16
d. 17
e. 52
2. Symptom of which nutrient deficiency appear first on older leaves and then advance
up the stem to younger leaves (AFO 2016)
a. Nitrogen Deficiency
b. Phosphorus Deficiency
c. Potassium Deficiency
d. Magnesium Deficiency
e. Calcium Deficiency
3. Little leaf in mango and cashew is due to deficiency of (AFO 2015)
a. Zinc
b. Calcium
c. Iron
d. Nitrogen
e. Phosphorus
4. Dieback in citrus and cracking of apple is due to the deficiency of (AFO 2016)
a. Zinc
b. Copper
c. Iron
d. Sulphur
e. Boron
5. Which nutrient deficiency is responsible for little leaf in mango and mottle leaf of
citrus? (AFO 2016)
a. Zinc
b. Phosphorus
c. Copper
d. Mg
e. Iodin
6. Which of the following is not a micronutrient? (AFO 2017)
a. Zn
b. Mn
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c. Cu
dN
e. Fe
7. Which element is most useful for root growth? (AFO 2017)
a. Nitrogen
b. Phosphorus
c. Boron
d. Calcium
e. Iron
8. Which nutrient helps in a chlorophyll formation? (AFO 2017)
a. Magnesium
b. Copper
c. Zinc
d. Nitrogen
e. Boron
9. Citrus cracking is due to (AFO 2017)
a. Deficiency of calcium
b. Deficiency of nitrogen
c. Deficiency of boron
d. Deficiency of zinc
e. toxicity of boron
10. Deficiency symptom first appears on older or lower leaves (AFO 2017)
a. Potassium
b. Nitrogen
c. Molybdenum
d. Magnesium
e. Chlorine
11. Which of the following is a micronutrient? (AFO 2018)
a. Nitrogen
b. Phosphorus
c. Sulphur
d. Iron
e. Potash
12. Which micronutrient plays activist & catalytic role in the photosynthesis of plants?
(AFO 2018)
a. N
b. P
c. S
d. Cl
e. B
13. Which nutrient helps in the formation of chlorophyll? (AFO 2018)
a. N
b. P
c. K
d. Fe
e. Mg
14. Which among the following nutrient deficiency symptom is major veins remain green,
top veins become short and slender and chlorosis on new leaf? (AFO 2019)
a. Fe
b. Mn
c. Cu
d. Bo
e. Zn
15. Which of the following nutrients is macro nutrients? (AFO 2020)
a. Potassium
b. Iron
c. Manganese
d. Zinc
e. Boron
16. New leaf of plant shows yellow symptoms and veins remain green is caused by the
deficiency of which nutrient? (AFO 2020)
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a. Mn
b. Mg
c. Fe
d. Zn
e. Cu
17. Basic component of protein & chlorophyll constituent & vegetation growth + skeletal
nutrients and help in amino acid and protein formation (AFO 2022)
a. Nitrogen
b. Mg
c. P
d. Mn
e. K
18. Boron deficiency indicator plant: (AFO 2022)
a. Sunflower
b. Bajra
c. Potato
d. Onion
e. Cauliflower
19. Nutrients have different roles in plant growth, which of the following micronutrient
stimulate photosynthesis? (RRB SO 2018)
a. Boron
b. Copper
c. Zinc
d. Iron
e. Chlorine
20. The mineral element present in the soil are also classified as per their role in plant
system which of the following element is classified as regulator and carrier? (RRB SO
2018)
a. Nitrogen
b. Calcium
c. Phosphorus
d. Sulphur
e. Zinc
21. Which crop shows the symptoms of nutrient if it is deficient. According to this match
the following: (RRB SO 2019)
1) Sugar beet -zinc
2) Cauliflower -Boron and molybdenum
3) Wheat- magnesium and copper
a. Only1
b. Only 2
c. Only 3
d. Both 2& 3
e. Both 1 & 2
22. Which of the following essential nutrient is considered as micronutrient? (RRB SO
2020)
a. Ca
b. Mg
c. K
d. Fe
e. None of these
23. Which among the following is a macro nutrient? (RRB SO 2021)
a. Mn
b. Fe
c. Zn
d. K
e. Cu
24. The content of which soil nutrient is increased by azofication (NABARD 2021)
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a. Potassium
c. Potassium
e. Hydrogen
b. Carbon
d. Nitrogen
25. Which of the following crop is more responsive to zinc application (AFO 2015)
a. Wheat
b. Rapeseed
c. Paddy
d. Moong
e. Cotton
ANSWERS
1. d
2. a
3. a
4. e
5. a
6. d
7. b
8. a
9. c
10. b
11. d
12. d
13. e
14. a
15. a
16. c
17. a
18. a
19. e
20. c
21. d
22. d
23. d
24. d
25. c
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TILLAGE
❖ Tillage: Tillage meaning ‘to plough and prepare soil for seed to sow, to cultivate and to raise
crops. Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of soil with tools and implements for obtaining
conditions ideal for seed germination, seedling establishment and growth of crops.
❖ Tilth is the physical condition of soil obtained out of tillage (or) it is the result of tillage. The
tilth may be a coarse tilth, fine tilth or moderate tilth.
➢ Jethrotull is considered as father of tillage.
❖ Objectives of tillage
➢ To prepare a good seed bed which helps the germination of seeds.
➢ To create conditions in the soil suited for better growth of crops.
➢ To control the weeds effectively.
➢ To make the soil capable for absorbing more rainwater.
➢ To mix up the manure and fertilizers uniformly in the soil.
➢ To aerate the soil.
➢ To provide adequate seed-soil contact to permit water flow to seed and seedling roots.
➢ To remove the hard pan and to increase the soil depth.
➢ To achieve these objectives, the soil is disturbed / opened up and turned over.
❖ Types of tillage: Tillage operations may be grouped into
a. On season tillage
b. Off-season tillage
1. On-season tillage: Tillage operations that are done for raising crops in the same season or
at the onset of the crop season are known as on-season tillage. They may be preparatory
cultivation and after cultivation.
A. Preparatory tillage: This refers to tillage operations that are done to prepare the field for
raising crops. It consists of deep opening and loosening of the soil to bring about a desirable
tilth as well as to incorporate or uproot weeds and crop stubble when the soil is in a workable
condition.
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❖ Types of preparatory tillage
a. Primary tillage: The tillage operation that is done after the harvest of crop to bring the land
under cultivation is known as primary tillage or ploughing. Ploughing is the opening of
compact soil with the help of different ploughs. Country plough, mould board plough, bose
plough, tractor and power tiller drawn implements are used for primary tillage.
b. Secondary tillage: The tillage operations that are performed on the soil after primary tillage
to bring a good soil tilth are known as secondary tillage. Secondary tillage consists of lighter
or finer operation which is done to clean the soil, break the clods and incorporate the manure
and fertilizers. Harrowing and planking is done to serve those purposes.
➢ Planking is done to crush the hard clods, level the soil surface and to compact the soil lightly.
➢ Harrows, cultivators and spade are used for secondary tillage.
B. After cultivation (Inter tillage): The tillage operations that are carried out in the standing
crop after the sowing or planting and prior to the harvesting of the crop plants are called after
tillage. This is also called as inter cultivation or post seeding/ planting cultivation. It includes
harrowing, hoeing, weeding, earthing up, drilling or side dressing of fertilizers etc. Spade,
hoe, weeders etc. are used for inter-cultivation.
2. Off-season tillage: Tillage operations done for conditioning the soil suitably for the
forthcoming main season crop are called off-season tillage. Off season tillage may be, postharvest tillage, summer tillage, winter tillage and fallow tillage.
❖ Special purpose tillage: Tillage operations intended to serve special purposes are said to be
special purpose tillage.
a. Sub-soiling: To break the hard pan beneath the plough layer, special tillage operation
(chiseling) is performed to reduce compaction. Sub-soiling is essential and once in four to
five years where heavy machineries are used for field operations, seeding, harvesting and
transporting.
Advantages
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➢ Greater volume of soil may be obtained for cultivation of crops, excess water may percolate
downward to recharge the permanent water table, reduce runoff and soil erosion and roots of
crop plants can penetrate deeper to extract moisture from the water table.
b. Clean tillage (AFO-2018): It refers to working of the soil of the entire field in such a way
no living plant is left undisturbed. It is practiced controlling weeds, soil borne pathogen and
pests.
c. Blind tillage: It refers to tillage done after seeding or planting the crop (in a sterile soil)
either at the pre-emergence stage of the crop plants or while they are in the early stages of
growth so that crop plants (sugarcane, potato etc.) do not get damaged, but extra plants and
broad-leaved weeds are uprooted.
d. Dry tillage: Dry tillage is practiced for crops that are sown or planted in dry land condition
having sufficient moisture for germination of seeds.
➢ This is suitable for crops like broadcasted rice, jute, wheat, oilseed crops, pulses, potato, and
vegetable crops.
➢ Dry tillage is done in a soil having sufficient moisture (21-23%). The soil becomes more
porous and softer due to dry tillage.
➢ Besides, the water holding capacity of the soil and aeration are increased. These conditions
are more favourable for soil micro-organisms.
e. Wet tillage or puddling: The tillage operation that is done in a land with standing water is
called wet tillage or puddling.
➢ Puddling operation consists of ploughing repeatedly in standing water until the soil becomes
soft and muddy.
➢ Puddling creates an impervious layer below the surface to reduce deep percolation losses of
water and to provide soft seed bed for planting rice.
➢ Puddling is done in both the directions for the incorporation of green manures and weeds.
➢ Wet tillage destroys the soil structure and the soil particles that are separated during puddling
settle later.
➢ Wet tillage is the only means of land preparation for transplanting semi-aquatic crop plant
such as rice.
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➢ Planking after wet tillage makes the soil level and compact. Puddling hastens transplanting
operation as well as establishment of seedlings.
➢ Wet land ploughs or worn-out dry land ploughs are normally used for wet tillage.
❖ Depth of ploughing: The desirable depth of ploughing is 12 to 20 cm for field crops.
❖ The ploughing depth varies with effective root zone of the crop.
Depth of Ploughing
Types of crops
Shallow Rooted crops
10-20 cm
Deep Rooted Crops
15-30 cm
❖ Number of ploughings:
➢ Number of ploughings depends on soil conditions, time available for cultivation between
two crops and type of cropping systems.
➢ Zero tillage is practiced in rice fallow pulses.
➢ Minimum number of ploughings is taken up at optimum moisture level to bring favourable
tilth depending on need of the crop.
❖ Time of ploughing: The optimum soil moisture content for tillage is 60% of field capacity.
❖ Modern concepts in tillage:
➢ Conventional tillage involves primary tillage to break open and turn the soil followed by
secondary tillage to obtain seed bed for sowing or planting.
❖ Modern concepts on tillage are in rule.
1. Minimum tillage (AFO-2017): It aims at reducing tillage operations to the minimum
necessity for ensuring a good seed bed.
❖ The advantages of minimum tillage over conventional tillage are:
➢ The cost and time for field preparation is reduced by reducing the number of field operations.
➢ Soil compaction is comparatively less.
➢ Soil structure is not destroyed.
➢ Water loss through runoff and erosion is minimum.
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➢ Water storage in the plough layer is increased.
❖ Tillage can be reduced in 2 ways
1. By omitting operations which do not give much benefit when compared to the cost.
2. By combining agricultural operations like seeding and fertilizer application.
❖ The minimum tillage systems can be grouped into the following categories,
1. Row zone tillage: Primary tillage is done with mould board plough in the entire area of
the field; secondary tillage operations like discing and harrowing are reduced and done
only in row zone.
2. Plough plant tillage: After the primary tillage, a special planter is used for sowing. In
one run over the field, the row zone is pulverized, and seeds are sown by the planter.
3. Wheel track tillage: Primary ploughing is done as usual. Tractor is used for sowing the
wheels of the tractor pulverize the row zone in which planting is done.
❖ In all these systems, primary tillage is as usual. However, secondary tillage is replaced by
direct sowing in which sown seed is covered in the row zone with the equipment used for
sowing.
2. Zero tillage (No tillage): In this, new crop is planted in the residues of the previous crop
without any prior soil tillage or seed bed preparation, and it is possible when all the weeds
are controlled by the use of herbicides.
➢ Zero tillage is applicable for soils with a coarse textured surface horizon, good internal
drainage, high biological activity of soil fauna, favourable initial soil structure and an
adequate quantity of crop residue as mulch.
➢ These conditions are generally found in Alfisols, Oxisols and Ultisols in the humid and subhumid tropics.
❖ Till planting: Till planting is one method of practicing zero tillage. A wide sweep and trash
bar clear a strip over the previous crop row and planter opens a narrow strip into which seeds
are planted and covered. Here, herbicide functions are extended. Before sowing, the
vegetation present has to be destroyed for which broad spectrum nonselective herbicides like
glyposate, paraquat and diquat are used.
❖ Advantages
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➢ Zero tilled soils are homogenous in structure with more number of earthworms.
➢ Organic matter content increases due to less mineralization.
➢ Surface run-off is reduced due to presence of mulch.
❖ Disadvantages
➢ Higher amount of nitrogen has to be applied for mineralization of organic matter in zero
tillage.
➢ Perennial weeds may be a problem.
➢ High number of volunteer plants and build-up of pests.
3. Stubble mulch tillage or stubble mulch farming: Soil is protected at all times either by
growing a crop or by leaving the crop residues on the surface during fallow periods. Sweeps
or blades are generally used to cut the soil up to 12 to 15 cm depth in the first operation after
harvest and depth of cut is reduced during subsequent operations. When large number of
residues are present, a disc type implement is used for the first operation to incorporate some
of the residues into the soil. This hastens the decomposition but still keeps enough residues
on topsoil.
➢ Two methods for sowing crops in stubble mulch tillage are,
1. Similar to zero tillage, a wide sweep and trash bars are used to clear a strip and a narrow
planter shoe opens a narrow furrow into which seeds are placed.
2. A narrow chisel of 5-10 cm width is worked through the soil at a depth of 15-30 cm leaving
all plant residues on the surface. The chisel shatters the tillage pans and surface crusts.
Planting is done with special planters.
❖ Disadvantages of stubble mulch farming
➢ The residues left on the surface interfere with seed bed preparation and sowing operations.
➢ The traditional tillage and sowing implement or equipments are not suitable under these
conditions.
4. Conservation tillage: The major objective is to conserve soil and soil moisture. It is a system
of tillage in which organic residues are not inverted into the soil such that they remain on
surface as protective cover against erosion and evaporation losses of soil moisture. If stubble
forms the protective cover on the surface, it is usually referred to as stubble mulch tillage.
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The residues left on soil surface interfere with seed bed preparation and sowing operations.
It is a year-round system of managing plant residue with implements that undercut residues,
losses the soil and kills the weeds.
❖ Advantages
➢ Energy conservation through reduced tillage operations.
➢ Improve the soil physical properties.
➢ Reduce the water runoff from fields.
❖ Main field preparation: Tillage operations are generally classified in to:
➢ Preparatory cultivation
➢ After cultivation.
❖ The preparatory cultivation or tillage is operations that are done before the cultivation.
This preparatory cultivation is generally called as main field preparation.
❖ The main field preparation involves three processes:
➢ Primary tillage
➢ Secondary tillage
➢ Lay-out for sowing.
✓ Some of the important primary tillage implements are country plough, mould board plough,
disc plough, chisel plough etc.
✓ Cultivators and harrows are generally used for secondary tillage purpose.
❖ Some Important terms:
➢ Furrow slice: When a bottom of mould board plow turns the soil, it cuts a trench, or furrow,
throwing to one side a ribbon of soil that is called the furrow slice.
➢ Back Furrow: When plowing is started in the middle of a strip of land, a furrow is plowed
across the field; on the return trip, a furrow slice is lapped over the first slice. This leaves a
slightly higher ridge than the second, third, and other slices. The ridge is called a back furrow.
This is the raised ridge which is named as back furrow. An open trench left in between two
adjacent strips of land after finishing ploughing is called dead furrow
➢ Dead furrow: When two strips of land are finished, the last furrows cut leave a trench about
twice the width of one bottom, called a dead furrow.
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➢ BASIN LISTING: In this method of soil and water conservation basins are constructed
using a special implement called basin-lister. These basins are constructed across the slope.
Basin listing provides maximum time to rainwater for infiltration into the soil.
QUESTIONS ASKED FROM PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMS
1. Which tillage is used in which no soil particles are disturb? (AFO 2017)
a. Minimum tillage
b. Stubble mulching
c. Zero Tillage
d. Both A and C
e. Conventional tillage
2. In which form of tillage, no plant is left undisturbed? (AFO 2018)
a. Reduced tillage
b. Stubble mulch
c. Clean Tillage
d. Conventional tillage
e. Strip tillage.
3. In which type of tillage 15-30% residue left on the soil surface? (AFO 2019)
a. Convectional tillage
b. Ridge tillage
c. Mulch tillage.
d. Reduce tillage
e. No till
4. In which method Crop residue remain undisturbed condition but disturbed during
sowing of seed and fertilizer injection? (AFO 2019)
a. No till
b. Strip tillage
c. Reduced tillage
d. Mulch tillage
e. Conventional tillage
5. Which of the following tillage operation is done in rice to stand water at 5-10 cm to
avoid water percolation is known as? (NABARD 2021)
a. Inter cultivation
b. Conservatory tillage
c. puddling
d. Zero tillage
e. Intensive tillage
Answers
1. c
2. c
3. d
4. a
5. c
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WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
➢ Watershed management: Watershed is defined as a geohydrological unit draining to a
common point by a system of drains. All lands on earth are part of one watershed or other.
Watershed is thus the land and water area, which contributes runoff to a common point.
➢ A watershed is an area of land and water bounded by a drainage divide within which the
surface runoff collects and flows out of the watershed through a single outlet into a lager
river (or) lake. For proper planning and execution, the size of a watershed area should ideally
be 1,000 to 2,500 hectares. If the area is within this range, it will be possible to prepare a
well-balanced plan and to implement it in a period of 2 to 3 years.
❖ TYPES OF WATERSHEDS
➢ Watersheds is classified depending upon the size, drainage, shape and land use pattern.
✓ Macro watershed (> 50,000 Hect)
✓ Sub-watershed (10,000 to 50,000 Hect)
✓ Milli-watershed (1000 to10000 Hect)
✓ Micro watershed (100 to 1000 Hect)
✓ Mini watershed (1-100 Hect)
❖ Objectives of watershed management
➢ To control damaging runoff and degradation and thereby conservation of soil and water.
➢ To manage and utilize the runoff water for useful purpose.
➢ To protect, conserve and improve the land of watershed for more efficient and
➢ sustained production.
➢ To protect and enhance the water resource originating in the watershed.
➢ To check soil erosion and to reduce the effect of sediment yield on the watershed.
➢ To rehabilitate the deteriorating lands.
➢ To moderate the floods peaks at downstream areas.
➢ To increase infiltration of rainwater.
➢ To improve and increase the production of timbers, fodder and wildlife resource.
➢ To enhance the ground water recharge, wherever applicable.
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❖ Rainwater harvesting is the main component of watershed management.
❖ Rainwater Harvesting: Rainwater Harvesting is an effective method and a simple method
of collecting water for future usage. Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting,
filtering, storing and using rainwater for irrigation and for various other purposes. Rainwater
is collected when it falls on the earth, stored and utilized for various purposes. It can be
purified to make it into a drinking water facility in some islands and dry land regions.
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a simple method by which rainfall is collected for future
usage. The collected rainwater may be stored, utilised in different ways or directly used for
recharge purposes.
❖ Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting:
➢ The major benefit is that it is a sustainable water management practice.
➢ Rainwater harvesting helps to reduce the peak demand of water expected during summer
period, by saving treated water for more important water uses.
❖ Some of the watershed management structures are as follows:
➢ Broad beds and furrows
➢ Contour bund/graded bunding
➢ Bench Terracing
➢ Micro catchments for sloping lands
➢ Check Dams
➢ Percolation Pond
➢ Stone Barriers
❖ Ground Water: Groundwater is the underground water that occur in the saturated zone of
variable thickness and depth, below the earth’s surface. Cracks and pores in the existing
rocks and unconsolidated crystal layers, make up a large underground reservoir, where part
of precipitation is stored. The groundwater is utilized through wells and tube wells.
❖ Groundwater Aquifers: A permeable stratum or a geological formation of a permeable
material, which is capable to yield appreciable quantities of groundwater under gravity is
known as an Aquifer. When an aquifer is overlaid by a confined bed of impervious material,
then this confined bed of overburden is called an Aquiclude.
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The types of aquifers are:
1. Unconfined Aquifer or Non-Artesian Aquifer: An unconfined aquifer is one which is not
confined by an upper impermeable layer. It is also known as water table aquifer.
2. Confined Aquifers or Artesian Aquifers: When an aquifer is confined on both sides by
impervious rock formations i.e., aquicludes, and is also broadly inclined so as to expose the
aquifer somewhere to the catchment area or recharge area at a higher level for the creation
of sufficient hydraulic head, it is called a confined aquifer or an artesian aquifer.
3. Perched Aquifer: Perched aquifer occurs whenever a ground water body is separated from
the main groundwater by a relatively impermeable stratum of small areal extent.
❖ Aquifuge: Aquifuge is defined as a geologic formation that can neither store nor transmit
water. Solid granite is an ideal example of aquifuge.
❖ Aquifer: Aquifer is defined as “a single geologic formation or a group of geologic
formations that can transmit and yield water in usable quantities”
❖ Aquiclude: Aquiclude is defined as a geologic formation that can store significant amount
of water but does not have the capability to transmit a significant amount of water. Clay is
an ideal example of aquiclude.
❖ Aquitard: Aquitard is defined as a geologic formation that can store some water as well as
can transmit water at a relatively low rate compared to aquifers. Sandy clay is an ideal
example of aquitard.
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IMPORTANT FACTS
➢ Soil collides size is < 1micron
➢ Surface tension of water = 72.7 dyne /cm2 at 25 oC
➢ Water molecules is hexagonal lattice & the angle is 104.5 oC
➢ Root nodulation Occurs at 24 OC.
➢ Nitrification occurs at 30-35 OC
➢ Soil having pH less than 4: Cat clay.
➢ More ionization occurs in alkaline (basic) solutions.
➢ Iron and aluminum oxides clays do not swell, not sticky and have high phosphorus adsorption
capacity
➢ The rate of solar radiation reaching the earth’s atmosphere is called as solar constant and has
a value of 2 cal cm-2 min-1
➢ The average annual soil temperature is about 1degree C higher than mean annual air
temperature.
➢ Soils rich in organic matter contain higher percentage of CO2.
➢ Soils on which crops are grown contain more CO2 than fallow lands.
➢ The amount of CO 2 is usually much greater near the roots of plants than further away. It
may be due to respiration by roots.
➢ P, Fe, Mn is increased by poor aeration waterlogging condition.
➢ Eh (Redox Potential) of well-drained soil from 400 to 700 mv.
➢ Eh (Redox Potential) of waterlogged soil -250 to-300 mv.
➢ Methods of measuring soil temperature: Mercury soil thermo meters, Thermo couple and
thermistor. Infra-red thermo meters measure the surface soil temperature.
➢ The International Meteorological Organization (found in 1873 & restructured in 1950)
recommends standard depths to measure soil temperatures at 10, 20, 50 and 100 cm.
➢ As soil colloids possess negative charge they attract and attach the ions of positive charge on
the colloidal surfaces. They attract cations like H+, A13+, Ca2+ and Mg2+.
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➢ Swelling and shrinkage: Montmorillonite swell when wet and shrink when dry. After a
prolonged dry spell, soils high in smectite clay (e.g., Black soil -Vertisols) often show
crisscross wide and deep cracks.
➢ Soils dominated by kaolinite, chlorite, or fine-grained micas do not swell or shrink.
➢ Vermiculite is intermediate in its swelling and shrinking characteristics.
➢ >20% clay content in soil exhibit puddling.
➢ Most deficient micronutrient in Indian soil is Zn & macronutrient is N.
➢ Cation Absorption order: Al3+>Ca2+>Mg2+>K+
➢ Flocculation order: Al3+> Ca2+>H+>Mg2+
➢ The Permissible limit of soil loss in India is 12 ton/Ha/year.
➢ Most dominant mineral on earth crust: Feldspar (48%)>Quartz (36%)> Mica (10%)
➢ Canker nodules are mostly found in Bhangar soil.
➢ Black soils are best suitable for Dryland agriculture.
➢ Total N content of soil ranges from <0.02% in subsoil to >2.5% in peats.
➢ Cabbage is highly sensitive to B toxicity. (<0.33ppm)
➢ pH of Peat soil is 3.9 so it is suitable for paddy cultivation.
➢ Potash Mica – white Mica, also known as Muscovite Mica
➢ Magnesium Mica – Biotic Mica, also known as Black Mica.
➢ White Mica is more resistant to weathering than Black Mica.
➢ Red soil has high P fixation capacity.
➢ When erosion is caused by excessive grazing, deforestation is called anthropogenic erosion.
➢ Central Soil testing lab is located at Patna
➢ Eh (Redox potential) of well aerated soil is 400-700 mv and waterlogged soil is -250 to 300 mv
➢ Tensiometer (AFO-2021): Sensitive up to 0.85 bar of soil moisture and it is suitable for
sandy soil while not suitable for clay soil. It is useful in scheduling irrigation to frequently
irrigated crop.
➢ Mineral most resistant to weathering – Quartz
➢ Mineral least resistant to weathering – Calcite
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➢ Binding materials in soil are removed by – Sodium Hexameta Phosphate
➢ Eutrophication is enrichment with nutrient – N & P
➢ The dark colour of organic matter enriched soil is due to – Humin
➢ Which of the following pair of nutrients shows Antagonistic effect – Zn & P
➢ C: N ratio of tropical soil is - 10: 1
➢ Cowpea is a cover crop
➢ pH of Degraded Alkali soil - < 6
➢ Plant available water is maximum in – Silt loam soil
➢ Soils containing more than about 15% clay exhibit plasticity
➢ Salt content: More the salt content in the soil less is the water available to the plant.
➢ Depth of soil: More the depth of soil more is the water available to the plant.
➢ Type of clay: The 2:1 type of day increases the water retention in the soil.
➢ Platy structure contains more capillary water than granular structure.
➢ Nitrification: Nitrification is the process of biological oxidation by which the ammonia
(NH4) form of N converts to nitrate (NO3-) form of N. (AFO-2015)
➢ Osmotic pressure of pure water is zero
➢ The most important mineral of aluminum ? – bauxite
➢ The average PH of soil suitable for mineral absorption? - 5.5-6.5
➢ DAP is available in two grades those are?-16:48:0 and 18:46:0
➢ Black soil in western ghats are deficient in organic matter, nitrogen and phosphoric acid,
but generally have enough lime and potash
➢ Who developed the “Bangalore method” of composting? -Dr. G.N.Acharya
➢ In india, which one of the following states has the largest inland saline wetland? The
Sambhar Salt Lake in Rajasthan.
➢ Solubility of gypsum is = 5%
➢ Reclamation of acid soil: - Lime
➢ Reclamation of alkali soil: - Gypsum (AFO-2021)
➢ Biogas slurry is used as a: - Bulky organic manure
➢ Soil fixes more phosphate - acidic soil
➢ In sodic soil under water logging condition then Ph is :- Decrease
➢ Universal soil loss equation was given by = wischmeir and smith
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➢ For foliar spray of urea its biuret content should be less than 0.25% (also known as low
biuret urea)
➢ Asansol is known as land of black diamond
➢ Groundwater table is measured by piezometer
➢ Indian institute of soil science – Bhopal
➢ the process of use of microorganism to remove salt from soil is referred as
Bioremediation
➢ Azospirillum biofertilizer fixed nitrogen some target cereal crops like wheat, maize
sugarcane, millets, sorghum, barley and Azotobacter in wheat ,maize ,cotton, mustard,
and vegetable,(potato,onion,tomato,brinjal,others)
➢ Heap method of composting is a/an Aerobic process
➢ Basic slag is the product of-Steel industry
➢ wave erosion caused by combined action of- Water and wind erosion
➢ Soil structure is not influenced by - Base exchange
➢ Tensiometer measure soil moisture tension (bar) only up to – 0.85
➢ Fertilizer Control Order (FCO) came in – 1985
➢ The melting of ice under humid climates and causes shrinking in soils in these processes
refer to Thawing
➢ Individual crop has its minimum, optimum and maximum temperature for growth and
development is called as: - Cardinal temperature
➢ Simultaneous use of two sources of water namely surface and underground water, to
irrigate a piece of land is called as: - Conjunctive use of water
➢ Which of the fertilizer/s is/ are not produced in India: - Muriate of potash (potassium
fertilizer)
➢ Flame photometer is used in the detection of which of the following nutrients:potassium (K)
➢ Fertilizer is not compatible for using in fertigation with the potassium sulphate:Calcium nitrate
➢ Depression in efficiency of Rhizobium is due to:- Excessive nitrogen use
➢ When gypsum is used as reclaiming agent ,calcium replaces the exchangeable sodium in
alkali soils
➢ Methods for estimation of nitrogen are- Domus and Kjeldahl method
➢ DAP ( di ammonium phosphate) is an organic chemical fertilizer
➢ Conversion factor for converting P into P2O5 is 2.29
➢ Breakdown of clods, crusts and plant material by the impact of particles moved by wind
in saltation is called as -Abrasion
➢ p-solubilizing bacterium- PSB
➢ First irrigation commission in India was formed- 1901
➢ phosphatic fertilizer is a byproduct of steel industry- basic slag
➢ most efficient use of phosphorus is achieved by – basal placement at sowing time
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Fertilizer suitable for Fertigation in Banana potassium nitrate.
For reclamation of Alkali soil - Argemone Mexicana weed powder is used.
An instrument used to measure soil compaction is - Cone penetrometer.
The favorable climate for the operation of Podzolization process is - cold humid.
The bacteria which solubilize the insoluble phosphate - bacillus megaterium
Which is the organic Mn fertilizer- Manganese lignosulfonate
SSP is produced by the reaction of rock phosphate with H2SO4
The best agricultural soil structure is Spheroidal
When C:N ration exceed 30:1, immobilization occurs
Langbeinite process is followed to prepare MOP
A cyclone separator is used for separating fine particles from solids.
HFT (Horizontal Flushing Technique) has been developed for reclamation of saline soil
to reduce the gypsum (CaSO4) requirement with regard to soil and water productivity.
Soil aggregation can be estimated using Yoder's apparatus
First micro nutrient discover –iron (fe)
First fertilizer used – calcium nitrate
Total soil order found in India – 9
Total soil order found in world – 12
Maximum leaching takes place in laterite soils.
The element which is strongly bound to organic matter is- Copper
The nutrient which is not available at low pH- Molybdenum
The commonly used preservative added to FYM to decrease nitrogen losses are
Gypsum and Superphosphate
Ammonical fertilizer should be applied in reduced zone
Calcareous soil deficient in zinc
Magnesium is the element which is increased during the water logging condition.
It is a industrial process of producing ammonia by the action of Nitrogen with hydrogen
in the presence of a catalyst Haber process
Organic carbon is a measure of available N in soil
Chemical formula of gypsum CaSo4.2H2o (AFO-2015)
Man of Slow-Release Fertilizer-Rajendra Prasad
Plant having less than 50 ppm of are usually classified as iron-deficient.
Plant having less than 25 ppm of are usually classified as Mn deficient.
Silica tetrahedral is the fundamental building block for the formation of different
minerals (SiO2).
Soil formed in arid and semiarid regions or under restricted drainage usually have More
concentrated soil solution.
A volume necessary to cover an area of 1.0 hectare to a depth of 1 centimeter i.e. hectare
centimeter is equal to 100,00,000 liters
Soil surrounding living root is known as -Rhizosphere.
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➢ Clay minerals dominantly present in vertisols-Smectite.
➢ Accumulation of excessive Na+ , Ca++ or Mg++ with Cl-- or SO4- in soil results in
saline soil
➢ Soil and water conservation measures for fruit tress grown on steep slope is " half moon
terraces
➢ Micro irrigation was launched in January 2006
➢ The concept of soil as a nutrient bin was developed by Whitney
➢ Highest area of saline soil- Gujrat
➢ Highest area of Alkaline soil- UP (AFO-2019)
➢ Highest area of coastal saline soil- Gujrat
➢ Highest area of acidic soil- Kerala
➢ Neem coated urea contains 46% Nitrogen and Sulphur coated urea contains 33%
Nitrogen
➢ Excess of MOP causes Leaf scorching
➢ Boron is available at pH of 8-10.
➢ Decrease in water potential caused by the adsorption of water to soil surface is called Matric potential
➢ Soil bulk density is measured by potometer
➢ The respective proportion of sand, silt and clay in loamy soil is-40:40:20
➢ Mineralization term given by Russel
➢ P requirements - Potato > Wheat > Maize > Rice, Millets > Legume > cotton, jute
➢ Boron act as fuel pump, aiding the transmission of sugar from older leaf to new leaf &
root system
➢ Humus contain 40-45% lignin and 30-33% protein, hence humus is called lignoprotein
complex.
➢ Soil with high PH generally deficient in Zn and Mn.
➢ Clay mineral illite has CEC values ranging between -: 20-40
➢ The critical level of nutrient concept was given by: cate and nelson
➢ The most easily weatherable mineral- Olivine
➢ For detail soil survey at village level the scale of base map should be 1:10,000
➢ The factor for conversion of ppm to kg/ha, is- 2.24.
➢ Water movement in saturated soil is governed by:- Darcy’s law.
➢ Applying irrigation to shallow furrow to close growing crop:- corrugation irrigation
➢ Cablegation is an automated method of surface irrigation
➢ The book, the nature and properties of soils is written by -N C Brady
➢ The mechanical analysis of determining soil texture is based on the principle given by:Stokes law
➢ Crop which is sensitive to soil alkalinity ESP less than 15 is Maize.
➢ Root cec high in legumes
➢ How many soil orders found in soil taxonomy-12
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The soil having more than 30% organic matters placed in-Histosols
NPK proportion in balanced fertilizeris-4:1:1
The essentiality of newly added essential nutrient ‘Ni’ was established in the year 1987
Microbes involved in biological oxidation of element sulphur by Thiobacillus
For water logged rice cultivation, the fertilizer that may be avoided is- NaNO3
Single super phosphate is best suitable for Neutral and Alkaline soil
The residual effect of ammoniacal nitrogenous fertilizer in soil is Acidic.
Ammonium nitrate is fire hazardous during storage.
Chelates are the compounds which holds tightly certain cations that are attracted towards
them and release them slowly by utilization of plant
Soil temperature is influenced by – Humus content
Nitrogen fixing non leguminous tree is casuarina
The only metallic eliminate present in chlorophyll is- Mg
Which method of estimation of available phosphorus is used for neutral and alkaline
Soils- Olsen method
Optimum EC in Green House is - 1-3 ds/m
Law of minimum was proposed by - J.V Liebig
Chief constituent of Sandy fraction is – Quartz
Total nitrogen in soil is determined by: Kjeldahl process
Which micro nutrient is essential for the microbial assimilation of nitrogen: Mo
The most electronegative element in the periodic table is: fluorine
predominated clay mineral of spodosols is: sesquioxide
Iron deficiency is common in - High pH calcareous soil
India first biofertilizer plant established in-ranipet Tamilnadu
Adobe soil: These soil are formed by the broken material of Rocks transported by both
wind and water
Father of soil erosion is H.H. Bennett.
Sugar beet is the indicator plant of sodium.
Meaning of Lentic water :- stored water
Soil formed a by the process of gleization is called as: hydromorphic soil
Decomposition of protein under anaerobic conditions is called: Purification
The ratio of organic carbon to organic matter in soil is 1:1.724. (AFO-2016)
Tank irrigation is the irrigation system followed in the rocky plateau area of the country
where rainfall is uneven.
Proper method of application of DAP is- Below seed in furrow.
Ratio of rainfall at 50% probability level to potential evapotranspiration of corresponding
period is called- Moisture available index
Heat flow in soil occurs mainly by: conduction
In saline soil the movement (loss) of water from roots to soil occur through one of the
following process —Exo-osmosis
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➢ A combination of many taxonomic units like soil series, phase or types is called as Soil
association
➢ Erosivity is defined as capacity of rain to cause erosion.
➢ minerals is least weatherable in soil – Quartz
➢ The process responsible for the formation of sodic soil is – Alkalization
➢ Azospirillum is commonly found in the roots of Both cereal and Grasses
➢ The channels constructed across the slope for the purpose of intercepting surface runoff
are called Diversion drains
➢ Poudrette is useful organic manure derived out of night soil.
➢ In Furrow method of irrigation Only 3/4th the furrow is wetted.
➢ In Sodic soil, the soil structure is Columnar
➢ To reduce the soil damage what is the optimum time for soil manipulation-friable
➢ Bangalore method of composting is an anaerobic method
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FACTS FROM PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMS
➢ Crop rotation is suggested against: Soil born disease (AFO-2015)
➢ How many elements are essential for the growth and development of plants: 17(AFO-2015)
➢ Microbial conversion of nitrate into chemical nitrogen is called: Denitrification (AFO2015)
➢ Which of the following micro-organism grows well in waterlogged soil: Azotobacter (AFO2015)
➢ Which fertilizer is known as Kisan Khad: CAN (AFO-2015)
➢ Nitrification is a process of : Oxidation (AFO-2015)
➢ Which of the following crop is more responsive to zinc application: Paddy (AFO-2015)
➢ pH of alkaline soil :8 (AFO-2015)
➢ Chemical formula of Gypsum is: CaSO4. 2H2O (AFO-2015)
➢ Forces responsible for retention of soil water: Cohesion & Adhesion both (AFO-2015)
➢ Which of the following manure is considered as bio fertilizer: Blue green algae (AFO-2015)
➢ The movement and filtration of water through soils and permeable rock is termed as:
Percolation (AFO-2016)
➢ Symptom of which nutrient deficiency appear first on older leaves and then advance up the
stem to younger leaves: Nitrogen Deficiency (AFO-2016)
➢ Little leaf in mango and cashew is due to deficiency of: Zinc (AFO-2016)
➢ The publisher of Indian Journal of fertilizer is: FAI(AFO-2016)
➢ Dieback in citrus and cracking of apple is due to the deficiency of: Boron(AFO-2016)
➢ Conversion factor for conservation of organic carbon to organic matter is usually taken
as:1.72 (AFO-2016)
➢ The pH value of alkali soil: 8(AFO-2016)
➢ Which nutrient deficiency is responsible for little leaf in mango and mottle leaf of citrus:
Zinc (AFO-2016)
➢ Which of the following is not a micronutrient: N (AFO-2017)
➢ Which soil is maximum in hills and gigantic plans: Lateritic soils(AFO-2017)
➢ Which tillage is used in which no soil particles are disturb: Zero Tillage(AFO-2017)
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➢ Which element is most useful for root growth: Phosphorus (AFO-2017)
➢ Which nutrient helps in a chlorophyll formation: Magnesium (AFO-2017)
➢ Alkali soil having pH of-: >8.5(AFO-2017)
➢ Reinfiltration through soil surface is called- Percolation (AFO-2017)
➢ Citrus cracking is due to: Deficiency of boron(AFO-2017)
➢ Deficiency symptom first appears on older or lower leaves: Nitrogen (AFO-2017)
➢ Which among the following states have highest Alkali problematic soil: Gujarat (AFO2018)
➢ Which of the following is a micronutrient: Iron (AFO-2018)
➢ Which micronutrient plays activist & catalytic role in the photosynthesis of plants: Cl (AFO2018)
➢ Which of the following is a highly salt tolerant crop: Cotton (AFO-2018)
➢ What is the electrical conductivity of saline soil: More than 4 (AFO-2018)
➢ What is the ESP of saline-alkaline soils: More than 15 (AFO-2018)
➢ What is the pH range of the alkali soil: More than 8.2 (AFO-2018)
➢ Which nutrient helps in the formation of chlorophyll: Mg (AFO-2018)
➢ In which form of tillage, no living plant is left undisturbed: Clean Tillage (AFO-2018)
➢ Highest P2O5 consumption is in which crop: Sugarcane (AFO-2018)
➢ Which among the following state has highest alkaline soil: UP (AFO-2019)
➢ What is the pH of acidic soil: Less than 5.5 (AFO-2019)
➢ Which among the following nutrient deficiency symptom is major veins remain green, top
veins become short and slender and chlorosis on new leaf: Fe (AFO-2019)
➢ In which type of tillage 15-30% residue left on the soil surface: Reduce tillage (AFO-2019)
➢ What is the nitrogen content in CAN fertilizer: 25(AFO-2019)
➢ What is the cost of reclamation of acidic soils under RKVY: 15000 (AFO-2019)
➢ In which method Crop residue remain undisturbed condition but disturbed during sowing of
seed and fertilizer injection: No till (AFO-2019)
➢ Which among the following biofertilizer do not provide nitrogen: Trichoderma viride
(AFO-2019)
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➢ Which of the following nutrients is macro nutrients: Potassium (AFO-2020)
➢ Vertisol is maximum in which state: Maharashtra (AFO-2020)
➢ After sheet erosion minute finger like structures are formed if not taken care: Rill (AFO2020)
➢ Which of the following refers to the zone of illuviation: B (AFO-2020)
➢ Soil moisture decreased to wilting point water held tightly by soil particles condition is
called: Hygroscopic coefficient(AFO-2020)
➢ New leaf of plant shows yellow symptoms and veins remain green is caused by the deficiency
of which nutrient: Fe (AFO-2020)
➢ Soil strength can be measured by: Penetrometer(AFO-2020)
➢ Which one of the following is a symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria: Rhizobium (AFO-2020)
➢ Which of the following instrument used to measure soil moisture: Tensiometer (AFO-2021)
➢ Which of the following chemical is used for reclamation of alkaline soil: Gypsum (AFO2021)
➢ Water holding capacity decreasing order: Clay> silt> sand (AFO-2021)
➢ Which one is not sedimentary rock: Granite (AFO-2021)
➢ Which soil ameliorants is used in sodic soil reclamation which is cheaper and easily
available: Gypsum (AFO-2021)
➢ Rock phosphate is applied in: Acidic soil (AFO-2021)
➢ If an irrigation water source has the concentration of Na+, CA++ & Mg++ as 20, 10 & 8
milliequivalents per liter respectively, then sodium absorption ratio of this water: 6.67 (AFO2021)
➢ Basic component of protein & chlorophyll constituent & vegetation growth + skeletal
nutrients and help in amino acid and protein formation: Nitrogen (AFO-2021)
➢ Boron deficiency indicator plant: (AFO-2021)
➢ Horticulture nursery soil should be well drained, Black cotton soil is not suitable for
nursery. (RRB SO 2018)
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➢ Total soluble solid (TSS) is measured as electric conductivity (EC) and expressed as ds/m at
temperature of 25 degree Celsius. What is the EC value at extremely high TSS: 6 TSS
(mmol/l) = EC (ds/m) ×10 (RRB-SO 2018)
➢ Nutrients have different roles in plant growth, which of the following micronutrient stimulate
photosynthesis: Chlorine (RRB-SO 2018)
➢ There are some crops which are either salt tolerance or semi salt tolerance. which of the
following crop is a salt sensitive: Apple (RRB-SO 2018)
➢ The mineral element present in the soil are also classified as per their role in plant system
which of the following element is classified as regulator and carrier: Phosphorus (RRB-SO
2018)
➢ SAR is used to assess the alkali related hazards of the water. Which of the following SAR
range is termed as SAR class S2: 11-18 (RRB SO -2018)
➢ Various fertilizers are applied to provide plant nutrient. What is the Nitrogen percentage in
Ammonium Sulphate: 20.6% (RRB-SO 2018)
➢ The texture of soil influences the water retention capacity of soil. How much suction pressure
will deplete 98% of the available water in light soil: 5 bar(RRB-SO 2018)
➢ Available water in plant roots is greatly influenced by the hydro physical properties of soil
which of the following soils have maximum available water capacity (cm/cm of soil): Silt
loam(RRB-SO 2018)
➢ Among these which one is not a slow-release fertilizer: ammonium sulphate (RRB-SO
2019)
➢ Which crop shows the symptoms of nutrient if it is deficient. According to this match the
following: Cauliflower -Boron and molybdenum, Wheat- magnesium and copper
(RRB-SO 2019)
➢ Citrate Soluble fertilizer but water insoluble fertilizer is: DCP (RRB-SO 2019)
➢ Crop which is sensitive to soil alkalinity ESP less than 15: Maize (RRB-SO 2019)
➢ Which among the following is a Rock mineral of boron: Tourmaline (RRB-SO 2019)
➢ What is the Precursor of indole Acetic Acid: Tryptophan (RRB-SO 2019)
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➢ A product is giving 90% acid equivalent so for giving 2.1-kilogram hectare is it equivalent
of that product how much amount of that product must be given: 2.33 (RRB-SO 2019)
➢ Which hormone is responsible for cell division and plant new growth: Cytokinin (RRB-SO
2019)
➢ What is the order of black cotton soil: Vertisol (RRB-SO 2019)
➢ What is the term used when the constituent of soil in solution form percolate from the upper
layer to the lower layer: Eluviation (RRB-SO 2019)
➢ Symbiotic bio fertilizer for cereal grains and grasses: Azospirillum (RRB-SO 2019)
➢ Deposition of soil by gravity: Colluvial Soil (RRB SO-2020)
➢ Which of the following essential nutrient is considered as micronutrient: Fe (RRB SO-2020)
➢ Which is NOT correct about Saline soil: In saline soil due to precipitation Salt content
increase (RRB-SO 2018) (RRB SO-2020)
➢ Which of the following organic material has lowest C: N ratio: Soil microbes (RRB SO2020)
➢ Which of the following matching is correct with respect to its site of synthesis: ABA- Old
leaf (RRB SO-2020)
➢ Which of the following is not correct regarding fertilizer: Soil having same available
nutrient may not supply same amount of nutrient even if to the same crop (RRB SO2020)
➢ Which is not true about soil health card: In every 5 years soil health card issued to all
farmers (RRB SO-2020)
➢ Which among the following is a macro nutrient: K (RRB SO 2021)
➢ Hormone playing the major role in the abscission of plant leaves and flowers and abiotic
stress tolerance. This hormone is also known as stress hormone: ABA
➢ Pesticidal property of neem is due to which among the following content : Azadirachtin
(RRB SO 2021)
➢ The soil is highly permeable and excessively well drained with low water retention capacity
and needs irrigation frequently for successful crop growth in comparison to fine texture soil:
Sandy (RRB SO 2021)
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➢ The soil moisture is decreasing below the wilting point in such a way that the water is held
very tightly, and water vapors are surrounding the soil colloids is known as: Hygroscopic
coefficient (RRB SO 2021)
➢ The liming material which is used for reclaiming of acidic soil is: Limestone (RRB SO 2021)
➢ Type of soil texture with kaolinite as clay mineral: Laterite(NABARD 2021)
➢ Which of the following Conservation measure practice is practiced in hilly and Himalayan
Mountain region: Bench terracing (NABARD 2021)
➢ Which of the following tillage operation is done in rice to stand water at 5-10 cm to avoid
water percolation is known as: puddling(NABARD 2021)
➢ The content of which soil nutrient is increased by azofication: Nitrogen (NABARD 2021)
➢ First fully organic state and also state of flower: Sikkim (NABARD 2021)
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DOUBTS ASKED BY STUDENTS
Q.1 Which crops requires highest P to produce 100kg of economic produce?
➢ Nutrient Requirement (kg) to produce Crop 100 kg of economic produce:
Nutrient
Crop
Nitrogen
Soybean> Groundnut> Chickpea
Phosphorus
Cotton>Groundnut>Soybean
Potassium
Cotton>Chickpea>Soybean
Q.2 What is SAR?
➢ SAR is Sodium Adsorption Ratio.
➢ Sodium adsorption ratio is a measure of the amount of sodium (Na) relative to calcium
(Ca) and magnesium (Mg) in the water extract from saturated soil paste.
➢ It is the ratio of the Na concentration divided by the square root of one-half of the Ca +
Mg concentration.
Q.3 Rice is tolerant crop in alkaline soil or acidic soil? Because according to notes rice is
mentioned both alkaline and acidic soil?
➢ Rice is mostly grown in acidic soil. But it can tolerate the alkaline conditions as well.
Q.4 Width of deep and narrow gully(G4) will be >18m Or <18m?
Particulars
Very small gullySmall (G2)
Medium (G3)
(G1)
Deep and narrow
(G4)
Depth (in Meter) Up to 1m
1-3 m
3-9 m
>9 m
Width (in meter) <18 m
<18 m
18 m
>18 m
Side slope (%)
<6
6-12
>12
<6
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Q.5 In which form different minerals are absorbed by plants?
Nutrient element
Forms of nutrients for
Plant absorption
N
NH4+, NO3-
P
H2PO4- (Primary) and HPO42(Secondary) Orthophosphates
K
K+
Ca
Ca 2+
Mg
Mg2+
S
SO4-
Fe
Fe++
Mn
Mn 2+
Zn
Zn 2+
Cu
Cu 2+
B
BO3-
Mo
MoO4 2-
Cl
Cl-
Q.6 What is soil moisture Tension?
➢ Soil moisture tension is a measure of the tenacity with which water is retained in the soil and
shows the force per unit area that must be exerted to remove water from a soil.
➢ It is usually expressed in atmospheres, the average air pressure at sea level.
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Moisture class
Tension (atm)
Hygroscopic
31 to 10,000
Hygroscopic coefficient
31
Wilting point
15
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Capillary
1/3 to 31
Field capacity
1/3
Gravitational
Zero or less than 1/3
Q.7 Terms with one line explanation ESP, EC, RSC, pF value?
➢ ESP: The amount of sodium as a proportion of all cations in a soil is the main measure of
sodicity used, and is termed the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
➢ EC: Soil electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of the amount of salts in soil (salinity of
soil). It is an important indicator of soil health. It affects crop yields, crop suitability, plant
nutrient availability, and activity of soil microorganisms which influence key soil processes.
➢ RSC: The residual sodium carbonate (RSC)
The RSC index is used to find the suitability
of the water for irrigation in clay soils which have a high cation exchange capacity. When
dissolved sodium in comparison with dissolved calcium and magnesium is high in water,
clay soil swells or undergoes dispersion which drastically reduces its infiltration capacity.
➢ pF: the logarithm of soil moisture tension and gave the symbol pF of this logarithm which
is an exponential expression of a free-energy difference (based on the height of a. water
column above free-water level in cm).
Q. 8 Difference between sensitive crops and tolerant crops
➢ Sensitive crops: Sensitive crops are those crops which can not tolerate the unfavorable
condition and shows the effect immediately.
➢ Tolerant or Resistant crops: These kinds of crops are those which can withstand the severe
or unfavorable condition also.
Q9. Concept of Porosity for Virgin soil And No tillage/Conservatory tillage
➢ Virgin soil that has not been cultivated before.
➢ Virgin soil has more pore space because it has more organic matter about 5.6 % as
comparison to the cultivated soil which has organic matter of 2.9 % .
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➢ Continuous cropping often results in a reduction of large or macro pore spaces.
➢ There is nothing to relate with the pore space or porosity of virgin soil with tillage (either
no tillage or conservatory tillage)
Q10. Urea is used for acidic soil reclamation or not.
➢ Urea is an acidic fertilizer by nature.
➢ Application of urea also resulted in a significant decrease in the exchangeable bases (Ca,
Mg) in the soil.
➢ It increases the acidity of soil.
➢ It can not be used for reclamation acidic soil.
Q11. How fixation of phosphorous is affected by increase or decrease in pH?
➢ Soils with inherent pH values between 6 and 7.5 are ideal for P-availability, while pH
values below 5.5 and between 7.5 and 8.5 limits P-availability to plants due to fixation by
aluminum, iron, or calcium, often associated with soil parent materials.
Q12. Which irrigation management are conducted to saline water?
➢ The method and frequency of irrigation and the amount of irrigation water applied may be
managed to control salinity.
➢ The main ways to apply water are basin flooding, furrow irrigation, sprinkling,
subirrigation, and drip irrigation.
➢ Flood irrigation is good for salinity control when using saline waters if the land is level,
though aeration and crusting problems may occur.
➢ Aeration and crusting problems are minimized by using furrow irrigation, but salts tend to
accumulate in the beds.
➢ If excess salt does accumulate, a rotation of crops and periodic irrigation by sprinkler or
flooding should be used as salinity-control measures.
➢ Alternatively, cultivation and irrigation depths should be modified, once the seedlings are
well established, to "shallow" the furrows so that the beds will be leached by later irrigations.
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➢ Irrigation by sprinkling may give better control of the amount and distribution of
water; however, the tendency is to apply too little water by this method and leaching of salts
beyond the rootzone may sometimes be accomplished only with special effort.
➢ Salinity can be kept low in the seedbed during germination with sprinkler-irrigation, but
crusting may be a problem.
➢ Emergence problems associated with such crusting may be overcome with frequent light
irrigations during this time or by use of special tillage techniques.
➢ Drip Irrigation the best way to the problem of salinity in water.
➢ Subirrigation with saline water is not generally advisable unless the soil is periodically
leached of the accumulated salts by rainfall or by surface applications of low-salinity water.
➢ Drip irrigation, if properly designed, is recommended for use of saline irrigation water
because it minimizes salinity and matric stresses in the rootzone, though salts accumulate
in the periphery of the wetted area.
➢ As noted earlier, higher levels of salinity in the irrigation water can be tolerated with
drip as compared with other methods of irrigation.
➢ The most practical way to accomplish this is through use of drip irrigation.
➢ Black soil is black because of Titaniferous Magnetite
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Weed Science
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Content
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Previous year questions
Characters of Weeds
Harmful effects of weeds
Beneficial effects of weeds
Classification of Weeds
Different categories of weeds
Seed Dormancy and its types
Allelopathy
Annidation
Methods of Weed Control
Important Definitions
Integrated Weed Management
Herbicide classification, formulations and methods of
application
14. Types of formulation
15. List of herbicides with their common name and chemical
name
16. Important Points
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WEED SCIENCE
➢ Weed Science is the study of vegetation management in agriculture, aquatics,
horticulture, essentially anywhere plants need to be managed.
➢ A weed is a plant considered undesirable in a particular situation, "a plant in the wrong
place".
➢ A plant that is not valued where it is growing and is usually of vigorous growth.
❖ Characteristics of weeds
➢ Most of the weeds especially annuals produce enormous quantity of seeds, e.g., wild
oats (Avena fatua), produces 250 seeds per plant, whereas wild amaranth (Amaranthus
viridis) produces nearly 11 million seeds.
➢ Weed seeds remain viable for longer period without losing their viability, e.g., annual
meadow grass (Poa annua) remains viable for about 8 years; creeping thistle (Cirsium
arvense) for 20 years and field bind weed (Convolvulus arvensis) for about 50 years.
❖ Harmful effects
➢ Of the total annual loss of agricultural produce from various pests in India, weeds
account for 45%, insects 30%, diseases 20% & others 5%.
L Loss in crop yields due to weeds
Crop
Reduction in
Crop
yields due to
Reduction in yield due
to weeds (%)
weeds (%)
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Rice
41.6
Groundnut
33.8
Wheat
16.0
Sugarcane
34.2
Maize
39.8
Sugar beet
70.3
Millets
29.5
Carrot
47.5
Soybean
30.5
Cotton
72.5
Gram
11.6
Onion
68.0
Pea
32.9
Potato
20.1
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➢ Weeds compete with crops for water soil, nutrients, light, and space, and thus reduce
the crop yields. An estimate shows that weeds can deprive the crops 47% N, 42% P,
50% K, 39% Ca and 24% Mg of their nutrient uptake.
➢ Alternate hosts of some of the pest and diseases:
Crop
Pest
Alternate host
Red gram
Gram caterpillar
Amaranthus, Datura
Castor
Hairy caterpillar
Crotalaria sp
Rice
Stem Borer
Echinocholoa, Panicum
Wheat
Black Rust
Barberry
Pearl Millet
Ergot
Cenchrus ciliaris
Maize
Downy Mildew
Sacharum spontaneum
❖ Beneficial Effects
➢ Helps to conserve soil moisture and prevent erosion. A ground cover of weeds will
reduce the amount of bare soil exposed helping to conserve nutrients, particularly
nitrogen which could otherwise be leached away, especially on light soils.
➢ Food and shelter can be provided for natural enemies of pests and even alternative food
sources for crop pests. The actual presence of weed cover may be a factor in increasing
effectiveness of biological control of pests and reducing pest damage.
➢ Weeds can also be valuable indicators of growing conditions in a field, for example of
water levels, compaction and pH.
➢ Weeds can be an important source of food for wildlife, especially birds.
CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS
❖ Based on life span
➢ Based on life span (Ontogeny), weeds are classified as Annual weeds, Biennial weeds
and Perennial weeds.
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a. Annual Weeds
➢ Weeds that live only for a season or a year and complete their life cycle in that season
or year are called as annual weeds.
➢ These are small herbs with shallow roots and weak stem. Produces seeds in profusion
and the mode of propagation is commonly through seeds. After seeding the annuals
die away and the seeds germinate and start the next generation in the next season or
year following.
➢ Most common field weeds are annuals. The examples are
(i) Monsoon annual
✓ Commelina benghalensis, Boerhavia erecta
(ii) Winter annual
✓ Chenopodium album
b. Biennials
➢ It completes the vegetative growth in the first season, flower and set seeds in the
succeeding season and then dies. These are found mainly in non-cropped areas.
➢ E.g. Alternanthera echinata, Daucus carota
c. Perennials
➢ Perennials live for more than two years and may live almost indefinitely. They adapted
to withstand adverse conditions. They propagate not only through seeds but also by
underground stem, root, rhizomes, tubers etc. And hence they are further classified into:
a) Simple perennials: Plants propagated only by seeds. Eg. Sonchus arvensis
b) Bulbous perennials: Plants which possess a modified stem with scales and reproduce
mainly from bulbs and seeds. Eg. Allium sp.
c) Corm perennials: Plants that possess a modified shoot and fleshy stem and reproduce
through corm and seeds. Eg. Timothy (Phleum pratense)
d) Creeping perennials: Reproduced through seeds as well as with one of the following:
✓ Rhizome: Plants having underground stem – Sorghum halapens
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✓ Stolon: Plants having horizontal creeping stem above the ground – Cynodon
dactylon
✓ Roots: Plants having enlarged root system with numerous buds – Convolvulus
arvensis
✓ Tubers: Plants having modified rhizomes adapted for storage of food – Cyperus
rotundus
❖ Based on place of occurrence
(a) Weeds of crop lands: The majority of weeds infests the cultivated lands and cause
hindrance to the farmers for successful crop production. Eg. Phalaris minor in wheat
(b) Weeds of pasture lands: Weeds found in pasture / grazing grounds. Eg. Indigofera
enneaphylla
(c) Weeds of waste places: Corners of fields, margins of channels etc., where weeds
grow in profusion. Eg. Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Calotropis gigantea
❖ Based on Origin
(a) Indigenous weeds: All the native weeds of the country are coming under this group
and most of the weeds are indigenous. Eg. Acalypha indica, Abutilon indicum, Cock’s
comb, Dudhi, Aghada, Hariali etc.
(b) Introduced or Exotic weeds: These are the weeds introduced from other countries.
These weeds are normally troublesome, and control becomes difficult. Eg. Parthenium
hysterophorus, Phalaris minor, Acanthospermum hispidum
❖ Based on cotyledon number
➢ Based on number of cotyledons it possesses it can be classified as dicots and monocots.
(a) Monocots Eg. Panicum flavidum, Echinochloa colona
(b) Dicots Eg. Crotalaria verucosa, Indigofera viscosa
❖ Based on morphology
➢ Based on the morphology of the plant, the weeds are also classified in to three
categories. This is the most widely used classification by the weed scientists.
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(a) Grasses: All the weeds come under the family Poaceae are called as grasses which are
characteristically having long narrow spiny leaves. The examples are Echinocloa
colonum, Cynodon dactylon.
(b) Sedges: The weeds belonging to the family Cyperaceae come under this group. The
leaves are mostly from the base having modified stem with or without tubers. The
examples are Cyperus rotundus, Fimbrystylis miliaceae.
(c) Broad leaved weeds: This is the major group of weeds as all other family weeds come
under this except that is discussed earlier. All dicotyledon weeds are broad leaved
weeds. The examples are Flavaria australacica, Digera arvensis, Tridax procumbens
❖ Based on nature of stem
➢ Based on development of bark tissues on their stems and branches, weeds are classified
as woody, semi-woody and herbaceous species.
(a) Woody weeds: Weeds include shrubs and undershrubs and are collectively called
brush weeds. Eg. Lantana camera, Prosopis juliflora
(b) Semi-woody weeds: eg. Croton sparsiflorus
(c) Herbaceous weeds: Weeds have green, succulent stems are of most common
occurrence around us. Eg. Amaranthus viridis
❖ Based on specificity
➢ Besides the various classes of weeds, a few others deserve special attention due to their
specificity.
➢ They are:
a. Poisonous weeds
➢ The poisonous weeds cause ailment on livestock resulting in death and cause great loss.
➢ These weeds are harvested along with fodder or grass and fed to cattle or while grazing
the cattle consume these poisonous plants.
➢ Eg. Datura fastuosa, D. stramonium and D. metal are poisonous to animals and human
beings.
➢ The berries of Withania somnifera and seeds of Abrus precatorius are poisonous.
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b. Parasitic weeds
➢ The parasite weeds are either total or partial which means, the weeds that depend
completely on the host plant are termed as total parasites while the weeds that partially
depend on host plant for minerals and capable of preparing its food from the green leaves
are called as partial parasites.
➢ Those parasites which attack roots are termed as root parasites and those which attack
shoot of other plants are called as stem parasites.
➢ The typical examples are:
✓ Total root parasite – Orabanche cernua on Tobacco
✓ Partial root parasite - Striga lutea on sugarcane and sorghum
✓ Total stem parasite - Cuscuta chinensis on leucerne and onion
✓ Partial stem parasite - Loranthus longiflorus on mango and other trees.
c. Aquatic weeds
➢ Unwanted plants, which grow in water and complete at least a part of their life cycle in
water are called as aquatic weeds. They are further grouped into four categories as
submersed, emersed, marginal and floating weeds.
(a) Submersed weeds: These weeds are mostly vascular plants that produce all or most
of their vegetative growth beneath the water surface, having true roots, stems and
leaves. Eg. Utricularia stellaris, Ceratophyllum demersum.
(b) Emersed weeds: These plants are rooted in the bottom mud, with aerial stems and
leaves at or above the water surface. The leaves are broad in many plants and
sometimes like grasses. These leaves do not rise and fall with water level as in the
case of floating weeds. Eg. Nelumbium speciosum, Jussieua repens.
(c) Marginal weeds: Most of these plants are emersed weeds that can grow in moist
shoreline areas with a depth of 60 to 90 cm water. These weeds vary in size, shape
and habitat. The important genera that come under this group are; Typha, Polygonum,
Cephalanthus, Scirpus, etc
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(d) Floating weeds: These weeds have left that float on the water surface either singly or
in cluster. Some weeds are free floating and some rooted at the mud bottom and the
leaves rise and fall as the water level increases or decreases. Eg. Eichhornia crassipes,
Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia, Nymphaea pubescens.
DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF WEEDS
1. Facultative Weeds or Apophytes
➢ Weeds which grow primarily in undistributed or close communities but may sometimes
escape to the cultivated fields, It is also called Apophytes
➢ E .g. Cactus.
2. Obligate Weeds
➢ Weeds which grow or occur primarily in cultivated field where the land is distributed
frequently.
➢ E.g Chandvel (Convolvulus arvensis).
3. Noxious Weeds
➢ The weeds which are undesirable, troublesome and difficult to control are called noxious
weeds
➢ E.g., Nutgrass, Hariali, Parthenium , Striga, Orobanche, Water hyacinth etc.
4. Objectionable Weeds
➢ Weeds which produce seeds that are difficult to separate once mixed with crop seeds are
called objectionable weeds.
➢ E. g the mixture of Argemone Mexicana (Pivala Dhotra) seeds in mustard. Wild onion
in cultivated onion.
Sr.no. Crop
Objectionable weed
1.
Wild rice / Red rice
Paddy Oryza sativa
Oryza sativa var. fatua
and Cyperus distalis
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2.
Wheat Triticum aestivum
Bind weed Convolvulus arvensis
3.
Okra Abelmoschus esculentus
Abelmoschus spp
4.
Rapeseed and Mustard Brassica sp Mexican poppy Argemone mexicana
5.
Lucerne Medicago sativa
Dodder Cuscuta sp.
6.
Berseem
Chicory (Cichorium intybus)
5. Industrials Weeds
➢ Weeds invading areas around buildings, highway, railway lines, fence rows, electric and
telephone pole bases etc. are called industrial weeds.
➢ E .g Parthenium, Reshimkata, Katemath etc.
6. Relative weeds
➢ These are other crop plants
➢ Undesirable crop plants in the main crops field.
➢ Barley in wheat.
7. Rogue weeds
➢ Other variety plants in the same crop
➢ E.g., A few plants of C-306 variety in PBW-502 wheat field.
8. Volunteer weeds
➢ Such weeds are grown from the fallen seeds of previous crop in the field.
❖ Censer mechanism of dispersal in weeds
➢ Mechanism in Which the wind swings the intact plant and forces their mature pods to
disperse their seeds at some distance away from the mother plant is called Censer
mechanism.
SEED DORMANCY
➢ Dormancy is a state of seeds and buds in which they are alive but not germinated.
❖ Seed dormancy as survival mechanism
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➢ Weed seeds possess a variety of special germination mechanisms adapted to changes in
temperature, moisture, aeration, exposure to light, depth of burial of seeds etc., when
conditions are unfavourable for germination, they can remain dormant or delay
germination.
TYPES OF DORMANCY:
❖ Enforced dormancy
➢ Enforced dormancy in weed seeds is due to their placement deeper than 5 cm, resulting
usually from tillage of the field.
➢ Weed seeds under this kind of dormancy germinate readily whenever these are restored
to the top 3 to 5 cm layer of soil by tillage, provided adequate soil moisture and congenial
temperatures were available in this zone of the soil.
❖ Innate dormancy
➢ Innate dormancy is a genetically controlled character, and it is a feature of specific weed
seeds.
➢ Innate dormant seeds will fail to germinate even if they were present in the top 3 to 5 cm
soil and adequate soil moisture and temperature conditions were provided to them.
➢ Innate doemancy usually results for reasons of either hard seed coats, like in Setaria,
Ipomoea, and Xanthium spp.,or immature embryos, as observed in Polygonum, Juncus,
and Eleocharis spp.
❖ Induced Dormancy
➢ Induced dormancy results from some physiological change in otherwise non-dormant
weed seeds under the impact of factors like a marked rise in soil temperature, increased
CO2 content of the soil, low O2 pressures, water logging, etc.
➢ Certain weed seeds, like those of wild oat (Avena fatua), exhibit all the three kinds of
dormancies.
ALLELOPATHY
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❖ Allelopathy is the detrimental effects of chemicals or exudates produced by one (living)
plant species on the germination, growth or development of another plant species (or even
microorganisms) sharing the same habitat.
❖ Allelopathy does not form any aspect of crop-weed competition, rather, it causes CropWeed interference, it includes competition as well as possible allelopathy.
❖ Allelo chemicals are produced by plants as end products, by-products and metabolites
liberalised from the plants; they belong to phenolic acids, flavanoides, and other aromatic
compounds viz., terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids and organic cyanides.
ANNIDATION
The complimentary interaction between intercrops in the intercrop-ping system is known as
Annidation. When plants are grown as compo-nents of intercropping system, interactions
between the components spe-cies occur.
❖ Spatial Annidation (Annidation in Space): Here the complimentary interactions
between the intercrops occur with regard to spatial position (space/place). This principle
is used in Multistorey cropping.
❖ Temporal Annidation (Annidation in Time): The complimentary interaction between
the intercrops in the time as-pect is called Temporal Annidation. Such intercrops have
different natural habit and zero competition. Both the component species have widely
vary-ing duration and different peak demands for light and nutrients.
METHODS OF WEED CONTROL:
❖ Principles of weed control are:
Prevention
Eradication
Control
Management
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a. Preventive weed control measures:
➢ Avoid using crop that are infested with weed seeds for sowing
➢ Avoid feeding screenings and other material containing weed seeds to the farm animals.
➢ Avoid adding weeds to the manure pits.
➢ Clean the farm machinery thoroughly before moving it from one field to another. This is
particularly important for seed drills
➢ Avoid the use of gravel sand and soil from weed-infested
➢ Inspect nursery stock for the presence of weed seedlings, tubers, rhizomes, etc.
➢ Keep irrigation channels, fence-lines, and un-cropped areas clean
➢ Use vigilance. Inspect your farm frequently for any strange looking weed seedlings.
Destroy such patches of a new weed by digging deep and burning the weed along with
its roots. Sterilize the spot with suitable chemical.
➢ Quarantine regulations are available in almost all countries to deny the entry of weed
seeds and other propagules into a country through airports and shipyards.
b. Eradication: (Ideal weed control rarely achieved)
➢ It infers that a given weed species, its seed & vegetative part has been killed or
completely removed from a given area & that weed will not reappear unless reintroduced
to the area.
➢ Because of its difficulty & high cost, eradication is usually attempted only in smaller
areas such as few hectares or few thousand m2 or less.
➢ Eradication is often used in high value areas such as green houses, ornamental plant beds
& containers.
➢ This may be desirable and economical when the weed species is extremely noxious and
persistent as to make cropping difficult and economical.
c. Control
➢ It encompasses those processes whereby weed infestations are reduced but not
necessarily eliminated. It is a matter of degree ranging from poor to excellent. In control
methods, the weeds are seldom killed but their growth is severely restricted, the crop
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makes a normal yield. In general, the degree of weed control obtained is dependent on
the characters of weeds involved and the effectiveness of the control method used.
d. Weed management
➢ Mechanical Weed Control:
✓ Mechanical or physical methods of weed control are being employed ever since man
began to grow crops. The mechanical methods include tillage, hoeing, hand weeding,
digging , sickling, mowing, burning, flooding, mulching etc.
Merits of Mechanical Method
✓ Oldest, effective and economical method
✓ Large area can be covered in shorter time
✓ Safe method for environment
✓ Does not involve any skill
✓ Weeding is possible in between plants. Deep rooted weeds can be controlled effectively
Demerits of Mechanical Method
✓ Labour consuming
✓ Possibility of damaging crop
✓ Requires ideal and optimum specific condition
CULTURAL WEED CONTROL
➢ Several cultural practices like tillage, planting, fertiliser application, irrigation etc., are
employed for creating favourable condition for the crop.
➢ These practices if used properly, help in controlling weeds. Cultural methods alone
cannot control weeds but help in reducing weed population.
➢ They should, therefore, be used in combination with other methods. In cultural methods,
tillage, fertiliser application. and irrigation are important.
➢ In addition, aspects like selection of variety, time of sowing, cropping system, cleanliness
of the farm etc., are also useful in controlling weeds.
❖ Cultural Weed Control Methods includes:
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➢ Summer Tillage
➢ Maintenance of Optimum Plant Population
➢ Crop Rotation
➢ Growing of intercrops
➢ Mulching
➢ Solarization
➢ Stale Seed bed
➢ Blind Tillage
Merits of Cultural Method
➢ Low cost for weed control
➢ Easy to adopt
➢ No residual Problem
➢ Technical skill is not involved
➢ No damage to crops
➢ Effective weed control
➢ Crop-weed ecosystem is maintained
Demerits of Cultural Method
➢ Immediate and quick weed control is not possible
➢ Weeds are kept under suppressed condition
➢ Perennial and problematic weeds cannot be controlled
➢ Practical difficulty in adoption
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
❖ Summer tillage
➢ The practice of summer tillage or off-season tillage is one of the effective cultural
methods to check the growth of perennial weed population in crop cultivation.
➢ Initial tillage before cropping should encourage clod formation. These clods, which have
the weed propagules, upon drying desiccate the same.
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➢ Subsequent tillage operations should break the clods into small units to further expose
the shriveled weeds to the hot sun.
❖ Solarisation
➢ This is another method of utilisation of solar energy for the desiccation of weeds. In this
method, the soil temperature is further raised by 5 – 10 ºC by covering a pre-soaked
fallow field with thin transparent plastic sheet.
➢ The plastic sheet checks the long wave back radiation from the soil and prevents loss of
energy by hindering moisture evaporation.
❖ Stale seedbed
➢ A stale seedbed is one where initial one or two flushes of weeds are destroyed before
planting of a crop.
➢ This is achieved by soaking a well-prepared field with either irrigation or rain and
allowing the weeds to germinate.
➢ At this stage a shallow tillage or non- residual herbicide like paraquat may be used to
destroy the dense flush of young weed seedlings.
➢ This may be followed immediately by sowing. This technique allows the crop to
germinate in almost weed-free environment.
❖ Blind tillage
➢ The tillage of the soil after sowing a crop before the crop plants emerge is known as blind
tillage.
➢ It is extensively employed to minimise weed intensity in drill sowing crops where
emergence of crop seedling is hindered by soil crust formed on receipt of rain or
irrigation immediately after sowing.
CHEMICAL CONTROL
❖ Benefits of Herbicides
➢ In monsoon season may make physical weeding infeasible. Herbicides can be used to
ensure freedom of crops from weeds under such a condition.
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➢ Herbicides can be employed to control weeds as they emerge from the soil to eliminate
weed crop interference even at a very early stage of crop growth.
➢ Herbicides can kill many weeds that survive by mimicry, for example, wildoat (Avena
spp.) in wheat and barnyardgrass (Echinochola spp.) in rice. Weeds that resemble crop
plants usually escape physical weeding.
➢ Herbicidal control does not dictate strict row spacing’s. In physical weed control, on the
other hand, the crop rows have to be sufficiently wide to accommodate weeding
implements, else hand weeding and hand-pulling of weeds has to be resorted to.
➢ Herbicides bring about longer lasting control of perennial weeds and brushes than is
possible with any physical control method. Many modern herbicides can translocate
considerably deep in the underground system of weeds and damage them.
➢ Herbicides are convenient to use on spiny weeds which cannot be reached manually.
➢ Herbicides are safe on erodible lands where tillage may accelerate soil and water erosion.
Excessive tillage, in any case, spoils soil structure, reduces organic matter content, and
depletes moisture status of the soil.
➢ Herbicides kill weeds in situ without permitting their dissemination. Tillage on the other
hand, may fragment the vegetative propagules of the weeds and drag them to new sites.
➢ Herbicide sprays easily reach the weeds growing in obstructed situations, such as utilityright-of-way, under fruit trees, and on undulating lands.
❖ Limitation of Herbicide:
➢ In herbicidal control there is no automatic signal to stop a farmer who may be applying
the chemical inaccurately till he sees the results in the crops sprayed or in the rotation
crops that follow.
➢ Even when herbicides are applied accurately, these may interact with environment to
produce un-intended results. Herbicide drifts, wash-of, and run-off can cause
considerable damage to the neighbouring crops, leading to unwarranted quarrels.
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➢ Depending upon the diversity in farming, a variety of herbicides must be stocked on a
farm to control weeds in different fields. On the contrary, for physical control of weeds
a farmer has to possess only one or two kinds of weeding implements for his entire farm.
➢ In herbicide treated soils, usually, crop failures cannot be made up by planning a different
crop of choice. The selection of the replacement crop has to be based on its tolerance to
the herbicide already applied.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
➢ Use of living organism’s viz., insects, disease organisms, herbivorous fish, snails or even
competitive plants for the control of weeds is called biological control.
➢ In biological control method, it is not possible to eradicate weeds but weed population
can be reduced.
➢ This method is not useful to control all types of weeds. Introduced weeds are best targets
for biological control.
❖ Qualities of bio-agent
➢ The bio-agent must feed or affect only one host and not other useful plants
➢ It must be free of predators or parasites.
➢ It must readily adapt to environment conditions.
➢ The bio-agent must be capable of seeking out itself to the host.
➢ It must be able to kill the weed or at least prevent its reproduction in some direct or
indirect way.
➢ It must possess reproductive capacity sufficient to overtake the increase of its host
species, without too much delay.
Merits
➢ Least harm to the environment
➢ No residual effects
➢ Relatively cheaper and comparatively long-lasting effect
➢ Will not affect non-targeted plants and safer in usage
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Demerits
➢ Multiplication is costlier
➢ Control is very slow
➢ Success of control is very limited
➢ Very few host specific bio-agents are available at present
1. Lantana Camera:
✓ Lantana was the first weed controlled successfully with Crocidosema lantana, a moth
was found to be promising in destroying flowers and seeds of lantana.
✓ In Australia, three successful insect biocontrol agents are hispine beetles (Octotoma
scabripennis and Uroplata girardi) and tingid /lantana bug (Teleonemia scrupulosa).
2. Alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides)
✓ Controlled by flee beetle: Agasicles hygrophyla and alligator weed thrips:
Anynothrips andersoni
3. Water hyacinth: (Eichornea crassipes)
✓ Water hyacinth was first introduced in India as ornamental plant in 1896 from Brazil.)
✓ It is worldwide aquatic weed infested transplanted paddy fields including India.
✓ Hyacinth moth Sameodes albiguttalis feed up on young leaves and apical buds.
✓ Besides this beetle Neochetina bruchii and N. eichorniae are also damaging the water
hyacinth
✓ Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) also control by Rhizoctina blight (Fungus)
4. Salvinia (Salvinia molesta):
✓ In Kerala (India) curculionid beetle Cytrobagous salviniae used to clear the
freshwater courses and paddy fields.
✓ They feed on terminal buds and rhizomes and petioles of salvinia
5. Parthenium (congress weed) ✓ Parthenium (congress weed) was successfully controlled by Zygogramma
biocolorata when it was introduced in 1983 from mexico by IIHR Banglore.
Note -
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✓ Opuntia spp. cane be controlled by Fusarium sp.
✓ Ducks destroy floating weeds.
✓ Pigs devour underground storage tissues.
❖ Some other examples:
Weed
Chondrilla juncea
Cirsium arvense
Cyperus rotundus
Echinochloa spp.
(In rice fields)
Eupatorium
riparium
Hydrilla verticillata
Orobanche cernua
Parthenium
hysterophorus
Rumex spp.
Tribulus terrestris
Bio-agent
Reporting Country
Puccina chondrillina Australia
Septoria cirsii
Bactra verutana
India, Pakistan, USA
i) Emmalocera sp.
ii) Tripos spp.
Entyloma
USA
compositarum
Hydrellia pakistanae USA
Sclerotinia sp.
USA
i)Zygogramma
India
bicolorata
Australia
ii)Epiblema
Australia
strenuana
iii) Conotrachelus sp.
i) Uromyces
USA
rumicis
USA
ii)Gastrophysa
viridula
Microlarinus lareynii USA
and M. lypriformis
Kind of bioagent
Plant pathogen
Plant pathogen
Shoot boring moth
i)Stem boring moth
ii) Shrimp
Plant pathogen
Shoot fly
Plant pathogen
Leaf eating beetle
Stem galling insect
Stem galling insect
Plant pathogen
Beetle
Pod weevil
INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT
➢ An integrated weed management may be defined as the combination of two or more
weed-control methods at low input levels to reduce weed competition in a given cropping
system below the economical threshold level
➢ Integrated Weed Management (IWM) approach aims at minimizing the residue problem
in plant, soil, air and water. An IWM involves the utilization of a combination of
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mechanical, chemical and cultural practices of weed management in a planned sequence,
so designed as not to affect the ecosystem.
➢ The nature and intensity of the species to be controlled, the sequence of crops that are
raised in the rotation, the standard of crop husbandry, and the ready and timely
availability of any method and the economics of different weed-management techniques
are some of the potent considerations that determine the success for the exploitation of
the IWM approach.
❖ Why IWM
➢ One method of weed control may be effective and economical in a situation, and it may
not be so in another situation.
➢ No single herbicide is effective in controlling wide range of weed flora
➢ Continuous use of same herbicide creates resistance in escaped weed flora or causes shift
in the flora.
➢ Continuous use of only one practice may result in some undesirable effects. Eg. Rice –
wheat cropping system – Philaris minor
➢ Only one method of weed control may lead to increase in population of particular weed
➢ Indiscriminate herbicide uses and its effects on the environment and human health.
❖ Advantages of IWM
➢ It shifts the crop-weed competition in favour of crop
➢ Prevents weed shift towards perennial nature
➢ Prevents resistance in weeds to herbicides
➢ No danger of herbicide residue in soil or plant
➢ No environmental pollution
➢ Gives higher net return
➢ Suitable for high cropping intensity
HERBICIDE CLASSIFICATION, FORMULATIONS AND METHODS OF
APPLICATION
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❖ Herbicide: It is a chemical used to kill some targeted plants.
❖ Principles of chemical weed control
The selectivity exhibited by certain chemicals to cultivated crops in controlling its
associated weeds without affecting the crops forms basis for the chemical weed control. Such
selectivity may be due to differences in the morphology, differential absorption, differential
translocation, differential deactivation etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF HERBICIDES
1) Based on Method of application
➢ Soil applied herbicides: Herbicide act through root and other underground parts of
weeds. Eg. Fluchloralin
➢ Foliage applied herbicides: Herbicide primarily active on the plant foliage Eg.
Glyphosate, Paraquat
2) Based on Mode of action
➢ Selective herbicide: A herbicide is considered as selective when in a mixed growth of
plant species, it kills some species without injuring the others. Eg. Atrazine
➢ Non-selective herbicide: It destroys majority of treated vegetation Eg. Paraquat
➢ Synergistic Effect:
✓ Atrazine + 2,4-D (low conc.)
✓ Paraquat (low) + Pentachlor.
✓ Atrazine + Alachlor (widely used in corn).
➢ Antagonistic effect: Generally, contact + systemic herbicide combination shows
antagonistic effect.
✓ Dalapan + Atrazine, TCA + 2,4-D, TCA + MCPA
Short name
Full name
2,4-D
2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid
2,4-Db
2, 4-dichloro phenoxy butyric acid
2,4,5-T
2, 4, 5 trichloro phenoxy acetic acid
TCA
Trichloro acetic acid
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3) Based on mobility
(i) Contact herbicide: A contact herbicide kills those plant parts with which it comes in
direct contact Eg. Paraquat
(ii) Translocated herbicide: Herbicide which tends to move from treated part to untreated
areas through xylem / phloem depending on the nature of its molecule. Eg. Glyphosate
4) Based on Time of application
➢ Pre - plant application (PPI)
✓ Application of herbicides before the crop is planted or sown. Soil application as well
as foliar application is done here.
✓ For example, fluchloralin can be applied to soil and incorporated before sowing rainfed
groundnut while glyphosate can be applied on the foliage of perennial weeds
like Cyperus rotundus before planting of any crop.
➢ Pre – emergence
✓ Application of herbicides before a crop or weed has emerged. In case of annual crops
application is done after the sowing of the crop but before the emergence of weeds and
this is referred as pre-emergence to the crop while in the case perennial crops it can be
said as pre-emergence to weeds.
✓ For example, soil application by spraying of atrazine on 3rd DAT to sugarcane can be
termed as pre-emergence to cane crop while soil application by spraying the same
immediately after a rain to control a new flush of weeds in a inter-cultivated orchard can
be specified as pre-emergence to weed. Eg. Atrazine, Pendimethalin, Butachlor,
Thiobencarb, Pretilachlor
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➢ Post – emergence
✓ Herbicide application after the emergence of crop or weed is referred as post-emergence
application. When the weeds grow before the crop plants have emerged through the soil
and are killed with a herbicide then it is called as early post-emergence.
✓ For example, spraying 2,4-D Na salt to control parasitic weed striga in sugarcane is called
as post-emergence while spraying of paraquat to control emerged weeds after 10-15 days
after planting potato can be called as early post-emergence. Eg. Glyphosate, Paraquat,
2,4-D Na Salt.
➢ Early post emergence:
✓ Another application of herbicide in the slow growing crops like potato, sugarcane, 2-3
week after sowing is classified as early post emergence.
5) Based on molecular structure
➢ Inorganic compounds
➢ Organic compounds
FORMULATIONS
➢ Herbicides in their natural state may be solid, liquid, volatile, non-volatile, soluble or
insoluble.
➢ Hence these have to be made in forms suitable and safe for their field use.
➢ An herbicide formulation is prepared by the manufacturer by blending the active
ingredient with substances like solvents, inert carriers, surfactants, stickers, stabilizers
etc.
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❖ Objectives in herbicide formulations are.
➢ Ease of handling
➢ High controlled activity on the target plants
❖ Need for preparing herbicide formulation
➢ To have a product with physical properties suitable for use in a variety of types of
application equipment and conditions.
➢ To prepare a product which is effective and economically feasible to use
➢ To prepare a product which is suitable for storage under local conditions?
❖ Types of formulation
i.
Emulsifiable concentrates (EC): A concentrated herbicide formulation containing
organic solvent and adjuvants to facilitate emulsification with water eg., Butachlor
ii.
Wettable powders (WP): A herbicide is absorbed by an inert carrier together with
an added surface acting agent. The material is finely ground so that it may form a
suspension when agitated with a required volume of water eg., Atrazine
iii.
Granules (G): The inert material (carrier) is given a granular shape and the herbicide
(active ingredient) is mixed with sand, clay, vermiculite, finely ground plant parts
(ground
corn
cobs)
as
carrier
material.
eg.
iv. Water soluble concentrates (WSC): eg. Paraquat
❖ METHODS OF APPLICATION
➢ Spraying
➢ Broadcasting
❖ Factors influencing the methods of application are
➢ Weed-crop situation
➢ Type of herbicides
➢ Mode of action and selectivity
➢ Environmental factors
➢ Cost and convenience of application
❖ Depending on the target site, the herbicides are classified in to
a. Soil applied herbicides
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Alachlor
granules.
b. Foliage applied or foliar herbicides
❖ Different methods by which these herbicides are
Soil application
Foliar application
a.
Surface
i.
Blanket spray
b.
Sub surface
ii.
Directed spray
c.
Band
iii.
Protected spray
d.
Fumigation
iv.
Spot treatment
e.
Herbigation
❖ Soil application of herbicides
a. Surface application
➢ Soil active herbicides are applied uniformly on the surface of the soil either by
spraying or by broadcasting.
➢ The applied herbicides are either left undisturbed or incorporated into the soil.
➢ Incorporation is done to prevent the volatilization and photodecomposition of the
herbicides.
➢ Eg. Fluchoralin – Left undisturbed under irrigated condition
➢ Incorporated under rainfed condition
b. Subsurface application
➢ It is the application of herbicides in a concentrated band, about 7-10 cm below the soil
surface for controlling perennial weeds.
➢ For this special type of nozzle is introduced below the soil under the cover of a sweep
hood.
➢ Eg. Carbamate herbicides to control Cyperus rotundus
➢ Nitralin herbicides to control Convolvulus arvensis
c. Band application
➢ Application to a restricted band along the crop rows leaving an untreated band in the
inter-rows. Later inter-rows are cultivated to remove the weeds. Saving in cost is
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possible here. For example, when a 30 cm wide band of a herbicide applied over a
croprows that were spaced 90 cm apart, then two-third cost is saved.
d. Fumigation
➢ Application of volatile chemicals in to confined spaces or into the soil to produce
gas that will destroy weed seeds is called fumigation. Herbicides used for fumigation
are called as fumigants. These are good for killing perennial weeds and as well for
eliminating weed seeds.
➢ Eg. Methyl bromide, Metham
f. Herbigation
➢ It is the application of herbicides with irigation water both by surface and sprinkler
systems. In India farmers apply fluchloralin for chillies and tomato, while in western
countries application of EPTC with sprinkler irrigation water is very common in
Lucerne.
❖ Foliar application
i. Blanket spray
➢ It is the uniform application of herbicides to standing crops without considering the
location of the crop. Only highly selective herbicides are used here. Eg. Spraying 2,4Ethyl Ester to rice three weeks after transplanting
ii. Directed spray
➢ It is the application of herbicides on weeds in between rows of crops by directing the
spray only on weeds avoiding the crop. This could be possible by use of protective
shield or hood. For example, spraying glyphosate in between rows of tapioca using
hood to control Cyperus rotundus.
iii. Protected spray
➢ It is a method of applying non-selective herbicides on weeds by covering the crops
which are wide spaced with polyethylene covers etc. This is expensive and laborious.
However, farmers are using this technique for spraying glyphosate to control weeds
in jasmine, cassava, banana.
iv. Spot treatment
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➢ It is usually done on small areas having serious weed infestation to kill it and to
prevent its spread. Rope wick applicator and Herbicide glove are useful here.
❖ List of herbicides with their common name and chemical name
S. No
Common Name
Trade Name
Aliphatic carboxylic
1
Dalapon
Dalapon, Dowpan
Phenoxy Carboxylic
1
2,4,D
2,4,D; Fernoxone
2
2,4,5 T
Weedar; Weedone
Benzoic acid
2
2,3,6 - TBA
Trysben; Benzac
Dinoseb
Basanite
Phenol
2
Dinitroaniline
1
Fluchloralin
Basalin
2
Isopropalin
Paarlon
3
Pendimethalin
Prowl; Herbadex; Stomp
4
Trifluralin
Treflan
1
Atrazine
Aatres; Gesprim
2
Simazine
Princep; gesatop; Tapazine
1
Diuron
Karmex
2
Monuron
Telvar
3
Isoproturon
Tolkan; Arelon
Triazines
Urea
Thiocarbamate
2
Thiobencarb
Odram; Saturn
Acid amide
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1
Alachlor
Lasso
2
Butachlor
Machete; Delchlor
Diphenyl ether
1
Nitrofen
TOK E 25
2
Oxyfluoren
Goal
Bipyridilium
1
Diquat
Reglone
2
Paraquat
Gramaxone
Unclassified
202
1
Glyphosate
Round up; Glycel
2
Picloram
Tordon
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IMPORTANT POINTS
➢ Phalaris minor developed resistance to isoproturon due to its longer usage.
➢ Onion is a poor competitor with weeds because of shallow roots, slender leaves, sparse
leaves and slow growth.
➢ 15-45 Days after transplanting (DAT) is the critical period of crop weed competition in
onion.
➢ Redgram is very deep rooted so sustain from weed competition by obtaining nutrients
from deeper layers.
➢ Weed infestation in sugarcane leads to reduction in sucrose content.
➢ Ergot of Bajra pathogen survives on Cenchrus ciliaris.
➢ Stemborer on rice will survive on Echinocloa as well as Panicum.
➢ Caterpillar, which is a pest on Red gram, cotton survives on Chenopodium album,
Amaranthus sps, Datura and so on.
➢ If seeds of Argemone mexicana mixed with mustard seeds cause blindness.
➢ Examples of thorny and spiny weeds are Acanthospermun hispidum, Argemone
Mexicana, Mimosa pudica (Touch me not), Achyranthes aspera.
➢ Spirulina sps (weed in aquatic bodies) is rich in protein.
➢ Weeds serve as soil binders. Ex: Dicanthium annulatum, Vetiveria zizanoides
➢ Weed Jatropha gossypifolia is used as biofuel.
➢ Weeds are used as live fences. Ex: Lantana camara, Opuntia dellini.
➢ Mimosa pudica has short spines on stem.
➢ Oxalis latifolia produces bulbils in roots.
➢ Cyperus rotundus produces tubers.
➢ Panicum produces rhizomes in root.
➢ Common name of Ageratum conyzoides is goat weed.
➢ Cynodon dactylon seeds retain viability for 2 years.
➢ Tribulus terrestris seeds remain alive for 8 years.
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➢ Cyperus rotundus seeds remain alive for 20 years.
➢ Convolvulus arvensis seeds remain alive for 50 years.
➢ Majority of the weed seeds lying below 5 cm soil depth remain dormant and acts as source
for future flushes of the weeds.
➢ Innate dormancy enforced dormancy and induced dormancy are the three types of
dormancies operating in weed seeds.
➢ Alternanthera echinata is highly drought resistant.
➢ Crops having deep root system, early rapid growth, more branching are the good
competitors with the weeds having highly competitive ability with the weeds. Ex: Potato,
field bean, cowpea, maize etc.
➢ Critical period of crop-weed competition is defined as the shortest timespan during the
crop growth when weeding is done results in maximum returns. Time of weeding is as
important as weeding itself.
➢ Crop – critical period of Crop Weed Competition
Onion (transplanted)
20-40 DAT
Onion (Direct seeded)
20-55DAS
Sugarcane
30-110 DAS
Potato
15-30DAS
Soybean & Sunflower
30-40DAS
➢ Cowpea due to its initial faster growth and canopy cover smothers the weeds very
effectively than green gram and black gram.
➢ Cowpea has high weed smothering ability.
➢ Cereals because of their tall stature are more competitive.
➢ Cowpea, field bean, calapogonium, horse gram, potato, red gram, castor have good
weed smothering ability.
➢ Green gram, black gram, soybean, onion, garlic, carrot, groundnut, and sunflower
are poor competitors with weeds.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Allelochemicals includes aliphatic compounds like oxalic acid, succinic acid, butyric
acid. It also includes terpenoids, cynogenic glucosides like alkaloids, phenolic
compounds, HCN.
➢ Source of allelochemicals are leaf leachates and leaf litter, crop residue decomposition
and root exudation.
➢ One crop against other crop allelopathy is likely to operate in multiple cropping systems
like intercropping, mixed cropping and agroforestry.
➢ Sorghum is allelopathic against Amaranthus hybridus and Setaria viridis.
➢ Sweet potatoes have allelopathic effect on weeds like Cyperus sps.
➢ Cucumber is allelopathic against Echinocloa crusgalli and Amaranthus sps.
➢ Maize is allelopathic against Chenopodium album.
➢ Parthenium is having allelopathic interactions on several crops.
➢ Euphorbia is having allelopathic interactions on flax.
➢ Chenopodium album is having allelopathic interactions on alfalfa, maize and cucumber.
➢ Parthenium is allelopathic to many weeds.
➢ Parthenium invades and forms a territory of its own replacing all the existing weed flora
because of allelopathic effect.
➢ Amaranthus spinosus, Cassia seracia etc. pose a strong allelopathic effect on parthenium.
➢ First herbicide registered and used for selective control of weeds in crops was 2,4-D.
➢ Sulphuric acid is used for weeing control in small grain cereal crops.
➢ 2,4-D is first selective organic herbicide in world because of its widespread use in crops
mainly cereals all over the world.
➢ Now atrazine is the principal herbicide used in maize and sorghum all over the world.
➢ Pendimethalin is used in cereals, vegetables, pulses, oilseeds and has selectivity for many
crops.
➢ Oxyfluorfen is used in carrot, onion, garlic, and potato.
➢ For onion, oxyfluorfen is the best herbicide.
➢ Indicator plants for herbicides
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Atrazine
Cucumber, soybean, mustard
Isoproturon/ Diuron
Cucumber, barley, sorghum, millets
Alachlor
Cucumber
Metolachlor
Rice, sorghum and cucumber
Metribuzin
Maize and sorghum
2,4-D
Cucumber, cotton, mustard, tomato,
soybean
Sulphonyl urea
Sunflower, maize, sorghum, mung bean
Trap crops for Orabanche are garlic, castor, linseed, green gram, cowpea, French bean,
soybean, pea.
➢ Orabanche is controlled by the phytophagous insect Phytomyza orobanche.
➢ Loranthus infests teak, mango, citrus, custard apple, eucalyptus, guava, apple, peach.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
➢ Integrated weed management includes: Tillage operation, Use of herbicides, Close
planting (AFO-2015)
➢ Phalaris minor weed is an associated weed with crop: Wheat (AFO-2015)
➢ The most effective weed control measure of crop associated, and crop bound weed: Crop
rotation (Rajasthan Pre PG 2019)
➢ Which of the following is a weed of wheat crop during Rabi session: Chenopodium
(MPPAT 2019)
➢ The process of removal of undesirable plant is known as: Weeding (MPPAT 2019)
➢ Weed index indicates: Yield reduction (BHU 2019)
➢ Cuscuta spp. is a: Total stem parasited (BHU 2019)
➢ Selective mechanism of Herbicides may occur due to: Differential rate of absorption,
Differential rate of translocation, Differential rate of deactivation (IGKV CET2018)
➢ Which of the following weed species is salt tolerant: Cynodon dectylon (IGKV CET2018)
➢ Which one of the following is complete root parasite: Orabanche spp (RAJ PRE PG
2019)
➢ Those weeds are similar in morphology with the host crop is called: Mimicry weeds
(RAJ PRE PG 2016)
➢ Which one is an Herbicide: Simazine (BHU PET2012)
➢ The quantity of Sathi 10 WP (Pyrazosulfuron ethyl) used for pre-emergence weed
control in rice: 60g/ acre (Punjab ADO 2020)
➢ For proper control of weeds, it is always necessary to use: Flood jet or flat fan spray
nozzles (Punjab ADO 2020)
➢ As per Seed Standards for Certified Seed, the maximum number of weed seeds in one
kg seed of rice is: 20 (Punjab ADO 2020)
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➢ As per seed Standards for Certified Seed, the maximum number of weed seeds in one kg
seed of wheat is: 20 (Punjab ADO 2020)
➢ Which of the following is a sedge weed in lowland rice: Cyperus iria, Cyperus
difformis, Cyperus esculents (FEO MP 2017)
➢ Zygogramma bicolorata feed on: Parthenium (BHU 2015)
➢ Sorghum forage poisoning is cause by: HCN (JRF 2015)
➢ Suitable herbicide for weed control in Pulse crop is: Pendimethalin (BHU 2017)
➢ Which chemical one of the following is partial root parasite: Striga (RJ JRF2019)
➢ IGFRI is located at: Jhansi(JRF 2019)
➢ Phalaris minor is an important weed of which crop: Wheat (JRF-2014)
➢ which among the following is an objectionable weed of Rapeseed: Argemone mexicana
(JRF-2014)
➢ Butachlor is belong to the group: Amide (IARI- PHD- 2010)
➢ A weed that spreads asthma is: Parthenium (BHU-2013)
➢ For more effective weed control in soybean Fluchloralin should be used as: Pre-plant
soil incorporation (UPSSSC-TA)
No one is the creator of your future,
whatever you are doing right now is
creating your future for lifetime.
D. K. Wadhwa
208
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Animal Husbandry
7th Edition
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
1
Copyright © 2020 by Agri Coaching Chandigarh
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other
electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the
publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and
certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission
requests, write us at info@agricoaching.in or contact us at below address:
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Sco-7, Kharar Landran road, Kharar (Mohali)
Contact Number: 98288-22277, 95-200-90-200
www.agricoaching.in
2
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Index
S. No.
Topic
Page Number
1.
Common animal husbandry terms
5
2.
Institute related to animal husbandry
9
3.
Scientific names of common animals
9
4.
Terminology used in animal husbandry
10
5.
Body temperature, pulse rate and respiration rate
11
6.
Chromosome number in animals
12
7.
Cattle dentition
12
8.
Tools used in animal husbandry
13
9.
20th livestock census
14
10.
Animal breeding
15
11.
Gestation period, Oestrous cycle, heat period
16
12.
Animal breeds
19
13.
Buffalo breeds
22
14.
Goat breeds
25
15.
Sheep breeds
26
16.
Housing & feeding of animal
28
17.
Digestive system of cattle (ruminants)
33
18.
Common diseases of animal
36
19.
Common medicines and uses for animals
45
20.
Poultry
48
21.
Dairy science
53
22.
Important facts
60
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4
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COMMON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY TERMS
❖ Balanced ration: Ration that contains all the nutrients in right proportions and quantities is
called balanced ration.
❖ Bull Calf: A male calf under one year of age.
❖ Bull: It is uncastrated sexually matured male of the species.
❖ Bullock: Castrated male ox.
❖ Bovine – pertaining to cattle/ relating to cattle
❖ Ovine - Pertaining to sheep
❖ Caprine- Caprine is a term relating to goats.
❖ Equine- is a term relating to horses, mules, zebras, and asses.
❖ Calf starter: Concentrate feed offered to the young calves after 2 weeks of age.
❖ Calf: A young animal of bovine species under one year of age.
❖ Calving – the act of parturition in cattle.
❖ Parturition: Act of delivery in animals.
❖ Casting: It is throwing down the animal and securing the limbs for various purposes like
surgical operations, castration, hoof trimming, shearing etc.
❖ Castration: It is the removal of testicles.
❖ Challenge feeding: The practice of feeding higher levels of concentrate to challenge the cow
to reach her maximum milk production.
❖ Concentrates: Feeds that contain less than 18% crude fiber are called concentrates such as
grains, oilcakes, grain by products etc.
❖ Cow: It is a female of bovine species that has calved at least once.
❖ Crisscrossing or Rotational crossing: Mating of a hybrid to three established breeds in a
rotational manner (AFO 2021)
❖ Cross breeding: A system of breeding between two established breeds.
❖ Culling: Removal of undesirable or unproductive animals from herd
❖ Conception: Conception rate is a measure of a cow’s fertility at service or the successful
union of male and female in reproduction process.
❖ Deticking: Removal of the external parasites like ticks, lice, mites present on the body surface
of animal.
❖ Deworming: Removal of the internal gastrointestinal parasites from the body.
❖ Disbudding: Removal of the horn buds of the calf by mechanical or chemical methods to
arrest growth of horns.
❖ Energy feeds: Feeds containing less than 20% crude protein are called energy feeds.
❖ Free martin: When twin calves of different sexes are born, the bull calf is normal whereas
the heifer calf is sterile. The sterile heifer calf is called freemartin.
❖ Gestation period: The period of pregnancy in animals.
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❖ Grading up: Systems of breeding in which pure bulls are used for improvement in nondescript females for several generations. (Detailed description in the lecture of Breeding
system)
❖ Heifer calf: A female calf under one year of age.
❖ Heifer: A female individual that has not yet calved.
❖ Inbreeding: A system of breeding between very closely related animals. (JRF)V
❖ Intercalving period: Number of days between two successive calving.
❖ Lactation Curve: The graphical representation of the rate of milk secretion during lactation
is called Lactation Curve.
❖ Lactation length: The time interval between the dates of calving to the date of drying the
animal expressed in days.
❖ Dry period: The time interval between date of drying off the cow to the date of next calving.
❖ Maintenance ration: A ration given daily to the animal to maintain in resting nonproduction
condition with good health.
❖ Pasture: Fodder crops grown on the land for grazing animals.
❖ Production ration: A portion of the ration given daily in excess of maintenance requirement
for purpose of growth, production and work.
❖ Protein supplements: Feeds that contain 20% or more protein are called protein
supplements.
❖ Ration: The total amount of feed that an animal is offered during a 24 hour period of time is
called ration.
❖ Roughage: Feeds that contain more than 18% crude fiber are called roughage such as hay,
silage, fodder etc. (JRF)
❖ Scrub Bull: It is non-descript type of stray village cattle.
❖ Selection: The process of including certain animals in a population for becoming parents of
next generation.
❖ Service period: The period between parturition to successful conception expressed in days is
known as service period.
❖ Service: This term indicates the process in which mature male covers the female.
❖ Springer: a female bovine showing signs of advanced pregnancy.
❖ Steer: castrated male beef/dairy animal.
❖ Silage: Freshly cut green forages cut and offered to the animals.
❖ Stud Bull: Bull that is used for breeding purposes.
❖ Test cross: Mating of a crossbred back to its recessive parent.
❖ Weaning: Separation of the calf from the cow and feeding them artificially. If weaning is
practiced 4 days after calving, then further ration has to be fed as per the schedule described.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Puberty: The stage of the female in which the ovary is fully developed and the process of
egg formation begins in it. In this stage the female becomes pregnant.
❖ Estrus Cycle: The physical events between two heating periods are called Estrus cycle.
During this period, animals provide a safe environment in their body for embryo development
by conceiving.
❖ Estrus period: The state in which a female animal is willing to mate with a male.
❖ Teaser Bull: is used to identify heating period.
❖ Ovulation: The exit of the mature ovum from the ovary is called oviposition or ovulation.
❖ Gestation period: The period from conception to delivery of a female animal is called
gestation period.
❖ Sire: The male parent (Father) of the Calf.
❖ Dam: The female parent (Mother) of the Calf.
❖ Inbreeding depression: Inbreeding depression is the reduced survival and fertility of
offspring of related individuals.
❖ Hay: Hay is a stored forage that is essentially characterized by having low moisture
content(less than 16%).
❖ Silage: Green grass is a good source of vitamin A which is present in the form of Carotene.
Green fodder can be preserved as silage stored for long period (upto 6months). Silage is a
type of fodder made from green foliage crops which have been preserved by fermentation to
the point of acidification. Silage has 65-70% of moisture content
❖ Ensiling: Process of making silage. In the ensiling process, the absence of oxygen, leads to
the fermentation of water soluble carbohydrates to produce organic acids which increase
acidity of the material (pH about 4.0).
❖ Flushing: The term describes a temporary but purposeful increase in nutrition/ feed around
breeding time. Its objective is to boost ovulation, conception and embryo implantation rates.
Flushing may also increase the proportion of females that exhibit estrus.
❖ Grooming: Grooming refers to the process of cleaning animals so that their coats are free of
dust, dirt, manure and sweat.
❖ Scrub bull: A bull which is not having good progeny record non descriptive bull.
❖ Weaning: Separation of calf from the mother after parturition is known as weaning.
❖ Free Martin: It is infertile female cattle with masculinized behavior and non-functioning
ovaries.
❖ Animal Terminology (Sheep):
❖ Ram: uncastrated male sheep (NABARD-2021)
❖ Wether: castrated male sheep
❖ Cosset: lamb raised without help of its mother.
❖ Ewe: female sheep.
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❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
8
Lamb: young sheep.
Ewe Lamb: female sheep less than 12 months old
Lambing: act of parturition in sheep.
Buck: male sheep
Ram Lamb: male sheep less than 12 months old (NABARD-2021)
Terminology (Poultry):
Rooster: Adult male (uncastrated) chicken.
Roasters: mature chickens used for meat.
Capon: castrated male chicken.
Cock/Cocks: Adult male (uncastrated) chicken.
Hen: female chicken.
Pullet: Young female chicken
Broiler: young chickens raised for meat (NABARD-2021)
Layers: chickens developed to produce large numbers of eggs.
Laying: act of parturition in chickens.
Brood: This indicates a group of chicks of same age raised in one batch.
Brooding: This is a process of rearing the young chickens from 1 day old stage to 5 to 6
weeks of age during which, heat is to be provided (RRB SO-2021)
Brooder: Basically, this is a device for providing artificial heat.
Broody: This Indicates a hen which has stopped laying eggs temporarily.
Moulting: It is the process of shading old feathers.
Culling: It is nothing but removing unwanted birds (sick or diseased or useless) from the
flock.
Debeaking: Debeaking, beak trimming (also spelt beak-trimming), or beak conditioning is
the partial removal of the beak of poultry, especially layer hens and turkeys. Most commonly,
the beak is shortened permanently, although regrowth can occur.
Incubation Period: Egg incubation is the process by which an egg, of oviparous (egg-laying)
animals, develops an embryo within the egg. (Incubation period for chicken eggs is 20 to 21
days.
Silent heat: A sub estrus or silent heat in cattle, is defined as the lack of behavioral estrus
symptoms, although the genital organs undergo normal cyclical changes. The incidence of
silent heat varies from 10% to 40% between different herds.
Anestrous: It is the period of sexual quiescence (dormancy) between two periods of sexual
activity in cyclically breeding mammals.
Prolapsing of uterus: In the cow, the vagina and the uterus are separated by the cervix.
Prolapsing of uterus means the uterus slips down into or protrudes out of the vagina
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❖ Endometritis: Endometritis is a mild, chronic infection of the uterus (Produces inflammation
or irritation). It is very common, affecting up to 40% of post-calving cows. The uterus
contains pus and there may be discharge from the vulva. The cows do not seem sick and will
still eat, milk and cycle normally.
❖ Colostrum: Colostrum is the first form of mammary gland secretion that is released by the
mammary glands after giving birth.
❖ Lactogenesis: The initiation of lactation, called lactogenesis while Lactation describes the
secretion of milk from the mammary glands.
INSTITUTE RELATED TO ANIMAL HUSBANDRY:
Institute Name
➢ Location
Central Goat Research Institute (CGRI)
➢ Makhdoom, Mathura (U.P.)
Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute
(CSWRI)
➢ Avikanagar (Rajasthan)
Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB)➢ Hisar (Haryana)
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources
Karnal (Haryana)
Central avian Research Institute (CARI)
Izzatnagar 1979 (U.P.) (AFO-2018)
Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI)
➢ Izzatnagar (U.P.)
National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)
➢ Anand (Gujarat)
National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI)
Karnal (Haryana), 1923/1955
National Equine Research Centre
Hisar, Haryana.
National Camel Research Centre
➢ Bikaner, Rajasthan
Indian Grassland and Forage Research Institute ➢ Jhansi, UP
SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF COMMON ANIMALS:
Common Name
Scientific Name
Cow
Bos taurus/Indicus
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Water Buffalo/ Asian water buffalo
Bubalus bubalis
Swamp Buffalo
Bubalus carabanensis
Goat
Capra aegagrus hircus
Sheep
Ovis aries
Dog
Canis lupus
Horse
Equus ferus caballus
Domestic Pig
Sus scrofa domesticus
Donkey
Equus africanus asinus
Dromedary Camel
Camelus dromedarius
Bactrian Camel
Camelus bactrianus
Fowl
Gallus domesticus
TERMINOLOGY USED IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Detail
Species
Group
Cattle
Bovine
Herd
Buffalo
Bovine
Herd
Sheep
Ovine
Flock
Goat
Caprine
Flock/band
Adult Male
Bull
Buffalo
Bull
Ram/Tup
(Nabard2021)
Eve
Ram lamb/
Tup lamb
Eve Lamb/
Gimmer
Lamb
Lamb
Adult
Cow
Buffalo
Female
(AFO-2020)
Young
Bull calf Buffalo
Male
bull calf
Young
Heifer
Heifer
Female
calf
calf
New-born
10
Calf
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Buffalo
calf
Buck
Pig
Swine or sus
Drove/Herd/
Stock
Boar
Horse
Equine
Pack
Stallion
Doe
Sow
Mare
Buckling/
Male Kid
Goalting
Boarling
Colt
Gilt
Filly
Kid
Piglet
Foal
Castrated Bullock/
Male
Steer
SterilizedSpayed
Female
Female
Calf at
with its
foot
offspring
Parturition Calving
Mating
Spayed
Hog/Stag/
Barrow
Spayed
Gelding/G
eld
Spayed
Suckling
Suckling
Suckling
Foal at
foot
Calving
Lambing
Kidding
Foaling
Serving
Tupping
(AFO-2020)
Serving
Farrowing
(AFO-2021)
Coupling
Serving
Buffalo
bullock
Spayed
Wether/
Wedder
Spayed
Wether
Calf at
foot
Covering
BODY TEMPERATURE, PULSE RATE AND RESPIRATION RATE
Kind of
animal
Temperature
0
C
Rate per minute
0
F
Pulse
Respiration
Buffalo
38.3
101
44-50
15-20
Dairy cow
38.5
101.4
50-60
20-25
Goat
39.8
103.8
70-90
12-30
Sheep
39.1
102.4
70-90
12-30
Pig
39.1
102.4
70-80
10-16
Chicken
41.7
107.2
128-140
12-28
Camel
36.3
97.4
32-50
5-12
➢ Note :- Respiratory rate is measured by placing the hand on the muzzle. Pulse rate is measured
in per minute. The pulse rate in cows and buffaloes is measured by the coccygeal artery (under
the tail).
➢ Formula to convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius = (°F − 32) × 5/9
➢ Formula to convert degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit = (0°C × 9/5) + 32
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CHROMOSOME NUMBER IN ANIMALS:
Animal
Chromosome (2n)
Cow
60
Buffalo (i) Swamp
48
(ii) water
50
Goat
60
sheep
54
camel
74
Horse
64
chicken
78
pig
38
CATTLE DENTITION:
❖ Cattle first develop 20 temporary teeth, known also as deciduous, milk, or baby teeth.
❖ These temporary teeth eventually fall out and are replaced with 32 permanent or adult
teeth as an animal matures. Temporary teeth are easily distinguishable from permanent
teeth. They are much smaller and whiter than permanent teeth.
Temporary teeth: 8 incisors, 12 Premolars, No molars
Permanent teeth: 8 incisor, 12 premolars, 12 molars (RRB SO-2019)
FINDING THE AGE OF ANIMALS:
1. General Appearance: - Young animal has shiny eyes, horns small and shiny, skin
drawn, developed ions, medium sized teeth and agile nature.
2. Seeing the hoof: - It is detected by looking at the condition of the hooves. The hooves
of young animals are small and shiny.
3. By horn:- Formula :- 2+ Number of rings on horn
The first ring on the horns is formed on the horns of the animal in the third year after
birth after this a ring is formed every year. It is wrong to estimate the age by this
method because with the help of sand, the cattle keepers gnaw the rings made on the
horns.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
4. By teeth :- It is the most suitable method to determine age of animals.
I
C
I
C
Teeth Formula :- +
0
0
4
0
0
0
4
0
Temporary :- +
Permanent :- +
+
+
3
3
3
3
+
PM
PM
M
M
0
+
+
+
0
3
3
➢ Molar teeth do not emerge temporarily in cows and buffaloes. Straight out
permanent.
➢ The age of the animal is determined only by the incisor teeth only. Canine teeth are
not found in ruminant animals.
TO FIND THE AGE OF COW AND BUFFALO :➢
Permanent incisor teeth
Ist Pair
Age
2 years 3 months
IInd Pair
3 years
IIIrd
3 years
1
3
1
IVth
4 years
2
SOME OF THE TOOLS USED IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY:
Name
Use
Burdizzo's Castrator (JRF)
It is used to castrate male animals.
Bull nose ring
Nose ring to control a bull
Catheter
For urination when cows stop urination
Cattle Cradle
A device to stop a cow from drinking its own milk
Lactometer
It is used to determine the relative density of milk .It has a
mark from 0 to 40.
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Trocar & Canula
In Afra (acidity) disease, a hole is made in the womb to
remove gas from the animal's rumen.
Tattooing machine
It is a device for marking by putting numbers in the ears of
animals.
Vaginal Speculum (योनी विक्षण
hysterectomy
यंत्र)
20TH LIVESTOCK CENSUS
➢ From the year 1919-20, animal census is done after every 5 years in the country.
➢ It includes the total count of all the domesticated animals.
➢ After independence, the first animal census was done in 1951. While the first animal
census was done in 1919
➢ India has the first place in milk production and number of buffaloes.
➢ Uttar Pradesh has maximum livestock in India and at second place it is Rajasthan.
➢ Cow - India has the second place in the world.
➢ Madhya Pradesh has the largest number of cows in India.
➢ According to the 20th Livestock Census Report, there has been an increase of 4.6% in
the total livestock in the country.
➢ Livestock in 2019 - 53 crore 57 lakh (535.78 million)
Animal
Total No. (Million)
First in the country
Goat
20.84
Rajasthan
Cow
13.9
West Bengal
Buffalo
13.7
Uttar Pradesh
Sheep
7.9
Telangana
Camel
2.13
Rajasthan
Pigs
Donkey
14
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Assam
0.23
Rajasthan
ANIMAL BREEDING
➢ Breeding: the mating and production of offspring by animals is known as breeding.
➢ When breeding is between animals of the same breed it is called inbreeding, while crosses
between different breeds are called outbreeding.
❖ Types of Breeding
➢ Inbreeding/ Close Breeding: Mating of closely related animals in the same breed such as
brother – sister mating, parents offspring mating. When the mates have common ancestors within 4 generations this results in inbreeding.
• Advantage: A pure line of a particular breed can be maintained
• Disadvantage: Loss of vigor, size, production fertility problems (Inbreeding depression)
➢ Out breeding: Mating of unrelated animals in the different breeds but with no common
ancestor for a minimum of 4-6 generations.
➢ Out-crossing: This is the practice of mating of animals within the same breed but having no
common ancestors on either side of their pedigree up to 4-6 generations.
➢ The offspring of such a mating is known as an outcross. It is the best breeding method for
animals that are below average in productivity in milk production, growth rate in beef cattle,
etc. A single outcross often helps to overcome inbreeding depression.
➢ Line Breeding: Mating of half-brother and half-sister, Cousin, increase homozygosity and
decrease heterozygosity (AFO-2020)
➢ Crossbreeding: In this method, superior males of one breed are mated with superior females
of another breed. Crossbreeding allows the desirable qualities of two different breeds to be
combined. Hisardale is a new breed of sheep developed in Punjab by crossing Marino rams
and Bikaneri ewes. (RRB SO-2019)
➢ Triple cross: In this method three breeds are crossed in a rotational manner it is also called
rotational crossing.
➢ Back Cross: Mating of a cross breed back to one of the pure parents. (JRF)
➢ Test Crossing: Breeding of the dominant phenotype with the homozygous recessive
phenotype (parent) is known as a test cross. The F1 hybrid is crossed with a recessive
genotype.
➢ Grading up: It is mating of pure-bred males of a established breed with nondescript females
successively over several generations to produce a progeny that resembles and performs
similar to the pure breed. Godavari breed of buffalo is developed by crossing of the local
buffalos of coastal region of Andhra Pradesh breed with Murrah breed over several
generations. (RRB SO-2021)
➢ Rotational crossing: In rotational crossing, males from one of the pure breeds are used in
alternate generations to breed the cross bred females. This rotational crossing could be
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
15
between two breeds is called crisscrossing ((AFO-2021) and among three breeds is called
triple crossing.
➢ Interspecific hybridization: In this method, male and female animals of two different related
species are mated. In some cases, the progeny may combine desirable features of both the
parents, and may be of considerable economic value, e.g., the mule
Outbreeding
Outcrossing
1. Out breeding is breeding of unrelated
animals.
1. It is the cross of unrelated individual,
same breed, no common ancestor
2. It can involve outcrossing or cross
breeding or interspecific hybridization.
GESTATION PERIOD, OESTROUS CYCLE, HEAT PERIOD
Animal
Age of Puberty
(In months)
24- 30
Gestation period
Oestrous cycle
Heat period
285
21 Days
18 hours
Buffalo (AFO2020)
Sheep
28-30
310
21 Days
24 hours
9-14
145-150
15-18 Days
1-3 Days
Goat
8-10
150-152
20 Days
2-3 Days
Camel
36-48
391
10 Days
3-5 Days
Swine
8-10
114
21 Days
1-5Days
Cow
OESTROUS CYCLE
Proestrum:(2 days)
Oestrum: (1 day)
Metoestrum :( 4
days)
Diestrum: (14 days)
16
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Proestrum: (2 days) Period of building up growth of graffian Follicle which helps for the
nourishment of ovum fluid contains hormone called “oestrogen”. It causes changes in uterus,
blood supply.
❖ Oestrum: (1 day) during which the female is ready to receive male.
❖ Metoestrum:(4 days) Implantation of the embryo takes place, corpus luteum takes place.
Prevents the growth of graffian follicle thereby arrests oestrus cycle. (RRB SO-2018)
❖ Diestrum: (14 days) further development of uterus takes place. If the animal has not
conceived involution of uterus take place.
❖ Estrus Period: Pro estrus: 2 or 3 days, Estrus: 12 to 18 hours, Ovulation: 12 to 16 hours after
end of estrus, Estrous cycle: 21± 3 days
Symptoms of Heat in Animal
➢ The animal will be excited condition. The animal will be in restlessness
and nervousness.
➢ The animal will reduce the intake of feed and milk production.
➢ Peculiar movement of limbo sacral region will be observed.
➢ The animals which are in heat will lick other animals and smelling other
animals.
➢ The animals will try to mount other animals
➢ The animals will stand still when another animal try to mount. This period
is known as standing heat. This extends 14-16 hours.
➢ Frequent maturation (urination) will be observed.
➢ Swelling of the valva will be seen.
➢ The tail will be in raised position.
RECOMMENDATION FOR TIMING OF INSEMINATION:
Cows showing oestrus
In morning
In afternoon
Should be inseminated
Same day
Morning of next day or early
afternoon
Too late for good results
Next day
After 3 p.m.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
17
CASTRATION
❖ Making the animal unable to reproduce is generally known as castration.
❖ Precaution: Castration should be performed during cold season and strictly avoid rainy
season for fear of fly problems.
❖ Optimum Age: Young animals: within 3 months (Surgical method and elastrator)
❖ Adult animal: within one year of age (Closed method – Burdizzo castrators)
❖ Methods of castration:
1. Burdizzo method
➢ It is also known as bloodless castration.
➢ This method is safe, quick and less chance of getting infection.
2. Open or surgical method
➢ Scrotum is opened and testicles are removed, aseptically and the wound is treated with
antiseptics.
3. Rubber ring or elastrator method
➢ A strong and tight rubber ring placed around the cord at an early age of calf.
➢ Optimum age: below 3 months.
❖ Semen collection methods:
❖ Artificial vagina (A.I.)
➢ A.I. was first attempted in India in 1939 by Dr. Sampath kumar at the palace dairy
farm, Mysore.
➢ The first buffalo calf through A.I. was born in 1943 at the Allahabad Ag. Institute in
U. P. in India.
➢ Internal temperature of vagina is around 40–45°C
➢ Sperm are viable for 24 hours in the female reproductive tract whereas the ovum
remains fertile for only about 10 hours after ovulation.
❖ Storage of frozen semen:
(a) -79o C by using solid CO2 (dry ice) and alcohol
(b) -196o C by using liquid nitrogen (mostly used)
(c) -296o C by using liquid helium
18
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
ANIMAL BREEDS
CATTLE:
❖ The genus Bos, is classified into Bos indicus (Tropical, humped cattle) and Bos taurus
(temperate, hump-less cattle)
❖ Milch Breeds / Milk Breeds: The cows of these breeds are high milk yields and the
male animals are slow or poor work animals. The milk production of milk breeds is on
the average more than 1600 kg per lactation (1500-2500)
❖ Dual Purpose Breeds: The cows in these breeds are average milk yielder (500 kg to
1500 kg) and male animals are very useful for work.
❖ Draught Breeds: The male animals are good for work and Cows are poor milk yielder
(less than 500 kg per lactation). A pair of bullocks can haul 1000 kg. Net with an iron
typed cart on a good road at walking speed of 5 to 7 km per hour and cover a distance of
30 - 40 km per day.
➢ Average life of cow and buffalo is: 18 years
➢ Highest lactation length: Holstein Friesian (Exotic), Sahiwal & Gir (Indigenous)
➢ Sweetest Milk: Sahiwal
➢ Best draught capacity: Hallikar
➢ Highest milk production: Sahiwal, Holstein Friesian (Exotic)
➢ Highest disease resistency: Gir
➢ Best dual-purpose breed: Haryana(AFO-2017)
➢ Smallest of the dairy types of cattle (Exotic): Jersy
➢ Largest dairy breed: Holstein Friesian(AFO-2015)
➢ Most dwarf breed of cattle is: Vechur (Smallest is jersey)
CATTLE BREEDS:
Milch purpose
Dual purpose
Draft purpose
Sahiwal
Red sindhi
Gir
Deoni
Ongole
Haryana (Nabard-2021)
Kankrej
Gaolao
Tharparkar
Mewati
Dangi
Nimadi (RRB SO-2021)
Amritmahal
Nagori
Khillari(AFO-2020)
Kangayam
Hallikar
Malvi
Siri
Purnea
Rathi
Alambadi
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
19
Nimari
Nellore & Rathi
20
Ponwar
Burgur
Bachur
Kherigarh
Umbalachery
Pulikulam
S.
No
Breed
Name
Origin
Famous Character
1.
Sahiwal
Pakistan,
Haryana,
Punjab,
Rajasthan
Best indigenous breed-Loose 1400- 37-48 430-580
skin & reddish dun or pale red 2500
colour
2.
Gir
Gujarat
Half-moon appearance
1200- 45-54 515-600
1800
3.
Red Sindhi
Pakistan
Red colour, thick horns with
blunt points
2500- 39-50 425-540
3400
4.
Deoni
Hyderabad
Resembles Gir in most of the
characters
1000- 35
1200
5.
Amritmahal
Karnataka
Grey colored and very active
famous for power of
endurance
6.
Kangayam
Tamilnadu
Famous for Jallikattu game in
Tamilnadu
40
7.
Siri
Sikkim and
Bhutan
Long hairs on the hump
50
8.
Hallikar
Karnataka
Excellent drought breed
55-60
9.
Malvi
Madhya
Pradesh
Also known as breed of zebu
cattle
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Milk AFC
Yield (mon
ths)
9001200
36-42
Calving
Interval
(Days)
447
10.
Nagori
Rajasthan
Famous for pulling tanga
9001200
11.
Tharparkar
Pakistan
Lyre shaped horn
1800- 36-48
2600
12.
Haryana
Haryana,
Punjab, UP
Best dual-purpose
breed(AFO-2017)
13.
Kankrej
Gujarat
Sawai-chal
14.
Ongole
Andhra
Pradesh
Famous for beef in Brazil
15.
Gaolao
Maharashtra Used for milk and transport
, Madhya
purpose
Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh
16.
Dangi
Gujarat
17.
Karan –
Fries (AFO2018)
Developed
HF x Tharparkar
at NDRI
(AFO-2018)
18.
Karan Developed
Swiss(AFO- at NDRI
2017)
19.
Fries -Wal
20.
Sunandini
21.
Sujata
22.
Phuletriveni
Kerala
36-48
10001200
The skin of this breed secretes
an oil element which enable it
to tolerate heavy rains
3700
30-32 425
Sahiwal x Brown Swiss
3500
45
HF x Sahiwal
3800
Non-descript cattle with
jersey/ Brown Swiss /HF bull
2500
Jersey x Sahiwal
2800
Mahatma
Combinations of HF, Jersey,
Phule Krishi Gir
32
395
30003500
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
21
Vidyapeeth,
Rahuri
23.
Holstein Friesian
Netherland
Highest milk producer in the
world
6000- 24-27 390
7000
24.
Jersey
Jersey
island of
France
Highest fat content
4000- 25-30 390-420
5000
25.
Brown Swiss
Switzerland
Second heaviest cattle breed
after HF
5000
28-30 390-420
26.
Ayrshire
Scotland
Most beautiful, over – active
and difficult to manage
4600
26-27 390
27.
Guernsey
Guernsey
island
4000- 26-27
5000
BUFFALO:
❖ Types of Buffaloes:
1. Swamp buffalo: (Bubalus carabanesis)
• It is exotic buffalo, body colour copper and dark brown, mainly used for drought animals
e.g., karabaow, sui-new, sinhala etc.
• Swamp buffaloes are found in the south-west regions and are powerful for carrying
loads.
• Chromosome number 2n = 48
2. River buffalo: (Bubalus bubalis):
• It is known as Indian buffalo, Milk buffalo or water buffalo
• Body colour mostly black except Bhadawari and Surati which is copper colored.
• Indian buffalo or water buffalo are found in the plains and low hill areas of India.
• Chromosome number 2n = 50
➢ Buffaloes are the main source of milk supply in India. (Buffalo contribute maximum in
overall milk while in world maximum production is given by cow)
➢ There are seven main species of Indian buffalo which are known for their milk quality.
➢ The flesh of a dead buffalo calf is shiny, it is called flax.
➢ Heaviest buffalo - Jafarabadi
➢ Lightest buffalo – Surti
22
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
Maximum milk production – Murrah (AFO-2016)
Longest gestation period - Mehsana
Most prolific buffalo – Toda
Sweet and fragrant milk – Toda
Most beautiful buffalo - Murrah
Maximum Fat – Bhadavari (AFO-2017)
Sickle shaped horn: Surti (AFO-2021)
Sword shaped horns: Nagpuri
CLASSIFICATION OF BUFFALO BREEDS :
Murrah Group
Gujarat group
Uttar Pradesh
group
Central Indian
group
South Indian
group
Murrah
Surti
Bhadawari
Nagpuri
Toda (TN)
Nili-ravi
Jaffarbadi,
Tarai
Pandhapur
South canara
(Karnataka)
Kundi
Mehsana
Sambalpuri
Godavari
Manda
Kalahandi
Jerangi
S.
No
.
Breed
Origin/
Distributio
n
Features
Milk Fat
Yiel %
d
1.
Murrah
Haryana,
Punjab
highest lactation, tightly 1500
curved horn
2500
2.
Nili Ravi
Punjab
Peculiarity of the breed
is the wall eyes
1500
1850
7%
AFC
Calving
Interval
45-47
(AFO2017)
450-500
45-50
500-550
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
23
3.
Jaffarbad
i
Gujarat
Funnel shaped teats,
heaviest Indian breed,
also known as mini
elephant. (JRF)
1000
1200
910%
4.
Bhadawa
ri
Uttar
Pradesh,
Madhya
Pradesh
Copper colored with
two white lines
“chevron” in neck
8001000
612.5
Gujarat
Small buffalo
economical milk
producer
9001300
8-12 40-50
400-500
7
45-50
450-550
40-45
450-550
5.
Surti
480
50
Highest fat content
Sickle shaped horns
6.
Nagpuri
Maharashtra
Sword shaped horns
7001200
7.
Mehsana
Gujarat
Cross of murrah x Surti
1200
1500
IMPORTANT DETAIL:
S.NO
Particulars
Indigenous
1
2
3
Age at puberty
Age at first mating
Optimum weight at first
mating
Oestrus cycle length
Duration of oestrus
Time of ovulation
Optimum time of
insemination
Conception rate
24 months
30 months
250 kg
4
5
6
7
8
24
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Exotic /
Crosses
12-15 months
18-20 months
180-275 kg
Buffaloes
24-30 months
30-36 months
300-350 kg
17-24 days
21±3
21 days
18 hours
18 hours
18 hours
12-16 hour after end of oestrus
Late heat (The best time for artificial insemination
occurs in the last part of heat.)
60 per cent
9
Services per conception
1.5-1.75
10
11
12
13
Gestation period
Dry period
Calving to first heat
Calving to first service
280-290 days
60
40 days
60 days or less
14
15
16
Caving to conception
Lactation length
First service pregnancy
rate
60-90 days non-return
rate
Abortion rate
Breeding age of bull
Number of service per
week
Milk yield
Birth weight
85 days
305 days
65 %
17
18
19
20
21
22
60
40 days
305-318 days
60
40 days
3500-5000
25-35
1500-3000
30-40
70 %
Less than 5%
2-2 ½ year
2-3 per week
1500-2000
25
GOAT: Capra hircus, F. Bovidae
➢ Goat is very economic to rearing also known as poor man’s cow & enemy of vegetation.
➢ Pashmina is the finest natural fiber obtained from Changthangi & Chegu (Kashmiri)
goat breeds, and it is used in winter clothes
➢ Morocco fine leather is prepared from goat skin.
➢ Mohair white wool like hairs from angora breed of goat.
➢ Milch: Barbari
➢ Dual purpose: Beetal (AFO-2022), Jamunapari, Tellicherry
➢ Meat and skin – Black Bengal, Kanni adu
➢ Meats, skin and milk – Marvari, Malabari (Tellicherry), Sirohi, Surti
➢ Meat hair and skin – Gaddi, Kutchi, Marwari(Black face)
➢ Milk meat and skin – Beetal, Jamunapari
➢ Fur: Pashmina, Kashmiri
➢ Exotic: Toggenberg, Alpine, Sannen (AFO-2022), Anglo Nubian, Boer, Angora
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
25
S.
No.
Breed
Origin
Characters
Daily Milk Age at
First
Kidding
1.
Jamunapari
Uttar
Pradesh
Large folded pendulous
ear, roman nose, tuft of
long hairs in the buttocks,
highest lactation length
(AFO-2020)
22.5kg/day
20-25
2.
Beetal
Punjab
Similar to Jamuna Pari ,
Dual purpose breed of
milk + meat (AFO-2022)
1-2kg/day
20-22
3.
Barbari
UP, Haryana Suitable for stall feeding
11.5kg/day
4.
Black
Bengal
West Bengal Shorter and most prolific
among Indian breed
53kg/
lactation
90-120
Great demand in high
class shoe making
5.
Chegu
Himachal
Pradesh
Used for draught purpose
187 days
Horns are bent upward,
backward, outward with
one more twists
6.
Tellicherry
Kerala
Purpose for meat and
better reproductive
capabilities
1-2 kg/day
7.
Osmanabadi
Maharashtra
Good quality meat
3.5 kg /day
SHEEP: Ovis aries
➢ Sheep belongs to the family Bovidae, Genus Ovis and Species- aries.
➢ Sheep are mostly reared for meat and wool.
➢ Water requirement adult sheep 2 – 4 liters.
26
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
19-20
➢
❖
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
❖
➢
➢
➢
➢
Wool potential: 3.5 - 5 kg - exotic breeds, 1 - 2 kg - Indian breeds
Indigenous Breed of sheep
Superior carpet wool: Magra, Chokla, Nali, Bikaneri
Coarse wool – Marwari, Coimbatore, Bellari,
Good quality wool: Gurez, Bharwal, Gaddi, Ramper Bushiar
Apparel wool breeds: Hissardale, Nilgiri, Kashmir Merino, Keezhakaraisal
Hairy Meat breeds: Trichy Black, Ramnad White, Malpura, Vembur, Madras, Nellore,
and Mandya
Exotic Breed of sheep
Fine Wool Breeds: Merino, Rambouillet, Polwarth
Mutton: South down, Dorset, Suffolk,
Dual purpose: Corridale
Pelt: Karakul
S.
No.
Breed
Origin
Characters
1.
Neelagiri
Tamilnadu
Wool purpose breed
Wool
Production
Ears are broad and drooped out
2.
Deccani
Andhra
Pradesh and
Tamilnadu
Small and Hardy
Well adapted to poor pastoral
conditions
4.5kg
wool/sheep
Chiefly for mutton
3.
4.
Nellore
Marwari
Andhra
Pradesh
Tallest breed of sheep in India
Rajasthan
Hardy, Yielding coarser wool
Resemble goat in appearance
High tolerance to disease and
worms
5.
Gaddi
Jammu
Superior, fine and lustrous wool
0.91.8kg/sheep
1.13kg
/sheep
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
27
6.
Mandya
Typical reverse U shaped from year
end
Karnataka
Good quality mutton
7.
Trichy black
Tamilnadu
Smaller and black coloured breed
8.
Kashmir
Merino
Kashmir
9.
Merino
Spain
Best fine wool breed
10.
Rambouillet
France
Excellent fine wool fleece
11.
Polwarth
Australia
Cross of Lincoln x Merino
12.
South down
England
Smallest of the meat breed
13.
Cheviot
Scotland
Superior and effective meat
producer
14.
Corridale
New Zealand
Cross of Lincoln x Merino
2.80kg
HOUSING & FEEDING OF ANIMAL:
FLOOR SPACE REQUIREMENT
FOR COWS AND BUFFALOES
TYPE OF
ANIMALS
28
FLOOR SPACE
REQUIREMENT (M2)
MAXIMUM
NO. OF
ANIMALS
/PAN
Covered area
Open area
Bulls
12.0
12/24
1
Cows
3.5
7.0
50
Buffaloes
4.0
8.0
50
Pregnant cows
4.0
8.0
1
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
HEIGHT OF
THE SHED
(CM)
175 cm in
medium and
heavy rainfall
and 220 cm in
dry areas
Young calves
1.0
2.0
30
Old calves
2.0
4.0
30
HOUSING SPACE RERQUIREMENT FOR CROSS BRED CATTLES
(ACCORDING TO NABARD NORMS)
AGE GROUP
MANGER
SPACE
(METRE)
STANDING OR
COVERED
AREA (sq. mtr)
OPEN SPACE (sq. mtr)
4-6 months
0.2-0.3
0.8-1.0
3.0-4.0
6-12 months
0.3-0.4
1.2-1.6
5.0-6.0
1-2 years
0.4-0.5
1.6-1.8
6.0-8.0
Cows
0.8-1.0
1.8-2.0
11.0-12.0
Pregnant cows
(AFO-2018)
1.0-1.2
8.5-10.0
15.0-20.0
Bulls
1.0-1.2
9.0-11.0
20.0-22.0
FOR CALVES
AGE OF
CALVES
FLOOR SPACE REQUIREMENT
NUMBER OF CALVES /PAN
(Months)
COVERED
AREA (m2)
OPEN
AREA(m2)
0-3
1.0
2
24
3-6
1.5
3
16
6-12
2.0
4
12
TYPES OF HOUSING
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
29
1. Single Row: Maximum 12-16 animals can be kept together. The slope of the animal
shelter is kept in the opposite direction of the animal's mouth.
2. Double row: - When the number of animals is more than 16.
(a) Tail to tail method :➢ Shed size = 31 × 10.45 M2
➢ Maximum 28 animals can be kept in a group.
➢ This method is the best method in double row.
➢ There is a drain made for excretion of feces and urine.
➢ Two manger space are made.
(b) Head-to-Head Method:➢ Shed size = 31 × 10.36 M2
➢ It can hold a maximum of 50 animals.
➢ There is a high risk of diseases in it.
➢ The cattle shed is raised from the middle.
➢ It consists of one manger space and two drains.
FOR SHEEP (INDIAN CONDITION)
30
AGE GROUP
COVERED AREA (sq.
Mtr)
OPEN AREA (sq. Mtr)
Up to 3 months
0.2-0.25
0.4-0.5
3-6 months
0.5-0.75
1.0-1.5
6-12 months
0.75-1.0
1.5-3.0
Adult animal
1.5
3.0
Male, pregnant or
lactating ewe/doe
1.5-2.0
3.0-4.0
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
FOR GOAT
TYPE OF ANIMAL
FLOOR SPACE REQUIREMENT (Sq.
mtr)
SHED
Adult goat
1.25-1.5
Pregnant doe & bucks
2.0
LONG AXIS
EAST –
WEST
Kids (3-6 months)
0.7-0.9
Kids (6-12 months)
1.0
FEEDING SCHEDULE OF ANIMALS
FOR GROWING ANIMALS
Age
(months)
Approx.
Concentrate
Body
mixture (kg)
weight (kg)
Grasses (kg)
6-9
70-100
1.5-1.75
5-10
9-15
100-150
1.75-2.25
10-15
15-20
150-200
2.25-2.50
15-20
Above 20
200-300
2.50-2.75
15-20
FOR DAIRY ANIMALS
Type of
animal
Feeding
during
Green fodder
(kg)
Dry fodder
(kg)
Concentrate (kg)
Lactation
days
20-25
5-6
3.0-3.5
Dry days
15-20
6-7
3.0-3.5
CROSSBRED COWS
6-7 Liters
milk/day
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
31
8-10 Liters
milk / day
Lactation
days
25-30
4-5
0.5-1.0
Dry days
20-25
6-7
4.0-4.5
20-30
4-6
1.25 + 1 kg for every 2.5 -3.0
kg of milk
3-5
2.5-3
Milking cows
Bull (400-500 kg body weight)
20-25
Note: The total food should have 60% dry and 40% wet portion. The green or wet fodder
must have 25% leguminous herbage and 75% monocot grasses.
FEEDING AND WATERING SPACE REQUIREMENT
Type of animal
SPACE PER
ANIMAL (cm)
TOTAL MANGER
LENGTH IN A PAN FOR
100 ANIMALS (cm)
TOTAL
WATER
TANK
LENGTH
IN A PAN
FOR 100
ANIMALS
(cm)
Adult cattle and
buffaloes
60-75
6000-7500
600-750
Calves
40-50
4000-5000
400-500
DEPTH (cm)
HEIGHT
OF INNER
WALL (cm)
DIMENSIONS OF FEED MANGER
Type of animal
32
WIDTH (cm)
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Adult cattles and
buffaloes
60
40
50
Calves
40
15
20
CONCENTRATE & ROUGHAGES DIFFERENCE:
Concentrate
Roughages
10 % Moisture and 90% Dry matter
Dry fodder--10 % Moisture and 90%Dry
matter, Green Fodder---80-90 % Moisture
and 10% Dry Matter
Highly Digestible
Comparatively less digestible
Crude fiber less than 18%
More than 18%
Nutritive Value/unit mass is high
Low
Compact in Nature
Bulky
Keeping quality -High
Variable : Dry Fodder – High, Green
fodder- Less/low
NUTRIENT CONTENT IN ANIMAL & POULTRY MANURE:
Nutrient
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
S
Cattle
Highest
Poultry>Sheep=Pig
Poultry>Pig
Pig>sheep>Poultry
Poultry>Horse
Cattle>Poultry
Poultry>Pig
Highest
N>K
Lowest
Horse>cattle
Horse>cattle
Horse>cattle
Cattle>sheep
Pig> Horse
Horse>sheep
Lowest
S
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
33
Sheep
Pig
Horse
Poultry
N>K
K>N
N>K
Ca>N
S
Mg
S
S
➢ N, P, Ca, S: Highest in poultry. (AFO-2018)
➢ K: Highest in Pig
➢ Mg: Highest in cattle & Lowest in pig.
WATER REQUIREMENT:
➢ Non-heat stressed non-lactating cattle may drink 5-6%body weight per day. Water
consumption may increase by 12% or more of body weight per day during heat stress.
➢ Animals will consume 2 to 5kg of water for every 1 kg of dry feed consumed when they
are not heat stressed.
Animal
Liters/day
Dairy cattle
38-110
Beef cattle
22-66
Sheep and goat
4-5
Chickens
0.2-0.4
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF CATTLE (RUMINANTS)
1. The digestive organs of ruminants consist of mouth, oesophagus, rumen, reticulum,
omasum and abomasum, small intestine, and large intestine.
2. The cow takes food into the mouth. The food taken in by the animal after mixing with
saliva enters into the rumen through oesophagus.
3. Cattle stomach has four compartments such as:
➢ Rumen: In the rumen the feed is subjected to microbial fermentation. In ruminants this
enlarged part is represented by the rumen which is the biggest compartment in their fourchambered stomach. The temperature of rumen is 38- 40°C. This is ideal for the growth
of micro-organisms, and they flourish as if grown in an incubator. (BHU)
➢ Reticulum: It is a smaller sac partially separated from rumen. This organ has a thick wall
resembling honeycomb. The contents of rumen and reticulum mix freely. Reticulum is
34
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
connected to omasum, the third compartment of stomach through an opening on the right
side of reticulum.
➢ Omasum: This organ has many layers of muscular leaves giving it the resemblance to a
book. After fermentation the ingest passes through the reticulo-omasal orifice into the
omasum. With the help of the muscular leaves having horny papillae the ingesta is
squeezed out. Water and fatty acids so squeezed out are absorbed. (JRF)
➢ Abomasum: it is the true stomach in the ruminant. From this organ onwards the
digestion taking place in ruminants is similar to that of non-ruminants. (JRF)
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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COMMON DISEASES OF ANIMAL:
Category
Diseases
Diseases caused by bacteria
Anthrax, black quarter, brucellosis, mastitis,
Haemorrhagic septicemia, calf scours, pneumonia.
Diseases caused by viruses
Foot and Mouth, Rinderpest.
Diseases caused by protozoan
organisms
Coccidiosis (AFO-2020), Babesiosis, Anaplasmosis,
Theileriosis, Trypanosomiasis, Trichomonads.
Diseases caused by parasites
Round worms (Nematodes), Tapeworms (Cestodes),
Liver flukes (Trematodes).
Important Nutrient and Deficiency Symptoms:
Nutrient
Deficiency symptoms
Vitamins
Water insoluble
Vitamin A (Retinol)
Xerophthalmia
Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol)
Rickets, Osteomalacia
Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
Muscular dystrophy
Vitamin K (Fano quinone)
(Delayed clotting)
Water soluble
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
Polyneuritis
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin (AFO-2022)
Curled Toe paralysis
Nicotinamide
Dermatitis, Enteritis
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Anaemia, Convulsion
Pantothenic acid
Goose stepping
Folic acid
Anaemia
36
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Choline
Slow growth, Fatty liver
Biotin
Dermatitis, Loss in weight
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
Westing sickness
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
Scurvy
Minerals
Calcium
Rickets, Osteomalacia, Milk fever, Pica
Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine,
Sulphur
Dehydration (AFO-2020)
Magnesium
Hyperirritability
Iron
Anaemia
Zinc
Parakeratosis
Copper
Sway Back
Manganese
Perosis
Iodine
Goitre
Cobalt
Coast disease
Molybdenum
Molybdenosis
Fluorine
Florosis
Selenium
Dagnala disease (Toxicity), Alkali disease
TABULAR DETAIL OF ALL IMPORTANT DISEASES:
Disease
How contacted
Incub
ation
perio
d
First signs
Animal
affected
Nature of
preventive
treatment
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
37
Rinderpest
Direct contact or
with material
contaminated with
discharge from
lesions
3-15
days
High fever, bloodstained diarrhoea
Foot &
Mouth
disease
Direct contact or
with material
contaminated with
discharge from
lesions
3-8
days
Salivation, sores on All
feet and tongue,
domestic
lameness
animals
Segregation
and other
sanitary
measures,
vaccination
Contagious
bovine
pleuropneumonia
Direct contact
From
4
weeks
Frequent, painful,
subdued cough,
prolonged,
unthriftiness,
deaths at frequent
intervals
Cattle
Annual
vaccination,
destruction
of affected
animal
Anthrax
Water and food
contaminated with
blood and
excretions or by
wound infection
1-3
days
or
longer
Sudden death or
very high fever
Cattle,
buffaloes,
sheep,
goats and
horses
Annual
vaccination
Black
quarter
Water and food
contaminated with
blood and
excretions or by
wound infection
2-5
days
Gas gangrene,
death before 48
hours
Cattle and
sheep
Biannual
vaccination
Trypanoso
miasis
(Surra,
Nagana
etc.)
Infective flies
Few
days
tod
some
weeks
Intermittent fever,
unthriftiness
All
domestic
animals
Chemicals,
Eradication
of flies
38
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Cattle and
buffalo,
sometimes
sheep and
goats
Vaccination
Contagious
abortion
Food, water, etc.
contaminated by
discharged and
aborted foetus
21
days
Abortion, full-time
still births,
buffaloes retained
afterbirths
Cattle and
buffaloes
Vaccination
before
breeding
Bovine
piroplasmos
is (Redwater,
Texas fever
etc.)
Food, water, etc.
contaminated by
discharged and
aborted foetus
1-4
weeks
Fever, red and
black urine
Cattle,
sheep and
goats
Vaccination
before
breeding
Pleuropneumonia
of goats
Direct contact or
through material
contaminated with
nasal discharge
2-6
days
Fever, nasal
discharge
Goats
Sanitary
Segregation
Sheep pox
Inhalation and
through broken
skin of material
contaminated with
discharge
2-7
days
High fever,
discharge from
eyes and nose
Sheep
Vaccination
Swine pox
Directed by eating
or inhaling
material
contaminated
6-9
days
High fever,
blotched skin,
diarrhoea
Pigs
Sanitary
segregation
and
destruction
of affected
animal
6-9
Sudden death or
discharge from
eyes and nose,
inability to stand
Pigs, duck
and geese
Sanitary
segregation
Fowl plague Direct contact by
eating or inhaling
material
contaminated
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
39
Fowl
cholera
Direct contact by
eating or inhaling
material
contaminated
2-5
days
Sudden death or
discharge from
eyes and nose,
inability to stand
Pigs, duck
and geese
Sanitary
segregation
Fowl
spirochaeto
sis
Infective ticks
1-2
days
Intense thirst,
profuse diarrhoea,
gasping, sneezing
Duck and
geese
Tick
elimination
Fowl
pneumonia
Inhalation of
Diarrh Intense thirst,
spores from
profuse diarrhoea,
oea
infected litter, food
Gasping, sneezing
etc.
Duck and
geese
Improved
sanitation
Fowl pox
Direct contact
3-15
days
Rough, brown,
wartlike, sores on
the head, sore
mouth and eyes
Poultry,
turkeys,
some times
suinea
fowls,
ducks and
geese
Vaccination
twice yearly
Avian
Influenza
(Zoonotic)
Type A viruses
3-14
days
Swelling of head
and wattle, bluish
comb, dullness,
Respiratory
discharge,
Bleeding in the
muscles and legs
wild
aquatic
birds
neither be
prevented
with vaccine
not be
treated
successfully
2 to
14
days
Inactive and
drowsy with
arched back,
Huddling,
vomiting, high
fever anorexia and
Pigs
Modified
live vaccines
(MLV)
Classical
By Virus
Swine Fever
40
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
constipation, hair
loss
Exotic
Newcastle
Disease
By Virus (Infected
chicken,
Paramyxovirus,
Contamination of
water)
2-15
days
(avera
ge 56)
Depression,
Diarrhoea,
respiratory system
affected,
Poultry
birds
Live virus
vaccines
both from
lentogenic
(La Sota, F,
B1) and
mesogenic
(H, R2B,
Mukteshwar
)
Lumpy
Skin
Disease
Viral (LSDV)
Disease (vectorborne pox disease)
2 to 5
weeks
nodular skin
lesions of 10-50
mm in diameter,
Lachrymation and
nasal discharge,
cattle and
water
buffaloes
Hygiene and
sanitization
(not affect
humans)
➢ Zoonotic diseases: - Anthrax, Tuberculosis, Brucellosis, and Rabies
➢ Milk fever: caused because of low calcium level after calving.
➢ Ketosis: Disturbance of carbohydrate metabolism in high producing dairy cattle– hypo
glycaemia and appearance of ketone bodies. Usually appear in good milkers from 7 days to
six weeks after calving.
➢ Bloat (tympany): Is a disease of ruminants in which rumen and reticulum is over
distended with the gases of fermentation.
VACCINATION FOR DAIRY ANIMALS:
Sl.
No
Name of Disease
Age at first dose
Subsequent dose
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
41
1
Foot and Mouth
Disease (FMD)
4 months and above (Booster Six monthly
dose after 1 month)
2
Haemorrhagic
Septicaemia (HS)
6 months and above
Annually in endemic areas.
3
Black Quarter (BQ) 6 months and above
(BHU)
Annually in endemic areas.
4
Brucellosis
4-8 months of age
(Only female calves)
Once in a lifetime
5
Theileriosis
3 months of age and above
Once in a lifetime. Only
required for crossbred and
exotic cattle.
6
Anthrax
4 months and above
Annually in endemic areas.
7
IBR
3 months and above (Booster Six monthly (vaccine presently
dose after 1 month)
not produced in India)
8
Rabies (Post bite
therapy only)
Immediately after suspected
bite. (Booster dose on/after
4th day)
7,14,28 and 90 (optional) days
after first dose.
VACCINATION SCHEDULE FOR BUFFALOES:
Infection
FMD (Bovilis Clovax,
Raksha)
Primary
3 months onwards Every 44-48 weeks after 2nd booster
vaccination
Haemorrhagic Septicemia
(Galghotu/Ghurrka), Raksha HS
vaccine
6 months and
above
Annually and in adverse climatic
conditions like unseasonal rains and
cyclones, etc.
Rabies (Raksharab,
Prophylactic)
3 months and
above
3 years, annual vaccination
recommended in endemic areas
COMMON DISEASES OF SHEEP AND GOAT:
42
Revaccination
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Disease
Cause
Symptoms
Prevention and
control
Remarks
Blue
tongue
(BT)
Mainly during
the rainy season
caused by
Arthropod-borne
orbi virus in the
family of
Reoviridae.
Reddening and
swelling of nose
and oral mucosa,
Congestion of
conjunctival
mucous
membranes,
Dyspnoea,
snoring and
Pneumonia
Potassium
permanganate in 1
liter of water and
wash the mouth 2
to 3 times a day
with this solution,
First vaccine at 3
months of age then
once in a year
Mostly affects
sheep and goat
and cattle are
very rarely,
endemic in India,
Transmission
through semen
and placental
route is possible.
Peste-desPetits
Ruminants
(PPR)
Contagious viral
disease
(Moribillivirus
of
Paramyxoviridae
family)
Fever, loss of
First vaccine at 3
appetite,
months of age then
stomatitis,
once in a year
gastroenteritis
and pneumonitis.
markedly evident
in goat and sheep
are less
susceptible
Sheep pox
Chronic viral
disease (Capri
pox virus, pox
viridae family)
Pox lesions
throughout the
skin, papules
rhinitis,
conjunctivitis
First vaccine at 3
months of age then
once in a year in
feb-march
Use disinfectants
like ether (20%),
chloroform and
formalin (1%),
phenol (2%)
Anthrax
Bacteria Bacillus Sudden death,
anthracis
Bloat, edema
Use disinfected by
3% per acetic acid
or 10% caustic
soda or 10%
formaline.
animal body
should not be
opened,
VACCINATION SCHEDULE FOR SHEEP AND GOAT:
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
43
S. No
1.
2.
Disease
Tetanus
FMD
3.
Sheep and goat pox
4.
Anthrax
5.
Enterotoxaemia
6.
PPR
7.
Blue tongue
Vaccine
Within 48 hrs after birth
2nd month of age repeated once in 6 months. (AFO2020)
6 months of age repeated annually, vaccination in
endemic area.
6 months of age repeated annually, vaccination in
endemic area.
6 months of age repeated annually, vaccination
should be completed before onset of monsoon.
6 months of age repeated annually, vaccination in
endemic area.
6 months of age, repeated annually.
POULTRY DISEASE
Category
Diseases
Parasitic (external)
Lice, mites, tick and fleas
Parasitic (internal)
Round worms, tapeworm and hexamitiasis
Protozoan
Coccidiosis in chicken, leucocytozoonosis
Bacterial
Pullorum, Typhoid, Paratyphoid, fowl cholera, Diarrhea
Viral
Ranikhet disease, Marek's disease (JRF) ,fowl pox, infectious
bronchitis, infection bursitis, avian encephalomycytis, leukosis,
chronic respiratory disease, Hepatitis etc.
Fungal
Aspergillosis, Moniliasis
NUTRITIONAL DISEASE
Rickets
Curled toe paralysis
Crazy chick
Perosis
44
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Vitamin — D Deficiency (JRF)
Vitamin B2 Deficiency
Vitamin - E deficiency
Mn deficiency
Parakeratosis
Skin Disease
Zn deficiency
Eye disease- B2 deficiency
Piglet anemia
Osteomalacia
Iron deficiency
P Deficiency (JRF)
VACCINATION SCHEDULE:
S. NO
Age
Name of the vaccine
1.
1st day
Marek's Disease vaccine
2.
7th day
Ranikhet Disease F Strain/Lasota (AFO2020) RD killed.
3.
14 to 16 days (II week)
Infectious Bursal disease(live) IBD(killed)
4.
21 to 24 th day (III week)
Infectious Bronchitis
5.
30 to 35 days
Ranikhet disease-Lasota strain
6.
42 to 45 day
Infectious Bursal disease (live)
7.
56 to 70 days (8-10 th week)
Ranikhet disease "K" (Mesogenic)
8.
84 to 91 days (12 - 13th
week)
Fowl Pox vaccine
9.
91 to 98 days (13 to 14th
week)
Infectious Bronchitis Vaccin
10.
126 to 133 days
Ranikhet disease K" (Mesogenic)
11.
After peak production ,
every 8 Weeks
Ranikhet Disease Vaccine "Lasota"
COMMON MEDICINES AND USES FOR ANIMALS:
1. Antibiotics: Chemicals that are obtained by fungi or bacteria and inhibit the growth of other
micro-organisms and kill them. Example- Penicillin, Streptomycin, Chloramphenicol etc.
2. Antiseptic: Chemicals that inhibit the growth of bacteria but do not kill them. Example –
Boric acid, Dettol, Iodine, Potassium permanganate etc.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
45
3. Disinfectant: Drugs that destroy pathogens along with their spores. Examples: Phenyl, lime,
carbolic acid (phenol) etc.
4. Purgatives: Medicines or substances that cause diarrhoea when fed.
a. Laxatives: These cause common diarrhoea.
b. Drastic Purgatives: Borium Chloride, Croton Oil (Crotonis oleum).
c. Simple Purgatives: Magnesium Sulphate (volume of large animals 500-600 ml.
and small animals 50-60 ml.), Linseed oil, Castor oil (volume of large animals 250400 ml.), Sodium Sulphate
5. Stimulant: Those substances make the body feel excited. Example- alcohol, camphor,
caffeine
6. Astringent: Substances that close the blood or fluid by causing contraction in blood vessels,
mucous membranes. Tincture iodine, alum used externally to stop diarrhoea. catechu, opium
for internal use.
7. Massaging Oil: Used in massaging (for relief in fatigue) Example- Mustard oil, Turpentine
oil, Sesame oil.
8. Anti Pyrectics: Aspirin, Quinine, Salicylic Acid.
9. Anti Expectorant: Opium, Belladonna
10. Antidotes: These drugs are given to reduce the effect of poison. Example- iron salt for
cyanide toxin.
11. Anaesthetics: Given to make the body unconscious or unconscious. Example – chloroform,
nitrous oxide, ether
12. Caustics: These substances destroy the tissues by burning. Example- Potassium
permanganate, copper sulphate (blue tart), zinc sulphate, salt, alum etc.
13. Emetics: Vomiting starts after taking these substances. Example- Copper Sulphate, Zinc
Sulphate, Salt, Alum etc.
14. Anthelmintics: These substances or medicines get rid of parasites present in the body.
Example- Finovice, Turpentine oil, Copper sulphate, Nicotine sulphate.
15. Deodorants: Phenyl, Bleaching Powder.
16. Parasiticides: Destroys the parasites present on the skin. Example- methyl parathion,
phenyl, copper sulphate etc.
17. Narcotics: Cannabis, opium, chloroform, chloral hydrate, ether, nitrous oxide, etc.
18. Antacid (Reduces gas) - Medicines which provide relief from gas produced in the stomach.
Example- Hing, Ajwain, Fenugreek, Fennel, Cumin.
19. Germicides:- Phenol, Phenyl, Lysol, Lime, Carbolic Acid (Phenol)
Drug use method:
46
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
1. Phenyl (Bactericide) – Its 1% solution is used in Foot and mouth disease (FMD) to wash
the hooves of animals and for cleaning the animal house.
2. Carbolic acid (phenol) – bactericidal and antibacterial
➢ Its 5% solution is used for cleaning in cattle sheds.
➢ Its 1% solution is used in washing wounds.
➢ Use 2% solution to destroy external parasites.
3. Potassium permanganate (red drug /KMNO4) – Antibacterial
➢ Its 1% solution is used to sterilize instruments and instruments used in veterinary
medicine and hands.
➢ Use 2% solution on snake bite area.
4. Lysol- Antibacterial
➢ Its 2% solution is used for surgical instruments, animal husbandry cleaning and uterus
washing.
➢ Magsulf or Magnesium Sulphate / MgSo4 – Laxative
➢ To clean the stomach of large animals (cow, buffalo) give 250-400 grams.
➢ Give 50-100 grams to clean the stomach of small animals (sheep, goat).
5. Castor oil- 600-1200 grams are given to large animals and 50-125 grams to small animals
to clean the stomach
6. Alcohol- 500 ml of 5% concentration per animal (large) is given to the animals to remove
fatigue and to remove cold.
7. Sulphate of copper (Blue Stone)- Anthelmintic and antiemetic
➢ Use of its 1% solution to destroy the internal parasites in cow-buffalo 250-300 ml. and
for sheep and goat, 50-70 ml quantity is used.
➢ Its 1% solution is used for footbath or washing of hooves of animals in hoof mouth
disease (F.M.D.).
➢ The harmful insects are destroyed by spraying 2% solution of blue phlegm in the
contaminated pastures.
8. Alum- Its 2-5% solution is used in washing the wounds of disease, uterus in F.M.D.
9. Turpentine oil- 30-60 ml quantity of it is mixed with other oils and fed to the animal.
Massaging the chest with this oil provides relief in pneumonia.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
47
POULTRY
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Chromosome number in chicken (2n) : 78
Incubation period (days): 21 days
Age at sexual maturity (weeks): 18-20
Broiler - A young chicken (usually 9 to 12 weeks of age), that has tender meat with soft
pliable, smooth-textured skin and flexible breastbone cartilage of either sex.
Brood- A group of chicks hatched out from the same batch of eggs.
Brooder - A device for providing artificial warmth to the chicks.
Brooder House - A house used for rearing chicks from day-old with arrangements for
artificial heating and light.
Chicken- Birds including chicks, broilers, layers, pullets, cocktails, and cocks.
Chick - Includes day-old chicks only,
Cock - A cock is a mature male chicken with coarse skin, toughened and darkened meat and
hardened breastbone tip.
Feeder (Feed Hopper) - A specially designed trough or utensil where feed for chicken is
kept.
Heavy Breeds - Dual purpose or meat type breeds, such as Rhode Island Reds, Plymouth
Rocks and New Hampshire, weighing at the age of sexual maturity 2.50 kg or more in case
of females and 2.95 kg or more in case of cock.
Layer - A female chicken above the age of 150 days in case of light breed and 175 days in
case of heavy breed.
Layer House - A house in which laying chickens are kept.
Laying Nest - A box or cage where the chickens lay eggs.
Perches or Roosts -A circular or rectangular bar placed horizontally above the floor for the
chicken to roost at night.
Incubation: Providing temperature and humidity for normal development of embryo in egg.
It may be artificial or natural. A machine which provides all these is called incubator.
Incubation period in chicken is 21 days. Temperature requirement for incubation is 37.237.7 ℃.
Hatching: Process of breaking out of an eggshell after completion of incubation.
Temperature requirement for hatching is 37.5 – 37.8 degree C then 19-21 days after 36.9 –
37.5 degree C
Debeaking: It is important to remove only one third of the upper beak taking care to
avoiding tongue. It is usually practiced at the age of 10-14 days and repeated at the age of
14-16 weeks. Debeaking should never be done with penknife.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
POULTRY RELATED TERMS
Detail
Poultry
Species
Chicken
Group
Flock
Adult Male
Cock
Adult Female
Hen
Young Male
Cockerel
Young Female
Pullet
New-born
Chick
Castrated Male
Capon
Act of Parturition
Laying
BREED OF POULTRY:
Class
Breed Name
Asiatic
Aseel (AFO-2015), Kadaknath, Ghagas, Chittagong, Naked Neck,
Brahama, Cochin, Long Shan. Birds of this class mature late and sit for a
long time and are lethargic.
American
Plymouth Rock, New Hampshire, Rhode Island Red, Rhode Island
White. The breeds of this class are best for meat and eggs.
English
Sussex, Orphington, Australop, Cornish, Dorking. Breeds of this class
are best for meat production.
Mediterranean
Minorca, Leghorn, Ancona, Blue Andulusian, Spanish. The breeds of
this class are best for egg production.
BREEDS BASED ON UTILITY:
Utility
Breed
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Layer
Leghorn, Minorca, Long Shan
Broiler/Meat type
Orphington, Cornish
Dual purpose
Plymouth Rock, Rod Island Red, New Hampshire
Sports/ Game purpose
Aseel
Exhibition purpose
Silky, Frizzled, Bantams, Hamburg, Nacked neck
Native (desi)
Kadaknath, Chittagong, Naked Neck
HOME TRACT OF CHICKEN BREEDS:
Species
Ankaleshwar
Aseel
Bursa
Chittagong
Danki
Harringhata Black
Ghagus
Kadaknath
Kalasthi
Miri
Nicobari
Punjab Brown
Mewari
Origin
Gujrat
Chhattisgarh, Orissa & Andhra Pradesh
Gujrat & Maharashtra
Meghalaya and Tripura
Andhra Pradesh
West Bengal
Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka
Madhya Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Andaman & Nicobar
Punjab & Haryana
Rajasthan
COMPOSITION OF EGG:
50
Egg average weight
56-57 gm.
Egg contains yolk
30%
White or albumen
58%
Shell
12%
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
NUTRIENT COMPOSITION (ON EGG WEIGHT):
Protein
12%
Fat
11%
Minerals
12%
Water
65%
Calories
148 cal/100 gm.
GRADING OF EGGS BY WEIGHT:
Extra-large
Large
60 gms/egg
53-59 g.
Medium
45-52 g.
Small
38-44 g.
GRADING OF EGGS BY AGMARK:
A-grade
Clean, unbroken shell, air cell, 4mm depth, clear, firm white well
centered yolk free from defects.
B-grade
Clean, moderately tainted shell, air cell 8 mm depth, slightly off centered and
shape visible
No grade
Eggs classified as loss or no grade is edible - contaminated by
smoke, chemical and other foreign materials, which may affect the character
and appearance.
SYSTEM OF POULTRY REARING
❖ There are three systems of poultry keeping:
1. In the free-range system of keeping poultry is common in the rural parts of the country.
Deforested land was used 200 birds/acre allotted. In an ordinary land 100 birds/Acre was
allotted.
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2. In the semi-intensive system, the birds are provided with a night shelter surrounded by
open but fenced runs for the day. As few as six to as many as 200 can be kept in are acre
of land in this system.
3. In the intensive system the birds are totally confined with arrangements for feeding,
watering, nesting, etc., inside the house itself. This system is widely practiced in India.
❖ Intensive system has two types:
a. Deep litter system (RRB SO -2021)
b. Cage System
❖ Types of cages & Minimum area is required / bird.
1. Single: 1 /sq.ft.(AFO-2018)
2. Multiple: 0.75 sq.ft.
3. Colony: 0.5 sq.ft.
HOUSING FOR LAYERS:
Floor space
Feeder space
Water space
Temperature required
2 sq.ft.
4 sq.ft.
2 sq.ft.
10-24 degree C
HOUSING FOR BROILER:
Floor space
Feeder space
Water space
Temperature required
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0-4 weeks
½ sq. ft.
3 sq. ft.
2 sq. ft.
21 -25 degree C
4-8 weeks
1 sq. ft.
6 sq. ft.
4 sq. ft.
DAIRY SCIENCE:
➢ Milk may be defined as the entire lacteal secretion of the mammary glands of mammals
obtained by the process of milking during the period following at least 72 hours after
calving or until milk is free from colostrum.
➢ Milk protein has a biological value of 90 per cent.
➢ The unique milk sugar lactose, which is made up of glucose and galactose.
➢ Milk is a poor source of iron and vitamin C
➢ The fat-soluble vitamin A, D E, K in milk depends on their availability in the feed.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK:
Acidity and pH
0.14 to 0.18%, 6.5 to 6.7 (JRF)
Specific gravity
1.018 to 1.036
density of milk
1.027 to 1.033 kg/cm3
Viscosity
2.0 cP (centipoise)
Surface tension
50 dyne/cm
Freezing and boiling points
0.575ºC, 100.17ºC.
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MILK (IN %):
Species
Water
Fat
Cow
Buffalo
Goat
Sheep
Camel
Mare
Ass
86.61
82.76
87.00
80.71
87.61
89.04
89.03
4.14
7.38
4.25
7.90
5.38
1.59
2.53
Highest lactose
Highest Water
Protein
solids
3.58
3.60
3.52
5.23
2.98
2.69
2.01
Total
SNF
Lactose
13.19
17.24
13.00
19.29
12.39
10.96
10.97
9.25
9.86
7.75
11.39
7.01
9.37
8.44
4.96
5.48
4.27
4.81
3.26
6.14
6.07
Mare> Ass> Buffalo
Mare> Ass> Camel
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Highest fat
Sheep
Highest Protein
Sheep
Highest SNF (AFO-2018)
Sheep
Highest ash
Sheep
FSSAI STANDARDS FOR DIFFERENT MILK:
S. No.
Type
Fat
SNF
1
Toned Milk (TM)
Minimum 3.0
Minimum 8.5
2
Double Toned milk (DTM)
Minimum 1.5
Minimum 9.0
3
Standardized milk
Minimum 4.5
Minimum 8.5
4
Skimmed milk (SM)
Not more than 0.5
Minimum 8.7
5
Full cream milk (FCM)
Minimum 6.0
Minimum 9.0
6
Recombined Milk
Minimum 3%
Minimum 8.5%.
7
Buffalo Milk
Minimum 5-6%
Minimum 9%
8
Cow Milk
Minimum 3-4%
Minimum 8.5-9%
9
Goat or Sheep Milk
Minimum 3.5
Minimum8.5-9%
10
Mixed milk
Minimum 4.5
Minimum 8.5
11.
Butter
Minimum 76
12
Goat and sheep milk
Minimum 3-3.5
Minimum 9.0 %
MILKING METHODS:
➢ MILKING: Milking is defined as the critical and laborious process which involves hormonal
reflex. The art of milking performed within 5-8 minutes. Normally milking is done twice a
day. Milking methods are:
➢ FISTING/FULL HAND METHOD: It is the best method of hand milking though most of
the milkmen follow knuckling method. (BHU,Pre-PG)
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➢ KNUCKLING METHOD: Many milkers tend to bend their thumb against the teat canal and
drag the milk out. This practice should be avoided as it is injurious to the teat.
➢ STRIPPING: This method is followed where the length of the teat is small; it is normally
practiced towards the end of milking in order to evacuate the milk completely
➢ MACHINE MILKING: A calf and the machine do the harvesting of milk in a similar
fashion. One milking machine for – 10 animals yielding 10 liters / day will be economical to
maintain.
MILK PROCESSING
1. Homogenization: to prevent creaming, or the rising of fat to the top of the container of milk.
The process of homogenization breaks the fat particles into smaller particles. (AFO-2021)
2. Pasteurization:
Temperature
Time
Pasteurization Type
63°C
30 minutes
Batch Pasteurization (LTLT)/ Holding or
Batch method (JRF)
72°C
15 seconds
High Temperature Short Time
Pasteurization (HTST)/ continuous system
or flash pasteurization
135°C-145°C
2 (1-5) seconds
Ultra-high temperature (UHT) Sterilization
➢ Thermization: The milk is heated to 63-65oC for 15 seconds and rapidly chilled to 4oC
MILK PRODUCTS:
Fermented Product
Non-Fermented Product
Butter
Skim, Toned, Double Toned & Full cream Milk
Butter Milk
Evaporated Milk, Flavoured milk
Ghee
Dry Milk Powder
Curd
Sweetened condensed milk
Yogurt
Recombined, Filled & Reconstituted Milk
Shrikhand
Cream & Colostrum
Cheese
Khoa, Rabri
Chhaina
Ice Cream
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COW GHEE STANDARDS:
S.No.
Value of cow's ghee
Value
1.
Richard Maisel Value (AFO-2021)
26-28
2.
Saponification value
222-226
3.
Refractive index
1.4157 to 1.4566
4.
Oleic acid
< 1.5%
5.
Water
<0.5%
6.
Iodine Number
26 to 35
7.
Polenske Number
12 to 24
VARIOUS MILK TEST:
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Test Name
Used for
Clot on boiling test (COB)
Stability of milk for heat processing
Alcohol Test
Detect abnormal milk (Colostrum or mastitis milk)
Sediment Test
To identify dust/dirt in milk
Resazurin Reduction Test
(RRT)
Bacteriological quality of milk (Dye reduction/detection)
Lactometer test
Determination of adulteration of milk by adding water
Methylene Blue Reduction
Test (MBRT)
Bacteriological quality of milk (Dye reduction/detection)
Alcohol–alizarin test
To check suitability of milk for high heat treatment and
its acidity.
Alkaline Phosphatase
To check adequately pasteurization (Dairy farming)
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
MILK FACT:
❖ India holds number one position in its annual milk production among the other countries
of the world.
❖ India has the highest annual growth rate of around 5-6% in milk production unmatched
by any country of the dairy world.
❖ Per capita availability of milk was 252 grams per day in 2007-08 while in 2018-19 the per
capita milk availability has been increased to 394 grams/day.
❖ Among all the states the highest per capita availability of milk is in Punjab.
❖ Highest milk production is in UP followed by Rajasthan.
❖ India is the largest producer of milk.
❖ India is also the second largest producer of cow milk followed by USA.
❖ Uttar Pradesh is the highest milk producing state in India.
❖ The White Revolution, also known as Operation Flood, was launched in 1970.(RRB SO2021)
❖ Cows spend 6-7 hours a day eating. The average cow chews at least 50 times per minute.
❖ It takes a person 1 hour to milk 6 cows by hand. However, if required, a person can milk
100 cows in an hour with modern milking machines.
❖ Talking, singing or whistling to the sheep, cow, goat or buffalo as it is being milked makes
it relax and the milk is let down better.
❖ Milk is one of the rare food sources of Vitamin D.
❖ Milk also contains phosphorus, potassium and Vitamin K2.
❖ Milk is sweet because of presence of lactose.
❖ We can digest lactose due to special enzyme called lactase found in our body.
❖ The natural yellow colour of cow milk comes mainly from beta-carotene found in the grass
where the cows graze on. Our body converts beta carotene into vitamin A when cow milk
is ingested. (AFO-2020)
❖ In case of buffalo milk beta carotene is already converted into vitamin A in the animal body
itself. Thus, buffalo milk appears white.
❖ Colostrum has less fat but more protein. Major protein of milk is Globulin and total protein
in colostrum is 20-21%.
❖ Lactose is used as a coating and filler material in pharmaceutical industry for manufacturing
of pills or tablets.
❖ Milk is better for cooling your mouth after eating spicy food. Milk contains casein, a protein
that cleanses burning taste buds.
❖ Rosalic acid test: Add 4 drops of freshly prepared alcoholic solution of 1% Rosalic acid to
the above mixture and mix gently
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❖ Pink colour: presence of either sodium hydroxide potassium hydroxide or calcium
hydroxide
❖ Rose red colour: Presence of sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate
❖ Brownish colour: Absence of any of these neutralizers.
➢ Detection of urea in milk: Take 2ml of milk and add 2ml of p-dimethyl amino
benzaldehyde reagent
➢ Development of distinct yellow colour denotes the presence of urea.
➢ The presence of buffalo milk in cow milk can be detected by Hansa test.
➢ The art of milking performed within 5-8 minutes.
➢ A cow is expected to show estrus in 30-40 days after calving.
➢ Animals giving up to 10 liters of milk should be milked twice a day. The Frequency needs
to be increased to thrice in case of production ranging from 12-15liters.
➢ Major milk protein is casein (80%)
➢ Total calories in 100 ml milk is 79.02.
➢ Casein content of cow milk : 3.0%
➢ Casein content of buffalo milk : 4.3%
➢ Lactose content of cow milk : 4.5%
➢ Lactose content of buffalo milk : 4.8%
➢ Highest body weight in Indian cow : kankrej
➢ Highest fat percent in exotic breeds of cow : Jersey
➢ Wallowing is a common behaviour of : Buffalo
➢ Highest milk fat percent found in breed of buffalo is : Bhadawri (8-13%)
➢ Highest milk producing buffalo breed : Murrah
➢ Respiration rate of buffalo : 15-20 per minute
➢ Heat period of cow and buffalo is : 18-36 hrs
➢ Oxytocin hormone responsible for : Milk let down (AFO-2020)
➢ Hormone responsible for stopping lactation – Adrenaline (RRB SO-2021)
➢ Hormone responsible for milk production: Prolactin
➢ Goat is called : Poor man's cow
➢ Salted smoked meat of pig is known as : Bacon
➢ Livestock insurance scheme was started during : 2005-06
➢ Testosterone is also known as : Male hormone
➢ Rinderpest is also known as : Cattle plague
➢ Fat percentage of salted butter is : 80 %
➢ Minimum dry period of cow should be : 40 days
➢ Best breed of buffalo in the world is: Murrah
➢ Saanen is called : Milk queen of goat world
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➢
➢
➢
➢
Milk fever disease is due to deficiency of : Ca (AFO-2016)
First milk produced by female is called : Colostrum
Verghese Kurien, known as the "Father of the White Revolution/ Operation Flood.
Every year November 26 is celebrated as National Milk Day in India. The day is being
observed since 2014 to commemorate the birth anniversary of the Father of India's White
Revolution, Dr Verghese Kurien. He is also nicknamed as “Milkman of India”.
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IMPORTANT FACTS:
❖
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Which animal resistant to tuberculosis is: Goat
Marek's disease is found in: poultry
Which breed of poultry is originated from Dhar district of M.P.: Kadaknath
Desi cow milk is known as A2 milk (healthier choice) while milk of exotic cow is known as
A1 milk.
The fat content of butter is generally about 80%.
Operation Flood: Operation Flood I (1970 – 1981), Operation Flood II (1981 –1985),
Operation Flood III (1985-96)
The frozen semen can be stored in the Liquid Nitrogen -196 ℃
Good quality semen is produced in the age of 22-24 months.
The ideal system in India at present is having 5-6 batch of broiler at any time.
The main breed of backyard Poultry are Kalinga Brown, Mumbai Desi, Rhode Island Red
and CARI Nirbheek.
List of ruminant and non-ruminant animals:
Ruminating mammals include cattle, goats, sheep, giraffes, yaks, water buffalo, deer,
camels.
Non-Ruminant: Humans & primates, swine, equines, reptiles, avian.
Meat of Different animals:
Animal
Cow or Bull
Pig
Sheep
Goat
Chicken
Term
Beef
Pork
Muton
Chevon
Chicken
❖ The hard meat of poultry is called tender.
❖ Chicken meat is known as white meat.
❖ The exotic breed of pig mainly comprises Hampshire, Large White York Shire, Duroc,
Landrace, and Tamworth. Popular indigenous pig breeds include Ghungroo, Niang Megha,
Ankamali, Agonda Goan, and Tany-Vo.
❖ 0.33 ha. Area of land is cultivated by the animals. The power rating of a full-grown bullock
a pure Indian draught breed is 0.70 HP average is 0.5 HP only.
❖ A 35 HP tractor can plough about 2.5ha of land in an eight-hour shift and consume about
5 L diesel / hr.
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❖ Highest percentage of fat in exotic breed is found in Jersy breed it produces more than 5%
fat.
❖ Second highest Fat is found in buffalo.
❖ Highest protein is found in sheep.
❖ Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly
sheep and less frequently cattle, goats, buffalo.
❖ Deoni is a milch breed.
❖ The protein content of colostrum is 6-7 times as that of normal milk. Normal milk has 3.5
to 4 % protein while cow’s colostrum has 21% protein and buffalo colostrum has 23%
protein. (Make sure to answer the question according to options)
❖ The first scientific research in artificial insemination of domestic animals was performed on
dogs in 1780 by the Italian scientist.
❖ Grazing habit (on bushes) of goat is known as Browsing, Goat is also known as enemy of
vegetation.
❖ Cows can be rebred in 9-12 weeks after parturition.
❖ Ovulation is the process of shedding of ovum from the Graffian follicle. In the case of cow,
usually a single ovum is capable of undergoing fertilization only for a period of 5-10 hours.
Therefore, the time of mating insemination in relation to ovulation is important for effective
fertilization.
❖ Which of the following breeds is the highest milk producer in the world: Holstein-Friesian
(AFO 2015)
❖ Aseel is breed of: Hen(AFO 2015)
❖ Milk fever is also known as: Parturient paresis (AFO 2016)
❖ Which of the following Indian sheep breed is known for producing superior quality carpet
wool: Chokla (AFO 2016)
❖ Chokla is a hornless breed of sheep.
❖ Which of the following indigenous buffalo has high content of buttermilk fat : Murrah
(AFO 2016)
❖ Hen required how much sq/ft as per NABARD norms: 1 sq ft (AFO 2017)
❖ Dual purpose breed of cow in India: Haryana (AFO 2017)
❖ Highest % of fat in Buffalo breed: Bhadawari (AFO 2017)
❖ Feed is given to the new-born calf. What is daily weight gain of well-fed crossbreed calf:
400 grams (AFO 2018)
❖ In murrah Buffalo what is the age at first calving: 42-45 months (AFO 2018)
❖ Which Institute had discovered the vaccine for Ranikhet disease: Indian veterinary
Research Institute (AFO 2018)
❖ Which institute formulated vaccines on Rinderpest: IVRI (AFO 2018)
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What is the floor space required for “Broiler Poultry (sq. ft.)”: 1 Sq. Feet (AFO 2018)
What is the floor space required for pregnant cow: 100-120 Sq. Feet (AFO 2018)
Which Institute had developed Karan Fries breed: NDRI, karnal (AFO 2018)
Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar was established in which year: 1979 (AFO 2018)
Highest Ca is present in which manure: Poultry (AFO 2018)
Highest SNF content is found in which animal milk: Sheep (AFO 2018)
Which poultry breed has highest weight at the age of 5 weeks: Aseel (AFO 2018)
Number of poultry batches can be reared in a year: 7 (AFO 2018)
Which institute has developed Goat pox & Ranikhet vaccine: IVRI (AFO 2019)
Act of mating in sheep: Tupping (AFO 2020)
What is that place which is used for feeding of lamb, calves and piglet but not used for adults
is known as: Creep (AFO 2020)
Let down of milk is due to which hormone: Oxytocin (AFO 2020)
Which among the following cattle breeds is indigenous draught purpose while cows are poor
yielder: Khillari (AFO 2020)
Which is not bacterial disease in Pig: Coccidiosis (AFO 2020)
Name of the vaccine used for Ranikhet: Lasota (AFO 2020)
Highest lactation length of which goat: Jamunapari (AFO 2020)
Which sheep breed of northwest India known for best quality white wool: Magra (AFO
2020)
What is the average gestation period of buffalo: 316 ± 5 (AFO 2020)
Yellow colour of milk due to: Carotenoid (AFO 2020, RRB SO-2019)
Young female pig who had not given the birth to any offspring till now: Sow (AFO 2020)
FMD vaccines is given to sheep at an interval of 6-month (AFO 2020)
Sodium deficiency in cow symptom and causes what: Dehydration and fluid reduction
(AFO 2020)
Feed conversion ratio in broiler chicken: 1.5 to 1.9 (AFO 2020)
Mating of wider degree relation not closer one and result in uniformity is known as: Line
breeding (AFO 2020)
Type of emulsion found in MILK: Oil in water(AFO 2020)
Act of Parturition in sow: Farrowing (AFO 2021)
Zoonosis is: Transmission of disease from Animal to human (AFO 2021)
These features are of which buffalo.This buffalo has sickle shaped horns. This buffalo is
greyish brown or black in colour: Surti (AFO 2021)
For which of the following R.M. test is used: Ghee (AFO 2021)
A process in which large fat globules are broken in smaller particles is known as:
Homogenization (AFO 2021)
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Amplifier host of Japanese encephalitis is Pig (AFO 2021)
❖ Which of the following housing system is used in commercial layer farming Cage system
in poultry having dimensions of 14×16 inches or height 17 inches: battery cage (AFO 2021)
❖ As per FSSAI Standards, SNF of cow milk is: 8.5 (AFO 2021)
❖ Buffalo milk is more whiter than cow milk: Because Carotene is converted into colorless
vitamin A (AFO-2021)
❖ Two well developed breeds are crossed Alternatively will be known as: Criss cross(AFO
2021)
❖ Secretion of milk by glandular secretory tissue of milk animals & their collection in the
various system terminating its let down – specific stimuli: Lactation (AFO 2021)
❖ Which among the following is a drought breed of cattle where cows are less milker, but bulls
are best for cart & field purpose: Krishna valley (AFO 2022)
❖ Which goat breed from Switzerland also known as milk queen in world: Sanen (AFO 2022)
❖ Curled toe paralysis in chicken due to: Vit -B2 (AFO 2022)
❖ Dual purpose breed of goat for meat + milk: Beetal (AFO 2022)
❖ Advance pregnancy symptom in cattle when embryo is out: Lapsing of uterus and vagina
(AFO 2022)
❖ Exotic, cross breed cow & buffalo for 5th month of pregnancy how much concentrate (other
than maintenance) should be given: 1.5 kg (AFO 2022)
❖ Prevention of brucellosis disease in goats can be done by taking the measures like: Isolation,
vaccination, blood test, culling of affected animals (AFO 2022)
❖ Which instrument is used to determine water content in milk: Lactometer (Dairy Farming)
❖ What is the purpose of pasteurization in milk: To destroy most of the pathogenic
microorganism's disease-causing bacteria (Dairy Farming)
❖ Test done to identify incomplete pasteurization in milk: Alkaline test (Dairy Farming)
❖ What is the Incubation period Of Surra disease: 5-30 days (RRB SO 2019)
❖ This animal is a Cross of Bikaneri ewes and merino rams is: Hisardale (RRB SO 2019)
❖ Friesian is a breed of: cow (RRB SO 2019)
❖ For the prevention of ascaris in calves of upto 6 weeks which of the following formulation
will be given: Piperazin salts (RRB SO 2019)
❖ In swine, which among the following is the intracellular parasite resulting in bloody
diarrhoea in swine: Coccidiosis (RRB SO 2019)
❖ Number of permanent cheek teeth in cow (molar + premolar): 24 (RRB SO 2019)
❖ Which among the following is not a bacterial disease: Bluetongue disease (RRB SO 2019)
❖ For which among the following disease the vaccination is not prepared yet: Milk fever (RRB
SO 2019)
❖ Yellow colour of cow milk is due to: Carotene (RRB SO 2019)
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63
❖ One of the linkages of Agriculture and livestock is used of organic matter. which of the
following nutrients is lowest of cattle manure: Sulphur (RRB SO 2018)
❖ Oestrus cycle is very important in cattle breeding, and it has phases of different duration. In
which of the following phase implementation of embryo takes place: Met Oestrum (RRB
SO 2018)
❖ Different breeds of cattle have separate Intercalving period. What is the Intercalving period
of Surti breed: 400 - 500 days (RRB SO 2018)
❖ Milk composition of each mammal is different which of the following species has lowest
SNF: Goat
❖ In which country major historical development of the breed Holstein occurred: Netherland
(RRB SO 2018)
❖ One of the linkages of Agriculture and livestock is used of fertilizer which of following
nutrient is highest in poultry manure: Nitrogen (RRB SO 2018)
❖ The process by which mammary glands acquire the ability to secrete milk will be known as:
Lactogenesis (RRB SO 2021)
❖ Cow get excited & disturb at the time of milking. Hold up of milk cause due to release of:
Adrenalin(RRB SO 2021)
❖ In union budget 2021-2022, there is enhancement of agricultural credit (in which animal
husbandry, dairy and fisheries will be the focus areas) to16.5 Lakh crore in 2022 (RRB SO
2021)
❖ Which poultry breed produces black color meat: Kadaknath (RRB SO 2021)
❖ The first secretion of mammary gland following parturition is known as: Colustrum (RRB
SO 2021)
❖ Which amino acid is present in A1 milk at 67th position of molecular chain but absent in A2
milk at same position: Histidine (RRB SO 2021)
❖ On the basis of body weight, how much colostrum is needed to feed a newborn calf: 1/10
(RRB SO 2021)
❖ The housing system of poultry in which the litter material is accumulated with poultry
manure until it reaches a depth of 8-12 inch will be referred to which among the following:
Deep litter (RRB SO 2021)
❖ Application of heat to chick during their early stage of life is: Brooding (RRB SO 2021)
❖ A new buffalo breed is evolved by grading up of local buffalo of coastal Andhra Pradesh
with Murrah breed is which among the following: Godavari RRB SO 2021)
❖ The White Revolution, also known as Operation Flood, was launched in year: 1970 (RRB
SO 2021)
❖ Which of the following is dual purpose cattle breed: Nimadi (RRB SO 2021)
❖ Haryana cattle breed belongs to: Dual Purpose (NABARD 2021)
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ In terms of interest subvention scheme for KCC to fishery and animals husbandry, interest
subvention of 2 % per annum provide short term loan upto: 2 lakh (NABARD 2021)
❖ Which chicken breed is sold as White meat and chicken breast: Broiler (NABARD 2021)
❖ The male sheep for breeding purpose is known as: Buck (NABARD 2021)
❖ Which of the following method is used for the commercial egg production: commercial
poultry (NABARD 2021)
❖ Feed the Colostrum to calf within 15 minutes of calving, the calf should be fed with
colostrum at the rate- 1/10th of body weight and buffalo calves at the rate -1/15th of body
weight.
❖ Well-fed cross bred calves on an average should gain 400 grams a day or 2.5 to 3 kilograms
per week.
❖ Disbudding is carried out either by the use of hot iron, caustic sticks and electrical dehorning
cone. Both the buds are destroyed at the early age (within 3 to 10 days).
❖ Shoeing of bullock used in road work should be done once in a month, if used for field work
then once in two months.
❖ In India wool production in maximum in: Rajasthan 35%
❖ The removal of tail in sheep is called: Docking
❖ Percentage utilization protein within animal body: Biological value
❖ The wool of angora breed of goats, soft white wool in great demand for clothing is called:
Mohair
❖ Milk carbohydrate fermentation takes place by bacteria: Streptococcus lactis
❖ Conversion of milk into curd takes place by bacteria: Lactobacillus thermophillus
❖ National Nutrition Institute (NNI) situated at: Hyderabad
❖ NDDB established in the year: 1965 (ANAND)
❖ Indian Dairy Corporation (NDC) is situated at: Anand (Gujrat)
❖ The animal resistant to tuberculosis is: Goat
❖ The avian breed known for fighting sports is: Aseel
❖ Indian goat famous for chevon quality is: Black bengal
❖ The optimum time to inseminate a cow during estrous is End of estrous
❖ The best site for semen deposition during artificial insemination in cattle is: Mid cervix
❖ A cow should be given pregnancy ration after how many months of pregnancy: 6
❖ Udder secretion immediately after calving is called: Colostrum
❖ According to the legal standard, the moisture content in butter must not exceed: 20%
❖ The breed of poultry bird is useful for both meat and egg production: Rhode Island Red
❖ Water percentage of cow milk is approximately: 87%
❖ Rickets disease caused by: Ca/ P deficiency
❖ Osteomalacia disease caused by: Ca/ P deficiency
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Milk fever disease caused by: Ca deficiency
Anaemia disease caused by: Fe deficiency
Pica disease caused by: P deficiency
Wilson disease caused by: Cu deficiency
Grass tetany disease caused by: Mg def./K toxicity
For hay making fodder should be rich in: Proteins
Cannibalism is seen in poultry due to: NaCl deficiency
Jersey cow of goat is Nubian
_______breed of poultry is excellent for broiler purpose: Plymouth Rock
_______is a Himalayan region breed of sheep: Gaddi
_______is excellent layer: White Leghorn
_______breed have copper colour body coat: Bhadawari
______ Breed of sheep is known for superior carpet wool: Chokla
_______breed have minimum milk fat percentage: Nilli ravi
A barbari goat kids in january and is successfully mated again in April what will be her inter
kidding period: 8 months
A castrated male chicken is called: Capon
A farmer should purchase layer chicks in the month of: February to April
A goat which never give milk is Angora
A male animal with one or both the testicles retained inside the abdominal cavity is called
as: Cryptorchid
A pregnant cow does not come in heat because: Corpus luteum is present
A ram remains in full breeding vigour during the age of 2.5 to 5 year
Among Indian breeds of sheep which one produces good quality of milk: Sonadi
Amount of feed offered to an individual for a specific period is known as: Ration
An apparatus used for keeping chicken warm: Hover
Angora is a well-known breed of: Goat
At one time a full mature ram ejaculates semen volume of about: 1 ml
Avivastra is cross of: Merino and Chokla
Best carpet wool obtained from ……… breed: Magra (AFO-2020)
Best drought breed of cattle is: Amrit mahal
Best drought breed of Rajasthan is: Nagori
Best hay formed from: Lucerne
Black face is character of: Mandya
Both sexes bearded in………………. breed: Black Bengal
Carotene is precursor of: Vitamin – A
Castration of male pig should be done in the age of 3-4 weeks
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Cheddar and cottage are the name of: Cheese
Cheese contains about …….. percent of water: 40.3
Chevon is the name of ………. Meat: Goat
Conversion factor for milk is: 6.38
Crazy chick disease is caused due to the deficiency of: Vitamin E
Creep ration for pigs should contain ……. % Crude protein: 20
Crude fibre in pigs diet must not be more than: 10
Dehorning of female goat should be done at: 12 days age
Dental caries in claves is caused by deficiency of: Fluorine
Dry matter requirement for zebu cattle is: 2-2.5 kg/100 kg wt.
Excellent source of mineral is: Mollasses
Excess feeding of grass causes: Deficiency of Mg
Feed requirement of a hen in total economic life is: 55 kg
Feeding cow with green fodder: Decrease the fat globule size
Feeding extra concentrates to pregnant sheep is known as: Flushing
Feeding of cotton seed to buffaloes: Has no effect on fat content in milk
From which sheep no wool is obtained: Nellore
Generally, colour of switch of tail of buffalo is: White
Goat like sheep is: Nellore
Heaviest and most powerful cow breed: Kankrej
If a farmer has 1 lakh of white leghorn birds, what would be the annual egg production:
220 lakhs
❖ Highest FCR (Feed conversion ratio) is found in Poultry and Swine.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
67
AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING
Seventh edition
68
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Copyright © 2020 by Agri Coaching Chandigarh
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other
electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the
publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and
certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. While writing the book
we have used all authentic source however if any kind of loss or damage happen due to
the use of this content author will not be responsible for the same. For permission
requests, write us at info@agricoaching.in or contact us at below address:
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Sco-7, Shivalik City,
Kharar (Mohali)
Contact Number: 9828822277
www.agricoaching.in
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
69
About Agri Coaching Chandigarh:
We guide the students in a way that focuses on the concepts and not just facts. Conceptual
along with factual study is always important for the students so as to be able to answer or solve
any type of question related to the subject. Agri Coaching Chandigarh is moving towards
attaining excellence in the field of competitive exams such as NABARD, IBPS-AFO, RRBSO, ADO, AAO, ADA, BHU, Pre-PG, Supervisor and others competitive exams and we are
always ready to shape your knowledge and concepts as per the exam you are willing to appear
for.
हमारा लक्ष्य हमारे छात्रों का मार्ग दर्ग न कुछ इस तरह से करना है कक उनका संघर्ग हमेर्ा उन्हें चयन कक
तरफ ले जाये। क्योंकक किना मार्ग दर्ग न के अभाव में व्यकि कदर्ाहीन नाव की तरह हो जाता है। क्योंकक
छात्र के चयन मे दो िातें सवाग किक महत्वपर्
ू ग होती है। प्रथम -छात्र द्वारा ककिन पररश्रम एवं दूसरा, जो प्रथम
के ही समान महत्व रखता है –
“कुर्ल मार्ग दर्ग न”, जो छात्रों के हार्ग वकग को स्मार्ग वकग में तब्दील कर दे ।
“सुप्तस्ये कसंहस्य मुखे नहीं प्रकवर्कन्त मर्
ृ ा:”
अथाग त् , सोए हु ए कसंह के मुख में अपने आप कहरर् प्रवेर् नहीं करता । उसी प्रकार ककसी भी सफलता प्राकप्त
हे तु छात्र का प्रयत्नर्ील होना कनतांत आवश्यक है । ”ककिन पररश्रम” ही सफलता का प्रथम सोपान
(सीढ़ी) है ।
अक्सर यह कवकदत होता है कक प्रकतभार्ाली से प्रकतभार्ाली छात्र ककिन पररश्रम के उपरांत भी प्रकतयोर्ी
परीक्षाओं में सफलता से वंकचत रह जाते हैं । ऐसा कुर्ल मार्ग दर्ग न के अभाव के कारर् होता है । इस
आलोक में प्रकतयोर्ी परीक्षाओं के कनत्य पररवकतग त हो रहे र्ैली को समझकर छात्रों का उकचत मार्ग दर्ग न
कर उन्हें सही कदर्ा में पररश्रम हे तु प्रेररत कर सफलता प्राकप्त कराना हमारा मल
ू आिार है ।
70
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71
Index
S.No.
72
Topic
Page No.
1
General introduction
73
2
Tractor
74
3
Status of farm power in India
75
4
Selected equipment for seedbed preparation
76
5
Harvesting and threshing
78
6
Concept of farm mechanization
79
7
Classification of heat engines
82
8
Power transmission system
84
9
Two stroke and four stroke engines
85
10
Various plough
89
11
Implements for intercultural operations
91
12
Sprayers
91
13
Protected cultivation
95
14
Threshing & WINNOWING
100
15
Grain drying & storage
101
16
Fruits and vegetables cleaning
103
17
Food standards and regulations
105
18
Occurrence of groundwater
106
19
Surveying
108
20
Top engineering facts
114
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GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Agricultural engineering is the engineering discipline that studies agricultural production and
processing. Agricultural engineering combines the disciplines of mechanical, civil, electrical
and chemical engineering principles with a knowledge of agricultural principles according
to technological principles.
SOURCES OF FARM POWER:
1) HUMAN POWER-An average man can develop maximum power of about 0.1 hp for doing
farm work. A strong man can develop maximum power of about 75 watts (about 0.1 hp) for
doing farm work. The average human power availability in sustained working are as follows:
Male : 60 watts
(0.06 kW)
Female : 48 watts
(0.048 kW)
Children : 30 watts
(0.030 kW)
2) ANIMAL POWER
➢ Power developed by an average pair of bullocks about 1 hp for usual farm work.
➢ The average force a draft animal can exert is nearly one-tenth of its body weight.
➢ 1 HP=750 watt
3) MECHANICAL POWER:
These engines are two types:
(a) Spark ignition engines (Petrol or Kerosene engine)
(b) Compression ignition engines (Diesel engines)
The thermal
efficiency of petrol
engine varies from 25
to 32 per cent
The thermal
efficiency of diesel
engine varies from 32
to 38 per cent
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TRACTOR
Tractor are available in following classes, depending upon horsepower (hp):
20 to 30 hp – About 25% of the total production of tractors in India.
31 to 40 hp – About 60% of the total production of tractors in India.
41 to above – About 15% of the total production of tractors in India.
❖ Tractor production started in India in 1961. The first tractor manufacturer “M/S Eicher
Goodearth” Produced “Eicher” tractors at Faridabad.
❖ Average command area of a tractor (26.1 kW) is about fifteen hectares. For calculating power
availability from tractor on the farm, a weighted average of 26.1 kW power per tractor is
considered.
SELECTION OF TRACTOR:
1. LAND HOLDING: Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to
consider 1 hp for every 2 hectares of land. In other words, one tractor 20 – 25 hp is suitable
for 40 hectares farm.
2. CROPPING PATTERN: Generally, 1.5 hectare/hp has been recommended where
adequate irrigation facilities are available and more than one crop is taken. So, a 30 – 35 hp
tractor is suitable for 40-hectare farm.
POWER TILLER
For calculating power availability from power tiller on the farm, a weighted average of 7 kw
per unit is considered. Average command area of a power tiller (7.46 kw) is five hectares,
where one pair of bullocks can command about two hectares only.
✓ Came in the world - 1920
✓ Introduced in India - 1963 ( AFO 2018)
✓ Japan is the first country to use power tiller on large scale.
✓ Tyre pressure: 1.1 to 1.4 kg/cm2 or 15.5 to 20 psi
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STATUS OF FARM POWER IN INDIA
❖ About 75% farm holding belong to small and marginal farmers.
❖ About 25% belong to semi, medium and large farm holders.
AVERAGE COMMAND AREA
One pair of
draught animals:
2 ha
Power tiller (7.46
kw): 5 ha
Tractor (26.1
kw):15 ha
For 1000 hectares of cultivated land, the bullocks, power tiller and tractors are generally
required as follows:
Bullocks: 500
pairs
Power
tiller:200
Tractor:67
Studies have shown that about 54% energy in crop production comes from direct sources
like:
Mechanical
power
Electrical
power
Human
power
Draught
animals
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75
The remaining 46% power comes from indirect sources like:
Fertilizers
Chemicals
Seeds
Farm
yard
manures
ANIMAL DRAWN IMPROVED IMPLEMENTS
❖ The field capacity of traditional implements is about 0.3 – 0.4 ha/day and thus work output
is low.
Q. What is the field capacity (ha/day) of indigenous plough?
(a)1.5
(b) 1.0
(c) 2.5
(d) 0.4
(e) 0.1
ROTAVATOR: Tractor drawn rotavator is an energy efficient equipment, it saves 32-35%
time and energy in heavier soils.
SELECTED EQUIPMENT FOR SEEDBED PREPARATION
76
S. No.
NAME OF IMPLEMENT
1.
Tractor operated
M.B Plough
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
WORK CAPACITY
ha/h
h/ha
0.20-0.25
0.30-0.35
4-5
3-4
Disc Plough
0.20-0.25
0.30-0.35
4-5
3-4
Disc Harrow (16 disc)
Cultivator (9-11)
Rotavator
Sweep cultivator
0.40-0.50
0.40-0.50
0.2
0.35
2-2.5
2-2.5
5
3-3.5
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Note:
➢ Field capacity can be asked in exam in different units.
➢ In India working hour per day is 8.
SELECTED EQUIPMENT FOR SOWING AND PLANTING
S. No
Name of the implement
Work Capacity
Ha/h
h/ha
0.164
6 – 6.5
0 – 21
5 – 5.5
Seed-cum-fertilizer drill
0.75
1.25 – 1.5
2.
No-trill-drill
0.75
1.25 – 1.5
3.
Strip-till-drill
0.25
4–5
4.
Sugarcane cutter planter
0.25
4
Potato planter
0.25
4
A.
Power tiller operated
1.
Seed-cum-fertilizer drill
B.
1.
1.
Tractor operated
WEEDING AND INTERCULTURAL EQUIPMENT
S. No.
1.
D.
1.
2.
Name of the implement
Power tiller operated
3 tyned cultivator/sweep
Tractor operated
9 – 11 tyned tiller
5 tyned sweep
Work Capacity
Ha/h
h/ha
0.2
5
0.45
0.45
2 – 2.5
2 – 2.5
WEEDING AND INTERCULTURE
❖ Khurpi is the most versatile hand hoe for removal of weeds.
❖ It takes 300 – 700 man-hours to cover one hectare, depending upon crop, soil and weed
infestation.
❖ Use of long handle weeders (wheel hoe and peg type weeders) reduce this weeding time to
25 – 110 hours per hectare.
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77
EQUIPMENT FOR SPRAYING AND DUSTING OPERATIONS
S. NO.
NAME OF THE
IMPLEMENT
Manually operated
Hand compression sprayer
WORK CAPACITY
ha/h
h/ha
0.095
10.5
0.095
10.5
3.
4.
5.
Lever operated Knapsack
sprayer
Foot sprayer
Duster
Controlled Droplet sprayer
0.165
0.25
0.22
6
4
5
B.
1.
Power operated
Knapsack sprayer cum-duster
0.22
5
2.
0.35
3
C.
1.
Stationary power operated
sprayer
Tractor operated
Tractor operated sprayer
0.5
2
D.
1.
Self-propelled
High clearance sprayer
0.5-1.0
1-2
A.
1.
2.
HARVESTING AND THRESHING
❖ Harvesting and threshing consumes about 10-35% of the total energy for farming.
EQUIPMENT FOR THRESHING OPERATION
S. NO.
A.
1.
2.
3.
4.
NAME OF THE IMPLEMENT
Power operated
Power operated thresher
Paddy thresher
Maize thresher
Groundnut thresher
SIZE
WORK CAPACITY
5-10 hp
5-15 hp
5-15 hp
10-15 hp
200-500
200-1000
500-2000
500-1000
❖ Most of the farmers use threshers, which are operated by 5 – 15 hp engine or electric
motors
❖ Reaper binder: The harvesting capacity is 0.25 – 0.35 ha/h.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
❖ Olpad thresher: Olpad thresher is said to have its origin at a small place named Olpad in
Gujarat state.
❖ Groundnut Thresher: It can be run by 5 hp electric motor. Its capacity may be 400 kg
pods/hr.
❖ Threshing efficiency: The threshed grain received from all outlets with respect to total grain
input expressed as percentage by mass.
Paddy Thresher: The capacity may be 250 – 1000 kg/hr.
ROTO TILLAGE
❖ There is saving of 60 – 70 percent operational time and 55 – 65 percent fuel consumption
with single rotavation, compared to conventional method of seedbed preparation.
SUGARCANE SETT CUTER PLANTER
❖ It is operated by a 45 hp tractor.
❖ It can cover about 0.20 ha/h in smooth field.
RICE SEEDER
❖ The seed rate depends on the rate of revolution of drums and is normally 50 -70 kg/ha.
POTATO PLANTER
➢ The field capacity of two ridges varies from 0.20 to 0.40 ha/h with
➢ Depth of planting of 100 – 200 mm.
RICE TRANSPLANTER
❖ Self-propelled rice trans planter (8 rows, single wheel, driven by 3 hp diesel engine) with
three persons transplant nearly one hectare a day using mat type seedlings.
CONCEPT OF FARM MECHANIZATION
❖ The main concept of farm mechanization is to apply the principles of engineering and
technology to do the agricultural operations in a better way to increase crop yield.
❖ This includes the development, application and management of all mechanical aids for field
operation, water control, material handling, storage and processing.
❖ Mechanical aids include:
➢ Hand tools,
➢ Animal drawn implements,
➢ Power tillers,
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
79
➢ Tractors,
➢ Engines,
➢ Electric motors,
➢ Grain processing and
➢ Hauling equipment’s.
❖ The level of farm mechanization in India stands at about 40-45%.
❖ This level of farm mechanization is still low as compared to the countries such as the U. S.
(95 %), Brazil (75%) and China (57%).
❖ Use of improved implements has potential to increase productivity up to 30 per cent and
reduce the cost of cultivation up to 20 per cent.
GOV CONTRIBUTION TO INCREASE LEVEL OF FARM MECHANIZATION
❖ Sub Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM)
➢ Centrally sponsored scheme for promotion of farm mechanization.
➢ launched by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare in the year 2014-15 for a
period of five years.
➢ Increasing the reach of farm mechanization to small and marginal farmers and to the regions
where availability of farm power is less
NOTE – Subsidies under this scheme will be added your current affairs part.
EMERGING TRENDS IN FARM MECHANIZATION
Small engines 1 to 3 hp for handheld and knapsack power operated equipment for pruning, hedge
trimming, tree felling, cutting of bushes, tea harvesting, spraying and dusting are preferred.
CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS
S. NO. FUEL
CAORIFIC VALUE
1.
2.
3.
4.
4500 kcal/m3
2130 kcal/kg
11100 kcal/kg
10550 kcal/kg
Biogas
Cow dung cakes
Petrol
Diesel
Sr. No
1
2
80
Name of fuel
Light Diesel Oil (L.D.O)
High speed diesel oil (HSD)
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
(%)
60
11
25-32
32-38
Calorific value, kcal/kg
10300
10550
3
Power kerosene
10850
RENEWABLE ENERGY
➢ It is the energy mainly obtained from renewable sources of energy like sun, wind, biomass
etc.
➢ Biogas energy, wind energy and solar energy are used in agriculture and domestic purposes
with suitable devices.
➢ This type of energy is inexhaustible in nature.
WIND ENERGY
❖ The minimum wind speed of 10 km/hr is considered to be useful for working windmills for
agricultural purpose.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
➢ On an average, the temperature of the earth increases by 300C per kilometer as one moves
inward.
➢ The first commercial geothermal power station was erected in Larderello in Italy in 1904.
➢ In India, geothermal resources in the form of steam and hot water are known to exist along
Ladakh and in parts of Himachal Pradesh.
TIDAL ENERGY
➢ They arise twice a day.
➢ The first commercial tidal power station in the world, was constructed in France in 1965,
across the mouth of La Rance estuary.
➢ In India, tidal power could probably be generated in Kutch and in Hoogly River.
WAVE ENERGY
➢ Wave energy plant using OWC method is being built in Kerala.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
81
CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES
1. Based on combustion of fuel:
External combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
a) External combustion engine➢ Here, the working medium, the steam, is generated in a boiler, located outside the engine
and allowed into the cylinder to operate the piston to do mechanical work.
b) Internal combustion engine➢ In internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder and heat is generated within the cylinder.
➢ This heat is added to the air inside the cylinder and thus the pressure of the air is
increased tremendously.
➢ This high-pressure air moves the piston which rotates the crank shaft and thus
mechanical work is done
2. Based on fuel used:
Diesel engine – Diesel is used as fuel
Petrol engine – Petrol is used as fuel
Gas engines – propane, butane or methane gases are
used
3. Based ignition of fuelSpark ignition engine (Carburetor type engines)
Compression ignition engine (injector type engines)
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
a) Spark ignition engine – a mixture of air and fuel is drawn into the engine cylinder. Ignition
of fuel is done by using a spark plug.
➢ The spark plug produces a spark and ignites the air- fuel mixture.
➢ Such combustion is called constant volume combustion (C.V.C.)
b) Compression ignition engine –
➢ In compression ignition engines air is compressed into the engine cylinder.
➢ Due to this the temperature of the compressed air rises to 700-900 oC. At this stage diesel
is sprayed into the cylinder in fine particles.
➢ Due to a very high temperature, the fuel gets ignited. This type of combustion is called
constant pressure combustion (C.P.C.) because the pressure inside the cylinder is almost
constant when combustion is taking place.
4. Based on working cycleFour stroke cycle engine
Two stroke cycle engine
a) Four stroke cycle engine- When the cycle is completed in two revolutions of the
Crankshaft, it is called four stroke cycle engines.
b) Two stroke cycle engine- When the cycle is completed in one revolution of the Crankshaft,
it is called two stroke cycle engines.
POINTS ABOUT IC ENGINE:
❖ The end of the connecting rod connecting the piston is called small end.
❖ The other end of the connecting rod connecting the crank shaft is called big end.
❖ When piston is moved up and down, the motion is transmitted to the crank shaft by the
connecting rod and the crank shaft makes rotary motion.
❖ The crankshaft rotates in main bearings which are fitted the crankcase.
❖ A flywheel is provided at one end of the crankshaft for smoothing the uneven torque
produced by the engine.
❖ There is an oil pump at the bottom of the engine which contains lubricating oil for lubricating
different parts of the engine. The oil pressure in hydraulic pump caries from 150 to 200
kg/cm2.
As per ASAE standard PTO speed is 540 ± 10 rpm when operating under load.
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➢ It is estimated that a tractor engine requires to be operated at full load approximately 25 to
30 percent of the operating time. Most of the time, the engine is required to be operated
between 50 to 70% of the full load.
➢ The minimum specific fuel consumption occurs at speed of 1650 rpm.
POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
A power transmission system usually consists of the following parts:
❖ Clutch – The device that connects or disconnects two torque transmitting devices.
❖ Transmission – A device for transmitting power at a multiplicity of speed and torque.
❖ P.T.O. Drive – The parts that transmit torque from the engine to the PTO spline on the rear
of the tractor.
❖ Differential – The device, usually in the axle housing, that allows the two wheels on an axle
to rotate at different speeds.
❖ Brake – The device, usually in the axle housing, that stops the motion of the tractor.
❖ Axle – The shaft and connecting parts that transmits torque from the differential or final gear
reduction to the wheels.
Engine –Crankshaft – flywheel – clutch – transmission box – differential – final drives –
axle – drive wheels.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF I.C. ENGINE/ FOUR STROKE CYCLE ENGINE / TWO
STROKE CYCLE ENGINE:
❖ The sequence of events taking place inside the engine is as follows:
Suction
stroke
Compression
stroke
Power stroke
Exhaust
stroke
1. Admission of air or air-fuel mixture inside the engine cylinder (Suction).
2. Compression of the air or air fuel mixture inside the engine (compression).
3. Injection of fuel in compressed air for ignition of the fuel or ignition of air-fuel mixture
by an Electric spark plugs to produce thermal power inside the cylinder (power).
4. Removal of all the burnt gases from the cylinder to receive fresh charge (exhaust).
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TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE (PETROL ENGINE):
❖ In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events i.e., suction, compression, power
and exhaust are completed in two strokes of the piston i.e., one revolution of the crankshaft.
❖ There is no valve in this type of engine. Gas movement takes place through holes called ports
in the cylinder.
❖ The crankcase of the engine is airtight in which the crankshaft rotates.
TWO STROKE AND FOUR STROKE ENGINES
No.
1
2
3
4
5
Four stroke engines
One power stroke for every two
revolutions of the crankshaft.
There are inlet and exhaust valves in the
engine.
Crankcase is not fully closed and airtight.
Top of the piston compresses the charge.
6
7
Size of the flywheel is comparatively
larger.
Fuel is fully consumed.
Weight of engine per hp is high.
8
Thermal efficiency is high.
9
Removal or exhaust gases easy.
10
11
Torque produced is even.
For a given weight, engine would give
only half the power of two stroke engine.
12
All types of speed are possible (high and
low).
It can be operated in one direction only.
13
Two stroke engines
One power stroke for each revolution of
the crankshaft.
There are inlet and exhaust ports instead
of valves.
Crankcase is fully closed and airtight.
Both sides of the piston compress the
charge.
Size of the flywheel is comparatively
smaller.
Fuel is not fully consumed.
Weight of engine per hp is
comparatively low.
Thermal efficiency is comparatively
low.
Removal of exhaust gases
comparatively difficult.
Torque produced is less even.
For same weight, two stroke engines
give twice the power that of four stroke
engines.
Mostly high-speed engines are there.
It can be operated in both directions
(clockwise and counterclockwise).
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Piston rings are of two types:
1. Compression ring and
2. Oil ring
➢ Oil ring: It control the distribution of lubrication oil in the cylinder and the piston.
➢ Crankshaft:It is the main shaft of an engine which converts the reciprocating motion
of the piston into rotary motion of the flywheel.
❖ Usually, the crankshaft is made of drop forged steel or cast steel.
➢ Flywheel is made of cast iron.
❖ Its main functions are stores energy during power stroke and returns back the energy
during the idle strokes, providing a uniform rotary motion of flywheel, pressure surfaces
for the clutch plate and Sometime the flywheel serves the purpose of a pulley for
transmitting power.
➢ Crankcase provides a reservoir for the lubricating oil. It is a mounting unit for such
accessories as the oil pump, oil filter, starting motor and ignition components.
➢ Camshaft is a shaft which raises and lowers the inlet and exhaust valves at proper times.
❖ The speed of the camshaft is exactly half the speed of the crankshaft in four stroke
engines.
❖ Camshaft operates the ignition timing mechanism, lubricating oil pump and fuel pump.
❖ It is mounted in the crankcase, parallel to the crankshaft.
➢ Scavenging: The process of removal of burnt or exhaust gases from the engine cylinder is
known as scavenging.
COMPARISON OF DIESEL ENGINE WITH PETROL ENGINE:
No. Diesel engine
1
It has got no carburetor, ignition coil and
spark plug.
2
Its compression ratio varies from 14:1 to
22:1
3
It uses diesel oil as fuel.
4
5
6
86
Only air is sucked in cylinder in suction
stroke.
It has got ‘fuel injection pump’ and
injector
Fuel is injected in combustion chamber
where burning of fuel takes places due
to heat of compression.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
Petrol engine
It has got carburetor, ignition coil & spark
plug.
Its compression ratio varies from 5:1 to 8:1.
It uses petrol (gasoline) or power kerosine
as fuel.
Mixture of fuel and air is sucked in the
cylinder in suction stroke.
It has got no fuel injection pump and
injector, instead it has got carburetor and
ignition coil.
Air fuel mixture is compressed in the
combustion chamber when it is ignited by
an electric spark.
7
8
9
10
Thermal efficiency varies from 32 to
38%
Engine weight per horse-power is high.
Operating cost is low.
Compression pressure inside the
cylinder varies from 35 to 45 kg/cm2
and temperature is about 500°C.
Thermal efficiency varies from 25 to 32%
Engine weight per horsepower is
comparatively low.
Operating cost is high.
Compression pressure varies from 6 to 10
kg/cm2 and temperature is above 260°C.
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF FUEL
S. No.
Name of fuel
Specific gravity
Calorific value (kcal/kg)
1.
2.
Light diesel oil (L.D.O)
High speed diesel oil (HSD)
0.920
0.820
10300
10550
3.
4.
Power kerosene
Petrol
0.827
0.730
10850
11100
❖ The commercial diesel fuels have got cetane rating varying from 30 to 60.
❖ Best result is obtained when carburetor is so adjusted that air-fuel ratio is about 15:1.
TERMINOLOGY CONNECTED WITH ENGINE POWER:
➢ Bore- Bore is the diameter of the engine cylinder.
➢ Stroke - It is the linear distance traveled by the piston from Top dead Centre (TDC) to
Bottom dead Centre (BDC).
➢ Stroke-bore ratio -The ratio of length of stroke (L) and diameter of bore (D) of the
cylinder is called stroke-bore ratio (L/D). In general, this ratio varies between 1 - 1.45 and
for tractor engines, this ratio is about 1.25.
➢ Swept volume - It is the volume (A x L) displaced by one stroke of the piston where A is
the cross-sectional area of piston and L is the length of stroke.
Watt = Joule/sec. (4.2 Joules = 1 Calorie).
In metric unit the power can be expressed in kg.m/sec.
➢ Horsepower (HP) - It is the rate of doing work. Expressed in horsepower
Conversion factors from work to power
4500 kg m of work /minute = 1.0 hp
75 kg. m of work /second = 1.0 hp.
➢ Indicated horsepower (IHP) - It is the power generated in the engine cylinder and received
by the piston. It is the power developed in a cylinder without accounting frictional losses.
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➢ Brake horsepower (BHP) - It is the power delivered by the engine at the end of the
crankshaft. It is measured by a dynamometer.
➢ Power take-off horsepower (PTO HP) - It is the power delivered by a tractor through its
PTO shaft. In general, the belt and PTO horsepower of a tractor will approximately be the
same. The PTO hp is around 80-85% 0f tractor engine power.
➢ Drawbar horsepower (DBHP) - It is the power of a tractor measured at the drawbar of a
tractor. It is that power which is available for pulling loads. It is around 50-55 % of engine
power.
➢ Frictional horsepower (FHP) - It is the power required to run the engine at a given speed
without producing any useful work. It represents the friction and pumping losses of an
engine.
IHP = BHP + FHP
➢ Wheels: Usually 2 to 4 ply pneumatic tyres are used in power tillers. The pressure of the
tyre ranges from 1.1 to 1.4 kg/cm2.
➢ White cast iron: It may be used for bearings of disc harrow gangs or wheel bearings for
implements. It may be used for mould boards also.
➢ Ductile cast iron: It may be used for gears, sprockets and plough shares.
➢ Low carbon steel: Low carbon steel contains less than 0.25% carbon. It is also called Mild
steel. It is used for nuts, bolts and other simple components of agricultural implements.
➢ Medium carbon steel: It contains 0.25% to 0.6% carbon. It is used for shafts, gears, axles
etc.
➢ High carbon steel: High carbon steel contains 0.6 to 1.5% carbon. It is used for plough
shares, blades, shovels, disc, coulters and cutting tools etc.
➢ Soft Centre steel: Mould board is usually made of this type of steel.
➢ Carburetor✓ The process of preparing air-fuel mixture away from the engine cylinder is called
carburetion.
✓ And the device in which this process takes is called carburetor.
✓ Carburetor is used to mix the air and fuel thoroughly, to atomize the fuel, to regulate the
air- fuel ratio at different speeds and loads on the engine, to supply correct amount of
mixture at different speeds and loads.
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INDIGENOUS PLOUGH/ COUNTRY PLOUGH:
➢ Forms V shaped furrows with 15-20 cm top width and 12-15 cm depth. Its field capacity is
around 0.4 ha per day of 8 hours.
➢ A farmer has to walk about 66 km on foot while ploughing 1 ha land once by bullocks with
a country plough having 15 cm furrow width.
MOULD BOARD PLOUGH:
❖ Available for animals, power tiller and tractor operation.
❖ The shares are made of chilled cast iron or steel.
❖ MB plough, for tractor pull can work in per day 1.5- 2.0 ha.
➢ Harrows, rollers and pulverizes, rotary tillers, tools for mulching and fallowing, cage wheels
etc. Are secondary tillage implements.
TRACTOR MOUNTED MOULD BOARD PLOUGH
Two or three bottom plough is operated by a tractor of 35 – 50 hp and its field capacity varies
from 0.25 to 0.35 ha/h.
➢ Animal Drawn Potato Planter:
The effective field capacity is about 0.1 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted Cultivator Seed Planter:
The effective field capacity is about 0.63 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted Seed Fertilizer Drill cum Planter:
Its effective field capacity is about 0.30 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted Ridge Seeder:
The field capacity is about 1 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted Direct Rice Seeder:
The effective field capacity is about 0.68 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted No –Trill Ferti seed drill:
Effective field capacity is about 0.46 ha/h.
➢ Power Tiller Operated Till Plant Machine:
It consists of main frame with standard hitch, seed/ fertilizer boxes, transport wheel, drive
wheel field capacity is about 0.18 ha/h.
➢ Star Weeder:
The effective capacity is about 0.007 ha/h.
➢ Animal Drawn Reaper:
The output of the machine is about 0.2 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted 2 row Potato Digger:
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The effective field capacity is about 0.3 ha/h.
DISC HARROW:
❖ Disc harrows have concave discs of size varying from 35-70 cm diameter.
❖ The spacing between the discs on the gang bolt ranges from 15 to 25 cm for light duty and
25 to 30 cm for heavy duty harrows.
Field efficiency :
About 70%.
Draft: About 400 N
Labour
requirement: 8 man
– h/ha
❖ Spike Tooth Harrow: It usually operates at shallow depth up to 5 cm.
❖ Spring Tooth Harrow:
➢ It works up to a depth of 150 mm in the field.
➢ The sections vary in width from 0.9 to 1.7m, adapted for use in rough and stony ground,
also called as quack grass, and Bermuda grass eradicator,
❖ Scraper:
The field capacity is in the range of 0.10 to 0.15 cubic meters.
❖ ACME HARROW:
Also known as blade harrow, curved knife-tooth harrow, pulverizer
❖ PATELA:
Wooden plank used for smoothening the soil and crushing the weeds.
❖ POWER HARROW – TRACTOR DRAWN:
Field capacity is around 1.5 ha/day.
➢ POTATO PLANTER (SEMI-AUTOMATIC): It may plant in 2-4 rows, Field capacity is
0.15-0.35 ha/hr.
➢ POTATO PLANTER (AUTOMATIC SEED DROPPING): It can plant in 2-4 rows.
Capacity is 6000- 14000 potatoes /hr.
➢ SELF PROPELLED PADDY TRANSPLANTER: Picks up 3 or 4 seedlings in each fork
at a time from the mat and plant them in the puddled soil, row to row spacing of 28 cm to
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
30 cm and plant to plant spacing of 14 to 16 cm, planting capacity of the machine is about
0.05 to 0.1 hectare per hour Power requirement is about 1.2 to 1.8 HP petrol engine.
IMPLEMENTS FOR INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS
➢ Hand hoe: Depth 2-3 cm thereby weeds are cut, and soil is stirred, coverage is 5-7 cents
per day.
➢ Star type weeders: Suitable for weeding in dry lands, coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
➢ Peg type weeders: Suitable for weeding in dry lands, coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
➢ Wheel hoe: Tool for weeding and intercultural in row crops, coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
➢ Different types of cultivators are Disc cultivator, Rotary cultivator, Tine cultivator,
Tractor Drawn Cultivator, Trailed type cultivator, Mounted Cultivator.
➢ ANIMAL DRAWN CULTIVATOR:
✓ Sweep: By skimming action under the soil at a shallow depth of 2 to 3 cm, the sweep
blades cut the weeds. The coverage is 1.75 to 2.5 ha/day.
✓ Junior hoe: Coverage is 1.5 ha per day.
➢ ENGINE OPERATED WEEDER: It consists of a 3-hp engine (petrol start kerosene
run), field capacity is 0.75 – 1.0 ha per day, Depth of cut is 8-12 cm.
SPRAYERS
➢ COMPONENTS OF A SPRAYER: Pump, Tank, Agitator (device to stirs the solution),
Air chamber, Pressure gauge, Pressure regulator, Valves, Cut-off valve, By-pass valve,
Relief valve, Strainer, Nozzles, Spray gun, Spray boom, Over-flow pipe.
TYPES OF SPRAYERS
High volume sprayer (more than 400 litres /ha)
Low volume sprayer (5 to 400 litres/ hectare)
Ultra low volume sprayer (ULV) spray (less than 5
litres /ha)
Capacity
Pressure
Application
Rate
Coverage
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Hand atomiser
Hand
compression
sprayer
Knap sack
(Hand
operated)
Rocker sprayer
10-12 L (filled
75-80 %)
10-15 L
Foot and pedal
operated
Knap sack
motorised mist
Blower cum
duster (1.2- 3
HP High speed
Engine)
0.15 -0.30
kg/cm2
2-3.5 kg/cm2
45-100 l/ha
3-12 kg/cm2
500 l/ha
0.5- 1 ha/day
14-18 kg/cm2
70-90 l/h (with
one nozzle)
110-135 l/hr
(with one
nozzle)
1.5 ha/day
17-21 kg/cm2
45-100 l/ha
1 ha/day
12 L (Chem
tank)
Power sprayer
(3 HP engine)
250-350 Pounds
Deliver sol up to
15 metre
❖ DUSTER: A duster essentially consists of ,
1. Hopper
2. Agitator
3. Feed control
4. Fan or blower
5. Delivery nozzle
❖ Harvesting tools and equipment are sickle, mower, Shoe, Ledger plate, Wearing plate,
Knife.
❖ COMBINE: It is a machine, which performs the functions of a reaper, thresher and
winnower.
THE FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS ARE:
1. Header 2. Reel 3. Cutter bar 4. Elevator canvas 5. Feeder canvas 6. Feeding drum 7.
Threshing drum 8. Concave 9. Fan 10.chaffer sieve 11. Grain sieve 12. Grain auger 13. Tailing
auger 14. Grain elevator and 15. Grain container.
➢ Combine harvester: A combine may be self-propelled type and PTO driven type,
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Self-propelled type: This engine gives power for operating all the mechanisms as well as
for pulling the weight of the combine. Size varies from 2-4 m.
➢ PTO driven type: The power requirement of the combine may be taken on 8 HP/m width
of cut for pulled type machine and 12 HP/m width of cut for self-propelled machines.
RELATIVE DIFFICULTY IN TRANSPLANTING VARIOUS VEGETABLES:
NO.
1
2
3
4
5
Easy to transplant
Broccoli sprouts
Brussels
Cabbage
Tomato
Lettuce
Medium difficulty
Cauliflower
Celery
Egg plant
Onion
Pepper
Difficult to transplant
Watermelon
Muskmelon
Squash
Cucumber
AVERAGE FIELD SPEEDS, FIELD EFFICIENCIES, AND EFFECTIVE FIELD
CAPACITIES OF SOME FARM MACHINERY:
Machine
Plow
Field Efficiency
(%)
85
Effective Field Capacity
(A/h)
4.8
Subsoiler
85
5.2
Chisel Plow
Offset Disk
Field Cultivator/Seedbed Conditioner
85
85
85
6.4
6.8
10.8
Planter, seed only
65
5.9
Sprayer
Mower Conditioner
rotary
Combine, soybeans*
self-propelled Forage Harvester 3
rows
65
83
9.5
6.3
73
5.0
25
ESTIMATING DRAFT REQUIREMENTS:
IMPLEMENT
Disc plough
Chisel plough
Blade plough
Scarifier
DRAFT PER UNIT WIDTH (KN/m)
5.0-6.0
4.5-5.5
4.0-4.5
4.0-4.5
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Cultivator
Planter
3.0-3.5
2.5-3.5
ESTIMATION OF DRAWBAR POWER:
Drawbar power
=
𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐥 (𝐤𝐍)
𝟑.𝟔 (𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭)
x speed* (km/hr)
POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
94
The cheapest source of energy is renewable energy.
Power available from a farm labour is 0.1 hp
Solar energy is a Renewable energy.
1915-1919- Power take off was introduced
1936- 1937 – Diesel engine was used in tractor and pneumatic tires were introduced
1960-1961 – Tractor manufacturing was started in India by first manufacturer M/s Eicher
Good Earth
1981- Auto tractors were started.
1982- Universal Tractors was established
Sowing behind the plough can be done by a device known as malobansa
With ultra-low volume sprayer one hectare of crop can be treated in around 2.5 hour
Width of operation in self-propelled paddy harvester is 1.0 metre, coverage is 1.5 ha/day.
Self-propelled harvesting units- citrus harvester can harvest 200-400 trees in one hour. It
can harvest 95% of the crop from the tree.
Tractor operated turmeric harvester has field capacity of the unit is 1.6 ha per day. It
saves 70 per cent in cost and 90 per cent in time when compared to manual digging and
extent of damage caused to the rhizomes is very much less (2.83 per cent).
Nursery stock vegetable Trans-planter can plant at spacing as close as 5-8 cm in the row.
Planters are available to plant 2-6 rows at a time with 15-20 cm row spacing.
CHISEL PLOUGH: Can efficiently work up to 60-70 cm depth. 10 to 15 horsepower (7
to 11 kW) per shank will be required.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
PROTECTED CULTIVATION
Green House: A greenhouse is a framed or an inflated structure covered with a transparent or
translucent material in which crops could be grown under the conditions of at least partially
controlled environment and which is large enough to permit persons to work within it to carry
out cultural operations.
Greenhouse Effect: Phenomenon of increase in the ambient temperature, due to the formation
of the blanket of carbon dioxide is known as greenhouse effect.
➢ In general, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 0.035% (345 ppm).
➢ During the daytime, the shorter wave radiation enters into the greenhouse and gets reflected
from the ground surface.
➢ This causes the increase in the greenhouse temperature.
➢ It is desirable effect from point of view of crop growth in the cold regions.
GREENHOUSE TYPE BASED ON SHAPE:
1. Lean-to type greenhouse: A lean-to design is used when a greenhouse is placed against the
side of an existing building
➢ It is typically facing south side and a total width of 7 to 12 feet.
2. Even span type greenhouse: The even-span is the standard type and full-size structure, the
two roof slopes are of equal pitch and width
➢ Several single and multiple span types are available for use in various regions of India.
➢ For single span type the span in general, varies from 5 to 9 m, whereas the length is
around 24 m.
➢ The height varies from 2.5 to 4.3 m.
3. Uneven span type greenhouse: This type of greenhouse is constructed on hilly terrain and
now-a-days as it is not adaptable for automation.
4. Ridge and furrow type greenhouse: Designs of this type of use two or more A-frame
greenhouses connected to one another along the length of the eave.
➢ The eave serves as furrow or gutter to carry rain and melted snow away.
➢ Effectively used in northern countries of Europe and in Canada and are well suited to the
Indian conditions.
5. Saw tooth type Greenhouse: These are also similar to ridge and furrow type greenhouses
accept that, there is provision for natural ventilation in this type.
GREENHOUSES FOR ACTIVE COOLING:
❖ During summer season, it is desirable to reduce the temperatures of greenhouse than the
ambient temperatures, for effective crop growth.
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❖ This greenhouse is designed in such a way that it permits a roof opening of 40% and in some
cases nearly 100%.
1. Wooden framed structures: In general, for the greenhouses with span less than 6 m, only
wooden framed structures are used (Pine wood)
2. Pipe framed structures: Pipes are used for construction of greenhouses, when the clear
span is around 12m
3. Glass greenhouses: Only glass greenhouses with glass as the covering material existed
prior to 1950.
4. Plastic film greenhouses: Flexible plastic films including polyethylene, polyester and
polyvinyl chloride are used as covering material in this type of greenhouses. The best
quality ultraviolet (UV) stabilized film can last for four years only.
5. Rigid panel greenhouses: Polyvinyl chloride rigid panels, fibre glass-reinforced plastic,
acrylic and polycarbonate rigid panels are employed as the covering material. High grade
panels have long life even up to 20 years.
6. Shading nets: They are characterized of high tear resistance, low weight for easy and
quick installation with a 30-90% shade value range.
LIGHT:
Green house crops are subjected to light intensities varying from 129.6klux on clear summer
days to 3.2 Klux on cloudy winter days. Photosynthesis does not increase at light intensities
higher than 32.2klux.
➢ UV light is available in the shorter wavelength range, i.e less than 400nm. Large of
quantities of it is harmful to the plants.
➢ Glass screens are opaque to the most UV light and light below the range of 325nm.
➢ Visible and white light has wavelength of 400 to 700nm.
➢ Far red light (700 to 750nm) affects plants, besides causing photosynthesis.
Relative humidity: For most crops, the acceptable range of relative humidity is between 50 to
80%.
Ventilation: Air temperatures above 35 0C are generally not suited for the crops in green house.
Carbon dioxide: Most crops will respond favorably to Co2 at 1000 to 1200 ppm.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR CONTROLLING GREENHOUSE ENVIRONMENT:
1. Fan-and Pad cooling system: The fan and pad evaporative cooling system has been
available since 1954 and is still the most common summer cooling system in green houses.
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
2. Fog cooling system: The fog evaporative cooling system, introduced in green houses in
1980, mean size of less than 10 microns using suitable nozzles.
3. Natural ventilation: The ventilators on the roof as well as those on the side wall accounts,
each about 10% of the total roof area.
4. Computers: Computer systems can provide fully integrated control of temperature,
humidity, irrigation and fertilization, CO2, light and shade levels for virtually any size
growing facility. to realize saving of 15 to 50% in energy, water, chemical and pesticide
applications.
PLANNING OF GREEN HOUSE FACILITY:
❖ Structural design: Greenhouse structures should be designed to resist a 130 km/h wind
velocity.
❖ Covering materials:
Covering material
1. Glass and acrylic sheet
2. Polycarbonate and fiberglass-reinforced polyester sheet
3. Polyethylene
4. Polyethylene stabilized for UV rays
Life span
20 years
5-12 years
2-6 months
2-3 years
The ideal greenhouse selective covering material should have usable life of 10 to 20 years.
MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION OF GREEN HOUSES
a) Wood: Wood and bamboo are generally used for low cost poly-houses.
b) Glass: Widely used glass for greenhouse is:
(i) Single drawn or float glass (thickness of 3 to 4 mm)
(ii) Hammered and tempered glass (thickness of 4 mm) the most widely used
c) Polyethylene film: Polyethylene film was developed in the late 1930s in England and spread
around the middle of this century. Plastic film greenhouses are popular because the cost of
heating them is approximately 40% lower compared to single-layer glass or fiberglassreinforced plastic greenhouses.
d) Polyvinyl chloride film: PVC films are UV light resistant vinyl films of 0.2 to 0.3 mm and
are guaranteed for 4 to 5 years respectively. In Japan, 95% of greenhouses are covered with
plastic film, out of which 90% are covered with vinyl film.
e) Tefzel T 2 film: The most recent addition of greenhouse film plastic covering is Tefzel T 2
film (ethylene tetrafluoroethylene).
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f) Polyvinyl chloride rigid-panel: PVC rigid panels showed much promise as an inexpensive
covering material (almost 40% of cost of long-lasting fiberglass reinforced plastics), has the
life of 5 years. PVC rigid panels are not in use.
g) Fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) rigid panel: FRP was more popular as a greenhouse
covering material in the recent past. Some grades give 5 to 10 years, while better grades
can last up to 20 years.
h) Acrylic and polycarbonate rigid-panel: These panels have been available for about 15
years for greenhouse use. Acrylic panels are available in thickness of 16 and 18 mm and
have 83% of PAR light transmission.
i) Design criteria and constructional details of greenhouses: The floor area of service
buildings required for small firms is about 13% of the greenhouse floor area, (An average
10%)
IRRIGATION SYSTEM USED IN GREENHOUSES
❖ Rules of Watering:
➢ Use a well-drained substrate with good structure
➢ Water thoroughly each time- As a rule, 10 to 15% excess of water is supplied
1. Hand watering: The most traditional method of irrigation is hand watering and in present
days is uneconomical.
2. Perimeter watering:
➢ Perimeter watering system can be used for crop production in benches or beds.
➢ A typical system consists of a plastic pipe around the perimeter of a bench with nozzles
that spray water over the substrate surface below the foliage.
➢ Either polythene or PVC pipe can be used.
➢ Nozzles are made of nylon or a hard plastic and are available to put out a spray are of
180°, 90° or 45°.
3. Overhead sprinklers:
➢ While the foliage on the majority of crops should be kept dry for disease control purposes,
a few crops do tolerate wet foliage.
➢ A total height of 0.6 m is sufficient for bedding plants flats and 1.8 m for fresh flowers.
A nozzle is installed at the top of each riser.
➢ Nozzles vary from those that throw a 360° pattern continuously to types that rotate around
a 360° circle. Trays are sometimes placed under pots to collect water that would otherwise
fall on the ground between pots and wasted.
➢ The trays also have drain holes, which allow drainage of excess water and store certain
quantity, which is subsequently absorbed by the substrate.
4. Boom watering:
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➢ Boom watering can function either as open or a closed system and is used often for the
production of seedlings grown in plug trays.
➢ Precision of watering is extremely important during the 2-to-8-week production time of
plug seedlings. A boom watering system generally consists of a water pipe boom that
extends from one side of a greenhouse bay to the other
➢ The boom is propelled by an electric motor.
5. Drip Irrigation:
➢ Drip irrigation, often referred to as trickle irrigation.
➢ Drip irrigation is the best means of water conservation. In general, the application
efficiency is 90 to 95%, compared with sprinkler at 70% and furrow irrigation at 60
to 80%.
SPRINKLER IRRIGATION LIMITATIONS:
❖ Power requirements are usually high, since sprinkler operate with a water pressure of 0.5
kg/cm2 to 10 kg/cm2.
❖ PERFORATED PIPE SYSTEM
➢ It is suitable for lower pressure of about 0.5 to 2.5 kg/cm2.
➢ The laterals may design to operate under pressure as low as 0.15 to 0.2 kg/cm2 and as high
as 1 to 1.75 kg/cm2.
❖ EMITTERS:
➢ The discharge rate of “emitters” usually ranges from 2 to 10 litres per hour.
❖ EMERGING TRENDS IN FARM MECHANIZATION
➢ Small engines 1 to 3 hp for handheld and knapsack power operated equipment for pruning,
hedge trimming, tree felling, cutting of bushes, tea harvesting, spraying and dusting are
preferred.
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THRESHING
Post-harvest Technology: It refers to the process and treatments carried out on agricultural
products after it is harvested. It starts from the selection of proper harvest and ends with
marketing.
1) Threshing: Process of detaching grains from ear heads or from the plants.
Manual – capacity varies from 30 to 50 kg/h
Power - capacity varies from 300 to 500kg/h
❖ Some important points:
➢ In case of angle bar type threshing cylinder, the clearance between cylinder and concave
unit at the entrance is from 13 mm to 19 mm and reduces to 6 to 9 mm only.
➢ In case of rasp bar type cylinder usually 6 to 8 bars are spirally fixed on the cylinder.
WINNOWING
Particulars
Grain Winnower
Paddy winnower
Paddy cleaner
Capacity
625 kg/ h
Operated by
1 hp motor
150 kg/h
1 hp motor
1 hp electric motor
SHELLER – MAIZE
1. Maize Sheller:➢ The capacity of the unit is 500 kg of cob/h.
➢ It is operated by a 1 hp electric motor.
2. Husker Sheller for maize:➢ Used for removal of sheath and shelling of cob.
➢ The capacity of the unit is 100 quintals per day.
➢ It is operated by 7.5 hp electric motor.
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Important Points
Winnow paddy
(Already threshed by
a paddy thresher)
Efficiency- 91 %
GRAIN DRYING
1. Thin layer drying:➢ Up to 20 cm thickness of grain bed is taken as thin layer.
➢ All commercial dryers are designed based on thin layer drying principles
2. Deep bed drying:➢ Rate of airflow per unit mass of grain is small.
GRAIN STORAGE
Storage structures:
❖ Storage- to maintain the quality of grain after harvest for
➢ Maintaining the supply of grain.
➢ Taking advantage of higher prices.
Two methods of grain storage:
Bag storage
Loose in bulk storage
Bulk Type
Shape/
Structure
Capacity
Grains
Particular
Points
Bukhari Type
Cylindrical
3.5-18 t
Rat proofing
cones
Morai type
Inverted
truncated cone
Box
3.5-18 t
Wheat, gram,
paddy, maize &
sorghum
paddy, maize &
sorghum
paddy, maize &
sorghum
Rectangular but
cylindrical is
also common
1-50 t
Kothar type
Mud Kothi
(Mud bin)
Bag storage
9-35 t
5 cm thick
wooden planks
and beams
Made from mud
mixed with
dung and straw
25-500 t
IMPROVED STORAGE STRUCTURE
Storage structure
Capacity
Particular point
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Pusa bin
Brick and cement bin
Bunker storage
CAP (Cover and Plinth)
storage structure
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1.5- 60 t
24 t
Long term storage of large
volume of grains
➢ Used for cover and plinth
structure
➢ Rectangular in shape
➢ Open storage: Serves the
storage of food grains in
bags for short period.
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES CLEANING
1. Fruit and Vegetable Cleaning Machine:
➢ Capacity: 20 kg/batch
➢ Power requirement : 1 person
➢ RPM: 20 – 30 rpm
➢ Fruit and vegetable: Most fruits & vegetable inclusive mango & tomato
➢ Foreign matter removal: Field Soil, Dust and surface microorganism, Fungicide /
insecticide, Sap, Black spots etc.
2. Multifunctional cleaning machine
3. Fruit cleaning machine:
➢ The equipment is suitable for cleaning of ball-shape or oval-shape fruits and vegetables.
➢ The fruits and vegetables rotate continuously in all directions randomly.
➢ Brushing and spraying is in effect at a same time.
4. Brush Type Vegetable & Fruit Cleaning Machine:
5. Surf Type Fruit Cleaning Machine:
➢ The equipment is mainly composed of water cabinet, material turning device, fan and lifter
etc.
➢ It is widely used for soft washing of fruit and vegetable raw materials. The lifter can be made
of complete stainless steel and engineering plastic.
GRADING
1. Divergent roller type fruit sorting machine for lemon and sapota- MPKV, Rahuri.
2. Divergent rails/slit size mango grader- CISH, Lucknow.
3. Fruit and vegetables grade for tomato and mango:
Capacity – 500 kg
/ha
Power requirement½ hp electric motor
Efficiency- 85-90 %
4. Potato grader: Capacity – 5 to 30 tonnes/ hr
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5. Onion grader: Capacity - 8 to 30 tonnes/ hr
SIZE REDUCTION
Unit operation in which the average size of solid pieces of food is reduced by the
application:
Impact forces
Compression
Grinding
RELATED TERMS:
❖ Homogenization or Emulsification
➢ Reduction in size of globules of immiscible liquids
❖ Atomization
➢ Size reduction of liquids by droplets
❖ Extrusion, Agglomeration or Forming
➢ Size enlargement
❖ Milling efficiency: Product of coefficient of hulling (E hulling) and coefficient of
wholeness of kernel (E wk)
❖ Coefficient of hulling: Percentage of the hulled grains obtained from the total amount of
grain input.
❖ Coefficient of Wholeness of kernel: Ratio of the amount of kernel, crushed grains and
mealy waste obtained by any milling system.
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FOOD STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954
Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003
Meat Food Product Order, 1973
Milk And Milk Product Order, 1992
Bureau Of Indian Standards Act, 1986
Standards On Weight And Measurement Act, 1976
Livestock Importation Act, 1898
AGMARK Act ,1937
The Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Foods Act ,1992
Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963
Essential commodities Act, 1955
Indian Explosives Act, 1884
Energy Conservation Act, 2001
The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006
THE FOLLOWING LAWS WERE CONSOLIDATED:
1. The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 (37 of 1954)
2. The Fruit Products Order, 1955
3. The Meat products Order, 1973
4. The Vegetable Oil Products (Control) Order, 1947
5. The Edible Oils Packaging (Regulation) order, 1998
6. The Solvent Extracted Oil, De oiled Meal, and Edible Flour (Control) Order, 1967
7. The Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992
8. Any other order issued under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (10 of 1955) relating to
food.
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OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER
➢ In order to understand the occurrence of groundwater and its vertical distribution, let’s first
consider the hydrological zones present below the ground
➢ The zone between the ground surface and the top of capillary fringe is called unsaturated zone
(or, zone of aeration) which consists of voids (pores or interstices) partially filled with water
and partially with air.
➢ Water is held at a pressure less than the atmospheric pressure in the unsaturated zone.
➢ The zone between bottom of the unsaturated zone and top of the water table is called capillary
zone.
➢ the zone extending from the water table to an impermeable layer is called saturated zone (or,
zone of saturation), wherein all voids are completely filled with water.
➢ In saturated zone water is held at a pressure greater than the atmospheric pressure.
AQUIFER AND CONFINING LAYERS
➢ Aquifer is defined as “a single geologic formation or a group of geologic formations that can
transmit and yield water in usable quantities”
➢ Aquiclude is defined as a geologic formation that can store significant amount of water but
does not have the capability to transmit a significant amount of water. Clay is an ideal example
of aquiclude.
➢ Aquitard is defined as a geologic formation that can store some water as well as can transmit
water at a relatively low rate compared to aquifers. Sandy clay is an ideal example of aquitard.
➢ Aquifuge is defined as a geologic formation that can neither store nor transmit water. Solid
granite is an ideal example of aquifuge.
FURTHER AQUIFER CAN BE BASICALLY CLASSIFIED INTO THREE TYPES:
(a) unconfined aquifer,
(b) confined aquifer, and
(c) leaky aquifer.
Sometimes, fourth type of the aquifer is known as ‘perched aquifer’,
(a) Unconfined Aquifers Aquifers which are bounded by a free surface (known as ‘water
table’) at the upper boundary and a confining layer at the lower boundary are called
unconfined aquifers.
(b) Confined Aquifers Aquifers which are bounded both above and below by impervious or
semi-pervious layers are called confined aquifers and the water present in these aquifers are
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under pressure (Aquifers 2 and 3 in Fig. 3.1). Confined aquifers are sometimes also called
‘pressure aquifers’ or ‘artesian aquifers.
(c) Leaky Aquifers If an aquifer (confined aquifer or unconfined aquifer) loses or gains water
through adjacent semi-permeable layers, it is called a ‘leaky aquifer’ ,Therefore, the terms
‘leaky confined aquifer’ and ‘leaky unconfined aquifer’ are widely used depending on
whether the leaky aquifer is confined or unconfined.
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SURVEYING
➢ Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of different objects on the surface
and below the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal and vertical distances between
them and by preparing a map to any suitable scale.
➢ To prepare a topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages, towns, forests
etc. of a country.
➢ To prepare an engineering map showing details of engineering works such as roads, railways,
reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc.
The general principles of surveying are:
a. To work from the whole to the part, and
b. To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed
reference points.
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
Generally, surveying is divided into two major categories: plane and geodetic surveying
(a) PLANE SURVEYING is a process of surveying in which the portion of the earth being
surveyed is considered a plane.
(b) GEODETIC SURVEYING is a process of surveying in which the shape and size of the
earth are considered
Chain Surveying The principle of chain surveying is triangulation. This means that the area
to be surveyed is divided into a number of small triangles which should be well conditioned.
Types of Chains used in Surveying
Depending upon the length of the chain, these are divided into following types,
1. Metric chains- Metric chains are the most used chain in India. These types of chains come
in many lengths such as 5, 10, 20 and 30 meters. Most used is 20m chain. Tallies are
provided at every 2m of the chain for quick reading. Every link of this type of chain is 0.2m.
The total length of the chain is marked on the brass handle at the ends.
2. Steel band or Band chain-These types of chain consist of a long narrow strip of steel of
uniform width of 12 to 16 mm and thickness of 0.3 to 0.6 mm. this chain is divides by brass
studs at every 20cm or instead of brass studs, band chain may have graduated engraving as
centimeter
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3. Gunter’s chain or surveyor’s chain - Gunter chain comes in standard 66ft. This chain
consists of 100links, each link being 0.66ft or 7.92inches. The length 66ft is selected because
it is convenient in land measurements.
10 square Gunter’s chains = 1 Acre
10 Gunter chains = 1 Furlong
80 Gunter chains = 1 mile
4. Engineer’s chain- This chain comes in 100ft length. Its consist of 100 links each link being
1ft long. At every 10 links a brass ring or tags are provided for indication of 10 links.
Readings are taken in feet and decimal.
5. Revenue chain- The standard size of this type of chain is 33ft. The number of links are 16,
each link being 2 ft. This chain is commonly used in cadastral survey.
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USEFUL LIFE HOURS & EFFICIENCY OF VARIOUS IMPLEMENTS
S. No.
Name of machine
Useful
life
Hours
Useful life
Years
1
2
3
4
5
Tractor
Power tiller
Stationery engine
Electric motor
Combine (self
propelled)
Combine
(mounted and
drawn)
Plough
Disc harrow
Seed drill
Seed cum fertilizer
drill
Planter
Cultivator
Towed scraper
Power sprayer
Seed cleaner
Trailer
Power thresher
Centrifugal pump
Power chaff cutter
Rotavator
Ridger
Puddler
Cane crusher
10000
8000
10000
15000
3000
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Recommended
average field
efficiency (%)
10
10
10
15
6
Recommend
average
speed
(Km/hr)
2-3.5
2000
7
2-3
70
3000
3000
2500
2000
10
10
10
8
4.5
6
5
5
80
80
70
70
2000
4000
2000
2000
2500
3600
2500
10000
5000
2400
1500
2500
10000
10
10
10
8
5
12
8
10
8
8
12
10
10
5
6
70
80
2.5
4.5
5
80
90
75
FIELD CAPACITY OF VARIOUS IMPLEMENTS:
Particulars
Field capacity of Traditional implements
Capacity
0.3-0.4 ha/day
Indigenous plough (Country Plough)
0.4 ha/day
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75
MB Plough (35-50 HP) (2-3 Bottom
Plough)
Two Row Potato Planter
Animal Drawn Potato Planter
Tractor operated Potato Planter
Potato Planter capacity of two ridge
Tractor Mounted Two row Potato digger
0.25- 0.35 ha/h
Tractor Mounted 1 Row Potato digger
Power Tiller operated Potato digger
Engine operated Rotary Tiller
Potato Planter (Semi-automatic) (2-4 row)
0.15 ha/h
0.4 ha/h
0.75-1 ha/day
0.15-0.35 ha/h
Automatic seed Dropping (2-4 row)
Sugarcane sett cutter planter
Tractor Mounted sugarcane cut planter
6000-14000 potato/hr
0.2 ha/h
0.25 ha/h
Tractor mounted cultivator seed planter
0.63 ha/h
Tractor mounted seed cum ferti drill
Tractor mounted seed ferti drill cum
planter
Tractor mounted strip till drill
Tractor mounted No Till- ferti seed drill
0.75 ha/h
0.30 ha/h
Tractor mounted No till drill
Power tiller operated Till Plant machine
0.75 ha/h
0.18 ha/h
Tractor mounted Ridge seeder
Tractor mounted Direct rice seeder
Star weeder
Tractor operated turmeric harvester
Animal drawn reaper
Harvesting capacity of reaper binder
Self-propelled paddy harvester
Self-propelled citrus harvester
Tractor drawn power harrow
Manual Rice planter
Self-propelled Paddy Transplanter
Tractor mounted inclined plate planter (6
row)
1 ha/h
0.68 ha/h
0.007 ha/h
1.6 ha/day
0.2 ha/h
0.25-0.35 ha/h
1.5 ha/day
200-400 trees/hr
1.5 ha/day
0.25 ha/day
0.05 to 0.1 ha/h
0.6 ha/h
0.2- 0.3 ha/ h
0.1 ha/h
0.25 ha/h
0.2-0.4 ha/h
0.3 ha/h
0.25 ha/h
0.46 ha/h
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Rice Transplanter (8 row, 3 hp diesel
engine)
Orchard sprayer (35 hp tractor)
Self Propelled High clearance sprayer (20
HP diesel)
Ultra Low Volume sprayer
1 ha/day
Hand Hoe
Star Type weeder
Peg Type weeder
Wheel Hoe
Sweep (Animal Drawn)
Junior Hoe (Animal Drawn)
Engine Operated Weeder (3 HP engine)
5-7 cents/day
0.05 ha/ day
0.05 ha/ day
0.05 ha/ day
1.75- 2.5 ha/day
1.5 ha/day
0.75- 1 ha/day
0.20- 0.50 ha/h
0.20 ha/h
2.5 h/ha
DEPTH OF VARIOUS IMPLEMENTS
Depth
5 cm
15 cm
2-3 cm
2-3 cm
8-12 cm
8-12 cm
30 cm
60-70 cm
0.10- 0.15 m 3
Particular
Spike Tooth Harrow
Spring Tooth Harrow (Quack Grass and
Bermuda grass eradicator)
Hand Hoe
Sweep
Engine Operated Weeder (Depth of cut)
Engine Operated Rotary Tiller
Power Tiller operated Potato digger
Chisel Plough
Scraper
USEFUL LIFE:
Particular
Glass and Acrylic Sheet
Poly carbonate and fibre reinforced
Polyethylene
Polyethylene stabilized for UV rays
Ideal green house selective covering
material
PVC film
PVC rigid panel
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Years (Useful Life)
20 years
5-12 years
2-6 months
2-3 years
10-20 years
4-5 years
5 years
Fibre glass Reinforced plastic (FRP) rigid
panel
But Better grade can be up to
Acrylic Poly carbonate rigid panel
Thickness
PAR light Transmission
Avg 5-10 years
20 years
15 years
16-18 mm
83 %
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TOP ENGINEERING FACTS
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An average man can develop the maximum power of about 0.1hp.
An average pair of bullocks can develop the maximum power of about 1hp.
The average force that a draft animal can exert approximately 1/10 of its body weight.
Of the total energy produced in India, the share of thermal power is about 56%.
Of the total energy produced in India, the share of hydro-electrical power is about 36%.
Percent of methane gas in biogas varies from 45 to 70%.
Biogas contains hydrogen sulphide gas and hydrogen gas.
Percent of CO2 in biogas is about 32 to 45%.
Conservation of biomass is in the absence of O2.
Ratio of cow dung and water for making slurry to feed the bio-gas plant is 4:5.
Capacity of bio-gas plant varies from 2 to 150 m3.
For better biogas production, the pH of slurry should be between 7 to 8.
Thermal efficiency of biogas is about 60%.
Calorific value of L.P.G is about 27700 kcal/m3.
Thermal efficiency of cow dung is about 11%.
The angle between centre line of tyre and vertical line is called chamber angle.
The angle between centre line of king pin of tractor and the vertical line is called caster
angle.
The horizontal distance between the front and rear wheels of a tractor is called wheelbase.
Ground clearance of tractor is measured under maximum permissible load condition.
In tractors, the weight transfer is affected by wheelbase and hitch height.
In tractors, the weight transfer is greater when pull is higher.
The desi plough cuts the soil in the shape of V.
The M.B plough cuts the soil in the shape of L.
The diameter of disc plough in standard disc plough varies from 60 to 90 cm.
Disc angle of a quality disc plough varies from 43 to 45⁰.
In a good quality disc plough, the tilt angle varies from 15 to 20⁰.
When a plough works round the strip of ploughed land, then it is said to be gathering.
When a plough works round the strip of unploughed land, then it is said to be casting.
The soil mass, which is cut, lifted and threw during ploughing is called furrow slice.
The undisturbed soil surface left besides the furrow is called furrow wall.
The top portion of turned soil mass is called crown.
In case of ‘centre to side ploughing’, the ridge left at the centre of field is called back
furrow.
In ‘centre to side ploughing’, the back furrow is formed at centre of the land strip.
Open trench left between two adjusted strips of land after ploughing is called dead furrow.
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The unploughed land left at the end of field for turning the tractor is called head land.
One-way ploughing is done by reversible plough.
A tandom disc plough consists of 4 gangs.
A single bottom ridding plough is also called sulky plough.
The useful life of centrifugal pump is 10 years.
The useful life of disc harrow is 10 years.
The useful life of cultivator is 10 years.
The useful life of rotavator is 8 years.
The useful life of power tiller is 10 years.
For multi crop thresher, the h.p. of prime mover should be from 5 to 20.
The working capacity of multi-crop thresher is 200 to 2500 kg/h.
The cutting platform of combine consists of reel and concave.
While working, the reel of combine revolves Infront of the cutter bar.
In combine, the delivery of cut crop to the cylinder is done by conveyer.
In combines, the most common type of conveyer being used is table conveyer.
In combine, the threshing of crop is done between concave and cylinder.
Stationery diesel engine are used for pumping water flour mill, oil ghanis, cotton gins, chaff
cutter, sugarcane crusher threshers and winnowers etc.
Where the wind velocity is more than 32 km/hr windmills can be used for lifting water.
Average capacity of a windmill would be about 0.5 HP.
Heat engine is a machine for converting heat developed by burning fuel into useful work .
Engine is a mechanical device which generates thermal energy and transform it into
mechanical energy.
External combustion engine (ECE)> Is the type of engine in which combustion of fuel
takes place outside the engine cylinder.
Internal combustion engine (ICE)> In this engine the power generates by the complete
combustion of fuel inside the cylinder.
In diesel engine specific fuel consumption is about 0.2kg/BHP/hour
In petrol engine specific fuel consumption is about 0.29kg/BHP/hour.
diesel engine develops more torque when it is heavily loaded while petrol engine does not
develop torque.
Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to consider 1HP for every 2
hectares of land.
1.5 HP/hectare is recommended when adequate irrigation facilities are available, and
more than one crop is taken .
Estimating the cost of tractor power .
a. Fixed cost includes.>{1.Depriciation . 2.Intrest on capital 3. Housing. 4. Insurance. 5.
Taxes}
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116
b. Operational cost includes .>1.Fuel. 2. Lubricants. 3. Repair. 4. Wages.
The centre of pull or resistance- It is the point where all the force on a plough is act.
Disc plough is note suitable for covering surface trace and weeds affectively as mould
board plough does.
Disc angle varies B/W 42 and 45.
Tilt angle varies B/W 15 and 25.
Tractor drawn disc plough weigh B\W 180 and 540 kg/disk
Animal drawn disk plough weighs about 30kg/disk.
In tractor drawn plough the diameter of the disk blades varies B/W 60 and 90cm.
Draft is the horizontal component of the pull parallel to the line of motion.
Drafts depends upon:
a. Sharpness of cutting edge.
b. Working speed.
c. working width.
d. working depth.
e. Type of implement.
f. Soil condition
g. Attachment.
Unit draft is the draft per unit cross sectional area of the furrow.
Theoretical field capacity~ It is the rate of field coverage of the implement based on 100%
of time at the rated speed and covering 100% of its rated width.
Effective field capacity > It is the actual area covered by the implement based on its total
time consumed and its width .
Field efficiency > It is the ratio of effective field capacity and theoretical field capacity
expressed in percent.
The blade harrow popularly known as > Bakhar.
Blade harrows generally used in clay soils for preparing seedbeds of both kharif and rabi.
Compression ratio = Swept volume + clearens volume/clearens volume.
Efficency of rotavator is about 1.5-2.0ha/day.
Working capacity manual of rice trans planter varies from 0.3-0.4ha/day.
The planting capacity manual of rice trans planter is about 0.05-0.1ha/day.
Combine harvester in its primitive form was introduced in Germany and USA in late 19th
century and become popular in next decade.
On an average about 800 combines are added every year of Indian farms.
Function of combine harvester: 1 cutting the standing crops.2 feeding the cut crops to
threshing unit. 3 threshing the crops . 4 cleaning the grains from straw.5 collecting the grains
in a container.
Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Hand operated sprayer suitable for small holdings operating at pressure ranging from 1 to
7kg/cm2.
➢ Power operated sprayer suitable for treating a large area . they are operated at pressure
ranging frome 20 to 55kg/cm2.
➢ Low volume sprayer ~ Volume ranges B/W 5 to 400 liters per hectare is used.
➢ Rear mounted implements are attached to tractors with 3-point hitch.
➢ Government has decided to enhance farm power availability from 2.02 kW per ha (201617) to 4.0 kW per ha by the end of 2030.
➢ The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is the percentage of heat energy that is transformed
into work. Thermal efficiency is defined as. The efficiency of even the best heat engines is
low; usually below 50%
➢ 4500 kg m of work /minute = 1.0 hp; 75 kg m of work /second = 1.0 hp; Roughly, 1.0 hp =
746 watts
➢ 1890: The word tractor appeared first on record in a patent issued on a tractor or traction
engine invented by George H. Harris of Chicago
➢ 1906: Successful gasoline tractor was introduced by Charles w. Hart and Charles H. Parr of
Charles City, Iowa
➢ 1908: First Winnipeg tractor trails were held
➢ 1911: First tractor demonstration was held at Omaha (Nebraska)
➢ 1915-1919: Power takes off was introduced.
➢ 1920-1924: All purpose was developed
➢ 1936- 1937: Diesel engine was used in tractor and pneumatic tires were introduced
➢ 1950-1960: Manufacturing of diesel tractors on extensive basis throughout the world was
taken up
➢ 1960-1961: Tractor manufacturing was started in India by first manufacturer M/s Eicher
Good Earth.
➢ 1962-1970: Manufacturers like Tractor and Farm Equipment, Madras, Hindustan tractors at
Baroda, Escorts Tractors at Faridabad and International Harvester in Bombay started work
during this period
➢ 1971: Escorts Tractor Ltd. Started producing Ford Tractors 1973- Manufacture of HMT
Tractor was started
➢ 1974: Manufacture of Pitti and Kirlosker Tractor was started 1975- Harsha Tractors was
established
➢ 1981: Auto tractors were started
➢ 1982: Universal Tractors was established
➢ 1983-2003: GTCL tractors, M.M Tractors, Sonalika, VST, L&T, Bajaj Tractors were
produced.
➢ Speed range: Low speed engine- < 350 rpm, High speed engine->1000 rpm.
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➢ Remote sensing and GIS applications can be employed for land use planning and
watershed development works.
➢ In India, portable type sprinkler system is most used.
➢ In tractor 3-point hitch is operated by hydraulic system.
➢ Sandy and hard compacted soil is not suitable for operating rotavator.
➢ Depth of penetration of disc harrow is altered by gang angle.
➢ Working life of tractor drawn cultivator is 2500 hours.
➢ Mechanization level is measured in terms of-kW/ha [AAE, Odisha-2019]
➢ The tillage in which plant residue are left on or near the surface of field- Mulch tillage
[AAE, Odisha-2019]
➢ capacity of tractor drawn harrow in 1 hac 2.0 hac/hr. (IBPS-2019)
➢ Dropping of seeds in furrow lines in continuous flow and covering them by soil is called asDrilling [AAE, Odisha-2019]
➢ An average man can develop maximum power of about – 74.6W
➢ In tractor, the three-point hitch is operated by- Hydraulic system
➢ Refrigerant used in cryogenic freezing- Liq. Nitrogen [AAE, Odisha-2019]
➢ MB PLOUGH, for tractor pull can work in 1.5 to 2.0 Ha. Per day. (AFO 2017)
➢ No till planter used for sowing. (AFO 2017)
➢ According to nabard what is the average farm mechanization level (%) in India: 40-45
➢ The flywheel is mounted on (Pre PG-2018): Rear end of crankshaft
➢ MB plough, for tractor pull can work in per day (2 bottom): 1.5- 2.0 ha per day
➢ Which tillage implement requires minimum draft per unit width: Planter & Cultivator
(AFO-2018)
➢ What is the Capacity of High-volume sprayer: More than 400 (AFO-2018)
➢ What is the HP power required for power sprayer: 3 HP (AFO-2018)
➢ Geologic formation that can neither store nor transmit water is called: Aquifuse (AFO-2021)
➢ Length of gunter’s chain is: 66 ft (FEO MP 2017)
➢ In which type of tillage 15-30 % residue left on the soil surface: Reduce tillage (IBPS AFO
2019)
➢ What is the RPM of rotary tiller: 180-200 (IBPS AFO 2018)
➢ The carburetor of an engine is used to mix fuel with: Air (AICL-2017)
➢ What is the power extracted by PTO: 75-85 (AFO-2018)
➢ The cross-sectional area of one cylinder of an engine multiplied by its stroke is: Swept
volume (ADO-2015)
➢ An advanced method of minimum tillage in which primary tillage is completely avoided and
secondary tillage is reduced to row zone/seed bed zone only: Zero tillage (AFO 2021)
➢ Zero tillage got successful because of: Herbicides (AFO 2021)
➢ Primary + secondary tillage implement: Rotavator (AFO 2021)
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➢ Which is used in rear of tractor transmission part for attaching combine harvester, mover
thresher etc to tractor: PTO (AFO 2021)
➢ Which of the following is renewable source of energy: Biomass (NABARD 2021)
➢ Which of the following machine is used to chop fodder: Chaff cutter (NABARD 2021)
➢ Total head of the pipeline represents which among the following: Suction height+ Delivery
height + resistance due to friction (metre) (RRB SO 2021)
➢ A 2×25 cm plough is move at speed of 5 km/hr, how much time will it take to plough the
field of size 300×300 metres if field efficiency of instrument is 60 % : 60 hrs (RRB SO
2021)
➢ For cultivating land of around 40 ha. for monocropping what HP tractor is preferred: 25 HP
(AFO-2018).
➢ In which year power tiller is introduced in India: 1963 (AFO-2018)
➢ In India, walking type tractors are fitted with _____hp engine: 8-12
➢ Tyre Pressure:
• Rear: 0.8-1.5 kg/cm2
• Front: 1.5-2.5 kg/cm2
• Pneumatic Tyre Life: 6000 hours for drawbar work
➢ Production of machineries in India: Pumping Sets> Sprayers& Dusters> Tractors> Power
Tillers> Combine harvester
➢ The length of a Gunter's Chain is - 66 feet
➢ The extra high-speed engines used in knapsack sprayers are powered by-Petrol
➢ The injector and fuel pump are the heart of Diesel
➢ In Otto cycle Heat is added at Constant volume
➢ In food preservation most commonly used radiation is gamma rays.
➢ Filtration system of drip irrigation system:• Sand filter – to remove organic and inorganic material
• Hydro cyclone filter – to remove high density particles
• Disc filter – to remove organic material and algae
➢ SI engines (petrol) develop 85% of rated power, CI engines (diesel) develop 100% of rated
power on biogas.
➢ The most popular covering material replacement for glass in case of greenhouse is
Polyethylene.
➢ The consistency of rainfall is determined by double-mass curve.
➢ The nature of hydrograph depends on the characteristics of Rainfall and watershed
➢ The K-factor in Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is measured on unit plot of size 22 m
long with 9% slope.
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➢ The National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) was initiated
in 1986-87.
➢ Function of governor in tractor engine: • increase the speed of engine under increased load condition
• Decrease the speed of engine when load decreases
• regulate the fuel supply.
➢ Nozzle used for spraying of weedicide is Flat fan nozzle.
➢ The tilth angle of standard disc plough varies from 15-25
➢ Disc angle of disc plough is 40-45҆⁰
➢ Power tiller is most suitable for the cultivation of Paddy
➢ Implement used for seedbed preparation as well as sowing by attached seed drill called:
Cultivator
➢ Semi-mounted implements are attached with: Two-point hitch
➢ Rear mounted implements are attached with: Three-point hitch
➢ The IHP of an engine is always: More than BHP
➢ the essential component of water-cooling system in tractor: Radiator
➢ the single most important factor affecting drip irrigation-Spray volume
➢ Which causes more wastage of herbicides by drift-Ultra low volume sprayer
➢ The depth of penetration of disc Harrow is increased by -Gang angle
➢ Penetration of disc plough can be improved by- Decreasing tilt angle
➢ Hydraulic brake is based on which law - Pascal's law
➢ The dog clutch is used in- power tiller
➢ The tractor coefficient is maximum when- The field is dry
➢ Specific gravity of diesel- <1
➢ Groundnut thresher is type of – spike tooth
➢ Capacity of tractor drawn pulse seeder – 1 hac.per day
➢ India's first digital flower auction center is located in – Bengaluru
➢ In comparison of 4 – stroke and 2 - stroke engine, the fuel consumption in 4 – stroke engine
is less
➢ crown wheel is a part of – differential
➢ The component of Mouldboard plough which penetrates into the soil and makes a horizontal
cut below the soil surface – Share
➢ The portion of the piston below the piston pin which is designed to absorb the side movement
of the piston – Skirt.
➢ Otto cycle is related to – Petrol engine\Kerosene engine
➢ In Vertical disc plough tilth angle of disc is zero
➢ Chisel plough penetrate to the depth of 25-35 cm.
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➢ Sub soiler penetrate at the depth of 60-70 cm
➢ Use of gasket is = prevent leakage
➢ Type of furrow opener recommended for use in hard and trashy ground & also in wet and
dry soil is single disc type
➢ Most mechanized crop in India is wheat.
➢ Which harrow is also called "Bakhar":- Blade harrow
➢ Air blast sprayer is used for – Orchards
➢ The cold chisels are made by – Forging
➢ Adiabatic process heat is constant in the system.
➢ At compression stroke both valves are fully closed .
➢ Dibbling is usually practiced for vegetables.
➢ For mechanical harvesting of sugarcane by sugarcane harvester the crop should be planted
in 120 cm row spacing or 120-130 cm paired row trench method
➢ The trough angle for paddy and most other grains in belt conveyor is 20 degrees
➢ The diameter of tube-wells for irrigation and water supply usually ranges from 15-45 cm
➢ the fuel which should be used for easy starting of an engine in cold weather is petrol
➢ Inward sloping bench terraces are most effective for high rainfall area.
➢ Adiabatic process heat is constant in the system.
➢ Dibbling is usually practiced for vegetables
➢ Hand operated sprayer are operated at a pressure of 1-7 kg/cm².
➢ Power tillers are popularly available in 6-12 hp range.
➢ Highest ownership of tractor is in Punjab(31%) followed by Gujrat.
➢ TAFE (tractor) and farm equipment limited is India’s second and world’s third largest tractor
manufacturer volumes
➢ Capacity of power harrow is 2.5 ha/day.
➢ Correct sequence of Power Transmission
➢ Clutch- Gear box- Differential- Final Drive.
➢ To increase thermal efficiency of a petrol engine, designer has to increase the Compression
Ratio.
➢ Dead furrow is made by one way MB Plough.
➢ Scouring refers to the movement of soil on tool surface.
➢ Vertical section of M.B. Plough- Depth of Ploughing.
➢ Horizontal Section of M.B. Plough-Width of Ploughing.
➢ Weight of hull is 18-22% of Paddy grain.
➢ V shaped sweeps are best suited for -stubble mulch tillage
➢ The most used and least efficient power outlet of tractor is drawbar in the rear.
➢ Universal soil loss equation was proposed by wishmerier and smith
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➢ In order the plants in every corner should receive maximum light; the green house axis is
placed in east – west direction.
➢ Laterals is the component of drip irrigation system, which requires major cost
➢ In India portable sprinkler system is most commonly used.
➢ Sprinkler irrigation method can be used for almost all crops except paddy and jute.
➢ The density of granular material can be determined by pycnometer.
➢ The latent heat of vaporization of water is 540 kcal.
➢ The most commonly used pumps in tractor hydraulic system are Gear type
➢ The top portion of furrow slice is known as crown.
➢ Maximum torque in a tractor is generated at Less than rated RPM.
➢ The vertical difference between the center line of the pump and the point of free delivery of
water is called as Static head
➢ The minimum wind speed 10km/hr required for agricultural purpose.
➢ Name the devices used to measure the flow of water In an irrigation channel - weirs &
notches. Orifices, - Parshall flumes & meter gates
➢ Helical blade puddler, Green manure trampler and Cage wheel are Implements for Wetland
operations
➢ Part of the sowing machine which conveys the seeds or fertilizer from the delivery tube to
the furrow is called as BOOT
➢ The useful life of a wheel type tractor is 10 years
No matter if it seems impossible now
No matter if it takes time
No matter if you have to wake up all night
Just remember that the feeling of SUCCESS is the
best thing in the entire world.
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AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMICS
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"Agricultural economics is a science which deals the principles and methods of economics are
applied to the special conditions of agricultural industry".
➢ It is derived from Greek word.
➢ Father of economics is ADAM SMITH.
➢ Chanakya called it as Arthashastra.
❖ Four Important Definitions of Economics:
➢ Wealth definition: By ADAM SMITH (father of economics)
✓ An enquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nation.
➢ Welfare definition: By ALFERD MARSHALL
✓ Study of mankind in the ordinary business of life examines part of individual and social
action which is most closely connected with and use of material requisite of well-being.
➢ Scarcity definition: By LIONNER ROSBINS
✓ Science which studies human behavior as a relation between ends and scarce means
which have alternative uses.
➢ Growth definition: By J.M. KEYNES (father of modern economics)
✓ Study of the administration of scarce resources and of the determinants of employment
and income.
❖ Contribution of Scientist:
➢ Adam smith: Father of Economics, Book "Wealth of nations"
➢ Alfred marshall: Concept of law of diminishing marginal utility, law of equimarginal
utility, consumer surplus.
➢ J.M. Keynes: Father of modern economics, Book "general theory of employment, interest,
money.
➢ Ragnar Frisch: Terms "Microeconomics and macroeconomics"
❖ Economics Is Divided into Two Parts:
A. Micro-economics: Such activities and services of consumption, production, exchange and
distribution concerned with individual units viz., single industry, single farms, single
consumer etc. i.e., at micro level are grouped under micro-economics.
B. Macro-economics: it deals with whole economic set-up and related additions or averages
e.g., total production, total income, total employment, total expenditure, total savings, price
level and economic development or whole economic setup.
❖ Classification of Goods:
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➢ Based on transferability
Transeferable (land
building)
Material
Non-transferable
(Degree certificate)
Classification
External
Transeferable
(Goodwill of
business)
Personal
Internal
Non-transferable
(Personal qualities)
Non-transferable
(Friendship courage)
➢ Based on supply:
✓ Free goods (e.g., air): Have value in use
✓ Economic goods: Have value in exchange and value in use.
➢ Based on durability:
✓ Mono-period goods: That can be used only once.
✓ Poly-period goods: That can be used multiple times.
➢ Utility: Want to satisfying power of a good is called utility.
➢ Types of utility:
✓ Form utility: It is changing the form of goods i.e., processing a good.
✓ Place utility: It is transportation of foods from one place to other.
✓ Time utility: It is storage activity.
✓ Possession utility: It is transfer of ownership of goods.
❖ Consumer Behaviour:
➢ WANT: It is just a wishful thinking (e.g., If you think of buying Range Rover).
➢ DESIRE: Person has ability to fulfil his/her want (e.g., If you think of buying purse, and
you have money).
➢ DEMAND: Person has ability and fulfils his/her want at a particular place on a particular
time (e.g., you bought a purse).
❖ Law of Demand:
➢ When price of a commodity increase, quantity demanded of it will decrease and vice-versa.
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➢ Fall in price leads to expansion in demand, while rise in price leads to contraction in
demand.
➢ Increase/ Decrease in demand i.e., shifting of demand: Depends upon other factors than
price:
✓ Income.
✓ Substitute goods.
✓ Taste.
✓ Preferences.
✓ Fashion.
✓ Season.
a. Increase in Demand:
b. Decrease in Demand:
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
➢ Autonomous demand: No link with demand of other goods.
➢ Derived demand: Demand for certain goods related with demand for other goods. E.g.,
fertilizers, pesticides.
❖ Kinds of Demand:
➢ Price demand: Various quantity of goods that a consumer would be willing to buy at all
possible prices in a given market at a given point of time.
➢ Income demand: Various quantity of goods that a consumer would be willing to buy at
different level of income in a given market at a given pint of a time.
➢ Cross demand: Various quantity of goods that a consumer would be willing to buy not due
to changes in price of commodity but due to changes in price related to goods.
❖ Giffen Goods: (Inferior goods)
➢ It is an exception to law of demand.
➢ Demand of these goods generally decrease with decrease in price.
➢ Inferior goods are not giffen goods.
❖ Elasticity of demand: (Value ranging from 0 to ∞)
➢ Price elasticity of demand:
➢ Income elasticity of demand:
➢ Cross elasticity of demand:
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑋
(%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑌)
❖ Perfectly Elastic Demand:
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❖ Perfectly Inelastic Demand:
❖ Cost Concepts
➢ In any business activities, the details of costs and returns provide an idea of profitability.
Cost of production refers to the expenses incurred in producing a unit quantity of product in
a particular time period.
➢ Cost function can pertain to the short run or long run.
❖ Short Run: It is defined to be that period of time in which atleast one or some of the firm’s
inputs are fixed and some are variable.
❖ Long Run: It is defined to be time period in which all inputs are variable. There are no fixed
inputs in the long run.
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Short Run
Costs
Total cost
Total fixed
cost
Total variable
cost
Average cost
Average fixed
cost
Marginal cost
(always the
variable cost)
Average
variable cost
❖ Fixed Cost: Which do not vary with the level of output. Fixed costs are increased even in the
absence of production.
➢ E.g.: Taxes, Insurance, depreciation on machinery, tools, buildings etc.
❖ Variable Cost: It varies with the level of output.
➢ E.g.: Cost of raw materials, labour, power, repairs etc.
➢ The summation of these costs refers to TVC.
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❖ Total Cost:
➢ TC = TFC + TVC
Units
Output
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
of
TFC
TVC
TC
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
0
10
18
24
28
32
38
46
10
20
28
34
38
42
48
56
❖ Average variable cost: It is the amount spent on the variable inputs to produce an unit of
output.
➢ It is total variable cost divided by output.
➢ 𝐴𝑉𝐶 =
130
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
=
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𝑇𝑉𝐶
𝑄
Units
Output
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
of TFC
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
TVC
TC
AFC
AVC
AC
MC
0
10
18
24
28
32
38
46
62
10
20
28
34
38
42
48
56
72
10
5
3.3
2.5
2.0
1.7
1.4
1.2
0
10
9
8
7
6.4
6.3
6.6
7.8
20
14
11.3
9.5
8.4
8
8
9
10
8
6
4
4
6
8
16
❖ Average Fixed Cost (AFC): It is the cost of fixed resources or inputs required for producing
one unit of output.
➢ 𝐴𝐹𝐶 =
𝑇𝐹𝐶
𝑄
➢ AFC curve is declining with the increased output because TFC is constant. Due to
this it is continuously falling up to its maximum output.
❖ Average Total Cost or Average Cost: When the total costs are divided by output.
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131
➢ 𝐴𝑇𝐶 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
=
𝑇𝐹𝐶+𝑇𝑉𝐶
𝑄
❖ Marginal cost (MC): It is the change in the total cost due to change in output.
➢ MC =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
=
∆𝑇𝐶
∆𝑄
=
∆𝑇𝑉𝐶
∆𝑄
➢ Note that, to compute MC, we can use TC or TVC because fixed cost can’t be changed.
➢ Imp: MC curves intersect AVC and AC at their minimum points.
❖ Important points determining price elasticity of demands:
➢ Nature of commodity:
✓ Comforts, Ed = 1,
✓ Ed > 1
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➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
✓ Inferior goods, Ed < 1
Availability of substitute:
✓ If substitute available demand elastic.
✓ If substitute not available inelastic.
✓ It is so because, if price of one substitute fall people will buy more of it.
Goods with different uses: These goods have elastic demand. E.g., electricity has many
uses.
Postponement of use: Goods whose demand can be postponed has high elastic demand like
gold.
✓ Whose amount can’t be postponed has less elastic demand.
Income of consumer: People who are very rich or poor has inelastic demand because rise
or fall in prices has very little effect on their demand.
✓ While middle class people have elastic demand.
Habit of consumer: Demand for habitual goods is inelastic. Eg.: Cigarette, coffee (Despite
rise in their price people demand such goods in same quantity).
Time:
✓ In short period: Demand inelastic.
✓ In long period: Demand elastic.
✓ Because a person can change his habits in the long run.
Relatively elastic demand:
✓ Ed > 1
✓ Generally, for luxuries.
➢ Relatively inelastic demand:
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133
✓ Ed < 1
✓ Generally, for necessities.
➢ Unitary Elastic demand:
✓ Generally, for comforts.
➢ Supply curves:
✓ Production side
✓ Positive relation with price
❖ Equilibrium condition:
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Agri Coaching Chandigarh
✓ Where demand + supply forces interest.
➢ Rural Credit: The word credit is derived from the Latin word Credo meaning ''I believe" or
I have confidence in". in economics, the term credit implies the postponement of payment.
Farm finance is concerned with the acquisition and management of capital in the farm
business.
❖ Classification of credit:
(i) Short term credit: It is given to meet current farm expenses such as purchase of seed,
manure and fertilizers, payment of wages to hired human labour etc. and repaid in 12
months.
(ii) Medium term credit: it is given for purchase of land, construction of farm building,
purchase of tractor and installation of tube wells etc. The period of long-term ranges from
12 month to 3-5 years.
(iii) Long Term credit: It is given to special projects and repayment period is more than 5
years.
➢ Agriculture Finance :- Credit is needed for adopting new technology, buying new
machines, such as a machine which is beneficial to the farmer to increase production, but
the farmer cannot buy it, in such a situation credit is needed.
✓ As 54% of country’s population dependent on agriculture/ production sector. Hence,
finance is needed to regulate all these activities.
✓ Agricultural Finance exist at both macro and Micro Levels.
✓ Macro Finance deals with the different sources of funds for agriculture as a whole in the
economy.
✓ Micro Finance deals with the financial management of individual farm businesses..
✓ Finance: Borrowed funds.
✓ Credit: Owned funds and borrowed funds.
❖ Cooperative Movement in India
1. Initiation Stage (1904-11)
2. Modification Stage (1912-18)
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3. Expansion Stage (1919-29)
4. Restructuring Stage (1930-46)
❖ Co-operatives movement in India:
➢ The cooperative movement in India started in 1904 with the Cooperative Credit Societies
Act.
➢ The father of the cooperative movement in India, F. Nicholson.
➢ In 1945, the government formed another cooperative planning committee. This committee
submitted its report to the government in 1946.
➢ The report of the All-India Rural Survey Committee was published in 1951. And the
Committee chairman was A. D. Gorwala.
IMPORTANT INSTITUTES RELATED TO BANKING AND FINANCE:❖ Reserve Bank of India :- This bank was established on 1st April 1935 under the RBI Act,
1934 and it was nationalized on 1st January 1949.
➢ It is the central bank of India.
➢ The headquarter of Reserve Bank is in Mumbai.
➢ Functions of Reserve Bank :✓ Issue the Notes - The Reserve Bank issues notes of all denominations of India except
one rupee coin or notes and small coins.
✓ To act as a banker to the Government.
✓ Acting as a banker to banks
✓ Credit control.
✓ Control over foreign exchange
❖ Regional Rural Banks:➢ Regional Rural Banks were established in the country to provide institutional credit to the
weaker sections of the society, especially farmers and artisans in rural areas.
➢ Initially on October 2, 1975, five regional rural banks were established whereas at present
43 regional rural banks are functioning.
➢ Functions of Regional Rural Bank :✓ In this, there was a provision to provide credit and other facilities to small businessmen,
agriculture, laborers, small and marginal farmers of rural areas.
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❖ NABARD
➢ The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) was established
on 12 July 1982. The paid-up capital of NABARD is 30000 crores
➢ NABARD is the apex body providing finance for agriculture and rural development in the
country.
➢ NABARD, as an apex institution in the rural credit structure, provides refinance facilities
to several financial institutions (State Land Development Banks, State Co-operative
Banks, Scheduled Commercial Banks, and Regional Rural Banks), which provide wide
spectrum of productive activities in rural areas. Give loans for promotion.
➢ NABARD receives funds from the Government of India, World Bank, and other agencies
to fulfill its credit requirements.
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION/INSTITUTIONS
❖ International Monetary Fund (Imf) :➢ Establishment year :- 22 July 1944
➢ Work Starting :- from 1 March 1947
➢ Headquarter :- Washington DC (USA)
❖ International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) (World Bank)
➢ Establishment year: - July 1944
➢ Work Starting :- June 1946
➢ Headquarter: - Washington DC
❖ World Trade Organization (WTO)
➢ Establishment year In April 1994 (in the city of Marrakesh in Morocco on the agreement
of the GATT Uruguay circle and duly established on January 1, 1995)
➢ Headquarter :- Geneva (Switzerland)
➢ Work :✓ To provide facilities for the implementation, administration and operation of world trade
agreements and multilateral and plural agreements.
✓ To act as a forum for discussion among the members on any future matters relating to
trade and tariffs.
✓ To collaborate with the IMF and the World Bank for greater coherence in global
economic policymaking.
❖ Asian Development Bank (ADB)
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➢
➢
➢
➢
Establishment year: - in December 1966
Work Starting :- From January 1967
Headquarter : Manila (Philippines)
Objective :- Lending to Asian countries at concessional interest rates.
❖ Food and Agricultural organization (FAO)
➢ Establishment year: - 16 October 1945
➢ Headquarter: - Rome, Italy
➢ Objective :- To raise the standard of living and to improve the condition of rural people.
✓ To increase the capacity of production and distribution of goods.
✓ Its Director General is elected for 6 years.
❖ Indian Export Import Bank or EXIM Bank :➢ Export Import Bank of India was established on January 1, 1982. Its purpose is to provide
financial assistance to exporters and importers.
➢ The headquarter of EXIM Bank is in Mumbai (Maharashtra).
➢ Exim Bank of India has overseas offices in Washington, Singapore, Abidjan, and Budapest
(Hungary).
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING
➢ The word market comes from the latin word marcatus, which means merchandise or trade or
a place where business is conducted. Word market has been widely and variedly used to
mean (a) a place or a building where commodities are bought and sold, e.g., supermarket; (b)
potential buyers and sellers of a product, e.g., wheat market and cotton market.
➢ "Marketing is the performance of all business processes, including the delivery of goods and
services from the initial agricultural production point to the final (consumer) point."
➢ Agricultural marketing is a process in which the seller of agricultural commodities wishes to
sell his goods and the buyer desires to buy that commodity at a fixed price.
❖ Utility:
➢ Marketing adds cost to the product; but, at the same time, it adds utilities to the
➢ product. The following four types of utilities of the product are created by marketing:
(a) Form Utility: The processing function adds form utility to the product by changing the raw
material into a finished form. With this change, the product becomes more useful than it is
in the form in which it is produced by the farmer.
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(b) Place Utility: The transportation function adds place utility to products by shifting them to
a place of need from the place of plenty. Products command higher prices at the place of
need than at the place of production because of the increased utility of the product.
(c) Time Utility: The storage function adds time utility to the products by making them
available at the time when they are needed.
(d) Possession Utility: The marketing function of buying and selling helps in the transfer of
ownership from one person to another. Products are transferred through marketing to
persons having a higher utility from persons having a low utility.
DIFFERENCE
SELLERS
PRODUCT
PRICE
ENTRY
OF
FIRMS
Knowledge
of
MARKET
Condition
Mobility
Demand Curve
Selling Cost
PERFECT
COMPETITION
Large
Homogenous
Uniform
Free Entry
MONOPOLISTIC
MONOPOLY
one
Both
Non-Uniform
Not Possible
Perfect
Large
Hetrogenous
Non-Uniform
Not
Absolute
Freedom
Imperfect
Perfect
AR=MR
Not Required
Imperfect
AR>MR
Often
Imperfect
AR>MR
seldom
Imperfect
❖ Classification of Agricultural Marketing:
(A) According to seller
1. Primary market
2. Secondary market
3. Tertiary market (Terminal market)
(B) According to time
1. Daily market
2. Short period market
3. Long period market
(C) According to competition
1. Perfect market
2. Imperfect market
3. Monopoly market
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(D) According to regulation
1. Regulated market
2. Unregulated market
(E) According to function:
1. General or mixed market
2. Specialised market
3. Marketing by samples
4. Marketing by grades
(F) According to sale
1. General or mixed market
2. Specialised market
3. Marketing by samples
4. Marketing by grades
(G) According to quantity of product
1. Wholesale market
2. Retail market
A. According to seller:
1. Primary market: These markets are held once or twice in a week and are generally
found in villages. Such markets are called Hats. In such markets producers directly sell
their commodities to the consumers and itinerant dealers or village banias.
2. Secondary market: These are daily markets and are held in cities. Generally, wholesale
of commodities takes place. Wholesalers, Kaccha and Pucca arhatiyas are present in
secondary market.
3. Terminal Market: such markets are found at seashore or ports. The agricultural products
are exported to the other countries by these markets.
B. According to time:
1. Daily market: Daily market is every short period market. The prices of agricultural
commodities are determined on the basis of variation in demand. Supply is limited.
Therefore, in equilibrium of demand and supply, the demand plays important role than
supply.
2. Short period market: Due to short period the demand is more effective on supply. In
short period market the supply of a commodity cannot be fully adjusted to the demand for
it.
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3. Long period market: in long period the supply of commodity can be adjusted to the
demand for it. If the demand at a given price increases the production of commodity can
be increased in the long period.
C. According to competitions:
1. Perfect market: In perfect market there are a large number of buyers and sellers and free
competition among buyers and sellers. The buyers and sellers have full knowledge about
the price of the commodities sold at different places.
2. Imperfect market: Buyers and sellers do not complete freely between themselves due to
friendship. Sometimes the number of buyers and sellers are small.
They do not know the exact price of the commodities sold at different places.
3. Monopoly market: When there is a single producer or seller of a commodity, and that
commodity should not have any close substitutes it is said a monopoly market.
D. According to regulation:
1. Regulated markets: The markets are regulated under market regulation act. The
representatives of government, cooperative societies, traders and farmers make a
agricultural marketing society. These societies control all the marketing business.
Middleman etc are given license and all the marketing charges are fixed and metric
system of weighing is used.
2. Unregulated markets: Under such markets there is not any regulation of government.
All the marketing defects are present in such markets. Middlemen charge more amount
for their services.
E. According to area:
1. Local market: In such markets the buyers and sellers of a commodity carry on business
at a particular place. The markets for perishable commodities such as milk and vegetables
are largely local.
2. National market: In national market the buyers and sellers extend over the entire nation.
The market of food grains and cloths are of national type.
3. International market: in such markets the buyers and seller are of different countries.
The market for tea and jute is international.
F. According to function:
1. General or mixed market: the market in which articles of all sorts are offered for sale is
called general market.
2. Specialised market: In specialized market, a particular commodity is sold, e.g.,
vegetable market, fish market etc.
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3. Marketing by samples: The samples of all goods offered for sale are sent for display.
For example, wheat, cotton, wool etc. are usually sold, by granding and sample. It is very
difficult for the buyer to inspect every single grain of wheat that he buys. It is very
difficult for a seller to transport all the goods to the marketplace. He there adopts the
method of selling goods by sample.
4. Marketing by grade: Marketing by sample leads to marketing by grade, The commodity
is divided into different grades on the basis of quantity or variety and each grade is given
certain name or trademark. The sellers can sell the commodity without showing samples
and purchasers can purchase the commodity by reference of name or mark of the grade.
G. According to sale:
1. Wholesale market: In such market wholesale marketing is done, Kacchha and pucca
arhatiya, wholesales are transacting the commodities.
2. Retail market: In this market retail selling takes place. The consumers are directly in
contact of retailers.
❖ Market/Marketing Channel:
A market channel is simply the path by which the commodity passes from producers to
ultimate consumer or the manner in which the products is moved from one agency to another.
The nature of the market channel for any produce may very depending upon the region, the
season of the year and the methods employed in handling. A single products may pass through
different channels. The important channels are as:
1. Producer → Primary wholesaler→ Govt. procurement → Roll →Flourmill → Fair price
shop → Consumer
2. Producer → Consumer
3. Producer → Village Bania → Kachha Arhatiya → Pucca arhatiya → Wholesaler →
Consumer
4. Producer → dealer → Wholesaler → Consumer
5. Producer → Cooperative marketing society → Consumers
6. Producer → Kaccha Arhatiya → Pucca Arhatiya → Wholesaler → Miller → Retailer →
Consumer
❖ Method Of Sale of Agricultural Produce:
1. Under cover: Under this system of sale the price is settled by brokers and arhatiyas under
the cover of the cloth
2. Open auction system: Under this system the broker invites bid for the produce and the
highest bidder is sold the produce. It is a fair system of sale.
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3. Sale by private agreement: Under this system individual buyers make their offers. The
decision is conveyed by the seller to the buyers.
4. Dara sales: In this system the heaps of grain of different qualities are sold at a flat rate.
5. Close tender system: Under this system tenders are invited from the buyers. The tender
having the highest amount is accepted and commodity is given to him.
❖ Producers Surplus of Agricultural Commodities: From the marketing point of view, this
surplus is more important than the total production of commodities.
1. Marketable Surplus: The marketable surplus is that quantity of the produce which can be
made available to the non-farm population of the country. The marketable
➢ surplus is the residual left with the producers' farmers after meeting his requirements.
➢ MS = P - C (where MS = Marketable surplus P =Total production, and C = Total
requirements)
2. Marketed Surplus: Marketed surplus is that quantity of the produce which the producer
farmer actually sells in the market, irrespective of the requirements for family consumption,
farm needs and other payments.
➢ If marketed surplus is more than marketable surplus or farmer is selling against his wish,
it will be known as distress sale.
➢ Factors affecting marketable surplus: Size of holding, Production, Price of the
Commodity, Size of family, Requirement of Seed and Feed, Nature of Commodity,
Consumption Habits.
❖ Marketing Costs: The movement of products from the producers to the ultimate consumers
involves costs, taxes, and cess which are called marketing costs. These costs vary with the
channels through which a particular commodity passes through. Eg: - Cost of packing,
transport, weighment, loading, unloading, losses and spoilages.
❖ Reasons for High Marketing Costs:
1. High transportation costs
2. Consumption pattern – Bulk transport to deficit areas.
3. Lack of storage facilities.
4. Bulkiness of the produce.
5. Volume of the products handled.
6. Absence of facilities for grading.
7. Perishable nature of the produce.
8. Costly and inadequate finance.
9. Seasonal supply.
10. Unfair trade practices.
11. Business losses.
12. Production in anticipation of demand and high prices.
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13. Cost of risk.
14. Sales service
❖ Factors Affecting Marketing costs
1. Perish ability
2. Losses in storage and transportation
3. Volume of the product handled
2. Volume of the More – less cost
3. Volume of the Less – more cost
4. Regularity in supply : Costless irregular in supply – cost is more
5. Packaging : Costly (depends on the type of packing)
6. Extent of adoption of grading
7. Necessity of demand creation (advertisement)
8. Bulkiness
9. Need for retailing : (more retailing – more costly)
10. Necessity of storage
11. Extent of Risk
12. Facilities extended by dealers to consumers. (Return facility, home delivery, credit
facility, entertainment)
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FARM MANAGEMENT
➢ Farm management is made up of two words- field and management. “Farm” means an area
used for cultivation by a farmer or a group of farmers.
➢ The meaning of management comes to change the production plan into action and adjust the
goods used in it. So that more profit can be obtained.
➢ The study of field management helps the farmer to decide which crops to grow, how much to
produce, how to produce, at what time to produce and which crops to sell and when to buy?
etc., so that more profit can be obtained.
➢ According to Adams, “Farm management is the method of applying the principles
underlying the selection, organization and operation of a farm industry. So that as much profit
as possible can be obtained.
➢ Farm “Farm” is a specific area on which cultivation is done jointly by a farmer or a group of
farmers. "
➢ According to Tandon and Dhodhiyal, “Packet management is a branch of agricultural
economics, which studies the activities of earning and spending money by a farmer. Those
concerned with the organization, operation and marketing of the farm.
OBJECTIVES OF FARM MANAGEMENT:
1. The main objective of farm management is to reduce cost, loss and damage, inefficiency
and unemployment and to increase profit, productivity, efficiency and employment.
2. To study the resources obtained such as land, labour, capital, management, and pattern of
production.
3. To get information about the relationship between different costs and receipts in carrying
out agricultural works.
4. To know about the impact of new technology on the field.
5. Adopting crop rotation keeping in mind the size of the field, fertility, irrigation facilities etc.
6. To make proper distribution of resources among different occupations of the field.
7. To get information about the economy and economy of various industries etc.
❖ Three Main Points Arise in Farm Management:
1. How to get more production?
2. How to get more profit?
3. How to reduce the cost of production?
❖ Importance of Farm Management-
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➢ Today agriculture is becoming a profitable business. One doe's agricultural work not only
for his livelihood, but also to get profit. Therefore, the farmer selects only those crops
and agricultural occupations in which maximum profit can be obtained, at present
agriculture is done on commercial basis. Therefore, it has become necessary to study
field management for the commercial and economic success of agriculture.
❖ Principles of Farm Management :1. Principle of Variable Proportion (Law of Diminishing Returns)
2. Principle of Factor Substitution
3. Principle of Product Substitution
4. Minimum Cost Principle
5. Principle of Comparative Advantage
6. Principle of Opportunity Cost
7. Principle of Equi-marginal Returns
❖ Economic Principles Applied to Farm Management:
The most important principle that help the farmers in making the choice and decisions to all
phases of farming are:
1. The law of diminishing returns
2. Cost analysis
3. The law of comparative advantages
4. The law of equi-marginal returns
5. The law of substitution
6. Principle of opportunity cost
7. Principle of combining enterprises
➢ Farm management is a science which deals with the proper combination and operation of
production factors including land, labour and capital and the choice of crop and livestock
enterprises to bring about a maximum and continuous return to the most elementary operation
units of farming. Farm management is concerned with decision making.
➢ The main decisions are:
1. What to produce: It decides which products to produce. It shows the product-product
relationship.
2. How to produce: It relates to choosing the most effective method of producing a given
quantity of a particular product. It shows the factor-factor relationship.
3. How much to produce. It relates to the problems in converting the several farm
resources into the final farm product. It shows the factor-prodct relationship
4. Time relationship: It shows relationship between the time that farmer makes investment
of capital and that later date when this investment returns the physical production
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➢ These four relationships are based on physical or technical facts but require price and
cost information in order to make economic interpretations.
❖ Production and Factor of Production: ➢ Production It is the process by which some goods and services, called inputs, are
converted into other goods and services, called outputs, which create utility.
❖ Production factors
➢ There are the four main factors of production:
(i) Land :- It is a main natural resource that generates income. It represents those natural
resources which are scarce and profitable.
➢ Features of Land:✓ This It is a gift of nature and is stable in quantity.
✓ This is Permanent and not destroyed.
✓ This is immovable and stable.
✓ Geographical supply of earth cannot be increased, but economic supply can be
increased. (By making the land denser and more used.)
✓ There is considerable variation in the composition and fertility of Earth.
(ii) Labour :- When Any work is done by hands or by mind for the purpose of money, which
is called labor.
➢ Features of Labour
✓ Without help of labour Production cannot be done from the land.
✓ Labour cannot be separated from the worker.
✓ short term Labor supply cannot be adjusted with demand.
✓ Changes affect labor cost and labor supply.
✓ Labour is an active factor.
(iii) Capital :- The money which is used to create future wealth is called capital. Capital is not
the real factor of production this is man made factor. All capital may necessarily be
money, but not all money may necessarily be capital. All Capital is money, but not all
money can be capital.
➢ Features of capital:✓ Capital is a productive factor.
✓ This generates income
✓ Capital is a deactivating factor.
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(iv) Organization :- Organization The main role of a business is to establish good relations
and coordination with other companies.
➢ Rewards for the Factors of Distribution
✓ Reward of Land
- rent
✓ Reward of Labour
- wage
✓ Reward of capital
- Interest
✓ Reward of business - Benefit
❖ Some Basic Concepts:
➢ Farm: Piece of land where livestock enterprises are taken under single management
system and has specific boundaries.
➢ Agriculture holding: Total area of land owned by individual or joint family whether
cultivated by family or rented out.
➢ Operational holding: Total area held under single management for the purpose of
cultivation. It excludes any land leased out to another person.
➢ Family holding: Farm having gross income (Rs. 1600), net income (Rs. 1200).
(3 × 𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔) →
➢ Optimum
holding:
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑠.
➢ Economic holding: Which provide a reasonable standard of living + give full
employment.
➢ Marginal farmer: Having land less than 1 ha or 2.5 acre.
➢ Small farmer: Having land between 1 ha to 2 ha.
➢ Fixed resources: Resources which remain unchanged irrespective of level of production
are called fixed resources (Exist in short run). E.g.: Land building.
➢ Variable resources: Resources which change with level of production are called variable
resources, Higher the level of production, greater the use of resources and vice-versa.
E.g.: Seed fertilizers.
➢ Flow resources: Resources which cannot be stored and should be used as and when they
are available.
➢ Stock resources: Resources which can be stored, when they are not used in one
production period. E.g.: Seeds, fertilizers, feed etc.
➢ Cost of cultivation: Expenditure incurred on all inputs and input services in raising a
crop on a unit area written as wst in Rs/ha.
➢ Cost of production is expenditure incurred on providing a unit quantity of output is called
wst of production written as Rs/tonne or Rs/quintal.
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1. The law of diminishing returns:
➢ It is physical law of fundamental importance in organizing and operating the farm
business. It is an important guiding factor in farming to decide the level at which a farmer
can increase his output.
➢ It is practical experience of every farmer that after a certain stage in cultivation, the
application of successive does of labour and capital to a given area of land does not bring
about as much return as the previous does.
➢ Additional dose of labour and capital and labour applied to the cultivation of land causes
in general, a less than proportionate increase in the amount produce unless in happens to
coincide with an improvement in the arts of agriculture''
2. Cost analysis:
➢ This principle is of great importance in making decisions of farm business. Cost in
general, refers to the expenses incurred on productive services and physical productivities
are guided by the cost of various input factors, mainly costs are of two types:
(i) Fixed cost: Fixed costs present farming expenses of an overhead nature and donot
change with the output, e.g., interest on fixed capital, depreciation, revenue etc.
(ii) Variable costs: it varies with the level of output. It includes changes of hired human
labour, seed, manure and fertilizer, irrigation, insecticides and pesticides etc. These are
seven costs of production
(a) Total variable cost (TVC): it is obtained by multiplying the amount of variable input
by the price per unit of output.
(b) Average variable cost (AVC): it is computed by dividing total variable cost by the
amount of output. AVC varies with the level of production.
Average variable cost is:
AVC = TVC/Outpur
(c) Marginal cost (MC): MC is the change in total cost as related to change in output. It is
calculated by dividing the change in total cost by the corresponding change in output,
i.e., ∆ TC/ ∆ Y. The marginal or added cost of each unit of output is important in
determining how for we should push production and how much of the various
resources we should use.
(d) Total fixed cost: total fixed cost shows the some of expenditures which will be
incurred irrespective of the output.
(e) Average fixed cost: It is obtained by dividing total fixed costs by the amount output.
As the output increase the average fixed costs decreases.
AFC = TFC/Output
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(f) Total cost: It is the sum of total fixed cost and total variable cost.
TC = TFC + TVC
(g) Average total costs: It is worked out by dividing TC by output.
ATC = TC/Output
3. The law of comparative advantage:
➢ The law of comparative advantage helps to explain regional specialization. Farmers tend
to produce those items which give more income at a lowest relative cost.
➢ With the income, they buy the items needed for production and for living which are
produced at lowest relative cost in other areas.
➢ In short, specialised, and diversified farming are based on this principle. For example,
sugarcane cultivation near sugar mill, vegetable cultivation near cities, rearing of sheep
and goats in hilly areas will give more profit tha n the other places.
4. The law of Equi marginal Returns:
➢ Equi-means 'equal' marginal means additional or incremental. The law states that profit
will be greatest if each unit of labour, capital and land is used where it adds the most to
the return.
5. The law of substitution:
➢ The principle which helps selection from a number of alternatives is called law of
substitution. According to this law the least cost combination of inputs or practices is
obtained when the inputs or practices replaced is equal to the value of the input or the
practice added.
➢ Procedure for finding out least cost combination:
(i) Computation of marginal rate of substitution (MRS) by dividing the number of units of
the replaced input (X1) by the number of units of added inputs (X2).
Substitution ratio: =
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (x1 )
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (x2 )
Where X1 is replaced by X2
(ii) Computation of price ratio by dividing the price of added input (Px2) by the price of the
replaced input (Px1)
Price Ratio =
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (PX2 )
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 (PX1 )
(iii) Calculation of least cost combination by equating (MRS):
MRS =
150
∆X1
∆X2
=
∆X2
∆X1
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➢ Least cost is realized at the point where the ratio of the input prices is inversely equal to
their marginal rate of substitution.
➢ It is substitution ratio is greater than the price ratio, then we can lower costs by using
more of the added input.
➢ If the substitution ratio is less than the price ratio then the cost can be reduced by using
resource used in its most profitable alternative use.
6. Principle of combining Enterprises:
➢ An enterprises in farm business is defined as the production of a single crop or kind of
livestock. Generally, farmers take more than one enterprise on their farms.
➢ The main aim of the farming is to get the maximum profit with minimum expenditure by
combining enterprise.
➢ The combination of enterprises on a farm is influenced by the relationship that exists
between the enterprises.
➢ The enterprises can have any one of the relationships explained below:
(i) Independent enterprises: These enterprises do not have direct bearing on each other.
There is no effect on the other enterprises when level of one enterprises is influenced or
decreased.
(ii) Competitive enterprises: Competitive enterprises are those enterprises which compete
each other for the resources. Farmers have limited resources and therefore, all crop and
livestock enterprises become competitive at some point. An increase in the output of
one enterprise results in a decrease in the output of the other enterprises. Maize, bajra,
paddy and sugarcane etc. in the same season compete with each other for resources.
(iii) Supplementary enterprises: Supplementary enterprises are those which do not
compete for resources but help in increase income of the farmer. A small poultry
enterprise is supplementary to other enterprise of the farm. A supplementary enterprise
becomes competitive if it is expanded too far.
(iv) Complementary enterprises: Complementary enterprises are those enterprises which
help each other in production and do not compete for resources. For example, if jowar is
grown after berseem crop the yield of jowar increases because berseem fixes
atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
❖ Time Comparison Principle :➢ Compounding: It is calculating future value of the money held by a person at a present (by
including rate of interest in it).
➢ Discounting: It is calculating present value of money if future sum of money will be given.
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➢ Principle of Opportunity Cost:- The cost of the next best alternative foregone is called as
Opportunity cost.
➢ Principle of Equimarginal Returns :- the limited resources should be allocated among
alternative uses in such a way that the marginal value of the product of the last unit of the
resource is equal in all uses.
➢ Minimum Loss Principle ( Same as Cost Analysis in Microeconomics)
❖ Types of Farming :➢ Types of Farming - When the classification of farming is done on the basis of use of land,
size of farm, use of machines and machines, production of animals and crops, etc., then it is
called type of farming, such as specialized farming, dry farming.
➢ According to Dr. Ross, "The type of farming refers to the use of land, the production and
growth of crops and livestock, and the manner of agricultural activities."
✓ Specialised Farming
✓ Diversified Farming
✓ Mixed farming
✓ Dry Farming
✓ Ranching
➢ Specialized Farming: Special farming means those holdings which get at least 50% of their
income from any one enterprise or crop.
➢ In India, this type of cultivation is done only in the form of plantation in Assam or Nilgiri
areas.
➢ Diversified Farming: In this there are many occupations of farmer's income. The farmer
gets only a small part of his income from any one crop, less than 50%. Thus, there is no
main source of income. Everyone gets some income. Diversified farming is also called
general farming.
❖ The Advantages of Multivariate Farming Are: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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Farmers remain independent.
The income of the farmer remains constant.
Animals, instruments, tools, land, etc., are all fully utilized.
To maintain soil fertility.
The family members continue to get work throughout the year.
The standard of living of the farmer is improves.
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❖ Difference Between Specialized and Diversified Farming
Specialized
One or two occupations are run on the
farm
The main source of income is only one
or two occupations.
50% or more income is obtained from
the main occupation.
More information needed on specific
occupation.
Possible use of special types of tools and
machines
Goods are often produced for sale in the
market.
It is operated keeping in mind the
principles of Industry.
Diversified
The number of occupations is many.
There are many sources of income.
The income of the farm is less than 50%
from each occupation.
Information needed for different
professions
Common farming methods.
Often goods are produced for family
consumption.
Farming is done as a family need.
❖ Systems of Farming :➢ Peasant Farming
➢ Co-Operative Farming
➢ Capitalistic Farming
➢ Collective Farming (Russia and China)
➢ State Farming
❖ Depreciation
➢ The decline in the value of asset due to usage, accidental damage and time obsolescence.
➢ Junk Value :- The remaining value of an asset when it is completely destroyed. Or the
value at the end of useful life.
➢ Book Value :- The value of an asset which is obtained by deducting the annual
depreciation from the Original Cost every year.
❖ Methods of Depreciation
➢ Straight Line Method
✓ Amount of Depreciation = (Original Cost of the Asset- Junk Value) / Useful life of
asset.
➢ Diminishing Balance Method
✓ The method assumes varying rates odf use of asset, year after year.
✓ Amount of depreciation = (Book value of asset) X R
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✓ Where R = Rate of Interest
➢ Sum of the years digit method
✓ Annual amt. of depreciation =
✓ (Original Cost- Junk Value) X Remaining years of useful life
✓ Sum of the Digits from one through useful life
➢ Annual Revaluation Method
✓ As the name indicates, the asset is revalued every year.
✓ More specifically the value of an asset is calculated at the beginning and end of the
year.
✓ Generally, this method is used for land and livestock in agriculture.
❖ Farm Planning and Budgeting:
➢ Farm plan is the complete scheme for the operation and organization of a farm business.
Farm planning is a process or technique for making plans about optimum choice and
combination of farm enterprises.
➢ Farm planning serves the basis of farm budgeting, and a farm plan can be prepared without
a budget.
❖ Factors effecting farm planning:
1. Inventory of farm resources: The inventory of farm resources should be taken at the
beginning and the end of the year. It includes as appraisal of land, labour, capital (building,
livestock, machinery, and layout) and management.
2. Land: The appraisal of the land will involve a determination of quality and quantity of the
various types of soil. The location of land, types, irrigation facilities and fertility status are
factors to be considered the value of land.
3. Labour: An examination of human and bullock labour programme will lead to a much
effective organization of farm business.
4. Capital: It plays an important role in the farming business. Capital includes building,
livestock, implement and machines and layout.
5. Management: It determines the success of business. It is a mental process and occurs
when a farmer:
(i) observes and secures ideas,
(ii) analyses his observations and ideas,
(iii) makes decision on the basis of his analysis,
(iv) acts on the basis of his decisions and
(v) accepts the responsibility and consequences of his decisions.
❖ Partial Budgeting:
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➢ It consists of a detailed description of the income and expenditure of an enterprise, a few
enterprises or to a part of total farm.
➢ Symbolically it can be expressed as:
R = Qy1 Py1 – [X1PX1 = X2PX2 + ………….. XnPn] – F.C.
Where R = Net return
Qy1 = Quantity of output
Py1 = Price of output
XnPn = Inputs
Px = Price of inputs
F.C. = Fixed cost
❖ Advantages of Partial Budgeting:
1. They are comparatively simple, quick and easy.
2. They may provide a clear indication of the profitability of a particular enterprise.
3. They provide a clear plant for utilizing a particular resource.
4. They may serve as an efficient means of adopting total budgets without compeletely
reworking them.
5. By concentrating attention of a single enterprises or resource they are likely to result in
fuller treatment of related problems.
6. They can be used to compare costs and returns associated with different practices such as of
bullocks or tractor power.
❖ Complete Budgeting:
➢ It may be defined as detailed statement of the estimate of cost and returns of a farm as a
complete unit.
➢ Symbolically it can be expressed as:
R = [Qy1P1+Qy2P2+Qy3P3 ……… QnPn] – [X1Px1+X2Px2+ ……….XnPn] – F.C.
Were,
R = Net return of output
Qs = Quantity of output
Ys = Different enterprises
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Ps = Price of output
Xn = Inputs
Pxn = Price of input
❖ Advantages:
1. It consists of the farm as a unit and all resources and enterprisses simultaneouly.
2. It may allow for substitution relationship between resources.
3. It allows for the complementary, supplementary, or competitive relationship between
enterprises.
4. It drawn attention to the multitude of factors affecting farm earning.
5. It permits comparison of the probable total earning of the same farm with different
combination of enterprises.
6. It avoids the necessity of allocating joint cost between enterprises.
❖ Steps Involved in The Process of Budgeting:
7. Making the inventory of farm resources (land, farm size, building, livestock, dead stock
etc.)
8. Etimation of capital position of the farmer and determination of his credit needs.
9. Assessment of the availability and source of credit meet his credit requirement.
10. Determination of availability of family and hired human labour.
11. Working out cost and return in relation to the present operation so as to set objectives for
future plans.
12. Drawing of alternate plans and settlement of the final plan in view of limitation.
❖ Use of farm planning and budgeting:
1. It is helpful in determination of needed adjustments as a yardstick for agricultural credit.
2. It is helpful in formulation and appraisal of development projects.
3. It provides road to farmer's security.
4. It provides basis for calculation of agricultural income of the whole country.
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IMPORTANT FACTS:
❖ When Total utility Maximum, marginal utility is Zero.
❖ Elasticity of matchbox (necessities) is relatively non-elastic/inelastic.
❖ Agriculture holding: Total area of land owned by individual or joint family whether
cultivated by family or rented out.
❖ Operational holding: Total area held under single management for the purpose of
cultivation. It excludes any land leased out to another person.
❖ Economic holding: Which provide a reasonable standard of living + give full employment.
❖ Marginal farmer: Having land less than 1 ha or 2.5 acre.
❖ Small farmer: Having land between 1 ha to 2 ha.
❖ Cost of cultivation: Expenditure incurred on all inputs and input services in raising a crop on
a unit area written as wst in Rs/ha.
❖ Cost of production: expenditure incurred on providing a unit quantity of output is called cost
of production written as Rs/tonne or Rs/quintal.
❖ Law of Diminishing marginal utility is applicable to agriculture.
❖ Utility may be defined as the capacity of a good to satisfy human want. It is subjective and
relative. Utility has no ethical and Moral significance. It is measured in terms of unit called
"Utils".
❖ Transportation adds Place utility e.g., transportation of apples from J&K to other parts of
country.
❖ Monopoly means: Single seller
❖ The warehousing corporation act came into: 18th March 1962
❖ Some middlemen do not buy and sell directly but assist in the marketing process, they are
known as- Facilitative middleman
❖ Storage adds time utility e.g., storage of wheat, rice to meet off season supply
❖ Processing adds from utility e.g., processing of wheat into flour and making juice from apple.
❖ An economy where allocation of resources is determined by the operation of price
mechanism is termed as: Market Economy
❖ National income generated by agriculture is calculated by- Output method
❖ Marketing function of buying and selling adds possession utility e.g., selling of fruits,
livestock.
❖ Inputs which are used to produce various goods and services – Factors of production.
❖ Anything above earth surface which is given by nature and is fixed- Land.
❖ APEDA is the coordinating agency for organic production and export under the brand name
of -Organic India
❖ Capital goods that can be used for different purposes is called: Floating capital
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❖ The markets dealing with agricultural commodities at district headquarter is called:
Secondary wholesale markets
❖ For those goods having relative elastic demand the elasticity of demand will be: more than 1
❖ Law of diminishing returns is also known as: Law of variable proportion
❖ Price elasticity of supply of food products is generally- <1
❖ According to new rules after submission of application form in how many days the bank is
supposed to provide KCC to farmers: - 2 Weeks
❖ Preparing a farm budget in advance is known as farm planning
❖ The physical aspects of farm planning expressed in monetary term is called farm budgeting
❖ All capitals are considered as wealth, but all wealth is not necessarily capital. E.g: farm
buildings are considered as capital and wealth whereas residential buildings are only capital.
❖ A person, who organizes, manages, taking a new idea (which always involves risks into it)
and supervision ensuring success of business. – Enterprise.
❖ Anything that can satisfy a human want is called "Good"
❖ "Services" refers to the work that a person may do.
❖ Based on consumption:
1. Consumer goods – Yield satisfaction directly. They are also called "Goods of the first