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"Atom is made up of neutrons, protons, and electrons. Molecules are groups of 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Chemical bonds are due to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""electron&#x20;interactions"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.""Atom is made up of neutrons, protons, and electrons. Molecules are groups of 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Chemical bonds are due to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">electron interactions</span>.<br>
"
"Electronegativity = ability of an atom to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""attract&#x20;electrons"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Electronegativity = ability of an atom to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">attract electrons</span><br>
"
"Ionic bond – transfer of electrons from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""one&#x20;atom&#x20;to&#x20;another&#x20;&#x28;different&#x20;electronegativities&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Ionic bond – transfer of electrons from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">one atom to another (different electronegativities)</span><br>
"
"Covalent – electrons are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""shared&#x20;between&#x20;atoms&#x20;&#x28;similar&#x20;electronegativities&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> – can be single, double, triple""Covalent – electrons are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">shared between atoms (similar electronegativities)</span> – can be single, double, triple<br>
"
"Nonpolar covalent bonds= <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""equal"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> sharing of electrons (identical electronegativity)""Nonpolar covalent bonds= <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">equal</span> sharing of electrons (identical electronegativity)<br>
"
"Polar covalent bonds = unequal sharing of electrons (different electronegativity and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""formation&#x20;of&#x20;a&#x20;dipole"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)""Polar covalent bonds = unequal sharing of electrons (different electronegativity and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">formation of a dipole</span>)<br>
"
"Hydrogen bond – weak bond between molecules with a hydrogen attached to a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""highly&#x20;electronegative&#x20;atom"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and is attracted to a negative charge on another molecule (F, O, N)""Hydrogen bond – weak bond between molecules with a hydrogen attached to a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">highly electronegative atom</span> and is attracted to a negative charge on another molecule (F, O, N)<br>
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"Properties of Water<div>1. Excellent solvent: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""dipoles&#x20;of&#x20;H2O"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> break up charged ionic molecules.</div>""Properties of Water<div>1. Excellent solvent: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">dipoles of H2O</span> break up charged ionic molecules.</div><br>
"
"Properties of Water<div>2. High Heat Capacity: heat capacity is the degree in which a substance <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""changes&#x20;temp&#x20;in&#x20;response&#x20;to&#x20;gain&#x2F;loss&#x20;of&#x20;heat"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. The temp of large water body are very stable in response to temp changes of surrounding air; must add large amount of energy to warm up water. High heat of vaporization as well.&nbsp;</div>""Properties of Water<div>2. High Heat Capacity: heat capacity is the degree in which a substance <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">changes temp in response to gain/loss of heat</span>. The temp of large water body are very stable in response to temp changes of surrounding air; must add large amount of energy to warm up water. High heat of vaporization as well.&nbsp;</div><br>
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"Properties of Water<div>3. Ice Floats: water expands as it <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""freezes&#x2C;&#x20;becomes&#x20;less&#x20;dense&#x20;than&#x20;its&#x20;liquid&#x20;form"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (H-bonds become rigid and form a crystal that keeps molecules separated).</div>""Properties of Water<div>3. Ice Floats: water expands as it <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">freezes, becomes less dense than its liquid form</span> (H-bonds become rigid and form a crystal that keeps molecules separated).</div><br>
"
"Properties of Water<div>4. Cohesion/Surface tension: attraction between like substances due to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""H&#x2D;bonds"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; the strong cohesion between H2O molecules produces a high surface tension.</div>""Properties of Water<div>4. Cohesion/Surface tension: attraction between like substances due to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">H-bonds</span>; the strong cohesion between H2O molecules produces a high surface tension.</div><br>
"
"<div>Properties of Water</div>5. Adhesion: attraction of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""unlike&#x20;substances"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. (wet finger and flip pages); capillary action: ability of liquid to flow <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">without external forces</span> (e.g. against gravity)""<div>Properties of Water</div>5. Adhesion: attraction of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">unlike substances</span>. (wet finger and flip pages); capillary action: ability of liquid to flow <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">without external forces</span> (e.g. against gravity)<br>
"
"<div>Properties of Water</div>5. Adhesion: attraction of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">unlike substances</span>. (wet finger and flip pages); capillary action: ability of liquid to flow <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""without&#x20;external&#x20;forces"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (e.g. against gravity)""<div>Properties of Water</div>5. Adhesion: attraction of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">unlike substances</span>. (wet finger and flip pages); capillary action: ability of liquid to flow <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">without external forces</span> (e.g. against gravity)<br>
"
"<div>Organic Molecules –&nbsp;</div><div>Have carbon atoms. Macromolecules form monomers (1 unit) which form <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""polymers"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (series of repeating monomers)</div><div>4 of carbon’s 6 atoms are available to form bonds with other atoms</div>""<div>Organic Molecules –&nbsp;</div><div>Have carbon atoms. Macromolecules form monomers (1 unit) which form <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">polymers</span> (series of repeating monomers)</div><div>4 of carbon’s 6 atoms are available to form bonds with other atoms</div><br>
"
"Functional Groups<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Hydroxyl"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (OH): polar and hydrophilic</div>""Functional Groups<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Hydroxyl</span> (OH): polar and hydrophilic</div><br>
"
"<div>Functional Groups</div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Carboxyl"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (COOH): polar, hydrophilic, weak acid""<div>Functional Groups</div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Carboxyl</span> (COOH): polar, hydrophilic, weak acid<br>
"
"Functional Groups<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Amino"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (NH2): polar, hydrophilic, weak base</div>""Functional Groups<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Amino</span> (NH2): polar, hydrophilic, weak base</div><br>
"
"Functional Groups<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Phosphate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (PO3): polar, hydrophilic, acid (sometimes shows as PO4?)</div>""Functional Groups<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Phosphate</span> (PO3): polar, hydrophilic, acid (sometimes shows as PO4?)</div><br>
"
"<div>Functional Groups</div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Carbonyl"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (C=O): &nbsp;polar and hydrophilic""<div>Functional Groups</div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Carbonyl</span> (C=O): &nbsp;polar and hydrophilic<br>
"
"Functional Groups<div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Aldehyde"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (H-C=O)</div></div>""Functional Groups<div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Aldehyde</span> (H-C=O)</div></div><br>
"
"Functional Groups<div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Ketone"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (R-C=O)</div></div>""Functional Groups<div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ketone</span> (R-C=O)</div></div><br>
"
"<div>Functional Groups</div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Methyl"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (CH3): nonpolar and hydrophobic""<div>Functional Groups</div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Methyl</span> (CH3): nonpolar and hydrophobic<br>
"
"Carbohydrates<div>Monosaccharide = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""single"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> sugar molecule (e.g. glucose and fructose)</div>""Carbohydrates<div>Monosaccharide = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">single</span> sugar molecule (e.g. glucose and fructose)</div><br>
"
"Carbohydrates<div>Monosaccharides are classified as alpha or beta based on position of OH on first (anomeric) carbon (down=<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""alpha&#x2C;&#x20;up&#x3D;beta"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)</div>""Carbohydrates<div>Monosaccharides are classified as alpha or beta based on position of OH on first (anomeric) carbon (down=<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">alpha, up=beta</span>)</div><br>
"
"Carbohydrates<div>Disaccharide = two sugar molecules joined by a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glycosidic&#x20;linkage"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (joined by dehydration)</div>""Carbohydrates<div>Disaccharide = two sugar molecules joined by a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glycosidic linkage</span> (joined by dehydration)</div><br>
"
"sucrose (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glu&#x2B;fru"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>), lactose (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">glu+gal</span>), maltose (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">glu+glu</span>)""sucrose (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glu+fru</span>), lactose (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">glu+gal</span>), maltose (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">glu+glu</span>)<br>
"
"sucrose (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">glu+fru</span>), lactose (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glu&#x2B;gal"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>), maltose (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">glu+glu</span>)""sucrose (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">glu+fru</span>), lactose (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">glu+gal</span>), maltose (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">glu+glu</span>)<br>
"
"sucrose (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">glu+fru</span>), lactose (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">glu+gal</span>), maltose (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glu&#x2B;glu"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>)""sucrose (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">glu+fru</span>), lactose (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">glu+gal</span>), maltose (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">glu+glu</span>)<br>
"
"Carbohydrates<div>Polysaccharide = series of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""connected&#x20;monosaccharides&#x3B;&#x20;polymer"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Bond via <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dehydration synthesis</span>, breakdown via <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hydrolysis</span></div>""Carbohydrates<div>Polysaccharide = series of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">connected monosaccharides; polymer</span></div><div>Bond via <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dehydration synthesis</span>, breakdown via <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hydrolysis</span></div><br>
"
"Carbohydrates<div>Polysaccharide = series of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">connected monosaccharides; polymer</span></div><div>Bond via <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""dehydration&#x20;synthesis"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, breakdown via <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hydrolysis</span></div>""Carbohydrates<div>Polysaccharide = series of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">connected monosaccharides; polymer</span></div><div>Bond via <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">dehydration synthesis</span>, breakdown via <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hydrolysis</span></div><br>
"
"Carbohydrates<div>Polysaccharide = series of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">connected monosaccharides; polymer</span></div><div>Bond via <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dehydration synthesis</span>, breakdown via <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hydrolysis"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span></div>""Carbohydrates<div>Polysaccharide = series of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">connected monosaccharides; polymer</span></div><div>Bond via <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dehydration synthesis</span>, breakdown via <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">hydrolysis</span></div><br>
"
"Starch: a polymer of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""α&#x2D;glucose&#x20;molecules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; store energy in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">plant cells</span>.""Starch: a polymer of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-glucose molecules</span>; store energy in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">plant cells</span>.<br>
"
"Starch: a polymer of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-glucose molecules</span>; store energy in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""plant&#x20;cells"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>.""Starch: a polymer of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-glucose molecules</span>; store energy in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">plant cells</span>.<br>
"
"Glycogen: a polymer of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""α&#x2D;glucose&#x20;molecules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; store energy in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">animal cells</span>. (differ in polymer branching from starch).""Glycogen: a polymer of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-glucose molecules</span>; store energy in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">animal cells</span>. (differ in polymer branching from starch).<br>
"
"Glycogen: a polymer of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-glucose molecules</span>; store energy in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""animal&#x20;cells"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>. (differ in polymer branching from starch).""Glycogen: a polymer of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-glucose molecules</span>; store energy in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">animal cells</span>. (differ in polymer branching from starch).<br>
"
"Cellulose: a polymer of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""β&#x2D;glucose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; structural molecules for walls of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">plant cells and wood</span>.""Cellulose: a polymer of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">β-glucose</span>; structural molecules for walls of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">plant cells and wood</span>.<br>
"
"Cellulose: a polymer of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">β-glucose</span>; structural molecules for walls of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""plant&#x20;cells&#x20;and&#x20;wood"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>.""Cellulose: a polymer of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">β-glucose</span>; structural molecules for walls of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">plant cells and wood</span>.<br>
"
"Chitin: polymer similar to cellulose; but each β-glucose has a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nitrogen&#x2D;containing&#x20;group&#x20;attached&#x20;to&#x20;ring"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Structural molecule in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fungal cell walls (also exoskeleton of insects, etc)</span>""Chitin: polymer similar to cellulose; but each β-glucose has a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nitrogen-containing group attached to ring</span>. Structural molecule in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fungal cell walls (also exoskeleton of insects, etc)</span><br>
"
"Chitin: polymer similar to cellulose; but each β-glucose has a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nitrogen-containing group attached to ring</span>. Structural molecule in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fungal&#x20;cell&#x20;walls&#x20;&#x28;also&#x20;exoskeleton&#x20;of&#x20;insects&#x2C;&#x20;etc&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>""Chitin: polymer similar to cellulose; but each β-glucose has a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nitrogen-containing group attached to ring</span>. Structural molecule in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">fungal cell walls (also exoskeleton of insects, etc)</span><br>
"
"Lipids: Hydro<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phobic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> molecules. Fxns: Insulation, energy storage, structural (cholesterol and phoslipids in membrane), endocrine""Lipids: Hydro<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phobic</span> molecules. Fxns: Insulation, energy storage, structural (cholesterol and phoslipids in membrane), endocrine<br>
"
"Triglycerides (triacylglycerols) = three <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fatty&#x20;acid&#x20;chains&#x20;attached&#x20;to&#x20;a&#x20;glycerol&#x20;backbone"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Triglycerides (triacylglycerols) = three <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone</span><br>
"
"<div>Triglycerides</div>Saturated: no <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""double&#x20;bonds"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (bad for health, saturated = straight chain = stack <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">densely and form fat plaques</span>)""<div>Triglycerides</div>Saturated: no <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">double bonds</span> (bad for health, saturated = straight chain = stack <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">densely and form fat plaques</span>)<br>
"
"<div>Triglycerides</div>Saturated: no <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">double bonds</span> (bad for health, saturated = straight chain = stack <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""densely&#x20;and&#x20;form&#x20;fat&#x20;plaques"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>)""<div>Triglycerides</div>Saturated: no <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">double bonds</span> (bad for health, saturated = straight chain = stack <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">densely and form fat plaques</span>)<br>
"
"Triglycerides<div>Unsaturated: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""double"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> bonds present (better for health, unsaturated = double bonds cause <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">branching = stack less dense</span>)</div>""Triglycerides<div>Unsaturated: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">double</span> bonds present (better for health, unsaturated = double bonds cause <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">branching = stack less dense</span>)</div><br>
"
"Triglycerides<div>Unsaturated: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">double</span> bonds present (better for health, unsaturated = double bonds cause <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""branching&#x20;&#x3D;&#x20;stack&#x20;less&#x20;dense"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>)</div>""Triglycerides<div>Unsaturated: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">double</span> bonds present (better for health, unsaturated = double bonds cause <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">branching = stack less dense</span>)</div><br>
"
"Phospholipid: two fatty acids and a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphate&#x20;group&#x20;&#x28;&#x2B;R&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> attached to a glycerol backbone""Phospholipid: two fatty acids and a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphate group (+R)</span> attached to a glycerol backbone<br>
"
"Phospholipids are amphipathic = both <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hydrophilic&#x20;and&#x20;hydrophobic&#x20;properties"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Phospholipids are amphipathic = both <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties</span><br>
"
"Steroids = three <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""6&#x20;membered&#x20;rings"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and one <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">5 membered ring</span> (hormones) and cholesterol (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">membrane component</span>)""Steroids = three <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">6 membered rings</span> and one <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">5 membered ring</span> (hormones) and cholesterol (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">membrane component</span>)<br>
"
"Steroids = three <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">6 membered rings</span> and one <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""5&#x20;membered&#x20;ring"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (hormones) and cholesterol (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">membrane component</span>)""Steroids = three <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">6 membered rings</span> and one <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">5 membered ring</span> (hormones) and cholesterol (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">membrane component</span>)<br>
"
"Steroids = three <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">6 membered rings</span> and one <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">5 membered ring</span> (hormones) and cholesterol (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""membrane&#x20;component"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>)""Steroids = three <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">6 membered rings</span> and one <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">5 membered ring</span> (hormones) and cholesterol (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">membrane component</span>)<br>
"
"Lipid Derivatives<div>Waxes – esters of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fatty&#x20;acids&#x20;and&#x20;monohydroxylic&#x20;alcohols"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Used as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">protective coating or exoskeleton (lanolin)</span></div>""Lipid Derivatives<div>Waxes – esters of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols</span>. Used as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">protective coating or exoskeleton (lanolin)</span></div><br>
"
"Lipid Derivatives<div>Waxes – esters of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols</span>. Used as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""protective&#x20;coating&#x20;or&#x20;exoskeleton&#x20;&#x28;lanolin&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div>""Lipid Derivatives<div>Waxes – esters of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols</span>. Used as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">protective coating or exoskeleton (lanolin)</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Lipid Derivatives</div>Steroids (sex hormones, cholesterol, corticosteroids) – <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""4&#x20;ringed"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> structure""<div>Lipid Derivatives</div>Steroids (sex hormones, cholesterol, corticosteroids) – <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">4 ringed</span> structure<br>
"
"<div>Lipid Derivatives</div>Carotenoids – fatty acid carbon chains w/ <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""conjugated&#x20;double&#x20;bounds&#x20;and&#x20;six&#x20;membered&#x20;C&#x2D;rings"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> at each end. Pigments which produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">colors</span> in plants and animals. Subgroups include Carotenes and xanthophylls""<div>Lipid Derivatives</div>Carotenoids – fatty acid carbon chains w/ <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">conjugated double bounds and six membered C-rings</span> at each end. Pigments which produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">colors</span> in plants and animals. Subgroups include Carotenes and xanthophylls<br>
"
"<div>Lipid Derivatives</div>Carotenoids – fatty acid carbon chains w/ <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">conjugated double bounds and six membered C-rings</span> at each end. Pigments which produce <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""colors"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> in plants and animals. Subgroups include Carotenes and xanthophylls""<div>Lipid Derivatives</div>Carotenoids – fatty acid carbon chains w/ <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">conjugated double bounds and six membered C-rings</span> at each end. Pigments which produce <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">colors</span> in plants and animals. Subgroups include Carotenes and xanthophylls<br>
"
"<div>Lipid Derivatives</div>Porphyrins (tetrapyrroles) – 4 joined <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pyrrole&#x20;rings"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Often complex w/ metal (e.g. prophyrin heme complexes with Fe in hemoglobin, chlorophyll w/ Mg)""<div>Lipid Derivatives</div>Porphyrins (tetrapyrroles) – 4 joined <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pyrrole rings</span>. Often complex w/ metal (e.g. prophyrin heme complexes with Fe in hemoglobin, chlorophyll w/ Mg)<br>
"
"Adipocytes are specialized fat cells whose cytoplasm contains nothing but <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""triglycerides"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Adipocytes are specialized fat cells whose cytoplasm contains nothing but <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">triglycerides</span><br>
"
"glycolipids are like phospholipids but w/ <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""carb&#x20;group"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> instead of phos.group""glycolipids are like phospholipids but w/ <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">carb group</span> instead of phos.group<br>
"
"Lipids are insoluble so they are transported in blood via <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lipoproteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (lipid core surrounded by phospholipids and apolipoproteins).&nbsp;""Lipids are insoluble so they are transported in blood via <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lipoproteins</span> (lipid core surrounded by phospholipids and apolipoproteins).&nbsp;<br>
"
"Note on lipids in membranes:&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Cell membranes need to maintain a certain degree of fluidity and are capable of changing membrane fatty acid composition to do so. In cold weather, to avoid rigidity, cells incorporate more <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mono&#x20;and&#x20;polyunsaturated&#x20;fatty&#x20;acids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> into the membrane as they have lower melting points and are kinked to increase fluidity. Warm weather climates show the opposite trend (?).&nbsp;</div>""Note on lipids in membranes:&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Cell membranes need to maintain a certain degree of fluidity and are capable of changing membrane fatty acid composition to do so. In cold weather, to avoid rigidity, cells incorporate more <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids</span> into the membrane as they have lower melting points and are kinked to increase fluidity. Warm weather climates show the opposite trend (?).&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Unsaturated fatty acids have higher <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""boiling&#x20;point&#x20;but&#x20;lower&#x20;melting&#x20;point"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> compared to saturated fatty acids. This is due to increased ""kinks"" in packing of the molecules as a result of the double bonds.""Unsaturated fatty acids have higher <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">boiling point but lower melting point</span> compared to saturated fatty acids. This is due to increased ""kinks"" in packing of the molecules as a result of the double bonds.<br>
"
"Double bonds in fatty acids increase <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bond&#x20;polarity&#x20;&#x28;area&#x20;of&#x20;increased&#x20;electron&#x20;density&#x21;&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, &nbsp;thus increasing boiling point but decreasing melting point due to less efficient packing.&nbsp;""Double bonds in fatty acids increase <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">bond polarity (area of increased electron density!)</span>, &nbsp;thus increasing boiling point but decreasing melting point due to less efficient packing.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Proteins: Polymers of amino acids joined by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""peptide"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> bonds""Proteins: Polymers of amino acids joined by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">peptide</span> bonds<br>
"
"Amino acid structure: H, NH2, COOH bonded to a central carbon and then a variable&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""R&#x20;group&lt;div&gt;&lt;img&#x20;src&#x3D;&quot;paste&#x2D;58871116726275&#x2E;jpg&quot;&#x20;&#x2F;&gt;&lt;&#x2F;div&gt;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Amino acid structure: H, NH2, COOH bonded to a central carbon and then a variable&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">R group<div><img src=""paste-58871116726275.jpg"" /></div></span><br>
"
"Storage protein: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""casein"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in milk, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ovalbumin</span> in egg whites, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">zein</span> in corn seeds.""Storage protein: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">casein</span> in milk, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ovalbumin</span> in egg whites, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">zein</span> in corn seeds.<br>
"
"Storage protein: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">casein</span> in milk, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ovalbumin"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> in egg whites, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">zein</span> in corn seeds.""Storage protein: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">casein</span> in milk, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">ovalbumin</span> in egg whites, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">zein</span> in corn seeds.<br>
"
"Storage protein: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">casein</span> in milk, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ovalbumin</span> in egg whites, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""zein"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> in corn seeds.""Storage protein: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">casein</span> in milk, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ovalbumin</span> in egg whites, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">zein</span> in corn seeds.<br>
"
"Transport protein: Hemoglobin carries <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oxygen"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, cytochromes carry <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">electrons</span>""Transport protein: Hemoglobin carries <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxygen</span>, cytochromes carry <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">electrons</span><br>
"
"Transport protein: Hemoglobin carries <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxygen</span>, cytochromes carry <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""electrons"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>""Transport protein: Hemoglobin carries <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxygen</span>, cytochromes carry <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">electrons</span><br>
"
"Enzymatic proteins: ATP contains <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ribose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> instead of deoxy-ribose.""Enzymatic proteins: ATP contains <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ribose</span> instead of deoxy-ribose.<br>
"
"amylase catalyzes the rxn that breaks the α-glycosidic bonds in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""starch"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.""amylase catalyzes the rxn that breaks the α-glycosidic bonds in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">starch</span>.<br>
"
"Enzymes catalyze a reaction in both <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""forward&#x20;and&#x20;reverse&#x20;directions"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> based on [substrate].""Enzymes catalyze a reaction in both <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">forward and reverse directions</span> based on [substrate].<br>
"
"Enzyme <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""efficiency"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is determined by temp and pH""Enzyme <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">efficiency</span> is determined by temp and pH<br>
"
"Enzymes cannot change the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""spontaneity"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of a rxn&nbsp;""Enzymes cannot change the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">spontaneity</span> of a rxn&nbsp;<br>
"
"Cofactors are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nonprotein&#x20;molecules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> that assist enzymes""Cofactors are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nonprotein molecules</span> that assist enzymes<br>
"
"Enzymes are almost always considered to be proteins, but sometimes RNA can <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""act&#x20;as&#x20;an&#x20;enzyme"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>&nbsp;""Enzymes are almost always considered to be proteins, but sometimes RNA can <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">act as an enzyme</span>&nbsp;<br>
"
"Holoenzyme is the union of the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cofactor&#x20;and&#x20;the&#x20;enzyme"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (the enzyme is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">apoenzyme/apoprotein</span> when NOT combined w/ cofactor);""Holoenzyme is the union of the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cofactor and the enzyme</span> (the enzyme is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">apoenzyme/apoprotein</span> when NOT combined w/ cofactor);<br>
"
"Holoenzyme is the union of the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cofactor and the enzyme</span> (the enzyme is called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""apoenzyme&#x2F;apoprotein"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> when NOT combined w/ cofactor);""Holoenzyme is the union of the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cofactor and the enzyme</span> (the enzyme is called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">apoenzyme/apoprotein</span> when NOT combined w/ cofactor);<br>
"
"Cofactors can be organic (called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""coenzymes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> e.g. vitamin) or inorganic (metal ions like Fe 2+ and Mg 2+).""Cofactors can be organic (called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">coenzymes</span> e.g. vitamin) or inorganic (metal ions like Fe 2+ and Mg 2+).<br>
"
"If cofactor strongly covalent bonds to enzyme = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""prosthetic&#x20;group"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""If cofactor strongly covalent bonds to enzyme = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">prosthetic group</span><br>
"
"Protein Classifications<div>simple (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""entirely&#x20;amino&#x20;acids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)</div>""Protein Classifications<div>simple (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">entirely amino acids</span>)</div><br>
"
"Protein Classifications<div>&nbsp;albumins + globulins (functional and act as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""carriers&#x20;or&#x20;enzymes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)</div>""Protein Classifications<div>&nbsp;albumins + globulins (functional and act as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">carriers or enzymes</span>)</div><br>
"
"<div>Protein Classifications</div>scleroproteins (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fibrous&#x2C;&#x20;structural"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> e.g. collagen)""<div>Protein Classifications</div>scleroproteins (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fibrous, structural</span> e.g. collagen)<br>
"
"Protein Classifications<div>conjugated (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""simple&#x20;protein&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;nonprotein"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)</div>""Protein Classifications<div>conjugated (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">simple protein + nonprotein</span>)</div><br>
"
"Protein Classifications<div>lipoprotein (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bound&#x20;to&#x20;lipid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)</div>""Protein Classifications<div>lipoprotein (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">bound to lipid</span>)</div><br>
"
"Protein Classifications<div>mucoprotein (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bound&#x20;to&#x20;carb"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)</div>""Protein Classifications<div>mucoprotein (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">bound to carb</span>)</div><br>
"
"Protein Classifications<div>chromoprotein (bound to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pigmented&#x20;molecule"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)</div>""Protein Classifications<div>chromoprotein (bound to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pigmented molecule</span>)</div><br>
"
"Protein Classifications<div>metalloprotein (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""complexed&#x20;around&#x20;metal&#x20;ion"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)</div>""Protein Classifications<div>metalloprotein (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">complexed around metal ion</span>)</div><br>
"
"Protein Classifications<div>nucleoprotein (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""contain&#x20;histone&#x20;or&#x20;protamine&#x2C;&#x20;bound&#x20;to&#x20;nucleic&#x20;acid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)</div>""Protein Classifications<div>nucleoprotein (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">contain histone or protamine, bound to nucleic acid</span>)</div><br>
"
"Protein primary structure = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sequence&#x20;of&#x20;amino&#x20;acids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Protein primary structure = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">sequence of amino acids</span><br>
"
"Protein secondary structure = 3d shape resulting from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hydrogen&#x20;bonding&#x20;between&#x20;amino&#x20;and&#x20;carboxyl&#x20;groups&#x20;of&#x20;adjacent&#x20;amino&#x20;acids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (e.g. alpha helix, beta sheet)""Protein secondary structure = 3d shape resulting from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hydrogen bonding between amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent amino acids</span> (e.g. alpha helix, beta sheet)<br>
"
"Protein tertiary structure = 3d structure due to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""noncovalent&#x20;interactions&#x20;between&#x20;amino&#x20;acid&#x20;R&#x20;groups&#x20;&#x28;subunit&#x20;interaction&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (factors: H-bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic effect [R groups push away from water center], disulfide bonds, van der waals)&nbsp;""Protein tertiary structure = 3d structure due to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">noncovalent interactions between amino acid R groups (subunit interaction)</span> (factors: H-bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic effect [R groups push away from water center], disulfide bonds, van der waals)&nbsp;<br>
"
"Protein quaternary structure = 3d shape of a protein that is a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""grouping&#x20;of&#x20;two&#x20;or&#x20;more&#x20;separate&#x20;peptide&#x20;chains&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Protein quaternary structure = 3d shape of a protein that is a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">grouping of two or more separate peptide chains&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"All proteins have a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""primary&#x20;structure"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, and most have a secondary structure. Larger proteins can have a tertiary and quarternary structure.""All proteins have a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">primary structure</span>, and most have a secondary structure. Larger proteins can have a tertiary and quarternary structure.<br>
"
"Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""globular&#x20;proteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (somewhat water soluble, many fxns: enzymes, hormones, membrane pumps/channels/receptors, inter and intracellular storage and transport, osmotic regulation, immune response, etc.)""Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">globular proteins</span> (somewhat water soluble, many fxns: enzymes, hormones, membrane pumps/channels/receptors, inter and intracellular storage and transport, osmotic regulation, immune response, etc.)<br>
"
"Of proteins, there are two main broad categories:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fibrous&#x2F;structural&#x20;proteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (not water soluble, made from long polymers, maintain + add strength to cellular and matrix structure)""Of proteins, there are two main broad categories:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fibrous/structural proteins</span> (not water soluble, made from long polymers, maintain + add strength to cellular and matrix structure)<br>
"
"Fibrous proteins are dominated by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2ndary&#x20;structure"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, globular proteins dominated by 3ary structure.""Fibrous proteins are dominated by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2ndary structure</span>, globular proteins dominated by 3ary structure.<br>
"
"DNA is a polymer of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nucleotides"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""DNA is a polymer of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleotides</span><br>
"
"DNA Nucleotide: nitrogen base, five carbon sugar <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""deoxyribose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, phosphate group""DNA Nucleotide: nitrogen base, five carbon sugar <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">deoxyribose</span>, phosphate group<br>
"
"DNA Purines – <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""adenine&#x2C;&#x20;guanine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (double ring)—<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2</span> H bonds (AT2, GC3)""DNA Purines – <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">adenine, guanine</span> (double ring)—<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2</span> H bonds (AT2, GC3)<br>
"
"DNA Purines – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">adenine, guanine</span> (double ring)—<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> H bonds (AT2, GC3)""DNA Purines – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">adenine, guanine</span> (double ring)—<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">2</span> H bonds (AT2, GC3)<br>
"
"DNA&nbsp;Pyrimidines: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""thymine&#x2C;&#x20;cytosine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (single ring) – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">3</span> H bonds (to remember: CUT the PYE)""DNA&nbsp;Pyrimidines: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">thymine, cytosine</span> (single ring) – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">3</span> H bonds (to remember: CUT the PYE)<br>
"
"DNA&nbsp;Pyrimidines: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">thymine, cytosine</span> (single ring) – <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> H bonds (to remember: CUT the PYE)""DNA&nbsp;Pyrimidines: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">thymine, cytosine</span> (single ring) – <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">3</span> H bonds (to remember: CUT the PYE)<br>
"
"A nucleoside is just the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sugar&#x2B;base"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""A nucleoside is just the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">sugar+base</span><br>
"
"<div>DNA structure</div>Two <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""antiparallel"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> strands of a double helix""<div>DNA structure</div>Two <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">antiparallel</span> strands of a double helix<br>
"
"RNA is a polymer of nucleotides that contain <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ribose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, not deoxyribose""RNA is a polymer of nucleotides that contain <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ribose</span>, not deoxyribose<br>
"
"In RNA Thymine is replaced by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""uracil"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (which pairs with adenine)""In RNA Thymine is replaced by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">uracil</span> (which pairs with adenine)<br>
"
"RNA is usually <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""single"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> stranded""RNA is usually <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">single</span> stranded<br>
"
"Cell doctrine/theory:<div>1. All living organisms are composed of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""one&#x20;or&#x20;more&#x20;cells&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>&nbsp;<br /><div><br /></div></div>""Cell doctrine/theory:<div>1. All living organisms are composed of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">one or more cells.</span>&nbsp;<br /><div><br /></div></div><br>
"
"Cell doctrine/theory:<div>2. The cell is the basic unit of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""structure&#x2C;&#x20;function&#x2C;&#x20;and&#x20;organization"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in all organisms.&nbsp;</div>""Cell doctrine/theory:<div>2. The cell is the basic unit of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">structure, function, and organization</span> in all organisms.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Cell doctrine/theory:<div>3. All cells come from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""preexisting&#x2C;&#x20;living&#x20;cells&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Cell doctrine/theory:<div>3. All cells come from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">preexisting, living cells.</span></div><br>
"
"Cell doctrine/theory:<div>4. Cells carry hereditary <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""information"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Cell doctrine/theory:<div>4. Cells carry hereditary <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">information</span></div><br>
"
"RNA world hypothesis proposes that <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""self&#x2D;replicating&#x20;ribonucleic&#x20;acid&#x20;&#x28;RNA&#x29;&#x20;molecules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> were precursors to current life (based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), RNA and proteins).&nbsp;""RNA world hypothesis proposes that <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">self-replicating ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules</span> were precursors to current life (based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), RNA and proteins).&nbsp;<br>
"
"RNA stores genetic information like DNA + catalyzes chemical reactions like an enzyme protein and may have played a major step in the evolution of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cellular&#x20;life"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.&nbsp;""RNA stores genetic information like DNA + catalyzes chemical reactions like an enzyme protein and may have played a major step in the evolution of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cellular life</span>.&nbsp;<br>
"
"RNA is unstable compared to DNA, so more likely to participate in chemical rxns (due to its extra <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hydroxyl&#x20;group"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>).&nbsp;""RNA is unstable compared to DNA, so more likely to participate in chemical rxns (due to its extra <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hydroxyl group</span>).&nbsp;<br>
"
"Central dogma of genetics: biological information cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein or nucleic acid; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA&#x20;&#x2D;&amp;gt&#x3B;&#x20;RNA&#x20;&#x2D;&amp;gt&#x3B;&#x20;proteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Central dogma of genetics: biological information cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein or nucleic acid; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA -&gt; RNA -&gt; proteins</span><br>
"
"Know basic microscopy (light microscopy is basic, phase-contrast doesn’t kill or stain tissue, electron miscoscopes (scanning and transmission) are high magnification and resolution <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""but&#x20;kills&#x20;tissue"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>).&nbsp;""Know basic microscopy (light microscopy is basic, phase-contrast doesn’t kill or stain tissue, electron miscoscopes (scanning and transmission) are high magnification and resolution <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">but kills tissue</span>).&nbsp;<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Fluorescence"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> microscopy used to observe chromosomes during mitosis.""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Fluorescence</span> microscopy used to observe chromosomes during mitosis.<br>
"
"Centrifugation (spins + seperates liquified cell. homogenates separate into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""layers&#x20;based&#x20;on&#x20;density"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: (most dense is nuclei layer, then mitochondria, then ribosomes)""Centrifugation (spins + seperates liquified cell. homogenates separate into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">layers based on density</span>: (most dense is nuclei layer, then mitochondria, then ribosomes)<br>
"
"Catalysts lower <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""activation&#x20;energy"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, accelerating the rate of the rxn""Catalysts lower <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">activation energy</span>, accelerating the rate of the rxn<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Metabolism"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> = catabolism + anabolism + energy transfer""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Metabolism</span> = catabolism + anabolism + energy transfer<br>
"
"<div>Concentration of reactants and products determines <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""which&#x20;way&#x20;a&#x20;rxn&#x20;will&#x20;go"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Equilibrium: rate of forward and reverse rxns is the same = 0 net production</div>""<div>Concentration of reactants and products determines <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">which way a rxn will go</span></div><div>Equilibrium: rate of forward and reverse rxns is the same = 0 net production</div><br>
"
"Enzymes are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""globular&#x20;proteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> that act as catalysts""Enzymes are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">globular proteins</span> that act as catalysts<br>
"
"Enzymes are substrate specific, unchanged during rxn, catalyzes in both forward and reverse directions, temperature and pH affect enzyme function, active site and induced fit is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""how&#x20;enzymes&#x20;bind&#x20;to&#x20;their&#x20;substrate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Enzymes are substrate specific, unchanged during rxn, catalyzes in both forward and reverse directions, temperature and pH affect enzyme function, active site and induced fit is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">how enzymes bind to their substrate</span><br>
"
"Cofactors are nonprotein molecules that assist enzymes usually by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""donating&#x20;or&#x20;accepting&#x20;some&#x20;component&#x20;of&#x20;a&#x20;rxn"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> like electrons""Cofactors are nonprotein molecules that assist enzymes usually by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">donating or accepting some component of a rxn</span> like electrons<br>
"
"<div>Coenzyme are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""organic&#x20;cofactors"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> , usually donate or accept electrons</div><div>(Vitamins)</div>""<div>Coenzyme are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">organic cofactors</span> , usually donate or accept electrons</div><div>(Vitamins)</div><br>
"
"Inorganic cofactors are usually <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""metal&#x20;ions"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (Fe 2+ and Mg 2+)""Inorganic cofactors are usually <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">metal ions</span> (Fe 2+ and Mg 2+)<br>
"
"If a cofactor binds to an enzyme tightly/covalently, it is known as a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""prosthetic&#x20;group"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""If a cofactor binds to an enzyme tightly/covalently, it is known as a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">prosthetic group</span><br>
"
"ATP – common source of activation energy. New ATP formed via <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphorylation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (ADP + phosphate using energy from energy rich molecule like glucose). Note that ATP contains, but is not itself, potential energy.&nbsp;""ATP – common source of activation energy. New ATP formed via <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphorylation</span> (ADP + phosphate using energy from energy rich molecule like glucose). Note that ATP contains, but is not itself, potential energy.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Allosteric enzymes – have both an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""active&#x20;site&#x20;for&#x20;substrate&#x20;binding&#x20;and&#x20;an&#x20;allosteric&#x20;site&#x20;for&#x20;binding&#x20;of&#x20;an&#x20;allosteric&#x20;effector&#x20;&#x28;activator&#x2C;&#x20;inhibitor&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Allosteric enzymes – have both an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">active site for substrate binding and an allosteric site for binding of an allosteric effector (activator, inhibitor)</span><br>
"
"Competitive inhibition – substance that mimics the substrate inhibits the enzyme by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""binding&#x20;at&#x20;the&#x20;active&#x20;site"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Can be overcome by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">increasing substrate cxn</span>. Km changed but Vmax is not""Competitive inhibition – substance that mimics the substrate inhibits the enzyme by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">binding at the active site</span>. Can be overcome by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">increasing substrate cxn</span>. Km changed but Vmax is not<br>
"
"Competitive inhibition – substance that mimics the substrate inhibits the enzyme by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">binding at the active site</span>. Can be overcome by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""increasing&#x20;substrate&#x20;cxn"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>. Km changed but Vmax is not""Competitive inhibition – substance that mimics the substrate inhibits the enzyme by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">binding at the active site</span>. Can be overcome by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">increasing substrate cxn</span>. Km changed but Vmax is not<br>
"
"Noncompetetive inhibition – substance inhibits enzyme by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""binding&#x20;elsewhere&#x20;than&#x20;active&#x20;site"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, substrate still binds. Km unchanged but Vmax is not.&nbsp;""Noncompetetive inhibition – substance inhibits enzyme by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">binding elsewhere than active site</span>, substrate still binds. Km unchanged but Vmax is not.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Cooperativity – enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""one&#x20;substrate&#x20;molecule&#x20;attaches&#x20;to&#x20;an&#x20;active&#x20;site"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (e.g enzymes w/ multiple subunits that each have active site [quaternary structure])""Cooperativity – enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">one substrate molecule attaches to an active site</span> (e.g enzymes w/ multiple subunits that each have active site [quaternary structure])<br>
"
"Membrane proteins: peripheral (loosely attached to one side surface), integral (embeds inside membrane), transmembrane (all the way through, both sides – this is a TYPE of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""integral"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)""Membrane proteins: peripheral (loosely attached to one side surface), integral (embeds inside membrane), transmembrane (all the way through, both sides – this is a TYPE of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">integral</span>)<br>
"
"Phospholipid membrane permeability – <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""small&#x2C;&#x20;uncharged&#x2C;&#x20;nonpolar&#x20;molecules&#x20;&#x28;polar&#x20;can&#x20;only&#x20;if&#x20;small&#x20;and&#x20;uncharged&#x29;&#x20;and&#x20;hydrophobic&#x20;molecules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> can freely pass across the membrane. Everything else requires transporter (large, polar, charged molecules)&nbsp;""Phospholipid membrane permeability – <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">small, uncharged, nonpolar molecules (polar can only if small and uncharged) and hydrophobic molecules</span> can freely pass across the membrane. Everything else requires transporter (large, polar, charged molecules)&nbsp;<br>
"
"Peripheral membrane proteins are generally hydrophilic; held in place by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""H&#x2D;bonding&#x20;and&#x20;electrostatic&#x20;interaction"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Disrupt/detach by changing salt cxn or pH to disrupt these interactions. Integral proteins are hydrophobic; use detergent to destroy membrane and expose these proteins.&nbsp;""Peripheral membrane proteins are generally hydrophilic; held in place by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">H-bonding and electrostatic interaction</span>. Disrupt/detach by changing salt cxn or pH to disrupt these interactions. Integral proteins are hydrophobic; use detergent to destroy membrane and expose these proteins.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Channel proteins: provide passageway through membrane for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hydrophilic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (water-soluble) substances (polar, and charged).""Channel proteins: provide passageway through membrane for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hydrophilic</span> (water-soluble) substances (polar, and charged).<br>
"
"Recognition proteins: such as major-histocompatibility complex on macrophage to distinguish between self and foreign; they are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glycoproteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> due to oligosaccharides attached.""Recognition proteins: such as major-histocompatibility complex on macrophage to distinguish between self and foreign; they are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glycoproteins</span> due to oligosaccharides attached.<br>
"
"Ion channels: passage of ions across membrane. Called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""gated&#x20;channels"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in nerve and muscle cells, respond to stimuli. Note that these can be voltage-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">difference in membrane potential</span>), ligand-gated (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chemical binds and opens channel</span>), or mechanically-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">pressure, vibration, temperature, etc</span>).&nbsp;""Ion channels: passage of ions across membrane. Called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">gated channels</span> in nerve and muscle cells, respond to stimuli. Note that these can be voltage-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">difference in membrane potential</span>), ligand-gated (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chemical binds and opens channel</span>), or mechanically-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">pressure, vibration, temperature, etc</span>).&nbsp;<br>
"
"Ion channels: passage of ions across membrane. Called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gated channels</span> in nerve and muscle cells, respond to stimuli. Note that these can be voltage-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""difference&#x20;in&#x20;membrane&#x20;potential"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>), ligand-gated (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chemical binds and opens channel</span>), or mechanically-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">pressure, vibration, temperature, etc</span>).&nbsp;""Ion channels: passage of ions across membrane. Called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gated channels</span> in nerve and muscle cells, respond to stimuli. Note that these can be voltage-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">difference in membrane potential</span>), ligand-gated (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chemical binds and opens channel</span>), or mechanically-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">pressure, vibration, temperature, etc</span>).&nbsp;<br>
"
"Ion channels: passage of ions across membrane. Called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gated channels</span> in nerve and muscle cells, respond to stimuli. Note that these can be voltage-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">difference in membrane potential</span>), ligand-gated (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chemical&#x20;binds&#x20;and&#x20;opens&#x20;channel"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>), or mechanically-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">pressure, vibration, temperature, etc</span>).&nbsp;""Ion channels: passage of ions across membrane. Called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gated channels</span> in nerve and muscle cells, respond to stimuli. Note that these can be voltage-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">difference in membrane potential</span>), ligand-gated (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">chemical binds and opens channel</span>), or mechanically-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">pressure, vibration, temperature, etc</span>).&nbsp;<br>
"
"Ion channels: passage of ions across membrane. Called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gated channels</span> in nerve and muscle cells, respond to stimuli. Note that these can be voltage-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">difference in membrane potential</span>), ligand-gated (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chemical binds and opens channel</span>), or mechanically-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pressure&#x2C;&#x20;vibration&#x2C;&#x20;temperature&#x2C;&#x20;etc"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>).&nbsp;""Ion channels: passage of ions across membrane. Called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gated channels</span> in nerve and muscle cells, respond to stimuli. Note that these can be voltage-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">difference in membrane potential</span>), ligand-gated (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chemical binds and opens channel</span>), or mechanically-gated (respond to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">pressure, vibration, temperature, etc</span>).&nbsp;<br>
"
"Porins: allow passage of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""certain&#x20;ions&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;small&#x20;polar&#x20;molecules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Aquaporins increase rate of H2O passing (kidney and plant root cells). These tend not to be specific, they’re just large passages, if you can fit you’d go through.""Porins: allow passage of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">certain ions + small polar molecules</span>. Aquaporins increase rate of H2O passing (kidney and plant root cells). These tend not to be specific, they’re just large passages, if you can fit you’d go through.<br>
"
"Carrier proteins: bind to specific molecules, protein changes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""shape"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, molecule passed across. E.g. glucose into cell.(this is a type of transport protein). Carrier seems to be specific to movement across membrane via integral membrane protein.""Carrier proteins: bind to specific molecules, protein changes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">shape</span>, molecule passed across. E.g. glucose into cell.(this is a type of transport protein). Carrier seems to be specific to movement across membrane via integral membrane protein.<br>
"
"Transport proteins: can use ATP to transport materials across (not all transport use ATP). Active transport. E.g. Na+-K+ pump to maintain gradients. Facilitated diffusion as well(does not use <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>). Transport protein is a broad category that encompasses many of the above.&nbsp;""Transport proteins: can use ATP to transport materials across (not all transport use ATP). Active transport. E.g. Na+-K+ pump to maintain gradients. Facilitated diffusion as well(does not use <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP</span>). Transport protein is a broad category that encompasses many of the above.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Adhesion proteins: attach cells to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""neighboring&#x20;cells&#x2C;&#x20;provide&#x20;anchors&#x20;for&#x20;internal&#x20;filaments&#x20;and&#x20;tubules&#x20;&amp;nbsp&#x3B;&#x28;stability&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Adhesion proteins: attach cells to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">neighboring cells, provide anchors for internal filaments and tubules &nbsp;(stability)</span><br>
"
"Receptor proteins: binding site for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hormones&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;other&#x20;trigger&#x20;molecules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Receptor proteins: binding site for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hormones + other trigger molecules</span><br>
"
"Cholesterol: adds <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""rigidity&#x20;to&#x20;membrane"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of animal cells under normal conditions (but at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">low temperatures</span> it maintains its fluidity); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sterols</span> provide similar function in plant cells. Prokaryotes do not have cholesterol in their membranes (use <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hopanoids</span> instead)""Cholesterol: adds <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">rigidity to membrane</span> of animal cells under normal conditions (but at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">low temperatures</span> it maintains its fluidity); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sterols</span> provide similar function in plant cells. Prokaryotes do not have cholesterol in their membranes (use <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hopanoids</span> instead)<br>
"
"Cholesterol: adds <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">rigidity to membrane</span> of animal cells under normal conditions (but at <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""low&#x20;temperatures"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> it maintains its fluidity); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sterols</span> provide similar function in plant cells. Prokaryotes do not have cholesterol in their membranes (use <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hopanoids</span> instead)""Cholesterol: adds <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">rigidity to membrane</span> of animal cells under normal conditions (but at <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">low temperatures</span> it maintains its fluidity); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sterols</span> provide similar function in plant cells. Prokaryotes do not have cholesterol in their membranes (use <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hopanoids</span> instead)<br>
"
"Cholesterol: adds <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">rigidity to membrane</span> of animal cells under normal conditions (but at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">low temperatures</span> it maintains its fluidity); <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sterols"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> provide similar function in plant cells. Prokaryotes do not have cholesterol in their membranes (use <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hopanoids</span> instead)""Cholesterol: adds <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">rigidity to membrane</span> of animal cells under normal conditions (but at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">low temperatures</span> it maintains its fluidity); <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">sterols</span> provide similar function in plant cells. Prokaryotes do not have cholesterol in their membranes (use <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hopanoids</span> instead)<br>
"
"Cholesterol: adds <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">rigidity to membrane</span> of animal cells under normal conditions (but at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">low temperatures</span> it maintains its fluidity); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sterols</span> provide similar function in plant cells. Prokaryotes do not have cholesterol in their membranes (use <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hopanoids"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> instead)""Cholesterol: adds <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">rigidity to membrane</span> of animal cells under normal conditions (but at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">low temperatures</span> it maintains its fluidity); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sterols</span> provide similar function in plant cells. Prokaryotes do not have cholesterol in their membranes (use <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">hopanoids</span> instead)<br>
"
"Glycocalyx: a carbohydrate coat that covers <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""outer&#x20;face&#x20;of&#x20;cell&#x20;wall&#x20;of&#x20;some&#x20;bacteria&#x20;and&#x20;outer&#x20;face&#x20;of&#x20;plasma&#x20;membrane"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. It consists of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">glycolipids (attached to plasma membrane) and glycoproteins (such as recognition proteins)</span>. It may provide <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">adhesive capabilities, a barrier to infection, or markers for cell-cell recognition.</span>""Glycocalyx: a carbohydrate coat that covers <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">outer face of cell wall of some bacteria and outer face of plasma membrane</span>. It consists of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">glycolipids (attached to plasma membrane) and glycoproteins (such as recognition proteins)</span>. It may provide <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">adhesive capabilities, a barrier to infection, or markers for cell-cell recognition.</span><br>
"
"Glycocalyx: a carbohydrate coat that covers <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">outer face of cell wall of some bacteria and outer face of plasma membrane</span>. It consists of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glycolipids&#x20;&#x28;attached&#x20;to&#x20;plasma&#x20;membrane&#x29;&#x20;and&#x20;glycoproteins&#x20;&#x28;such&#x20;as&#x20;recognition&#x20;proteins&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>. It may provide <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">adhesive capabilities, a barrier to infection, or markers for cell-cell recognition.</span>""Glycocalyx: a carbohydrate coat that covers <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">outer face of cell wall of some bacteria and outer face of plasma membrane</span>. It consists of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">glycolipids (attached to plasma membrane) and glycoproteins (such as recognition proteins)</span>. It may provide <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">adhesive capabilities, a barrier to infection, or markers for cell-cell recognition.</span><br>
"
"Glycocalyx: a carbohydrate coat that covers <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">outer face of cell wall of some bacteria and outer face of plasma membrane</span>. It consists of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">glycolipids (attached to plasma membrane) and glycoproteins (such as recognition proteins)</span>. It may provide <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""adhesive&#x20;capabilities&#x2C;&#x20;a&#x20;barrier&#x20;to&#x20;infection&#x2C;&#x20;or&#x20;markers&#x20;for&#x20;cell&#x2D;cell&#x20;recognition&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>""Glycocalyx: a carbohydrate coat that covers <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">outer face of cell wall of some bacteria and outer face of plasma membrane</span>. It consists of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">glycolipids (attached to plasma membrane) and glycoproteins (such as recognition proteins)</span>. It may provide <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">adhesive capabilities, a barrier to infection, or markers for cell-cell recognition.</span><br>
"
"<div>Nucleus</div>chromatin is when the DNA not <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""condensed"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chromosomes</span> is condensed chromatin when the cell is ready to divide;""<div>Nucleus</div>chromatin is when the DNA not <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">condensed</span>; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chromosomes</span> is condensed chromatin when the cell is ready to divide;<br>
"
"<div>Nucleus</div>chromatin is when the DNA not <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">condensed</span>; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chromosomes"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> is condensed chromatin when the cell is ready to divide;""<div>Nucleus</div>chromatin is when the DNA not <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">condensed</span>; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">chromosomes</span> is condensed chromatin when the cell is ready to divide;<br>
"
"<div>Nucleus</div>histones serve to organize DNA which coil around it into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bundle&#x20;nucleosomes&#x20;&#x28;8&#x20;histones&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>;""<div>Nucleus</div>histones serve to organize DNA which coil around it into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">bundle nucleosomes (8 histones)</span>;<br>
"
"<div>Nucleus</div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nucleolus"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> inside the nucleus are the maker of ribosomes (rRNA).""<div>Nucleus</div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleolus</span> inside the nucleus are the maker of ribosomes (rRNA).<br>
"
"<div>Nucleus</div>rRNA is synth’d in nucleolus + ribosomal proteins imported from cytoplasm = ribosomal subunits form; these subunits are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""exported&#x20;to&#x20;the&#x20;cytoplasm&#x20;for&#x20;final&#x20;assembly&#x20;into&#x20;complete&#x20;ribosome"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.""<div>Nucleus</div>rRNA is synth’d in nucleolus + ribosomal proteins imported from cytoplasm = ribosomal subunits form; these subunits are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">exported to the cytoplasm for final assembly into complete ribosome</span>.<br>
"
"<div>Nucleus</div>Nucleus bound by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""double&#x20;layer&#x20;nuclear&#x20;envelope&#x20;w&#x2F;&#x20;nuclear&#x20;pores&#x20;for&#x20;transport"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (mRNA, ribosome subunits, dNTPs, proteins like RNA polymerase + histones, etc) in/out.&nbsp;""<div>Nucleus</div>Nucleus bound by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">double layer nuclear envelope w/ nuclear pores for transport</span> (mRNA, ribosome subunits, dNTPs, proteins like RNA polymerase + histones, etc) in/out.&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>Nucleus</div>Note there is no “cytoplasm” in nucleus, there’s a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nucleoplasm"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> instead.""<div>Nucleus</div>Note there is no “cytoplasm” in nucleus, there’s a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleoplasm</span> instead.<br>
"
"Nuclear Lamina: dense fibrillar network inside <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nucleus&#x20;of&#x20;eukaryotic&#x20;cells"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (Intermediate filaments + membrane assoc. proteins). Provides mechanical support; also helps regulate <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA replication, cell division, chromatin organization.</span>""Nuclear Lamina: dense fibrillar network inside <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleus of eukaryotic cells</span> (Intermediate filaments + membrane assoc. proteins). Provides mechanical support; also helps regulate <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA replication, cell division, chromatin organization.</span><br>
"
"Nuclear Lamina: dense fibrillar network inside <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleus of eukaryotic cells</span> (Intermediate filaments + membrane assoc. proteins). Provides mechanical support; also helps regulate <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA&#x20;replication&#x2C;&#x20;cell&#x20;division&#x2C;&#x20;chromatin&#x20;organization&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>""Nuclear Lamina: dense fibrillar network inside <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleus of eukaryotic cells</span> (Intermediate filaments + membrane assoc. proteins). Provides mechanical support; also helps regulate <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA replication, cell division, chromatin organization.</span><br>
"
"Nucleoid: irregular shaped region within the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cell&#x20;of&#x20;prokaryote"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> that contains all/most generic material&nbsp;""Nucleoid: irregular shaped region within the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cell of prokaryote</span> that contains all/most generic material&nbsp;<br>
"
"Cytoplasm: this is an area, not a structure! metabolic activity and transport occur here. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cyclosis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is streaming movement within cell. Doesn’t include nucleus, but does include <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cytosol, organelles, everything suspended w/in cytosol but nucleus</span>""Cytoplasm: this is an area, not a structure! metabolic activity and transport occur here. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cyclosis</span> is streaming movement within cell. Doesn’t include nucleus, but does include <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cytosol, organelles, everything suspended w/in cytosol but nucleus</span><br>
"
"Cytoplasm: this is an area, not a structure! metabolic activity and transport occur here. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cyclosis</span> is streaming movement within cell. Doesn’t include nucleus, but does include <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytosol&#x2C;&#x20;organelles&#x2C;&#x20;everything&#x20;suspended&#x20;w&#x2F;in&#x20;cytosol&#x20;but&#x20;nucleus"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>""Cytoplasm: this is an area, not a structure! metabolic activity and transport occur here. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cyclosis</span> is streaming movement within cell. Doesn’t include nucleus, but does include <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">cytosol, organelles, everything suspended w/in cytosol but nucleus</span><br>
"
"Cytosol: difference vs cytoplasm (cytosol doesn’t include the stuff suspended within the gel-like substance, it is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""JUST&#x20;the&#x20;gel&#x2D;like&#x20;stuff"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Think jello vs veggie stew.)""Cytosol: difference vs cytoplasm (cytosol doesn’t include the stuff suspended within the gel-like substance, it is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">JUST the gel-like stuff</span>. Think jello vs veggie stew.)<br>
"
"Ribosomes: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""60S&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;40S"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> = 80S, prokaryote (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">50S + 30S</span> = 70S); the two subunits produced inside the nucloleus moved into the cytoplasm where they <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">assembled into a single 80S ribosomes</span> (larger S value indicates heavier molecule). Made of RNA+protein, function to make proteins.""Ribosomes: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">60S + 40S</span> = 80S, prokaryote (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">50S + 30S</span> = 70S); the two subunits produced inside the nucloleus moved into the cytoplasm where they <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">assembled into a single 80S ribosomes</span> (larger S value indicates heavier molecule). Made of RNA+protein, function to make proteins.<br>
"
"Ribosomes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">60S + 40S</span> = 80S, prokaryote (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""50S&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;30S"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> = 70S); the two subunits produced inside the nucloleus moved into the cytoplasm where they <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">assembled into a single 80S ribosomes</span> (larger S value indicates heavier molecule). Made of RNA+protein, function to make proteins.""Ribosomes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">60S + 40S</span> = 80S, prokaryote (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">50S + 30S</span> = 70S); the two subunits produced inside the nucloleus moved into the cytoplasm where they <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">assembled into a single 80S ribosomes</span> (larger S value indicates heavier molecule). Made of RNA+protein, function to make proteins.<br>
"
"Ribosomes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">60S + 40S</span> = 80S, prokaryote (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">50S + 30S</span> = 70S); the two subunits produced inside the nucloleus moved into the cytoplasm where they <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""assembled&#x20;into&#x20;a&#x20;single&#x20;80S&#x20;ribosomes"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (larger S value indicates heavier molecule). Made of RNA+protein, function to make proteins.""Ribosomes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">60S + 40S</span> = 80S, prokaryote (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">50S + 30S</span> = 70S); the two subunits produced inside the nucloleus moved into the cytoplasm where they <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">assembled into a single 80S ribosomes</span> (larger S value indicates heavier molecule). Made of RNA+protein, function to make proteins.<br>
"
"ER: rough ER (with ribosomes) creates glycoproteins by attaching <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""polysaccharides&#x20;to&#x20;polypeptides"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> as they are assembled by ribosomes. In eukaryotes the rough ER is continuous with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">the outer nuclear membrane.</span>""ER: rough ER (with ribosomes) creates glycoproteins by attaching <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">polysaccharides to polypeptides</span> as they are assembled by ribosomes. In eukaryotes the rough ER is continuous with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">the outer nuclear membrane.</span><br>
"
"ER: rough ER (with ribosomes) creates glycoproteins by attaching <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">polysaccharides to polypeptides</span> as they are assembled by ribosomes. In eukaryotes the rough ER is continuous with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""the&#x20;outer&#x20;nuclear&#x20;membrane&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>""ER: rough ER (with ribosomes) creates glycoproteins by attaching <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">polysaccharides to polypeptides</span> as they are assembled by ribosomes. In eukaryotes the rough ER is continuous with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">the outer nuclear membrane.</span><br>
"
"ER: Smooth ER (no ribosomes) synthesizes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lipids&#x20;and&#x20;steroid&#x20;hormones"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for export.&nbsp;Can also store <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ions, e.g. Ca 2+</span>""ER: Smooth ER (no ribosomes) synthesizes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lipids and steroid hormones</span> for export.&nbsp;Can also store <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ions, e.g. Ca 2+</span><br>
"
"ER: Smooth ER (no ribosomes) synthesizes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">lipids and steroid hormones</span> for export.&nbsp;Can also store <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ions&#x2C;&#x20;e&#x2E;g&#x2E;&#x20;Ca&#x20;2&#x2B;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>""ER: Smooth ER (no ribosomes) synthesizes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">lipids and steroid hormones</span> for export.&nbsp;Can also store <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">ions, e.g. Ca 2+</span><br>
"
"In liver cells, smooth ER has functions in breakdown of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""toxins&#x2C;&#x20;drugs&#x2C;&#x20;and&#x20;toxic&#x20;by&#x2D;products"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> from cellular rxn.""In liver cells, smooth ER has functions in breakdown of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">toxins, drugs, and toxic by-products</span> from cellular rxn.<br>
"
"Lysosomes: vesicles produced from Golgi that contain <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""digestive&#x20;enzymes&#x20;&#x28;low&#x20;pH&#x20;for&#x20;function&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>;""Lysosomes: vesicles produced from Golgi that contain <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">digestive enzymes (low pH for function)</span>;<br>
"
"<div>Lysosomes</div>any enzyme that escape from lysosomes remains <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in the neutral pH of cytosol (other source says autolysis)(lysosomes in plant cell – maybe, but generally taught as none). Functions in apoptosis (releases contents into cell).&nbsp;""<div>Lysosomes</div>any enzyme that escape from lysosomes remains <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">inactive</span> in the neutral pH of cytosol (other source says autolysis)(lysosomes in plant cell – maybe, but generally taught as none). Functions in apoptosis (releases contents into cell).&nbsp;<br>
"
"Golgi: transport of various substances in vesicles (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> face is for incoming vesicles, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">trans</span> face for secretory vesicles). Has flattened sacs known as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cisternae.&nbsp;</span>""Golgi: transport of various substances in vesicles (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cis</span> face is for incoming vesicles, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">trans</span> face for secretory vesicles). Has flattened sacs known as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cisternae.&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"Golgi: transport of various substances in vesicles (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cis</span> face is for incoming vesicles, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""trans"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> face for secretory vesicles). Has flattened sacs known as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cisternae.&nbsp;</span>""Golgi: transport of various substances in vesicles (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cis</span> face is for incoming vesicles, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">trans</span> face for secretory vesicles). Has flattened sacs known as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cisternae.&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"Golgi: transport of various substances in vesicles (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cis</span> face is for incoming vesicles, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">trans</span> face for secretory vesicles). Has flattened sacs known as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cisternae&#x2E;&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>""Golgi: transport of various substances in vesicles (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cis</span> face is for incoming vesicles, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">trans</span> face for secretory vesicles). Has flattened sacs known as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">cisternae.&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"Peroxisomes: break down substances (H2O2 +RH2 =&gt; R + 2H2O), fatty acid, and amino acid; common in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""liver&#x20;and&#x20;kidney"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> where they break toxic substances.&nbsp;""Peroxisomes: break down substances (H2O2 +RH2 =&gt; R + 2H2O), fatty acid, and amino acid; common in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">liver and kidney</span> where they break toxic substances.&nbsp;<br>
"
"In plant cell, peroxisomes modify by-products of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""photorespiration&#x2E;&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""In plant cell, peroxisomes modify by-products of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">photorespiration.&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"<div>Peroxisomes</div>In germinating seeds, it is called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glyoxysomes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and it breaks down stored <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fatty acids</span> to help generate energy for growth.""<div>Peroxisomes</div>In germinating seeds, it is called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glyoxysomes</span> and it breaks down stored <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fatty acids</span> to help generate energy for growth.<br>
"
"<div>Peroxisomes</div>In germinating seeds, it is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">glyoxysomes</span> and it breaks down stored <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fatty&#x20;acids"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> to help generate energy for growth.""<div>Peroxisomes</div>In germinating seeds, it is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">glyoxysomes</span> and it breaks down stored <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">fatty acids</span> to help generate energy for growth.<br>
"
"Peroxisomes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""produce&#x20;H2O2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> which they then use to oxidize substrates, they can also break down H2O2 if necessary (H2O2 =&gt; H2O + O2)""Peroxisomes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">produce H2O2</span> which they then use to oxidize substrates, they can also break down H2O2 if necessary (H2O2 =&gt; H2O + O2)<br>
"
"Microtubules: made up of protein <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""tubulin"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, provide support and motility for cellular activities; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">spindle apparatus</span> which guide chromosomes during division; in flagella and cilia (9+2 array; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">9 pairs + 2 singlets in center</span>) in all animal cells and lower plants (mosses, ferns).""Microtubules: made up of protein <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">tubulin</span>, provide support and motility for cellular activities; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">spindle apparatus</span> which guide chromosomes during division; in flagella and cilia (9+2 array; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">9 pairs + 2 singlets in center</span>) in all animal cells and lower plants (mosses, ferns).<br>
"
"Microtubules: made up of protein <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">tubulin</span>, provide support and motility for cellular activities; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""spindle&#x20;apparatus"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> which guide chromosomes during division; in flagella and cilia (9+2 array; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">9 pairs + 2 singlets in center</span>) in all animal cells and lower plants (mosses, ferns).""Microtubules: made up of protein <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">tubulin</span>, provide support and motility for cellular activities; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">spindle apparatus</span> which guide chromosomes during division; in flagella and cilia (9+2 array; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">9 pairs + 2 singlets in center</span>) in all animal cells and lower plants (mosses, ferns).<br>
"
"Microtubules: made up of protein <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">tubulin</span>, provide support and motility for cellular activities; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">spindle apparatus</span> which guide chromosomes during division; in flagella and cilia (9+2 array; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""9&#x20;pairs&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;2&#x20;singlets&#x20;in&#x20;center"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>) in all animal cells and lower plants (mosses, ferns).""Microtubules: made up of protein <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">tubulin</span>, provide support and motility for cellular activities; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">spindle apparatus</span> which guide chromosomes during division; in flagella and cilia (9+2 array; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">9 pairs + 2 singlets in center</span>) in all animal cells and lower plants (mosses, ferns).<br>
"
"Intermediate filaments: provide <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""support&#x20;for&#x20;maintaining&#x20;cell&#x20;shape&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Intermediate filaments: provide <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">support for maintaining cell shape.</span><br>
"
"Microfilament: made up of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""actin"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and involved in cell motility. (skeletal muscle, amoeba pseudopod, cleavage furrow)""Microfilament: made up of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">actin</span> and involved in cell motility. (skeletal muscle, amoeba pseudopod, cleavage furrow)<br>
"
"Microtubules organizing centers (MTOCs): include <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">centrioles and basal bodies</span> (are at the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">base of each flagellum and cilium</span> and organize their development). <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""9x3"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> array.""Microtubules organizing centers (MTOCs): include <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">centrioles and basal bodies</span> (are at the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">base of each flagellum and cilium</span> and organize their development). <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">9x3</span> array.<br>
"
"Microtubules organizing centers (MTOCs): include <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">centrioles and basal bodies</span> (are at the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""base&#x20;of&#x20;each&#x20;flagellum&#x20;and&#x20;cilium"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> and organize their development). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">9x3</span> array.""Microtubules organizing centers (MTOCs): include <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">centrioles and basal bodies</span> (are at the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">base of each flagellum and cilium</span> and organize their development). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">9x3</span> array.<br>
"
"Microtubules organizing centers (MTOCs): include <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""centrioles&#x20;and&#x20;basal&#x20;bodies"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (are at the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">base of each flagellum and cilium</span> and organize their development). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">9x3</span> array.""Microtubules organizing centers (MTOCs): include <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">centrioles and basal bodies</span> (are at the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">base of each flagellum and cilium</span> and organize their development). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">9x3</span> array.<br>
"
"Plant cells lack centrioles because its division is by cell plate instead of cleavage furrow – note that plants DO have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""MTOC’s&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>&nbsp;""Plant cells lack centrioles because its division is by cell plate instead of cleavage furrow – note that plants DO have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">MTOC’s.</span>&nbsp;<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Transport"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> vacuoles: move materials between organelles or organelles and the plasma membrane""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Transport</span> vacuoles: move materials between organelles or organelles and the plasma membrane<br>
"
"Food vacuoles: temporary receptacles of nutrients; merge with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lysosomes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> which break down food.""Food vacuoles: temporary receptacles of nutrients; merge with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lysosomes</span> which break down food.<br>
"
"Central vacuoles: large, occupy most of plant cell interior, exert <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""turgor&#x20;when&#x20;fully&#x20;filled"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to maintain rigidity. Also <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">store nutrients, carry out functions</span> performed by lysosomes in animal cells. Have a specialized membrane (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">tonoplast</span>)""Central vacuoles: large, occupy most of plant cell interior, exert <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">turgor when fully filled</span> to maintain rigidity. Also <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">store nutrients, carry out functions</span> performed by lysosomes in animal cells. Have a specialized membrane (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">tonoplast</span>)<br>
"
"Central vacuoles: large, occupy most of plant cell interior, exert <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">turgor when fully filled</span> to maintain rigidity. Also <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">store nutrients, carry out functions</span> performed by lysosomes in animal cells. Have a specialized membrane (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""tonoplast"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>)""Central vacuoles: large, occupy most of plant cell interior, exert <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">turgor when fully filled</span> to maintain rigidity. Also <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">store nutrients, carry out functions</span> performed by lysosomes in animal cells. Have a specialized membrane (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">tonoplast</span>)<br>
"
"Central vacuoles: large, occupy most of plant cell interior, exert <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">turgor when fully filled</span> to maintain rigidity. Also <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""store&#x20;nutrients&#x2C;&#x20;carry&#x20;out&#x20;functions"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> performed by lysosomes in animal cells. Have a specialized membrane (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">tonoplast</span>)""Central vacuoles: large, occupy most of plant cell interior, exert <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">turgor when fully filled</span> to maintain rigidity. Also <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">store nutrients, carry out functions</span> performed by lysosomes in animal cells. Have a specialized membrane (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">tonoplast</span>)<br>
"
"Storage vacuoles: plants store <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""starch&#x2C;&#x20;pigments&#x2C;&#x20;and&#x20;toxic&#x20;substances"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (nicotine).""Storage vacuoles: plants store <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">starch, pigments, and toxic substances</span> (nicotine).<br>
"
"Contractile vacuoles: in single-celled organisms that collect and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pump&#x20;excess&#x20;water&#x20;out&#x20;of&#x20;the&#x20;cells"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (prevent bursting). Active transport. Found in Protista like amoeba and paramecia, organisms live in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">hypotonic environment.</span>""Contractile vacuoles: in single-celled organisms that collect and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pump excess water out of the cells</span> (prevent bursting). Active transport. Found in Protista like amoeba and paramecia, organisms live in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">hypotonic environment.</span><br>
"
"Contractile vacuoles: in single-celled organisms that collect and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pump excess water out of the cells</span> (prevent bursting). Active transport. Found in Protista like amoeba and paramecia, organisms live in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hypotonic&#x20;environment&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>""Contractile vacuoles: in single-celled organisms that collect and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pump excess water out of the cells</span> (prevent bursting). Active transport. Found in Protista like amoeba and paramecia, organisms live in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">hypotonic environment.</span><br>
"
"Cell walls: found in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cellulose</span> in plants; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> in fungi; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">peptidoglycans</span> in bacteria, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">polysaccharides</span> in archea). Provides support. Sometimes a secondary cell wall develops <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""beneath&#x20;the&#x20;primary&#x20;one&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Cell walls: found in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cellulose</span> in plants; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> in fungi; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">peptidoglycans</span> in bacteria, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">polysaccharides</span> in archea). Provides support. Sometimes a secondary cell wall develops <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">beneath the primary one.</span><br>
"
"Cell walls: found in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cellulose"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> in plants; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> in fungi; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">peptidoglycans</span> in bacteria, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">polysaccharides</span> in archea). Provides support. Sometimes a secondary cell wall develops <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">beneath the primary one.</span>""Cell walls: found in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">cellulose</span> in plants; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> in fungi; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">peptidoglycans</span> in bacteria, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">polysaccharides</span> in archea). Provides support. Sometimes a secondary cell wall develops <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">beneath the primary one.</span><br>
"
"Cell walls: found in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cellulose</span> in plants; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chitin"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> in fungi; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">peptidoglycans</span> in bacteria, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">polysaccharides</span> in archea). Provides support. Sometimes a secondary cell wall develops <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">beneath the primary one.</span>""Cell walls: found in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cellulose</span> in plants; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> in fungi; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">peptidoglycans</span> in bacteria, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">polysaccharides</span> in archea). Provides support. Sometimes a secondary cell wall develops <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">beneath the primary one.</span><br>
"
"Cell walls: found in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cellulose</span> in plants; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> in fungi; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""peptidoglycans"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> in bacteria, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">polysaccharides</span> in archea). Provides support. Sometimes a secondary cell wall develops <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">beneath the primary one.</span>""Cell walls: found in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cellulose</span> in plants; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> in fungi; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">peptidoglycans</span> in bacteria, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">polysaccharides</span> in archea). Provides support. Sometimes a secondary cell wall develops <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">beneath the primary one.</span><br>
"
"Cell walls: found in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cellulose</span> in plants; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> in fungi; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">peptidoglycans</span> in bacteria, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""polysaccharides"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> in archea). Provides support. Sometimes a secondary cell wall develops <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">beneath the primary one.</span>""Cell walls: found in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cellulose</span> in plants; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> in fungi; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">peptidoglycans</span> in bacteria, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">polysaccharides</span> in archea). Provides support. Sometimes a secondary cell wall develops <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">beneath the primary one.</span><br>
"
"Extracellular matrix: found in animals, in area between adjacent cells (beyond plasma membrane and glycocalyx); occupied by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fibrous&#x20;structural&#x20;proteins&#x2C;&#x20;adhesion&#x20;proteins&#x2C;&#x20;and&#x20;polysaccharides"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> secreted by cells; provide <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mechanical support and helps bind adjacent cells</span> (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">collagen</span> is most common here, we also see <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">integrin+fibronectin</span>).""Extracellular matrix: found in animals, in area between adjacent cells (beyond plasma membrane and glycocalyx); occupied by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fibrous structural proteins, adhesion proteins, and polysaccharides</span> secreted by cells; provide <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mechanical support and helps bind adjacent cells</span> (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">collagen</span> is most common here, we also see <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">integrin+fibronectin</span>).<br>
"
"Extracellular matrix: found in animals, in area between adjacent cells (beyond plasma membrane and glycocalyx); occupied by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fibrous structural proteins, adhesion proteins, and polysaccharides</span> secreted by cells; provide <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mechanical&#x20;support&#x20;and&#x20;helps&#x20;bind&#x20;adjacent&#x20;cells"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">collagen</span> is most common here, we also see <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">integrin+fibronectin</span>).""Extracellular matrix: found in animals, in area between adjacent cells (beyond plasma membrane and glycocalyx); occupied by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fibrous structural proteins, adhesion proteins, and polysaccharides</span> secreted by cells; provide <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">mechanical support and helps bind adjacent cells</span> (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">collagen</span> is most common here, we also see <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">integrin+fibronectin</span>).<br>
"
"Extracellular matrix: found in animals, in area between adjacent cells (beyond plasma membrane and glycocalyx); occupied by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fibrous structural proteins, adhesion proteins, and polysaccharides</span> secreted by cells; provide <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mechanical support and helps bind adjacent cells</span> (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""collagen"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> is most common here, we also see <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">integrin+fibronectin</span>).""Extracellular matrix: found in animals, in area between adjacent cells (beyond plasma membrane and glycocalyx); occupied by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fibrous structural proteins, adhesion proteins, and polysaccharides</span> secreted by cells; provide <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mechanical support and helps bind adjacent cells</span> (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">collagen</span> is most common here, we also see <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">integrin+fibronectin</span>).<br>
"
"Extracellular matrix: found in animals, in area between adjacent cells (beyond plasma membrane and glycocalyx); occupied by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fibrous structural proteins, adhesion proteins, and polysaccharides</span> secreted by cells; provide <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mechanical support and helps bind adjacent cells</span> (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">collagen</span> is most common here, we also see <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""integrin&#x2B;fibronectin"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>).""Extracellular matrix: found in animals, in area between adjacent cells (beyond plasma membrane and glycocalyx); occupied by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fibrous structural proteins, adhesion proteins, and polysaccharides</span> secreted by cells; provide <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mechanical support and helps bind adjacent cells</span> (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">collagen</span> is most common here, we also see <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">integrin+fibronectin</span>).<br>
"
"&nbsp;Plastids: found in plant cells. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Chloroplasts"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (site of photosynthesis), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">leucoplasts</span> (store starch), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chromoplasts</span> (store carotenoids)""&nbsp;Plastids: found in plant cells. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Chloroplasts</span> (site of photosynthesis), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">leucoplasts</span> (store starch), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chromoplasts</span> (store carotenoids)<br>
"
"&nbsp;Plastids: found in plant cells. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Chloroplasts</span> (site of photosynthesis), <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""leucoplasts"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (store starch), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chromoplasts</span> (store carotenoids)""&nbsp;Plastids: found in plant cells. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Chloroplasts</span> (site of photosynthesis), <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">leucoplasts</span> (store starch), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chromoplasts</span> (store carotenoids)<br>
"
"&nbsp;Plastids: found in plant cells. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Chloroplasts</span> (site of photosynthesis), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">leucoplasts</span> (store starch), <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chromoplasts"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (store carotenoids)""&nbsp;Plastids: found in plant cells. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Chloroplasts</span> (site of photosynthesis), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">leucoplasts</span> (store starch), <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">chromoplasts</span> (store carotenoids)<br>
"
"Mitochondria: make ATP, also fatty acid <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""catabolism&#x20;&#x28;B&#x2D;oxidation&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>! (fatty acids are made in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cytosol</span>). Also have their own <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">circular DNA and ribosomes</span> (gives rise to endosymbiotic theory!). Have a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">double layered</span> membrane.&nbsp;""Mitochondria: make ATP, also fatty acid <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">catabolism (B-oxidation)</span>! (fatty acids are made in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cytosol</span>). Also have their own <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">circular DNA and ribosomes</span> (gives rise to endosymbiotic theory!). Have a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">double layered</span> membrane.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Mitochondria: make ATP, also fatty acid <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">catabolism (B-oxidation)</span>! (fatty acids are made in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytosol"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>). Also have their own <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">circular DNA and ribosomes</span> (gives rise to endosymbiotic theory!). Have a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">double layered</span> membrane.&nbsp;""Mitochondria: make ATP, also fatty acid <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">catabolism (B-oxidation)</span>! (fatty acids are made in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">cytosol</span>). Also have their own <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">circular DNA and ribosomes</span> (gives rise to endosymbiotic theory!). Have a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">double layered</span> membrane.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Mitochondria: make ATP, also fatty acid <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">catabolism (B-oxidation)</span>! (fatty acids are made in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cytosol</span>). Also have their own <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""circular&#x20;DNA&#x20;and&#x20;ribosomes"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (gives rise to endosymbiotic theory!). Have a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">double layered</span> membrane.&nbsp;""Mitochondria: make ATP, also fatty acid <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">catabolism (B-oxidation)</span>! (fatty acids are made in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cytosol</span>). Also have their own <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">circular DNA and ribosomes</span> (gives rise to endosymbiotic theory!). Have a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">double layered</span> membrane.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Mitochondria: make ATP, also fatty acid <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">catabolism (B-oxidation)</span>! (fatty acids are made in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cytosol</span>). Also have their own <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">circular DNA and ribosomes</span> (gives rise to endosymbiotic theory!). Have a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""double&#x20;layered"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> membrane.&nbsp;""Mitochondria: make ATP, also fatty acid <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">catabolism (B-oxidation)</span>! (fatty acids are made in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cytosol</span>). Also have their own <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">circular DNA and ribosomes</span> (gives rise to endosymbiotic theory!). Have a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">double layered</span> membrane.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Cytoskeleton: microtubules (ex. flagella &amp; cilia), microfilaments, intermediate filaments. In eukaryotic cells, aids in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cell&#x20;division&#x2C;&#x20;cell&#x20;crawling&#x2C;&#x20;and&#x20;the&#x20;movement&#x20;of&#x20;cytoplasm&#x20;and&#x20;organelles"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.""Cytoskeleton: microtubules (ex. flagella &amp; cilia), microfilaments, intermediate filaments. In eukaryotic cells, aids in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cell division, cell crawling, and the movement of cytoplasm and organelles</span>.<br>
"
"&nbsp;Note on plant cells: in a hypotonic solution (their normal state), vacuole <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""swells&#x20;and&#x20;becomes&#x20;turgid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. In isotonic, the plant cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flaccid</span>.&nbsp;In hypertonic, the cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmolyzed – cytoplasm is pulled away from the cell wall</span>. Fungal cells also remain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">turgid</span> due to cell wall, but animal cells will <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">burst (cytolysis).</span>""&nbsp;Note on plant cells: in a hypotonic solution (their normal state), vacuole <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">swells and becomes turgid</span>. In isotonic, the plant cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flaccid</span>.&nbsp;In hypertonic, the cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmolyzed – cytoplasm is pulled away from the cell wall</span>. Fungal cells also remain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">turgid</span> due to cell wall, but animal cells will <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">burst (cytolysis).</span><br>
"
"&nbsp;Note on plant cells: in a hypotonic solution (their normal state), vacuole <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">swells and becomes turgid</span>. In isotonic, the plant cell is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""flaccid"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>.&nbsp;In hypertonic, the cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmolyzed – cytoplasm is pulled away from the cell wall</span>. Fungal cells also remain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">turgid</span> due to cell wall, but animal cells will <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">burst (cytolysis).</span>""&nbsp;Note on plant cells: in a hypotonic solution (their normal state), vacuole <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">swells and becomes turgid</span>. In isotonic, the plant cell is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">flaccid</span>.&nbsp;In hypertonic, the cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmolyzed – cytoplasm is pulled away from the cell wall</span>. Fungal cells also remain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">turgid</span> due to cell wall, but animal cells will <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">burst (cytolysis).</span><br>
"
"&nbsp;Note on plant cells: in a hypotonic solution (their normal state), vacuole <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">swells and becomes turgid</span>. In isotonic, the plant cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flaccid</span>.&nbsp;In hypertonic, the cell is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""plasmolyzed&#x20;–&#x20;cytoplasm&#x20;is&#x20;pulled&#x20;away&#x20;from&#x20;the&#x20;cell&#x20;wall"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>. Fungal cells also remain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">turgid</span> due to cell wall, but animal cells will <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">burst (cytolysis).</span>""&nbsp;Note on plant cells: in a hypotonic solution (their normal state), vacuole <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">swells and becomes turgid</span>. In isotonic, the plant cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flaccid</span>.&nbsp;In hypertonic, the cell is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmolyzed – cytoplasm is pulled away from the cell wall</span>. Fungal cells also remain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">turgid</span> due to cell wall, but animal cells will <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">burst (cytolysis).</span><br>
"
"&nbsp;Note on plant cells: in a hypotonic solution (their normal state), vacuole <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">swells and becomes turgid</span>. In isotonic, the plant cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flaccid</span>.&nbsp;In hypertonic, the cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmolyzed – cytoplasm is pulled away from the cell wall</span>. Fungal cells also remain <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""turgid"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> due to cell wall, but animal cells will <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">burst (cytolysis).</span>""&nbsp;Note on plant cells: in a hypotonic solution (their normal state), vacuole <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">swells and becomes turgid</span>. In isotonic, the plant cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flaccid</span>.&nbsp;In hypertonic, the cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmolyzed – cytoplasm is pulled away from the cell wall</span>. Fungal cells also remain <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">turgid</span> due to cell wall, but animal cells will <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">burst (cytolysis).</span><br>
"
"&nbsp;Note on plant cells: in a hypotonic solution (their normal state), vacuole <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">swells and becomes turgid</span>. In isotonic, the plant cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flaccid</span>.&nbsp;In hypertonic, the cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmolyzed – cytoplasm is pulled away from the cell wall</span>. Fungal cells also remain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">turgid</span> due to cell wall, but animal cells will <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""burst&#x20;&#x28;cytolysis&#x29;&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span>""&nbsp;Note on plant cells: in a hypotonic solution (their normal state), vacuole <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">swells and becomes turgid</span>. In isotonic, the plant cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flaccid</span>.&nbsp;In hypertonic, the cell is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmolyzed – cytoplasm is pulled away from the cell wall</span>. Fungal cells also remain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">turgid</span> due to cell wall, but animal cells will <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">burst (cytolysis).</span><br>
"
"The endomembrane system is the network of organelles and structures, either directly or indirectly connected, that function in the transport of proteins and other macromolecules <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""into&#x20;or&#x20;out&#x20;of&#x20;the&#x20;cell"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.Includes plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, nuclear envelope, lysosomes, vacuoles, vesicles, endosomes but not <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">the mitochondria or chloroplasts.&nbsp;</span>""The endomembrane system is the network of organelles and structures, either directly or indirectly connected, that function in the transport of proteins and other macromolecules <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">into or out of the cell</span>.Includes plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, nuclear envelope, lysosomes, vacuoles, vesicles, endosomes but not <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">the mitochondria or chloroplasts.&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"The endomembrane system is the network of organelles and structures, either directly or indirectly connected, that function in the transport of proteins and other macromolecules <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">into or out of the cell</span>.Includes plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, nuclear envelope, lysosomes, vacuoles, vesicles, endosomes but not <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""the&#x20;mitochondria&#x20;or&#x20;chloroplasts&#x2E;&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>""The endomembrane system is the network of organelles and structures, either directly or indirectly connected, that function in the transport of proteins and other macromolecules <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">into or out of the cell</span>.Includes plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, nuclear envelope, lysosomes, vacuoles, vesicles, endosomes but not <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">the mitochondria or chloroplasts.&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"Intracellular Circulation<div>Brownian movement (particles move due to kinetic energy, spreads <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""small&#x20;suspended&#x20;particles&#x20;throughout&#x20;cytoplasm"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)</div>""Intracellular Circulation<div>Brownian movement (particles move due to kinetic energy, spreads <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">small suspended particles throughout cytoplasm</span>)</div><br>
"
"Intracellular Circulation<div>Cyclosis/streaming: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""circular&#x20;motion&#x20;of&#x20;cytoplasm"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> around cell transport molecules</div>""Intracellular Circulation<div>Cyclosis/streaming: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">circular motion of cytoplasm</span> around cell transport molecules</div><br>
"
"Intracellular Circulation<div>Endoplasmic Reticulum: Provides channel through cytoplasm, provides direct continuous passageway from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""plasma&#x20;membrane&#x20;to&#x20;nuclear&#x20;membrane"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Intracellular Circulation<div>Endoplasmic Reticulum: Provides channel through cytoplasm, provides direct continuous passageway from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">plasma membrane to nuclear membrane</span></div><br>
"
"Extracellular Circulation<div>Diffusion: If cells in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""close&#x20;contact&#x20;with&#x20;external&#x20;environment"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, can suffice for food and respiration needs. Also used for transport of materials between <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cells and interstitial fluid around cells</span> in more complex animals</div>""Extracellular Circulation<div>Diffusion: If cells in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">close contact with external environment</span>, can suffice for food and respiration needs. Also used for transport of materials between <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cells and interstitial fluid around cells</span> in more complex animals</div><br>
"
"Extracellular Circulation<div>Diffusion: If cells in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">close contact with external environment</span>, can suffice for food and respiration needs. Also used for transport of materials between <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cells&#x20;and&#x20;interstitial&#x20;fluid&#x20;around&#x20;cells"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> in more complex animals</div>""Extracellular Circulation<div>Diffusion: If cells in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">close contact with external environment</span>, can suffice for food and respiration needs. Also used for transport of materials between <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">cells and interstitial fluid around cells</span> in more complex animals</div><br>
"
"Extracellular Circulation<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Circulatory&#x20;system"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: complex animals w/ cell too far from external environment require one. Use vessels.</div>""Extracellular Circulation<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Circulatory system</span>: complex animals w/ cell too far from external environment require one. Use vessels.</div><br>
"
"Anchoring junctions: desmosome (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""keratin"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> filaments inside attach to adhesion plaques which bind adjacent cells together, providing mechanical stability, hold cellular structures together). In <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">animal</span> cells. Present in tissues with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">mechanical stress</span> – skin epithelium, cervix/uterus""Anchoring junctions: desmosome (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">keratin</span> filaments inside attach to adhesion plaques which bind adjacent cells together, providing mechanical stability, hold cellular structures together). In <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">animal</span> cells. Present in tissues with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">mechanical stress</span> – skin epithelium, cervix/uterus<br>
"
"Anchoring junctions: desmosome (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">keratin</span> filaments inside attach to adhesion plaques which bind adjacent cells together, providing mechanical stability, hold cellular structures together). In <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""animal"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> cells. Present in tissues with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">mechanical stress</span> – skin epithelium, cervix/uterus""Anchoring junctions: desmosome (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">keratin</span> filaments inside attach to adhesion plaques which bind adjacent cells together, providing mechanical stability, hold cellular structures together). In <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">animal</span> cells. Present in tissues with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">mechanical stress</span> – skin epithelium, cervix/uterus<br>
"
"Anchoring junctions: desmosome (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">keratin</span> filaments inside attach to adhesion plaques which bind adjacent cells together, providing mechanical stability, hold cellular structures together). In <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">animal</span> cells. Present in tissues with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mechanical&#x20;stress"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> – skin epithelium, cervix/uterus""Anchoring junctions: desmosome (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">keratin</span> filaments inside attach to adhesion plaques which bind adjacent cells together, providing mechanical stability, hold cellular structures together). In <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">animal</span> cells. Present in tissues with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">mechanical stress</span> – skin epithelium, cervix/uterus<br>
"
"Tight junctions: completely encircles each cell, producing a seal that prevents the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""passage&#x20;of&#x20;materials&#x20;between&#x20;cells"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; characteristic of cells lining the digestive tract where materials are required to pass through cells into blood (They prevent the passage of molecules and ions through the space between cells. So materials must actually enter the cells (by diffusion or active transport) in order to pass through the tissue). In <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">animal</span> cells.&nbsp;""Tight junctions: completely encircles each cell, producing a seal that prevents the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">passage of materials between cells</span>; characteristic of cells lining the digestive tract where materials are required to pass through cells into blood (They prevent the passage of molecules and ions through the space between cells. So materials must actually enter the cells (by diffusion or active transport) in order to pass through the tissue). In <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">animal</span> cells.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Tight junctions: completely encircles each cell, producing a seal that prevents the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">passage of materials between cells</span>; characteristic of cells lining the digestive tract where materials are required to pass through cells into blood (They prevent the passage of molecules and ions through the space between cells. So materials must actually enter the cells (by diffusion or active transport) in order to pass through the tissue). In <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""animal"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> cells.&nbsp;""Tight junctions: completely encircles each cell, producing a seal that prevents the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">passage of materials between cells</span>; characteristic of cells lining the digestive tract where materials are required to pass through cells into blood (They prevent the passage of molecules and ions through the space between cells. So materials must actually enter the cells (by diffusion or active transport) in order to pass through the tissue). In <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">animal</span> cells.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Gap junction: narrow tunnels between animal cells (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""connexins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>); prevent cytoplasms of each cell from mixing, but allow passage of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ions and small molecules</span>; essentially channel proteins of two adjacent cells that are closely aligned (smooth muscle single of spreading action potential). In animal cells. Tissue like heart have these to pass <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">electrical impulses.&nbsp;</span>""Gap junction: narrow tunnels between animal cells (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">connexins</span>); prevent cytoplasms of each cell from mixing, but allow passage of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ions and small molecules</span>; essentially channel proteins of two adjacent cells that are closely aligned (smooth muscle single of spreading action potential). In animal cells. Tissue like heart have these to pass <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">electrical impulses.&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"Gap junction: narrow tunnels between animal cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">connexins</span>); prevent cytoplasms of each cell from mixing, but allow passage of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ions&#x20;and&#x20;small&#x20;molecules"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>; essentially channel proteins of two adjacent cells that are closely aligned (smooth muscle single of spreading action potential). In animal cells. Tissue like heart have these to pass <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">electrical impulses.&nbsp;</span>""Gap junction: narrow tunnels between animal cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">connexins</span>); prevent cytoplasms of each cell from mixing, but allow passage of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">ions and small molecules</span>; essentially channel proteins of two adjacent cells that are closely aligned (smooth muscle single of spreading action potential). In animal cells. Tissue like heart have these to pass <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">electrical impulses.&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"Gap junction: narrow tunnels between animal cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">connexins</span>); prevent cytoplasms of each cell from mixing, but allow passage of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ions and small molecules</span>; essentially channel proteins of two adjacent cells that are closely aligned (smooth muscle single of spreading action potential). In animal cells. Tissue like heart have these to pass <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""electrical&#x20;impulses&#x2E;&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>""Gap junction: narrow tunnels between animal cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">connexins</span>); prevent cytoplasms of each cell from mixing, but allow passage of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ions and small molecules</span>; essentially channel proteins of two adjacent cells that are closely aligned (smooth muscle single of spreading action potential). In animal cells. Tissue like heart have these to pass <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">electrical impulses.&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"Plasmodesmata: narrow tunnels between <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""plant&#x20;cells"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (narrow tube of endoplasmic reticulum-desmotubule; but exchange material through cytoplasms surrounding the desmotubule).""Plasmodesmata: narrow tunnels between <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">plant cells</span> (narrow tube of endoplasmic reticulum-desmotubule; but exchange material through cytoplasms surrounding the desmotubule).<br>
"
"Eukaryotes include all organisms except for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bacteria&#x2C;&#x20;cyanobacteria&#x2C;&#x20;and&#x20;archaebacteria&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Eukaryotes include all organisms except for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">bacteria, cyanobacteria, and archaebacteria.</span><br>
"
"Prokaryotes have a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""plasma&#x20;membrane&#x2C;&#x20;DNA&#x20;molecule&#x2C;&#x20;ribosomes&#x2C;&#x20;cytoplasm&#x2C;&#x20;and&#x20;cell&#x20;wall"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.&nbsp;""Prokaryotes have a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">plasma membrane, DNA molecule, ribosomes, cytoplasm, and cell wall</span>.&nbsp;<br>
"
"In prokaryotes:&nbsp;<div>1. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""No"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> nucleus.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div>""In prokaryotes:&nbsp;<div>1. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">No</span> nucleus.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><br>
"
"In prokaryotes:&nbsp;<div>2. Single <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""&#x28;circular&#x29;&#x20;naked"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> DNA.</div>""In prokaryotes:&nbsp;<div>2. Single <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">(circular) naked</span> DNA.</div><br>
"
"In prokaryotes:&nbsp;<div>3. Prokaryote (50S + 30S = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""70S"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>);</div>""In prokaryotes:&nbsp;<div>3. Prokaryote (50S + 30S = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">70S</span>);</div><br>
"
"In prokaryotes:&nbsp;<div>4. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cell&#x20;walls"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (peptidoglycan); archea (polysaccharides); plants (cellulose);and fungi (chitin).</div>""In prokaryotes:&nbsp;<div>4. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cell walls</span> (peptidoglycan); archea (polysaccharides); plants (cellulose);and fungi (chitin).</div><br>
"
"In prokaryotes:&nbsp;<div>5. Flagella are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""not&#x20;constructed&#x20;from&#x20;microtubules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in prokaryotes.</div>""In prokaryotes:&nbsp;<div>5. Flagella are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">not constructed from microtubules</span> in prokaryotes.</div><br>
"
"Hypertonic (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""higher"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> solute concentration), hypotonic (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">lower</span> solute concentration), isotonic (equal solute concentration)""Hypertonic (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">higher</span> solute concentration), hypotonic (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">lower</span> solute concentration), isotonic (equal solute concentration)<br>
"
"Hypertonic (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">higher</span> solute concentration), hypotonic (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lower"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> solute concentration), isotonic (equal solute concentration)""Hypertonic (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">higher</span> solute concentration), hypotonic (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">lower</span> solute concentration), isotonic (equal solute concentration)<br>
"
"Bulk Flow = collective movement of substances in the same direction in response to a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""force&#x20;or&#x20;pressure"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (e.g. blood)""Bulk Flow = collective movement of substances in the same direction in response to a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">force or pressure</span> (e.g. blood)<br>
"
"<div>Passive Transport:</div>Simple diffusion, osmosis, dialysis (diffusion of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""different&#x20;solutes&#x20;across&#x20;a&#x20;selectively&#x20;permeable&#x20;membrane"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)""<div>Passive Transport:</div>Simple diffusion, osmosis, dialysis (diffusion of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">different solutes across a selectively permeable membrane</span>)<br>
"
"plasmolysis (movement of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""water&#x20;out&#x20;of&#x20;a&#x20;cell&#x20;that&#x20;results&#x20;in&#x20;its&#x20;collapse"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)""plasmolysis (movement of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">water out of a cell that results in its collapse</span>)<br>
"
"countercurrent exchange (diffusion by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bulk&#x20;flow&#x20;in&#x20;opposite&#x20;directions"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> – blood and water in fish gills).""countercurrent exchange (diffusion by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">bulk flow in opposite directions</span> – blood and water in fish gills).<br>
"
"Active Transport – movement of transports against their <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""concentration&#x20;gradients&#x2C;&#x20;requiring&#x20;energy"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Usually solutes like small ions, amino acids, monosaccharides&nbsp;""Active Transport – movement of transports against their <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">concentration gradients, requiring energy</span>. Usually solutes like small ions, amino acids, monosaccharides&nbsp;<br>
"
"Endocytosis: uses <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (active process)""Endocytosis: uses <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP</span> (active process)<br>
"
"- Phagocytosis: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""undissolved&#x20;material&#x20;&#x28;solid&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> enters cell; white blood cell engulfs. Plasma membrane wraps <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">outward around.</span>""- Phagocytosis: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">undissolved material (solid)</span> enters cell; white blood cell engulfs. Plasma membrane wraps <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">outward around.</span><br>
"
"- Phagocytosis: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">undissolved material (solid)</span> enters cell; white blood cell engulfs. Plasma membrane wraps <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""outward&#x20;around&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>""- Phagocytosis: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">undissolved material (solid)</span> enters cell; white blood cell engulfs. Plasma membrane wraps <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">outward around.</span><br>
"
"- Pinocytosis: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""dissolved&#x20;material&#x20;&#x28;liquid&#x29;&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> Plasma membrane invaginates.""- Pinocytosis: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">dissolved material (liquid).</span> Plasma membrane invaginates.<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Receptor&#x2D;mediated"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: a form of pinocytosis; specific molecules (ligand) bind to receptors; proteins that transport cholesterol in blood (LDL) and hormones target specific cells by this.""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Receptor-mediated</span>: a form of pinocytosis; specific molecules (ligand) bind to receptors; proteins that transport cholesterol in blood (LDL) and hormones target specific cells by this.<br>
"
"CELLULAR RESPIRATION – overall an oxidative, exergonic process (∆G = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""&#x2D;686&#x20;kcal&#x2F;mole"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)""CELLULAR RESPIRATION – overall an oxidative, exergonic process (∆G = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">-686 kcal/mole</span>)<br>
"
"External respiration is entry of air into lungs and gas exchange between alveoli and blood; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""internal&#x20;respiration"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is exchange of gas between blood and the cells + intracellular respiration processes""External respiration is entry of air into lungs and gas exchange between alveoli and blood; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">internal respiration</span> is exchange of gas between blood and the cells + intracellular respiration processes<br>
"
"During respiration, high energy H atoms <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""removed"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> from organic molecules (dehydrogenation)&nbsp;""During respiration, high energy H atoms <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">removed</span> from organic molecules (dehydrogenation)&nbsp;<br>
"
"C6H12O6 + 6O2 &lt;-&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""6CO2&#x20;&#x2B;6H2O&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;energy"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""C6H12O6 + 6O2 &lt;-&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">6CO2 +6H2O + energy</span><br>
"
"Aerobic respiration = in the presence of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""O2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (glycolysis, pyruvate decarb, krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation); water is the final product""Aerobic respiration = in the presence of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">O2</span> (glycolysis, pyruvate decarb, krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation); water is the final product<br>
"
"Glycolysis – decomposition of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glucose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pyruvate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in cytosol""Glycolysis – decomposition of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glucose</span> into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pyruvate</span> in cytosol<br>
"
"<div>Glycolysis</div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>ATP added, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>NADH produced, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""4"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> ATP produced, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> pyruvate formed&nbsp;""<div>Glycolysis</div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2</span>ATP added, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2</span>NADH produced, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">4</span> ATP produced, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2</span> pyruvate formed&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>Glycolysis</div>ATP produced here via <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""substrate&#x20;level&#x20;phosphorylation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""<div>Glycolysis</div>ATP produced here via <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">substrate level phosphorylation</span><br>
"
"<div>Substrate level phosphorylation</div>Direct enzymatic transfer of a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphate&#x20;to&#x20;ADP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, no extraneous carriers needed""<div>Substrate level phosphorylation</div>Direct enzymatic transfer of a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphate to ADP</span>, no extraneous carriers needed<br>
"
"<div>Glycolysis</div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Hexokinase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> phos’s glucose, important because then it can’t <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">diffuse out + tricks the gradient</span>""<div>Glycolysis</div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Hexokinase</span> phos’s glucose, important because then it can’t <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">diffuse out + tricks the gradient</span><br>
"
"<div>Glycolysis</div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Hexokinase</span> phos’s glucose, important because then it can’t <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""diffuse&#x20;out&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;tricks&#x20;the&#x20;gradient"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>""<div>Glycolysis</div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Hexokinase</span> phos’s glucose, important because then it can’t <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">diffuse out + tricks the gradient</span><br>
"
"<div>Glycolysis</div>PFK (enzyme) adds 2nd phosphate, makes fructose 1,6-biphosphate – this is irreversible and commits to glycolysis, major <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""regulatory&#x20;point"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>!""<div>Glycolysis</div>PFK (enzyme) adds 2nd phosphate, makes fructose 1,6-biphosphate – this is irreversible and commits to glycolysis, major <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">regulatory point</span>!<br>
"
"Pyruvate Decarboxylation<div>At this point we are in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mitochondrial&#x20;matrix"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Pyruvate Decarboxylation<div>At this point we are in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mitochondrial matrix</span></div><br>
"
"Pyruvate Decarboxylation<div><div>Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA, producing 1 NADH and 1 CO2</div><div>NET: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> NADH + <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> CO2</div></div>""Pyruvate Decarboxylation<div><div>Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA, producing 1 NADH and 1 CO2</div><div>NET: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2</span> NADH + <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2</span> CO2</div></div><br>
"
"<div>Pyruvate Decarboxylation</div>Catalyzed by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""PDC&#x20;enzyme"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (pyruvate dehydrogenase complex)""<div>Pyruvate Decarboxylation</div>Catalyzed by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">PDC enzyme</span> (pyruvate dehydrogenase complex)<br>
"
"Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle/Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle - fate of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pyruvate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> that is produced in glycolysis""Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle/Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle - fate of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pyruvate</span> that is produced in glycolysis<br>
"
"In the Krebs cycle, Acetyl CoA merges with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oxaloacetate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to form <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""citrate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, cycle goes w/ 7 intermediates""In the Krebs cycle, Acetyl CoA merges with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxaloacetate</span> to form <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">citrate</span>, cycle goes w/ 7 intermediates<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> NADH, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> FADH2, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> ATP (via sub phos), and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> CO2 are produced per turn of the citric acid cycle""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3</span> NADH, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1</span> FADH2, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1</span> ATP (via sub phos), and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2</span> CO2 are produced per turn of the citric acid cycle<br>
"
"In animals, CO2 produced by the Krebs cycle is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""exhaled"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""In animals, CO2 produced by the Krebs cycle is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">exhaled</span><br>
"
"Citric Acid Cycle<br /><div>x2 for glucose because <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2&#x20;pyruvate&#x20;are&#x20;made&#x20;from&#x20;1&#x20;glucose&#x20;in&#x20;glycolysis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> so two rounds of TCA cycle occur</div>""Citric Acid Cycle<br /><div>x2 for glucose because <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2 pyruvate are made from 1 glucose in glycolysis</span> so two rounds of TCA cycle occur</div><br>
"
"<div>For two rounds of the Citric Acid Cycle:</div><div>Total 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP (technically GTP), 2 CO2</div><div>These ATP produced via <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""substrate&#x20;level&#x20;phos"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""<div>For two rounds of the Citric Acid Cycle:</div><div>Total 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP (technically GTP), 2 CO2</div><div>These ATP produced via <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">substrate level phos</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Krebs Cycle</div>takes place in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mitochondria&#x20;matrix"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (likewise with pyruvate decarbox)&nbsp;""<div>Krebs Cycle</div>takes place in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mitochondria matrix</span> (likewise with pyruvate decarbox)&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>ETC (electron transport chain)</div><div>Takes place at the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""inner&#x20;membrane&#x2F;cristae"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (folds which increase surface area for more ETC action)</div>""<div>ETC (electron transport chain)</div><div>Takes place at the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">inner membrane/cristae</span> (folds which increase surface area for more ETC action)</div><br>
"
"Oxidative Phosphorylation – process of ADP &lt;-&gt; ATP from NADH and FADH2 via <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""passing&#x20;of&#x20;electrons"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> through various carrier proteins.""Oxidative Phosphorylation – process of ADP &lt;-&gt; ATP from NADH and FADH2 via <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">passing of electrons</span> through various carrier proteins.<br>
"
"<div>Oxidative Phosphorylation</div>energy doesn’t accompany the phosphate group but comes from the electrons in the ETC establishing an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""H&#x2B;&#x20;gradient"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> that supplies energy to ATP synthase&nbsp;""<div>Oxidative Phosphorylation</div>energy doesn’t accompany the phosphate group but comes from the electrons in the ETC establishing an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">H+ gradient</span> that supplies energy to ATP synthase&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>ETC</div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> makes more energy than <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""FADH2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, more H+ is pumped across per <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (both are coenzymes) (3:2 yield)""<div>ETC</div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADH</span> makes more energy than <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">FADH2</span>, more H+ is pumped across per <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADH</span> (both are coenzymes) (3:2 yield)<br>
"
"<div>ETC</div>Final electron acceptor is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oxygen"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> – combines with native H+ to form water (H2O)""<div>ETC</div>Final electron acceptor is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxygen</span> – combines with native H+ to form water (H2O)<br>
"
"<div>ETC</div>Carriers extract energy from NADH and FADH2 while pumping protons into the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""intermembrane&#x20;space"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> – atp synthase uses this gradient (which is a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pH and electrical</span> gradient) to make atp as it shuttles H+ back into the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""inner&#x20;matrix"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""<div>ETC</div>Carriers extract energy from NADH and FADH2 while pumping protons into the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">intermembrane space</span> – atp synthase uses this gradient (which is a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pH and electrical</span> gradient) to make atp as it shuttles H+ back into the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">inner matrix</span><br>
"
"<div>ETC</div>Carriers extract energy from NADH and FADH2 while pumping protons into the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">intermembrane space</span> – atp synthase uses this gradient (which is a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pH&#x20;and&#x20;electrical"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> gradient) to make atp as it shuttles H+ back into the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">inner matrix</span>""<div>ETC</div>Carriers extract energy from NADH and FADH2 while pumping protons into the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">intermembrane space</span> – atp synthase uses this gradient (which is a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">pH and electrical</span> gradient) to make atp as it shuttles H+ back into the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">inner matrix</span><br>
"
"<div>ETC</div>Coenzyme Q (CoQ)/Ubiquinone is a soluble carrier dissolved in the membrane that can be <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fully&#x20;reduced&#x2F;oxidized"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, it passes electrons as seen in diagram""<div>ETC</div>Coenzyme Q (CoQ)/Ubiquinone is a soluble carrier dissolved in the membrane that can be <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fully reduced/oxidized</span>, it passes electrons as seen in diagram<br>
"
"Cytochrome C is a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""protein&#x20;carrier&#x20;in&#x20;the&#x20;ETC"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, common in many living organisms, used for genetic relation""Cytochrome C is a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">protein carrier in the ETC</span>, common in many living organisms, used for genetic relation<br>
"
"Cytochromes have nonprotein parts like iron (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""donate&#x2F;accept"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> electrons, for redox!)&nbsp;""Cytochromes have nonprotein parts like iron (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">donate/accept</span> electrons, for redox!)&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>Oxidative Phosphorylation</div>Couples exergonic <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""flow&#x20;of&#x20;electrons"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> with endergonic <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pumping&#x20;of&#x20;protons"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> across cristae membrane""<div>Oxidative Phosphorylation</div>Couples exergonic <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">flow of electrons</span> with endergonic <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pumping of protons</span> across cristae membrane<br>
"
"TOTAL energy from 1 glucose is ~<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""36"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> ATP, but in prokaryotes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""38"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> ATP (not actual yield, mitochondrial efficacy varies)""TOTAL energy from 1 glucose is ~<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">36</span> ATP, but in prokaryotes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">38</span> ATP (not actual yield, mitochondrial efficacy varies)<br>
"
"<div>Why do prokaryotes produce more ATP from glucose?</div>Difference because prokaryotes have no mitochondria so they (unlike eukaryotes) don’t need to transfer pyruvate into the mitochondrial matrix (which is done via active transport thus costing ATP), they use <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cell&#x20;membrane"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for respiration. &nbsp;""<div>Why do prokaryotes produce more ATP from glucose?</div>Difference because prokaryotes have no mitochondria so they (unlike eukaryotes) don’t need to transfer pyruvate into the mitochondrial matrix (which is done via active transport thus costing ATP), they use <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cell membrane</span> for respiration. &nbsp;<br>
"
"Mitochondria – outer membrane, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""intermembrane&#x20;space"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (H+), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">inner membrane</span> (ox phosp.), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">mitochondrial matrix</span> (krebs)""Mitochondria – outer membrane, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">intermembrane space</span> (H+), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">inner membrane</span> (ox phosp.), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">mitochondrial matrix</span> (krebs)<br>
"
"Mitochondria – outer membrane, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">intermembrane space</span> (H+), <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""inner&#x20;membrane"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (ox phosp.), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">mitochondrial matrix</span> (krebs)""Mitochondria – outer membrane, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">intermembrane space</span> (H+), <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">inner membrane</span> (ox phosp.), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">mitochondrial matrix</span> (krebs)<br>
"
"Mitochondria – outer membrane, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">intermembrane space</span> (H+), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">inner membrane</span> (ox phosp.), <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mitochondrial&#x20;matrix"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (krebs)""Mitochondria – outer membrane, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">intermembrane space</span> (H+), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">inner membrane</span> (ox phosp.), <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">mitochondrial matrix</span> (krebs)<br>
"
"Chemiosmosis in mitochondria:<div>Mechanism of atp generation that occurs when energy is stored in the form of a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""proton&#x20;concentration&#x20;gradient"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> across a membrane</div>""Chemiosmosis in mitochondria:<div>Mechanism of atp generation that occurs when energy is stored in the form of a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">proton concentration gradient</span> across a membrane</div><br>
"
"<div>Chemiosmosis in mitochondria:</div>Krebs produces NADH/FADH2, they are oxidized (lose electrons), H+ transported from matrix to intermembrane space, pH and electric charge gradient is created, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP&#x20;synthase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> uses the energy in this gradient to create ATP by letting the protons flow through the channel""<div>Chemiosmosis in mitochondria:</div>Krebs produces NADH/FADH2, they are oxidized (lose electrons), H+ transported from matrix to intermembrane space, pH and electric charge gradient is created, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP synthase</span> uses the energy in this gradient to create ATP by letting the protons flow through the channel<br>
"
"<div>Chemiosmosis in mitochondria:</div>Common question topic is about pH changes from these processes; remember that H+ cxn up means pH <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""down"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>!""<div>Chemiosmosis in mitochondria:</div>Common question topic is about pH changes from these processes; remember that H+ cxn up means pH <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">down</span>!<br>
"
"ATP (adenosine triphosphate) – an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""RNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> nucleotide (due to its ribose sugar)""ATP (adenosine triphosphate) – an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA</span> nucleotide (due to its ribose sugar)<br>
"
"ATP (adenosine triphosphate)<div>Unstable molecule because the 3 phosphates in ATP are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""negatively&#x20;charged"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and repel one another</div>""ATP (adenosine triphosphate)<div>Unstable molecule because the 3 phosphates in ATP are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">negatively charged</span> and repel one another</div><br>
"
"<div>ATP</div>When one phosphate group removed via hydrolysis, more stable molecule ADP results.&nbsp;The change from less stable molecule to more stable always <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""releases&#x20;energy"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""<div>ATP</div>When one phosphate group removed via hydrolysis, more stable molecule ADP results.&nbsp;The change from less stable molecule to more stable always <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">releases energy</span><br>
"
"ATP&nbsp;<div>Provides <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""energy"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for all cells by transferring phosphate from ATP to another molecule</div>""ATP&nbsp;<div>Provides <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">energy</span> for all cells by transferring phosphate from ATP to another molecule</div><br>
"
"<div>Anaerobic Respiration (cytosol) –&nbsp;</div><div>Includes glycolysis + <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fermentation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""<div>Anaerobic Respiration (cytosol) –&nbsp;</div><div>Includes glycolysis + <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fermentation</span></div><br>
"
"Aerobic respiration regenerates NAD+ &nbsp;via O2, which is required for continuation of glycolysis, without O2, there would be no replenishing – <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> accumulates, cell would die w/ no new ATP, so fermentation occurs…""Aerobic respiration regenerates NAD+ &nbsp;via O2, which is required for continuation of glycolysis, without O2, there would be no replenishing – <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADH</span> accumulates, cell would die w/ no new ATP, so fermentation occurs…<br>
"
"<div>Alcohol Fermentation</div><div>Occurs in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""plants&#x2C;&#x20;fungi&#x20;&#x28;e&#x2E;g&#x2E;&#x20;yeasts&#x29;&#x2C;&#x20;and&#x20;bacteria&#x20;&#x28;e&#x2E;g&#x2E;&#x20;botulinum&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""<div>Alcohol Fermentation</div><div>Occurs in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">plants, fungi (e.g. yeasts), and bacteria (e.g. botulinum)</span></div><br>
"
"Alcohol Fermentation<div>Pyruvate &lt;&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetaldehyde"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> + CO2, then <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetaldehyde"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> &lt;&gt; ethanol (and NADH &lt;&gt; NAD+).&nbsp;</div>""Alcohol Fermentation<div>Pyruvate &lt;&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acetaldehyde</span> + CO2, then <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acetaldehyde</span> &lt;&gt; ethanol (and NADH &lt;&gt; NAD+).&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"<div>Alcohol Fermentation</div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Acetaldehyde"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the final electron acceptor! The final molecule isn’t the final acceptor; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetaldehyde"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the final acceptor of the electrons thus forming ethanol! Same with O2 being the final electron acceptor of cellular respiration; thus forming H2O!&nbsp;""<div>Alcohol Fermentation</div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Acetaldehyde</span> is the final electron acceptor! The final molecule isn’t the final acceptor; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acetaldehyde</span> is the final acceptor of the electrons thus forming ethanol! Same with O2 being the final electron acceptor of cellular respiration; thus forming H2O!&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>Lactic Acid Fermentation</div><div>Occurs in human <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""muscle&#x20;cells"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, other microorganisms</div>""<div>Lactic Acid Fermentation</div><div>Occurs in human <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">muscle cells</span>, other microorganisms</div><br>
"
"<div>Lactic Acid Fermentation</div>Pyruvate &lt;&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lactate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (and NADH &lt;&gt; NAD+)""<div>Lactic Acid Fermentation</div>Pyruvate &lt;&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lactate</span> (and NADH &lt;&gt; NAD+)<br>
"
"<div>Lactic Acid Fermentation</div>Lactate is transported to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""liver"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for conversion back to glucose once surplus ATP available""<div>Lactic Acid Fermentation</div>Lactate is transported to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">liver</span> for conversion back to glucose once surplus ATP available<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Facultative"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> anaerobes can tolerate oxygen presence but don’t use it; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""obligate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> anaerobes cannot live in presence of oxygen""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Facultative</span> anaerobes can tolerate oxygen presence but don’t use it; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">obligate</span> anaerobes cannot live in presence of oxygen<br>
"
"When glucose supply is low, body uses other energy sources, in the priority order of: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""other&#x20;carbs"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fats"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""proteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. First converted to glucose or glucose intermediates, then degraded in glycolysis or CAC.&nbsp;""When glucose supply is low, body uses other energy sources, in the priority order of: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">other carbs</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fats</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">proteins</span>. First converted to glucose or glucose intermediates, then degraded in glycolysis or CAC.&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>Remember we don’t just break down glucose, we can produce it (gluconeogenesis)</div><div>Occurs in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""liver&#x20;and&#x20;kidney"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (liver is responsible for maintaining glucose cxn in blood)</div>""<div>Remember we don’t just break down glucose, we can produce it (gluconeogenesis)</div><div>Occurs in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">liver and kidney</span> (liver is responsible for maintaining glucose cxn in blood)</div><br>
"
"Glycogen is a glucose polymer, stored 2/3 in liver and 1/3 in muscles, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""storage"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of glucose""Glycogen is a glucose polymer, stored 2/3 in liver and 1/3 in muscles, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">storage</span> of glucose<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Insulin"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> after large meals stores glucose as glycogen, glucagon is the opposite effect and turns on glycogen degradation.&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Insulin</span> after large meals stores glucose as glycogen, glucagon is the opposite effect and turns on glycogen degradation.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Insulin <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""activates"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> PFK enzyme, glucagon <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""inhibits"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> it (think about this: insulin means ‘hey, we’ve got a lot of glucose around, so let’s chew it up’ whereas glucagon says ‘uhoh, not enough glucose around, don’t chew it up – we need it for the brain, other tissues can use other energy sources’).&nbsp;""Insulin <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">activates</span> PFK enzyme, glucagon <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">inhibits</span> it (think about this: insulin means ‘hey, we’ve got a lot of glucose around, so let’s chew it up’ whereas glucagon says ‘uhoh, not enough glucose around, don’t chew it up – we need it for the brain, other tissues can use other energy sources’).&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>Other carbohydrates</div>Disaccharides are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hydrolyzed&#x20;into&#x20;monosaccharides"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, most of which can be converted to glucose or glycolytic intermediates.""<div>Other carbohydrates</div>Disaccharides are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hydrolyzed into monosaccharides</span>, most of which can be converted to glucose or glycolytic intermediates.<br>
"
"All cells capable of producing and storing glycogen but only <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""muscle&#x20;cells&#x20;and&#x20;especially&#x20;liver&#x20;cells"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> have large amts""All cells capable of producing and storing glycogen but only <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">muscle cells and especially liver cells</span> have large amts<br>
"
"Fats<div><div>Store more energy than carbohydrates per C, their carbons are in a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""more&#x20;reduced&#x20;state&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Hence why fats are 10 cals/g, whereas carbs and protein are 4</div></div>""Fats<div><div>Store more energy than carbohydrates per C, their carbons are in a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">more reduced state&nbsp;</span></div><div>Hence why fats are 10 cals/g, whereas carbs and protein are 4</div></div><br>
"
"Lipases in adipose tissue are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hormone"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> sensitive (e.g. to glucagon)""Lipases in adipose tissue are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hormone</span> sensitive (e.g. to glucagon)<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glycerol"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> &lt;&gt; PGAL, enters glycolysis""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glycerol</span> &lt;&gt; PGAL, enters glycolysis<br>
"
"<div>When fatty acids &lt;&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Acetyl&#x20;CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, every <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2 carbon</span> from fatty acid chain makes an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Acetyl&#x20;CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Fatty acids in blood combine with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">albumin</span> which carries them&nbsp;</div>""<div>When fatty acids &lt;&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Acetyl CoA</span>, every <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2 carbon</span> from fatty acid chain makes an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Acetyl CoA</span></div><div>Fatty acids in blood combine with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">albumin</span> which carries them&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"<div>When fatty acids &lt;&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Acetyl CoA</span>, every <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2&#x20;carbon"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> from fatty acid chain makes an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Acetyl CoA</span></div><div>Fatty acids in blood combine with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">albumin</span> which carries them&nbsp;</div>""<div>When fatty acids &lt;&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Acetyl CoA</span>, every <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">2 carbon</span> from fatty acid chain makes an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Acetyl CoA</span></div><div>Fatty acids in blood combine with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">albumin</span> which carries them&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"<div>When fatty acids &lt;&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Acetyl CoA</span>, every <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2 carbon</span> from fatty acid chain makes an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Acetyl CoA</span></div><div>Fatty acids in blood combine with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""albumin"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> which carries them&nbsp;</div>""<div>When fatty acids &lt;&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Acetyl CoA</span>, every <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2 carbon</span> from fatty acid chain makes an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Acetyl CoA</span></div><div>Fatty acids in blood combine with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">albumin</span> which carries them&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Fatty acids are broken down for energy via <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""beta&#x20;oxidation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (takes place in mitochondrial matrix)""Fatty acids are broken down for energy via <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">beta oxidation</span> (takes place in mitochondrial matrix)<br>
"
"Fatty acid degradation<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> ATP spent activating the (entire) chain&nbsp;</div>""Fatty acid degradation<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2</span> ATP spent activating the (entire) chain&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Fatty acid degradation<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Saturated"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> fatty acids produce 1 NADH and 1 FADH2 for every cut into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2&#x20;carbons"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Fatty acid degradation<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Saturated</span> fatty acids produce 1 NADH and 1 FADH2 for every cut into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2 carbons</span></div><br>
"
"Fatty acid degradation cutting clarification:<div>NOT the same as for every 2 carbons – e.g. 18C chain is 9 2C pieces but only cut <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""8&#x20;times"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, each cut is the beta oxidation step</div>""Fatty acid degradation cutting clarification:<div>NOT the same as for every 2 carbons – e.g. 18C chain is 9 2C pieces but only cut <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">8 times</span>, each cut is the beta oxidation step</div><br>
"
"<div>Fatty acid degradation</div>Unsaturated fatty acids produce <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1&#x20;less"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> FADH2 for each double bond (can’t use double bond forming step)""<div>Fatty acid degradation</div>Unsaturated fatty acids produce <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1 less</span> FADH2 for each double bond (can’t use double bond forming step)<br>
"
"Fatty acid degradation<div>Results in BIG yield of ATP, yields more <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP&#x20;per&#x20;carbon"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> than carbohydrates, more energy in fats than sugars</div>""Fatty acid degradation<div>Results in BIG yield of ATP, yields more <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP per carbon</span> than carbohydrates, more energy in fats than sugars</div><br>
"
"Protein<div>Least desirable source of energy, only when <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""carbs&#x20;and&#x20;fat&#x20;unavailable"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Protein<div>Least desirable source of energy, only when <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">carbs and fat unavailable</span></div><br>
"
"Protein for energy<div>Most amino acids are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""deaminated"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in liver, then converted to pyruvate or acetyl CoA or other CAC intermediates, enter cellular respiration at these various points (varies by AA)</div>""Protein for energy<div>Most amino acids are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">deaminated</span> in liver, then converted to pyruvate or acetyl CoA or other CAC intermediates, enter cellular respiration at these various points (varies by AA)</div><br>
"
"<div>Protein for energy</div>Oxidative deamination removes ammonia molecule directly from AA. Ammonia is toxic to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""vertebrates"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: fish excrete, insects and birds convert to uric acid, mammals convert to urea for excretion.&nbsp;""<div>Protein for energy</div>Oxidative deamination removes ammonia molecule directly from AA. Ammonia is toxic to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">vertebrates</span>: fish excrete, insects and birds convert to uric acid, mammals convert to urea for excretion.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Photosynthesis: overall 6CO2 + 6H2O -&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""C6H12O6&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;6O2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Photosynthesis: overall 6CO2 + 6H2O -&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">C6H12O6 + 6O2</span><br>
"
"Photosynthesis begins with light-absorbing pigments in plant cells; able to absorb energy from light; chlorophyll <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""a"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""b"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""carotenoids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (red, orange, yellow).&nbsp;""Photosynthesis begins with light-absorbing pigments in plant cells; able to absorb energy from light; chlorophyll <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">a</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">b</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">carotenoids</span> (red, orange, yellow).&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>Photosynthesis</div>Light is incorporated into electrons =&gt; excited electrons are unstable and re-emit absorbed energy; energy is then reabsorbed by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""electrons&#x20;of&#x20;nearby&#x20;pigment&#x20;molecule"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.""<div>Photosynthesis</div>Light is incorporated into electrons =&gt; excited electrons are unstable and re-emit absorbed energy; energy is then reabsorbed by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">electrons of nearby pigment molecule</span>.<br>
"
"The process ends when energy is absorbed by one of two special chlorophyll a molecules (P680 &amp; P700). <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""P700"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> forms pigment cluster (PSI) and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""P680"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> forms pigment cluster (PSII).""The process ends when energy is absorbed by one of two special chlorophyll a molecules (P680 &amp; P700). <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">P700</span> forms pigment cluster (PSI) and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">P680</span> forms pigment cluster (PSII).<br>
"
"<div>Photosynthesis</div>Antenna pigments (chlorophyll b, carotenoids, phycobilins [red algae pigment]) capture wavelegnths that <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chlorophyll&#x20;a"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> does not, passes energy to chlorophyll a where direct light rxn occurs.""<div>Photosynthesis</div>Antenna pigments (chlorophyll b, carotenoids, phycobilins [red algae pigment]) capture wavelegnths that <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">chlorophyll a</span> does not, passes energy to chlorophyll a where direct light rxn occurs.<br>
"
"Chlorophyll a has <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""porphyrin"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> ring (alternating double and single bonds, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""double"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> bonds critical for light rxns) complexed w/ Mg atom inside.""Chlorophyll a has <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">porphyrin</span> ring (alternating double and single bonds, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">double</span> bonds critical for light rxns) complexed w/ Mg atom inside.<br>
"
"Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>1. Photosystem II: electrons trapped by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""P680"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in PSII are energized by light.</div>""Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>1. Photosystem II: electrons trapped by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">P680</span> in PSII are energized by light.</div><br>
"
"Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>2. Primary e- acceptor: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""two&#x20;excited&#x20;e&#x2D;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> passed to primary e- acceptor; primary because it is the first in chain of acceptor.</div>""Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>2. Primary e- acceptor: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">two excited e-</span> passed to primary e- acceptor; primary because it is the first in chain of acceptor.</div><br>
"
"Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>3. E- transport chain: consists of a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""plastoquinone"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> complex (PSII) which contains proteins like cytochrome and cofactor Fe2+; analogous to oxidative phosphorylation.</div>""Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>3. E- transport chain: consists of a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">plastoquinone</span> complex (PSII) which contains proteins like cytochrome and cofactor Fe2+; analogous to oxidative phosphorylation.</div><br>
"
"Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>4. Phosphorylation: 2e- move down chain =&gt; lose energy (energy used to phosphorylate about <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1&#x2E;5ATP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>).</div>""Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>4. Phosphorylation: 2e- move down chain =&gt; lose energy (energy used to phosphorylate about <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1.5ATP</span>).</div><br>
"
"Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>5. Photosystem I: e- transport chain terminates with PSI (P700); they are again energized by sunlight and passed on to another primary e acceptor. From this point forward it can go to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cyclic&#x20;or&#x20;noncyclic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> path. If noncyclic…</div>""Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>5. Photosystem I: e- transport chain terminates with PSI (P700); they are again energized by sunlight and passed on to another primary e acceptor. From this point forward it can go to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cyclic or noncyclic</span> path. If noncyclic…</div><br>
"
"A. Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>6. NADPH: 2e- then pass down a short electron transport chain (with proteins like ferrodoxin) to combine <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADP&#x2B;&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;H&#x2B;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> + 2e- =&gt; NADPH (coenzyme) (only in noncyclic?).</div>""A. Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>6. NADPH: 2e- then pass down a short electron transport chain (with proteins like ferrodoxin) to combine <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADP+ + H+</span> + 2e- =&gt; NADPH (coenzyme) (only in noncyclic?).</div><br>
"
"Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>7. Splitting of Water (photolysis): the loss of 2e- from PSII (initially) is replaced when <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""H2O&#x20;splits"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> into 2e-, 2H+, and ½O2.(H+ goes for NADPH formation and ½ O2 that contributes to release as oxygen gas). This occurs at PSII.&nbsp;</div>""Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -&gt; ATP): light-dependent reaction.<div>7. Splitting of Water (photolysis): the loss of 2e- from PSII (initially) is replaced when <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">H2O splits</span> into 2e-, 2H+, and ½O2.(H+ goes for NADPH formation and ½ O2 that contributes to release as oxygen gas). This occurs at PSII.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Note on photosystems: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""few&#x20;hundred"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in each <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">thylakoid</span>, have a rxn center containing chlorophyll a surrounded by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">antenna pigments</span> that funnel energy to it.""Note on photosystems: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">few hundred</span> in each <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">thylakoid</span>, have a rxn center containing chlorophyll a surrounded by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">antenna pigments</span> that funnel energy to it.<br>
"
"Note on photosystems: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">few hundred</span> in each <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""thylakoid"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, have a rxn center containing chlorophyll a surrounded by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">antenna pigments</span> that funnel energy to it.""Note on photosystems: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">few hundred</span> in each <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">thylakoid</span>, have a rxn center containing chlorophyll a surrounded by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">antenna pigments</span> that funnel energy to it.<br>
"
"Note on photosystems: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">few hundred</span> in each <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">thylakoid</span>, have a rxn center containing chlorophyll a surrounded by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""antenna&#x20;pigments"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> that funnel energy to it.""Note on photosystems: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">few hundred</span> in each <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">thylakoid</span>, have a rxn center containing chlorophyll a surrounded by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">antenna pigments</span> that funnel energy to it.<br>
"
"Noncyclic photophos takes place in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""thylakoid&#x20;membranes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.""Noncyclic photophos takes place in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">thylakoid membranes</span>.<br>
"
"Cyclic phos takes place on <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""stroma&#x20;lamellae"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (pieces connecting the thylakoids).&nbsp;""Cyclic phos takes place on <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">stroma lamellae</span> (pieces connecting the thylakoids).&nbsp;<br>
"
"Photolysis takes place inside the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""thylakoid&#x20;lumen"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (passes e- to the membrane for noncyclic photophos).""Photolysis takes place inside the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">thylakoid lumen</span> (passes e- to the membrane for noncyclic photophos).<br>
"
"Calvin Cycle takes place in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""stroma&#x2E;&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Calvin Cycle takes place in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">stroma.&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"&nbsp;Chemiosmosis takes place across the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""thylakoid&#x20;membrane&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>&nbsp;""&nbsp;Chemiosmosis takes place across the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">thylakoid membrane.</span>&nbsp;<br>
"
"Remember that is the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""thylakoid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> membrane, not the chloroplast membranes, that absorb light!""Remember that is the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">thylakoid</span> membrane, not the chloroplast membranes, that absorb light!<br>
"
"<div>Cyclic Photophosphorylation: this replenishes ATP when <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Calvin&#x20;cycle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> consumes it</div><div>- When excited 2e- from PSII join with protein carriers in the first electron transport chain and generate 1ATP as they pass through; these 2e- are recycled into PSI and can take either cyclic or noncyclic path.</div>""<div>Cyclic Photophosphorylation: this replenishes ATP when <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Calvin cycle</span> consumes it</div><div>- When excited 2e- from PSII join with protein carriers in the first electron transport chain and generate 1ATP as they pass through; these 2e- are recycled into PSI and can take either cyclic or noncyclic path.</div><br>
"
"Calvin Cycle: fixes CO2, repeat <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""6"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> times, uses 6CO2 to produce C6H12O6 (glucose). C3 photosynthesis (dark reaction)""Calvin Cycle: fixes CO2, repeat <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">6</span> times, uses 6CO2 to produce C6H12O6 (glucose). C3 photosynthesis (dark reaction)<br>
"
"&nbsp;Calvin Cycle<div>1. Carboxylation: 6CO2 + 6RuBP =&gt; 12PGA, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""RuBisCo"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (most common protein in the world) catalyzes this reaction. (so named because PGA is 3C).</div>""&nbsp;Calvin Cycle<div>1. Carboxylation: 6CO2 + 6RuBP =&gt; 12PGA, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">RuBisCo</span> (most common protein in the world) catalyzes this reaction. (so named because PGA is 3C).</div><br>
"
"Calvin Cycle:<div>2. Reduction: 12ATP + 12NADPH converts 12PGA =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""12G3P&#x20;or&#x20;12PGAL"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; energy is incorporated; by-products (NADP+ and ADP) go into noncyclic photophosphorylation.</div>""Calvin Cycle:<div>2. Reduction: 12ATP + 12NADPH converts 12PGA =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">12G3P or 12PGAL</span>; energy is incorporated; by-products (NADP+ and ADP) go into noncyclic photophosphorylation.</div><br>
"
"Calvin Cycle<div>3. Regeneration: 6ATP convert 10G3P =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""6RuBP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (allows cycle to repeat).</div>""Calvin Cycle<div>3. Regeneration: 6ATP convert 10G3P =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">6RuBP</span> (allows cycle to repeat).</div><br>
"
"Calvin Cycle:<div><div>&nbsp;4. Carbohydrate synthesis: 2 remaining G3P are used to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""build&#x20;glucose&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>6CO2 + 18ATP + 12NADPH + H+ =&gt; 18ADP + 18Pi + 12NADP+ + 1glucose (2G3P)</div></div>""Calvin Cycle:<div><div>&nbsp;4. Carbohydrate synthesis: 2 remaining G3P are used to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">build glucose.</span></div><div>6CO2 + 18ATP + 12NADPH + H+ =&gt; 18ADP + 18Pi + 12NADP+ + 1glucose (2G3P)</div></div><br>
"
"<div>Calvin Cycle:</div>This is the “dark reaction”, but it cannot occur w/out light because it is dependent on the high energy molecules produced from the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""light&#x20;rxn"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (ATP and NADPH)&nbsp;""<div>Calvin Cycle:</div>This is the “dark reaction”, but it cannot occur w/out light because it is dependent on the high energy molecules produced from the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">light rxn</span> (ATP and NADPH)&nbsp;<br>
"
"The energy used to drive the light-independent rxns comes from light (photons). Light energy is what drives photosynthesis! And the energy in glucose traces back to light that gets stored in the form of glucose <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chemical&#x20;bonds"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>!""The energy used to drive the light-independent rxns comes from light (photons). Light energy is what drives photosynthesis! And the energy in glucose traces back to light that gets stored in the form of glucose <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">chemical bonds</span>!<br>
"
"Remember, plants do have mitochondria that make ATP, BUT: the ATP from photosynthesis comes from the chloroplast (not mitochondria) and is used to drive photosynthesis further (Calvin cycle). Photosynthesis primarily makes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glucose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for the plant’s own mitochondria to use as energy! Still need mitochondria for plant tissues but they don’t make the ATP for photosynthesis, and photosynthesis ATP isn’t used for general cell fxn!""Remember, plants do have mitochondria that make ATP, BUT: the ATP from photosynthesis comes from the chloroplast (not mitochondria) and is used to drive photosynthesis further (Calvin cycle). Photosynthesis primarily makes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glucose</span> for the plant’s own mitochondria to use as energy! Still need mitochondria for plant tissues but they don’t make the ATP for photosynthesis, and photosynthesis ATP isn’t used for general cell fxn!<br>
"
"Chloroplast: light-dependent and light-independent reactions occur. (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""double"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> membrane like mito + nucleus)""Chloroplast: light-dependent and light-independent reactions occur. (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">double</span> membrane like mito + nucleus)<br>
"
"Chloroplast:<div>1. Outer membrane: plasma membrane (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phospholipid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> bilayer)<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div>""Chloroplast:<div>1. Outer membrane: plasma membrane (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phospholipid</span> bilayer)<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><br>
"
"Chloroplast:<div>2. Intermembrane space&nbsp;</div><div>3. Inner membrane: also phospholipid bilayer.</div><div>4. Stroma: fluid material that fills area inside inner membrane; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Calvin&#x20;cycle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> occurs here (fixing CO2 =&gt; G3P)</div>""Chloroplast:<div>2. Intermembrane space&nbsp;</div><div>3. Inner membrane: also phospholipid bilayer.</div><div>4. Stroma: fluid material that fills area inside inner membrane; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Calvin cycle</span> occurs here (fixing CO2 =&gt; G3P)</div><br>
"
"Chloroplast:<div>5. Thylakoids: suspended within stroma (stacks); individual membrane layers are thylakoids; entire stack is called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""granum"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. membrane of thylakoids contain (PSI + PSII), cytochromes, and other e- carriers. Also phospholipid bilayer.</div>""Chloroplast:<div>5. Thylakoids: suspended within stroma (stacks); individual membrane layers are thylakoids; entire stack is called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">granum</span>. membrane of thylakoids contain (PSI + PSII), cytochromes, and other e- carriers. Also phospholipid bilayer.</div><br>
"
"Chloroplast:<div>6. Thylakoid lumen: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""interior"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of the thylakoid; H+ accumulates here.<br /><div><br /></div></div>""Chloroplast:<div>6. Thylakoid lumen: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">interior</span> of the thylakoid; H+ accumulates here.<br /><div><br /></div></div><br>
"
"<div>Thylakoid lumen:</div><div><br /></div>Gradient uses ATP synthase to move the accumulated H+ from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""thylakoid&#x20;lumen"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""stroma"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; H+ move from in to out to generate ATP via synthase, whereas in ox-phos we build up H+ outside and then shuttle it back in to mitochondria to generate ATP via synthase""<div>Thylakoid lumen:</div><div><br /></div>Gradient uses ATP synthase to move the accumulated H+ from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">thylakoid lumen</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">stroma</span>; H+ move from in to out to generate ATP via synthase, whereas in ox-phos we build up H+ outside and then shuttle it back in to mitochondria to generate ATP via synthase<br>
"
"<div>&nbsp;Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts: uses H+ gradient to generate ATP.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. H+ ions accumulate inside thylakoids: H+ are released into lumen when <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""H2O&#x20;is&#x20;split"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> by PSII. H+ is also carried into lumen from stroma by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytochrome"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> between PSII and PSI.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. A pH and electrical gradient is created: about <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pH5</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. ATP synthase generates ATP: phosphorylate ADP + Pi =&gt; ATP. (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">3H+</span> is required for 1ATP).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Calvin cycle produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">2G3P</span> using NADPH &amp; CO2 &amp; ATP: at the end of e- transport chain following PSI, 2e- produces NADPH.</div>""<div>&nbsp;Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts: uses H+ gradient to generate ATP.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. H+ ions accumulate inside thylakoids: H+ are released into lumen when <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">H2O is split</span> by PSII. H+ is also carried into lumen from stroma by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytochrome</span> between PSII and PSI.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. A pH and electrical gradient is created: about <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pH5</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. ATP synthase generates ATP: phosphorylate ADP + Pi =&gt; ATP. (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">3H+</span> is required for 1ATP).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Calvin cycle produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">2G3P</span> using NADPH &amp; CO2 &amp; ATP: at the end of e- transport chain following PSI, 2e- produces NADPH.</div><br>
"
"<div>&nbsp;Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts: uses H+ gradient to generate ATP.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. H+ ions accumulate inside thylakoids: H+ are released into lumen when <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">H2O is split</span> by PSII. H+ is also carried into lumen from stroma by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytochrome</span> between PSII and PSI.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. A pH and electrical gradient is created: about <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pH5"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. ATP synthase generates ATP: phosphorylate ADP + Pi =&gt; ATP. (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">3H+</span> is required for 1ATP).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Calvin cycle produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">2G3P</span> using NADPH &amp; CO2 &amp; ATP: at the end of e- transport chain following PSI, 2e- produces NADPH.</div>""<div>&nbsp;Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts: uses H+ gradient to generate ATP.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. H+ ions accumulate inside thylakoids: H+ are released into lumen when <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">H2O is split</span> by PSII. H+ is also carried into lumen from stroma by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytochrome</span> between PSII and PSI.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. A pH and electrical gradient is created: about <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">pH5</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. ATP synthase generates ATP: phosphorylate ADP + Pi =&gt; ATP. (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">3H+</span> is required for 1ATP).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Calvin cycle produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">2G3P</span> using NADPH &amp; CO2 &amp; ATP: at the end of e- transport chain following PSI, 2e- produces NADPH.</div><br>
"
"<div>&nbsp;Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts: uses H+ gradient to generate ATP.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. H+ ions accumulate inside thylakoids: H+ are released into lumen when <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">H2O is split</span> by PSII. H+ is also carried into lumen from stroma by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytochrome</span> between PSII and PSI.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. A pH and electrical gradient is created: about <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pH5</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. ATP synthase generates ATP: phosphorylate ADP + Pi =&gt; ATP. (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3H&#x2B;"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> is required for 1ATP).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Calvin cycle produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">2G3P</span> using NADPH &amp; CO2 &amp; ATP: at the end of e- transport chain following PSI, 2e- produces NADPH.</div>""<div>&nbsp;Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts: uses H+ gradient to generate ATP.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. H+ ions accumulate inside thylakoids: H+ are released into lumen when <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">H2O is split</span> by PSII. H+ is also carried into lumen from stroma by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytochrome</span> between PSII and PSI.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. A pH and electrical gradient is created: about <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pH5</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. ATP synthase generates ATP: phosphorylate ADP + Pi =&gt; ATP. (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">3H+</span> is required for 1ATP).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Calvin cycle produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">2G3P</span> using NADPH &amp; CO2 &amp; ATP: at the end of e- transport chain following PSI, 2e- produces NADPH.</div><br>
"
"<div>&nbsp;Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts: uses H+ gradient to generate ATP.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. H+ ions accumulate inside thylakoids: H+ are released into lumen when <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">H2O is split</span> by PSII. H+ is also carried into lumen from stroma by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytochrome</span> between PSII and PSI.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. A pH and electrical gradient is created: about <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pH5</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. ATP synthase generates ATP: phosphorylate ADP + Pi =&gt; ATP. (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">3H+</span> is required for 1ATP).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Calvin cycle produces <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2G3P"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> using NADPH &amp; CO2 &amp; ATP: at the end of e- transport chain following PSI, 2e- produces NADPH.</div>""<div>&nbsp;Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts: uses H+ gradient to generate ATP.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. H+ ions accumulate inside thylakoids: H+ are released into lumen when <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">H2O is split</span> by PSII. H+ is also carried into lumen from stroma by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytochrome</span> between PSII and PSI.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. A pH and electrical gradient is created: about <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pH5</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. ATP synthase generates ATP: phosphorylate ADP + Pi =&gt; ATP. (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">3H+</span> is required for 1ATP).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Calvin cycle produces <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">2G3P</span> using NADPH &amp; CO2 &amp; ATP: at the end of e- transport chain following PSI, 2e- produces NADPH.</div><br>
"
"Photorespiration: fixation of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oxygen"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> by rubisco (can also fix CO2) =&gt; produces no ATP or sugar. Not “efficient” because rubisco will fix both CO2 and oxygen at the same time if both are present. Probably arose because <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">early earth atmosphere</span> didn’t have much O2 so it didn’t matter. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Peroxisomes</span> breakdown the products of this process.&nbsp;""Photorespiration: fixation of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxygen</span> by rubisco (can also fix CO2) =&gt; produces no ATP or sugar. Not “efficient” because rubisco will fix both CO2 and oxygen at the same time if both are present. Probably arose because <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">early earth atmosphere</span> didn’t have much O2 so it didn’t matter. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Peroxisomes</span> breakdown the products of this process.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Photorespiration: fixation of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxygen</span> by rubisco (can also fix CO2) =&gt; produces no ATP or sugar. Not “efficient” because rubisco will fix both CO2 and oxygen at the same time if both are present. Probably arose because <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""early&#x20;earth&#x20;atmosphere"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> didn’t have much O2 so it didn’t matter. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Peroxisomes</span> breakdown the products of this process.&nbsp;""Photorespiration: fixation of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxygen</span> by rubisco (can also fix CO2) =&gt; produces no ATP or sugar. Not “efficient” because rubisco will fix both CO2 and oxygen at the same time if both are present. Probably arose because <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">early earth atmosphere</span> didn’t have much O2 so it didn’t matter. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Peroxisomes</span> breakdown the products of this process.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Photorespiration: fixation of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxygen</span> by rubisco (can also fix CO2) =&gt; produces no ATP or sugar. Not “efficient” because rubisco will fix both CO2 and oxygen at the same time if both are present. Probably arose because <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">early earth atmosphere</span> didn’t have much O2 so it didn’t matter. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Peroxisomes"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> breakdown the products of this process.&nbsp;""Photorespiration: fixation of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxygen</span> by rubisco (can also fix CO2) =&gt; produces no ATP or sugar. Not “efficient” because rubisco will fix both CO2 and oxygen at the same time if both are present. Probably arose because <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">early earth atmosphere</span> didn’t have much O2 so it didn’t matter. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Peroxisomes</span> breakdown the products of this process.&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>C4 Photosynthesis: evolved from C3, when CO2 enters leaf; absorbed by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mesophyll&#x20;cells"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (then moved to bundle sheath cells); &nbsp;instead of being fixed by rubisco into PGA, CO2 combines with PEP to form OAA by PEP carboxylase (in mesophyll)</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- OAA has 4C =&gt; C4 photosynthesis.</div>""<div>C4 Photosynthesis: evolved from C3, when CO2 enters leaf; absorbed by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mesophyll cells</span> (then moved to bundle sheath cells); &nbsp;instead of being fixed by rubisco into PGA, CO2 combines with PEP to form OAA by PEP carboxylase (in mesophyll)</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- OAA has 4C =&gt; C4 photosynthesis.</div><br>
"
"C4 Photosynthesis<div><div>- OAA =&gt; malate and then transported through plasmodesmata into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bundle&#x20;sheath"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> cell.</div><div>- Malate =&gt; pyruvate + CO2. (CO2 can be used into Calvin cycle) (Pyruvate moved back to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mesophyll</span> then =&gt; PEP)</div></div>""C4 Photosynthesis<div><div>- OAA =&gt; malate and then transported through plasmodesmata into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">bundle sheath</span> cell.</div><div>- Malate =&gt; pyruvate + CO2. (CO2 can be used into Calvin cycle) (Pyruvate moved back to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mesophyll</span> then =&gt; PEP)</div></div><br>
"
"C4 Photosynthesis<div><div>- OAA =&gt; malate and then transported through plasmodesmata into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">bundle sheath</span> cell.</div><div>- Malate =&gt; pyruvate + CO2. (CO2 can be used into Calvin cycle) (Pyruvate moved back to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mesophyll"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> then =&gt; PEP)</div></div>""C4 Photosynthesis<div><div>- OAA =&gt; malate and then transported through plasmodesmata into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">bundle sheath</span> cell.</div><div>- Malate =&gt; pyruvate + CO2. (CO2 can be used into Calvin cycle) (Pyruvate moved back to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">mesophyll</span> then =&gt; PEP)</div></div><br>
"
"C4 Photosynthesis:<div>- Overall purpose is to move <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""CO2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> from mesophyll to bundle sheath cell (structure = Kranz anatomy, process = Hatch-Slack pathway (little O2 presence reduces competition while rubisco is fixing). Minimize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">photorespiration</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">H2O loss</span> from stomata (leaf pores); found in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hot, dry</span> climates (faster fixation speed and more efficient). Requires <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">one additional</span> ATP (which becomes AMP). C3 typically occurs in mesophyll cells, but in C4 it occurs in bundle-sheath cells.&nbsp;</div>""C4 Photosynthesis:<div>- Overall purpose is to move <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">CO2</span> from mesophyll to bundle sheath cell (structure = Kranz anatomy, process = Hatch-Slack pathway (little O2 presence reduces competition while rubisco is fixing). Minimize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">photorespiration</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">H2O loss</span> from stomata (leaf pores); found in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hot, dry</span> climates (faster fixation speed and more efficient). Requires <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">one additional</span> ATP (which becomes AMP). C3 typically occurs in mesophyll cells, but in C4 it occurs in bundle-sheath cells.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"C4 Photosynthesis:<div>- Overall purpose is to move <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">CO2</span> from mesophyll to bundle sheath cell (structure = Kranz anatomy, process = Hatch-Slack pathway (little O2 presence reduces competition while rubisco is fixing). Minimize <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""photorespiration"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""H2O&#x20;loss"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> from stomata (leaf pores); found in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hot, dry</span> climates (faster fixation speed and more efficient). Requires <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">one additional</span> ATP (which becomes AMP). C3 typically occurs in mesophyll cells, but in C4 it occurs in bundle-sheath cells.&nbsp;</div>""C4 Photosynthesis:<div>- Overall purpose is to move <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">CO2</span> from mesophyll to bundle sheath cell (structure = Kranz anatomy, process = Hatch-Slack pathway (little O2 presence reduces competition while rubisco is fixing). Minimize <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">photorespiration</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">H2O loss</span> from stomata (leaf pores); found in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hot, dry</span> climates (faster fixation speed and more efficient). Requires <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">one additional</span> ATP (which becomes AMP). C3 typically occurs in mesophyll cells, but in C4 it occurs in bundle-sheath cells.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"C4 Photosynthesis:<div>- Overall purpose is to move <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">CO2</span> from mesophyll to bundle sheath cell (structure = Kranz anatomy, process = Hatch-Slack pathway (little O2 presence reduces competition while rubisco is fixing). Minimize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">photorespiration</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">H2O loss</span> from stomata (leaf pores); found in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hot&#x2C;&#x20;dry"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> climates (faster fixation speed and more efficient). Requires <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">one additional</span> ATP (which becomes AMP). C3 typically occurs in mesophyll cells, but in C4 it occurs in bundle-sheath cells.&nbsp;</div>""C4 Photosynthesis:<div>- Overall purpose is to move <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">CO2</span> from mesophyll to bundle sheath cell (structure = Kranz anatomy, process = Hatch-Slack pathway (little O2 presence reduces competition while rubisco is fixing). Minimize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">photorespiration</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">H2O loss</span> from stomata (leaf pores); found in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">hot, dry</span> climates (faster fixation speed and more efficient). Requires <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">one additional</span> ATP (which becomes AMP). C3 typically occurs in mesophyll cells, but in C4 it occurs in bundle-sheath cells.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"C4 Photosynthesis:<div>- Overall purpose is to move <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">CO2</span> from mesophyll to bundle sheath cell (structure = Kranz anatomy, process = Hatch-Slack pathway (little O2 presence reduces competition while rubisco is fixing). Minimize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">photorespiration</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">H2O loss</span> from stomata (leaf pores); found in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hot, dry</span> climates (faster fixation speed and more efficient). Requires <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""one&#x20;additional"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> ATP (which becomes AMP). C3 typically occurs in mesophyll cells, but in C4 it occurs in bundle-sheath cells.&nbsp;</div>""C4 Photosynthesis:<div>- Overall purpose is to move <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">CO2</span> from mesophyll to bundle sheath cell (structure = Kranz anatomy, process = Hatch-Slack pathway (little O2 presence reduces competition while rubisco is fixing). Minimize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">photorespiration</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">H2O loss</span> from stomata (leaf pores); found in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hot, dry</span> climates (faster fixation speed and more efficient). Requires <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">one additional</span> ATP (which becomes AMP). C3 typically occurs in mesophyll cells, but in C4 it occurs in bundle-sheath cells.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"<div>&nbsp;CAM Photosynthesis:</div><div>- Another add-on to C3, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""crassulacean"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> acid metabolism; almost identical to C4.</div>""<div>&nbsp;CAM Photosynthesis:</div><div>- Another add-on to C3, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">crassulacean</span> acid metabolism; almost identical to C4.</div><br>
"
"<div>CAM Photosynthesis</div><div><br /></div><div>1. PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 + PEP to OAA; OAA =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""malic&#x20;acid&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><br /></div><div>2. Malic acid is shuttled into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vacuole</span> of cell.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. At night, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">open</span> (opposite of normal), PEP carboxylase is active, malic acid accumulates in vacuole.</div><div><br /></div><div>4. During day, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">closed</span>. Malic acid is out of vacuole and converted back to OAA (require 1ATP), releasing CO2 (moved onto Calvin cycle with rubisco) and PEP.</div><div><br /></div><div>- Overall advantages are can proceed during day while stomata are closed (reduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">H2O</span> loss).</div><div><br /></div>""<div>CAM Photosynthesis</div><div><br /></div><div>1. PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 + PEP to OAA; OAA =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">malic acid.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>2. Malic acid is shuttled into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vacuole</span> of cell.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. At night, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">open</span> (opposite of normal), PEP carboxylase is active, malic acid accumulates in vacuole.</div><div><br /></div><div>4. During day, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">closed</span>. Malic acid is out of vacuole and converted back to OAA (require 1ATP), releasing CO2 (moved onto Calvin cycle with rubisco) and PEP.</div><div><br /></div><div>- Overall advantages are can proceed during day while stomata are closed (reduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">H2O</span> loss).</div><div><br /></div><br>
"
"<div>CAM Photosynthesis</div><div><br /></div><div>1. PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 + PEP to OAA; OAA =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">malic acid.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>2. Malic acid is shuttled into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""vacuole"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> of cell.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. At night, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">open</span> (opposite of normal), PEP carboxylase is active, malic acid accumulates in vacuole.</div><div><br /></div><div>4. During day, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">closed</span>. Malic acid is out of vacuole and converted back to OAA (require 1ATP), releasing CO2 (moved onto Calvin cycle with rubisco) and PEP.</div><div><br /></div><div>- Overall advantages are can proceed during day while stomata are closed (reduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">H2O</span> loss).</div><div><br /></div>""<div>CAM Photosynthesis</div><div><br /></div><div>1. PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 + PEP to OAA; OAA =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">malic acid.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>2. Malic acid is shuttled into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">vacuole</span> of cell.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. At night, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">open</span> (opposite of normal), PEP carboxylase is active, malic acid accumulates in vacuole.</div><div><br /></div><div>4. During day, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">closed</span>. Malic acid is out of vacuole and converted back to OAA (require 1ATP), releasing CO2 (moved onto Calvin cycle with rubisco) and PEP.</div><div><br /></div><div>- Overall advantages are can proceed during day while stomata are closed (reduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">H2O</span> loss).</div><div><br /></div><br>
"
"<div>CAM Photosynthesis</div><div><br /></div><div>1. PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 + PEP to OAA; OAA =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">malic acid.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>2. Malic acid is shuttled into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vacuole</span> of cell.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. At night, stomata are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""open"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (opposite of normal), PEP carboxylase is active, malic acid accumulates in vacuole.</div><div><br /></div><div>4. During day, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">closed</span>. Malic acid is out of vacuole and converted back to OAA (require 1ATP), releasing CO2 (moved onto Calvin cycle with rubisco) and PEP.</div><div><br /></div><div>- Overall advantages are can proceed during day while stomata are closed (reduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">H2O</span> loss).</div><div><br /></div>""<div>CAM Photosynthesis</div><div><br /></div><div>1. PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 + PEP to OAA; OAA =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">malic acid.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>2. Malic acid is shuttled into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vacuole</span> of cell.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. At night, stomata are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">open</span> (opposite of normal), PEP carboxylase is active, malic acid accumulates in vacuole.</div><div><br /></div><div>4. During day, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">closed</span>. Malic acid is out of vacuole and converted back to OAA (require 1ATP), releasing CO2 (moved onto Calvin cycle with rubisco) and PEP.</div><div><br /></div><div>- Overall advantages are can proceed during day while stomata are closed (reduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">H2O</span> loss).</div><div><br /></div><br>
"
"<div>CAM Photosynthesis</div><div><br /></div><div>1. PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 + PEP to OAA; OAA =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">malic acid.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>2. Malic acid is shuttled into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vacuole</span> of cell.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. At night, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">open</span> (opposite of normal), PEP carboxylase is active, malic acid accumulates in vacuole.</div><div><br /></div><div>4. During day, stomata are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""closed"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>. Malic acid is out of vacuole and converted back to OAA (require 1ATP), releasing CO2 (moved onto Calvin cycle with rubisco) and PEP.</div><div><br /></div><div>- Overall advantages are can proceed during day while stomata are closed (reduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">H2O</span> loss).</div><div><br /></div>""<div>CAM Photosynthesis</div><div><br /></div><div>1. PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 + PEP to OAA; OAA =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">malic acid.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>2. Malic acid is shuttled into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vacuole</span> of cell.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. At night, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">open</span> (opposite of normal), PEP carboxylase is active, malic acid accumulates in vacuole.</div><div><br /></div><div>4. During day, stomata are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">closed</span>. Malic acid is out of vacuole and converted back to OAA (require 1ATP), releasing CO2 (moved onto Calvin cycle with rubisco) and PEP.</div><div><br /></div><div>- Overall advantages are can proceed during day while stomata are closed (reduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">H2O</span> loss).</div><div><br /></div><br>
"
"<div>CAM Photosynthesis</div><div><br /></div><div>1. PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 + PEP to OAA; OAA =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">malic acid.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>2. Malic acid is shuttled into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vacuole</span> of cell.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. At night, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">open</span> (opposite of normal), PEP carboxylase is active, malic acid accumulates in vacuole.</div><div><br /></div><div>4. During day, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">closed</span>. Malic acid is out of vacuole and converted back to OAA (require 1ATP), releasing CO2 (moved onto Calvin cycle with rubisco) and PEP.</div><div><br /></div><div>- Overall advantages are can proceed during day while stomata are closed (reduce <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""H2O"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> loss).</div><div><br /></div>""<div>CAM Photosynthesis</div><div><br /></div><div>1. PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 + PEP to OAA; OAA =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">malic acid.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>2. Malic acid is shuttled into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vacuole</span> of cell.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. At night, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">open</span> (opposite of normal), PEP carboxylase is active, malic acid accumulates in vacuole.</div><div><br /></div><div>4. During day, stomata are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">closed</span>. Malic acid is out of vacuole and converted back to OAA (require 1ATP), releasing CO2 (moved onto Calvin cycle with rubisco) and PEP.</div><div><br /></div><div>- Overall advantages are can proceed during day while stomata are closed (reduce <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">H2O</span> loss).</div><div><br /></div><br>
"
"As leaves age, chlorophyll breaks down to extract valuable components like Mg2+, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""carotenoids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are visible.""As leaves age, chlorophyll breaks down to extract valuable components like Mg2+, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">carotenoids</span> are visible.<br>
"
"Calvin cycle occurs in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""stroma"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of chloroplast.""Calvin cycle occurs in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">stroma</span> of chloroplast.<br>
"
"Splitting of H2O provides 2e- for noncyclic photophosphorylation; incorporated into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADPH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and Calvin cycle.""Splitting of H2O provides 2e- for noncyclic photophosphorylation; incorporated into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADPH</span> and Calvin cycle.<br>
"
"Calvin cycle is light-independent, but it requires ATP and NADPH produced from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""light&#x2D;dependent&#x20;rxn&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Calvin cycle is light-independent, but it requires ATP and NADPH produced from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">light-dependent rxn.</span><br>
"
"Cell Division: nuclear division (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""karyo"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>kinesis) followed by cytokinesis""Cell Division: nuclear division (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">karyo</span>kinesis) followed by cytokinesis<br>
"
"In diploid cells, there are two copies of every chromosome, forming a pair (homologous chromosome). Human have 46 chromosomes, 23 homologous pair, a total of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""92"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> chromatids (depending on stage of division1).""In diploid cells, there are two copies of every chromosome, forming a pair (homologous chromosome). Human have 46 chromosomes, 23 homologous pair, a total of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">92</span> chromatids (depending on stage of division1).<br>
"
"&nbsp;MTOCs: Microtubule organizing centers aka centrosomes. Pair of these lay outside nucleus. In animal cells, each MTOC contains a pair of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""centrioles"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.&nbsp;""&nbsp;MTOCs: Microtubule organizing centers aka centrosomes. Pair of these lay outside nucleus. In animal cells, each MTOC contains a pair of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">centrioles</span>.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Mitosis:&nbsp;<div>1. Prophase: nucleus disassembles: nucleolus <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""disappear"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, chromatin condenses into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chromosomes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, and nuclear envelope breaks down. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Mitotic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> spindle is formed and microtubules (composed of tubulin) begin connecting to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""kinetochores"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.</div>""Mitosis:&nbsp;<div>1. Prophase: nucleus disassembles: nucleolus <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">disappear</span>, chromatin condenses into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">chromosomes</span>, and nuclear envelope breaks down. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Mitotic</span> spindle is formed and microtubules (composed of tubulin) begin connecting to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">kinetochores</span>.</div><br>
"
"Mitosis:<div>&nbsp;2. Metaphase: chromosomes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""line&#x20;up&#x20;single&#x20;file"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> at center, each chromatid is complete with a centromere and a kinetochore, once separated, it is a chromosome (to keep track of total: count centromeres!). Centrosomes at <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""opposite&#x20;ends&#x20;of&#x20;cell"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. (note: once separated that’s the end of metaphase, so to be precise the chromosome # doubles at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">anaphase</span>). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Karyo</span>typing performed here.</div>""Mitosis:<div>&nbsp;2. Metaphase: chromosomes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">line up single file</span> at center, each chromatid is complete with a centromere and a kinetochore, once separated, it is a chromosome (to keep track of total: count centromeres!). Centrosomes at <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">opposite ends of cell</span>. (note: once separated that’s the end of metaphase, so to be precise the chromosome # doubles at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">anaphase</span>). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Karyo</span>typing performed here.</div><br>
"
"Mitosis:<div>&nbsp;2. Metaphase: chromosomes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">line up single file</span> at center, each chromatid is complete with a centromere and a kinetochore, once separated, it is a chromosome (to keep track of total: count centromeres!). Centrosomes at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">opposite ends of cell</span>. (note: once separated that’s the end of metaphase, so to be precise the chromosome # doubles at <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""anaphase"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Karyo</span>typing performed here.</div>""Mitosis:<div>&nbsp;2. Metaphase: chromosomes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">line up single file</span> at center, each chromatid is complete with a centromere and a kinetochore, once separated, it is a chromosome (to keep track of total: count centromeres!). Centrosomes at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">opposite ends of cell</span>. (note: once separated that’s the end of metaphase, so to be precise the chromosome # doubles at <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">anaphase</span>). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Karyo</span>typing performed here.</div><br>
"
"Mitosis:<div>&nbsp;2. Metaphase: chromosomes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">line up single file</span> at center, each chromatid is complete with a centromere and a kinetochore, once separated, it is a chromosome (to keep track of total: count centromeres!). Centrosomes at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">opposite ends of cell</span>. (note: once separated that’s the end of metaphase, so to be precise the chromosome # doubles at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">anaphase</span>). <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Karyo"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>typing performed here.</div>""Mitosis:<div>&nbsp;2. Metaphase: chromosomes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">line up single file</span> at center, each chromatid is complete with a centromere and a kinetochore, once separated, it is a chromosome (to keep track of total: count centromeres!). Centrosomes at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">opposite ends of cell</span>. (note: once separated that’s the end of metaphase, so to be precise the chromosome # doubles at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">anaphase</span>). <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Karyo</span>typing performed here.</div><br>
"
"Mitosis:<div>&nbsp;3. Anaphase: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""microtubules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> shorten, each chromosome is pulled apart into two chromatids (once separated it is a chromosome; chromosome # <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">doubles</span>), pulls the chromosomes to opposite poles (dis<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">junction</span>); at the end of this phase, each pole has a complete set of chromosome, same as original cell before replication.&nbsp;</div>""Mitosis:<div>&nbsp;3. Anaphase: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">microtubules</span> shorten, each chromosome is pulled apart into two chromatids (once separated it is a chromosome; chromosome # <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">doubles</span>), pulls the chromosomes to opposite poles (dis<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">junction</span>); at the end of this phase, each pole has a complete set of chromosome, same as original cell before replication.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Mitosis:<div>&nbsp;3. Anaphase: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">microtubules</span> shorten, each chromosome is pulled apart into two chromatids (once separated it is a chromosome; chromosome # <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""doubles"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>), pulls the chromosomes to opposite poles (dis<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">junction</span>); at the end of this phase, each pole has a complete set of chromosome, same as original cell before replication.&nbsp;</div>""Mitosis:<div>&nbsp;3. Anaphase: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">microtubules</span> shorten, each chromosome is pulled apart into two chromatids (once separated it is a chromosome; chromosome # <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">doubles</span>), pulls the chromosomes to opposite poles (dis<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">junction</span>); at the end of this phase, each pole has a complete set of chromosome, same as original cell before replication.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Mitosis:<div>&nbsp;3. Anaphase: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">microtubules</span> shorten, each chromosome is pulled apart into two chromatids (once separated it is a chromosome; chromosome # <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">doubles</span>), pulls the chromosomes to opposite poles (dis<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""junction"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>); at the end of this phase, each pole has a complete set of chromosome, same as original cell before replication.&nbsp;</div>""Mitosis:<div>&nbsp;3. Anaphase: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">microtubules</span> shorten, each chromosome is pulled apart into two chromatids (once separated it is a chromosome; chromosome # <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">doubles</span>), pulls the chromosomes to opposite poles (dis<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">junction</span>); at the end of this phase, each pole has a complete set of chromosome, same as original cell before replication.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Mitosis:&nbsp;<div>4. Telophase: nuclear division, nuclear envelop develops, chromosomes =&gt; chromatin, nucleoli <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""reappear&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Mitosis:&nbsp;<div>4. Telophase: nuclear division, nuclear envelop develops, chromosomes =&gt; chromatin, nucleoli <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">reappear.</span></div><br>
"
"Cytokinesis: Actually begins during the later stages of mitosis (end of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""anaphase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>). Division of cytoplasm to form 2 cells.""Cytokinesis: Actually begins during the later stages of mitosis (end of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">anaphase</span>). Division of cytoplasm to form 2 cells.<br>
"
"<div>Cytokinesis</div><div><br /></div><div>- Cleavage furrow: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""actin&#x20;and&#x20;myosin"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> microfilaments shorten, pull plasma membrane into center (animal)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Cell plate: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vesicles</span> from Golgi bodies migrate and fuse to form cell plate, out growth and merge with plasma&nbsp;membrane separating the two new cells (plants). Cells don’t actually separate from each other, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">middle lamella</span> cements adjacent cells together.</div>""<div>Cytokinesis</div><div><br /></div><div>- Cleavage furrow: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">actin and myosin</span> microfilaments shorten, pull plasma membrane into center (animal)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Cell plate: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vesicles</span> from Golgi bodies migrate and fuse to form cell plate, out growth and merge with plasma&nbsp;membrane separating the two new cells (plants). Cells don’t actually separate from each other, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">middle lamella</span> cements adjacent cells together.</div><br>
"
"<div>Cytokinesis</div><div><br /></div><div>- Cleavage furrow: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">actin and myosin</span> microfilaments shorten, pull plasma membrane into center (animal)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Cell plate: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""vesicles"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> from Golgi bodies migrate and fuse to form cell plate, out growth and merge with plasma&nbsp;membrane separating the two new cells (plants). Cells don’t actually separate from each other, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">middle lamella</span> cements adjacent cells together.</div>""<div>Cytokinesis</div><div><br /></div><div>- Cleavage furrow: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">actin and myosin</span> microfilaments shorten, pull plasma membrane into center (animal)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Cell plate: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">vesicles</span> from Golgi bodies migrate and fuse to form cell plate, out growth and merge with plasma&nbsp;membrane separating the two new cells (plants). Cells don’t actually separate from each other, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">middle lamella</span> cements adjacent cells together.</div><br>
"
"<div>Cytokinesis</div><div><br /></div><div>- Cleavage furrow: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">actin and myosin</span> microfilaments shorten, pull plasma membrane into center (animal)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Cell plate: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vesicles</span> from Golgi bodies migrate and fuse to form cell plate, out growth and merge with plasma&nbsp;membrane separating the two new cells (plants). Cells don’t actually separate from each other, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""middle&#x20;lamella"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> cements adjacent cells together.</div>""<div>Cytokinesis</div><div><br /></div><div>- Cleavage furrow: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">actin and myosin</span> microfilaments shorten, pull plasma membrane into center (animal)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Cell plate: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vesicles</span> from Golgi bodies migrate and fuse to form cell plate, out growth and merge with plasma&nbsp;membrane separating the two new cells (plants). Cells don’t actually separate from each other, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">middle lamella</span> cements adjacent cells together.</div><br>
"
"<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Interphase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: begins after mitosis and cytokinesis are complete, and consists G1, S, and G2 phase</div><div>Cell cycle = M, G1, S, G2 phases</div>""<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Interphase</span>: begins after mitosis and cytokinesis are complete, and consists G1, S, and G2 phase</div><div>Cell cycle = M, G1, S, G2 phases</div><br>
"
"<div>Cell Cycle</div>During S phase, second molecule of DNA replicated from the first, provides <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sister"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> chromatids""<div>Cell Cycle</div>During S phase, second molecule of DNA replicated from the first, provides <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">sister</span> chromatids<br>
"
"More time spent in interphase than mitosis (&gt;90%). Growth occurs in all 3 interphases, not just G’s. During <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""G2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, material for next mitotic division are prepared.&nbsp;""More time spent in interphase than mitosis (&gt;90%). Growth occurs in all 3 interphases, not just G’s. During <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">G2</span>, material for next mitotic division are prepared.&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>There are checkpoints in cell cycles to make sure things are going as planned</div><div><br /></div><div>Near the end of G1 – cell growth assessed and favorable conditions checked. If fails, cell enters <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""G0"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>&nbsp;</div>""<div>There are checkpoints in cell cycles to make sure things are going as planned</div><div><br /></div><div>Near the end of G1 – cell growth assessed and favorable conditions checked. If fails, cell enters <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">G0</span>&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"There are checkpoints in the cell cycles to make sure things are going as planned<div><br /></div><div>End of G2 – checks for sufficient <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Mitosis&#x20;Promoting&#x20;Factor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (MPF) levels to proceed</div>""There are checkpoints in the cell cycles to make sure things are going as planned<div><br /></div><div>End of G2 – checks for sufficient <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Mitosis Promoting Factor</span> (MPF) levels to proceed</div><br>
"
"There are checkpoints in the cell cycles to make sure things are going as planned<div><br /><div>M checkpoint during mitosis that triggers start of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""G1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div></div>""There are checkpoints in the cell cycles to make sure things are going as planned<div><br /><div>M checkpoint during mitosis that triggers start of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">G1</span></div></div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Meiosis I: homologous chromosomes pair at plate, migrate to opposite poles (no separation of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sister&#x20;chromatids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>).""&nbsp;Meiosis I: homologous chromosomes pair at plate, migrate to opposite poles (no separation of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">sister chromatids</span>).<br>
"
"<div>Meiosis</div><div><br /></div>Prophase I: nucleus disassembles: nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelop breaks down, chromatin condenses, spindle develops. MT’s begin attaching to kinetochores. Crossing over means genetic recomb, NT seq. might <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""change"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>!""<div>Meiosis</div><div><br /></div>Prophase I: nucleus disassembles: nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelop breaks down, chromatin condenses, spindle develops. MT’s begin attaching to kinetochores. Crossing over means genetic recomb, NT seq. might <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">change</span>!<br>
"
"Meiosis<div>Synapsis: homologous chromosomes pair up. These pairs are referred to as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""tetrads"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (group of 4 chromatids) or bivalents.</div>""Meiosis<div>Synapsis: homologous chromosomes pair up. These pairs are referred to as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">tetrads</span> (group of 4 chromatids) or bivalents.</div><br>
"
"Meiosis<div>Chiasmata: region where <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""crossing&#x20;over&#x20;occur&#x20;of&#x20;non&#x2D;sister&#x20;chromatids&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Meiosis<div>Chiasmata: region where <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">crossing over occur of non-sister chromatids.</span></div><br>
"
"Meiosis<div>Synaptonemal complex: protein structure that temporarily forms between <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""homologous&#x20;chromosomes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: gives rise to the tetrad w/ chiasmata and crossing over</div>""Meiosis<div>Synaptonemal complex: protein structure that temporarily forms between <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">homologous chromosomes</span>: gives rise to the tetrad w/ chiasmata and crossing over</div><br>
"
"Prophase I has 5 steps:<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""leptotene"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (chromosomes start condensing)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">zygotene</span> (synapsis begins; synaptonemal complex forming)</div><div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pachytene</span> (synapsis complete, crossing over)</div></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">diplotene</span> (synatopnemal complex disappears, chiasma still present)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">diakinesis</span> (nuclear envelope fragments, chomosomes complete condensing, tetrads ready for metaphase)&nbsp;</div>""Prophase I has 5 steps:<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">leptotene</span> (chromosomes start condensing)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">zygotene</span> (synapsis begins; synaptonemal complex forming)</div><div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pachytene</span> (synapsis complete, crossing over)</div></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">diplotene</span> (synatopnemal complex disappears, chiasma still present)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">diakinesis</span> (nuclear envelope fragments, chomosomes complete condensing, tetrads ready for metaphase)&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Prophase I has 5 steps:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">leptotene</span> (chromosomes start condensing)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""zygotene"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (synapsis begins; synaptonemal complex forming)</div><div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pachytene</span> (synapsis complete, crossing over)</div></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">diplotene</span> (synatopnemal complex disappears, chiasma still present)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">diakinesis</span> (nuclear envelope fragments, chomosomes complete condensing, tetrads ready for metaphase)&nbsp;</div>""Prophase I has 5 steps:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">leptotene</span> (chromosomes start condensing)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">zygotene</span> (synapsis begins; synaptonemal complex forming)</div><div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pachytene</span> (synapsis complete, crossing over)</div></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">diplotene</span> (synatopnemal complex disappears, chiasma still present)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">diakinesis</span> (nuclear envelope fragments, chomosomes complete condensing, tetrads ready for metaphase)&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Prophase I has 5 steps:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">leptotene</span> (chromosomes start condensing)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">zygotene</span> (synapsis begins; synaptonemal complex forming)</div><div><br /><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pachytene"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (synapsis complete, crossing over)</div></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">diplotene</span> (synatopnemal complex disappears, chiasma still present)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">diakinesis</span> (nuclear envelope fragments, chomosomes complete condensing, tetrads ready for metaphase)&nbsp;</div>""Prophase I has 5 steps:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">leptotene</span> (chromosomes start condensing)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">zygotene</span> (synapsis begins; synaptonemal complex forming)</div><div><br /><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">pachytene</span> (synapsis complete, crossing over)</div></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">diplotene</span> (synatopnemal complex disappears, chiasma still present)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">diakinesis</span> (nuclear envelope fragments, chomosomes complete condensing, tetrads ready for metaphase)&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Prophase I has 5 steps:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">leptotene</span> (chromosomes start condensing)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">zygotene</span> (synapsis begins; synaptonemal complex forming)</div><div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pachytene</span> (synapsis complete, crossing over)</div></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""diplotene"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> (synatopnemal complex disappears, chiasma still present)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">diakinesis</span> (nuclear envelope fragments, chomosomes complete condensing, tetrads ready for metaphase)&nbsp;</div>""Prophase I has 5 steps:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">leptotene</span> (chromosomes start condensing)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">zygotene</span> (synapsis begins; synaptonemal complex forming)</div><div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pachytene</span> (synapsis complete, crossing over)</div></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">diplotene</span> (synatopnemal complex disappears, chiasma still present)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">diakinesis</span> (nuclear envelope fragments, chomosomes complete condensing, tetrads ready for metaphase)&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Prophase I has 5 steps:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">leptotene</span> (chromosomes start condensing)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">zygotene</span> (synapsis begins; synaptonemal complex forming)</div><div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pachytene</span> (synapsis complete, crossing over)</div></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">diplotene</span> (synatopnemal complex disappears, chiasma still present)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""diakinesis"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> (nuclear envelope fragments, chomosomes complete condensing, tetrads ready for metaphase)&nbsp;</div>""Prophase I has 5 steps:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">leptotene</span> (chromosomes start condensing)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">zygotene</span> (synapsis begins; synaptonemal complex forming)</div><div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pachytene</span> (synapsis complete, crossing over)</div></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">diplotene</span> (synatopnemal complex disappears, chiasma still present)</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">diakinesis</span> (nuclear envelope fragments, chomosomes complete condensing, tetrads ready for metaphase)&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Meiosis<div>&nbsp;2. Metaphase I: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""homologous&#x20;pairs"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are spread across metaphase plate. Microtubules attached to kinectochores of one member of each homologous pair. Microtubules from other site attach to 2nd member of pair.&nbsp;</div>""Meiosis<div>&nbsp;2. Metaphase I: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">homologous pairs</span> are spread across metaphase plate. Microtubules attached to kinectochores of one member of each homologous pair. Microtubules from other site attach to 2nd member of pair.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Meiosis<div><div>3. Anaphase I: homologues within tetrads uncouple and pulled to opposite sides (disjunction)</div><div><br /></div><div>4. Telophase I: nuclear membrane develops. Each pole forms a new nucleus that has <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""half&#x20;number"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of chromosomes (from homologous pair to each chromosome = 2 sister chromatids). Chromosomes reduction phase to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""haploid&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div></div>""Meiosis<div><div>3. Anaphase I: homologues within tetrads uncouple and pulled to opposite sides (disjunction)</div><div><br /></div><div>4. Telophase I: nuclear membrane develops. Each pole forms a new nucleus that has <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">half number</span> of chromosomes (from homologous pair to each chromosome = 2 sister chromatids). Chromosomes reduction phase to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">haploid.</span></div></div><br>
"
"Between Meiosis I and II, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""interphase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> may occur, depending on the species""Between Meiosis I and II, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">interphase</span> may occur, depending on the species<br>
"
"Meiosis II: chromosomes spread across metaphase plate and sister chromatids separate and migrate to opposite poles. It is similar to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mitosis&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Meiosis II: chromosomes spread across metaphase plate and sister chromatids separate and migrate to opposite poles. It is similar to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mitosis.</span><br>
"
"<div>Meiosis</div><div><br /></div>Prophase II: nuclear envelop disappears and spindle develops etc, no chiasmata and no crossing over.<div><br /><div><div>Metaphase II: chromosomes align on plate like in mitosis but now with half number of chromosomes (no extra copy).</div><div><br /></div><div>Anaphase II: each chromosome is pulled into 2 separate chromatids and migrate to opposite poles of cell</div><div><br /></div><div>Telophase II: nuclear envelope reappears and cytokinesis occurs =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""4"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> haploid cells (each chromosome = 1 chromatid).</div></div></div>""<div>Meiosis</div><div><br /></div>Prophase II: nuclear envelop disappears and spindle develops etc, no chiasmata and no crossing over.<div><br /><div><div>Metaphase II: chromosomes align on plate like in mitosis but now with half number of chromosomes (no extra copy).</div><div><br /></div><div>Anaphase II: each chromosome is pulled into 2 separate chromatids and migrate to opposite poles of cell</div><div><br /></div><div>Telophase II: nuclear envelope reappears and cytokinesis occurs =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">4</span> haploid cells (each chromosome = 1 chromatid).</div></div></div><br>
"
"Mitosis in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""somatic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> cells and meiosis in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""gametes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (egg, sperm, pollen)""Mitosis in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">somatic</span> cells and meiosis in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">gametes</span> (egg, sperm, pollen)<br>
"
"Fusion of two haploid gametes = fertilization/syngamy = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""diploid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> zygote""Fusion of two haploid gametes = fertilization/syngamy = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">diploid</span> zygote<br>
"
"In plants, meiosis in sporangia produces <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""spores"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (haploid); <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""spores"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> undergoes mitosis to become multicellular (gametophyte) which are haploid (n) since <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""spores"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are already haploid.<div><br /></div><div>The gametes fuse and produce a diploid cell (zygote 2n) that grows by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mitosis</span> to become sporophyte.</div><div><br /></div><div>Cells in sporophyte (sporangia) undergoes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">meiosis</span> to produce haploid spores which germinate and repeat life cycle.&nbsp;</div>""In plants, meiosis in sporangia produces <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> (haploid); <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> undergoes mitosis to become multicellular (gametophyte) which are haploid (n) since <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> are already haploid.<div><br /></div><div>The gametes fuse and produce a diploid cell (zygote 2n) that grows by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mitosis</span> to become sporophyte.</div><div><br /></div><div>Cells in sporophyte (sporangia) undergoes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">meiosis</span> to produce haploid spores which germinate and repeat life cycle.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"In plants, meiosis in sporangia produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> (haploid); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> undergoes mitosis to become multicellular (gametophyte) which are haploid (n) since <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> are already haploid.<div><br /></div><div>The gametes fuse and produce a diploid cell (zygote 2n) that grows by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mitosis"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> to become sporophyte.</div><div><br /></div><div>Cells in sporophyte (sporangia) undergoes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">meiosis</span> to produce haploid spores which germinate and repeat life cycle.&nbsp;</div>""In plants, meiosis in sporangia produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> (haploid); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> undergoes mitosis to become multicellular (gametophyte) which are haploid (n) since <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> are already haploid.<div><br /></div><div>The gametes fuse and produce a diploid cell (zygote 2n) that grows by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">mitosis</span> to become sporophyte.</div><div><br /></div><div>Cells in sporophyte (sporangia) undergoes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">meiosis</span> to produce haploid spores which germinate and repeat life cycle.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"In plants, meiosis in sporangia produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> (haploid); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> undergoes mitosis to become multicellular (gametophyte) which are haploid (n) since <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> are already haploid.<div><br /></div><div>The gametes fuse and produce a diploid cell (zygote 2n) that grows by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mitosis</span> to become sporophyte.</div><div><br /></div><div>Cells in sporophyte (sporangia) undergoes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""meiosis"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> to produce haploid spores which germinate and repeat life cycle.&nbsp;</div>""In plants, meiosis in sporangia produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> (haploid); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> undergoes mitosis to become multicellular (gametophyte) which are haploid (n) since <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spores</span> are already haploid.<div><br /></div><div>The gametes fuse and produce a diploid cell (zygote 2n) that grows by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mitosis</span> to become sporophyte.</div><div><br /></div><div>Cells in sporophyte (sporangia) undergoes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">meiosis</span> to produce haploid spores which germinate and repeat life cycle.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Alternation of generations: Alternation of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""diploid&#x20;and&#x20;haploid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> stages.&nbsp;""Alternation of generations: Alternation of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">diploid and haploid</span> stages.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Genetic recombination during meiosis and sexual reproduction originates from three events:<div><br /></div><div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Crossing&#x20;over"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> during prophase I</div><div><br /></div><div>Independent assortment of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">homologues</span> during metaphase I (which chromosome goes into which cell)</div><div><br /></div><div>Random joining of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">gametes</span> aka germ cells (which sperm fertilizes which egg – genetic composition of gamete affects this)</div></div>""Genetic recombination during meiosis and sexual reproduction originates from three events:<div><br /></div><div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Crossing over</span> during prophase I</div><div><br /></div><div>Independent assortment of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">homologues</span> during metaphase I (which chromosome goes into which cell)</div><div><br /></div><div>Random joining of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">gametes</span> aka germ cells (which sperm fertilizes which egg – genetic composition of gamete affects this)</div></div><br>
"
"Genetic recombination during meiosis and sexual reproduction originates from three events:<div><br /></div><div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Crossing over</span> during prophase I</div><div><br /></div><div>Independent assortment of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""homologues"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> during metaphase I (which chromosome goes into which cell)</div><div><br /></div><div>Random joining of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">gametes</span> aka germ cells (which sperm fertilizes which egg – genetic composition of gamete affects this)</div></div>""Genetic recombination during meiosis and sexual reproduction originates from three events:<div><br /></div><div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Crossing over</span> during prophase I</div><div><br /></div><div>Independent assortment of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">homologues</span> during metaphase I (which chromosome goes into which cell)</div><div><br /></div><div>Random joining of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">gametes</span> aka germ cells (which sperm fertilizes which egg – genetic composition of gamete affects this)</div></div><br>
"
"Genetic recombination during meiosis and sexual reproduction originates from three events:<div><br /></div><div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Crossing over</span> during prophase I</div><div><br /></div><div>Independent assortment of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">homologues</span> during metaphase I (which chromosome goes into which cell)</div><div><br /></div><div>Random joining of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""gametes"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> aka germ cells (which sperm fertilizes which egg – genetic composition of gamete affects this)</div></div>""Genetic recombination during meiosis and sexual reproduction originates from three events:<div><br /></div><div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Crossing over</span> during prophase I</div><div><br /></div><div>Independent assortment of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">homologues</span> during metaphase I (which chromosome goes into which cell)</div><div><br /></div><div>Random joining of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">gametes</span> aka germ cells (which sperm fertilizes which egg – genetic composition of gamete affects this)</div></div><br>
"
"Regulation of Cell Cycle: functional limitatioms<div><div><br /></div><div>Surface-to-volume ratio (S/V): volume gets much larger when cells grow () vs. SA (4. When S/V is large, exchange becomes much easier. When S/V is small, exchange is hard, leads to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cell&#x20;death&#x20;or&#x20;cell&#x20;division"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to increase SA.</div></div>""Regulation of Cell Cycle: functional limitatioms<div><div><br /></div><div>Surface-to-volume ratio (S/V): volume gets much larger when cells grow () vs. SA (4. When S/V is large, exchange becomes much easier. When S/V is small, exchange is hard, leads to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cell death or cell division</span> to increase SA.</div></div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Regulation of Cell Cycle: functional limitations<div><br /></div><div><div>2. Genome-to-volume ratio (G/V): genome size remains constant throughout life; as cell grows, only volume increases.&nbsp;</div><div>G/V will be small and thus exceed the ability of its genome to produce sufficient amounts of regulator of activities. Some large cells (paramecium, human skeletal muscle) are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""multinucleated"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to deal with this.&nbsp;</div></div>""&nbsp;Regulation of Cell Cycle: functional limitations<div><br /></div><div><div>2. Genome-to-volume ratio (G/V): genome size remains constant throughout life; as cell grows, only volume increases.&nbsp;</div><div>G/V will be small and thus exceed the ability of its genome to produce sufficient amounts of regulator of activities. Some large cells (paramecium, human skeletal muscle) are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">multinucleated</span> to deal with this.&nbsp;</div></div><br>
"
"Checkpoints: cell specific regulations<div><br /></div><div>G1 Checkpoint: aka restriction point, the most important one. At the end of G1 phase, if cell is not ready to divide it may <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""arrest&#x20;here&#x20;&#x28;G0&#x20;phase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> – nerve and muscle cells remain here, rarely divide after maturing) and never proceed or wait until it is ready.</div>""Checkpoints: cell specific regulations<div><br /></div><div>G1 Checkpoint: aka restriction point, the most important one. At the end of G1 phase, if cell is not ready to divide it may <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">arrest here (G0 phase</span> – nerve and muscle cells remain here, rarely divide after maturing) and never proceed or wait until it is ready.</div><br>
"
"Checkpoints: cell specific regulations<div><br /></div><div>G2 Checkpoint: end of G2 phase, evaluates <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""accuracy&#x20;of&#x20;DNA&#x20;replication"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and signal whether to begin mitosis.</div>""Checkpoints: cell specific regulations<div><br /></div><div>G2 Checkpoint: end of G2 phase, evaluates <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">accuracy of DNA replication</span> and signal whether to begin mitosis.</div><br>
"
"Checkpoints: cell specific regulations<div>M Checkpoint: during metaphase, ensures microtubules are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""properly&#x20;attached&#x20;to&#x20;all&#x20;kinetochores&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Checkpoints: cell specific regulations<div>M Checkpoint: during metaphase, ensures microtubules are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">properly attached to all kinetochores.</span></div><br>
"
"Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdk's): Cdk enzyme activates proteins that regulate cell cycle by phosphorylation; Cdk's are activated by protein <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cyclin&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdk's): Cdk enzyme activates proteins that regulate cell cycle by phosphorylation; Cdk's are activated by protein <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cyclin.</span><br>
"
"Growth Factor: plasma membrane has receptors for growth factors that <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""stimulate&#x20;cell&#x20;for&#x20;division"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (such as damaged cell)""Growth Factor: plasma membrane has receptors for growth factors that <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">stimulate cell for division</span> (such as damaged cell)<br>
"
"Density-dependent inhibition: cells stop dividing when surrounding cells <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""density&#x20;reaches&#x20;maximum&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Density-dependent inhibition: cells stop dividing when surrounding cells <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">density reaches maximum.</span><br>
"
"Anchorage dependence: most cells only divide when <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""attached&#x20;to&#x20;an&#x20;external&#x20;surface"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> such as neighboring cells or side of culture dish.""Anchorage dependence: most cells only divide when <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">attached to an external surface</span> such as neighboring cells or side of culture dish.<br>
"
"Cancer cells defy regular checkpoints and dependancies for division (such cells are called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""transformed"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> cells).""Cancer cells defy regular checkpoints and dependancies for division (such cells are called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">transformed</span> cells).<br>
"
"At anaphase of mitosis, there would be a total of 92 chromosomes (92 chromatids) if a cell has 46 chromosomes at beginning. Even when pulled apart of sister chromatids, each one is now a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""complete&#x20;chromosome"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (count centromere).""At anaphase of mitosis, there would be a total of 92 chromosomes (92 chromatids) if a cell has 46 chromosomes at beginning. Even when pulled apart of sister chromatids, each one is now a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">complete chromosome</span> (count centromere).<br>
"
"At anaphase I, there would be a total of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""46"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> chromosomes if a cell has 46 chromosomes at beginning because 23 chromosomes are pulled to each pole by independent assortment and no chromatids are separated at anaphase I.""At anaphase I, there would be a total of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">46</span> chromosomes if a cell has 46 chromosomes at beginning because 23 chromosomes are pulled to each pole by independent assortment and no chromatids are separated at anaphase I.<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Plants"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> do not have centrioles (formation of cell plate)""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Plants</span> do not have centrioles (formation of cell plate)<br>
"
"Mitosis = no genetic <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""variations&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Mitosis = no genetic <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">variations.</span><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Gene"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: genetic material on a chromosome for a trait.""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Gene</span>: genetic material on a chromosome for a trait.<br>
"
"Locus: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""location"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> on chromosome where gene is located.""Locus: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">location</span> on chromosome where gene is located.<br>
"
"Allele: variance of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""genes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> such as different color.""Allele: variance of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">genes</span> such as different color.<br>
"
"Homologous chromosomes: a pair of chromosomes that contains same <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""genetic&#x20;material"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (gene for gene). Each parent contributed 1 of the chromosome in the pair and thus different alleles may exist for a gene (dominant and recessive or incomplete dominance (color blending) / co-dominant such as blood type).""Homologous chromosomes: a pair of chromosomes that contains same <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">genetic material</span> (gene for gene). Each parent contributed 1 of the chromosome in the pair and thus different alleles may exist for a gene (dominant and recessive or incomplete dominance (color blending) / co-dominant such as blood type).<br>
"
"Law of segregation: one member of each chromosome pair migrates to an opposite pole so that each gamete is haploid (aka each gamete has only <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""one&#x20;copy&#x20;of&#x20;each&#x20;chromosome"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>), occurs in anaphase I.""Law of segregation: one member of each chromosome pair migrates to an opposite pole so that each gamete is haploid (aka each gamete has only <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">one copy of each chromosome</span>), occurs in anaphase I.<br>
"
"Law of independent assortment: migration of homologues within one pair of homologous chromosomes does not influence the migration of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""homologues&#x20;of&#x20;other&#x20;homologous&#x20;pairs"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (independent assortment of alleles)""Law of independent assortment: migration of homologues within one pair of homologous chromosomes does not influence the migration of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">homologues of other homologous pairs</span> (independent assortment of alleles)<br>
"
"Test crosses: Monohybrid crosses test one gene, Dihybrid test two (on different <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chromosomes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>).&nbsp;""Test crosses: Monohybrid crosses test one gene, Dihybrid test two (on different <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">chromosomes</span>).&nbsp;<br>
"
"Test crosses<div>Crosses have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""P"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, F1, F2 etc generations.&nbsp;</div>""Test crosses<div>Crosses have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">P</span>, F1, F2 etc generations.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Test crosses<div>Unknown dominant genotype x homozygous recessive phenotype to determine if <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hetero&#x20;or&#x20;homo"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> dominant.&nbsp;</div>""Test crosses<div>Unknown dominant genotype x homozygous recessive phenotype to determine if <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hetero or homo</span> dominant.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Test crosses:&nbsp;<div>To determine probabilities in dihybrid, usually easier to calculate probability of each <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""gene&#x20;separately"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> then multiply.</div>""Test crosses:&nbsp;<div>To determine probabilities in dihybrid, usually easier to calculate probability of each <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">gene separately</span> then multiply.</div><br>
"
"Incomplete Dominance: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Blending"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of expressions of alleles (e.g. R red, R’ white, RR’ comes out pink) (unique hetero phenotype)""Incomplete Dominance: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Blending</span> of expressions of alleles (e.g. R red, R’ white, RR’ comes out pink) (unique hetero phenotype)<br>
"
"Codominance: Both inherited alleles are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""completely&#x20;expressed"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (e.g. blood types A and B or both can show up as AB if expressed)""Codominance: Both inherited alleles are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">completely expressed</span> (e.g. blood types A and B or both can show up as AB if expressed)<br>
"
"Multiple alleles: Blood groups have 3 possible alleles, the codominant A and B and the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""O"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, leading to 4 possible genotypes (phenotypes?): AO (A type), BO (B type), AB (codominant AB type), OO (O type)&nbsp;""Multiple alleles: Blood groups have 3 possible alleles, the codominant A and B and the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">O</span>, leading to 4 possible genotypes (phenotypes?): AO (A type), BO (B type), AB (codominant AB type), OO (O type)&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>- Epistasis: one gene affects phenotypic expression of 2nd gene. Pigmentation (one gene controls (turn on/off) the production of pigment, and 2nd gene controls color or amount). If 1st gene codes for no pigment =&gt; 2nd gene has <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""no&#x20;effect&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>CCBx =&gt; black fur in mice<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>ccxx =&gt; no pigment</div>""<div>- Epistasis: one gene affects phenotypic expression of 2nd gene. Pigmentation (one gene controls (turn on/off) the production of pigment, and 2nd gene controls color or amount). If 1st gene codes for no pigment =&gt; 2nd gene has <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">no effect.</span></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>CCBx =&gt; black fur in mice<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>ccxx =&gt; no pigment</div><br>
"
"Polygenic inheritance: the interaction of many genes to shape a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""single&#x20;phenotype"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> w/ continuous variation (height, skin color).""Polygenic inheritance: the interaction of many genes to shape a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">single phenotype</span> w/ continuous variation (height, skin color).<br>
"
"&nbsp;Linked genes: two or more genes that <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""reside&#x20;on&#x20;the&#x20;same&#x20;chromosomes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and thus cannot separate independently because they are physically connected (inherited together). Linked genes exhibit recombination about <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">18% of the time.</span>""&nbsp;Linked genes: two or more genes that <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">reside on the same chromosomes</span> and thus cannot separate independently because they are physically connected (inherited together). Linked genes exhibit recombination about <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">18% of the time.</span><br>
"
"&nbsp;Linked genes: two or more genes that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">reside on the same chromosomes</span> and thus cannot separate independently because they are physically connected (inherited together). Linked genes exhibit recombination about <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""18&#x25;&#x20;of&#x20;the&#x20;time&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>""&nbsp;Linked genes: two or more genes that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">reside on the same chromosomes</span> and thus cannot separate independently because they are physically connected (inherited together). Linked genes exhibit recombination about <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">18% of the time.</span><br>
"
"Linked genes<div>In a cross of BbVv x bbvv (says that BV and bv are linked and each is in a homologues). We only get BV or bv and no Bv or bV. However, if there is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""recombination"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, we may get 18% of Bv and bV.<br /><div><br /></div></div>""Linked genes<div>In a cross of BbVv x bbvv (says that BV and bv are linked and each is in a homologues). We only get BV or bv and no Bv or bV. However, if there is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">recombination</span>, we may get 18% of Bv and bV.<br /><div><br /></div></div><br>
"
"Linked genes:<div>Greater recombination frequencies (18% above) means farther <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""distance&#x20;of&#x20;genes&#x20;apart"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> on the same chromosome.</div>""Linked genes:<div>Greater recombination frequencies (18% above) means farther <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">distance of genes apart</span> on the same chromosome.</div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Linkage&#x20;map"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: B-V is 18%, A-V is 12%, and B-A is 6% &nbsp;=&gt; B------A------------V &nbsp; &nbsp; <span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>'-' = 1 unit apart""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Linkage map</span>: B-V is 18%, A-V is 12%, and B-A is 6% &nbsp;=&gt; B------A------------V &nbsp; &nbsp; <span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>'-' = 1 unit apart<br>
"
"Sex-linked: refers to single gene resides on sex chromosome; when male (XY) receives an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""X"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> from mother, whether it is dominant or recessive <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""will&#x20;be&#x20;expressed"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> because there is no copy on the Y chromosome.""Sex-linked: refers to single gene resides on sex chromosome; when male (XY) receives an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">X</span> from mother, whether it is dominant or recessive <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">will be expressed</span> because there is no copy on the Y chromosome.<br>
"
"Sex-influenced: can be influenced by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sex&#x20;of&#x20;individual"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> carrying trait (e.g. Bb female not bald, Bb male is)&nbsp;""Sex-influenced: can be influenced by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">sex of individual</span> carrying trait (e.g. Bb female not bald, Bb male is)&nbsp;<br>
"
"Penetrance: probability an organism with a specific genotype will <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""express&#x20;a&#x20;particular&#x20;phenotype"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Penetrance: probability an organism with a specific genotype will <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">express a particular phenotype</span><br>
"
"Expressivity: term describing the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""variation&#x20;of&#x20;phenotype"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for a specific genotype&nbsp;""Expressivity: term describing the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">variation of phenotype</span> for a specific genotype&nbsp;<br>
"
"X-inactivation:&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>during embryonic development in female mammals, one of two X chromosomes does not uncoil into chromatin =&gt; dark and coiled compact body chromosome (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Barr"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> body) =&gt; cannot be expressed. Thus, only the genes on the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">other X chromosome</span> will be expressed. Either one can be inactivated =&gt; genes in the female will not be expressed similarly, so all cells in a female mammal not necessarily functionally identical (calico cats).</div>""X-inactivation:&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>during embryonic development in female mammals, one of two X chromosomes does not uncoil into chromatin =&gt; dark and coiled compact body chromosome (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Barr</span> body) =&gt; cannot be expressed. Thus, only the genes on the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">other X chromosome</span> will be expressed. Either one can be inactivated =&gt; genes in the female will not be expressed similarly, so all cells in a female mammal not necessarily functionally identical (calico cats).</div><br>
"
"X-inactivation:&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>during embryonic development in female mammals, one of two X chromosomes does not uncoil into chromatin =&gt; dark and coiled compact body chromosome (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Barr</span> body) =&gt; cannot be expressed. Thus, only the genes on the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""other&#x20;X&#x20;chromosome"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> will be expressed. Either one can be inactivated =&gt; genes in the female will not be expressed similarly, so all cells in a female mammal not necessarily functionally identical (calico cats).</div>""X-inactivation:&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>during embryonic development in female mammals, one of two X chromosomes does not uncoil into chromatin =&gt; dark and coiled compact body chromosome (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Barr</span> body) =&gt; cannot be expressed. Thus, only the genes on the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">other X chromosome</span> will be expressed. Either one can be inactivated =&gt; genes in the female will not be expressed similarly, so all cells in a female mammal not necessarily functionally identical (calico cats).</div><br>
"
"<div>X inactivation</div><div><br /></div>Hemophilia: cannot form blood clot. XHXh is a normal carrier. But if XH is inactivated =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Xh"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is expressed.""<div>X inactivation</div><div><br /></div>Hemophilia: cannot form blood clot. XHXh is a normal carrier. But if XH is inactivated =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Xh</span> is expressed.<br>
"
"&nbsp;Nondisjunction: failure of one/more chromosomes pairs or chromatids to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""separate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> during mitosis&nbsp;(failure of two chromatids of a single chromosome during anaphase) or meiosis (homologous chromosomes to separate during Meiosis I or sister chromatids to separate during Meiosis II; result in trisomy or monosomy; ex Down syndrome) – note: specifically during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">anaphase</span>!""&nbsp;Nondisjunction: failure of one/more chromosomes pairs or chromatids to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">separate</span> during mitosis&nbsp;(failure of two chromatids of a single chromosome during anaphase) or meiosis (homologous chromosomes to separate during Meiosis I or sister chromatids to separate during Meiosis II; result in trisomy or monosomy; ex Down syndrome) – note: specifically during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">anaphase</span>!<br>
"
"&nbsp;Nondisjunction: failure of one/more chromosomes pairs or chromatids to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">separate</span> during mitosis&nbsp;(failure of two chromatids of a single chromosome during anaphase) or meiosis (homologous chromosomes to separate during Meiosis I or sister chromatids to separate during Meiosis II; result in trisomy or monosomy; ex Down syndrome) – note: specifically during <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""anaphase"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>!""&nbsp;Nondisjunction: failure of one/more chromosomes pairs or chromatids to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">separate</span> during mitosis&nbsp;(failure of two chromatids of a single chromosome during anaphase) or meiosis (homologous chromosomes to separate during Meiosis I or sister chromatids to separate during Meiosis II; result in trisomy or monosomy; ex Down syndrome) – note: specifically during <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">anaphase</span>!<br>
"
"Mosaicism in cells that undergo nondisjunction in mitosis during embryonic development; fraction of body cells have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""extra&#x20;or&#x20;missing"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> chromosome""Mosaicism in cells that undergo nondisjunction in mitosis during embryonic development; fraction of body cells have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">extra or missing</span> chromosome<br>
"
"Polyploidy: all chromosomes undergo meiotic nondisjunction and produce gametes with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""twice&#x20;the&#x20;number&#x20;of&#x20;chromosomes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Common in plants.""Polyploidy: all chromosomes undergo meiotic nondisjunction and produce gametes with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">twice the number of chromosomes</span>. Common in plants.<br>
"
"Human genetic defects:<div>&nbsp;1. Point mutation: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""&amp;nbsp&#x3B;single&#x20;nucleotide"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> changes causing substitution, insertion, deletion (latter 2 could cause frameshift).</div>""Human genetic defects:<div>&nbsp;1. Point mutation: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">&nbsp;single nucleotide</span> changes causing substitution, insertion, deletion (latter 2 could cause frameshift).</div><br>
"
"Human genetic defects:<div>&nbsp;Point mutation:</div><div><div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Transition"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> mutation: Purine to purine or pyrimidine to pyrimidine&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Transversion"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> mutation: purine to pyrimidine or vice versa</div></div>""Human genetic defects:<div>&nbsp;Point mutation:</div><div><div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Transition</span> mutation: Purine to purine or pyrimidine to pyrimidine&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Transversion</span> mutation: purine to pyrimidine or vice versa</div></div><br>
"
"Human genetic defects:<div>2. Aneuploidy: genome with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""extra&#x2F;missing&#x20;chromosome"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> &lt;= often caused by nondisjunction (Down syndrome = trisomy 21).</div>""Human genetic defects:<div>2. Aneuploidy: genome with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">extra/missing chromosome</span> &lt;= often caused by nondisjunction (Down syndrome = trisomy 21).</div><br>
"
"Turner syndrome: nondisjunction in sex-chromosome. Gametes (single, from one parent) can be XX/XY or O (no chromosome) =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""XO"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> sterile, physically abnormal; Klinefelter (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">XXY</span>); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Down Syndrome</span> (Trisomy 21)""Turner syndrome: nondisjunction in sex-chromosome. Gametes (single, from one parent) can be XX/XY or O (no chromosome) =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">XO</span> sterile, physically abnormal; Klinefelter (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">XXY</span>); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Down Syndrome</span> (Trisomy 21)<br>
"
"Turner syndrome: nondisjunction in sex-chromosome. Gametes (single, from one parent) can be XX/XY or O (no chromosome) =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">XO</span> sterile, physically abnormal; Klinefelter (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""XXY"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Down Syndrome</span> (Trisomy 21)""Turner syndrome: nondisjunction in sex-chromosome. Gametes (single, from one parent) can be XX/XY or O (no chromosome) =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">XO</span> sterile, physically abnormal; Klinefelter (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">XXY</span>); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Down Syndrome</span> (Trisomy 21)<br>
"
"Turner syndrome: nondisjunction in sex-chromosome. Gametes (single, from one parent) can be XX/XY or O (no chromosome) =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">XO</span> sterile, physically abnormal; Klinefelter (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">XXY</span>); <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Down&#x20;Syndrome"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (Trisomy 21)""Turner syndrome: nondisjunction in sex-chromosome. Gametes (single, from one parent) can be XX/XY or O (no chromosome) =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">XO</span> sterile, physically abnormal; Klinefelter (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">XXY</span>); <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Down Syndrome</span> (Trisomy 21)<br>
"
"Human genetic defects:<div><div>&nbsp;Chromosomal abberations: chromosome segments are changed.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Duplications"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: chromosome segment is repeated on same chromosome.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Inversions"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: chromosome segments are rearranged in reverse orientation.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Translocation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: segment is moved to another chromosome. (21 on 14 can cause Down’s as well, tripled 21 chunk)</div></div>""Human genetic defects:<div><div>&nbsp;Chromosomal abberations: chromosome segments are changed.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Duplications</span>: chromosome segment is repeated on same chromosome.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Inversions</span>: chromosome segments are rearranged in reverse orientation.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Translocation</span>: segment is moved to another chromosome. (21 on 14 can cause Down’s as well, tripled 21 chunk)</div></div><br>
"
"Human genetic defects:<div>&nbsp;4. Chromosomal Breakage – spontaneous or induced (mutagenic agents, Xrays). Deficiency = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lost&#x20;fragment"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Human genetic defects:<div>&nbsp;4. Chromosomal Breakage – spontaneous or induced (mutagenic agents, Xrays). Deficiency = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lost fragment</span></div><br>
"
"Human genetic defects:<div>5. Mutagenic agents include cosmic rays, Xrays, UV rays, radioactivity, chemical compounds include colchicine (inhibits spindle formation causing polyploidy), mustard gas. Mutagenic agents are generally also <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""carcinogenic&#x2E;&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Human genetic defects:<div>5. Mutagenic agents include cosmic rays, Xrays, UV rays, radioactivity, chemical compounds include colchicine (inhibits spindle formation causing polyploidy), mustard gas. Mutagenic agents are generally also <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">carcinogenic.&nbsp;</span></div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Proto&#x2D;oncogenes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> stimulate normal growth; if mutated become oncogenes -&gt; cancer.""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Proto-oncogenes</span> stimulate normal growth; if mutated become oncogenes -&gt; cancer.<br>
"
"Genetic disorders<div>AR: PKU (inability to product proper enzyme for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phenylalanine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> breakdown; degradation product phenylpyruvic acid accumulates)</div>""Genetic disorders<div>AR: PKU (inability to product proper enzyme for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phenylalanine</span> breakdown; degradation product phenylpyruvic acid accumulates)</div><br>
"
"Genetic disorders<div>cystic fibrosis (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fluid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> buildup in tracts)</div>""Genetic disorders<div>cystic fibrosis (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fluid</span> buildup in tracts)</div><br>
"
"Genetic disorders<div>Tay-sachs (lysosome defect; can’t breakdown <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lipids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for normal brain fxn)</div>""Genetic disorders<div>Tay-sachs (lysosome defect; can’t breakdown <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lipids</span> for normal brain fxn)</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Genetic disorders&nbsp;<div>sickle-cell (defective hemoglobin due to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""substitution"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> mutation)</div>""&nbsp;Genetic disorders&nbsp;<div>sickle-cell (defective hemoglobin due to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">substitution</span> mutation)</div><br>
"
"Genetic disorders<div>AD: Huntingtons (degenerate <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nervous"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> system disease)</div>""Genetic disorders<div>AD: Huntingtons (degenerate <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nervous</span> system disease)</div><br>
"
"Genetic disorders<div>SLR: hemophilia (abnormal <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""blood&#x20;clotting"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>),</div>""Genetic disorders<div>SLR: hemophilia (abnormal <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">blood clotting</span>),</div><br>
"
"Genetic disorders<div>Note: Turner’s doesn’t typically cause <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mental&#x20;retardation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, but Downs, Kline, and Cri Du Chat (deletion on chromosome 5) do</div>""Genetic disorders<div>Note: Turner’s doesn’t typically cause <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mental retardation</span>, but Downs, Kline, and Cri Du Chat (deletion on chromosome 5) do</div><br>
"
"Forward mutation means already mutated organism mutates <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""again&#x20;even&#x20;more"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, backward mutation is back to original""Forward mutation means already mutated organism mutates <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">again even more</span>, backward mutation is back to original<br>
"
"Extranuclear inheritance: extranuclear genes are found in mitochondria and chloroplasts. Defects in mito DNA can reduce cell’s ATP production. Mitochondria passed to zygote all come from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mother"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, so all related diseases are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mother&#x20;inherited"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Note that mitochondria have their own ~70S ribosomes that make mitochondrial proteins w/in mitochondrial matrix!""Extranuclear inheritance: extranuclear genes are found in mitochondria and chloroplasts. Defects in mito DNA can reduce cell’s ATP production. Mitochondria passed to zygote all come from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mother</span>, so all related diseases are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mother inherited</span>. Note that mitochondria have their own ~70S ribosomes that make mitochondrial proteins w/in mitochondrial matrix!<br>
"
"Homozygous: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""two&#x20;copies"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of a gene (standard in diploid).Hemizygous: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""one&#x20;single"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> copy of a gene instead of two. (male has XY sex chromosome -&gt; hemizygous)""Homozygous: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">two copies</span> of a gene (standard in diploid).Hemizygous: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">one single</span> copy of a gene instead of two. (male has XY sex chromosome -&gt; hemizygous)<br>
"
"Lethal gene: cross between Aa and Aa, we get AA:2Aa:aa. If ""aa"" was lethal, we would have AA and Aa as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1&#x3A;2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> ratio.""Lethal gene: cross between Aa and Aa, we get AA:2Aa:aa. If ""aa"" was lethal, we would have AA and Aa as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1:2</span> ratio.<br>
"
"If the phenotype “skips” generations be suspicious of an autosomal <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""recessive"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> disorder. If no skip, most likely an autosomal <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""dominant"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> disorder.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Be suspicious for X-linked recessive, if a father doesn’t have the phenotype, none of his <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">daughters</span> display it.</div>""If the phenotype “skips” generations be suspicious of an autosomal <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">recessive</span> disorder. If no skip, most likely an autosomal <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">dominant</span> disorder.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Be suspicious for X-linked recessive, if a father doesn’t have the phenotype, none of his <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">daughters</span> display it.</div><br>
"
"If the phenotype “skips” generations be suspicious of an autosomal <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">recessive</span> disorder. If no skip, most likely an autosomal <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">dominant</span> disorder.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Be suspicious for X-linked recessive, if a father doesn’t have the phenotype, none of his <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""daughters"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> display it.</div>""If the phenotype “skips” generations be suspicious of an autosomal <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">recessive</span> disorder. If no skip, most likely an autosomal <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">dominant</span> disorder.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Be suspicious for X-linked recessive, if a father doesn’t have the phenotype, none of his <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">daughters</span> display it.</div><br>
"
"Mitochondrial DNA is an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""exception"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to the universality of genetic code&nbsp;""Mitochondrial DNA is an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">exception</span> to the universality of genetic code&nbsp;<br>
"
"DNA – A,T,G,C – hereditary information of the cell – double helix w/ major and minor <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""grooves"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""DNA – A,T,G,C – hereditary information of the cell – double helix w/ major and minor <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">grooves</span><br>
"
"DNA backbone: 5’ to 3’ <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphodiester"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> bonds form phosphate backbone&nbsp;""DNA backbone: 5’ to 3’ <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphodiester</span> bonds form phosphate backbone&nbsp;<br>
"
"RNA – A,U,G,C – functional usage – varies per type (mRNA <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""linear"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, tRNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">clover</span>, rRNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">globular</span>)""RNA – A,U,G,C – functional usage – varies per type (mRNA <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">linear</span>, tRNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">clover</span>, rRNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">globular</span>)<br>
"
"RNA – A,U,G,C – functional usage – varies per type (mRNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">linear</span>, tRNA <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""clover"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, rRNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">globular</span>)""RNA – A,U,G,C – functional usage – varies per type (mRNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">linear</span>, tRNA <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">clover</span>, rRNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">globular</span>)<br>
"
"RNA – A,U,G,C – functional usage – varies per type (mRNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">linear</span>, tRNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">clover</span>, rRNA <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""globular"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>)""RNA – A,U,G,C – functional usage – varies per type (mRNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">linear</span>, tRNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">clover</span>, rRNA <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">globular</span>)<br>
"
"CUT the PYE – C, T, and U are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pyrimidines"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, A and G <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""purines&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""CUT the PYE – C, T, and U are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pyrimidines</span>, A and G <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">purines&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"DNA Replication begins at special sites (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""origins&#x20;of&#x20;replication"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>) in middle of the DNA molecule (not the end); DNA strands separate to form replication bubbles that expand in both directions.. Thousands of these bubbles happen; speed up replication of 3 billion BP DNA molecule. Prokaryotes only have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">one</span> origin of replication.&nbsp;""DNA Replication begins at special sites (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">origins of replication</span>) in middle of the DNA molecule (not the end); DNA strands separate to form replication bubbles that expand in both directions.. Thousands of these bubbles happen; speed up replication of 3 billion BP DNA molecule. Prokaryotes only have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">one</span> origin of replication.&nbsp;<br>
"
"DNA Replication begins at special sites (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">origins of replication</span>) in middle of the DNA molecule (not the end); DNA strands separate to form replication bubbles that expand in both directions.. Thousands of these bubbles happen; speed up replication of 3 billion BP DNA molecule. Prokaryotes only have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""one"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> origin of replication.&nbsp;""DNA Replication begins at special sites (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">origins of replication</span>) in middle of the DNA molecule (not the end); DNA strands separate to form replication bubbles that expand in both directions.. Thousands of these bubbles happen; speed up replication of 3 billion BP DNA molecule. Prokaryotes only have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">one</span> origin of replication.&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>DNA Replication</div><div>Second chromatid containing a copy of DNA is assembled during <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""interphase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><br /></div><div>DNA is unzipped and each strand serves as a template for complementary replication</div><div>Semiconservative replication = <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">one strand of the two is old, the other is new</span></div>""<div>DNA Replication</div><div>Second chromatid containing a copy of DNA is assembled during <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">interphase</span></div><div><br /></div><div>DNA is unzipped and each strand serves as a template for complementary replication</div><div>Semiconservative replication = <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">one strand of the two is old, the other is new</span></div><br>
"
"<div>DNA Replication</div><div>Second chromatid containing a copy of DNA is assembled during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">interphase</span></div><div><br /></div><div>DNA is unzipped and each strand serves as a template for complementary replication</div><div>Semiconservative replication = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""one&#x20;strand&#x20;of&#x20;the&#x20;two&#x20;is&#x20;old&#x2C;&#x20;the&#x20;other&#x20;is&#x20;new"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div>""<div>DNA Replication</div><div>Second chromatid containing a copy of DNA is assembled during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">interphase</span></div><div><br /></div><div>DNA is unzipped and each strand serves as a template for complementary replication</div><div>Semiconservative replication = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">one strand of the two is old, the other is new</span></div><br>
"
"<div>DNA Replication</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Helicase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the enzyme that unwinds DNA, forming a Y shaped <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""replication&#x20;fork"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Single stranded binding</span> proteins attach to each strand of uncoiled DNA to keep them separate</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Topoisomerases</span> break and rejoin the double helix, allowing the prevention of knots (if you unwind a twist, the ends will get extra tight and knot up)</div>""<div>DNA Replication</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Helicase</span> is the enzyme that unwinds DNA, forming a Y shaped <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">replication fork</span></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Single stranded binding</span> proteins attach to each strand of uncoiled DNA to keep them separate</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Topoisomerases</span> break and rejoin the double helix, allowing the prevention of knots (if you unwind a twist, the ends will get extra tight and knot up)</div><br>
"
"<div>DNA Replication</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Helicase</span> is the enzyme that unwinds DNA, forming a Y shaped <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">replication fork</span></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Single&#x20;stranded&#x20;binding"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> proteins attach to each strand of uncoiled DNA to keep them separate</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Topoisomerases</span> break and rejoin the double helix, allowing the prevention of knots (if you unwind a twist, the ends will get extra tight and knot up)</div>""<div>DNA Replication</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Helicase</span> is the enzyme that unwinds DNA, forming a Y shaped <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">replication fork</span></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Single stranded binding</span> proteins attach to each strand of uncoiled DNA to keep them separate</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Topoisomerases</span> break and rejoin the double helix, allowing the prevention of knots (if you unwind a twist, the ends will get extra tight and knot up)</div><br>
"
"<div>DNA Replication</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Helicase</span> is the enzyme that unwinds DNA, forming a Y shaped <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">replication fork</span></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Single stranded binding</span> proteins attach to each strand of uncoiled DNA to keep them separate</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Topoisomerases"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> break and rejoin the double helix, allowing the prevention of knots (if you unwind a twist, the ends will get extra tight and knot up)</div>""<div>DNA Replication</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Helicase</span> is the enzyme that unwinds DNA, forming a Y shaped <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">replication fork</span></div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Single stranded binding</span> proteins attach to each strand of uncoiled DNA to keep them separate</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Topoisomerases</span> break and rejoin the double helix, allowing the prevention of knots (if you unwind a twist, the ends will get extra tight and knot up)</div><br>
"
"<div>DNA Replication</div><div>DNA polymerase moves from the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3’&#x2D;&amp;gt&#x3B;5’"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> direction only,&nbsp;</div><div>synthesizes a new strand that is antiparallel (5’-&gt;3’)</div><div><br /></div><div>Leading Strand – works continuously as more dna unzips (synthesized <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">5’ -&gt; 3’</span>)&nbsp;</div><div>Lagging Strand – for the 5-&gt;3 template strand the DNA polymerase has to go back to the replication fork and work away from it. It produces fragments at a time called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">okazaki fragments</span> vs continuous replication</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">DNA Ligase</span> connects okazaki fragments</div>""<div>DNA Replication</div><div>DNA polymerase moves from the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’-&gt;5’</span> direction only,&nbsp;</div><div>synthesizes a new strand that is antiparallel (5’-&gt;3’)</div><div><br /></div><div>Leading Strand – works continuously as more dna unzips (synthesized <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">5’ -&gt; 3’</span>)&nbsp;</div><div>Lagging Strand – for the 5-&gt;3 template strand the DNA polymerase has to go back to the replication fork and work away from it. It produces fragments at a time called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">okazaki fragments</span> vs continuous replication</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">DNA Ligase</span> connects okazaki fragments</div><br>
"
"<div>DNA Replication</div><div>DNA polymerase moves from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’-&gt;5’</span> direction only,&nbsp;</div><div>synthesizes a new strand that is antiparallel (5’-&gt;3’)</div><div><br /></div><div>Leading Strand – works continuously as more dna unzips (synthesized <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""5’&#x20;&#x2D;&amp;gt&#x3B;&#x20;3’"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>)&nbsp;</div><div>Lagging Strand – for the 5-&gt;3 template strand the DNA polymerase has to go back to the replication fork and work away from it. It produces fragments at a time called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">okazaki fragments</span> vs continuous replication</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">DNA Ligase</span> connects okazaki fragments</div>""<div>DNA Replication</div><div>DNA polymerase moves from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’-&gt;5’</span> direction only,&nbsp;</div><div>synthesizes a new strand that is antiparallel (5’-&gt;3’)</div><div><br /></div><div>Leading Strand – works continuously as more dna unzips (synthesized <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">5’ -&gt; 3’</span>)&nbsp;</div><div>Lagging Strand – for the 5-&gt;3 template strand the DNA polymerase has to go back to the replication fork and work away from it. It produces fragments at a time called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">okazaki fragments</span> vs continuous replication</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">DNA Ligase</span> connects okazaki fragments</div><br>
"
"<div>DNA Replication</div><div>DNA polymerase moves from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’-&gt;5’</span> direction only,&nbsp;</div><div>synthesizes a new strand that is antiparallel (5’-&gt;3’)</div><div><br /></div><div>Leading Strand – works continuously as more dna unzips (synthesized <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">5’ -&gt; 3’</span>)&nbsp;</div><div>Lagging Strand – for the 5-&gt;3 template strand the DNA polymerase has to go back to the replication fork and work away from it. It produces fragments at a time called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""okazaki&#x20;fragments"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> vs continuous replication</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">DNA Ligase</span> connects okazaki fragments</div>""<div>DNA Replication</div><div>DNA polymerase moves from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’-&gt;5’</span> direction only,&nbsp;</div><div>synthesizes a new strand that is antiparallel (5’-&gt;3’)</div><div><br /></div><div>Leading Strand – works continuously as more dna unzips (synthesized <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">5’ -&gt; 3’</span>)&nbsp;</div><div>Lagging Strand – for the 5-&gt;3 template strand the DNA polymerase has to go back to the replication fork and work away from it. It produces fragments at a time called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">okazaki fragments</span> vs continuous replication</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">DNA Ligase</span> connects okazaki fragments</div><br>
"
"<div>DNA Replication</div><div>DNA polymerase moves from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’-&gt;5’</span> direction only,&nbsp;</div><div>synthesizes a new strand that is antiparallel (5’-&gt;3’)</div><div><br /></div><div>Leading Strand – works continuously as more dna unzips (synthesized <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">5’ -&gt; 3’</span>)&nbsp;</div><div>Lagging Strand – for the 5-&gt;3 template strand the DNA polymerase has to go back to the replication fork and work away from it. It produces fragments at a time called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">okazaki fragments</span> vs continuous replication</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA&#x20;Ligase"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> connects okazaki fragments</div>""<div>DNA Replication</div><div>DNA polymerase moves from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’-&gt;5’</span> direction only,&nbsp;</div><div>synthesizes a new strand that is antiparallel (5’-&gt;3’)</div><div><br /></div><div>Leading Strand – works continuously as more dna unzips (synthesized <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">5’ -&gt; 3’</span>)&nbsp;</div><div>Lagging Strand – for the 5-&gt;3 template strand the DNA polymerase has to go back to the replication fork and work away from it. It produces fragments at a time called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">okazaki fragments</span> vs continuous replication</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">DNA Ligase</span> connects okazaki fragments</div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Primase</span> is an enzyme that creates a small strip of rna primer off of which dna polymerase can work since it can only add to an existing strand<div><br /><div>Dna replication requires an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""RNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> primer</div></div>""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Primase</span> is an enzyme that creates a small strip of rna primer off of which dna polymerase can work since it can only add to an existing strand<div><br /><div>Dna replication requires an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA</span> primer</div></div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Primase"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> is an enzyme that creates a small strip of rna primer off of which dna polymerase can work since it can only add to an existing strand<div><br /><div>Dna replication requires an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA</span> primer</div></div>""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Primase</span> is an enzyme that creates a small strip of rna primer off of which dna polymerase can work since it can only add to an existing strand<div><br /><div>Dna replication requires an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA</span> primer</div></div><br>
"
"Every okazaki fragment has an RNA primer, these rna strips are later replaced with dna by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA&#x20;polymerase&#x20;I"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Every okazaki fragment has an RNA primer, these rna strips are later replaced with dna by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA polymerase I</span><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA&#x20;Pol&#x20;1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> replaces BPs from the primer and does DNA repair; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA pol 3</span> is pure replication [eukaryotes have different polymerases: alpha gamma etc – not important])""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA Pol 1</span> replaces BPs from the primer and does DNA repair; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA pol 3</span> is pure replication [eukaryotes have different polymerases: alpha gamma etc – not important])<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA Pol 1</span> replaces BPs from the primer and does DNA repair; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA&#x20;pol&#x20;3"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> is pure replication [eukaryotes have different polymerases: alpha gamma etc – not important])""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA Pol 1</span> replaces BPs from the primer and does DNA repair; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA pol 3</span> is pure replication [eukaryotes have different polymerases: alpha gamma etc – not important])<br>
"
"Pol 1 and Pol 3 have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3’&#x20;&#x2D;&amp;gt&#x3B;&#x20;5’&#x20;exonuclease"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: breaks phosphodiester backbone on a single strand of DNA and removes a nucleotide. Exonuclease can only remove from (in this case of 3’ end) of the chain""Pol 1 and Pol 3 have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ -&gt; 5’ exonuclease</span>: breaks phosphodiester backbone on a single strand of DNA and removes a nucleotide. Exonuclease can only remove from (in this case of 3’ end) of the chain<br>
"
"Pol <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> can do some proofreading; if it makes a mistake it will go back and use this to replace it""Pol <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3</span> can do some proofreading; if it makes a mistake it will go back and use this to replace it<br>
"
"Pol 1 also has a 5’ -&gt; 3’ exonuclease, to take off the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""primer"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; and can also proof with 3’ to 5’ when laying down new chain""Pol 1 also has a 5’ -&gt; 3’ exonuclease, to take off the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">primer</span>; and can also proof with 3’ to 5’ when laying down new chain<br>
"
"So in summary of Pol:&nbsp;<div><br /><div>Pol 3 mainly replicates the DNA 5’ to 3’ but can also proofread via <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3’&#x20;to&#x20;5’"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> exonuclease.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Pol 1 primary breaks down RNA primer via <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">5’ to 3</span>’ exonuclease and replaces it with DNA (laid down between Okazaki fragments mainly) via 5’ to 3’ polymerase while proofreading as it goes, can proofread via 3’ to 5’ exonuclease as well. &nbsp;</div></div>""So in summary of Pol:&nbsp;<div><br /><div>Pol 3 mainly replicates the DNA 5’ to 3’ but can also proofread via <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ to 5’</span> exonuclease.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Pol 1 primary breaks down RNA primer via <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">5’ to 3</span>’ exonuclease and replaces it with DNA (laid down between Okazaki fragments mainly) via 5’ to 3’ polymerase while proofreading as it goes, can proofread via 3’ to 5’ exonuclease as well. &nbsp;</div></div><br>
"
"So in summary of Pol:&nbsp;<div><br /><div>Pol 3 mainly replicates the DNA 5’ to 3’ but can also proofread via <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ to 5’</span> exonuclease.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Pol 1 primary breaks down RNA primer via <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""5’&#x20;to&#x20;3"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>’ exonuclease and replaces it with DNA (laid down between Okazaki fragments mainly) via 5’ to 3’ polymerase while proofreading as it goes, can proofread via 3’ to 5’ exonuclease as well. &nbsp;</div></div>""So in summary of Pol:&nbsp;<div><br /><div>Pol 3 mainly replicates the DNA 5’ to 3’ but can also proofread via <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ to 5’</span> exonuclease.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Pol 1 primary breaks down RNA primer via <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">5’ to 3</span>’ exonuclease and replaces it with DNA (laid down between Okazaki fragments mainly) via 5’ to 3’ polymerase while proofreading as it goes, can proofread via 3’ to 5’ exonuclease as well. &nbsp;</div></div><br>
"
"<div>DNA Replication</div>In prokaryotes the “good” strand is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""methylated"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> after replication so it doesn’t accidentally repair wrong strand""<div>DNA Replication</div>In prokaryotes the “good” strand is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">methylated</span> after replication so it doesn’t accidentally repair wrong strand<br>
"
"<div>DNA Replication</div>In all cases of repair, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ligase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> must come in to seal the backbone afterward""<div>DNA Replication</div>In all cases of repair, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ligase</span> must come in to seal the backbone afterward<br>
"
"Energy for elongation is provided by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""two&#x20;additional&#x20;phophates"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> attached to each new nucleotide. Breaking the bonds holding the two extra phosphates provides chemical energy for the process (same w/ transcription!). Human rate <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">50n/s</span> for elongation.""Energy for elongation is provided by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">two additional phophates</span> attached to each new nucleotide. Breaking the bonds holding the two extra phosphates provides chemical energy for the process (same w/ transcription!). Human rate <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">50n/s</span> for elongation.<br>
"
"Energy for elongation is provided by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">two additional phophates</span> attached to each new nucleotide. Breaking the bonds holding the two extra phosphates provides chemical energy for the process (same w/ transcription!). Human rate <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""50n&#x2F;s"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> for elongation.""Energy for elongation is provided by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">two additional phophates</span> attached to each new nucleotide. Breaking the bonds holding the two extra phosphates provides chemical energy for the process (same w/ transcription!). Human rate <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">50n/s</span> for elongation.<br>
"
"<div>Replication of Telomere: Two problems can occur.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Not enough <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""template&#x20;strand"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> where primase can attach.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Last primase is removed =&gt; in order to change RNA to DNA, there must be another DNA strand in front of the RNA primer&gt; DNA pol cannot build after removing RNA primer&gt;ultimately that RNA is destroyed by enzymes that degrade RNA left on the DNA, section of the telomere subsequently <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">lost</span> w/ each replication cycle.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Prokaryotic DNA is circular so no <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">telomeres</span> (or issue).&nbsp;</div>""<div>Replication of Telomere: Two problems can occur.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Not enough <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">template strand</span> where primase can attach.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Last primase is removed =&gt; in order to change RNA to DNA, there must be another DNA strand in front of the RNA primer&gt; DNA pol cannot build after removing RNA primer&gt;ultimately that RNA is destroyed by enzymes that degrade RNA left on the DNA, section of the telomere subsequently <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">lost</span> w/ each replication cycle.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Prokaryotic DNA is circular so no <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">telomeres</span> (or issue).&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"<div>Replication of Telomere: Two problems can occur.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Not enough <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">template strand</span> where primase can attach.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Last primase is removed =&gt; in order to change RNA to DNA, there must be another DNA strand in front of the RNA primer&gt; DNA pol cannot build after removing RNA primer&gt;ultimately that RNA is destroyed by enzymes that degrade RNA left on the DNA, section of the telomere subsequently <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lost"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> w/ each replication cycle.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Prokaryotic DNA is circular so no <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">telomeres</span> (or issue).&nbsp;</div>""<div>Replication of Telomere: Two problems can occur.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Not enough <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">template strand</span> where primase can attach.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Last primase is removed =&gt; in order to change RNA to DNA, there must be another DNA strand in front of the RNA primer&gt; DNA pol cannot build after removing RNA primer&gt;ultimately that RNA is destroyed by enzymes that degrade RNA left on the DNA, section of the telomere subsequently <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">lost</span> w/ each replication cycle.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Prokaryotic DNA is circular so no <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">telomeres</span> (or issue).&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"<div>Replication of Telomere: Two problems can occur.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Not enough <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">template strand</span> where primase can attach.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Last primase is removed =&gt; in order to change RNA to DNA, there must be another DNA strand in front of the RNA primer&gt; DNA pol cannot build after removing RNA primer&gt;ultimately that RNA is destroyed by enzymes that degrade RNA left on the DNA, section of the telomere subsequently <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">lost</span> w/ each replication cycle.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Prokaryotic DNA is circular so no <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""telomeres"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (or issue).&nbsp;</div>""<div>Replication of Telomere: Two problems can occur.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Not enough <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">template strand</span> where primase can attach.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Last primase is removed =&gt; in order to change RNA to DNA, there must be another DNA strand in front of the RNA primer&gt; DNA pol cannot build after removing RNA primer&gt;ultimately that RNA is destroyed by enzymes that degrade RNA left on the DNA, section of the telomere subsequently <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">lost</span> w/ each replication cycle.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Prokaryotic DNA is circular so no <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">telomeres</span> (or issue).&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Telomerase:&nbsp;<div>enzyme that attaches to the end of template strand and extends the template strand by adding <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""short&#x20;sequence&#x20;of&#x20;DNA&#x20;over&#x20;and&#x20;over"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (not important code), allowing elongation of lagging strand to continue.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>However, at the end will still be not enough for primase to attach but this loss of unimportant segment will not cause any problem. Telomerase carries an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA template</span>: binds to flanking 3’ end of telomere that compliments part of its RNA template, synthesizes to fill in over the rest of its template&nbsp;</div></div>""&nbsp;Telomerase:&nbsp;<div>enzyme that attaches to the end of template strand and extends the template strand by adding <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">short sequence of DNA over and over</span> (not important code), allowing elongation of lagging strand to continue.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>However, at the end will still be not enough for primase to attach but this loss of unimportant segment will not cause any problem. Telomerase carries an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA template</span>: binds to flanking 3’ end of telomere that compliments part of its RNA template, synthesizes to fill in over the rest of its template&nbsp;</div></div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Telomerase:&nbsp;<div>enzyme that attaches to the end of template strand and extends the template strand by adding <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">short sequence of DNA over and over</span> (not important code), allowing elongation of lagging strand to continue.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>However, at the end will still be not enough for primase to attach but this loss of unimportant segment will not cause any problem. Telomerase carries an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""RNA&#x20;template"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>: binds to flanking 3’ end of telomere that compliments part of its RNA template, synthesizes to fill in over the rest of its template&nbsp;</div></div>""&nbsp;Telomerase:&nbsp;<div>enzyme that attaches to the end of template strand and extends the template strand by adding <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">short sequence of DNA over and over</span> (not important code), allowing elongation of lagging strand to continue.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>However, at the end will still be not enough for primase to attach but this loss of unimportant segment will not cause any problem. Telomerase carries an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA template</span>: binds to flanking 3’ end of telomere that compliments part of its RNA template, synthesizes to fill in over the rest of its template&nbsp;</div></div><br>
"
"one-gene-one-polypeptide hypothesis defines a gene as the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA&#x20;segment"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> that codes for a particular polypeptide. Also, genetic code is universal for nearly all organisms and most AAs have more than one <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">codon</span> specifying them (redundancy/degeneracy)&nbsp;""one-gene-one-polypeptide hypothesis defines a gene as the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA segment</span> that codes for a particular polypeptide. Also, genetic code is universal for nearly all organisms and most AAs have more than one <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">codon</span> specifying them (redundancy/degeneracy)&nbsp;<br>
"
"one-gene-one-polypeptide hypothesis defines a gene as the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA segment</span> that codes for a particular polypeptide. Also, genetic code is universal for nearly all organisms and most AAs have more than one <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""codon"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> specifying them (redundancy/degeneracy)&nbsp;""one-gene-one-polypeptide hypothesis defines a gene as the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA segment</span> that codes for a particular polypeptide. Also, genetic code is universal for nearly all organisms and most AAs have more than one <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">codon</span> specifying them (redundancy/degeneracy)&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>RNA Types: &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. mRNA: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Single"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> stranded template. Since there are 64 possible ways (4x4x4) ways that four nucleotides can be arranged in triplet combinations, there are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">64</span> possible codons. 3 of them are stop codons. Therefore, only 61 codes for amino acids.</div>""<div>RNA Types: &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. mRNA: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Single</span> stranded template. Since there are 64 possible ways (4x4x4) ways that four nucleotides can be arranged in triplet combinations, there are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">64</span> possible codons. 3 of them are stop codons. Therefore, only 61 codes for amino acids.</div><br>
"
"<div>RNA Types: &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. mRNA: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Single</span> stranded template. Since there are 64 possible ways (4x4x4) ways that four nucleotides can be arranged in triplet combinations, there are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""64"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> possible codons. 3 of them are stop codons. Therefore, only 61 codes for amino acids.</div>""<div>RNA Types: &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. mRNA: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Single</span> stranded template. Since there are 64 possible ways (4x4x4) ways that four nucleotides can be arranged in triplet combinations, there are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">64</span> possible codons. 3 of them are stop codons. Therefore, only 61 codes for amino acids.</div><br>
"
"<div>RNA Types:</div>b. tRNA: C-C-A-3’ end of tRNA attaches to amino acid, and the other portion is the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""anticodon"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> which bp with the codon in mRNA.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Wobbles: exact bp of the 3rd nucleotide in the anticodon and the 3rd nucleotide in the codon is often <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">not required</span>, allowing 45 different tRNA’s base-pair with 61 codons that code for amino acid.</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div>Transports AA to its <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">mRNA codon.</span></div>""<div>RNA Types:</div>b. tRNA: C-C-A-3’ end of tRNA attaches to amino acid, and the other portion is the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">anticodon</span> which bp with the codon in mRNA.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Wobbles: exact bp of the 3rd nucleotide in the anticodon and the 3rd nucleotide in the codon is often <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">not required</span>, allowing 45 different tRNA’s base-pair with 61 codons that code for amino acid.</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div>Transports AA to its <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">mRNA codon.</span></div><br>
"
"<div>RNA Types:</div>b. tRNA: C-C-A-3’ end of tRNA attaches to amino acid, and the other portion is the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">anticodon</span> which bp with the codon in mRNA.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Wobbles: exact bp of the 3rd nucleotide in the anticodon and the 3rd nucleotide in the codon is often <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""not&#x20;required"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, allowing 45 different tRNA’s base-pair with 61 codons that code for amino acid.</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div>Transports AA to its <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">mRNA codon.</span></div>""<div>RNA Types:</div>b. tRNA: C-C-A-3’ end of tRNA attaches to amino acid, and the other portion is the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">anticodon</span> which bp with the codon in mRNA.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Wobbles: exact bp of the 3rd nucleotide in the anticodon and the 3rd nucleotide in the codon is often <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">not required</span>, allowing 45 different tRNA’s base-pair with 61 codons that code for amino acid.</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div>Transports AA to its <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">mRNA codon.</span></div><br>
"
"<div>RNA Types:</div>b. tRNA: C-C-A-3’ end of tRNA attaches to amino acid, and the other portion is the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">anticodon</span> which bp with the codon in mRNA.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Wobbles: exact bp of the 3rd nucleotide in the anticodon and the 3rd nucleotide in the codon is often <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">not required</span>, allowing 45 different tRNA’s base-pair with 61 codons that code for amino acid.</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div>Transports AA to its <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mRNA&#x20;codon&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span></div>""<div>RNA Types:</div>b. tRNA: C-C-A-3’ end of tRNA attaches to amino acid, and the other portion is the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">anticodon</span> which bp with the codon in mRNA.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Wobbles: exact bp of the 3rd nucleotide in the anticodon and the 3rd nucleotide in the codon is often <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">not required</span>, allowing 45 different tRNA’s base-pair with 61 codons that code for amino acid.</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div>Transports AA to its <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">mRNA codon.</span></div><br>
"
"RNA Types:<div>&nbsp; c. rRNA: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nucleolus"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is an assemblage of DNA actively being transcribed into rRNA. As ribosome, has three binding sites: one for mRNA, one for tRNA that carries a growing polypeptide chain (P site); one for 2nd tRNA that delivers the next aa (A site).&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Termination</span> sequences include UAA, UGA, UAG. Together w/ proteins, rRNA forms <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ribosomes.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Ribosome is assembled in nucleolus but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">large and small</span> subunits exported separately to cytoplasm.&nbsp;</div>""RNA Types:<div>&nbsp; c. rRNA: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleolus</span> is an assemblage of DNA actively being transcribed into rRNA. As ribosome, has three binding sites: one for mRNA, one for tRNA that carries a growing polypeptide chain (P site); one for 2nd tRNA that delivers the next aa (A site).&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Termination</span> sequences include UAA, UGA, UAG. Together w/ proteins, rRNA forms <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ribosomes.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Ribosome is assembled in nucleolus but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">large and small</span> subunits exported separately to cytoplasm.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"RNA Types:<div>&nbsp; c. rRNA: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleolus</span> is an assemblage of DNA actively being transcribed into rRNA. As ribosome, has three binding sites: one for mRNA, one for tRNA that carries a growing polypeptide chain (P site); one for 2nd tRNA that delivers the next aa (A site).&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Termination"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> sequences include UAA, UGA, UAG. Together w/ proteins, rRNA forms <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ribosomes.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Ribosome is assembled in nucleolus but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">large and small</span> subunits exported separately to cytoplasm.&nbsp;</div>""RNA Types:<div>&nbsp; c. rRNA: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleolus</span> is an assemblage of DNA actively being transcribed into rRNA. As ribosome, has three binding sites: one for mRNA, one for tRNA that carries a growing polypeptide chain (P site); one for 2nd tRNA that delivers the next aa (A site).&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Termination</span> sequences include UAA, UGA, UAG. Together w/ proteins, rRNA forms <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ribosomes.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Ribosome is assembled in nucleolus but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">large and small</span> subunits exported separately to cytoplasm.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"RNA Types:<div>&nbsp; c. rRNA: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleolus</span> is an assemblage of DNA actively being transcribed into rRNA. As ribosome, has three binding sites: one for mRNA, one for tRNA that carries a growing polypeptide chain (P site); one for 2nd tRNA that delivers the next aa (A site).&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Termination</span> sequences include UAA, UGA, UAG. Together w/ proteins, rRNA forms <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ribosomes&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Ribosome is assembled in nucleolus but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">large and small</span> subunits exported separately to cytoplasm.&nbsp;</div>""RNA Types:<div>&nbsp; c. rRNA: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleolus</span> is an assemblage of DNA actively being transcribed into rRNA. As ribosome, has three binding sites: one for mRNA, one for tRNA that carries a growing polypeptide chain (P site); one for 2nd tRNA that delivers the next aa (A site).&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Termination</span> sequences include UAA, UGA, UAG. Together w/ proteins, rRNA forms <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">ribosomes.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Ribosome is assembled in nucleolus but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">large and small</span> subunits exported separately to cytoplasm.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"RNA Types:<div>&nbsp; c. rRNA: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleolus</span> is an assemblage of DNA actively being transcribed into rRNA. As ribosome, has three binding sites: one for mRNA, one for tRNA that carries a growing polypeptide chain (P site); one for 2nd tRNA that delivers the next aa (A site).&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Termination</span> sequences include UAA, UGA, UAG. Together w/ proteins, rRNA forms <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ribosomes.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Ribosome is assembled in nucleolus but <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""large&#x20;and&#x20;small"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> subunits exported separately to cytoplasm.&nbsp;</div>""RNA Types:<div>&nbsp; c. rRNA: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleolus</span> is an assemblage of DNA actively being transcribed into rRNA. As ribosome, has three binding sites: one for mRNA, one for tRNA that carries a growing polypeptide chain (P site); one for 2nd tRNA that delivers the next aa (A site).&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Termination</span> sequences include UAA, UGA, UAG. Together w/ proteins, rRNA forms <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ribosomes.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Ribosome is assembled in nucleolus but <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">large and small</span> subunits exported separately to cytoplasm.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Transcription: creation of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""RNA&#x20;molecules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA&#x20;template"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Prokaryotes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">polycistronic</span>, eukaryotes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">monocistronic</span>""Transcription: creation of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA molecules</span> from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA template</span>. Prokaryotes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">polycistronic</span>, eukaryotes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">monocistronic</span><br>
"
"Transcription: creation of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA molecules</span> from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA template</span>. Prokaryotes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""polycistronic"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, eukaryotes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""monocistronic"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>""Transcription: creation of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA molecules</span> from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA template</span>. Prokaryotes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">polycistronic</span>, eukaryotes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">monocistronic</span><br>
"
"Transcription<div>&nbsp;a. Initiation: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""RNA&#x20;pol"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> attaches to promoter region on DNA and unzip the DNA into two strands. A promoter region for mRNA transcription often contains the sequence <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">TATA (TATA Box)</span>.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Most common sequence of nucleotides at promoter region is called the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">consensus sequence</span>; variations from it cause less tight RNA pol binding = lower transcription rate</div><div><br /></div>""Transcription<div>&nbsp;a. Initiation: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA pol</span> attaches to promoter region on DNA and unzip the DNA into two strands. A promoter region for mRNA transcription often contains the sequence <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">TATA (TATA Box)</span>.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Most common sequence of nucleotides at promoter region is called the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">consensus sequence</span>; variations from it cause less tight RNA pol binding = lower transcription rate</div><div><br /></div><br>
"
"Transcription<div>&nbsp;a. Initiation: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA pol</span> attaches to promoter region on DNA and unzip the DNA into two strands. A promoter region for mRNA transcription often contains the sequence <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""TATA&#x20;&#x28;TATA&#x20;Box&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Most common sequence of nucleotides at promoter region is called the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">consensus sequence</span>; variations from it cause less tight RNA pol binding = lower transcription rate</div><div><br /></div>""Transcription<div>&nbsp;a. Initiation: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA pol</span> attaches to promoter region on DNA and unzip the DNA into two strands. A promoter region for mRNA transcription often contains the sequence <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">TATA (TATA Box)</span>.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Most common sequence of nucleotides at promoter region is called the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">consensus sequence</span>; variations from it cause less tight RNA pol binding = lower transcription rate</div><div><br /></div><br>
"
"Transcription<div>&nbsp;a. Initiation: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA pol</span> attaches to promoter region on DNA and unzip the DNA into two strands. A promoter region for mRNA transcription often contains the sequence <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">TATA (TATA Box)</span>.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Most common sequence of nucleotides at promoter region is called the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""consensus&#x20;sequence"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>; variations from it cause less tight RNA pol binding = lower transcription rate</div><div><br /></div>""Transcription<div>&nbsp;a. Initiation: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA pol</span> attaches to promoter region on DNA and unzip the DNA into two strands. A promoter region for mRNA transcription often contains the sequence <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">TATA (TATA Box)</span>.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Most common sequence of nucleotides at promoter region is called the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">consensus sequence</span>; variations from it cause less tight RNA pol binding = lower transcription rate</div><div><br /></div><br>
"
"Transcription<div>b. Elongation: RNA pol unzips DNA and assembles RNA nucleotides using one strand of DNA as template; only one strand is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""transcribed"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (from the template/(-) <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""antisense&#x20;DNA&#x20;strand"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; other strand is coding/(+) sense strand for protection against degradation).</div>""Transcription<div>b. Elongation: RNA pol unzips DNA and assembles RNA nucleotides using one strand of DNA as template; only one strand is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">transcribed</span> (from the template/(-) <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">antisense DNA strand</span>; other strand is coding/(+) sense strand for protection against degradation).</div><br>
"
"Transcription<div><div>&nbsp;c. Termination: when RNA pol reaches a special sequences often <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""AAAAAAA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>Note: transcription is occurring in the 3’ to 5’ direction of the DNA template strand (but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">synthesis of the RNA strand</span> is, as always, 5’ to 3’)</div></div>""Transcription<div><div>&nbsp;c. Termination: when RNA pol reaches a special sequences often <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">AAAAAAA</span> in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>Note: transcription is occurring in the 3’ to 5’ direction of the DNA template strand (but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">synthesis of the RNA strand</span> is, as always, 5’ to 3’)</div></div><br>
"
"Transcription<div><div>&nbsp;c. Termination: when RNA pol reaches a special sequences often <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">AAAAAAA</span> in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>Note: transcription is occurring in the 3’ to 5’ direction of the DNA template strand (but <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""synthesis&#x20;of&#x20;the&#x20;RNA&#x20;strand"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> is, as always, 5’ to 3’)</div></div>""Transcription<div><div>&nbsp;c. Termination: when RNA pol reaches a special sequences often <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">AAAAAAA</span> in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>Note: transcription is occurring in the 3’ to 5’ direction of the DNA template strand (but <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">synthesis of the RNA strand</span> is, as always, 5’ to 3’)</div></div><br>
"
"<div>&nbsp;mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. 5’ cap (-P-P-P-G-5’): the sequence is added to the 5’ end of the mRNA; Guanine with 2 phosphate groups =&gt; GTP; providing <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""stability&#x20;for&#x20;mRNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""point&#x20;of&#x20;attachment"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for ribosomes.</div>""<div>&nbsp;mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. 5’ cap (-P-P-P-G-5’): the sequence is added to the 5’ end of the mRNA; Guanine with 2 phosphate groups =&gt; GTP; providing <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">stability for mRNA</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">point of attachment</span> for ribosomes.</div><br>
"
"mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div>b. A poly-A tail (-A-A-A..A-A-3’): sequence is attached to the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3’&#x20;end"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of the mRNA. &nbsp;Tail consists of 200A; provide stability and control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">movement of mRNA across the nuclear envelope</span>.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>(in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">prokaryotes</span>, polyA tail facilitates degradation!)</div></div>""mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div>b. A poly-A tail (-A-A-A..A-A-3’): sequence is attached to the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span> of the mRNA. &nbsp;Tail consists of 200A; provide stability and control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">movement of mRNA across the nuclear envelope</span>.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>(in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">prokaryotes</span>, polyA tail facilitates degradation!)</div></div><br>
"
"mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div>b. A poly-A tail (-A-A-A..A-A-3’): sequence is attached to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span> of the mRNA. &nbsp;Tail consists of 200A; provide stability and control <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""movement&#x20;of&#x20;mRNA&#x20;across&#x20;the&#x20;nuclear&#x20;envelope"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>(in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">prokaryotes</span>, polyA tail facilitates degradation!)</div></div>""mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div>b. A poly-A tail (-A-A-A..A-A-3’): sequence is attached to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span> of the mRNA. &nbsp;Tail consists of 200A; provide stability and control <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">movement of mRNA across the nuclear envelope</span>.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>(in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">prokaryotes</span>, polyA tail facilitates degradation!)</div></div><br>
"
"mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div>b. A poly-A tail (-A-A-A..A-A-3’): sequence is attached to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span> of the mRNA. &nbsp;Tail consists of 200A; provide stability and control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">movement of mRNA across the nuclear envelope</span>.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>(in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""prokaryotes"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>, polyA tail facilitates degradation!)</div></div>""mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div>b. A poly-A tail (-A-A-A..A-A-3’): sequence is attached to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span> of the mRNA. &nbsp;Tail consists of 200A; provide stability and control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">movement of mRNA across the nuclear envelope</span>.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>(in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">prokaryotes</span>, polyA tail facilitates degradation!)</div></div><br>
"
"&nbsp;mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div>c. RNA splicing: removes nucleotide segments from mRNA; before mRNA moves into cytoplasm, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""small&#x20;nuclear&#x20;ribonucleoproteins&#x20;&#x28;snRNP’s&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""spliceosome"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> delete the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">introns</span> and splice the exons. (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">prokaryotes</span> have no introns!)</div></div>""&nbsp;mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div>c. RNA splicing: removes nucleotide segments from mRNA; before mRNA moves into cytoplasm, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNP’s)</span> and the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">spliceosome</span> delete the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">introns</span> and splice the exons. (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">prokaryotes</span> have no introns!)</div></div><br>
"
"&nbsp;mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div>c. RNA splicing: removes nucleotide segments from mRNA; before mRNA moves into cytoplasm, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNP’s)</span> and the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spliceosome</span> delete the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""introns"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> and splice the exons. (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">prokaryotes</span> have no introns!)</div></div>""&nbsp;mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div>c. RNA splicing: removes nucleotide segments from mRNA; before mRNA moves into cytoplasm, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNP’s)</span> and the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spliceosome</span> delete the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">introns</span> and splice the exons. (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">prokaryotes</span> have no introns!)</div></div><br>
"
"&nbsp;mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div>c. RNA splicing: removes nucleotide segments from mRNA; before mRNA moves into cytoplasm, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNP’s)</span> and the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spliceosome</span> delete the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">introns</span> and splice the exons. (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""prokaryotes"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> have no introns!)</div></div>""&nbsp;mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div>c. RNA splicing: removes nucleotide segments from mRNA; before mRNA moves into cytoplasm, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNP’s)</span> and the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">spliceosome</span> delete the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">introns</span> and splice the exons. (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">prokaryotes</span> have no introns!)</div></div><br>
"
"&nbsp;mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div>d. Alternative splicing: allows different mRNA to be generated from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""same&#x20;RNA&#x20;transcript"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; by selectively removing differences of an RNA transcript into different combinations =&gt; each coding for a different protein product.</div>""&nbsp;mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div>d. Alternative splicing: allows different mRNA to be generated from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">same RNA transcript</span>; by selectively removing differences of an RNA transcript into different combinations =&gt; each coding for a different protein product.</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div><div>Note: prokaryotes generally have ready to go mRNA upon transcription. It is only in eukaryotes that you need the above processing. Because prokaryotes don’t need to process their mRNA first, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""translation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> can begin immediately/simultaneously. In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, multiple RNA polymerases can transcribe the same template simultaneously.&nbsp;</div></div><div><br /></div></div>""&nbsp;mRNA Processing: Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:<div><br /><div><div>Note: prokaryotes generally have ready to go mRNA upon transcription. It is only in eukaryotes that you need the above processing. Because prokaryotes don’t need to process their mRNA first, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">translation</span> can begin immediately/simultaneously. In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, multiple RNA polymerases can transcribe the same template simultaneously.&nbsp;</div></div><div><br /></div></div><br>
"
"Translation: assembly of amino acids based on reading of new RNA; uses <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""GTP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> as energy source""Translation: assembly of amino acids based on reading of new RNA; uses <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">GTP</span> as energy source<br>
"
"Aminoacyl-tRNA: in cytoplasm, amino acid attaches to tRNA at 3’ end, require <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> ATP""Aminoacyl-tRNA: in cytoplasm, amino acid attaches to tRNA at 3’ end, require <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1</span> ATP<br>
"
"Translation<div>&nbsp;a. Initiation: small ribosome unit attaches to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""5’&#x20;end&#x20;of&#x20;mRNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; tRNA-methionine attaches to start sequence <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">of mRNA AUG</span>, and large ribosomal unit attaches to form a complete complex.</div>""Translation<div>&nbsp;a. Initiation: small ribosome unit attaches to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’ end of mRNA</span>; tRNA-methionine attaches to start sequence <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">of mRNA AUG</span>, and large ribosomal unit attaches to form a complete complex.</div><br>
"
"Translation<div>&nbsp;a. Initiation: small ribosome unit attaches to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’ end of mRNA</span>; tRNA-methionine attaches to start sequence <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""of&#x20;mRNA&#x20;AUG"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, and large ribosomal unit attaches to form a complete complex.</div>""Translation<div>&nbsp;a. Initiation: small ribosome unit attaches to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’ end of mRNA</span>; tRNA-methionine attaches to start sequence <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">of mRNA AUG</span>, and large ribosomal unit attaches to form a complete complex.</div><br>
"
"Translation<div>b. Elongation: next tRNA binds to A site, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""peptide"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> bond formation, tRNA without methionine is released, the tRNA currently in A site moves to P site (known as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">translocation</span>) and the next tRNA comes into A site and repeat process.</div>""Translation<div>b. Elongation: next tRNA binds to A site, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">peptide</span> bond formation, tRNA without methionine is released, the tRNA currently in A site moves to P site (known as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">translocation</span>) and the next tRNA comes into A site and repeat process.</div><br>
"
"Translation<div>b. Elongation: next tRNA binds to A site, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">peptide</span> bond formation, tRNA without methionine is released, the tRNA currently in A site moves to P site (known as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""translocation"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>) and the next tRNA comes into A site and repeat process.</div>""Translation<div>b. Elongation: next tRNA binds to A site, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">peptide</span> bond formation, tRNA without methionine is released, the tRNA currently in A site moves to P site (known as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">translocation</span>) and the next tRNA comes into A site and repeat process.</div><br>
"
"Translation<div>c. Termination: encounters the stop codon UAG, UAA, UGA. Polypeptide and the two ribosomal subunits all release once <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""release&#x20;factor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> breaks down the bond between tRNA and final AA of the popypeptide. While polypeptide is being translated, &nbsp;AA sequences is determining folding conformation; folding process assisted by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chaperone</span> proteins</div>""Translation<div>c. Termination: encounters the stop codon UAG, UAA, UGA. Polypeptide and the two ribosomal subunits all release once <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">release factor</span> breaks down the bond between tRNA and final AA of the popypeptide. While polypeptide is being translated, &nbsp;AA sequences is determining folding conformation; folding process assisted by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chaperone</span> proteins</div><br>
"
"Translation<div>c. Termination: encounters the stop codon UAG, UAA, UGA. Polypeptide and the two ribosomal subunits all release once <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">release factor</span> breaks down the bond between tRNA and final AA of the popypeptide. While polypeptide is being translated, &nbsp;AA sequences is determining folding conformation; folding process assisted by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chaperone"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> proteins</div>""Translation<div>c. Termination: encounters the stop codon UAG, UAA, UGA. Polypeptide and the two ribosomal subunits all release once <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">release factor</span> breaks down the bond between tRNA and final AA of the popypeptide. While polypeptide is being translated, &nbsp;AA sequences is determining folding conformation; folding process assisted by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">chaperone</span> proteins</div><br>
"
"Translation<div>&nbsp;d. Post-translation: Translation begins on a free floating ribosome; signal peptide at the beginning of the translated polypeptide may direct the ribosome to attach to the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ER"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, in which case the polypeptide is injected into the ER lumen. If injected, polypeptide may be s<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ecreted from the cell via Golgi</span>. In general, post-translational modifications (addition of sugars, lipids, phosphate groups to the AAs) may occur. May be subsequently processed by Golgi before it is functional.</div>""Translation<div>&nbsp;d. Post-translation: Translation begins on a free floating ribosome; signal peptide at the beginning of the translated polypeptide may direct the ribosome to attach to the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ER</span>, in which case the polypeptide is injected into the ER lumen. If injected, polypeptide may be s<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ecreted from the cell via Golgi</span>. In general, post-translational modifications (addition of sugars, lipids, phosphate groups to the AAs) may occur. May be subsequently processed by Golgi before it is functional.</div><br>
"
"Translation<div>&nbsp;d. Post-translation: Translation begins on a free floating ribosome; signal peptide at the beginning of the translated polypeptide may direct the ribosome to attach to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">ER</span>, in which case the polypeptide is injected into the ER lumen. If injected, polypeptide may be s<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ecreted&#x20;from&#x20;the&#x20;cell&#x20;via&#x20;Golgi"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>. In general, post-translational modifications (addition of sugars, lipids, phosphate groups to the AAs) may occur. May be subsequently processed by Golgi before it is functional.</div>""Translation<div>&nbsp;d. Post-translation: Translation begins on a free floating ribosome; signal peptide at the beginning of the translated polypeptide may direct the ribosome to attach to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">ER</span>, in which case the polypeptide is injected into the ER lumen. If injected, polypeptide may be s<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">ecreted from the cell via Golgi</span>. In general, post-translational modifications (addition of sugars, lipids, phosphate groups to the AAs) may occur. May be subsequently processed by Golgi before it is functional.</div><br>
"
"Translation<div><div>Amino acids are placed starting from the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""5’&#x20;end"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of the mRNA and move all the way down to the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3’&#x20;end"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. tRNA codons for matching are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">3’ to 5’</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>Can occur simultaneously with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">transcription</span> in prokaryotes, but not in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Multiple ribosomes</span> may simultaneously translate 1 mRNA.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Also note that in bacteria the start codon is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">n-formylmethionine</span> rather than methionine.&nbsp;</div></div>""Translation<div><div>Amino acids are placed starting from the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’ end</span> of the mRNA and move all the way down to the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span>. tRNA codons for matching are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">3’ to 5’</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>Can occur simultaneously with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">transcription</span> in prokaryotes, but not in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Multiple ribosomes</span> may simultaneously translate 1 mRNA.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Also note that in bacteria the start codon is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">n-formylmethionine</span> rather than methionine.&nbsp;</div></div><br>
"
"Translation<div><div>Amino acids are placed starting from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’ end</span> of the mRNA and move all the way down to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span>. tRNA codons for matching are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3’&#x20;to&#x20;5’"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>Can occur simultaneously with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">transcription</span> in prokaryotes, but not in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Multiple ribosomes</span> may simultaneously translate 1 mRNA.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Also note that in bacteria the start codon is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">n-formylmethionine</span> rather than methionine.&nbsp;</div></div>""Translation<div><div>Amino acids are placed starting from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’ end</span> of the mRNA and move all the way down to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span>. tRNA codons for matching are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">3’ to 5’</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>Can occur simultaneously with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">transcription</span> in prokaryotes, but not in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Multiple ribosomes</span> may simultaneously translate 1 mRNA.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Also note that in bacteria the start codon is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">n-formylmethionine</span> rather than methionine.&nbsp;</div></div><br>
"
"Translation<div><div>Amino acids are placed starting from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’ end</span> of the mRNA and move all the way down to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span>. tRNA codons for matching are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">3’ to 5’</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>Can occur simultaneously with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""transcription"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> in prokaryotes, but not in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Multiple ribosomes</span> may simultaneously translate 1 mRNA.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Also note that in bacteria the start codon is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">n-formylmethionine</span> rather than methionine.&nbsp;</div></div>""Translation<div><div>Amino acids are placed starting from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’ end</span> of the mRNA and move all the way down to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span>. tRNA codons for matching are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">3’ to 5’</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>Can occur simultaneously with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">transcription</span> in prokaryotes, but not in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Multiple ribosomes</span> may simultaneously translate 1 mRNA.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Also note that in bacteria the start codon is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">n-formylmethionine</span> rather than methionine.&nbsp;</div></div><br>
"
"Translation<div><div>Amino acids are placed starting from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’ end</span> of the mRNA and move all the way down to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span>. tRNA codons for matching are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">3’ to 5’</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>Can occur simultaneously with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">transcription</span> in prokaryotes, but not in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Multiple&#x20;ribosomes"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> may simultaneously translate 1 mRNA.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Also note that in bacteria the start codon is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">n-formylmethionine</span> rather than methionine.&nbsp;</div></div>""Translation<div><div>Amino acids are placed starting from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’ end</span> of the mRNA and move all the way down to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span>. tRNA codons for matching are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">3’ to 5’</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>Can occur simultaneously with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">transcription</span> in prokaryotes, but not in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Multiple ribosomes</span> may simultaneously translate 1 mRNA.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Also note that in bacteria the start codon is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">n-formylmethionine</span> rather than methionine.&nbsp;</div></div><br>
"
"Translation<div><div>Amino acids are placed starting from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’ end</span> of the mRNA and move all the way down to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span>. tRNA codons for matching are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">3’ to 5’</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>Can occur simultaneously with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">transcription</span> in prokaryotes, but not in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Multiple ribosomes</span> may simultaneously translate 1 mRNA.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Also note that in bacteria the start codon is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""n&#x2D;formylmethionine"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> rather than methionine.&nbsp;</div></div>""Translation<div><div>Amino acids are placed starting from the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’ end</span> of the mRNA and move all the way down to the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’ end</span>. tRNA codons for matching are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">3’ to 5’</span>.</div><div><br /></div><div>Can occur simultaneously with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">transcription</span> in prokaryotes, but not in eukaryotes.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Multiple ribosomes</span> may simultaneously translate 1 mRNA.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Also note that in bacteria the start codon is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">n-formylmethionine</span> rather than methionine.&nbsp;</div></div><br>
"
"Silent mutation: new codon <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""still&#x20;codes&#x20;for&#x20;the&#x20;same&#x20;amino&#x20;acid&#x2E;&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Silent mutation: new codon <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">still codes for the same amino acid.&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"Nonsense mutation: new codon codes for a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""stop&#x20;codon&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Nonsense mutation: new codon codes for a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">stop codon.</span><br>
"
"Neutral mutation: no change in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""protein&#x20;fxn"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Neutral mutation: no change in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">protein fxn</span><br>
"
"Missense mutation: new codon codes for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""new&#x20;amino&#x20;acid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> =&gt; minor or fatal results as in sickle cell (val(new) for glu(old))""Missense mutation: new codon codes for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">new amino acid</span> =&gt; minor or fatal results as in sickle cell (val(new) for glu(old))<br>
"
"<div>Repair mechanisms:</div><div>Proofreading: DNA polymerase checks <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""base&#x20;pairs"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Mismatch repair: enzymes repair things <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA&#x20;polymerase&#x20;missed"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Excision repair: enzymes remove <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nucleotides&#x20;damaged&#x20;by&#x20;mutagens"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""<div>Repair mechanisms:</div><div>Proofreading: DNA polymerase checks <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">base pairs</span></div><div>Mismatch repair: enzymes repair things <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA polymerase missed</span></div><div>Excision repair: enzymes remove <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleotides damaged by mutagens</span></div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Nucleosome"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: DNA is coiled around bundles of 8/9 <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""histones"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> proteins (beads on a string).""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Nucleosome</span>: DNA is coiled around bundles of 8/9 <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">histones</span> proteins (beads on a string).<br>
"
"<div>1. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Euchromatin"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: loosely bound to nucleosomes, actively being transcribed.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Heterochromatin</span>: areas of tightly packed nucleosomes where DNA is inactive (condensed =&gt; darker). Contains a lot of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">satellite</span> DNA (large tandem repeats of noncoding DNA)</div>""<div>1. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Euchromatin</span>: loosely bound to nucleosomes, actively being transcribed.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Heterochromatin</span>: areas of tightly packed nucleosomes where DNA is inactive (condensed =&gt; darker). Contains a lot of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">satellite</span> DNA (large tandem repeats of noncoding DNA)</div><br>
"
"<div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Euchromatin</span>: loosely bound to nucleosomes, actively being transcribed.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Heterochromatin"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>: areas of tightly packed nucleosomes where DNA is inactive (condensed =&gt; darker). Contains a lot of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""satellite"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> DNA (large tandem repeats of noncoding DNA)</div>""<div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Euchromatin</span>: loosely bound to nucleosomes, actively being transcribed.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Heterochromatin</span>: areas of tightly packed nucleosomes where DNA is inactive (condensed =&gt; darker). Contains a lot of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">satellite</span> DNA (large tandem repeats of noncoding DNA)</div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Transposons</span> (jumping genes): DNA segments that can move to new location on same/different chromosome; 2 types:<div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;insertion sequences consist of only <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one gene that codes for enzyme</span> that just transports it (transposase);&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>complex transposons code for extra: replication, antibiotic resistance, etc. Insertion of transposons into another region could cause <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mutation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (little to no effect).</div>""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Transposons</span> (jumping genes): DNA segments that can move to new location on same/different chromosome; 2 types:<div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;insertion sequences consist of only <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one gene that codes for enzyme</span> that just transports it (transposase);&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>complex transposons code for extra: replication, antibiotic resistance, etc. Insertion of transposons into another region could cause <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mutation</span> (little to no effect).</div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Transposons"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (jumping genes): DNA segments that can move to new location on same/different chromosome; 2 types:<div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;insertion sequences consist of only <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one gene that codes for enzyme</span> that just transports it (transposase);&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>complex transposons code for extra: replication, antibiotic resistance, etc. Insertion of transposons into another region could cause <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">mutation</span> (little to no effect).</div>""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Transposons</span> (jumping genes): DNA segments that can move to new location on same/different chromosome; 2 types:<div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;insertion sequences consist of only <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one gene that codes for enzyme</span> that just transports it (transposase);&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>complex transposons code for extra: replication, antibiotic resistance, etc. Insertion of transposons into another region could cause <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">mutation</span> (little to no effect).</div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Transposons</span> (jumping genes): DNA segments that can move to new location on same/different chromosome; 2 types:<div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;insertion sequences consist of only <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""one&#x20;gene&#x20;that&#x20;codes&#x20;for&#x20;enzyme"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> that just transports it (transposase);&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>complex transposons code for extra: replication, antibiotic resistance, etc. Insertion of transposons into another region could cause <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">mutation</span> (little to no effect).</div>""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Transposons</span> (jumping genes): DNA segments that can move to new location on same/different chromosome; 2 types:<div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;insertion sequences consist of only <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">one gene that codes for enzyme</span> that just transports it (transposase);&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>complex transposons code for extra: replication, antibiotic resistance, etc. Insertion of transposons into another region could cause <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">mutation</span> (little to no effect).</div><br>
"
"Virus:&nbsp;<div>a nucleic acid (RNA/DNA may be double/single stranded),&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""capsid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (protein coat that encloses the nucleic acid; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""capsomeres"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> assembles to form the capsid),&nbsp;</div><div>and envelope (surrounds capsid of some viruses; it incorporates <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">phospholipid/protein</span> obtained from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cell membrane of host</span>).</div></div>""Virus:&nbsp;<div>a nucleic acid (RNA/DNA may be double/single stranded),&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">capsid</span> (protein coat that encloses the nucleic acid; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">capsomeres</span> assembles to form the capsid),&nbsp;</div><div>and envelope (surrounds capsid of some viruses; it incorporates <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">phospholipid/protein</span> obtained from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cell membrane of host</span>).</div></div><br>
"
"Virus:&nbsp;<div>a nucleic acid (RNA/DNA may be double/single stranded),&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">capsid</span> (protein coat that encloses the nucleic acid; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">capsomeres</span> assembles to form the capsid),&nbsp;</div><div>and envelope (surrounds capsid of some viruses; it incorporates <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phospholipid&#x2F;protein"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> obtained from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cell&#x20;membrane&#x20;of&#x20;host"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>).</div></div>""Virus:&nbsp;<div>a nucleic acid (RNA/DNA may be double/single stranded),&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">capsid</span> (protein coat that encloses the nucleic acid; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">capsomeres</span> assembles to form the capsid),&nbsp;</div><div>and envelope (surrounds capsid of some viruses; it incorporates <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">phospholipid/protein</span> obtained from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">cell membrane of host</span>).</div></div><br>
"
"<div>Viruses</div>Usually specific to a type of cell (bind to specific receptors) and species. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Host&#x20;range"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is range of organisms virus can attack.&nbsp;""<div>Viruses</div>Usually specific to a type of cell (bind to specific receptors) and species. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Host range</span> is range of organisms virus can attack.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Virus Replication<div>1. Lytic Cycle: virus penetrates cell membrane of host and uses host machinery to produce nucleic acids and viral proteins that are then assembled to make new viruses – these viruses <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""burst&#x20;out&#x20;of&#x20;the&#x20;cell"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and infect other cells</div>""Virus Replication<div>1. Lytic Cycle: virus penetrates cell membrane of host and uses host machinery to produce nucleic acids and viral proteins that are then assembled to make new viruses – these viruses <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">burst out of the cell</span> and infect other cells</div><br>
"
"Virus Replication<div>DNA virus: DNA is replicated and form new viral DNA =&gt; transcribed to produce viral proteins (DNA + viral proteins <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""assemble&#x20;to&#x20;form&#x20;new&#x20;viruses"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>).</div>""Virus Replication<div>DNA virus: DNA is replicated and form new viral DNA =&gt; transcribed to produce viral proteins (DNA + viral proteins <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">assemble to form new viruses</span>).</div><br>
"
"Virus Replication<div>- RNA virus: RNA serves as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mRNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> =&gt; translated into protein (protein + RNA =&gt; new virus).</div>""Virus Replication<div>- RNA virus: RNA serves as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mRNA</span> =&gt; translated into protein (protein + RNA =&gt; new virus).</div><br>
"
"Virus Replication<div>Retroviruses: e.g. HIV, ssRNA viruses that use <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""reverse&#x20;transcriptase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to make DNA complement of their RNA =&gt; which can go to manufacture <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mRNA</span> or go into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">lysogenic cycle</span> (becoming incorporated into DNA host).&nbsp;</div>""Virus Replication<div>Retroviruses: e.g. HIV, ssRNA viruses that use <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">reverse transcriptase</span> to make DNA complement of their RNA =&gt; which can go to manufacture <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mRNA</span> or go into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">lysogenic cycle</span> (becoming incorporated into DNA host).&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Virus Replication<div>Retroviruses: e.g. HIV, ssRNA viruses that use <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">reverse transcriptase</span> to make DNA complement of their RNA =&gt; which can go to manufacture <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mRNA"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> or go into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lysogenic&#x20;cycle"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (becoming incorporated into DNA host).&nbsp;</div>""Virus Replication<div>Retroviruses: e.g. HIV, ssRNA viruses that use <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">reverse transcriptase</span> to make DNA complement of their RNA =&gt; which can go to manufacture <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">mRNA</span> or go into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">lysogenic cycle</span> (becoming incorporated into DNA host).&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Virus Replication<div>Lysogenic: viral DNA is incorporated into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA&#x20;of&#x20;host&#x20;cell"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; dormant state (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pro</span>virus/<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pro</span>phage [if bacteria]); remain inactive until external stimuli. When triggered, begins <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lytic cycle.&nbsp;</span></div>""Virus Replication<div>Lysogenic: viral DNA is incorporated into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA of host cell</span>; dormant state (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pro</span>virus/<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pro</span>phage [if bacteria]); remain inactive until external stimuli. When triggered, begins <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lytic cycle.&nbsp;</span></div><br>
"
"Virus Replication<div>Lysogenic: viral DNA is incorporated into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA of host cell</span>; dormant state (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pro"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>virus/<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pro"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>phage [if bacteria]); remain inactive until external stimuli. When triggered, begins <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lytic cycle.&nbsp;</span></div>""Virus Replication<div>Lysogenic: viral DNA is incorporated into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA of host cell</span>; dormant state (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">pro</span>virus/<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">pro</span>phage [if bacteria]); remain inactive until external stimuli. When triggered, begins <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lytic cycle.&nbsp;</span></div><br>
"
"Virus Replication<div>Lysogenic: viral DNA is incorporated into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA of host cell</span>; dormant state (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pro</span>virus/<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pro</span>phage [if bacteria]); remain inactive until external stimuli. When triggered, begins <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lytic&#x20;cycle&#x2E;&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span></div>""Virus Replication<div>Lysogenic: viral DNA is incorporated into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA of host cell</span>; dormant state (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pro</span>virus/<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pro</span>phage [if bacteria]); remain inactive until external stimuli. When triggered, begins <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">lytic cycle.&nbsp;</span></div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Teichoic&#x20;Acids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> on cell wall of bacterium are used as recognition + binding sites by bacterial viruses that cause infxns; also provide cell wall rigidity: only found on <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gram-positive</span> bacteria!&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Teichoic Acids</span> on cell wall of bacterium are used as recognition + binding sites by bacterial viruses that cause infxns; also provide cell wall rigidity: only found on <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gram-positive</span> bacteria!&nbsp;<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Teichoic Acids</span> on cell wall of bacterium are used as recognition + binding sites by bacterial viruses that cause infxns; also provide cell wall rigidity: only found on <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""gram&#x2D;positive"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> bacteria!&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Teichoic Acids</span> on cell wall of bacterium are used as recognition + binding sites by bacterial viruses that cause infxns; also provide cell wall rigidity: only found on <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">gram-positive</span> bacteria!&nbsp;<br>
"
"Prions: - Not viruses or cells. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Misfolded"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> versions of proteins in brain that cause normal version to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""misfold"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> too. Fatal.""Prions: - Not viruses or cells. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Misfolded</span> versions of proteins in brain that cause normal version to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">misfold</span> too. Fatal.<br>
"
"&nbsp;Bacteria are prokaryotes with no nucleus or organelles, single <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""circular"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> ds DNA molecule (tightly condensed and called a nucleoid), no histones or other assoc. proteins. Replicate DNA in both directions from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">single point of origin</span> (“theta replc.”)&nbsp;""&nbsp;Bacteria are prokaryotes with no nucleus or organelles, single <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">circular</span> ds DNA molecule (tightly condensed and called a nucleoid), no histones or other assoc. proteins. Replicate DNA in both directions from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">single point of origin</span> (“theta replc.”)&nbsp;<br>
"
"&nbsp;Bacteria are prokaryotes with no nucleus or organelles, single <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">circular</span> ds DNA molecule (tightly condensed and called a nucleoid), no histones or other assoc. proteins. Replicate DNA in both directions from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""single&#x20;point&#x20;of&#x20;origin"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (“theta replc.”)&nbsp;""&nbsp;Bacteria are prokaryotes with no nucleus or organelles, single <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">circular</span> ds DNA molecule (tightly condensed and called a nucleoid), no histones or other assoc. proteins. Replicate DNA in both directions from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">single point of origin</span> (“theta replc.”)&nbsp;<br>
"
"Bacteria<div>Reproduce by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""binary&#x20;fission"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (chromosome replicates, cell divides into two cells: each cell bearing one chromosome); lacks nucleus =&gt; lack microtubules, spindle, centrioles.</div>""Bacteria<div>Reproduce by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">binary fission</span> (chromosome replicates, cell divides into two cells: each cell bearing one chromosome); lacks nucleus =&gt; lack microtubules, spindle, centrioles.</div><br>
"
"Plasmids: short, circular DNA <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""outside&#x20;chromosome"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (carry genes that are beneficial but not essential for survival); replicate independently; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">episomes</span> are plasmid that can incorporate into bacterial chromosome.""Plasmids: short, circular DNA <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">outside chromosome</span> (carry genes that are beneficial but not essential for survival); replicate independently; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">episomes</span> are plasmid that can incorporate into bacterial chromosome.<br>
"
"Plasmids: short, circular DNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">outside chromosome</span> (carry genes that are beneficial but not essential for survival); replicate independently; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""episomes"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> are plasmid that can incorporate into bacterial chromosome.""Plasmids: short, circular DNA <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">outside chromosome</span> (carry genes that are beneficial but not essential for survival); replicate independently; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">episomes</span> are plasmid that can incorporate into bacterial chromosome.<br>
"
"<div>Genetic variations of bacteria:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Conjugation: donor produces a bridge (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pilus"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>) and connect to recipient; send <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chromosome/plasmid</span> to recipient and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">recombinant</span> can occur;&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>F plasmid allowing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pilus to occur</span>; once recipient receives, it is now <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">F+</span> and can donate as well. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">R</span> plasmids provide bacteria with antibiotic resistance. Pili are also used for cell <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">adhesion</span>!</div>""<div>Genetic variations of bacteria:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Conjugation: donor produces a bridge (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pilus</span>) and connect to recipient; send <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chromosome/plasmid</span> to recipient and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">recombinant</span> can occur;&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>F plasmid allowing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pilus to occur</span>; once recipient receives, it is now <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">F+</span> and can donate as well. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">R</span> plasmids provide bacteria with antibiotic resistance. Pili are also used for cell <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">adhesion</span>!</div><br>
"
"<div>Genetic variations of bacteria:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Conjugation: donor produces a bridge (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pilus</span>) and connect to recipient; send <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chromosome&#x2F;plasmid"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> to recipient and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""recombinant"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> can occur;&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>F plasmid allowing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pilus to occur</span>; once recipient receives, it is now <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">F+</span> and can donate as well. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">R</span> plasmids provide bacteria with antibiotic resistance. Pili are also used for cell <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">adhesion</span>!</div>""<div>Genetic variations of bacteria:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Conjugation: donor produces a bridge (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pilus</span>) and connect to recipient; send <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">chromosome/plasmid</span> to recipient and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">recombinant</span> can occur;&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>F plasmid allowing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pilus to occur</span>; once recipient receives, it is now <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">F+</span> and can donate as well. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">R</span> plasmids provide bacteria with antibiotic resistance. Pili are also used for cell <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">adhesion</span>!</div><br>
"
"<div>Genetic variations of bacteria:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Conjugation: donor produces a bridge (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pilus</span>) and connect to recipient; send <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chromosome/plasmid</span> to recipient and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">recombinant</span> can occur;&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>F plasmid allowing <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pilus&#x20;to&#x20;occur"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>; once recipient receives, it is now <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""F&#x2B;"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> and can donate as well. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">R</span> plasmids provide bacteria with antibiotic resistance. Pili are also used for cell <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">adhesion</span>!</div>""<div>Genetic variations of bacteria:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Conjugation: donor produces a bridge (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pilus</span>) and connect to recipient; send <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chromosome/plasmid</span> to recipient and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">recombinant</span> can occur;&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>F plasmid allowing <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">pilus to occur</span>; once recipient receives, it is now <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">F+</span> and can donate as well. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">R</span> plasmids provide bacteria with antibiotic resistance. Pili are also used for cell <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">adhesion</span>!</div><br>
"
"<div>Genetic variations of bacteria:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Conjugation: donor produces a bridge (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pilus</span>) and connect to recipient; send <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chromosome/plasmid</span> to recipient and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">recombinant</span> can occur;&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>F plasmid allowing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pilus to occur</span>; once recipient receives, it is now <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">F+</span> and can donate as well. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""R"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> plasmids provide bacteria with antibiotic resistance. Pili are also used for cell <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">adhesion</span>!</div>""<div>Genetic variations of bacteria:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Conjugation: donor produces a bridge (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pilus</span>) and connect to recipient; send <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chromosome/plasmid</span> to recipient and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">recombinant</span> can occur;&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>F plasmid allowing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pilus to occur</span>; once recipient receives, it is now <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">F+</span> and can donate as well. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">R</span> plasmids provide bacteria with antibiotic resistance. Pili are also used for cell <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">adhesion</span>!</div><br>
"
"<div>Genetic variations of bacteria:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Conjugation: donor produces a bridge (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pilus</span>) and connect to recipient; send <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chromosome/plasmid</span> to recipient and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">recombinant</span> can occur;&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>F plasmid allowing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pilus to occur</span>; once recipient receives, it is now <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">F+</span> and can donate as well. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">R</span> plasmids provide bacteria with antibiotic resistance. Pili are also used for cell <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""adhesion"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span>!</div>""<div>Genetic variations of bacteria:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Conjugation: donor produces a bridge (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pilus</span>) and connect to recipient; send <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chromosome/plasmid</span> to recipient and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">recombinant</span> can occur;&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>F plasmid allowing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">pilus to occur</span>; once recipient receives, it is now <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">F+</span> and can donate as well. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">R</span> plasmids provide bacteria with antibiotic resistance. Pili are also used for cell <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">adhesion</span>!</div><br>
"
"Genetic variations of bacteria:<div>2. Transduction: DNA is introduced into genome by a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""virus"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. When virus is assembled during lytic cycle, some <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bacterial DNA</span> is incorporated in place of viral DNA. When virus infects another host, the bacterial DNA part that it delivers can recombine with the resident DNA.</div>""Genetic variations of bacteria:<div>2. Transduction: DNA is introduced into genome by a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">virus</span>. When virus is assembled during lytic cycle, some <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bacterial DNA</span> is incorporated in place of viral DNA. When virus infects another host, the bacterial DNA part that it delivers can recombine with the resident DNA.</div><br>
"
"Genetic variations of bacteria:<div>2. Transduction: DNA is introduced into genome by a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">virus</span>. When virus is assembled during lytic cycle, some <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bacterial&#x20;DNA"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> is incorporated in place of viral DNA. When virus infects another host, the bacterial DNA part that it delivers can recombine with the resident DNA.</div>""Genetic variations of bacteria:<div>2. Transduction: DNA is introduced into genome by a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">virus</span>. When virus is assembled during lytic cycle, some <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">bacterial DNA</span> is incorporated in place of viral DNA. When virus infects another host, the bacterial DNA part that it delivers can recombine with the resident DNA.</div><br>
"
"Genetic variations of bacteria<div>Transformation: bacteria absorb <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA&#x20;from&#x20;surroundings"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and incorporate into genome.</div>""Genetic variations of bacteria<div>Transformation: bacteria absorb <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA from surroundings</span> and incorporate into genome.</div><br>
"
"<div>Prokaryotic gene expression</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Operon"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: control gene transcription, consist of:&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Promoter: sequence of DNA where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA polymerase attaches</span> to being transcription.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Operator</span>: region that can block action of RNA polymerase if occupied by repressor protein.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Structural genes</span>: DNA sequences that code for related enzymes.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Regulatory genes: located <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">outside of operon region</span>, produces repressor proteins. Others produce activator proteins that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">assist the attachment of RNA polymerase</span> to promoter region.</div>""<div>Prokaryotic gene expression</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Operon</span>: control gene transcription, consist of:&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Promoter: sequence of DNA where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA polymerase attaches</span> to being transcription.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Operator</span>: region that can block action of RNA polymerase if occupied by repressor protein.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Structural genes</span>: DNA sequences that code for related enzymes.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Regulatory genes: located <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">outside of operon region</span>, produces repressor proteins. Others produce activator proteins that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">assist the attachment of RNA polymerase</span> to promoter region.</div><br>
"
"<div>Prokaryotic gene expression</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Operon</span>: control gene transcription, consist of:&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Promoter: sequence of DNA where <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""RNA&#x20;polymerase&#x20;attaches"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> to being transcription.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Operator</span>: region that can block action of RNA polymerase if occupied by repressor protein.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Structural genes</span>: DNA sequences that code for related enzymes.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Regulatory genes: located <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">outside of operon region</span>, produces repressor proteins. Others produce activator proteins that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">assist the attachment of RNA polymerase</span> to promoter region.</div>""<div>Prokaryotic gene expression</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Operon</span>: control gene transcription, consist of:&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Promoter: sequence of DNA where <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA polymerase attaches</span> to being transcription.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Operator</span>: region that can block action of RNA polymerase if occupied by repressor protein.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Structural genes</span>: DNA sequences that code for related enzymes.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Regulatory genes: located <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">outside of operon region</span>, produces repressor proteins. Others produce activator proteins that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">assist the attachment of RNA polymerase</span> to promoter region.</div><br>
"
"<div>Prokaryotic gene expression</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Operon</span>: control gene transcription, consist of:&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Promoter: sequence of DNA where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA polymerase attaches</span> to being transcription.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Operator"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>: region that can block action of RNA polymerase if occupied by repressor protein.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Structural genes</span>: DNA sequences that code for related enzymes.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Regulatory genes: located <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">outside of operon region</span>, produces repressor proteins. Others produce activator proteins that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">assist the attachment of RNA polymerase</span> to promoter region.</div>""<div>Prokaryotic gene expression</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Operon</span>: control gene transcription, consist of:&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Promoter: sequence of DNA where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA polymerase attaches</span> to being transcription.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Operator</span>: region that can block action of RNA polymerase if occupied by repressor protein.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Structural genes</span>: DNA sequences that code for related enzymes.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Regulatory genes: located <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">outside of operon region</span>, produces repressor proteins. Others produce activator proteins that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">assist the attachment of RNA polymerase</span> to promoter region.</div><br>
"
"<div>Prokaryotic gene expression</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Operon</span>: control gene transcription, consist of:&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Promoter: sequence of DNA where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA polymerase attaches</span> to being transcription.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Operator</span>: region that can block action of RNA polymerase if occupied by repressor protein.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Structural&#x20;genes"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>: DNA sequences that code for related enzymes.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Regulatory genes: located <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">outside of operon region</span>, produces repressor proteins. Others produce activator proteins that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">assist the attachment of RNA polymerase</span> to promoter region.</div>""<div>Prokaryotic gene expression</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Operon</span>: control gene transcription, consist of:&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Promoter: sequence of DNA where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA polymerase attaches</span> to being transcription.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Operator</span>: region that can block action of RNA polymerase if occupied by repressor protein.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Structural genes</span>: DNA sequences that code for related enzymes.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Regulatory genes: located <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">outside of operon region</span>, produces repressor proteins. Others produce activator proteins that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">assist the attachment of RNA polymerase</span> to promoter region.</div><br>
"
"<div>Prokaryotic gene expression</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Operon</span>: control gene transcription, consist of:&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Promoter: sequence of DNA where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA polymerase attaches</span> to being transcription.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Operator</span>: region that can block action of RNA polymerase if occupied by repressor protein.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Structural genes</span>: DNA sequences that code for related enzymes.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Regulatory genes: located <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""outside&#x20;of&#x20;operon&#x20;region"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span>, produces repressor proteins. Others produce activator proteins that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">assist the attachment of RNA polymerase</span> to promoter region.</div>""<div>Prokaryotic gene expression</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Operon</span>: control gene transcription, consist of:&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Promoter: sequence of DNA where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA polymerase attaches</span> to being transcription.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Operator</span>: region that can block action of RNA polymerase if occupied by repressor protein.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Structural genes</span>: DNA sequences that code for related enzymes.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Regulatory genes: located <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">outside of operon region</span>, produces repressor proteins. Others produce activator proteins that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">assist the attachment of RNA polymerase</span> to promoter region.</div><br>
"
"<div>Prokaryotic gene expression</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Operon</span>: control gene transcription, consist of:&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Promoter: sequence of DNA where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA polymerase attaches</span> to being transcription.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Operator</span>: region that can block action of RNA polymerase if occupied by repressor protein.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Structural genes</span>: DNA sequences that code for related enzymes.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Regulatory genes: located <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">outside of operon region</span>, produces repressor proteins. Others produce activator proteins that <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""assist&#x20;the&#x20;attachment&#x20;of&#x20;RNA&#x20;polymerase"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span> to promoter region.</div>""<div>Prokaryotic gene expression</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Operon</span>: control gene transcription, consist of:&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Promoter: sequence of DNA where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">RNA polymerase attaches</span> to being transcription.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Operator</span>: region that can block action of RNA polymerase if occupied by repressor protein.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Structural genes</span>: DNA sequences that code for related enzymes.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Regulatory genes: located <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">outside of operon region</span>, produces repressor proteins. Others produce activator proteins that <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">assist the attachment of RNA polymerase</span> to promoter region.</div><br>
"
"Lac operon (E. coli): controls breakdown of lactose; regulatory gene produces <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""active&#x20;repressor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (bind operator) and block RNA pol. When lactose is available, lactose binds <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">repressor and inactivates it</span> =&gt; RNA pol can now transcribe. Lactose <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">induces</span> the operon. The enzymes that the operon produces are said to be <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">inducible</span> enzymes.""Lac operon (E. coli): controls breakdown of lactose; regulatory gene produces <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">active repressor</span> (bind operator) and block RNA pol. When lactose is available, lactose binds <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">repressor and inactivates it</span> =&gt; RNA pol can now transcribe. Lactose <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">induces</span> the operon. The enzymes that the operon produces are said to be <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">inducible</span> enzymes.<br>
"
"Lac operon (E. coli): controls breakdown of lactose; regulatory gene produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">active repressor</span> (bind operator) and block RNA pol. When lactose is available, lactose binds <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""repressor&#x20;and&#x20;inactivates&#x20;it"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> =&gt; RNA pol can now transcribe. Lactose <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">induces</span> the operon. The enzymes that the operon produces are said to be <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">inducible</span> enzymes.""Lac operon (E. coli): controls breakdown of lactose; regulatory gene produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">active repressor</span> (bind operator) and block RNA pol. When lactose is available, lactose binds <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">repressor and inactivates it</span> =&gt; RNA pol can now transcribe. Lactose <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">induces</span> the operon. The enzymes that the operon produces are said to be <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">inducible</span> enzymes.<br>
"
"Lac operon (E. coli): controls breakdown of lactose; regulatory gene produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">active repressor</span> (bind operator) and block RNA pol. When lactose is available, lactose binds <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">repressor and inactivates it</span> =&gt; RNA pol can now transcribe. Lactose <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""induces"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> the operon. The enzymes that the operon produces are said to be <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""inducible"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> enzymes.""Lac operon (E. coli): controls breakdown of lactose; regulatory gene produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">active repressor</span> (bind operator) and block RNA pol. When lactose is available, lactose binds <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">repressor and inactivates it</span> =&gt; RNA pol can now transcribe. Lactose <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">induces</span> the operon. The enzymes that the operon produces are said to be <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">inducible</span> enzymes.<br>
"
"Lac operon<div>consists of three lac genes (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Z&#x2C;&#x20;Y&#x2C;&#x20;A"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>) which code for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">B-galactosidase</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lactose permease</span>, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">thiogalactoside transacetylase</span>. Also know that low glucose means high <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cAMP levels</span> &gt;&gt; cAMP binds to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">CAP binding site</span> of promoter &gt;&gt; RNA polymerase more efficiently transcribes &gt;&gt; high lactose levels</div>""Lac operon<div>consists of three lac genes (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Z, Y, A</span>) which code for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">B-galactosidase</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lactose permease</span>, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">thiogalactoside transacetylase</span>. Also know that low glucose means high <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cAMP levels</span> &gt;&gt; cAMP binds to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">CAP binding site</span> of promoter &gt;&gt; RNA polymerase more efficiently transcribes &gt;&gt; high lactose levels</div><br>
"
"Lac operon<div>consists of three lac genes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Z, Y, A</span>) which code for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""B&#x2D;galactosidase"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lactose permease</span>, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">thiogalactoside transacetylase</span>. Also know that low glucose means high <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cAMP levels</span> &gt;&gt; cAMP binds to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">CAP binding site</span> of promoter &gt;&gt; RNA polymerase more efficiently transcribes &gt;&gt; high lactose levels</div>""Lac operon<div>consists of three lac genes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Z, Y, A</span>) which code for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">B-galactosidase</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lactose permease</span>, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">thiogalactoside transacetylase</span>. Also know that low glucose means high <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cAMP levels</span> &gt;&gt; cAMP binds to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">CAP binding site</span> of promoter &gt;&gt; RNA polymerase more efficiently transcribes &gt;&gt; high lactose levels</div><br>
"
"Lac operon<div>consists of three lac genes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Z, Y, A</span>) which code for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">B-galactosidase</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lactose&#x20;permease"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">thiogalactoside transacetylase</span>. Also know that low glucose means high <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cAMP levels</span> &gt;&gt; cAMP binds to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">CAP binding site</span> of promoter &gt;&gt; RNA polymerase more efficiently transcribes &gt;&gt; high lactose levels</div>""Lac operon<div>consists of three lac genes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Z, Y, A</span>) which code for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">B-galactosidase</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">lactose permease</span>, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">thiogalactoside transacetylase</span>. Also know that low glucose means high <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cAMP levels</span> &gt;&gt; cAMP binds to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">CAP binding site</span> of promoter &gt;&gt; RNA polymerase more efficiently transcribes &gt;&gt; high lactose levels</div><br>
"
"Lac operon<div>consists of three lac genes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Z, Y, A</span>) which code for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">B-galactosidase</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lactose permease</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""thiogalactoside&#x20;transacetylase"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>. Also know that low glucose means high <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cAMP levels</span> &gt;&gt; cAMP binds to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">CAP binding site</span> of promoter &gt;&gt; RNA polymerase more efficiently transcribes &gt;&gt; high lactose levels</div>""Lac operon<div>consists of three lac genes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Z, Y, A</span>) which code for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">B-galactosidase</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lactose permease</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">thiogalactoside transacetylase</span>. Also know that low glucose means high <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cAMP levels</span> &gt;&gt; cAMP binds to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">CAP binding site</span> of promoter &gt;&gt; RNA polymerase more efficiently transcribes &gt;&gt; high lactose levels</div><br>
"
"Lac operon<div>consists of three lac genes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Z, Y, A</span>) which code for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">B-galactosidase</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lactose permease</span>, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">thiogalactoside transacetylase</span>. Also know that low glucose means high <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cAMP&#x20;levels"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> &gt;&gt; cAMP binds to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">CAP binding site</span> of promoter &gt;&gt; RNA polymerase more efficiently transcribes &gt;&gt; high lactose levels</div>""Lac operon<div>consists of three lac genes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Z, Y, A</span>) which code for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">B-galactosidase</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lactose permease</span>, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">thiogalactoside transacetylase</span>. Also know that low glucose means high <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">cAMP levels</span> &gt;&gt; cAMP binds to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">CAP binding site</span> of promoter &gt;&gt; RNA polymerase more efficiently transcribes &gt;&gt; high lactose levels</div><br>
"
"Lac operon<div>consists of three lac genes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Z, Y, A</span>) which code for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">B-galactosidase</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lactose permease</span>, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">thiogalactoside transacetylase</span>. Also know that low glucose means high <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cAMP levels</span> &gt;&gt; cAMP binds to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""CAP&#x20;binding&#x20;site"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span> of promoter &gt;&gt; RNA polymerase more efficiently transcribes &gt;&gt; high lactose levels</div>""Lac operon<div>consists of three lac genes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Z, Y, A</span>) which code for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">B-galactosidase</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">lactose permease</span>, and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">thiogalactoside transacetylase</span>. Also know that low glucose means high <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cAMP levels</span> &gt;&gt; cAMP binds to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">CAP binding site</span> of promoter &gt;&gt; RNA polymerase more efficiently transcribes &gt;&gt; high lactose levels</div><br>
"
"trp operon (E. coli): produces enzyme for tryptophan synthesis; regulatory genes produce an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""inactive&#x20;repressor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> =&gt; RNA pol produces enzymes. When tryptophan is available, no longer need to synthesize it internally: it binds to inactive repressor and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">activates repressor</span> =&gt; able binds operator and block RNA pol. Tryptophan is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">corepressor</span>.""trp operon (E. coli): produces enzyme for tryptophan synthesis; regulatory genes produce an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">inactive repressor</span> =&gt; RNA pol produces enzymes. When tryptophan is available, no longer need to synthesize it internally: it binds to inactive repressor and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">activates repressor</span> =&gt; able binds operator and block RNA pol. Tryptophan is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">corepressor</span>.<br>
"
"trp operon (E. coli): produces enzyme for tryptophan synthesis; regulatory genes produce an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">inactive repressor</span> =&gt; RNA pol produces enzymes. When tryptophan is available, no longer need to synthesize it internally: it binds to inactive repressor and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""activates&#x20;repressor"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> =&gt; able binds operator and block RNA pol. Tryptophan is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">corepressor</span>.""trp operon (E. coli): produces enzyme for tryptophan synthesis; regulatory genes produce an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">inactive repressor</span> =&gt; RNA pol produces enzymes. When tryptophan is available, no longer need to synthesize it internally: it binds to inactive repressor and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">activates repressor</span> =&gt; able binds operator and block RNA pol. Tryptophan is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">corepressor</span>.<br>
"
"trp operon (E. coli): produces enzyme for tryptophan synthesis; regulatory genes produce an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">inactive repressor</span> =&gt; RNA pol produces enzymes. When tryptophan is available, no longer need to synthesize it internally: it binds to inactive repressor and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">activates repressor</span> =&gt; able binds operator and block RNA pol. Tryptophan is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""corepressor"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>.""trp operon (E. coli): produces enzyme for tryptophan synthesis; regulatory genes produce an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">inactive repressor</span> =&gt; RNA pol produces enzymes. When tryptophan is available, no longer need to synthesize it internally: it binds to inactive repressor and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">activates repressor</span> =&gt; able binds operator and block RNA pol. Tryptophan is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">corepressor</span>.<br>
"
"Repressible enzymes: trp operon, when structural genes stop producing enzymes only in presence of an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""active&#x20;repressor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Unlike repressible enzymes, some genes are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">constitutive</span> (constantly expressed) either naturally or due to mutation""Repressible enzymes: trp operon, when structural genes stop producing enzymes only in presence of an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">active repressor</span>. Unlike repressible enzymes, some genes are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">constitutive</span> (constantly expressed) either naturally or due to mutation<br>
"
"Repressible enzymes: trp operon, when structural genes stop producing enzymes only in presence of an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">active repressor</span>. Unlike repressible enzymes, some genes are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""constitutive"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (constantly expressed) either naturally or due to mutation""Repressible enzymes: trp operon, when structural genes stop producing enzymes only in presence of an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">active repressor</span>. Unlike repressible enzymes, some genes are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">constitutive</span> (constantly expressed) either naturally or due to mutation<br>
"
"<div>Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression</div>Regulatory proteins: repressors and activators, influence RNA pol’s attachment to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""promoter&#x20;region"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""<div>Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression</div>Regulatory proteins: repressors and activators, influence RNA pol’s attachment to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">promoter region</span><br>
"
"Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression<div>Nucleosome packing: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""methylation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of histones (tighter packing = preventing transcription); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">acetylation</span> of histones (uncoiling and transcriptions proceeds). (side note: methylation also used in X-inactivation and on DNA bases to repress gene activity)</div>""Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression<div>Nucleosome packing: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">methylation</span> of histones (tighter packing = preventing transcription); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">acetylation</span> of histones (uncoiling and transcriptions proceeds). (side note: methylation also used in X-inactivation and on DNA bases to repress gene activity)</div><br>
"
"Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression<div>Nucleosome packing: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">methylation</span> of histones (tighter packing = preventing transcription); <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetylation"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> of histones (uncoiling and transcriptions proceeds). (side note: methylation also used in X-inactivation and on DNA bases to repress gene activity)</div>""Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression<div>Nucleosome packing: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">methylation</span> of histones (tighter packing = preventing transcription); <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">acetylation</span> of histones (uncoiling and transcriptions proceeds). (side note: methylation also used in X-inactivation and on DNA bases to repress gene activity)</div><br>
"
"Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression:<div>RNA interference: &nbsp;short interfering RNAs (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""siRNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>s) block mRNA transcriptions (fold back within itself = <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dsRNA</span>), translation, or degrade existing mRNA.</div>""Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression:<div>RNA interference: &nbsp;short interfering RNAs (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">siRNA</span>s) block mRNA transcriptions (fold back within itself = <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dsRNA</span>), translation, or degrade existing mRNA.</div><br>
"
"Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression:<div>RNA interference: &nbsp;short interfering RNAs (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">siRNA</span>s) block mRNA transcriptions (fold back within itself = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""dsRNA"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>), translation, or degrade existing mRNA.</div>""Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression:<div>RNA interference: &nbsp;short interfering RNAs (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">siRNA</span>s) block mRNA transcriptions (fold back within itself = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">dsRNA</span>), translation, or degrade existing mRNA.</div><br>
"
"siRNAs: dsRNA gets chopped up, then made single stranded. The relevant strand will bind to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (prevent transcription) or <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mRNA</span> (signals destruction)&nbsp;""siRNAs: dsRNA gets chopped up, then made single stranded. The relevant strand will bind to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA</span> (prevent transcription) or <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mRNA</span> (signals destruction)&nbsp;<br>
"
"siRNAs: dsRNA gets chopped up, then made single stranded. The relevant strand will bind to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA</span> (prevent transcription) or <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mRNA"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (signals destruction)&nbsp;""siRNAs: dsRNA gets chopped up, then made single stranded. The relevant strand will bind to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA</span> (prevent transcription) or <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">mRNA</span> (signals destruction)&nbsp;<br>
"
"Human Genome: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""97&#x25;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of human DNA does not code for protein product; noncoding DNA: regulatory sequences, introns, repetitive sequences never transcribed, etc. Tandem repeats abnormally long stretches of back to back repetitive sequences within an affected gene (e.g. Huntington’s).&nbsp;""Human Genome: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">97%</span> of human DNA does not code for protein product; noncoding DNA: regulatory sequences, introns, repetitive sequences never transcribed, etc. Tandem repeats abnormally long stretches of back to back repetitive sequences within an affected gene (e.g. Huntington’s).&nbsp;<br>
"
"Recombinant DNA contains DNA segments or genes from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""different&#x20;sources"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. The transfer of these DNA segments can come from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">viral transduction,</span> <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bacterial conjugation</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">transposons</span>, or through artificial recombinant <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA technology</span>. Crossing over during prophase of meiosis produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">recombinant chromosomes</span>.&nbsp;""Recombinant DNA contains DNA segments or genes from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">different sources</span>. The transfer of these DNA segments can come from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">viral transduction,</span> <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bacterial conjugation</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">transposons</span>, or through artificial recombinant <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA technology</span>. Crossing over during prophase of meiosis produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">recombinant chromosomes</span>.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Recombinant DNA contains DNA segments or genes from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">different sources</span>. The transfer of these DNA segments can come from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""viral&#x20;transduction&#x2C;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bacterial&#x20;conjugation"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""transposons"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, or through artificial recombinant <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA&#x20;technology"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>. Crossing over during prophase of meiosis produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">recombinant chromosomes</span>.&nbsp;""Recombinant DNA contains DNA segments or genes from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">different sources</span>. The transfer of these DNA segments can come from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">viral transduction,</span> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">bacterial conjugation</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">transposons</span>, or through artificial recombinant <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA technology</span>. Crossing over during prophase of meiosis produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">recombinant chromosomes</span>.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Recombinant DNA contains DNA segments or genes from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">different sources</span>. The transfer of these DNA segments can come from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">viral transduction,</span> <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bacterial conjugation</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">transposons</span>, or through artificial recombinant <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA technology</span>. Crossing over during prophase of meiosis produces <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""recombinant&#x20;chromosomes"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>.&nbsp;""Recombinant DNA contains DNA segments or genes from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">different sources</span>. The transfer of these DNA segments can come from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">viral transduction,</span> <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bacterial conjugation</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">transposons</span>, or through artificial recombinant <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA technology</span>. Crossing over during prophase of meiosis produces <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">recombinant chromosomes</span>.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Recombinant DNA/DNA tech:<div>The technology uses <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""restriction&#x20;endonucleases"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to cut up specific segments of DNA and left it with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sticky end</span> (unpaired).</div>""Recombinant DNA/DNA tech:<div>The technology uses <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">restriction endonucleases</span> to cut up specific segments of DNA and left it with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sticky end</span> (unpaired).</div><br>
"
"Recombinant DNA/DNA tech:<div>The technology uses <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">restriction endonucleases</span> to cut up specific segments of DNA and left it with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sticky&#x20;end"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (unpaired).</div>""Recombinant DNA/DNA tech:<div>The technology uses <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">restriction endonucleases</span> to cut up specific segments of DNA and left it with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">sticky end</span> (unpaired).</div><br>
"
"Recombinant DNA/DNA tech:<div>These restriction enzymes (e.g. EcoRI; BamHI) normally used by bacteria to protect against <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""viral&#x20;DNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (protect their own DNA via methylation)</div>""Recombinant DNA/DNA tech:<div>These restriction enzymes (e.g. EcoRI; BamHI) normally used by bacteria to protect against <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">viral DNA</span> (protect their own DNA via methylation)</div><br>
"
"Vector: such as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""plasmid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> because DNA molecule used as a vehicle to transfer foreign genetic material into another cell.""Vector: such as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">plasmid</span> because DNA molecule used as a vehicle to transfer foreign genetic material into another cell.<br>
"
"- To introduce foreign DNA into plasmid, the plasmid is treated with the same <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""restriction&#x20;enzyme"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> so the same sticky ends to bind. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA ligase</span> stabilizes the attachments; then the plasmid is introduced into bacterium by transformation. Bacterium must be “made competent” to take up the plasmid (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">electroporation</span> or <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">heat shock+CaCl2</span>)""- To introduce foreign DNA into plasmid, the plasmid is treated with the same <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">restriction enzyme</span> so the same sticky ends to bind. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA ligase</span> stabilizes the attachments; then the plasmid is introduced into bacterium by transformation. Bacterium must be “made competent” to take up the plasmid (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">electroporation</span> or <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">heat shock+CaCl2</span>)<br>
"
"- To introduce foreign DNA into plasmid, the plasmid is treated with the same <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">restriction enzyme</span> so the same sticky ends to bind. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA&#x20;ligase"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> stabilizes the attachments; then the plasmid is introduced into bacterium by transformation. Bacterium must be “made competent” to take up the plasmid (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">electroporation</span> or <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">heat shock+CaCl2</span>)""- To introduce foreign DNA into plasmid, the plasmid is treated with the same <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">restriction enzyme</span> so the same sticky ends to bind. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA ligase</span> stabilizes the attachments; then the plasmid is introduced into bacterium by transformation. Bacterium must be “made competent” to take up the plasmid (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">electroporation</span> or <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">heat shock+CaCl2</span>)<br>
"
"- To introduce foreign DNA into plasmid, the plasmid is treated with the same <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">restriction enzyme</span> so the same sticky ends to bind. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA ligase</span> stabilizes the attachments; then the plasmid is introduced into bacterium by transformation. Bacterium must be “made competent” to take up the plasmid (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""electroporation"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> or <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""heat&#x20;shock&#x2B;CaCl2"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>)""- To introduce foreign DNA into plasmid, the plasmid is treated with the same <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">restriction enzyme</span> so the same sticky ends to bind. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">DNA ligase</span> stabilizes the attachments; then the plasmid is introduced into bacterium by transformation. Bacterium must be “made competent” to take up the plasmid (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">electroporation</span> or <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">heat shock+CaCl2</span>)<br>
"
"<div>DNA Tech - After introduction of plasmid</div>After this process, bacteria can be grown to produce product, form clone library, etc. Use <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""antibiotic&#x20;resistance&#x2F;screen"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> method to filter out the ones that don’t have the recombinant DNA.&nbsp;""<div>DNA Tech - After introduction of plasmid</div>After this process, bacteria can be grown to produce product, form clone library, etc. Use <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">antibiotic resistance/screen</span> method to filter out the ones that don’t have the recombinant DNA.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Gel Electrophoresis (after DNA cut up) – <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""agarose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> gel under an electric field for the separation of proteins based on <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">charge and size</span> (e.g. negative DNA moves toward positive anode from negative cathode). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Shorter</span> DNA moves further than <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">larger</span>; distributes DNA by size.""Gel Electrophoresis (after DNA cut up) – <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">agarose</span> gel under an electric field for the separation of proteins based on <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">charge and size</span> (e.g. negative DNA moves toward positive anode from negative cathode). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Shorter</span> DNA moves further than <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">larger</span>; distributes DNA by size.<br>
"
"Gel Electrophoresis (after DNA cut up) – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">agarose</span> gel under an electric field for the separation of proteins based on <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""charge&#x20;and&#x20;size"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (e.g. negative DNA moves toward positive anode from negative cathode). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Shorter</span> DNA moves further than <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">larger</span>; distributes DNA by size.""Gel Electrophoresis (after DNA cut up) – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">agarose</span> gel under an electric field for the separation of proteins based on <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">charge and size</span> (e.g. negative DNA moves toward positive anode from negative cathode). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Shorter</span> DNA moves further than <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">larger</span>; distributes DNA by size.<br>
"
"Gel Electrophoresis (after DNA cut up) – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">agarose</span> gel under an electric field for the separation of proteins based on <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">charge and size</span> (e.g. negative DNA moves toward positive anode from negative cathode). <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Shorter"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> DNA moves further than <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""larger"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>; distributes DNA by size.""Gel Electrophoresis (after DNA cut up) – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">agarose</span> gel under an electric field for the separation of proteins based on <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">charge and size</span> (e.g. negative DNA moves toward positive anode from negative cathode). <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Shorter</span> DNA moves further than <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">larger</span>; distributes DNA by size.<br>
"
"-After electrophoresis: DNA can then be sequenced, or probed to identify location of specific sequence of DNA<div><div>-DNA probe is a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""radioactively&#x20;labeled&#x20;single&#x20;strand&#x20;of&#x20;nucleic&#x20;acid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> used to tag a specific DNA sequence</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>-You can do gel electrophoresis of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">proteins</span> too. Add SDS (denatures+linearizes+adds negative charge). Same principle.</div></div>""-After electrophoresis: DNA can then be sequenced, or probed to identify location of specific sequence of DNA<div><div>-DNA probe is a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">radioactively labeled single strand of nucleic acid</span> used to tag a specific DNA sequence</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>-You can do gel electrophoresis of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">proteins</span> too. Add SDS (denatures+linearizes+adds negative charge). Same principle.</div></div><br>
"
"-After electrophoresis: DNA can then be sequenced, or probed to identify location of specific sequence of DNA<div><div>-DNA probe is a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">radioactively labeled single strand of nucleic acid</span> used to tag a specific DNA sequence</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>-You can do gel electrophoresis of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""proteins"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> too. Add SDS (denatures+linearizes+adds negative charge). Same principle.</div></div>""-After electrophoresis: DNA can then be sequenced, or probed to identify location of specific sequence of DNA<div><div>-DNA probe is a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">radioactively labeled single strand of nucleic acid</span> used to tag a specific DNA sequence</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>-You can do gel electrophoresis of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">proteins</span> too. Add SDS (denatures+linearizes+adds negative charge). Same principle.</div></div><br>
"
"Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLPs): restriction fragments between individuals are compared, fragments differ in length are observed because of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""polymorphism"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (different length in DNA sequences). Inherited in Mendelian fashion so often used in paternity suits, RFLP analysis used at crime scenes to match suspects.&nbsp;""Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLPs): restriction fragments between individuals are compared, fragments differ in length are observed because of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">polymorphism</span> (different length in DNA sequences). Inherited in Mendelian fashion so often used in paternity suits, RFLP analysis used at crime scenes to match suspects.&nbsp;<br>
"
"DNA-Finger Printing: RFLPs at <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""crime&#x20;scene"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> compared to RFLPs of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""suspects"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.""DNA-Finger Printing: RFLPs at <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">crime scene</span> compared to RFLPs of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">suspects</span>.<br>
"
"Short tandem repeat (STR): repeat of 2-5 nucleotides and different between all individuals except <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""identical&#x20;twins&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Short tandem repeat (STR): repeat of 2-5 nucleotides and different between all individuals except <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">identical twins.</span><br>
"
"Reverse transcriptase: introns often prevent transcriptions; this enzyme makes DNA molecule directly from mRNA. DNA obtained from this manner is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""complementary&#x20;DNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (cDNA) which <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lacks&#x20;introns"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> that suppress transcriptions.&nbsp;""Reverse transcriptase: introns often prevent transcriptions; this enzyme makes DNA molecule directly from mRNA. DNA obtained from this manner is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">complementary DNA</span> (cDNA) which <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lacks introns</span> that suppress transcriptions.&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>PCR uses <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""synthetic&#x20;primer"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (the primer may be RNA or DNA oligonucleotides) to clone DNA (rapidly amplify). Taq polymerase (heat stable) + nucleotides + primers + salts (buffer) necessary.&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>1. Denaturation (&gt;90C) 2. Primers + Anneal (~55C) 3. Elongation (Taq Polymerase ~70C)</div>""<div>PCR uses <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">synthetic primer</span> (the primer may be RNA or DNA oligonucleotides) to clone DNA (rapidly amplify). Taq polymerase (heat stable) + nucleotides + primers + salts (buffer) necessary.&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>1. Denaturation (&gt;90C) 2. Primers + Anneal (~55C) 3. Elongation (Taq Polymerase ~70C)</div><br>
"
"Southern Blotting: Technique to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ID&#x20;target&#x20;fragments&#x20;on&#x20;known&#x20;DNA&#x20;sequence"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in a large population of DNA. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Electrophoresis</span> fragments first, then transfer the SS DNA fragments to nitrocellulose membrane, then add probe which will hybridize and mark it.""Southern Blotting: Technique to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ID target fragments on known DNA sequence</span> in a large population of DNA. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Electrophoresis</span> fragments first, then transfer the SS DNA fragments to nitrocellulose membrane, then add probe which will hybridize and mark it.<br>
"
"Southern Blotting: Technique to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">ID target fragments on known DNA sequence</span> in a large population of DNA. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Electrophoresis"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> fragments first, then transfer the SS DNA fragments to nitrocellulose membrane, then add probe which will hybridize and mark it.""Southern Blotting: Technique to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">ID target fragments on known DNA sequence</span> in a large population of DNA. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Electrophoresis</span> fragments first, then transfer the SS DNA fragments to nitrocellulose membrane, then add probe which will hybridize and mark it.<br>
"
"Northern Blotting: Just like Southern blot, but for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""RNA&#x20;fragments&#x2E;&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Northern Blotting: Just like Southern blot, but for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA fragments.&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"Western Blot: similar method for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""proteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: electrophoresis, blot to membrane, primary <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">antibody</span> specific to protein added to bind to that protein, then secondary anti-body-enzyme conjugate will bind to primary and mark it w/ enzyme for visualization""Western Blot: similar method for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">proteins</span>: electrophoresis, blot to membrane, primary <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">antibody</span> specific to protein added to bind to that protein, then secondary anti-body-enzyme conjugate will bind to primary and mark it w/ enzyme for visualization<br>
"
"Western Blot: similar method for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">proteins</span>: electrophoresis, blot to membrane, primary <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""antibody"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> specific to protein added to bind to that protein, then secondary anti-body-enzyme conjugate will bind to primary and mark it w/ enzyme for visualization""Western Blot: similar method for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">proteins</span>: electrophoresis, blot to membrane, primary <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">antibody</span> specific to protein added to bind to that protein, then secondary anti-body-enzyme conjugate will bind to primary and mark it w/ enzyme for visualization<br>
"
"How to distinguish between types of blotting:<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""SNOW&#x20;DROP&#x3B;&#x20;match&#x20;the&#x20;letters&#x20;up&#x2E;&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""How to distinguish between types of blotting:<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">SNOW DROP; match the letters up.&nbsp;</span></div><br>
"
"Genome of humans differs roughly one every 1000 nt’s, these differences called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""single&#x20;nucleotide&#x20;polymorphisms&#x20;&#x28;SNPs&#x29;&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Genome of humans differs roughly one every 1000 nt’s, these differences called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"Plasmids are circular dsDNA that have restriction sites (for restriction enzymes). Cut there &gt;&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""linear&#x20;piece&#x20;of&#x20;DNA&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Plasmids are circular dsDNA that have restriction sites (for restriction enzymes). Cut there &gt;&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">linear piece of DNA.</span><br>
"
"Plasmids and Gene cloning<div>Also has a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""promoter"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> region + some gene product(s) (e.g. antibiotic resistance). We want to cut, add genes, close plasmid, add to something like bacteria to replicate it.&nbsp;</div>""Plasmids and Gene cloning<div>Also has a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">promoter</span> region + some gene product(s) (e.g. antibiotic resistance). We want to cut, add genes, close plasmid, add to something like bacteria to replicate it.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Plasmids and Gene Cloning<div>Bacteria dislike plasmids &gt;&gt; only fraction of them get taken up by some bacteria. Use <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""antibiotic&#x20;resistance"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> gene to determine which bacteria were “transformed” that will survive on certain medium.&nbsp;</div>""Plasmids and Gene Cloning<div>Bacteria dislike plasmids &gt;&gt; only fraction of them get taken up by some bacteria. Use <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">antibiotic resistance</span> gene to determine which bacteria were “transformed” that will survive on certain medium.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Plasmids and Gene Cloning<div>Plasmid also has origin of replication. Plasmids will get reproduced during cell division or even not during cell division.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;If making a prokaryotic gene product in mammalian cell &gt;&gt; need to add <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""polyA&#x20;tail"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for the mRNA to survive.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>If making eukaryotic gene product in prokaryotic cell &gt;&gt; need to make sure no <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">introns</span> (use reverse transcriptase on the mRNA product to get the desired DNA fragment).&nbsp;</div>""Plasmids and Gene Cloning<div>Plasmid also has origin of replication. Plasmids will get reproduced during cell division or even not during cell division.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;If making a prokaryotic gene product in mammalian cell &gt;&gt; need to add <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">polyA tail</span> for the mRNA to survive.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>If making eukaryotic gene product in prokaryotic cell &gt;&gt; need to make sure no <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">introns</span> (use reverse transcriptase on the mRNA product to get the desired DNA fragment).&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Plasmids and Gene Cloning<div>Plasmid also has origin of replication. Plasmids will get reproduced during cell division or even not during cell division.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;If making a prokaryotic gene product in mammalian cell &gt;&gt; need to add <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">polyA tail</span> for the mRNA to survive.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>If making eukaryotic gene product in prokaryotic cell &gt;&gt; need to make sure no <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""introns"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (use reverse transcriptase on the mRNA product to get the desired DNA fragment).&nbsp;</div>""Plasmids and Gene Cloning<div>Plasmid also has origin of replication. Plasmids will get reproduced during cell division or even not during cell division.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;If making a prokaryotic gene product in mammalian cell &gt;&gt; need to add <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">polyA tail</span> for the mRNA to survive.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>If making eukaryotic gene product in prokaryotic cell &gt;&gt; need to make sure no <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">introns</span> (use reverse transcriptase on the mRNA product to get the desired DNA fragment).&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Hybridization"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: complementary BP’s annealing&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Hybridization</span>: complementary BP’s annealing&nbsp;<br>
"
"&nbsp;Want to test for specific gene sequence in someone’s DNA? Method 1 (single test only): take drop of blood, cut up DNA, use <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""PCR&#x20;method&#x20;w&#x2F;&#x20;specific&#x20;primer&#x20;for&#x20;that&#x20;region"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. If that gene is there &gt;&gt; lots of copies. Gene not there &gt;&gt; no copies.&nbsp;""&nbsp;Want to test for specific gene sequence in someone’s DNA? Method 1 (single test only): take drop of blood, cut up DNA, use <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">PCR method w/ specific primer for that region</span>. If that gene is there &gt;&gt; lots of copies. Gene not there &gt;&gt; no copies.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Want to test for specific gene sequence in someone’s DNA?&nbsp;<div>Method 2 (test for many things at same time):&nbsp;</div><div>1. take drop of blood, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""PCR"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> it to amplify.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>2. We have a solid support w/ pieces of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ssDNA</span> w/ specific sequence covalently attached &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>will hybridize to anything <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">complementary</span> (e.g. disease genes). On that same solid support we can put sSDNA pieces specific for other genes, can do this hundreds of times at different spots on this DNA microarray.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Take desired amplified DNA, heat it to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">denature</span>, add to DNA microarray, any DNA that hybridizes is a match. The amplified DNA we added is already fluorescently tagged &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>hybridization wash to get rid of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">weakly bound sequences</span> (e.g. not a complete match) &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>add a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">dye</span> that will show heavily if something has bound to our microarray.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Can also do this starting w/ mRNA &gt;&gt; reverse transcriptase &gt;&gt; PCR amplify &gt;&gt; etc.&nbsp;</div>""Want to test for specific gene sequence in someone’s DNA?&nbsp;<div>Method 2 (test for many things at same time):&nbsp;</div><div>1. take drop of blood, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">PCR</span> it to amplify.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>2. We have a solid support w/ pieces of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ssDNA</span> w/ specific sequence covalently attached &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>will hybridize to anything <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">complementary</span> (e.g. disease genes). On that same solid support we can put sSDNA pieces specific for other genes, can do this hundreds of times at different spots on this DNA microarray.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Take desired amplified DNA, heat it to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">denature</span>, add to DNA microarray, any DNA that hybridizes is a match. The amplified DNA we added is already fluorescently tagged &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>hybridization wash to get rid of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">weakly bound sequences</span> (e.g. not a complete match) &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>add a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">dye</span> that will show heavily if something has bound to our microarray.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Can also do this starting w/ mRNA &gt;&gt; reverse transcriptase &gt;&gt; PCR amplify &gt;&gt; etc.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Want to test for specific gene sequence in someone’s DNA?&nbsp;<div>Method 2 (test for many things at same time):&nbsp;</div><div>1. take drop of blood, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">PCR</span> it to amplify.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>2. We have a solid support w/ pieces of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ssDNA"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> w/ specific sequence covalently attached &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>will hybridize to anything <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""complementary"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (e.g. disease genes). On that same solid support we can put sSDNA pieces specific for other genes, can do this hundreds of times at different spots on this DNA microarray.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Take desired amplified DNA, heat it to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">denature</span>, add to DNA microarray, any DNA that hybridizes is a match. The amplified DNA we added is already fluorescently tagged &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>hybridization wash to get rid of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">weakly bound sequences</span> (e.g. not a complete match) &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>add a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">dye</span> that will show heavily if something has bound to our microarray.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Can also do this starting w/ mRNA &gt;&gt; reverse transcriptase &gt;&gt; PCR amplify &gt;&gt; etc.&nbsp;</div>""Want to test for specific gene sequence in someone’s DNA?&nbsp;<div>Method 2 (test for many things at same time):&nbsp;</div><div>1. take drop of blood, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">PCR</span> it to amplify.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>2. We have a solid support w/ pieces of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">ssDNA</span> w/ specific sequence covalently attached &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>will hybridize to anything <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">complementary</span> (e.g. disease genes). On that same solid support we can put sSDNA pieces specific for other genes, can do this hundreds of times at different spots on this DNA microarray.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Take desired amplified DNA, heat it to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">denature</span>, add to DNA microarray, any DNA that hybridizes is a match. The amplified DNA we added is already fluorescently tagged &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>hybridization wash to get rid of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">weakly bound sequences</span> (e.g. not a complete match) &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>add a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">dye</span> that will show heavily if something has bound to our microarray.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Can also do this starting w/ mRNA &gt;&gt; reverse transcriptase &gt;&gt; PCR amplify &gt;&gt; etc.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Want to test for specific gene sequence in someone’s DNA?&nbsp;<div>Method 2 (test for many things at same time):&nbsp;</div><div>1. take drop of blood, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">PCR</span> it to amplify.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>2. We have a solid support w/ pieces of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ssDNA</span> w/ specific sequence covalently attached &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>will hybridize to anything <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">complementary</span> (e.g. disease genes). On that same solid support we can put sSDNA pieces specific for other genes, can do this hundreds of times at different spots on this DNA microarray.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Take desired amplified DNA, heat it to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""denature"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>, add to DNA microarray, any DNA that hybridizes is a match. The amplified DNA we added is already fluorescently tagged &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>hybridization wash to get rid of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">weakly bound sequences</span> (e.g. not a complete match) &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>add a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">dye</span> that will show heavily if something has bound to our microarray.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Can also do this starting w/ mRNA &gt;&gt; reverse transcriptase &gt;&gt; PCR amplify &gt;&gt; etc.&nbsp;</div>""Want to test for specific gene sequence in someone’s DNA?&nbsp;<div>Method 2 (test for many things at same time):&nbsp;</div><div>1. take drop of blood, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">PCR</span> it to amplify.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>2. We have a solid support w/ pieces of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ssDNA</span> w/ specific sequence covalently attached &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>will hybridize to anything <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">complementary</span> (e.g. disease genes). On that same solid support we can put sSDNA pieces specific for other genes, can do this hundreds of times at different spots on this DNA microarray.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Take desired amplified DNA, heat it to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">denature</span>, add to DNA microarray, any DNA that hybridizes is a match. The amplified DNA we added is already fluorescently tagged &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>hybridization wash to get rid of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">weakly bound sequences</span> (e.g. not a complete match) &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>add a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">dye</span> that will show heavily if something has bound to our microarray.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Can also do this starting w/ mRNA &gt;&gt; reverse transcriptase &gt;&gt; PCR amplify &gt;&gt; etc.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Want to test for specific gene sequence in someone’s DNA?&nbsp;<div>Method 2 (test for many things at same time):&nbsp;</div><div>1. take drop of blood, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">PCR</span> it to amplify.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>2. We have a solid support w/ pieces of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ssDNA</span> w/ specific sequence covalently attached &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>will hybridize to anything <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">complementary</span> (e.g. disease genes). On that same solid support we can put sSDNA pieces specific for other genes, can do this hundreds of times at different spots on this DNA microarray.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Take desired amplified DNA, heat it to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">denature</span>, add to DNA microarray, any DNA that hybridizes is a match. The amplified DNA we added is already fluorescently tagged &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>hybridization wash to get rid of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""weakly&#x20;bound&#x20;sequences"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> (e.g. not a complete match) &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>add a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">dye</span> that will show heavily if something has bound to our microarray.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Can also do this starting w/ mRNA &gt;&gt; reverse transcriptase &gt;&gt; PCR amplify &gt;&gt; etc.&nbsp;</div>""Want to test for specific gene sequence in someone’s DNA?&nbsp;<div>Method 2 (test for many things at same time):&nbsp;</div><div>1. take drop of blood, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">PCR</span> it to amplify.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>2. We have a solid support w/ pieces of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ssDNA</span> w/ specific sequence covalently attached &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>will hybridize to anything <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">complementary</span> (e.g. disease genes). On that same solid support we can put sSDNA pieces specific for other genes, can do this hundreds of times at different spots on this DNA microarray.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Take desired amplified DNA, heat it to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">denature</span>, add to DNA microarray, any DNA that hybridizes is a match. The amplified DNA we added is already fluorescently tagged &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>hybridization wash to get rid of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">weakly bound sequences</span> (e.g. not a complete match) &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>add a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">dye</span> that will show heavily if something has bound to our microarray.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Can also do this starting w/ mRNA &gt;&gt; reverse transcriptase &gt;&gt; PCR amplify &gt;&gt; etc.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Want to test for specific gene sequence in someone’s DNA?&nbsp;<div>Method 2 (test for many things at same time):&nbsp;</div><div>1. take drop of blood, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">PCR</span> it to amplify.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>2. We have a solid support w/ pieces of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ssDNA</span> w/ specific sequence covalently attached &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>will hybridize to anything <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">complementary</span> (e.g. disease genes). On that same solid support we can put sSDNA pieces specific for other genes, can do this hundreds of times at different spots on this DNA microarray.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Take desired amplified DNA, heat it to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">denature</span>, add to DNA microarray, any DNA that hybridizes is a match. The amplified DNA we added is already fluorescently tagged &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>hybridization wash to get rid of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">weakly bound sequences</span> (e.g. not a complete match) &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>add a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""dye"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> that will show heavily if something has bound to our microarray.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Can also do this starting w/ mRNA &gt;&gt; reverse transcriptase &gt;&gt; PCR amplify &gt;&gt; etc.&nbsp;</div>""Want to test for specific gene sequence in someone’s DNA?&nbsp;<div>Method 2 (test for many things at same time):&nbsp;</div><div>1. take drop of blood, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">PCR</span> it to amplify.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>2. We have a solid support w/ pieces of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ssDNA</span> w/ specific sequence covalently attached &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>will hybridize to anything <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">complementary</span> (e.g. disease genes). On that same solid support we can put sSDNA pieces specific for other genes, can do this hundreds of times at different spots on this DNA microarray.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Take desired amplified DNA, heat it to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">denature</span>, add to DNA microarray, any DNA that hybridizes is a match. The amplified DNA we added is already fluorescently tagged &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>hybridization wash to get rid of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">weakly bound sequences</span> (e.g. not a complete match) &gt;&gt;</div><div><br /></div><div>add a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">dye</span> that will show heavily if something has bound to our microarray.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Can also do this starting w/ mRNA &gt;&gt; reverse transcriptase &gt;&gt; PCR amplify &gt;&gt; etc.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"endonucleases cleave the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphodiester&#x20;backbone"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to chunk out NT’s, whereas <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">exonucleases</span> cut out just the NT’s.&nbsp;""endonucleases cleave the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphodiester backbone</span> to chunk out NT’s, whereas <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">exonucleases</span> cut out just the NT’s.&nbsp;<br>
"
"endonucleases cleave the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphodiester backbone</span> to chunk out NT’s, whereas <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""exonucleases"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> cut out just the NT’s.&nbsp;""endonucleases cleave the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphodiester backbone</span> to chunk out NT’s, whereas <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">exonucleases</span> cut out just the NT’s.&nbsp;<br>
"
"ATP resembles RNA nucleotide with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""two&#x20;extra&#x20;phosphates"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (ribose sugar)""ATP resembles RNA nucleotide with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">two extra phosphates</span> (ribose sugar)<br>
"
"Evolution: changes in populations, species or groups; changes in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""allele&#x20;&#x28;traits&#x29;&#x20;frequencies"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in populations over time.""Evolution: changes in populations, species or groups; changes in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">allele (traits) frequencies</span> in populations over time.<br>
"
"Microevolution: changes in allele frequencies that occur over time within a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""population"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (due to mutation, selection, gene flow &amp; drift)""Microevolution: changes in allele frequencies that occur over time within a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">population</span> (due to mutation, selection, gene flow &amp; drift)<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Macroevolution"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: patterns of changes in groups of related species over broad periods of geologic time. Patterns determine phylogeny (evolutionary <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">relationships</span> among species and groups of species).""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Macroevolution</span>: patterns of changes in groups of related species over broad periods of geologic time. Patterns determine phylogeny (evolutionary <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">relationships</span> among species and groups of species).<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Macroevolution</span>: patterns of changes in groups of related species over broad periods of geologic time. Patterns determine phylogeny (evolutionary <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""relationships"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> among species and groups of species).""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Macroevolution</span>: patterns of changes in groups of related species over broad periods of geologic time. Patterns determine phylogeny (evolutionary <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">relationships</span> among species and groups of species).<br>
"
"* Lamarck theory:<div>Use and disuse: body parts can develop with increased <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""usage"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, unused parts are weakened (correct in athletes).</div>""* Lamarck theory:<div>Use and disuse: body parts can develop with increased <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">usage</span>, unused parts are weakened (correct in athletes).</div><br>
"
"* Lamarck theory:<div>Inheritance of acquired characteristics: body features acquired during lifetime can be passed down to offsprings (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""incorrect"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>). Only changes in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""genetic&#x20;material"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of cells can be passed to offspring.</div>""* Lamarck theory:<div>Inheritance of acquired characteristics: body features acquired during lifetime can be passed down to offsprings (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">incorrect</span>). Only changes in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">genetic material</span> of cells can be passed to offspring.</div><br>
"
"Lamarck theory:<div>Natural transformation of species: organisms produced offspring with changes, transforming each later generation slightly more complex (no extinction or splits into more species) =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""incorrect"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.</div>""Lamarck theory:<div>Natural transformation of species: organisms produced offspring with changes, transforming each later generation slightly more complex (no extinction or splits into more species) =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">incorrect</span>.</div><br>
"
"Lamarck theory:<div>Natural selection: survival of the fittest (Darwinism) =&gt; now called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""neo&#x2D;Darwinism"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (synthetic theory of evolution).</div>""Lamarck theory:<div>Natural selection: survival of the fittest (Darwinism) =&gt; now called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">neo-Darwinism</span> (synthetic theory of evolution).</div><br>
"
"Evidence for Evolution:<div>1. Paleontology: fossils reveal prehistoric existence of extinct species; often found in sediment layers (deepest fossils represent <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oldest&#x20;specimens"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>). (large, rapid changes produce new species)(fos types: actual remains, petrification, imprints, molds, casts)</div>""Evidence for Evolution:<div>1. Paleontology: fossils reveal prehistoric existence of extinct species; often found in sediment layers (deepest fossils represent <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">oldest specimens</span>). (large, rapid changes produce new species)(fos types: actual remains, petrification, imprints, molds, casts)</div><br>
"
"Evidence for Evolution:<div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Biogeography"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: geography to describe distribution of species; unrelated species in different regions of world look alike when found in similar environment. continental drift – supercontinent Pangea slowly broke apart to 7 continents</div>""Evidence for Evolution:<div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Biogeography</span>: geography to describe distribution of species; unrelated species in different regions of world look alike when found in similar environment. continental drift – supercontinent Pangea slowly broke apart to 7 continents</div><br>
"
"Evidence for Evolution:<div>3. Embryology: similar stages of development (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ontogeny"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>) among related species =&gt; establish evolutionary relationships (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">phylogeny</span>). Gill slits and tails are found in fish, chicken, pig, and human embryos. “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”.</div>""Evidence for Evolution:<div>3. Embryology: similar stages of development (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ontogeny</span>) among related species =&gt; establish evolutionary relationships (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">phylogeny</span>). Gill slits and tails are found in fish, chicken, pig, and human embryos. “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”.</div><br>
"
"Evidence for Evolution:<div>3. Embryology: similar stages of development (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">ontogeny</span>) among related species =&gt; establish evolutionary relationships (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phylogeny"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>). Gill slits and tails are found in fish, chicken, pig, and human embryos. “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”.</div>""Evidence for Evolution:<div>3. Embryology: similar stages of development (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">ontogeny</span>) among related species =&gt; establish evolutionary relationships (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">phylogeny</span>). Gill slits and tails are found in fish, chicken, pig, and human embryos. “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”.</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Evidence for Evolution:<div><div>&nbsp;4. Comparative anatomy: describes two kind of structures that contribute to identification of evolutionary relationship.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>a. Homologous structure: body parts that <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""resemble&#x20;one&#x20;another&#x20;in&#x20;different&#x20;species&#x20;from&#x20;common&#x20;ancestor&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>b. Analogous structure: body parts that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">resemble one another in different species because they evolved independently as adaptation to their environments.</span></div></div>""&nbsp;Evidence for Evolution:<div><div>&nbsp;4. Comparative anatomy: describes two kind of structures that contribute to identification of evolutionary relationship.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>a. Homologous structure: body parts that <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">resemble one another in different species from common ancestor.</span></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>b. Analogous structure: body parts that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">resemble one another in different species because they evolved independently as adaptation to their environments.</span></div></div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Evidence for Evolution:<div><div>&nbsp;4. Comparative anatomy: describes two kind of structures that contribute to identification of evolutionary relationship.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>a. Homologous structure: body parts that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">resemble one another in different species from common ancestor.</span></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>b. Analogous structure: body parts that <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""resemble&#x20;one&#x20;another&#x20;in&#x20;different&#x20;species&#x20;because&#x20;they&#x20;evolved&#x20;independently&#x20;as&#x20;adaptation&#x20;to&#x20;their&#x20;environments&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div></div>""&nbsp;Evidence for Evolution:<div><div>&nbsp;4. Comparative anatomy: describes two kind of structures that contribute to identification of evolutionary relationship.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>a. Homologous structure: body parts that <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">resemble one another in different species from common ancestor.</span></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>b. Analogous structure: body parts that <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">resemble one another in different species because they evolved independently as adaptation to their environments.</span></div></div><br>
"
"Evidence for Evolution:<div>5. Molecular biology: examines nucleotide and amino acid sequences of DNA and proteins from different species. More than 98% of nucleotide sequences in humans and chimpanzees are identical. AA’s in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytochrome&#x20;c"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> often compared.</div>""Evidence for Evolution:<div>5. Molecular biology: examines nucleotide and amino acid sequences of DNA and proteins from different species. More than 98% of nucleotide sequences in humans and chimpanzees are identical. AA’s in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytochrome c</span> often compared.</div><br>
"
"Evidence for Evolution:<div>&nbsp;6. Comparative biochemistry: Organisms w/ common ancestor = common <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""biochemical&#x20;pathways"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Evidence for Evolution:<div>&nbsp;6. Comparative biochemistry: Organisms w/ common ancestor = common <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">biochemical pathways</span></div><br>
"
"Natural Selection: responsible for producing <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""adaptations"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (superior inherited traits) that increase individual’s fitness (ability to survive, leave offspring)""Natural Selection: responsible for producing <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">adaptations</span> (superior inherited traits) that increase individual’s fitness (ability to survive, leave offspring)<br>
"
"&nbsp;Populations possess an enormous reproductive potential: if <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""all"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> offspring produced and survived.""&nbsp;Populations possess an enormous reproductive potential: if <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">all</span> offspring produced and survived.<br>
"
"Population size remain stable: populations generally <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fluctuate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> around a constant size.""Population size remain stable: populations generally <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fluctuate</span> around a constant size.<br>
"
"Resources are limited: resources do not increase as population <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""grow&#x20;larger&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Resources are limited: resources do not increase as population <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">grow larger.</span><br>
"
"Individuals compete for survival: growing pop will exceed available resources =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""compete&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Individuals compete for survival: growing pop will exceed available resources =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">compete.</span><br>
"
"There is variation among <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""individuals"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in a population: such as skin color (very pale to very dark).""There is variation among <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">individuals</span> in a population: such as skin color (very pale to very dark).<br>
"
"Much variation is heritable: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> passed down.""Much variation is heritable: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA</span> passed down.<br>
"
"Only the most fit individuals <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""survive"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: survival of the fittest.""Only the most fit individuals <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">survive</span>: survival of the fittest.<br>
"
"Evolution occurs as favorable traits <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""accumulate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in the population: best adapted individuals =&gt; best adapted offspring leave most offspring.""Evolution occurs as favorable traits <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">accumulate</span> in the population: best adapted individuals =&gt; best adapted offspring leave most offspring.<br>
"
"Stabilizing selection: bell curve (average height in human is in middle), favors an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""intermediate&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Stabilizing selection: bell curve (average height in human is in middle), favors an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">intermediate&nbsp;</span><br>
"
"Directional selection: favors traits that are at <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""one&#x20;extreme"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of a range of traits. Traits at opposite extremes are selected against. After many generations =&gt; changes in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">allele frequencies</span> (such as insecticide resistance).""Directional selection: favors traits that are at <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">one extreme</span> of a range of traits. Traits at opposite extremes are selected against. After many generations =&gt; changes in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">allele frequencies</span> (such as insecticide resistance).<br>
"
"Directional selection: favors traits that are at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">one extreme</span> of a range of traits. Traits at opposite extremes are selected against. After many generations =&gt; changes in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""allele&#x20;frequencies"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (such as insecticide resistance).""Directional selection: favors traits that are at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">one extreme</span> of a range of traits. Traits at opposite extremes are selected against. After many generations =&gt; changes in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">allele frequencies</span> (such as insecticide resistance).<br>
"
"Industrial melanism: selection of dark-colored (melanic) varieties in various species of moths (peppered moth) as a result of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""industrial&#x20;pollution&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Industrial melanism: selection of dark-colored (melanic) varieties in various species of moths (peppered moth) as a result of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">industrial pollution.</span><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Disruptive"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> selection: occurs when environment favors extreme or unusual traits while selecting against common traits. Short and tall are favored while average is selected against.""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Disruptive</span> selection: occurs when environment favors extreme or unusual traits while selecting against common traits. Short and tall are favored while average is selected against.<br>
"
"&nbsp;Sexual selection: differential mating of males (or females) in a population. Female chooses <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""superior&#x20;males"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> =&gt; increase fitness of offspring; they invest greater energy so they maximize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">quality</span>.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Males increase fitness of offspring by maximizing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">quantity</span>. Male competition: leads to fights; mating opportunities awarded to strongest male, favors traits like musculature, horns, large stature, etc.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Female choice: leads to traits/behaviors in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">males</span> that are favorable to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">female</span>, favors traits like colorful plumage or elaborate mating behavior.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Result often leads to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">sexual dimorphism</span> (differences in appearance of males and females) =&gt; becomes a form of disruptive selection.</div>""&nbsp;Sexual selection: differential mating of males (or females) in a population. Female chooses <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">superior males</span> =&gt; increase fitness of offspring; they invest greater energy so they maximize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">quality</span>.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Males increase fitness of offspring by maximizing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">quantity</span>. Male competition: leads to fights; mating opportunities awarded to strongest male, favors traits like musculature, horns, large stature, etc.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Female choice: leads to traits/behaviors in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">males</span> that are favorable to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">female</span>, favors traits like colorful plumage or elaborate mating behavior.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Result often leads to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">sexual dimorphism</span> (differences in appearance of males and females) =&gt; becomes a form of disruptive selection.</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Sexual selection: differential mating of males (or females) in a population. Female chooses <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">superior males</span> =&gt; increase fitness of offspring; they invest greater energy so they maximize <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""quality"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Males increase fitness of offspring by maximizing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">quantity</span>. Male competition: leads to fights; mating opportunities awarded to strongest male, favors traits like musculature, horns, large stature, etc.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Female choice: leads to traits/behaviors in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">males</span> that are favorable to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">female</span>, favors traits like colorful plumage or elaborate mating behavior.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Result often leads to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">sexual dimorphism</span> (differences in appearance of males and females) =&gt; becomes a form of disruptive selection.</div>""&nbsp;Sexual selection: differential mating of males (or females) in a population. Female chooses <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">superior males</span> =&gt; increase fitness of offspring; they invest greater energy so they maximize <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">quality</span>.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Males increase fitness of offspring by maximizing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">quantity</span>. Male competition: leads to fights; mating opportunities awarded to strongest male, favors traits like musculature, horns, large stature, etc.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Female choice: leads to traits/behaviors in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">males</span> that are favorable to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">female</span>, favors traits like colorful plumage or elaborate mating behavior.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Result often leads to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">sexual dimorphism</span> (differences in appearance of males and females) =&gt; becomes a form of disruptive selection.</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Sexual selection: differential mating of males (or females) in a population. Female chooses <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">superior males</span> =&gt; increase fitness of offspring; they invest greater energy so they maximize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">quality</span>.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Males increase fitness of offspring by maximizing <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""quantity"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>. Male competition: leads to fights; mating opportunities awarded to strongest male, favors traits like musculature, horns, large stature, etc.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Female choice: leads to traits/behaviors in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">males</span> that are favorable to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">female</span>, favors traits like colorful plumage or elaborate mating behavior.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Result often leads to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">sexual dimorphism</span> (differences in appearance of males and females) =&gt; becomes a form of disruptive selection.</div>""&nbsp;Sexual selection: differential mating of males (or females) in a population. Female chooses <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">superior males</span> =&gt; increase fitness of offspring; they invest greater energy so they maximize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">quality</span>.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Males increase fitness of offspring by maximizing <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">quantity</span>. Male competition: leads to fights; mating opportunities awarded to strongest male, favors traits like musculature, horns, large stature, etc.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Female choice: leads to traits/behaviors in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">males</span> that are favorable to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">female</span>, favors traits like colorful plumage or elaborate mating behavior.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Result often leads to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">sexual dimorphism</span> (differences in appearance of males and females) =&gt; becomes a form of disruptive selection.</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Sexual selection: differential mating of males (or females) in a population. Female chooses <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">superior males</span> =&gt; increase fitness of offspring; they invest greater energy so they maximize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">quality</span>.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Males increase fitness of offspring by maximizing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">quantity</span>. Male competition: leads to fights; mating opportunities awarded to strongest male, favors traits like musculature, horns, large stature, etc.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Female choice: leads to traits/behaviors in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""males"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> that are favorable to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""female"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>, favors traits like colorful plumage or elaborate mating behavior.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Result often leads to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">sexual dimorphism</span> (differences in appearance of males and females) =&gt; becomes a form of disruptive selection.</div>""&nbsp;Sexual selection: differential mating of males (or females) in a population. Female chooses <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">superior males</span> =&gt; increase fitness of offspring; they invest greater energy so they maximize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">quality</span>.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Males increase fitness of offspring by maximizing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">quantity</span>. Male competition: leads to fights; mating opportunities awarded to strongest male, favors traits like musculature, horns, large stature, etc.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Female choice: leads to traits/behaviors in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">males</span> that are favorable to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">female</span>, favors traits like colorful plumage or elaborate mating behavior.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Result often leads to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">sexual dimorphism</span> (differences in appearance of males and females) =&gt; becomes a form of disruptive selection.</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Sexual selection: differential mating of males (or females) in a population. Female chooses <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">superior males</span> =&gt; increase fitness of offspring; they invest greater energy so they maximize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">quality</span>.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Males increase fitness of offspring by maximizing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">quantity</span>. Male competition: leads to fights; mating opportunities awarded to strongest male, favors traits like musculature, horns, large stature, etc.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Female choice: leads to traits/behaviors in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">males</span> that are favorable to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">female</span>, favors traits like colorful plumage or elaborate mating behavior.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Result often leads to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sexual&#x20;dimorphism"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> (differences in appearance of males and females) =&gt; becomes a form of disruptive selection.</div>""&nbsp;Sexual selection: differential mating of males (or females) in a population. Female chooses <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">superior males</span> =&gt; increase fitness of offspring; they invest greater energy so they maximize <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">quality</span>.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Males increase fitness of offspring by maximizing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">quantity</span>. Male competition: leads to fights; mating opportunities awarded to strongest male, favors traits like musculature, horns, large stature, etc.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Female choice: leads to traits/behaviors in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">males</span> that are favorable to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">female</span>, favors traits like colorful plumage or elaborate mating behavior.&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>Result often leads to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">sexual dimorphism</span> (differences in appearance of males and females) =&gt; becomes a form of disruptive selection.</div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Artificial"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> selection: a form of directional selection carried out by humans when they breed favorable traits (not natural selection).""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Artificial</span> selection: a form of directional selection carried out by humans when they breed favorable traits (not natural selection).<br>
"
"Sources of Variations:<div>Mutation: introduce new&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""allele&#x2E;&lt;span&#x20;class&#x3D;&quot;Apple&#x2D;tab&#x2D;span&quot;&#x20;style&#x3D;&quot;white&#x2D;space&#x3A;pre&quot;&gt;&#x20;&lt;&#x2F;span&gt;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Sources of Variations:<div>Mutation: introduce new&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">allele.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></span></div><br>
"
"Sources of Variations<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Sexual"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> Reproduction: genetic recombination (crossing over, independent, random joining of gametes).</div>""Sources of Variations<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Sexual</span> Reproduction: genetic recombination (crossing over, independent, random joining of gametes).</div><br>
"
"Sources of Variations:<div>Diploidy: presence of two copies of each chromosome. In <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""heterozygous"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> conditions, recessive allele is stored for later generations =&gt; more variations is maintained in gene pool.</div>""Sources of Variations:<div>Diploidy: presence of two copies of each chromosome. In <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">heterozygous</span> conditions, recessive allele is stored for later generations =&gt; more variations is maintained in gene pool.</div><br>
"
"Sources of Variations:<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Outbreeding"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: mating with unrelated partners =&gt; mixing different alleles =&gt; new allele combinations.</div>""Sources of Variations:<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Outbreeding</span>: mating with unrelated partners =&gt; mixing different alleles =&gt; new allele combinations.</div><br>
"
"Sources of Variations:<div>&nbsp;Balanced polymorphism: maintenance of different <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phenotypes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in population (one is usually best and increased in allele frequency).&nbsp;</div>""Sources of Variations:<div>&nbsp;Balanced polymorphism: maintenance of different <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phenotypes</span> in population (one is usually best and increased in allele frequency).&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"polymorphisms (coexistence or two/more different phenotypes) can exist and be maintained:<div>a. Heterozygote advantage: heterozygous condition bears greater advantage than either homozygous conditions. Sickle cell (AA, AS, SS). AS is 14% in Africa because it has resistance against <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""malaria&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""polymorphisms (coexistence or two/more different phenotypes) can exist and be maintained:<div>a. Heterozygote advantage: heterozygous condition bears greater advantage than either homozygous conditions. Sickle cell (AA, AS, SS). AS is 14% in Africa because it has resistance against <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">malaria.</span></div><br>
"
"polymorphisms (coexistence or two/more different phenotypes) can exist and be maintained:<div><br /><div>Hybrid vigor (heterosis): superior quality of offspring resulting from crosses between two different inbred strains of plants =&gt; hybrid superior quality results from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""reduction&#x20;of&#x20;loci"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""deletion&#x20;of&#x20;recessive&#x20;homozygous&#x20;conditions"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and increase in heterozygous advantage.</div></div>""polymorphisms (coexistence or two/more different phenotypes) can exist and be maintained:<div><br /><div>Hybrid vigor (heterosis): superior quality of offspring resulting from crosses between two different inbred strains of plants =&gt; hybrid superior quality results from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">reduction of loci</span> with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">deletion of recessive homozygous conditions</span> and increase in heterozygous advantage.</div></div><br>
"
"polymorphisms (coexistence or two/more different phenotypes) can exist and be maintained:<div><br /></div><div>Frequency-dependent selection (minority advantage): least common phenotypes have a selective advantage. Common phenotypes are selected against. Rare will increase in frequency and will be selected against and repeat. Predators (search image of common phenotypes) =&gt; rare escapes; rare eventually becomes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""common"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, cycle repeats.</div>""polymorphisms (coexistence or two/more different phenotypes) can exist and be maintained:<div><br /></div><div>Frequency-dependent selection (minority advantage): least common phenotypes have a selective advantage. Common phenotypes are selected against. Rare will increase in frequency and will be selected against and repeat. Predators (search image of common phenotypes) =&gt; rare escapes; rare eventually becomes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">common</span>, cycle repeats.</div><br>
"
"Sources of Variations:<div><br /><div>Neutral variation – variation w/out <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""selective&#x20;value"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (e.g. fingerprints in humans)</div></div>""Sources of Variations:<div><br /><div>Neutral variation – variation w/out <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">selective value</span> (e.g. fingerprints in humans)</div></div><br>
"
"Sources of Variations:<div><br /></div><div>Geographic variation – variation of a species dependent on climate or geographic conditions. A graded variation of a phenotype due to this is known as a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cline"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; variation from north/south environments is a north-south cline</div>""Sources of Variations:<div><br /></div><div>Geographic variation – variation of a species dependent on climate or geographic conditions. A graded variation of a phenotype due to this is known as a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cline</span>; variation from north/south environments is a north-south cline</div><br>
"
"Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /><div><div>1. Natural selection: increase/decrease of allele frequencies due to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""environment&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>2. Gene flow: introduction/removal of alleles from population when individuals <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">leave (emigration) or enter population.</span></div></div></div>""Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /><div><div>1. Natural selection: increase/decrease of allele frequencies due to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">environment.</span></div><div>2. Gene flow: introduction/removal of alleles from population when individuals <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">leave (emigration) or enter population.</span></div></div></div><br>
"
"Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /><div><div>1. Natural selection: increase/decrease of allele frequencies due to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">environment.</span></div><div>2. Gene flow: introduction/removal of alleles from population when individuals <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""leave&#x20;&#x28;emigration&#x29;&#x20;or&#x20;enter&#x20;population&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div></div></div>""Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /><div><div>1. Natural selection: increase/decrease of allele frequencies due to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">environment.</span></div><div>2. Gene flow: introduction/removal of alleles from population when individuals <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">leave (emigration) or enter population.</span></div></div></div><br>
"
"Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /></div><div><div>3. Genetic drift: random increase/decrease of allele by chance. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Small&#x20;population"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> =&gt; larger effect.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Founder</span> effect: allele frequencies in group of migrating individuals are (by chance) not the same as that of their population origin.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Bottleneck: occurs when population undergoes a dramatic decrease in size (natural catastrophe, etc) =&gt; vulnerable to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">genetic drift.</span></div></div>""Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /></div><div><div>3. Genetic drift: random increase/decrease of allele by chance. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Small population</span> =&gt; larger effect.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Founder</span> effect: allele frequencies in group of migrating individuals are (by chance) not the same as that of their population origin.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Bottleneck: occurs when population undergoes a dramatic decrease in size (natural catastrophe, etc) =&gt; vulnerable to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">genetic drift.</span></div></div><br>
"
"Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /></div><div><div>3. Genetic drift: random increase/decrease of allele by chance. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Small population</span> =&gt; larger effect.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Founder"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> effect: allele frequencies in group of migrating individuals are (by chance) not the same as that of their population origin.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Bottleneck: occurs when population undergoes a dramatic decrease in size (natural catastrophe, etc) =&gt; vulnerable to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">genetic drift.</span></div></div>""Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /></div><div><div>3. Genetic drift: random increase/decrease of allele by chance. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Small population</span> =&gt; larger effect.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Founder</span> effect: allele frequencies in group of migrating individuals are (by chance) not the same as that of their population origin.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Bottleneck: occurs when population undergoes a dramatic decrease in size (natural catastrophe, etc) =&gt; vulnerable to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">genetic drift.</span></div></div><br>
"
"Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /></div><div><div>3. Genetic drift: random increase/decrease of allele by chance. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Small population</span> =&gt; larger effect.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Founder</span> effect: allele frequencies in group of migrating individuals are (by chance) not the same as that of their population origin.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Bottleneck: occurs when population undergoes a dramatic decrease in size (natural catastrophe, etc) =&gt; vulnerable to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""genetic&#x20;drift&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span></div></div>""Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /></div><div><div>3. Genetic drift: random increase/decrease of allele by chance. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Small population</span> =&gt; larger effect.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Founder</span> effect: allele frequencies in group of migrating individuals are (by chance) not the same as that of their population origin.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Bottleneck: occurs when population undergoes a dramatic decrease in size (natural catastrophe, etc) =&gt; vulnerable to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">genetic drift.</span></div></div><br>
"
"Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /><div><div>4. Nonrandom mating: individuals choose mates based upon their particular traits (mates choose nearby individuals).</div><div>- Inbreeding: individuals mate with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""relatives"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</div><div>- Sexual selection: females choose males based on <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">superior traits.</span></div><div>5. Mutations</div></div></div>""Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /><div><div>4. Nonrandom mating: individuals choose mates based upon their particular traits (mates choose nearby individuals).</div><div>- Inbreeding: individuals mate with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">relatives</span>. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</div><div>- Sexual selection: females choose males based on <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">superior traits.</span></div><div>5. Mutations</div></div></div><br>
"
"Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /><div><div>4. Nonrandom mating: individuals choose mates based upon their particular traits (mates choose nearby individuals).</div><div>- Inbreeding: individuals mate with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">relatives</span>. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</div><div>- Sexual selection: females choose males based on <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""superior&#x20;traits&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div><div>5. Mutations</div></div></div>""Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies:<div><br /><div><div>4. Nonrandom mating: individuals choose mates based upon their particular traits (mates choose nearby individuals).</div><div>- Inbreeding: individuals mate with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">relatives</span>. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</div><div>- Sexual selection: females choose males based on <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">superior traits.</span></div><div>5. Mutations</div></div></div><br>
"
"Genetic Equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg eq.):&nbsp;allele frequencies remain constant from generation to generation =&gt; no <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""evolution"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><div><br /></div>""Genetic Equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg eq.):&nbsp;allele frequencies remain constant from generation to generation =&gt; no <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">evolution</span><div><br /></div><br>
"
"Genetic Equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg eq.):<div>Require the following conditions: no mutation, all traits are neutral (no natural selection), population must be isolated (no gene flow), large population (no genetic drift), mating is random, no net migration.</div><div><br /></div><div>Allele frequencies for each allele (p, q)</div><div>Frequency of homozygous (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""p&#x5E;2&#x2C;&#x20;q&#x5E;2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)</div><div>Heterozygous (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pq + pq = 2pq</span>)</div>""Genetic Equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg eq.):<div>Require the following conditions: no mutation, all traits are neutral (no natural selection), population must be isolated (no gene flow), large population (no genetic drift), mating is random, no net migration.</div><div><br /></div><div>Allele frequencies for each allele (p, q)</div><div>Frequency of homozygous (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">p^2, q^2</span>)</div><div>Heterozygous (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pq + pq = 2pq</span>)</div><br>
"
"Genetic Equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg eq.):<div>Require the following conditions: no mutation, all traits are neutral (no natural selection), population must be isolated (no gene flow), large population (no genetic drift), mating is random, no net migration.</div><div><br /></div><div>Allele frequencies for each allele (p, q)</div><div>Frequency of homozygous (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">p^2, q^2</span>)</div><div>Heterozygous (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pq&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;pq&#x20;&#x3D;&#x20;2pq"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>)</div>""Genetic Equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg eq.):<div>Require the following conditions: no mutation, all traits are neutral (no natural selection), population must be isolated (no gene flow), large population (no genetic drift), mating is random, no net migration.</div><div><br /></div><div>Allele frequencies for each allele (p, q)</div><div>Frequency of homozygous (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">p^2, q^2</span>)</div><div>Heterozygous (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">pq + pq = 2pq</span>)</div><br>
"
"Genetic Equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg eq.):<div>All alleles sum to 100%: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""p&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;q&#x20;&#x3D;&#x20;1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><div>All individuals sum to 100%: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">p2 + 2qp + q2 = 1</span>. &nbsp;both must be true for HW!</div>""Genetic Equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg eq.):<div>All alleles sum to 100%: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">p + q = 1</span><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><div>All individuals sum to 100%: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">p2 + 2qp + q2 = 1</span>. &nbsp;both must be true for HW!</div><br>
"
"Genetic Equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg eq.):<div>All alleles sum to 100%: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">p + q = 1</span><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><div>All individuals sum to 100%: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""p2&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;2qp&#x20;&#x2B;&#x20;q2&#x20;&#x3D;&#x20;1"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>. &nbsp;both must be true for HW!</div>""Genetic Equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg eq.):<div>All alleles sum to 100%: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">p + q = 1</span><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><div>All individuals sum to 100%: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">p2 + 2qp + q2 = 1</span>. &nbsp;both must be true for HW!</div><br>
"
"<div>A plant population with 84% Red (R) and 16% White (r) =&gt; q2 = 0.16 (rr)<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>p2 + 2pq = 0.84 (RR + Rr)</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>We can find q and p by taking square-root and plug in the two equations to find <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""heterozygous&#x20;frequency&#x20;and&#x20;homozygous&#x20;dominant&#x20;frequency&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""<div>A plant population with 84% Red (R) and 16% White (r) =&gt; q2 = 0.16 (rr)<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>p2 + 2pq = 0.84 (RR + Rr)</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>We can find q and p by taking square-root and plug in the two equations to find <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">heterozygous frequency and homozygous dominant frequency.</span></div><br>
"
"<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Speciation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: formation of new species</div><div>- Species: a group of individuals capable of interbreeding.</div>""<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Speciation</span>: formation of new species</div><div>- Species: a group of individuals capable of interbreeding.</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Allopatric"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> speciation: population is divided by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">geographic barrier</span> =&gt; interbreeding between two resulting populations is prevented =&gt; gene frequencies in two population can diverge due to natural selection, mutation, genetic drift. If gene pool is sufficiently diverge =&gt; will not interbreed when barrier is removed =&gt; new species formed.""&nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Allopatric</span> speciation: population is divided by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">geographic barrier</span> =&gt; interbreeding between two resulting populations is prevented =&gt; gene frequencies in two population can diverge due to natural selection, mutation, genetic drift. If gene pool is sufficiently diverge =&gt; will not interbreed when barrier is removed =&gt; new species formed.<br>
"
"&nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Allopatric</span> speciation: population is divided by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""geographic&#x20;barrier"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> =&gt; interbreeding between two resulting populations is prevented =&gt; gene frequencies in two population can diverge due to natural selection, mutation, genetic drift. If gene pool is sufficiently diverge =&gt; will not interbreed when barrier is removed =&gt; new species formed.""&nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Allopatric</span> speciation: population is divided by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">geographic barrier</span> =&gt; interbreeding between two resulting populations is prevented =&gt; gene frequencies in two population can diverge due to natural selection, mutation, genetic drift. If gene pool is sufficiently diverge =&gt; will not interbreed when barrier is removed =&gt; new species formed.<br>
"
"&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Sympatric"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> speciation: formation of new species without presence of geographic barrier.""&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Sympatric</span> speciation: formation of new species without presence of geographic barrier.<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Balanced"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> polymorphism: natural selection due to polymorphism. Example: different color in insects, one color can camouflage to different substrate, and the other that can't will be eaten. Only insects with same color can mate (isolated from other subpopulations).""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Balanced</span> polymorphism: natural selection due to polymorphism. Example: different color in insects, one color can camouflage to different substrate, and the other that can't will be eaten. Only insects with same color can mate (isolated from other subpopulations).<br>
"
"Polyploidy: possession of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""more&#x20;than&#x20;normal&#x20;two&#x20;sets&#x20;of&#x20;chromosomes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (3n, 4n in plants &lt;= nondisjunction =&gt; two viable diploid gametes and two sterile gametes with no chromosomes =&gt; tetraploid 4n zygote formed =&gt; repeat with diploid gametes male/female =&gt; reproductive <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">isolation</span> with normal gametes).""Polyploidy: possession of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">more than normal two sets of chromosomes</span> (3n, 4n in plants &lt;= nondisjunction =&gt; two viable diploid gametes and two sterile gametes with no chromosomes =&gt; tetraploid 4n zygote formed =&gt; repeat with diploid gametes male/female =&gt; reproductive <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">isolation</span> with normal gametes).<br>
"
"Polyploidy: possession of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">more than normal two sets of chromosomes</span> (3n, 4n in plants &lt;= nondisjunction =&gt; two viable diploid gametes and two sterile gametes with no chromosomes =&gt; tetraploid 4n zygote formed =&gt; repeat with diploid gametes male/female =&gt; reproductive <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""isolation"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> with normal gametes).""Polyploidy: possession of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">more than normal two sets of chromosomes</span> (3n, 4n in plants &lt;= nondisjunction =&gt; two viable diploid gametes and two sterile gametes with no chromosomes =&gt; tetraploid 4n zygote formed =&gt; repeat with diploid gametes male/female =&gt; reproductive <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">isolation</span> with normal gametes).<br>
"
"Hybridization: two different forms of a species (closely related species) mate and produce along a geographic boundary called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hybrid&#x20;zone"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (more genetic variations =&gt; hybrid can live beyond range of either parents).""Hybridization: two different forms of a species (closely related species) mate and produce along a geographic boundary called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hybrid zone</span> (more genetic variations =&gt; hybrid can live beyond range of either parents).<br>
"
"3. Adaptive <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""radiation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: rapid evolution of many species from a single ancestor; occurs when ancestral species is introduced to an area where diverse geographic/ecological conditions are available for colonization.""3. Adaptive <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">radiation</span>: rapid evolution of many species from a single ancestor; occurs when ancestral species is introduced to an area where diverse geographic/ecological conditions are available for colonization.<br>
"
"<div>Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)</div><div>* Prezygotic Isolating mechanism: prevent <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fertilization"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><br /></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Habitat</span> isolation: species do not encounter. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Temporal</span> isolation: species mate/flower during different seasons/time.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Behavioral isolation: does not perform correct <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">courtship rituals.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Mechanical isolation: male/female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">genitalia</span> are not compatible.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Gametic</span> isolation: male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes. (gametes do not recognize others).</div></div>""<div>Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)</div><div>* Prezygotic Isolating mechanism: prevent <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fertilization</span></div><div><br /></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Habitat</span> isolation: species do not encounter. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Temporal</span> isolation: species mate/flower during different seasons/time.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Behavioral isolation: does not perform correct <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">courtship rituals.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Mechanical isolation: male/female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">genitalia</span> are not compatible.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Gametic</span> isolation: male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes. (gametes do not recognize others).</div></div><br>
"
"<div>Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)</div><div>* Prezygotic Isolating mechanism: prevent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fertilization</span></div><div><br /></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Habitat"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> isolation: species do not encounter. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Temporal</span> isolation: species mate/flower during different seasons/time.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Behavioral isolation: does not perform correct <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">courtship rituals.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Mechanical isolation: male/female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">genitalia</span> are not compatible.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Gametic</span> isolation: male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes. (gametes do not recognize others).</div></div>""<div>Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)</div><div>* Prezygotic Isolating mechanism: prevent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fertilization</span></div><div><br /></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Habitat</span> isolation: species do not encounter. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Temporal</span> isolation: species mate/flower during different seasons/time.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Behavioral isolation: does not perform correct <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">courtship rituals.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Mechanical isolation: male/female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">genitalia</span> are not compatible.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Gametic</span> isolation: male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes. (gametes do not recognize others).</div></div><br>
"
"<div>Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)</div><div>* Prezygotic Isolating mechanism: prevent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fertilization</span></div><div><br /></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Habitat</span> isolation: species do not encounter. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Temporal"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> isolation: species mate/flower during different seasons/time.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Behavioral isolation: does not perform correct <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">courtship rituals.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Mechanical isolation: male/female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">genitalia</span> are not compatible.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Gametic</span> isolation: male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes. (gametes do not recognize others).</div></div>""<div>Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)</div><div>* Prezygotic Isolating mechanism: prevent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fertilization</span></div><div><br /></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Habitat</span> isolation: species do not encounter. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Temporal</span> isolation: species mate/flower during different seasons/time.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Behavioral isolation: does not perform correct <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">courtship rituals.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Mechanical isolation: male/female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">genitalia</span> are not compatible.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Gametic</span> isolation: male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes. (gametes do not recognize others).</div></div><br>
"
"<div>Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)</div><div>* Prezygotic Isolating mechanism: prevent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fertilization</span></div><div><br /></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Habitat</span> isolation: species do not encounter. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Temporal</span> isolation: species mate/flower during different seasons/time.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Behavioral isolation: does not perform correct <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""courtship&#x20;rituals&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Mechanical isolation: male/female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">genitalia</span> are not compatible.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Gametic</span> isolation: male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes. (gametes do not recognize others).</div></div>""<div>Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)</div><div>* Prezygotic Isolating mechanism: prevent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fertilization</span></div><div><br /></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Habitat</span> isolation: species do not encounter. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Temporal</span> isolation: species mate/flower during different seasons/time.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Behavioral isolation: does not perform correct <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">courtship rituals.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Mechanical isolation: male/female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">genitalia</span> are not compatible.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Gametic</span> isolation: male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes. (gametes do not recognize others).</div></div><br>
"
"<div>Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)</div><div>* Prezygotic Isolating mechanism: prevent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fertilization</span></div><div><br /></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Habitat</span> isolation: species do not encounter. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Temporal</span> isolation: species mate/flower during different seasons/time.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Behavioral isolation: does not perform correct <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">courtship rituals.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Mechanical isolation: male/female <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""genitalia"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> are not compatible.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Gametic</span> isolation: male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes. (gametes do not recognize others).</div></div>""<div>Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)</div><div>* Prezygotic Isolating mechanism: prevent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fertilization</span></div><div><br /></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Habitat</span> isolation: species do not encounter. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Temporal</span> isolation: species mate/flower during different seasons/time.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Behavioral isolation: does not perform correct <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">courtship rituals.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Mechanical isolation: male/female <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">genitalia</span> are not compatible.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Gametic</span> isolation: male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes. (gametes do not recognize others).</div></div><br>
"
"<div>Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)</div><div>* Prezygotic Isolating mechanism: prevent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fertilization</span></div><div><br /></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Habitat</span> isolation: species do not encounter. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Temporal</span> isolation: species mate/flower during different seasons/time.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Behavioral isolation: does not perform correct <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">courtship rituals.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Mechanical isolation: male/female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">genitalia</span> are not compatible.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Gametic"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span> isolation: male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes. (gametes do not recognize others).</div></div>""<div>Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)</div><div>* Prezygotic Isolating mechanism: prevent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fertilization</span></div><div><br /></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Habitat</span> isolation: species do not encounter. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Temporal</span> isolation: species mate/flower during different seasons/time.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Behavioral isolation: does not perform correct <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">courtship rituals.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Mechanical isolation: male/female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">genitalia</span> are not compatible.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">Gametic</span> isolation: male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes. (gametes do not recognize others).</div></div><br>
"
"Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)<div><div>Postzygotic Isolating mechanism:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;6. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Hybrid&#x20;inviability"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: zygote fails to develop properly and dies before reaching reproductive maturity.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;7. Hybrid sterility: hybrids become functional adults but cannot <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">reproduce.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;8. Hybrid <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">breakdown</span>: hybrids produce offspring that have reduced viability/fertility (hybrid’s children can’t reproduce!)</div></div>""Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)<div><div>Postzygotic Isolating mechanism:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;6. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Hybrid inviability</span>: zygote fails to develop properly and dies before reaching reproductive maturity.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;7. Hybrid sterility: hybrids become functional adults but cannot <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">reproduce.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;8. Hybrid <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">breakdown</span>: hybrids produce offspring that have reduced viability/fertility (hybrid’s children can’t reproduce!)</div></div><br>
"
"Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)<div><div>Postzygotic Isolating mechanism:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;6. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Hybrid inviability</span>: zygote fails to develop properly and dies before reaching reproductive maturity.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;7. Hybrid sterility: hybrids become functional adults but cannot <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""reproduce&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;8. Hybrid <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">breakdown</span>: hybrids produce offspring that have reduced viability/fertility (hybrid’s children can’t reproduce!)</div></div>""Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)<div><div>Postzygotic Isolating mechanism:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;6. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Hybrid inviability</span>: zygote fails to develop properly and dies before reaching reproductive maturity.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;7. Hybrid sterility: hybrids become functional adults but cannot <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">reproduce.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;8. Hybrid <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">breakdown</span>: hybrids produce offspring that have reduced viability/fertility (hybrid’s children can’t reproduce!)</div></div><br>
"
"Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)<div><div>Postzygotic Isolating mechanism:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;6. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Hybrid inviability</span>: zygote fails to develop properly and dies before reaching reproductive maturity.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;7. Hybrid sterility: hybrids become functional adults but cannot <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">reproduce.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;8. Hybrid <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""breakdown"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>: hybrids produce offspring that have reduced viability/fertility (hybrid’s children can’t reproduce!)</div></div>""Maintaining Reproductive Isolation: prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)<div><div>Postzygotic Isolating mechanism:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;6. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Hybrid inviability</span>: zygote fails to develop properly and dies before reaching reproductive maturity.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;7. Hybrid sterility: hybrids become functional adults but cannot <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">reproduce.</span></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;8. Hybrid <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">breakdown</span>: hybrids produce offspring that have reduced viability/fertility (hybrid’s children can’t reproduce!)</div></div><br>
"
"<div>&nbsp;Patterns of Evolution:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Divergent"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> evolution: two/more species that originate from common ancestor and become increasingly different over time (result of speciation).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Convergent evolution: two <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">unrelated</span> species that share similar traits by environment (analogous traits).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Parallel evolution: two <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">related</span> species made similar evolutionary changes after their divergence from common ancestor.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Coevolution</span>: evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species (predator/prey)</div>""<div>&nbsp;Patterns of Evolution:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Divergent</span> evolution: two/more species that originate from common ancestor and become increasingly different over time (result of speciation).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Convergent evolution: two <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">unrelated</span> species that share similar traits by environment (analogous traits).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Parallel evolution: two <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">related</span> species made similar evolutionary changes after their divergence from common ancestor.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Coevolution</span>: evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species (predator/prey)</div><br>
"
"<div>&nbsp;Patterns of Evolution:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Divergent</span> evolution: two/more species that originate from common ancestor and become increasingly different over time (result of speciation).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Convergent evolution: two <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""unrelated"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> species that share similar traits by environment (analogous traits).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Parallel evolution: two <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">related</span> species made similar evolutionary changes after their divergence from common ancestor.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Coevolution</span>: evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species (predator/prey)</div>""<div>&nbsp;Patterns of Evolution:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Divergent</span> evolution: two/more species that originate from common ancestor and become increasingly different over time (result of speciation).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Convergent evolution: two <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">unrelated</span> species that share similar traits by environment (analogous traits).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Parallel evolution: two <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">related</span> species made similar evolutionary changes after their divergence from common ancestor.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Coevolution</span>: evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species (predator/prey)</div><br>
"
"<div>&nbsp;Patterns of Evolution:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Divergent</span> evolution: two/more species that originate from common ancestor and become increasingly different over time (result of speciation).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Convergent evolution: two <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">unrelated</span> species that share similar traits by environment (analogous traits).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Parallel evolution: two <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""related"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> species made similar evolutionary changes after their divergence from common ancestor.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Coevolution</span>: evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species (predator/prey)</div>""<div>&nbsp;Patterns of Evolution:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Divergent</span> evolution: two/more species that originate from common ancestor and become increasingly different over time (result of speciation).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Convergent evolution: two <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">unrelated</span> species that share similar traits by environment (analogous traits).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Parallel evolution: two <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">related</span> species made similar evolutionary changes after their divergence from common ancestor.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Coevolution</span>: evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species (predator/prey)</div><br>
"
"<div>&nbsp;Patterns of Evolution:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Divergent</span> evolution: two/more species that originate from common ancestor and become increasingly different over time (result of speciation).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Convergent evolution: two <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">unrelated</span> species that share similar traits by environment (analogous traits).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Parallel evolution: two <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">related</span> species made similar evolutionary changes after their divergence from common ancestor.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Coevolution"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>: evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species (predator/prey)</div>""<div>&nbsp;Patterns of Evolution:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Divergent</span> evolution: two/more species that originate from common ancestor and become increasingly different over time (result of speciation).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Convergent evolution: two <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">unrelated</span> species that share similar traits by environment (analogous traits).</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Parallel evolution: two <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">related</span> species made similar evolutionary changes after their divergence from common ancestor.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Coevolution</span>: evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species (predator/prey)</div><br>
"
"Macroevolution:<div>1. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Phyletic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> gradualism: evolution occurs by gradual accumulation of small changes; but unlikely to be valid because <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intermediate stages</span> of evolution are missing (no fossils); fossils only reveals <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">major change</span>s in groups of organisms.</div>""Macroevolution:<div>1. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Phyletic</span> gradualism: evolution occurs by gradual accumulation of small changes; but unlikely to be valid because <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intermediate stages</span> of evolution are missing (no fossils); fossils only reveals <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">major change</span>s in groups of organisms.</div><br>
"
"Macroevolution:<div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Phyletic</span> gradualism: evolution occurs by gradual accumulation of small changes; but unlikely to be valid because <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""intermediate&#x20;stages"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> of evolution are missing (no fossils); fossils only reveals <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">major change</span>s in groups of organisms.</div>""Macroevolution:<div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Phyletic</span> gradualism: evolution occurs by gradual accumulation of small changes; but unlikely to be valid because <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">intermediate stages</span> of evolution are missing (no fossils); fossils only reveals <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">major change</span>s in groups of organisms.</div><br>
"
"Macroevolution:<div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Phyletic</span> gradualism: evolution occurs by gradual accumulation of small changes; but unlikely to be valid because <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intermediate stages</span> of evolution are missing (no fossils); fossils only reveals <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""major&#x20;change"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>s in groups of organisms.</div>""Macroevolution:<div>1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Phyletic</span> gradualism: evolution occurs by gradual accumulation of small changes; but unlikely to be valid because <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intermediate stages</span> of evolution are missing (no fossils); fossils only reveals <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">major change</span>s in groups of organisms.</div><br>
"
"Macroevolution:<div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Punctuated"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> equilibrium: evolutionary history consists of geologically long periods of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">stasis (stability) with little/no evolution</span> followed by geologically short periods of rapid evolutions. Absence of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fossils</span> revealing intermediate stages of evolution is considered data that confirms rapid evolutionary events.&nbsp;</div>""Macroevolution:<div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Punctuated</span> equilibrium: evolutionary history consists of geologically long periods of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">stasis (stability) with little/no evolution</span> followed by geologically short periods of rapid evolutions. Absence of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fossils</span> revealing intermediate stages of evolution is considered data that confirms rapid evolutionary events.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Macroevolution:<div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Punctuated</span> equilibrium: evolutionary history consists of geologically long periods of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""stasis&#x20;&#x28;stability&#x29;&#x20;with&#x20;little&#x2F;no&#x20;evolution"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> followed by geologically short periods of rapid evolutions. Absence of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fossils</span> revealing intermediate stages of evolution is considered data that confirms rapid evolutionary events.&nbsp;</div>""Macroevolution:<div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Punctuated</span> equilibrium: evolutionary history consists of geologically long periods of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">stasis (stability) with little/no evolution</span> followed by geologically short periods of rapid evolutions. Absence of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fossils</span> revealing intermediate stages of evolution is considered data that confirms rapid evolutionary events.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Macroevolution:<div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Punctuated</span> equilibrium: evolutionary history consists of geologically long periods of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">stasis (stability) with little/no evolution</span> followed by geologically short periods of rapid evolutions. Absence of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fossils"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> revealing intermediate stages of evolution is considered data that confirms rapid evolutionary events.&nbsp;</div>""Macroevolution:<div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Punctuated</span> equilibrium: evolutionary history consists of geologically long periods of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">stasis (stability) with little/no evolution</span> followed by geologically short periods of rapid evolutions. Absence of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">fossils</span> revealing intermediate stages of evolution is considered data that confirms rapid evolutionary events.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Origin of Life: (notes on age: Universe <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""12&#x2D;15&#x20;billion"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> yrs, solar system <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""4&#x2E;6&#x20;billion"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, earth <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""&#x7E;4&#x2E;5"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, fossils <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">3.6 billion</span>, Photosynth bac <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2.3</span>, euk <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">1.5</span>)""Origin of Life: (notes on age: Universe <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">12-15 billion</span> yrs, solar system <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">4.6 billion</span>, earth <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">~4.5</span>, fossils <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">3.6 billion</span>, Photosynth bac <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2.3</span>, euk <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">1.5</span>)<br>
"
"Origin of Life: (notes on age: Universe <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">12-15 billion</span> yrs, solar system <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">4.6 billion</span>, earth <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">~4.5</span>, fossils <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3&#x2E;6&#x20;billion"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, Photosynth bac <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2&#x2E;3"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, euk <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1&#x2E;5"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>)""Origin of Life: (notes on age: Universe <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">12-15 billion</span> yrs, solar system <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">4.6 billion</span>, earth <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">~4.5</span>, fossils <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">3.6 billion</span>, Photosynth bac <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">2.3</span>, euk <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">1.5</span>)<br>
"
"&nbsp;1. Earth and atmosphere form: through <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""volcanoes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (CH4, NH3, CO, CO2, H2, N2, H2O, S, HCl, HCN, little/no <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">O2</span>).""&nbsp;1. Earth and atmosphere form: through <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">volcanoes</span> (CH4, NH3, CO, CO2, H2, N2, H2O, S, HCl, HCN, little/no <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">O2</span>).<br>
"
"&nbsp;1. Earth and atmosphere form: through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">volcanoes</span> (CH4, NH3, CO, CO2, H2, N2, H2O, S, HCl, HCN, little/no <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""O2"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>).""&nbsp;1. Earth and atmosphere form: through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">volcanoes</span> (CH4, NH3, CO, CO2, H2, N2, H2O, S, HCl, HCN, little/no <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">O2</span>).<br>
"
"&nbsp;2. Primordial seas formation: as earth cooled =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""gases&#x20;condense"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> =&gt; sea with water and minerals.""&nbsp;2. Primordial seas formation: as earth cooled =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">gases condense</span> =&gt; sea with water and minerals.<br>
"
"Complex molecules were synthesized: formation of organic soup from inorganic, energy from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""UV&#x2C;&#x20;lightning&#x2C;&#x20;heat&#x2C;&#x20;radiation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> =&gt; acetic acid, formaldehyde, and amino acids.""Complex molecules were synthesized: formation of organic soup from inorganic, energy from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">UV, lightning, heat, radiation</span> =&gt; acetic acid, formaldehyde, and amino acids.<br>
"
"- Oparin &amp; Haldane: organic soup theory; if there was O2 (very reactive), no <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""organic&#x20;molecules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> would have formed.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Oparin’s hypothesis was that origin Earth environment was <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">reducing</span> (providing chemical requirements to produce complex molecules from simple building blocks. In an oxidizing environment you’d break complex molecules apart).</div>""- Oparin &amp; Haldane: organic soup theory; if there was O2 (very reactive), no <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">organic molecules</span> would have formed.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Oparin’s hypothesis was that origin Earth environment was <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">reducing</span> (providing chemical requirements to produce complex molecules from simple building blocks. In an oxidizing environment you’d break complex molecules apart).</div><br>
"
"- Oparin &amp; Haldane: organic soup theory; if there was O2 (very reactive), no <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">organic molecules</span> would have formed.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Oparin’s hypothesis was that origin Earth environment was <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""reducing"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (providing chemical requirements to produce complex molecules from simple building blocks. In an oxidizing environment you’d break complex molecules apart).</div>""- Oparin &amp; Haldane: organic soup theory; if there was O2 (very reactive), no <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">organic molecules</span> would have formed.&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Oparin’s hypothesis was that origin Earth environment was <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">reducing</span> (providing chemical requirements to produce complex molecules from simple building blocks. In an oxidizing environment you’d break complex molecules apart).</div><br>
"
"- Stanley Miller: tested organic soup theory and produced organic molecules. Miller &amp; Urey used <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ammonia&#x2C;&#x20;methane&#x2C;&#x20;water&#x2C;&#x20;and&#x20;hydrogen"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> sealed + simulated lightning and saw several organic molecules, AA’s, starting materials, but no NAs!""- Stanley Miller: tested organic soup theory and produced organic molecules. Miller &amp; Urey used <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ammonia, methane, water, and hydrogen</span> sealed + simulated lightning and saw several organic molecules, AA’s, starting materials, but no NAs!<br>
"
"&nbsp;Polymers and self-replication: monomers =&gt; polymer (dehydration condensation). <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Proteinoids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are abiotically produced polypeptides &lt;= amino acids dehydration on hot, dry substrates confirms this&nbsp;""&nbsp;Polymers and self-replication: monomers =&gt; polymer (dehydration condensation). <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Proteinoids</span> are abiotically produced polypeptides &lt;= amino acids dehydration on hot, dry substrates confirms this&nbsp;<br>
"
"5. Organic molecules were concentrated/isolated into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""protobionts"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""protobionts"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (precursors of cells = like cells, metabolically active but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">unable to reproduce</span>).&nbsp;<div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Microspheres/liposomes</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coacervates</span> (spontaneously formed lipid or protein bilayer bubbles) are experimentally (abiotically) produced protobionts that have some <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">selective permeable</span> qualities</div></div>""5. Organic molecules were concentrated/isolated into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span>: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span> (precursors of cells = like cells, metabolically active but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">unable to reproduce</span>).&nbsp;<div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Microspheres/liposomes</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coacervates</span> (spontaneously formed lipid or protein bilayer bubbles) are experimentally (abiotically) produced protobionts that have some <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">selective permeable</span> qualities</div></div><br>
"
"5. Organic molecules were concentrated/isolated into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span>: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span> (precursors of cells = like cells, metabolically active but <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""unable&#x20;to&#x20;reproduce"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>).&nbsp;<div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Microspheres/liposomes</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coacervates</span> (spontaneously formed lipid or protein bilayer bubbles) are experimentally (abiotically) produced protobionts that have some <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">selective permeable</span> qualities</div></div>""5. Organic molecules were concentrated/isolated into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span>: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span> (precursors of cells = like cells, metabolically active but <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">unable to reproduce</span>).&nbsp;<div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Microspheres/liposomes</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coacervates</span> (spontaneously formed lipid or protein bilayer bubbles) are experimentally (abiotically) produced protobionts that have some <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">selective permeable</span> qualities</div></div><br>
"
"5. Organic molecules were concentrated/isolated into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span>: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span> (precursors of cells = like cells, metabolically active but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">unable to reproduce</span>).&nbsp;<div><br /><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Microspheres&#x2F;liposomes"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""coacervates"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (spontaneously formed lipid or protein bilayer bubbles) are experimentally (abiotically) produced protobionts that have some <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">selective permeable</span> qualities</div></div>""5. Organic molecules were concentrated/isolated into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span>: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span> (precursors of cells = like cells, metabolically active but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">unable to reproduce</span>).&nbsp;<div><br /><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Microspheres/liposomes</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">coacervates</span> (spontaneously formed lipid or protein bilayer bubbles) are experimentally (abiotically) produced protobionts that have some <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">selective permeable</span> qualities</div></div><br>
"
"5. Organic molecules were concentrated/isolated into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span>: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span> (precursors of cells = like cells, metabolically active but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">unable to reproduce</span>).&nbsp;<div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Microspheres/liposomes</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coacervates</span> (spontaneously formed lipid or protein bilayer bubbles) are experimentally (abiotically) produced protobionts that have some <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""selective&#x20;permeable"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> qualities</div></div>""5. Organic molecules were concentrated/isolated into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span>: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">protobionts</span> (precursors of cells = like cells, metabolically active but <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">unable to reproduce</span>).&nbsp;<div><br /><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Microspheres/liposomes</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coacervates</span> (spontaneously formed lipid or protein bilayer bubbles) are experimentally (abiotically) produced protobionts that have some <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">selective permeable</span> qualities</div></div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Origin of Life:<div><br /></div><div>6. Primitive heterotrophic prokaryotes: obtained materials by consuming other <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""organic&#x20;substances"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (pathogenic bacteria).<div>7. Primitive autotrophic prokaryotes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mutation, heterotroph</span> gained ability to produce its own food =&gt; cyanobacteria.</div></div>""&nbsp;Origin of Life:<div><br /></div><div>6. Primitive heterotrophic prokaryotes: obtained materials by consuming other <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">organic substances</span> (pathogenic bacteria).<div>7. Primitive autotrophic prokaryotes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mutation, heterotroph</span> gained ability to produce its own food =&gt; cyanobacteria.</div></div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Origin of Life:<div><br /></div><div>6. Primitive heterotrophic prokaryotes: obtained materials by consuming other <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">organic substances</span> (pathogenic bacteria).<div>7. Primitive autotrophic prokaryotes: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mutation&#x2C;&#x20;heterotroph"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> gained ability to produce its own food =&gt; cyanobacteria.</div></div>""&nbsp;Origin of Life:<div><br /></div><div>6. Primitive heterotrophic prokaryotes: obtained materials by consuming other <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">organic substances</span> (pathogenic bacteria).<div>7. Primitive autotrophic prokaryotes: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">mutation, heterotroph</span> gained ability to produce its own food =&gt; cyanobacteria.</div></div><br>
"
"<div>Origin of Life:&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>8. Oxygen and ozone layer + abiotic chemical evolution ended: by production of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""photosynthetic&#x20;activity"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of autotrophs.&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- UV light + Oxygen =&gt; ozone layer (absorbed latter UV light =&gt; blocking <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">energy for abiotic synthesis of organic materials</span> =&gt; termination of primitive cells.</div>""<div>Origin of Life:&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>8. Oxygen and ozone layer + abiotic chemical evolution ended: by production of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">photosynthetic activity</span> of autotrophs.&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- UV light + Oxygen =&gt; ozone layer (absorbed latter UV light =&gt; blocking <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">energy for abiotic synthesis of organic materials</span> =&gt; termination of primitive cells.</div><br>
"
"<div>Origin of Life:&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>8. Oxygen and ozone layer + abiotic chemical evolution ended: by production of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">photosynthetic activity</span> of autotrophs.&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- UV light + Oxygen =&gt; ozone layer (absorbed latter UV light =&gt; blocking <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""energy&#x20;for&#x20;abiotic&#x20;synthesis&#x20;of&#x20;organic&#x20;materials"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> =&gt; termination of primitive cells.</div>""<div>Origin of Life:&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>8. Oxygen and ozone layer + abiotic chemical evolution ended: by production of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">photosynthetic activity</span> of autotrophs.&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- UV light + Oxygen =&gt; ozone layer (absorbed latter UV light =&gt; blocking <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">energy for abiotic synthesis of organic materials</span> =&gt; termination of primitive cells.</div><br>
"
"9. Eukaryotes formed: endosymbiotic theory, eukaryotic cells originated mutually among prokaryotes (mitochondria, chloroplast establish resident inside another prokaryotes).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Evidence: Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts resemble photosynthetic membranes of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cyanobacteria"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">circ. DNA not wrapped with histones (prokaryotic like)</span>, ribosomes of these organelles resemble those of bacteria, they reproduce independently via process similar to binary fission, two membranes.&nbsp;</div>""9. Eukaryotes formed: endosymbiotic theory, eukaryotic cells originated mutually among prokaryotes (mitochondria, chloroplast establish resident inside another prokaryotes).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Evidence: Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts resemble photosynthetic membranes of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cyanobacteria</span>, mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">circ. DNA not wrapped with histones (prokaryotic like)</span>, ribosomes of these organelles resemble those of bacteria, they reproduce independently via process similar to binary fission, two membranes.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"9. Eukaryotes formed: endosymbiotic theory, eukaryotic cells originated mutually among prokaryotes (mitochondria, chloroplast establish resident inside another prokaryotes).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Evidence: Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts resemble photosynthetic membranes of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cyanobacteria</span>, mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""circ&#x2E;&#x20;DNA&#x20;not&#x20;wrapped&#x20;with&#x20;histones&#x20;&#x28;prokaryotic&#x20;like&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, ribosomes of these organelles resemble those of bacteria, they reproduce independently via process similar to binary fission, two membranes.&nbsp;</div>""9. Eukaryotes formed: endosymbiotic theory, eukaryotic cells originated mutually among prokaryotes (mitochondria, chloroplast establish resident inside another prokaryotes).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Evidence: Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts resemble photosynthetic membranes of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cyanobacteria</span>, mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">circ. DNA not wrapped with histones (prokaryotic like)</span>, ribosomes of these organelles resemble those of bacteria, they reproduce independently via process similar to binary fission, two membranes.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Note: modern atmosphere is roughly <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""78&#x25;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> nitrogen, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""21"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>% oxygen, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>% argon, then a lot of other less important gases&nbsp;""Note: modern atmosphere is roughly <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">78%</span> nitrogen, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">21</span>% oxygen, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1</span>% argon, then a lot of other less important gases&nbsp;<br>
"
"Vestigial Structures – structures that appear to be useless but had <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ancestral&#x20;function"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; ex humans (appendix and tail), horses (splints), python (legs reduced to bones)""Vestigial Structures – structures that appear to be useless but had <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ancestral function</span>; ex humans (appendix and tail), horses (splints), python (legs reduced to bones)<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Mullerian"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> mimicry - two or more harmful species that are not closely related, and share one or more common predators, have come to mimic each other's warning signals""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Mullerian</span> mimicry - two or more harmful species that are not closely related, and share one or more common predators, have come to mimic each other's warning signals<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Batesian"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> mimicry – deceptive; harmless species has evolved to imitate the warning signals of a harmful species directed at a common predator""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Batesian</span> mimicry – deceptive; harmless species has evolved to imitate the warning signals of a harmful species directed at a common predator<br>
"
"Gene Pool – all the alleles for any <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""given&#x20;trait&#x20;in&#x20;the&#x20;population"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Gene Pool – all the alleles for any <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">given trait in the population</span><br>
"
"Anagenesis/phyletic evolution – one species <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""replaces&#x20;another"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, straight path evolution""Anagenesis/phyletic evolution – one species <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">replaces another</span>, straight path evolution<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cladogenesis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>/branching evolution – New species branches out from parent species""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cladogenesis</span>/branching evolution – New species branches out from parent species<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Deme"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> – small local population (e.g. all the beavers along specific portion of a river)&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Deme</span> – small local population (e.g. all the beavers along specific portion of a river)&nbsp;<br>
"
"General Categories of living organisms:&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""autotrophic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> anaerbones (chemosynthetic bacteria),&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""autotropohic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> aerobes (green plants, photoplankton),&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">heterotrophic</span> anaerobes (yeast),&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">heterotrophic</span> aerobes (amoebas, earthworms, humans)&nbsp;</div>""General Categories of living organisms:&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">autotrophic</span> anaerbones (chemosynthetic bacteria),&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">autotropohic</span> aerobes (green plants, photoplankton),&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">heterotrophic</span> anaerobes (yeast),&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">heterotrophic</span> aerobes (amoebas, earthworms, humans)&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"General Categories of living organisms:&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">autotrophic</span> anaerbones (chemosynthetic bacteria),&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">autotropohic</span> aerobes (green plants, photoplankton),&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""heterotrophic"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> anaerobes (yeast),&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""heterotrophic"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> aerobes (amoebas, earthworms, humans)&nbsp;</div>""General Categories of living organisms:&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">autotrophic</span> anaerbones (chemosynthetic bacteria),&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">autotropohic</span> aerobes (green plants, photoplankton),&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">heterotrophic</span> anaerobes (yeast),&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">heterotrophic</span> aerobes (amoebas, earthworms, humans)&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Symbiosis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> – relationship between 2 species. Can be: mutualism (beneficial/beneficial), commensalism (beneficial/neutral), parasitism (beneficial/detrimental)""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Symbiosis</span> – relationship between 2 species. Can be: mutualism (beneficial/beneficial), commensalism (beneficial/neutral), parasitism (beneficial/detrimental)<br>
"
"Taxonomy: organisms are classified into categories called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""taxa"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. A species name is given a name consisting of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">genus (closely related animal) name and species name</span>. Domesticated dog is in genus Canis and name Canis familiaris; Wolf is Canis lupis.""Taxonomy: organisms are classified into categories called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">taxa</span>. A species name is given a name consisting of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">genus (closely related animal) name and species name</span>. Domesticated dog is in genus Canis and name Canis familiaris; Wolf is Canis lupis.<br>
"
"Taxonomy: organisms are classified into categories called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">taxa</span>. A species name is given a name consisting of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""genus&#x20;&#x28;closely&#x20;related&#x20;animal&#x29;&#x20;name&#x20;and&#x20;species&#x20;name"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>. Domesticated dog is in genus Canis and name Canis familiaris; Wolf is Canis lupis.""Taxonomy: organisms are classified into categories called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">taxa</span>. A species name is given a name consisting of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">genus (closely related animal) name and species name</span>. Domesticated dog is in genus Canis and name Canis familiaris; Wolf is Canis lupis.<br>
"
"Family: genera that share related features; then Species &lt;= Genus &lt;= Family &lt;= Orders &lt;= Classes &lt;= Phyla (division for fungi and plant) &lt;= Kingdoms &lt;= Domains.<div><br /></div><div>Mnenomic: (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Dumb&#x20;Kings&#x20;Play&#x20;Chess&#x20;On&#x20;Fine&#x20;Green&#x20;Sand"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>)</div>""Family: genera that share related features; then Species &lt;= Genus &lt;= Family &lt;= Orders &lt;= Classes &lt;= Phyla (division for fungi and plant) &lt;= Kingdoms &lt;= Domains.<div><br /></div><div>Mnenomic: (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Dumb Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Sand</span>)</div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Systematics"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: study of evolutionary relationships among organisms (Phylogeny = evolutionary relationships).""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Systematics</span>: study of evolutionary relationships among organisms (Phylogeny = evolutionary relationships).<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Eukaryotic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> cells: chromosomes contain long, linear DNA with histone; enclosed in nucleus; organelles; 9+2 microtubule array flagella and cilia.""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Eukaryotic</span> cells: chromosomes contain long, linear DNA with histone; enclosed in nucleus; organelles; 9+2 microtubule array flagella and cilia.<br>
"
"Prokaryotic cells: single chromosome is short, circular DNA with/without histone; may contain plasmid; no nucleus; no organelles; flagella consist of chains of protein <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""flagellin"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> instead of ""9 + 2"" microtubules.""Prokaryotic cells: single chromosome is short, circular DNA with/without histone; may contain plasmid; no nucleus; no organelles; flagella consist of chains of protein <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">flagellin</span> instead of ""9 + 2"" microtubules.<br>
"
"Note: flagella use <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""proton&#x20;motive"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> force to spin and give locomotion in bacteria (electrical gradient!)&nbsp;""Note: flagella use <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">proton motive</span> force to spin and give locomotion in bacteria (electrical gradient!)&nbsp;<br>
"
"&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Autotrophs"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: manufacture their own organic materials; uses light or chemicals such as H2S, NH3, NO2-, NO3-.""&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Autotrophs</span>: manufacture their own organic materials; uses light or chemicals such as H2S, NH3, NO2-, NO3-.<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Heterotrophs"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: obtain energy by consuming organic substances produced by autotrophs.""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Heterotrophs</span>: obtain energy by consuming organic substances produced by autotrophs.<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Saprobes&#x20;&#x28;saprophytes&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: obtain energy from dead, decaying matter =&gt; decomposers.""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Saprobes (saprophytes)</span>: obtain energy from dead, decaying matter =&gt; decomposers.<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Obligate&#x20;aerobes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: must have O2 to live.""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Obligate aerobes</span>: must have O2 to live.<br>
"
"Obligate anaerobes: must <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""not&#x20;have&#x20;O2&#x20;to&#x20;live&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Obligate anaerobes: must <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">not have O2 to live.</span><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Facultative"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> anaerobe: grows in presence of O2, but can switch to anaerobic metabolism when O2 is absence.""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Facultative</span> anaerobe: grows in presence of O2, but can switch to anaerobic metabolism when O2 is absence.<br>
"
"<div>Domain Archaea:</div><div><br /></div>Archaeal cells wall contain <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""various&#x20;polysaccharide"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, not peptidoglycan (as in bacteria), cellulose (as in plant), or chitin (as in fungi).<div><br /></div><div>Phospholipid components such as glycerol is different (isomer of either bacteria or eukaryotes). Hydrocarbon chain is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">branched</span> (straight chain for others) and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ether-linkages</span> instead of ester-linkages.</div>""<div>Domain Archaea:</div><div><br /></div>Archaeal cells wall contain <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">various polysaccharide</span>, not peptidoglycan (as in bacteria), cellulose (as in plant), or chitin (as in fungi).<div><br /></div><div>Phospholipid components such as glycerol is different (isomer of either bacteria or eukaryotes). Hydrocarbon chain is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">branched</span> (straight chain for others) and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ether-linkages</span> instead of ester-linkages.</div><br>
"
"<div>Domain Archaea:</div><div><br /></div>Archaeal cells wall contain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">various polysaccharide</span>, not peptidoglycan (as in bacteria), cellulose (as in plant), or chitin (as in fungi).<div><br /></div><div>Phospholipid components such as glycerol is different (isomer of either bacteria or eukaryotes). Hydrocarbon chain is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""branched"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (straight chain for others) and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ether-linkages</span> instead of ester-linkages.</div>""<div>Domain Archaea:</div><div><br /></div>Archaeal cells wall contain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">various polysaccharide</span>, not peptidoglycan (as in bacteria), cellulose (as in plant), or chitin (as in fungi).<div><br /></div><div>Phospholipid components such as glycerol is different (isomer of either bacteria or eukaryotes). Hydrocarbon chain is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">branched</span> (straight chain for others) and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ether-linkages</span> instead of ester-linkages.</div><br>
"
"<div>Domain Archaea:</div><div><br /></div>Archaeal cells wall contain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">various polysaccharide</span>, not peptidoglycan (as in bacteria), cellulose (as in plant), or chitin (as in fungi).<div><br /></div><div>Phospholipid components such as glycerol is different (isomer of either bacteria or eukaryotes). Hydrocarbon chain is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">branched</span> (straight chain for others) and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ether&#x2D;linkages"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> instead of ester-linkages.</div>""<div>Domain Archaea:</div><div><br /></div>Archaeal cells wall contain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">various polysaccharide</span>, not peptidoglycan (as in bacteria), cellulose (as in plant), or chitin (as in fungi).<div><br /></div><div>Phospholipid components such as glycerol is different (isomer of either bacteria or eukaryotes). Hydrocarbon chain is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">branched</span> (straight chain for others) and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">ether-linkages</span> instead of ester-linkages.</div><br>
"
"Domain Archaea<div><div>Similarity with eukaryotes:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. DNA of both archaea and eukaryotes are associated with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""histone"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; not bacterial DNA.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ribosome activity is not inhibited by antibiotics <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">streptomycin</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chloramphenicol</span> unlike bacteria.</div></div>""Domain Archaea<div><div>Similarity with eukaryotes:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. DNA of both archaea and eukaryotes are associated with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">histone</span>; not bacterial DNA.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ribosome activity is not inhibited by antibiotics <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">streptomycin</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chloramphenicol</span> unlike bacteria.</div></div><br>
"
"Domain Archaea<div><div>Similarity with eukaryotes:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. DNA of both archaea and eukaryotes are associated with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">histone</span>; not bacterial DNA.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ribosome activity is not inhibited by antibiotics <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""streptomycin"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chloramphenicol"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> unlike bacteria.</div></div>""Domain Archaea<div><div>Similarity with eukaryotes:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. DNA of both archaea and eukaryotes are associated with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">histone</span>; not bacterial DNA.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ribosome activity is not inhibited by antibiotics <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">streptomycin</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">chloramphenicol</span> unlike bacteria.</div></div><br>
"
"Some groups of Archaea:<div>Methanogens: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""obligate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> anaerobes that produce CH4 as by-product of obtaining energy from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">H2</span> to fix CO2 (mud, guts).</div>""Some groups of Archaea:<div>Methanogens: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">obligate</span> anaerobes that produce CH4 as by-product of obtaining energy from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">H2</span> to fix CO2 (mud, guts).</div><br>
"
"Some groups of Archaea:<div>Methanogens: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">obligate</span> anaerobes that produce CH4 as by-product of obtaining energy from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""H2"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> to fix CO2 (mud, guts).</div>""Some groups of Archaea:<div>Methanogens: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">obligate</span> anaerobes that produce CH4 as by-product of obtaining energy from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">H2</span> to fix CO2 (mud, guts).</div><br>
"
"Some groups of Archaea:<div>Extremophiles: live in extreme environment; Halophiles (salt lover) high [salt] environment; most are aerobic and heterotrophic; others anaerobic and photosynthetic with pigment <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bacteriorhodopsin"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Thermophiles (heat lover) are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sulfur</span>-based chemoautotroph.</div>""Some groups of Archaea:<div>Extremophiles: live in extreme environment; Halophiles (salt lover) high [salt] environment; most are aerobic and heterotrophic; others anaerobic and photosynthetic with pigment <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">bacteriorhodopsin</span>. Thermophiles (heat lover) are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sulfur</span>-based chemoautotroph.</div><br>
"
"Some groups of Archaea:<div>Extremophiles: live in extreme environment; Halophiles (salt lover) high [salt] environment; most are aerobic and heterotrophic; others anaerobic and photosynthetic with pigment <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">bacteriorhodopsin</span>. Thermophiles (heat lover) are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sulfur"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>-based chemoautotroph.</div>""Some groups of Archaea:<div>Extremophiles: live in extreme environment; Halophiles (salt lover) high [salt] environment; most are aerobic and heterotrophic; others anaerobic and photosynthetic with pigment <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">bacteriorhodopsin</span>. Thermophiles (heat lover) are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">sulfur</span>-based chemoautotroph.</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Domain Bacteria: five kingdoms<div>Distinct from archaea and eukaryote by these features: cell wall (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""peptidoglycan"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> = polymer of monosaccharide with amino acid); bacterial DNA is not associated with histone; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ribosome</span> activity is inhibited by above antibiotics (streptomycin and chloramphenicol)</div>""&nbsp;Domain Bacteria: five kingdoms<div>Distinct from archaea and eukaryote by these features: cell wall (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">peptidoglycan</span> = polymer of monosaccharide with amino acid); bacterial DNA is not associated with histone; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ribosome</span> activity is inhibited by above antibiotics (streptomycin and chloramphenicol)</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Domain Bacteria: five kingdoms<div>Distinct from archaea and eukaryote by these features: cell wall (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">peptidoglycan</span> = polymer of monosaccharide with amino acid); bacterial DNA is not associated with histone; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ribosome"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> activity is inhibited by above antibiotics (streptomycin and chloramphenicol)</div>""&nbsp;Domain Bacteria: five kingdoms<div>Distinct from archaea and eukaryote by these features: cell wall (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">peptidoglycan</span> = polymer of monosaccharide with amino acid); bacterial DNA is not associated with histone; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">ribosome</span> activity is inhibited by above antibiotics (streptomycin and chloramphenicol)</div><br>
"
"Classification of bacteria:<div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Mode of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nutrition"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ability to produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">endospore</span> (resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Means of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">motility</span> (flagella, corkscrew motion, gliding through slime material).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Shapes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cocci</span> (spherical), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">bacilli</span> (rod-shaped), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spirilla</span> (spirals).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. Thick peptidoglycan wall cell (gram-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">positive</span>); Thin peptidoglycan covered with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">lipopolysaccharides</span> (gram-negative).</div><div><br /></div></div>""Classification of bacteria:<div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Mode of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nutrition</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ability to produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">endospore</span> (resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Means of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">motility</span> (flagella, corkscrew motion, gliding through slime material).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Shapes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cocci</span> (spherical), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">bacilli</span> (rod-shaped), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spirilla</span> (spirals).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. Thick peptidoglycan wall cell (gram-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">positive</span>); Thin peptidoglycan covered with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">lipopolysaccharides</span> (gram-negative).</div><div><br /></div></div><br>
"
"Classification of bacteria:<div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Mode of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nutrition</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ability to produce <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""endospore"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Means of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">motility</span> (flagella, corkscrew motion, gliding through slime material).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Shapes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cocci</span> (spherical), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">bacilli</span> (rod-shaped), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spirilla</span> (spirals).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. Thick peptidoglycan wall cell (gram-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">positive</span>); Thin peptidoglycan covered with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">lipopolysaccharides</span> (gram-negative).</div><div><br /></div></div>""Classification of bacteria:<div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Mode of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nutrition</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ability to produce <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">endospore</span> (resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Means of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">motility</span> (flagella, corkscrew motion, gliding through slime material).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Shapes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cocci</span> (spherical), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">bacilli</span> (rod-shaped), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spirilla</span> (spirals).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. Thick peptidoglycan wall cell (gram-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">positive</span>); Thin peptidoglycan covered with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">lipopolysaccharides</span> (gram-negative).</div><div><br /></div></div><br>
"
"Classification of bacteria:<div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Mode of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nutrition</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ability to produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">endospore</span> (resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Means of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""motility"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (flagella, corkscrew motion, gliding through slime material).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Shapes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cocci</span> (spherical), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">bacilli</span> (rod-shaped), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spirilla</span> (spirals).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. Thick peptidoglycan wall cell (gram-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">positive</span>); Thin peptidoglycan covered with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">lipopolysaccharides</span> (gram-negative).</div><div><br /></div></div>""Classification of bacteria:<div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Mode of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nutrition</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ability to produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">endospore</span> (resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Means of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">motility</span> (flagella, corkscrew motion, gliding through slime material).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Shapes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cocci</span> (spherical), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">bacilli</span> (rod-shaped), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spirilla</span> (spirals).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. Thick peptidoglycan wall cell (gram-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">positive</span>); Thin peptidoglycan covered with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">lipopolysaccharides</span> (gram-negative).</div><div><br /></div></div><br>
"
"Classification of bacteria:<div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Mode of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nutrition</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ability to produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">endospore</span> (resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Means of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">motility</span> (flagella, corkscrew motion, gliding through slime material).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Shapes: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cocci"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> (spherical), <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bacilli"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> (rod-shaped), <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""spirilla"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> (spirals).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. Thick peptidoglycan wall cell (gram-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">positive</span>); Thin peptidoglycan covered with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">lipopolysaccharides</span> (gram-negative).</div><div><br /></div></div>""Classification of bacteria:<div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Mode of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nutrition</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ability to produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">endospore</span> (resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Means of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">motility</span> (flagella, corkscrew motion, gliding through slime material).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Shapes: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">cocci</span> (spherical), <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">bacilli</span> (rod-shaped), <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">spirilla</span> (spirals).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. Thick peptidoglycan wall cell (gram-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">positive</span>); Thin peptidoglycan covered with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">lipopolysaccharides</span> (gram-negative).</div><div><br /></div></div><br>
"
"Classification of bacteria:<div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Mode of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nutrition</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ability to produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">endospore</span> (resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Means of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">motility</span> (flagella, corkscrew motion, gliding through slime material).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Shapes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cocci</span> (spherical), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">bacilli</span> (rod-shaped), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spirilla</span> (spirals).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. Thick peptidoglycan wall cell (gram-<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""positive"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span>); Thin peptidoglycan covered with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">lipopolysaccharides</span> (gram-negative).</div><div><br /></div></div>""Classification of bacteria:<div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Mode of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nutrition</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ability to produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">endospore</span> (resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Means of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">motility</span> (flagella, corkscrew motion, gliding through slime material).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Shapes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cocci</span> (spherical), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">bacilli</span> (rod-shaped), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spirilla</span> (spirals).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. Thick peptidoglycan wall cell (gram-<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">positive</span>); Thin peptidoglycan covered with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">lipopolysaccharides</span> (gram-negative).</div><div><br /></div></div><br>
"
"Classification of bacteria:<div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Mode of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nutrition</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ability to produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">endospore</span> (resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Means of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">motility</span> (flagella, corkscrew motion, gliding through slime material).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Shapes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cocci</span> (spherical), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">bacilli</span> (rod-shaped), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spirilla</span> (spirals).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. Thick peptidoglycan wall cell (gram-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">positive</span>); Thin peptidoglycan covered with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lipopolysaccharides"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span> (gram-negative).</div><div><br /></div></div>""Classification of bacteria:<div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Mode of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">nutrition</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Ability to produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">endospore</span> (resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Means of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">motility</span> (flagella, corkscrew motion, gliding through slime material).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Shapes: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cocci</span> (spherical), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">bacilli</span> (rod-shaped), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spirilla</span> (spirals).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. Thick peptidoglycan wall cell (gram-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">positive</span>); Thin peptidoglycan covered with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">lipopolysaccharides</span> (gram-negative).</div><div><br /></div></div><br>
"
"Common groups of bacteria:<div>Cyanobacteria: photosynthetic; releasing <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""O2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; contain accessory pigment <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">phycobilins</span>; have specialized cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">heterocysts</span> that produce nitrogen-fixing enzyme into NH3.</div>""Common groups of bacteria:<div>Cyanobacteria: photosynthetic; releasing <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">O2</span>; contain accessory pigment <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">phycobilins</span>; have specialized cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">heterocysts</span> that produce nitrogen-fixing enzyme into NH3.</div><br>
"
"Common groups of bacteria:<div>Cyanobacteria: photosynthetic; releasing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">O2</span>; contain accessory pigment <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phycobilins"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>; have specialized cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">heterocysts</span> that produce nitrogen-fixing enzyme into NH3.</div>""Common groups of bacteria:<div>Cyanobacteria: photosynthetic; releasing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">O2</span>; contain accessory pigment <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">phycobilins</span>; have specialized cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">heterocysts</span> that produce nitrogen-fixing enzyme into NH3.</div><br>
"
"Common groups of bacteria:<div>Cyanobacteria: photosynthetic; releasing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">O2</span>; contain accessory pigment <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">phycobilins</span>; have specialized cells called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""heterocysts"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> that produce nitrogen-fixing enzyme into NH3.</div>""Common groups of bacteria:<div>Cyanobacteria: photosynthetic; releasing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">O2</span>; contain accessory pigment <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">phycobilins</span>; have specialized cells called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">heterocysts</span> that produce nitrogen-fixing enzyme into NH3.</div><br>
"
"Common groups of bacteria:<div>&nbsp;Chemosynthetic: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""auto"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>trophs; nitrifying bacteria NO2- =&gt; NO3-.</div>""Common groups of bacteria:<div>&nbsp;Chemosynthetic: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">auto</span>trophs; nitrifying bacteria NO2- =&gt; NO3-.</div><br>
"
"<div>Common groups of bacteria:</div>Nitrogen-fixing: heterotrophs that fix N2, lives in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nodules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of plant (mutualism).""<div>Common groups of bacteria:</div>Nitrogen-fixing: heterotrophs that fix N2, lives in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nodules</span> of plant (mutualism).<br>
"
"Common groups of bacteria:<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Spirochetes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: coiled bacteria that move with corkscrew motion, internal flagella between cell wall layers.</div>""Common groups of bacteria:<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Spirochetes</span>: coiled bacteria that move with corkscrew motion, internal flagella between cell wall layers.</div><br>
"
"Kingdom Protista: the subcategories are phylum. This is an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""artificial"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> kingdom; poorly understood""Kingdom Protista: the subcategories are phylum. This is an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">artificial</span> kingdom; poorly understood<br>
"
"Algaelike (plant-like) members of protista all obtain energy by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""photosynthesis&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>""Algaelike (plant-like) members of protista all obtain energy by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">photosynthesis.</span><br>
"
"Euglenoids:&nbsp;<div>one to three flagella at <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""apical"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (leading) end; instead of cellulose cell wall, thin, protein strips called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pellicles</span> that wrap over cell membranes =&gt; heterotrophic in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">absence of light</span>; some have eyespot that permits phototaxis (ability to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">move in response to light</span>).</div>""Euglenoids:&nbsp;<div>one to three flagella at <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical</span> (leading) end; instead of cellulose cell wall, thin, protein strips called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pellicles</span> that wrap over cell membranes =&gt; heterotrophic in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">absence of light</span>; some have eyespot that permits phototaxis (ability to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">move in response to light</span>).</div><br>
"
"Euglenoids:&nbsp;<div>one to three flagella at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical</span> (leading) end; instead of cellulose cell wall, thin, protein strips called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pellicles"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> that wrap over cell membranes =&gt; heterotrophic in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">absence of light</span>; some have eyespot that permits phototaxis (ability to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">move in response to light</span>).</div>""Euglenoids:&nbsp;<div>one to three flagella at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical</span> (leading) end; instead of cellulose cell wall, thin, protein strips called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">pellicles</span> that wrap over cell membranes =&gt; heterotrophic in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">absence of light</span>; some have eyespot that permits phototaxis (ability to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">move in response to light</span>).</div><br>
"
"Euglenoids:&nbsp;<div>one to three flagella at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical</span> (leading) end; instead of cellulose cell wall, thin, protein strips called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pellicles</span> that wrap over cell membranes =&gt; heterotrophic in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""absence&#x20;of&#x20;light"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>; some have eyespot that permits phototaxis (ability to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">move in response to light</span>).</div>""Euglenoids:&nbsp;<div>one to three flagella at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical</span> (leading) end; instead of cellulose cell wall, thin, protein strips called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pellicles</span> that wrap over cell membranes =&gt; heterotrophic in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">absence of light</span>; some have eyespot that permits phototaxis (ability to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">move in response to light</span>).</div><br>
"
"Euglenoids:&nbsp;<div>one to three flagella at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical</span> (leading) end; instead of cellulose cell wall, thin, protein strips called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pellicles</span> that wrap over cell membranes =&gt; heterotrophic in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">absence of light</span>; some have eyespot that permits phototaxis (ability to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""move&#x20;in&#x20;response&#x20;to&#x20;light"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>).</div>""Euglenoids:&nbsp;<div>one to three flagella at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical</span> (leading) end; instead of cellulose cell wall, thin, protein strips called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pellicles</span> that wrap over cell membranes =&gt; heterotrophic in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">absence of light</span>; some have eyespot that permits phototaxis (ability to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">move in response to light</span>).</div><br>
"
"Dinoflagellates:<div>&nbsp;have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""two"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> flagella. One is posterior, 2nd flagellum is transverse and rests in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">encircling mid groove</span> perpendicular to 1st flagellum. Some are bioluminescent. Others produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">nerve toxin</span> that concentrate in filter-feeding shellfish =&gt; cause illness to human when eaten.</div>""Dinoflagellates:<div>&nbsp;have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">two</span> flagella. One is posterior, 2nd flagellum is transverse and rests in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">encircling mid groove</span> perpendicular to 1st flagellum. Some are bioluminescent. Others produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">nerve toxin</span> that concentrate in filter-feeding shellfish =&gt; cause illness to human when eaten.</div><br>
"
"Dinoflagellates:<div>&nbsp;have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">two</span> flagella. One is posterior, 2nd flagellum is transverse and rests in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""encircling&#x20;mid&#x20;groove"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> perpendicular to 1st flagellum. Some are bioluminescent. Others produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">nerve toxin</span> that concentrate in filter-feeding shellfish =&gt; cause illness to human when eaten.</div>""Dinoflagellates:<div>&nbsp;have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">two</span> flagella. One is posterior, 2nd flagellum is transverse and rests in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">encircling mid groove</span> perpendicular to 1st flagellum. Some are bioluminescent. Others produce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">nerve toxin</span> that concentrate in filter-feeding shellfish =&gt; cause illness to human when eaten.</div><br>
"
"Dinoflagellates:<div>&nbsp;have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">two</span> flagella. One is posterior, 2nd flagellum is transverse and rests in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">encircling mid groove</span> perpendicular to 1st flagellum. Some are bioluminescent. Others produce <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nerve&#x20;toxin"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> that concentrate in filter-feeding shellfish =&gt; cause illness to human when eaten.</div>""Dinoflagellates:<div>&nbsp;have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">two</span> flagella. One is posterior, 2nd flagellum is transverse and rests in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">encircling mid groove</span> perpendicular to 1st flagellum. Some are bioluminescent. Others produce <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">nerve toxin</span> that concentrate in filter-feeding shellfish =&gt; cause illness to human when eaten.</div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Diatoms"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: have test (shell) that fit together like a box with a lid; contain SiO2.""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Diatoms</span>: have test (shell) that fit together like a box with a lid; contain SiO2.<br>
"
"&nbsp;Brown algae: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""multi"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>cellular and have flagellated <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sperm</span> cells (giant seaweed)""&nbsp;Brown algae: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">multi</span>cellular and have flagellated <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sperm</span> cells (giant seaweed)<br>
"
"&nbsp;Brown algae: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">multi</span>cellular and have flagellated <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sperm"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> cells (giant seaweed)""&nbsp;Brown algae: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">multi</span>cellular and have flagellated <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">sperm</span> cells (giant seaweed)<br>
"
"<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Rhodophyta"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: red algae (red accessory pigments phycobilins); multicellular and gametes do not have flagella.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div>""<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Rhodophyta</span>: red algae (red accessory pigments phycobilins); multicellular and gametes do not have flagella.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span></div><br>
"
"Chlorophyta: green algae, have both chlorophyll a and b, cellulose cell walls, store energy in starch. Some species have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">isogamous</span> gamete (both sperm/egg equal in size and motile), others are anisogamous (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sperm/egg differ in size</span>); others can have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">oogamous</span> (large egg cell remains with the parent and is fertilized by small/motile sperm).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>A linage of Chlorophytes, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""charophytes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are believed to be ancestor of plants.</div>""Chlorophyta: green algae, have both chlorophyll a and b, cellulose cell walls, store energy in starch. Some species have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">isogamous</span> gamete (both sperm/egg equal in size and motile), others are anisogamous (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sperm/egg differ in size</span>); others can have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">oogamous</span> (large egg cell remains with the parent and is fertilized by small/motile sperm).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>A linage of Chlorophytes, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">charophytes</span> are believed to be ancestor of plants.</div><br>
"
"Chlorophyta: green algae, have both chlorophyll a and b, cellulose cell walls, store energy in starch. Some species have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""isogamous"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> gamete (both sperm/egg equal in size and motile), others are anisogamous (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sperm/egg differ in size</span>); others can have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">oogamous</span> (large egg cell remains with the parent and is fertilized by small/motile sperm).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>A linage of Chlorophytes, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">charophytes</span> are believed to be ancestor of plants.</div>""Chlorophyta: green algae, have both chlorophyll a and b, cellulose cell walls, store energy in starch. Some species have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">isogamous</span> gamete (both sperm/egg equal in size and motile), others are anisogamous (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sperm/egg differ in size</span>); others can have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">oogamous</span> (large egg cell remains with the parent and is fertilized by small/motile sperm).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>A linage of Chlorophytes, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">charophytes</span> are believed to be ancestor of plants.</div><br>
"
"Chlorophyta: green algae, have both chlorophyll a and b, cellulose cell walls, store energy in starch. Some species have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">isogamous</span> gamete (both sperm/egg equal in size and motile), others are anisogamous (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sperm&#x2F;egg&#x20;differ&#x20;in&#x20;size"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>); others can have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">oogamous</span> (large egg cell remains with the parent and is fertilized by small/motile sperm).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>A linage of Chlorophytes, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">charophytes</span> are believed to be ancestor of plants.</div>""Chlorophyta: green algae, have both chlorophyll a and b, cellulose cell walls, store energy in starch. Some species have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">isogamous</span> gamete (both sperm/egg equal in size and motile), others are anisogamous (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">sperm/egg differ in size</span>); others can have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">oogamous</span> (large egg cell remains with the parent and is fertilized by small/motile sperm).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>A linage of Chlorophytes, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">charophytes</span> are believed to be ancestor of plants.</div><br>
"
"Chlorophyta: green algae, have both chlorophyll a and b, cellulose cell walls, store energy in starch. Some species have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">isogamous</span> gamete (both sperm/egg equal in size and motile), others are anisogamous (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sperm/egg differ in size</span>); others can have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oogamous"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> (large egg cell remains with the parent and is fertilized by small/motile sperm).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>A linage of Chlorophytes, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">charophytes</span> are believed to be ancestor of plants.</div>""Chlorophyta: green algae, have both chlorophyll a and b, cellulose cell walls, store energy in starch. Some species have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">isogamous</span> gamete (both sperm/egg equal in size and motile), others are anisogamous (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sperm/egg differ in size</span>); others can have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">oogamous</span> (large egg cell remains with the parent and is fertilized by small/motile sperm).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>A linage of Chlorophytes, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">charophytes</span> are believed to be ancestor of plants.</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Protozoa (animal-like) protists are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hetero"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>trophs; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""uni"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>cellular eukaryotes.""&nbsp;Protozoa (animal-like) protists are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hetero</span>trophs; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">uni</span>cellular eukaryotes.<br>
"
"<div>Protozoa</div><div><br /></div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""&amp;nbsp&#x3B;Rhizopoda"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: amoebas that move by extensions of their cell body called pseudopodia; encircle food phagocytosis.""<div>Protozoa</div><div><br /></div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">&nbsp;Rhizopoda</span>: amoebas that move by extensions of their cell body called pseudopodia; encircle food phagocytosis.<br>
"
"<div>Protozoa</div><div><br /></div>Foraminifera: aka forams, have tests (shell) usually made of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""calcium&#x20;carbonate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> =&gt; oil deposits.""<div>Protozoa</div><div><br /></div>Foraminifera: aka forams, have tests (shell) usually made of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">calcium carbonate</span> =&gt; oil deposits.<br>
"
"Protozoa<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Apicomplexans"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: parasites of animals; apical complex (complex of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">organelles</span> located at an end (apex) of the cell); no physical motility; form spores which are dispersed by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hosts</span> that complete their life cycle (malaria caused by sporozoan).</div>""Protozoa<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Apicomplexans</span>: parasites of animals; apical complex (complex of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">organelles</span> located at an end (apex) of the cell); no physical motility; form spores which are dispersed by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hosts</span> that complete their life cycle (malaria caused by sporozoan).</div><br>
"
"Protozoa<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Apicomplexans</span>: parasites of animals; apical complex (complex of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""organelles"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> located at an end (apex) of the cell); no physical motility; form spores which are dispersed by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hosts</span> that complete their life cycle (malaria caused by sporozoan).</div>""Protozoa<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Apicomplexans</span>: parasites of animals; apical complex (complex of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">organelles</span> located at an end (apex) of the cell); no physical motility; form spores which are dispersed by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">hosts</span> that complete their life cycle (malaria caused by sporozoan).</div><br>
"
"Protozoa<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Apicomplexans</span>: parasites of animals; apical complex (complex of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">organelles</span> located at an end (apex) of the cell); no physical motility; form spores which are dispersed by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hosts"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> that complete their life cycle (malaria caused by sporozoan).</div>""Protozoa<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Apicomplexans</span>: parasites of animals; apical complex (complex of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">organelles</span> located at an end (apex) of the cell); no physical motility; form spores which are dispersed by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">hosts</span> that complete their life cycle (malaria caused by sporozoan).</div><br>
"
"Protozoa<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Ciliates"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: use cilia for moving and other functions; mouths, pores, contractile vacuoles, two kinds of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">nuclei</span> (large macronucleus and several small nuclei); most complex of all cells =&gt; paramecium.</div>""Protozoa<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ciliates</span>: use cilia for moving and other functions; mouths, pores, contractile vacuoles, two kinds of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">nuclei</span> (large macronucleus and several small nuclei); most complex of all cells =&gt; paramecium.</div><br>
"
"Protozoa<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ciliates</span>: use cilia for moving and other functions; mouths, pores, contractile vacuoles, two kinds of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nuclei"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (large macronucleus and several small nuclei); most complex of all cells =&gt; paramecium.</div>""Protozoa<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ciliates</span>: use cilia for moving and other functions; mouths, pores, contractile vacuoles, two kinds of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">nuclei</span> (large macronucleus and several small nuclei); most complex of all cells =&gt; paramecium.</div><br>
"
"Protozoa<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Amoebas"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: genus of protozoa, shapeless, unicellular.</div><div><br /></div>""Protozoa<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Amoebas</span>: genus of protozoa, shapeless, unicellular.</div><div><br /></div><br>
"
"Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div>Cellular slime molds: funguslike and protozoalike characteristics; Spores germinate into amoebas which feed on <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bacteria"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; when no food, amoebas aggregates into single unit slug (individual cells of slug mobilize into stalk with capsule at top to release spores =&gt; germinate and repeat cycle); stimulus for aggregation is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cAMP (deprivation of food)</span>.</div>""Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div>Cellular slime molds: funguslike and protozoalike characteristics; Spores germinate into amoebas which feed on <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">bacteria</span>; when no food, amoebas aggregates into single unit slug (individual cells of slug mobilize into stalk with capsule at top to release spores =&gt; germinate and repeat cycle); stimulus for aggregation is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cAMP (deprivation of food)</span>.</div><br>
"
"Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div>Cellular slime molds: funguslike and protozoalike characteristics; Spores germinate into amoebas which feed on <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">bacteria</span>; when no food, amoebas aggregates into single unit slug (individual cells of slug mobilize into stalk with capsule at top to release spores =&gt; germinate and repeat cycle); stimulus for aggregation is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cAMP&#x20;&#x28;deprivation&#x20;of&#x20;food&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>.</div>""Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div>Cellular slime molds: funguslike and protozoalike characteristics; Spores germinate into amoebas which feed on <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">bacteria</span>; when no food, amoebas aggregates into single unit slug (individual cells of slug mobilize into stalk with capsule at top to release spores =&gt; germinate and repeat cycle); stimulus for aggregation is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">cAMP (deprivation of food)</span>.</div><br>
"
"Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div>b. Plasmodial slime molds: single, spreading mass (plasmodium) feeding on <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""decaying&#x20;vegetation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; when no food =&gt; stalks bearing spore capsules form =&gt; haploid spores released from capsule germinate into haploid amoeboid/flagellated cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fuse</span> to form diploid cells =&gt; grow into plasmodium; no mutualistic with others.</div>""Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div>b. Plasmodial slime molds: single, spreading mass (plasmodium) feeding on <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">decaying vegetation</span>; when no food =&gt; stalks bearing spore capsules form =&gt; haploid spores released from capsule germinate into haploid amoeboid/flagellated cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fuse</span> to form diploid cells =&gt; grow into plasmodium; no mutualistic with others.</div><br>
"
"Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div>b. Plasmodial slime molds: single, spreading mass (plasmodium) feeding on <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">decaying vegetation</span>; when no food =&gt; stalks bearing spore capsules form =&gt; haploid spores released from capsule germinate into haploid amoeboid/flagellated cells, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fuse"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> to form diploid cells =&gt; grow into plasmodium; no mutualistic with others.</div>""Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div>b. Plasmodial slime molds: single, spreading mass (plasmodium) feeding on <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">decaying vegetation</span>; when no food =&gt; stalks bearing spore capsules form =&gt; haploid spores released from capsule germinate into haploid amoeboid/flagellated cells, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">fuse</span> to form diploid cells =&gt; grow into plasmodium; no mutualistic with others.</div><br>
"
"Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Oomycota"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: water molds, white rusts; either parasites or saprobes (gets nutrition from nonliving/decaying organic matter);&nbsp;</div><div>form filaments (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">hyphae</span>) which secret enzymes that digest surrounding substances like fungi.&nbsp;</div><div>Hyphae lacks septa (cross wall) which is in true fungi that partition filaments into compartments; they are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coenocytic</span> (lack septa), containing many nuclei within a single cell; cell walls are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cellulose</span> rather than chitin of fungi.</div>""Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Oomycota</span>: water molds, white rusts; either parasites or saprobes (gets nutrition from nonliving/decaying organic matter);&nbsp;</div><div>form filaments (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">hyphae</span>) which secret enzymes that digest surrounding substances like fungi.&nbsp;</div><div>Hyphae lacks septa (cross wall) which is in true fungi that partition filaments into compartments; they are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coenocytic</span> (lack septa), containing many nuclei within a single cell; cell walls are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cellulose</span> rather than chitin of fungi.</div><br>
"
"Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Oomycota</span>: water molds, white rusts; either parasites or saprobes (gets nutrition from nonliving/decaying organic matter);&nbsp;</div><div>form filaments (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hyphae"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>) which secret enzymes that digest surrounding substances like fungi.&nbsp;</div><div>Hyphae lacks septa (cross wall) which is in true fungi that partition filaments into compartments; they are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coenocytic</span> (lack septa), containing many nuclei within a single cell; cell walls are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cellulose</span> rather than chitin of fungi.</div>""Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Oomycota</span>: water molds, white rusts; either parasites or saprobes (gets nutrition from nonliving/decaying organic matter);&nbsp;</div><div>form filaments (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">hyphae</span>) which secret enzymes that digest surrounding substances like fungi.&nbsp;</div><div>Hyphae lacks septa (cross wall) which is in true fungi that partition filaments into compartments; they are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coenocytic</span> (lack septa), containing many nuclei within a single cell; cell walls are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cellulose</span> rather than chitin of fungi.</div><br>
"
"Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Oomycota</span>: water molds, white rusts; either parasites or saprobes (gets nutrition from nonliving/decaying organic matter);&nbsp;</div><div>form filaments (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">hyphae</span>) which secret enzymes that digest surrounding substances like fungi.&nbsp;</div><div>Hyphae lacks septa (cross wall) which is in true fungi that partition filaments into compartments; they are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""coenocytic"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (lack septa), containing many nuclei within a single cell; cell walls are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cellulose</span> rather than chitin of fungi.</div>""Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Oomycota</span>: water molds, white rusts; either parasites or saprobes (gets nutrition from nonliving/decaying organic matter);&nbsp;</div><div>form filaments (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">hyphae</span>) which secret enzymes that digest surrounding substances like fungi.&nbsp;</div><div>Hyphae lacks septa (cross wall) which is in true fungi that partition filaments into compartments; they are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">coenocytic</span> (lack septa), containing many nuclei within a single cell; cell walls are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">cellulose</span> rather than chitin of fungi.</div><br>
"
"Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Oomycota</span>: water molds, white rusts; either parasites or saprobes (gets nutrition from nonliving/decaying organic matter);&nbsp;</div><div>form filaments (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">hyphae</span>) which secret enzymes that digest surrounding substances like fungi.&nbsp;</div><div>Hyphae lacks septa (cross wall) which is in true fungi that partition filaments into compartments; they are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coenocytic</span> (lack septa), containing many nuclei within a single cell; cell walls are made of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cellulose"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> rather than chitin of fungi.</div>""Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Oomycota</span>: water molds, white rusts; either parasites or saprobes (gets nutrition from nonliving/decaying organic matter);&nbsp;</div><div>form filaments (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">hyphae</span>) which secret enzymes that digest surrounding substances like fungi.&nbsp;</div><div>Hyphae lacks septa (cross wall) which is in true fungi that partition filaments into compartments; they are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coenocytic</span> (lack septa), containing many nuclei within a single cell; cell walls are made of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">cellulose</span> rather than chitin of fungi.</div><br>
"
"Kingdom Fungi: fungi grow as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""filaments"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (hyphae), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mycellium</span> is a mass of hyphae; some fungi have septum which divide filament into compartments containing single nucleus. Cell walls contain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> (N-containing polysaccharide)""Kingdom Fungi: fungi grow as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">filaments</span> (hyphae), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mycellium</span> is a mass of hyphae; some fungi have septum which divide filament into compartments containing single nucleus. Cell walls contain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> (N-containing polysaccharide)<br>
"
"Kingdom Fungi: fungi grow as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">filaments</span> (hyphae), <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Mycellium"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> is a mass of hyphae; some fungi have septum which divide filament into compartments containing single nucleus. Cell walls contain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> (N-containing polysaccharide)""Kingdom Fungi: fungi grow as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">filaments</span> (hyphae), <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mycellium</span> is a mass of hyphae; some fungi have septum which divide filament into compartments containing single nucleus. Cell walls contain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> (N-containing polysaccharide)<br>
"
"Kingdom Fungi: fungi grow as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">filaments</span> (hyphae), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mycellium</span> is a mass of hyphae; some fungi have septum which divide filament into compartments containing single nucleus. Cell walls contain <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chitin"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (N-containing polysaccharide)""Kingdom Fungi: fungi grow as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">filaments</span> (hyphae), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mycellium</span> is a mass of hyphae; some fungi have septum which divide filament into compartments containing single nucleus. Cell walls contain <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">chitin</span> (N-containing polysaccharide)<br>
"
"Fungi are either <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""parasites&#x2F;saprobes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (decomposer) absorbing food products due to digestive enzymes. Parasitic fungi have hyphae (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">haustoria</span>) that penetrate host.""Fungi are either <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">parasites/saprobes</span> (decomposer) absorbing food products due to digestive enzymes. Parasitic fungi have hyphae (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">haustoria</span>) that penetrate host.<br>
"
"Fungi are either <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">parasites/saprobes</span> (decomposer) absorbing food products due to digestive enzymes. Parasitic fungi have hyphae (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""haustoria"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>) that penetrate host.""Fungi are either <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">parasites/saprobes</span> (decomposer) absorbing food products due to digestive enzymes. Parasitic fungi have hyphae (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">haustoria</span>) that penetrate host.<br>
"
"Kingdom Fungi<div>Stages of Sexual Reproduction:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Plasmogamy"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: &nbsp;fusing of cells from two different fungal strains to produce single cell w/ nuclei of both strains. A pair of haploid nuclei, one each strain is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dikaryon</span>. Dikaryotic hypha is hypha containing dikaryon.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;b. Karyogamy: fusing of two haploid nuclei of a dikaryon to form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">single diploid nucleus.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;c. Meiosis: of diploid nucleus restores haploid condition; daughter cells develop into haploid spores which germinate into haploid hyphae (has 1 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">fungal strain</span>) =&gt; merge into dikaryon and repeat.</div></div>""Kingdom Fungi<div>Stages of Sexual Reproduction:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Plasmogamy</span>: &nbsp;fusing of cells from two different fungal strains to produce single cell w/ nuclei of both strains. A pair of haploid nuclei, one each strain is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dikaryon</span>. Dikaryotic hypha is hypha containing dikaryon.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;b. Karyogamy: fusing of two haploid nuclei of a dikaryon to form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">single diploid nucleus.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;c. Meiosis: of diploid nucleus restores haploid condition; daughter cells develop into haploid spores which germinate into haploid hyphae (has 1 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">fungal strain</span>) =&gt; merge into dikaryon and repeat.</div></div><br>
"
"Kingdom Fungi<div>Stages of Sexual Reproduction:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Plasmogamy</span>: &nbsp;fusing of cells from two different fungal strains to produce single cell w/ nuclei of both strains. A pair of haploid nuclei, one each strain is called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""dikaryon"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>. Dikaryotic hypha is hypha containing dikaryon.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;b. Karyogamy: fusing of two haploid nuclei of a dikaryon to form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">single diploid nucleus.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;c. Meiosis: of diploid nucleus restores haploid condition; daughter cells develop into haploid spores which germinate into haploid hyphae (has 1 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">fungal strain</span>) =&gt; merge into dikaryon and repeat.</div></div>""Kingdom Fungi<div>Stages of Sexual Reproduction:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Plasmogamy</span>: &nbsp;fusing of cells from two different fungal strains to produce single cell w/ nuclei of both strains. A pair of haploid nuclei, one each strain is called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">dikaryon</span>. Dikaryotic hypha is hypha containing dikaryon.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;b. Karyogamy: fusing of two haploid nuclei of a dikaryon to form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">single diploid nucleus.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;c. Meiosis: of diploid nucleus restores haploid condition; daughter cells develop into haploid spores which germinate into haploid hyphae (has 1 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">fungal strain</span>) =&gt; merge into dikaryon and repeat.</div></div><br>
"
"Kingdom Fungi<div>Stages of Sexual Reproduction:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Plasmogamy</span>: &nbsp;fusing of cells from two different fungal strains to produce single cell w/ nuclei of both strains. A pair of haploid nuclei, one each strain is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dikaryon</span>. Dikaryotic hypha is hypha containing dikaryon.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;b. Karyogamy: fusing of two haploid nuclei of a dikaryon to form <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""single&#x20;diploid&#x20;nucleus&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;c. Meiosis: of diploid nucleus restores haploid condition; daughter cells develop into haploid spores which germinate into haploid hyphae (has 1 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">fungal strain</span>) =&gt; merge into dikaryon and repeat.</div></div>""Kingdom Fungi<div>Stages of Sexual Reproduction:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Plasmogamy</span>: &nbsp;fusing of cells from two different fungal strains to produce single cell w/ nuclei of both strains. A pair of haploid nuclei, one each strain is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dikaryon</span>. Dikaryotic hypha is hypha containing dikaryon.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;b. Karyogamy: fusing of two haploid nuclei of a dikaryon to form <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">single diploid nucleus.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;c. Meiosis: of diploid nucleus restores haploid condition; daughter cells develop into haploid spores which germinate into haploid hyphae (has 1 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">fungal strain</span>) =&gt; merge into dikaryon and repeat.</div></div><br>
"
"Kingdom Fungi<div>Stages of Sexual Reproduction:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Plasmogamy</span>: &nbsp;fusing of cells from two different fungal strains to produce single cell w/ nuclei of both strains. A pair of haploid nuclei, one each strain is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dikaryon</span>. Dikaryotic hypha is hypha containing dikaryon.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;b. Karyogamy: fusing of two haploid nuclei of a dikaryon to form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">single diploid nucleus.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;c. Meiosis: of diploid nucleus restores haploid condition; daughter cells develop into haploid spores which germinate into haploid hyphae (has 1 <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fungal&#x20;strain"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>) =&gt; merge into dikaryon and repeat.</div></div>""Kingdom Fungi<div>Stages of Sexual Reproduction:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Plasmogamy</span>: &nbsp;fusing of cells from two different fungal strains to produce single cell w/ nuclei of both strains. A pair of haploid nuclei, one each strain is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dikaryon</span>. Dikaryotic hypha is hypha containing dikaryon.</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;b. Karyogamy: fusing of two haploid nuclei of a dikaryon to form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">single diploid nucleus.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;c. Meiosis: of diploid nucleus restores haploid condition; daughter cells develop into haploid spores which germinate into haploid hyphae (has 1 <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">fungal strain</span>) =&gt; merge into dikaryon and repeat.</div></div><br>
"
"Kingdom Fungi:<div><div>Stages of Asexual Reproduction:&nbsp;</div><div>fragmentation (breaking up <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hyphae"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">budding</span> (small hyphal outgrowth),&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>asexual spores are described as two types:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporangiospores</span>: produced in capsules (sporangia) that are each borne on a stalk called sporangiophore.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Conidia</span>: formed at tips of specialized hyphae, not enclosed inside sac; hyphae bearing conidia (conidiophores); asexual reproduction.</div></div>""Kingdom Fungi:<div><div>Stages of Asexual Reproduction:&nbsp;</div><div>fragmentation (breaking up <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hyphae</span>), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">budding</span> (small hyphal outgrowth),&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>asexual spores are described as two types:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporangiospores</span>: produced in capsules (sporangia) that are each borne on a stalk called sporangiophore.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Conidia</span>: formed at tips of specialized hyphae, not enclosed inside sac; hyphae bearing conidia (conidiophores); asexual reproduction.</div></div><br>
"
"Kingdom Fungi:<div><div>Stages of Asexual Reproduction:&nbsp;</div><div>fragmentation (breaking up <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">hyphae</span>), <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""budding"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (small hyphal outgrowth),&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>asexual spores are described as two types:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporangiospores</span>: produced in capsules (sporangia) that are each borne on a stalk called sporangiophore.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Conidia</span>: formed at tips of specialized hyphae, not enclosed inside sac; hyphae bearing conidia (conidiophores); asexual reproduction.</div></div>""Kingdom Fungi:<div><div>Stages of Asexual Reproduction:&nbsp;</div><div>fragmentation (breaking up <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">hyphae</span>), <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">budding</span> (small hyphal outgrowth),&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>asexual spores are described as two types:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporangiospores</span>: produced in capsules (sporangia) that are each borne on a stalk called sporangiophore.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Conidia</span>: formed at tips of specialized hyphae, not enclosed inside sac; hyphae bearing conidia (conidiophores); asexual reproduction.</div></div><br>
"
"Kingdom Fungi:<div><div>Stages of Asexual Reproduction:&nbsp;</div><div>fragmentation (breaking up <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">hyphae</span>), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">budding</span> (small hyphal outgrowth),&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>asexual spores are described as two types:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Sporangiospores"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>: produced in capsules (sporangia) that are each borne on a stalk called sporangiophore.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Conidia</span>: formed at tips of specialized hyphae, not enclosed inside sac; hyphae bearing conidia (conidiophores); asexual reproduction.</div></div>""Kingdom Fungi:<div><div>Stages of Asexual Reproduction:&nbsp;</div><div>fragmentation (breaking up <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">hyphae</span>), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">budding</span> (small hyphal outgrowth),&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>asexual spores are described as two types:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporangiospores</span>: produced in capsules (sporangia) that are each borne on a stalk called sporangiophore.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Conidia</span>: formed at tips of specialized hyphae, not enclosed inside sac; hyphae bearing conidia (conidiophores); asexual reproduction.</div></div><br>
"
"Kingdom Fungi:<div><div>Stages of Asexual Reproduction:&nbsp;</div><div>fragmentation (breaking up <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">hyphae</span>), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">budding</span> (small hyphal outgrowth),&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>asexual spores are described as two types:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporangiospores</span>: produced in capsules (sporangia) that are each borne on a stalk called sporangiophore.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Conidia"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>: formed at tips of specialized hyphae, not enclosed inside sac; hyphae bearing conidia (conidiophores); asexual reproduction.</div></div>""Kingdom Fungi:<div><div>Stages of Asexual Reproduction:&nbsp;</div><div>fragmentation (breaking up <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">hyphae</span>), <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">budding</span> (small hyphal outgrowth),&nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>asexual spores are described as two types:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporangiospores</span>: produced in capsules (sporangia) that are each borne on a stalk called sporangiophore.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;- <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Conidia</span>: formed at tips of specialized hyphae, not enclosed inside sac; hyphae bearing conidia (conidiophores); asexual reproduction.</div></div><br>
"
"Six fungus groups: division/classes with suffix <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""–mycota"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (division) or <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">–mycete</span> (classes) and used interchangeably.""Six fungus groups: division/classes with suffix <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">–mycota</span> (division) or <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">–mycete</span> (classes) and used interchangeably.<br>
"
"Six fungus groups: division/classes with suffix <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">–mycota</span> (division) or <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""–mycete"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (classes) and used interchangeably.""Six fungus groups: division/classes with suffix <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">–mycota</span> (division) or <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">–mycete</span> (classes) and used interchangeably.<br>
"
"&nbsp;fungus groups<div>a. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Zygomycota"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: lack septa, except filaments border reproductive filaments; reproduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by fusion of hyphae from different strains, followed by plasmogamy, karyogamy, meiosis; haploid zygospores are produced =&gt; germinate into new hyphae (bread molds).</div>""&nbsp;fungus groups<div>a. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Zygomycota</span>: lack septa, except filaments border reproductive filaments; reproduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by fusion of hyphae from different strains, followed by plasmogamy, karyogamy, meiosis; haploid zygospores are produced =&gt; germinate into new hyphae (bread molds).</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;fungus groups<div>a. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Zygomycota</span>: lack septa, except filaments border reproductive filaments; reproduce <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sexually"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> by fusion of hyphae from different strains, followed by plasmogamy, karyogamy, meiosis; haploid zygospores are produced =&gt; germinate into new hyphae (bread molds).</div>""&nbsp;fungus groups<div>a. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Zygomycota</span>: lack septa, except filaments border reproductive filaments; reproduce <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by fusion of hyphae from different strains, followed by plasmogamy, karyogamy, meiosis; haploid zygospores are produced =&gt; germinate into new hyphae (bread molds).</div><br>
"
"fungus groups<div>b. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glomeromycota"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: lack septa, do not produce zygospores; mutualistic associations with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">roots of plants</span> (mycorrhizae), plants provide carb, fungus increases ability of plant to absorb nutrient (Phosphorus).</div>""fungus groups<div>b. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glomeromycota</span>: lack septa, do not produce zygospores; mutualistic associations with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">roots of plants</span> (mycorrhizae), plants provide carb, fungus increases ability of plant to absorb nutrient (Phosphorus).</div><br>
"
"fungus groups<div>b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glomeromycota</span>: lack septa, do not produce zygospores; mutualistic associations with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""roots&#x20;of&#x20;plants"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (mycorrhizae), plants provide carb, fungus increases ability of plant to absorb nutrient (Phosphorus).</div>""fungus groups<div>b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glomeromycota</span>: lack septa, do not produce zygospores; mutualistic associations with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">roots of plants</span> (mycorrhizae), plants provide carb, fungus increases ability of plant to absorb nutrient (Phosphorus).</div><br>
"
"fungus groups<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Ascomycota"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: septa; reproduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by producing haploid ascospores. After plasmogamy of hyphae from different strains, dikaryotic hypha produces more filaments by mitosis; karyogamy and meiosis occurs in terminal hyphal =&gt; 4haploid cells =&gt; mitosis to produce 8 haploid ascospores in a sac called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ascus</span>; grouped together into fruiting body ascocarp (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">yeast</span>).</div>""fungus groups<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ascomycota</span>: septa; reproduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by producing haploid ascospores. After plasmogamy of hyphae from different strains, dikaryotic hypha produces more filaments by mitosis; karyogamy and meiosis occurs in terminal hyphal =&gt; 4haploid cells =&gt; mitosis to produce 8 haploid ascospores in a sac called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ascus</span>; grouped together into fruiting body ascocarp (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">yeast</span>).</div><br>
"
"fungus groups<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ascomycota</span>: septa; reproduce <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sexually"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> by producing haploid ascospores. After plasmogamy of hyphae from different strains, dikaryotic hypha produces more filaments by mitosis; karyogamy and meiosis occurs in terminal hyphal =&gt; 4haploid cells =&gt; mitosis to produce 8 haploid ascospores in a sac called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ascus</span>; grouped together into fruiting body ascocarp (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">yeast</span>).</div>""fungus groups<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ascomycota</span>: septa; reproduce <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by producing haploid ascospores. After plasmogamy of hyphae from different strains, dikaryotic hypha produces more filaments by mitosis; karyogamy and meiosis occurs in terminal hyphal =&gt; 4haploid cells =&gt; mitosis to produce 8 haploid ascospores in a sac called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ascus</span>; grouped together into fruiting body ascocarp (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">yeast</span>).</div><br>
"
"fungus groups<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ascomycota</span>: septa; reproduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by producing haploid ascospores. After plasmogamy of hyphae from different strains, dikaryotic hypha produces more filaments by mitosis; karyogamy and meiosis occurs in terminal hyphal =&gt; 4haploid cells =&gt; mitosis to produce 8 haploid ascospores in a sac called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ascus"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>; grouped together into fruiting body ascocarp (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">yeast</span>).</div>""fungus groups<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ascomycota</span>: septa; reproduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by producing haploid ascospores. After plasmogamy of hyphae from different strains, dikaryotic hypha produces more filaments by mitosis; karyogamy and meiosis occurs in terminal hyphal =&gt; 4haploid cells =&gt; mitosis to produce 8 haploid ascospores in a sac called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">ascus</span>; grouped together into fruiting body ascocarp (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">yeast</span>).</div><br>
"
"fungus groups<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ascomycota</span>: septa; reproduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by producing haploid ascospores. After plasmogamy of hyphae from different strains, dikaryotic hypha produces more filaments by mitosis; karyogamy and meiosis occurs in terminal hyphal =&gt; 4haploid cells =&gt; mitosis to produce 8 haploid ascospores in a sac called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ascus</span>; grouped together into fruiting body ascocarp (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""yeast"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>).</div>""fungus groups<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ascomycota</span>: septa; reproduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by producing haploid ascospores. After plasmogamy of hyphae from different strains, dikaryotic hypha produces more filaments by mitosis; karyogamy and meiosis occurs in terminal hyphal =&gt; 4haploid cells =&gt; mitosis to produce 8 haploid ascospores in a sac called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">ascus</span>; grouped together into fruiting body ascocarp (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">yeast</span>).</div><br>
"
"fungus groups<div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Basidiomycota"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: septa, reproduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by producing haploid basidiospores. Plasmogamy =&gt; mitosis =&gt;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fruiting body</span> (basidiocarp) such as mushroom; Karyogamy occurs in terminal hyphal cells called basidia, followed by meiosis to produce 4 haploid basidiospores.</div>""fungus groups<div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Basidiomycota</span>: septa, reproduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by producing haploid basidiospores. Plasmogamy =&gt; mitosis =&gt;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fruiting body</span> (basidiocarp) such as mushroom; Karyogamy occurs in terminal hyphal cells called basidia, followed by meiosis to produce 4 haploid basidiospores.</div><br>
"
"fungus groups<div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Basidiomycota</span>: septa, reproduce <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sexually"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> by producing haploid basidiospores. Plasmogamy =&gt; mitosis =&gt;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fruiting body</span> (basidiocarp) such as mushroom; Karyogamy occurs in terminal hyphal cells called basidia, followed by meiosis to produce 4 haploid basidiospores.</div>""fungus groups<div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Basidiomycota</span>: septa, reproduce <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by producing haploid basidiospores. Plasmogamy =&gt; mitosis =&gt;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fruiting body</span> (basidiocarp) such as mushroom; Karyogamy occurs in terminal hyphal cells called basidia, followed by meiosis to produce 4 haploid basidiospores.</div><br>
"
"fungus groups<div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Basidiomycota</span>: septa, reproduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by producing haploid basidiospores. Plasmogamy =&gt; mitosis =&gt;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fruiting&#x20;body"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (basidiocarp) such as mushroom; Karyogamy occurs in terminal hyphal cells called basidia, followed by meiosis to produce 4 haploid basidiospores.</div>""fungus groups<div>&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Basidiomycota</span>: septa, reproduce <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sexually</span> by producing haploid basidiospores. Plasmogamy =&gt; mitosis =&gt;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">fruiting body</span> (basidiocarp) such as mushroom; Karyogamy occurs in terminal hyphal cells called basidia, followed by meiosis to produce 4 haploid basidiospores.</div><br>
"
"fungus groups<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Deuteromycota"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: imperfect fungi, artificial group (no sexual reproductive cycle). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Penicillium</span> produces penicillin.</div>""fungus groups<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Deuteromycota</span>: imperfect fungi, artificial group (no sexual reproductive cycle). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Penicillium</span> produces penicillin.</div><br>
"
"fungus groups<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Deuteromycota</span>: imperfect fungi, artificial group (no sexual reproductive cycle). <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Penicillium"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> produces penicillin.</div>""fungus groups<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Deuteromycota</span>: imperfect fungi, artificial group (no sexual reproductive cycle). <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Penicillium</span> produces penicillin.</div><br>
"
"fungus groups<div>&nbsp;Lichens: mutualistic associations between <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fungi&#x20;and&#x20;algae"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (usually chlorophyta/cyanobacteria provide <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">carb</span>); also provide Nitrogen if algae is nitrogen-fixing; fungus (ascomycete) provides water and protection (pigments from UVlight, or toxic chemicals for grazers) from environment.</div>""fungus groups<div>&nbsp;Lichens: mutualistic associations between <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fungi and algae</span> (usually chlorophyta/cyanobacteria provide <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">carb</span>); also provide Nitrogen if algae is nitrogen-fixing; fungus (ascomycete) provides water and protection (pigments from UVlight, or toxic chemicals for grazers) from environment.</div><br>
"
"fungus groups<div>&nbsp;Lichens: mutualistic associations between <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fungi and algae</span> (usually chlorophyta/cyanobacteria provide <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""carb"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>); also provide Nitrogen if algae is nitrogen-fixing; fungus (ascomycete) provides water and protection (pigments from UVlight, or toxic chemicals for grazers) from environment.</div>""fungus groups<div>&nbsp;Lichens: mutualistic associations between <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">fungi and algae</span> (usually chlorophyta/cyanobacteria provide <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">carb</span>); also provide Nitrogen if algae is nitrogen-fixing; fungus (ascomycete) provides water and protection (pigments from UVlight, or toxic chemicals for grazers) from environment.</div><br>
"
"Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>a. Dominant generation is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""diploid&#x20;sporophyte"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> generation (except primitive bryophytes-mosses, liverworts, and hornworts); provide two copies against genetic damage.</div><div><br /></div><div>b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cuticle</span>: waxy covering that reduces desiccation (drying up/water loss)</div><div><br /></div><div>c. Vascular system reduces dependency on water (cells no longer need to be close to water) =&gt; formation of specialized tissues: true leaves, true stems (support leaves), true roots. Xylem is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">water transport</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phloem</span> (sugar transport).</div></div>""Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>a. Dominant generation is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">diploid sporophyte</span> generation (except primitive bryophytes-mosses, liverworts, and hornworts); provide two copies against genetic damage.</div><div><br /></div><div>b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cuticle</span>: waxy covering that reduces desiccation (drying up/water loss)</div><div><br /></div><div>c. Vascular system reduces dependency on water (cells no longer need to be close to water) =&gt; formation of specialized tissues: true leaves, true stems (support leaves), true roots. Xylem is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">water transport</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phloem</span> (sugar transport).</div></div><br>
"
"Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>a. Dominant generation is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">diploid sporophyte</span> generation (except primitive bryophytes-mosses, liverworts, and hornworts); provide two copies against genetic damage.</div><div><br /></div><div>b. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cuticle"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>: waxy covering that reduces desiccation (drying up/water loss)</div><div><br /></div><div>c. Vascular system reduces dependency on water (cells no longer need to be close to water) =&gt; formation of specialized tissues: true leaves, true stems (support leaves), true roots. Xylem is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">water transport</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phloem</span> (sugar transport).</div></div>""Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>a. Dominant generation is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">diploid sporophyte</span> generation (except primitive bryophytes-mosses, liverworts, and hornworts); provide two copies against genetic damage.</div><div><br /></div><div>b. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cuticle</span>: waxy covering that reduces desiccation (drying up/water loss)</div><div><br /></div><div>c. Vascular system reduces dependency on water (cells no longer need to be close to water) =&gt; formation of specialized tissues: true leaves, true stems (support leaves), true roots. Xylem is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">water transport</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phloem</span> (sugar transport).</div></div><br>
"
"Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>a. Dominant generation is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">diploid sporophyte</span> generation (except primitive bryophytes-mosses, liverworts, and hornworts); provide two copies against genetic damage.</div><div><br /></div><div>b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cuticle</span>: waxy covering that reduces desiccation (drying up/water loss)</div><div><br /></div><div>c. Vascular system reduces dependency on water (cells no longer need to be close to water) =&gt; formation of specialized tissues: true leaves, true stems (support leaves), true roots. Xylem is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""water&#x20;transport"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phloem</span> (sugar transport).</div></div>""Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>a. Dominant generation is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">diploid sporophyte</span> generation (except primitive bryophytes-mosses, liverworts, and hornworts); provide two copies against genetic damage.</div><div><br /></div><div>b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cuticle</span>: waxy covering that reduces desiccation (drying up/water loss)</div><div><br /></div><div>c. Vascular system reduces dependency on water (cells no longer need to be close to water) =&gt; formation of specialized tissues: true leaves, true stems (support leaves), true roots. Xylem is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">water transport</span>, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phloem</span> (sugar transport).</div></div><br>
"
"Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>a. Dominant generation is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">diploid sporophyte</span> generation (except primitive bryophytes-mosses, liverworts, and hornworts); provide two copies against genetic damage.</div><div><br /></div><div>b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cuticle</span>: waxy covering that reduces desiccation (drying up/water loss)</div><div><br /></div><div>c. Vascular system reduces dependency on water (cells no longer need to be close to water) =&gt; formation of specialized tissues: true leaves, true stems (support leaves), true roots. Xylem is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">water transport</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phloem"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> (sugar transport).</div></div>""Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>a. Dominant generation is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">diploid sporophyte</span> generation (except primitive bryophytes-mosses, liverworts, and hornworts); provide two copies against genetic damage.</div><div><br /></div><div>b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cuticle</span>: waxy covering that reduces desiccation (drying up/water loss)</div><div><br /></div><div>c. Vascular system reduces dependency on water (cells no longer need to be close to water) =&gt; formation of specialized tissues: true leaves, true stems (support leaves), true roots. Xylem is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">water transport</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">phloem</span> (sugar transport).</div></div><br>
"
"Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>d. In primitive plant divisions (flagellated sperm require water to swim to eggs). In advanced division (coniferophyta and anthophyta), sperm is packaged as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pollen"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (wind).</div><div><br /></div><div>e. Anthophyta: gametophytes are enclosed (protected) inside <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">an ovary.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>f. Adaptations (coniferophyta + anthophyta) of seasonal variations in availability of water and light. Some are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">deciduous</span> (shed leaves to prevent water loss through slow-growing seasons).</div></div>""Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>d. In primitive plant divisions (flagellated sperm require water to swim to eggs). In advanced division (coniferophyta and anthophyta), sperm is packaged as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pollen</span> (wind).</div><div><br /></div><div>e. Anthophyta: gametophytes are enclosed (protected) inside <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">an ovary.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>f. Adaptations (coniferophyta + anthophyta) of seasonal variations in availability of water and light. Some are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">deciduous</span> (shed leaves to prevent water loss through slow-growing seasons).</div></div><br>
"
"Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>d. In primitive plant divisions (flagellated sperm require water to swim to eggs). In advanced division (coniferophyta and anthophyta), sperm is packaged as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pollen</span> (wind).</div><div><br /></div><div>e. Anthophyta: gametophytes are enclosed (protected) inside <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""an&#x20;ovary&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div><div><br /></div><div>f. Adaptations (coniferophyta + anthophyta) of seasonal variations in availability of water and light. Some are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">deciduous</span> (shed leaves to prevent water loss through slow-growing seasons).</div></div>""Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>d. In primitive plant divisions (flagellated sperm require water to swim to eggs). In advanced division (coniferophyta and anthophyta), sperm is packaged as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pollen</span> (wind).</div><div><br /></div><div>e. Anthophyta: gametophytes are enclosed (protected) inside <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">an ovary.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>f. Adaptations (coniferophyta + anthophyta) of seasonal variations in availability of water and light. Some are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">deciduous</span> (shed leaves to prevent water loss through slow-growing seasons).</div></div><br>
"
"Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>d. In primitive plant divisions (flagellated sperm require water to swim to eggs). In advanced division (coniferophyta and anthophyta), sperm is packaged as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pollen</span> (wind).</div><div><br /></div><div>e. Anthophyta: gametophytes are enclosed (protected) inside <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">an ovary.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>f. Adaptations (coniferophyta + anthophyta) of seasonal variations in availability of water and light. Some are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""deciduous"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (shed leaves to prevent water loss through slow-growing seasons).</div></div>""Kingdom Plantae<div>Adaptations for survival on land:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>d. In primitive plant divisions (flagellated sperm require water to swim to eggs). In advanced division (coniferophyta and anthophyta), sperm is packaged as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pollen</span> (wind).</div><div><br /></div><div>e. Anthophyta: gametophytes are enclosed (protected) inside <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">an ovary.</span></div><div><br /></div><div>f. Adaptations (coniferophyta + anthophyta) of seasonal variations in availability of water and light. Some are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">deciduous</span> (shed leaves to prevent water loss through slow-growing seasons).</div></div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Bryophytes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>:&nbsp;mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.</div><div><br /></div><div>Gametes are produced in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametangia</span> (protective structures) on gametophytes, dominant haploid stage of life cycle of bryophytes.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Antheridium</span> (male gametangium) produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">flagellated</span> sperm that swim through water. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Archegonium</span> (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">connected to</span> gametophyte).</div>""List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span>:&nbsp;mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.</div><div><br /></div><div>Gametes are produced in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametangia</span> (protective structures) on gametophytes, dominant haploid stage of life cycle of bryophytes.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Antheridium</span> (male gametangium) produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">flagellated</span> sperm that swim through water. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Archegonium</span> (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">connected to</span> gametophyte).</div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span>:&nbsp;mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.</div><div><br /></div><div>Gametes are produced in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""gametangia"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (protective structures) on gametophytes, dominant haploid stage of life cycle of bryophytes.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Antheridium</span> (male gametangium) produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">flagellated</span> sperm that swim through water. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Archegonium</span> (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">connected to</span> gametophyte).</div>""List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span>:&nbsp;mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.</div><div><br /></div><div>Gametes are produced in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametangia</span> (protective structures) on gametophytes, dominant haploid stage of life cycle of bryophytes.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Antheridium</span> (male gametangium) produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">flagellated</span> sperm that swim through water. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Archegonium</span> (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">connected to</span> gametophyte).</div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span>:&nbsp;mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.</div><div><br /></div><div>Gametes are produced in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametangia</span> (protective structures) on gametophytes, dominant haploid stage of life cycle of bryophytes.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Antheridium"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (male gametangium) produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">flagellated</span> sperm that swim through water. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Archegonium</span> (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">connected to</span> gametophyte).</div>""List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span>:&nbsp;mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.</div><div><br /></div><div>Gametes are produced in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametangia</span> (protective structures) on gametophytes, dominant haploid stage of life cycle of bryophytes.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Antheridium</span> (male gametangium) produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">flagellated</span> sperm that swim through water. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Archegonium</span> (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">connected to</span> gametophyte).</div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span>:&nbsp;mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.</div><div><br /></div><div>Gametes are produced in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametangia</span> (protective structures) on gametophytes, dominant haploid stage of life cycle of bryophytes.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Antheridium</span> (male gametangium) produces <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""flagellated"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> sperm that swim through water. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Archegonium</span> (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">connected to</span> gametophyte).</div>""List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span>:&nbsp;mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.</div><div><br /></div><div>Gametes are produced in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametangia</span> (protective structures) on gametophytes, dominant haploid stage of life cycle of bryophytes.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Antheridium</span> (male gametangium) produces <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">flagellated</span> sperm that swim through water. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Archegonium</span> (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">connected to</span> gametophyte).</div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span>:&nbsp;mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.</div><div><br /></div><div>Gametes are produced in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametangia</span> (protective structures) on gametophytes, dominant haploid stage of life cycle of bryophytes.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Antheridium</span> (male gametangium) produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">flagellated</span> sperm that swim through water. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Archegonium"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">connected to</span> gametophyte).</div>""List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span>:&nbsp;mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.</div><div><br /></div><div>Gametes are produced in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametangia</span> (protective structures) on gametophytes, dominant haploid stage of life cycle of bryophytes.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Antheridium</span> (male gametangium) produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">flagellated</span> sperm that swim through water. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">Archegonium</span> (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">connected to</span> gametophyte).</div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span>:&nbsp;mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.</div><div><br /></div><div>Gametes are produced in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametangia</span> (protective structures) on gametophytes, dominant haploid stage of life cycle of bryophytes.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Antheridium</span> (male gametangium) produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">flagellated</span> sperm that swim through water. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Archegonium</span> (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""connected&#x20;to"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span> gametophyte).</div>""List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span>:&nbsp;mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.</div><div><br /></div><div>Gametes are produced in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametangia</span> (protective structures) on gametophytes, dominant haploid stage of life cycle of bryophytes.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Antheridium</span> (male gametangium) produces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">flagellated</span> sperm that swim through water. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Archegonium</span> (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">connected to</span> gametophyte).</div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div>Bryophytes:</div><div>Zygotic diploid structure:</div><div><div>In mosses, this structure is a stalk bearing capsule which contains haploid spores produced by meiosis =&gt; spores dispersed by wind and germinate grow into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""haploid&#x20;gametophytes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> which produces antheridium + archegonium.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Lacks true root, true leaves, true stems (lack vascular tissues); must remain in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">water.</span></div></div>""List of major plant divisions:<div>Bryophytes:</div><div>Zygotic diploid structure:</div><div><div>In mosses, this structure is a stalk bearing capsule which contains haploid spores produced by meiosis =&gt; spores dispersed by wind and germinate grow into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">haploid gametophytes</span> which produces antheridium + archegonium.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Lacks true root, true leaves, true stems (lack vascular tissues); must remain in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">water.</span></div></div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div>Bryophytes:</div><div>Zygotic diploid structure:</div><div><div>In mosses, this structure is a stalk bearing capsule which contains haploid spores produced by meiosis =&gt; spores dispersed by wind and germinate grow into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">haploid gametophytes</span> which produces antheridium + archegonium.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Lacks true root, true leaves, true stems (lack vascular tissues); must remain in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""water&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div></div>""List of major plant divisions:<div>Bryophytes:</div><div>Zygotic diploid structure:</div><div><div>In mosses, this structure is a stalk bearing capsule which contains haploid spores produced by meiosis =&gt; spores dispersed by wind and germinate grow into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">haploid gametophytes</span> which produces antheridium + archegonium.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Lacks true root, true leaves, true stems (lack vascular tissues); must remain in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">water.</span></div></div><br>
"
"The following are vascular plant (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""tracheophytes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>): true root, leaves, and stems; germination of antheridium + archegonium (swim) produces diploid zygote into sporophyte (dominant generation).""The following are vascular plant (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">tracheophytes</span>): true root, leaves, and stems; germination of antheridium + archegonium (swim) produces diploid zygote into sporophyte (dominant generation).<br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Lycophyta"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts (herbaceous plants); club and spike mosses produce clusters of spore-bearing sporangia in conelike structure <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">strobili</span>. Resurrection plant (recover from dead-appearance after watered, is spike moss).</div>""List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span>: club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts (herbaceous plants); club and spike mosses produce clusters of spore-bearing sporangia in conelike structure <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">strobili</span>. Resurrection plant (recover from dead-appearance after watered, is spike moss).</div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span>: club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts (herbaceous plants); club and spike mosses produce clusters of spore-bearing sporangia in conelike structure <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""strobili"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>. Resurrection plant (recover from dead-appearance after watered, is spike moss).</div>""List of major plant divisions:<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span>: club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts (herbaceous plants); club and spike mosses produce clusters of spore-bearing sporangia in conelike structure <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">strobili</span>. Resurrection plant (recover from dead-appearance after watered, is spike moss).</div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div><div>Pterophyta: 3 groups.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Ferns: produce cluster of sporangia called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sori"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> that develop on undersurface of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fern fronds</span> (meiosis =&gt; spores).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Horsetails: include extinct woody trees; hollow, ribbed stems that are jointed at nodes; strobili bear spores. Stems, branches, and leaves are green (photosynthetic) and have rough texture due to&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3""></div><div>silica (SiO2).</div><div></div></span><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Whisk ferns</span>: branching steams without roots. Leaves reduced to small appendages or absent. Absence of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">roots/leaves</span> is considered secondary loss; lost as whisk ferns diverged from ancestors.</div></div>""List of major plant divisions:<div><div>Pterophyta: 3 groups.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Ferns: produce cluster of sporangia called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">sori</span> that develop on undersurface of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fern fronds</span> (meiosis =&gt; spores).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Horsetails: include extinct woody trees; hollow, ribbed stems that are jointed at nodes; strobili bear spores. Stems, branches, and leaves are green (photosynthetic) and have rough texture due to&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3""></div><div>silica (SiO2).</div><div></div></span><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Whisk ferns</span>: branching steams without roots. Leaves reduced to small appendages or absent. Absence of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">roots/leaves</span> is considered secondary loss; lost as whisk ferns diverged from ancestors.</div></div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div><div>Pterophyta: 3 groups.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Ferns: produce cluster of sporangia called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sori</span> that develop on undersurface of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fern&#x20;fronds"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (meiosis =&gt; spores).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Horsetails: include extinct woody trees; hollow, ribbed stems that are jointed at nodes; strobili bear spores. Stems, branches, and leaves are green (photosynthetic) and have rough texture due to&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3""></div><div>silica (SiO2).</div><div></div></span><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Whisk ferns</span>: branching steams without roots. Leaves reduced to small appendages or absent. Absence of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">roots/leaves</span> is considered secondary loss; lost as whisk ferns diverged from ancestors.</div></div>""List of major plant divisions:<div><div>Pterophyta: 3 groups.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Ferns: produce cluster of sporangia called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sori</span> that develop on undersurface of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">fern fronds</span> (meiosis =&gt; spores).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Horsetails: include extinct woody trees; hollow, ribbed stems that are jointed at nodes; strobili bear spores. Stems, branches, and leaves are green (photosynthetic) and have rough texture due to&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3""></div><div>silica (SiO2).</div><div></div></span><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Whisk ferns</span>: branching steams without roots. Leaves reduced to small appendages or absent. Absence of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">roots/leaves</span> is considered secondary loss; lost as whisk ferns diverged from ancestors.</div></div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div><div>Pterophyta: 3 groups.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Ferns: produce cluster of sporangia called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sori</span> that develop on undersurface of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fern fronds</span> (meiosis =&gt; spores).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Horsetails: include extinct woody trees; hollow, ribbed stems that are jointed at nodes; strobili bear spores. Stems, branches, and leaves are green (photosynthetic) and have rough texture due to&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""&lt;&#x2F;div&gt;&lt;div&gt;silica&#x20;&#x28;SiO2&#x29;&#x2E;&lt;&#x2F;div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;&#x2F;div&gt;"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Whisk ferns</span>: branching steams without roots. Leaves reduced to small appendages or absent. Absence of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">roots/leaves</span> is considered secondary loss; lost as whisk ferns diverged from ancestors.</div></div>""List of major plant divisions:<div><div>Pterophyta: 3 groups.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Ferns: produce cluster of sporangia called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sori</span> that develop on undersurface of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fern fronds</span> (meiosis =&gt; spores).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Horsetails: include extinct woody trees; hollow, ribbed stems that are jointed at nodes; strobili bear spores. Stems, branches, and leaves are green (photosynthetic) and have rough texture due to&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3""></div><div>silica (SiO2).</div><div></div></span><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Whisk ferns</span>: branching steams without roots. Leaves reduced to small appendages or absent. Absence of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">roots/leaves</span> is considered secondary loss; lost as whisk ferns diverged from ancestors.</div></div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div><div>Pterophyta: 3 groups.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Ferns: produce cluster of sporangia called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sori</span> that develop on undersurface of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fern fronds</span> (meiosis =&gt; spores).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Horsetails: include extinct woody trees; hollow, ribbed stems that are jointed at nodes; strobili bear spores. Stems, branches, and leaves are green (photosynthetic) and have rough texture due to&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3""></div><div>silica (SiO2).</div><div></div></span><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Whisk&#x20;ferns"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>: branching steams without roots. Leaves reduced to small appendages or absent. Absence of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">roots/leaves</span> is considered secondary loss; lost as whisk ferns diverged from ancestors.</div></div>""List of major plant divisions:<div><div>Pterophyta: 3 groups.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Ferns: produce cluster of sporangia called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sori</span> that develop on undersurface of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fern fronds</span> (meiosis =&gt; spores).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Horsetails: include extinct woody trees; hollow, ribbed stems that are jointed at nodes; strobili bear spores. Stems, branches, and leaves are green (photosynthetic) and have rough texture due to&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3""></div><div>silica (SiO2).</div><div></div></span><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Whisk ferns</span>: branching steams without roots. Leaves reduced to small appendages or absent. Absence of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">roots/leaves</span> is considered secondary loss; lost as whisk ferns diverged from ancestors.</div></div><br>
"
"List of major plant divisions:<div><div>Pterophyta: 3 groups.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Ferns: produce cluster of sporangia called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sori</span> that develop on undersurface of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fern fronds</span> (meiosis =&gt; spores).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Horsetails: include extinct woody trees; hollow, ribbed stems that are jointed at nodes; strobili bear spores. Stems, branches, and leaves are green (photosynthetic) and have rough texture due to&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3""></div><div>silica (SiO2).</div><div></div></span><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Whisk ferns</span>: branching steams without roots. Leaves reduced to small appendages or absent. Absence of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""roots&#x2F;leaves"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> is considered secondary loss; lost as whisk ferns diverged from ancestors.</div></div>""List of major plant divisions:<div><div>Pterophyta: 3 groups.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Ferns: produce cluster of sporangia called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sori</span> that develop on undersurface of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fern fronds</span> (meiosis =&gt; spores).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - Horsetails: include extinct woody trees; hollow, ribbed stems that are jointed at nodes; strobili bear spores. Stems, branches, and leaves are green (photosynthetic) and have rough texture due to&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3""></div><div>silica (SiO2).</div><div></div></span><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Whisk ferns</span>: branching steams without roots. Leaves reduced to small appendages or absent. Absence of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">roots/leaves</span> is considered secondary loss; lost as whisk ferns diverged from ancestors.</div></div><br>
"
"These two produces Seeds: male spores and female spores; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""microsporangia"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> produces microspores (male spores) and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""macrosporangia"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> produce the macrospores (female spores).""These two produces Seeds: male spores and female spores; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">microsporangia</span> produces microspores (male spores) and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">macrosporangia</span> produce the macrospores (female spores).<br>
"
"Microsporangium: produces numerous microspore mother cell, which divide by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""meiosis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores-male) =&gt; mature into pollen grains (represent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametophyte</span> generation) which divides into 3 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">flowering plants</span>) or 4 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">conifers</span>). One is vegetative (tube) cell that controls growth of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">pollen tube</span>, others = sperms.""Microsporangium: produces numerous microspore mother cell, which divide by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">meiosis</span> to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores-male) =&gt; mature into pollen grains (represent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametophyte</span> generation) which divides into 3 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">flowering plants</span>) or 4 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">conifers</span>). One is vegetative (tube) cell that controls growth of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">pollen tube</span>, others = sperms.<br>
"
"Microsporangium: produces numerous microspore mother cell, which divide by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meiosis</span> to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores-male) =&gt; mature into pollen grains (represent <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""gametophyte"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> generation) which divides into 3 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">flowering plants</span>) or 4 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">conifers</span>). One is vegetative (tube) cell that controls growth of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">pollen tube</span>, others = sperms.""Microsporangium: produces numerous microspore mother cell, which divide by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meiosis</span> to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores-male) =&gt; mature into pollen grains (represent <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametophyte</span> generation) which divides into 3 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">flowering plants</span>) or 4 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">conifers</span>). One is vegetative (tube) cell that controls growth of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">pollen tube</span>, others = sperms.<br>
"
"Microsporangium: produces numerous microspore mother cell, which divide by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meiosis</span> to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores-male) =&gt; mature into pollen grains (represent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametophyte</span> generation) which divides into 3 cells (in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""flowering&#x20;plants"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>) or 4 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">conifers</span>). One is vegetative (tube) cell that controls growth of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">pollen tube</span>, others = sperms.""Microsporangium: produces numerous microspore mother cell, which divide by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meiosis</span> to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores-male) =&gt; mature into pollen grains (represent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametophyte</span> generation) which divides into 3 cells (in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">flowering plants</span>) or 4 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">conifers</span>). One is vegetative (tube) cell that controls growth of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">pollen tube</span>, others = sperms.<br>
"
"Microsporangium: produces numerous microspore mother cell, which divide by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meiosis</span> to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores-male) =&gt; mature into pollen grains (represent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametophyte</span> generation) which divides into 3 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">flowering plants</span>) or 4 cells (in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""conifers"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>). One is vegetative (tube) cell that controls growth of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">pollen tube</span>, others = sperms.""Microsporangium: produces numerous microspore mother cell, which divide by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meiosis</span> to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores-male) =&gt; mature into pollen grains (represent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametophyte</span> generation) which divides into 3 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">flowering plants</span>) or 4 cells (in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">conifers</span>). One is vegetative (tube) cell that controls growth of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">pollen tube</span>, others = sperms.<br>
"
"Microsporangium: produces numerous microspore mother cell, which divide by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meiosis</span> to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores-male) =&gt; mature into pollen grains (represent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametophyte</span> generation) which divides into 3 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">flowering plants</span>) or 4 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">conifers</span>). One is vegetative (tube) cell that controls growth of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pollen&#x20;tube"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span>, others = sperms.""Microsporangium: produces numerous microspore mother cell, which divide by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meiosis</span> to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores-male) =&gt; mature into pollen grains (represent <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">gametophyte</span> generation) which divides into 3 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">flowering plants</span>) or 4 cells (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">conifers</span>). One is vegetative (tube) cell that controls growth of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">pollen tube</span>, others = sperms.<br>
"
"Megasporangium: called nucellus produces megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid cells, one survives to become megaspore (female <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""gametophyte"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> generation). &nbsp;Megaspore =&gt; (mitosis) one egg (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flowering plants</span>) or two eggs (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">conifers</span>). One/two tissue layers (integuments) surround megasporangium. Ovule (integument + nucellus + megaspore daughter cells); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Micropyle</span> is opening through integuments for pollen access to egg.""Megasporangium: called nucellus produces megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid cells, one survives to become megaspore (female <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">gametophyte</span> generation). &nbsp;Megaspore =&gt; (mitosis) one egg (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flowering plants</span>) or two eggs (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">conifers</span>). One/two tissue layers (integuments) surround megasporangium. Ovule (integument + nucellus + megaspore daughter cells); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Micropyle</span> is opening through integuments for pollen access to egg.<br>
"
"Megasporangium: called nucellus produces megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid cells, one survives to become megaspore (female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gametophyte</span> generation). &nbsp;Megaspore =&gt; (mitosis) one egg (in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""flowering&#x20;plants"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>) or two eggs (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">conifers</span>). One/two tissue layers (integuments) surround megasporangium. Ovule (integument + nucellus + megaspore daughter cells); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Micropyle</span> is opening through integuments for pollen access to egg.""Megasporangium: called nucellus produces megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid cells, one survives to become megaspore (female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gametophyte</span> generation). &nbsp;Megaspore =&gt; (mitosis) one egg (in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">flowering plants</span>) or two eggs (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">conifers</span>). One/two tissue layers (integuments) surround megasporangium. Ovule (integument + nucellus + megaspore daughter cells); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Micropyle</span> is opening through integuments for pollen access to egg.<br>
"
"Megasporangium: called nucellus produces megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid cells, one survives to become megaspore (female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gametophyte</span> generation). &nbsp;Megaspore =&gt; (mitosis) one egg (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flowering plants</span>) or two eggs (in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""conifers"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>). One/two tissue layers (integuments) surround megasporangium. Ovule (integument + nucellus + megaspore daughter cells); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Micropyle</span> is opening through integuments for pollen access to egg.""Megasporangium: called nucellus produces megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid cells, one survives to become megaspore (female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gametophyte</span> generation). &nbsp;Megaspore =&gt; (mitosis) one egg (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flowering plants</span>) or two eggs (in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">conifers</span>). One/two tissue layers (integuments) surround megasporangium. Ovule (integument + nucellus + megaspore daughter cells); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Micropyle</span> is opening through integuments for pollen access to egg.<br>
"
"Megasporangium: called nucellus produces megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid cells, one survives to become megaspore (female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gametophyte</span> generation). &nbsp;Megaspore =&gt; (mitosis) one egg (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flowering plants</span>) or two eggs (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">conifers</span>). One/two tissue layers (integuments) surround megasporangium. Ovule (integument + nucellus + megaspore daughter cells); <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Micropyle"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> is opening through integuments for pollen access to egg.""Megasporangium: called nucellus produces megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid cells, one survives to become megaspore (female <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gametophyte</span> generation). &nbsp;Megaspore =&gt; (mitosis) one egg (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">flowering plants</span>) or two eggs (in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">conifers</span>). One/two tissue layers (integuments) surround megasporangium. Ovule (integument + nucellus + megaspore daughter cells); <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Micropyle</span> is opening through integuments for pollen access to egg.<br>
"
"Once pollen grain contacts megasporangium, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""tube&#x20;cell"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (of sperm) directs growth of pollen tube through the micropyle and toward egg =&gt; fertilization (zygote) =&gt; embryo (beginning of sporophyte gen.); integuments =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">seed coat</span>.""Once pollen grain contacts megasporangium, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">tube cell</span> (of sperm) directs growth of pollen tube through the micropyle and toward egg =&gt; fertilization (zygote) =&gt; embryo (beginning of sporophyte gen.); integuments =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">seed coat</span>.<br>
"
"Once pollen grain contacts megasporangium, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">tube cell</span> (of sperm) directs growth of pollen tube through the micropyle and toward egg =&gt; fertilization (zygote) =&gt; embryo (beginning of sporophyte gen.); integuments =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""seed&#x20;coat"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>.""Once pollen grain contacts megasporangium, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">tube cell</span> (of sperm) directs growth of pollen tube through the micropyle and toward egg =&gt; fertilization (zygote) =&gt; embryo (beginning of sporophyte gen.); integuments =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">seed coat</span>.<br>
"
"Coniferophyta: cone-bearing (pines, firs, spruces, junipers, redwoods, cedars); pollen-bearing male + ovule-bearing female cones; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""gymnosperms"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (naked-seeds) are seeds produced in unprotected megaspores near surface of reproductive structure. Fertilization and seed development requires <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">one to three</span> years.""Coniferophyta: cone-bearing (pines, firs, spruces, junipers, redwoods, cedars); pollen-bearing male + ovule-bearing female cones; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">gymnosperms</span> (naked-seeds) are seeds produced in unprotected megaspores near surface of reproductive structure. Fertilization and seed development requires <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">one to three</span> years.<br>
"
"Coniferophyta: cone-bearing (pines, firs, spruces, junipers, redwoods, cedars); pollen-bearing male + ovule-bearing female cones; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gymnosperms</span> (naked-seeds) are seeds produced in unprotected megaspores near surface of reproductive structure. Fertilization and seed development requires <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""one&#x20;to&#x20;three"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> years.""Coniferophyta: cone-bearing (pines, firs, spruces, junipers, redwoods, cedars); pollen-bearing male + ovule-bearing female cones; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">gymnosperms</span> (naked-seeds) are seeds produced in unprotected megaspores near surface of reproductive structure. Fertilization and seed development requires <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">one to three</span> years.<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Anthophyta"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (angiosperms): flowering plants.&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Anthophyta</span> (angiosperms): flowering plants.&nbsp;<br>
"
"The major parts of flower:<div><div>&nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Pistil"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: female reproductive structure (three-parts: ovary (egg-bearing), style, and stigma).</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Stamen</span>: male reproductive structure (pollen-bearing anther and stalk, filament).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>3. Petals: also called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sepals</span> function to attract pollinators.</div></div>""The major parts of flower:<div><div>&nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pistil</span>: female reproductive structure (three-parts: ovary (egg-bearing), style, and stigma).</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Stamen</span>: male reproductive structure (pollen-bearing anther and stalk, filament).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>3. Petals: also called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sepals</span> function to attract pollinators.</div></div><br>
"
"The major parts of flower:<div><div>&nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pistil</span>: female reproductive structure (three-parts: ovary (egg-bearing), style, and stigma).</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Stamen"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>: male reproductive structure (pollen-bearing anther and stalk, filament).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>3. Petals: also called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sepals</span> function to attract pollinators.</div></div>""The major parts of flower:<div><div>&nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pistil</span>: female reproductive structure (three-parts: ovary (egg-bearing), style, and stigma).</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Stamen</span>: male reproductive structure (pollen-bearing anther and stalk, filament).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>3. Petals: also called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sepals</span> function to attract pollinators.</div></div><br>
"
"The major parts of flower:<div><div>&nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pistil</span>: female reproductive structure (three-parts: ovary (egg-bearing), style, and stigma).</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Stamen</span>: male reproductive structure (pollen-bearing anther and stalk, filament).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>3. Petals: also called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sepals"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> function to attract pollinators.</div></div>""The major parts of flower:<div><div>&nbsp;1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pistil</span>: female reproductive structure (three-parts: ovary (egg-bearing), style, and stigma).</div><div>&nbsp;2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Stamen</span>: male reproductive structure (pollen-bearing anther and stalk, filament).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>3. Petals: also called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">sepals</span> function to attract pollinators.</div></div><br>
"
"Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div>Major evolutionary advancements: attracts <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pollinators"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (insects + birds); ovule protected inside ovary which develops into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fruit</span> =&gt; dispersal of seeds by wind or other animals.</div>""Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div>Major evolutionary advancements: attracts <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pollinators</span> (insects + birds); ovule protected inside ovary which develops into <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">fruit</span> =&gt; dispersal of seeds by wind or other animals.</div><br>
"
"Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div>Major evolutionary advancements: attracts <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pollinators</span> (insects + birds); ovule protected inside ovary which develops into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fruit"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> =&gt; dispersal of seeds by wind or other animals.</div>""Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div>Major evolutionary advancements: attracts <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pollinators</span> (insects + birds); ovule protected inside ovary which develops into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">fruit</span> =&gt; dispersal of seeds by wind or other animals.</div><br>
"
"Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""stigma"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div>""Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div><br>
"
"Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""two"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div>""Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div><br>
"
"Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""one"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div>""Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div><br>
"
"Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""plasma&#x20;membranes"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div>""Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div><br>
"
"Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div>""Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div><br>
"
"Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""antipodal&#x20;cells"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div>""Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div><br>
"
"Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""haploid"" data-ordinal=""7"">[...]</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div>""Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div><br>
"
"Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""embryo&#x20;sac"" data-ordinal=""8"">[...]</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div>""Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div><br>
"
"Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nucleus&#x20;of&#x20;2nd&#x20;sperm"" data-ordinal=""9"">[...]</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div>""Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div><br>
"
"Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""endosperm"" data-ordinal=""10"">[...]</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div>""Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div><br>
"
"Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fertilization"" data-ordinal=""11"">[...]</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div>""Anthophyta (angiosperms):<div><div>Process of fertilization:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 1. Pollen lands on sticky <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">stigma</span> (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">two</span> sperm cells inside pollen tube.</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell =&gt; (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">one</span> survives =&gt; (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei =&gt; 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">plasma membranes</span> (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">3</span> cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">antipodal cells</span>. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">haploid</span> cells).</div><div><br /></div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""8"">embryo sac</span> through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""9"">nucleus of 2nd sperm</span> fuses with both polar nuclei =&gt; triploid (3N) nucleus =&gt; (mitosis) <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""10"">endosperm</span> (provide nutrient). Double <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""11"">fertilization</span> (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.</div></div><br>
"
"Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Bryophytes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mosses, liverworts, hornworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Gametophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Non-vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">spores</span></div>""Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mosses, liverworts, hornworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Gametophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Non-vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">spores</span></div><br>
"
"Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Mosses&#x2C;&#x20;liverworts&#x2C;&#x20;hornworts"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Gametophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Non-vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">spores</span></div>""Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mosses, liverworts, hornworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Gametophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Non-vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">spores</span></div><br>
"
"Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mosses, liverworts, hornworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Gametophyte"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Non-vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">spores</span></div>""Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mosses, liverworts, hornworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Gametophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Non-vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">spores</span></div><br>
"
"Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mosses, liverworts, hornworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Gametophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Non&#x2D;vascular"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">spores</span></div>""Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mosses, liverworts, hornworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Gametophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Non-vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">spores</span></div><br>
"
"Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mosses, liverworts, hornworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Gametophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Non-vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Flagellated&#x20;sperm"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">spores</span></div>""Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mosses, liverworts, hornworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Gametophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Non-vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">spores</span></div><br>
"
"Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mosses, liverworts, hornworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Gametophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Non-vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""spores"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span></div>""Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Bryophytes</span><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Mosses, liverworts, hornworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Gametophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Non-vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">spores</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Lycophyta"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">&nbsp;Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">&nbsp;Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Club&#x20;mosses&#x2C;&#x20;spike&#x20;mosses&#x2C;&#x20;quillworts"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">&nbsp;Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">&nbsp;Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Sporophyte"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">&nbsp;Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">&nbsp;Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Vascular"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span></div><div>Sperm:<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">&nbsp;Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">&nbsp;Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""&amp;nbsp&#x3B;Flagellated&#x20;sperm"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">&nbsp;Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">&nbsp;Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Spores"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lycophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">&nbsp;Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Pterophyta"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pterophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pterophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Ferns&#x2C;&#x20;horsetails&#x2C;&#x20;whisk&#x20;ferns"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pterophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pterophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Sporophyte"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pterophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pterophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Vascular"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pterophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pterophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Flagellated&#x20;sperm"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pterophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pterophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Spores"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pterophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Flagellated sperm</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">Spores</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Coniferophyta"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Conifers</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind-dispersed</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Coniferophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Conifers</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind-dispersed</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Coniferophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Conifers"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind-dispersed</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Coniferophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Conifers</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind-dispersed</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Coniferophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Conifers</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Sporophyte"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind-dispersed</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Coniferophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Conifers</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind-dispersed</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Coniferophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Conifers</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Vascular"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span></div><div>Sperm transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind-dispersed</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Coniferophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Conifers</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind-dispersed</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Coniferophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Conifers</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Wind&#x2D;dispersed"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Coniferophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Conifers</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind-dispersed</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Coniferophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Conifers</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind-dispersed</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Seeds"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Coniferophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Conifers</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span></div><div>Sperm transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind-dispersed</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Anthophyta"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flowering plants</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular&nbsp;</span></div><div>Sperm Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind/animal</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Anthophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flowering plants</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular&nbsp;</span></div><div>Sperm Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind/animal</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Anthophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Flowering&#x20;plants"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular&nbsp;</span></div><div>Sperm Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind/animal</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Anthophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flowering plants</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular&nbsp;</span></div><div>Sperm Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind/animal</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Anthophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flowering plants</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Sporophyte"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular&nbsp;</span></div><div>Sperm Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind/animal</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Anthophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flowering plants</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular&nbsp;</span></div><div>Sperm Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind/animal</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Anthophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flowering plants</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Vascular&amp;nbsp&#x3B;"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span></div><div>Sperm Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind/animal</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Anthophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flowering plants</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular&nbsp;</span></div><div>Sperm Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind/animal</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Anthophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flowering plants</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular&nbsp;</span></div><div>Sperm Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Wind&#x2F;animal"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Anthophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flowering plants</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular&nbsp;</span></div><div>Sperm Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind/animal</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div><br>
"
"<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Anthophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flowering plants</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular&nbsp;</span></div><div>Sperm Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind/animal</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Seeds"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span></div>""<div>Phylum (group):&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Anthophyta</span></div><div>Common Names:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flowering plants</span></div><div>Dominant Gen.:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sporophyte</span></div><div>Fluid Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular&nbsp;</span></div><div>Sperm Transport:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Wind/animal</span></div><div>Dispersal Unit:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">Seeds</span></div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mono"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>phyletic: all can be traced back to one common ancestor""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mono</span>phyletic: all can be traced back to one common ancestor<br>
"
"&nbsp;Kingdom Animalia<div>Tissue complexity:&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""eumetazoa"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (functioning cells organized into tissues).&nbsp;</div><div>Diplobasltic/triploblastic layers of tissue (ecto, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">meso, endo</span>derm);&nbsp;</div><div>another group is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">parazoa</span> (cells not organized into true tissues =&gt; organs do not develop.)</div>""&nbsp;Kingdom Animalia<div>Tissue complexity:&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">eumetazoa</span> (functioning cells organized into tissues).&nbsp;</div><div>Diplobasltic/triploblastic layers of tissue (ecto, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">meso, endo</span>derm);&nbsp;</div><div>another group is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">parazoa</span> (cells not organized into true tissues =&gt; organs do not develop.)</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Kingdom Animalia<div>Tissue complexity:&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">eumetazoa</span> (functioning cells organized into tissues).&nbsp;</div><div>Diplobasltic/triploblastic layers of tissue (ecto, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""meso&#x2C;&#x20;endo"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>derm);&nbsp;</div><div>another group is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">parazoa</span> (cells not organized into true tissues =&gt; organs do not develop.)</div>""&nbsp;Kingdom Animalia<div>Tissue complexity:&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">eumetazoa</span> (functioning cells organized into tissues).&nbsp;</div><div>Diplobasltic/triploblastic layers of tissue (ecto, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">meso, endo</span>derm);&nbsp;</div><div>another group is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">parazoa</span> (cells not organized into true tissues =&gt; organs do not develop.)</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Kingdom Animalia<div>Tissue complexity:&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">eumetazoa</span> (functioning cells organized into tissues).&nbsp;</div><div>Diplobasltic/triploblastic layers of tissue (ecto, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">meso, endo</span>derm);&nbsp;</div><div>another group is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""parazoa"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (cells not organized into true tissues =&gt; organs do not develop.)</div>""&nbsp;Kingdom Animalia<div>Tissue complexity:&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">eumetazoa</span> (functioning cells organized into tissues).&nbsp;</div><div>Diplobasltic/triploblastic layers of tissue (ecto, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">meso, endo</span>derm);&nbsp;</div><div>another group is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">parazoa</span> (cells not organized into true tissues =&gt; organs do not develop.)</div><br>
"
"Kingdom Animalia<div>body symmetry:&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""radial"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> symmetry (one orientation-front and back);&nbsp;</div><div>bilateral symmetry (dorsal-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">top</span>, ventral-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bottom</span>, head-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">anterior</span>, tail-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">posterior</span>).</div>""Kingdom Animalia<div>body symmetry:&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">radial</span> symmetry (one orientation-front and back);&nbsp;</div><div>bilateral symmetry (dorsal-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">top</span>, ventral-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bottom</span>, head-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">anterior</span>, tail-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">posterior</span>).</div><br>
"
"Kingdom Animalia<div>body symmetry:&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">radial</span> symmetry (one orientation-front and back);&nbsp;</div><div>bilateral symmetry (dorsal-<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""top"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, ventral-<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bottom"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, head-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">anterior</span>, tail-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">posterior</span>).</div>""Kingdom Animalia<div>body symmetry:&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">radial</span> symmetry (one orientation-front and back);&nbsp;</div><div>bilateral symmetry (dorsal-<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">top</span>, ventral-<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">bottom</span>, head-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">anterior</span>, tail-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">posterior</span>).</div><br>
"
"Kingdom Animalia<div>body symmetry:&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">radial</span> symmetry (one orientation-front and back);&nbsp;</div><div>bilateral symmetry (dorsal-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">top</span>, ventral-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bottom</span>, head-<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""anterior"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>, tail-<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""posterior"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>).</div>""Kingdom Animalia<div>body symmetry:&nbsp;</div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">radial</span> symmetry (one orientation-front and back);&nbsp;</div><div>bilateral symmetry (dorsal-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">top</span>, ventral-<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bottom</span>, head-<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">anterior</span>, tail-<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">posterior</span>).</div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cephaliza"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>tion: in animals with bilateral symmetry (greater nerve tissue at anterior end such as brain).""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cephaliza</span>tion: in animals with bilateral symmetry (greater nerve tissue at anterior end such as brain).<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""&amp;nbsp&#x3B;Gastrovascular"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> cavity: guts (digestion of food); two opening (digestive tract).""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">&nbsp;Gastrovascular</span> cavity: guts (digestion of food); two opening (digestive tract).<br>
"
"Coelom: derived from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""meso"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>derm; fluid-filled coelom cushion internal organs.&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Acoelomate</span> animals lack coelom;&nbsp;</div><div>pseudocoelomate animals have a cavity (not completely lined by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mesoderm-derived</span> tissue).</div>""Coelom: derived from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">meso</span>derm; fluid-filled coelom cushion internal organs.&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Acoelomate</span> animals lack coelom;&nbsp;</div><div>pseudocoelomate animals have a cavity (not completely lined by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mesoderm-derived</span> tissue).</div><br>
"
"Coelom: derived from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meso</span>derm; fluid-filled coelom cushion internal organs.&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Acoelomate</span> animals lack coelom;&nbsp;</div><div>pseudocoelomate animals have a cavity (not completely lined by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mesoderm&#x2D;derived"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> tissue).</div>""Coelom: derived from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meso</span>derm; fluid-filled coelom cushion internal organs.&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Acoelomate</span> animals lack coelom;&nbsp;</div><div>pseudocoelomate animals have a cavity (not completely lined by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">mesoderm-derived</span> tissue).</div><br>
"
"Coelom: derived from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meso</span>derm; fluid-filled coelom cushion internal organs.&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Acoelomate"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> animals lack coelom;&nbsp;</div><div>pseudocoelomate animals have a cavity (not completely lined by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mesoderm-derived</span> tissue).</div>""Coelom: derived from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meso</span>derm; fluid-filled coelom cushion internal organs.&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Acoelomate</span> animals lack coelom;&nbsp;</div><div>pseudocoelomate animals have a cavity (not completely lined by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">mesoderm-derived</span> tissue).</div><br>
"
"Seg<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mentation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: insects and certain worms.""Seg<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mentation</span>: insects and certain worms.<br>
"
"Protostomes and deuterostomes:&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>cleavages (cell divisions in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""zygote"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>);&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Archenteron</span> (The primitive gut that forms during gastrulation in the developing blastula. It develops into the digestive tract of an animal).&nbsp;</div></div>""Protostomes and deuterostomes:&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>cleavages (cell divisions in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">zygote</span>);&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Archenteron</span> (The primitive gut that forms during gastrulation in the developing blastula. It develops into the digestive tract of an animal).&nbsp;</div></div><br>
"
"Protostomes and deuterostomes:&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>cleavages (cell divisions in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">zygote</span>);&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Archenteron"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (The primitive gut that forms during gastrulation in the developing blastula. It develops into the digestive tract of an animal).&nbsp;</div></div>""Protostomes and deuterostomes:&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>cleavages (cell divisions in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">zygote</span>);&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Archenteron</span> (The primitive gut that forms during gastrulation in the developing blastula. It develops into the digestive tract of an animal).&nbsp;</div></div><br>
"
"An <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">amebocyte</span> is a mobile cell in the body of invertebrates such as echinoderms, mollusks or sponges. They move by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pseudopodia"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (a temporary protrusion of the cytoplasm-actin of an amoeba, serving for locomotion or the engulfment of food).""An <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">amebocyte</span> is a mobile cell in the body of invertebrates such as echinoderms, mollusks or sponges. They move by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pseudopodia</span> (a temporary protrusion of the cytoplasm-actin of an amoeba, serving for locomotion or the engulfment of food).<br>
"
"An <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""amebocyte"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> is a mobile cell in the body of invertebrates such as echinoderms, mollusks or sponges. They move by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pseudopodia</span> (a temporary protrusion of the cytoplasm-actin of an amoeba, serving for locomotion or the engulfment of food).""An <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">amebocyte</span> is a mobile cell in the body of invertebrates such as echinoderms, mollusks or sponges. They move by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">pseudopodia</span> (a temporary protrusion of the cytoplasm-actin of an amoeba, serving for locomotion or the engulfment of food).<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Porifera"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (parazoa): sponges; feed by filtering water through sponge wall of flagellated cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">choanocytes</span>-flagella creates a flow of water for feed-filter). Water exits through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">osculum</span>. Choanocytes pass food to amoebocytes (digesting + distribute nutrients); sponge wall contains <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spicules</span> (skeletal needles made from CaCO3 or SiO2. Sessile (fixed).&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Porifera</span> (parazoa): sponges; feed by filtering water through sponge wall of flagellated cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">choanocytes</span>-flagella creates a flow of water for feed-filter). Water exits through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">osculum</span>. Choanocytes pass food to amoebocytes (digesting + distribute nutrients); sponge wall contains <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spicules</span> (skeletal needles made from CaCO3 or SiO2. Sessile (fixed).&nbsp;<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Porifera</span> (parazoa): sponges; feed by filtering water through sponge wall of flagellated cells (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""choanocytes"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>-flagella creates a flow of water for feed-filter). Water exits through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">osculum</span>. Choanocytes pass food to amoebocytes (digesting + distribute nutrients); sponge wall contains <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spicules</span> (skeletal needles made from CaCO3 or SiO2. Sessile (fixed).&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Porifera</span> (parazoa): sponges; feed by filtering water through sponge wall of flagellated cells (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">choanocytes</span>-flagella creates a flow of water for feed-filter). Water exits through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">osculum</span>. Choanocytes pass food to amoebocytes (digesting + distribute nutrients); sponge wall contains <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spicules</span> (skeletal needles made from CaCO3 or SiO2. Sessile (fixed).&nbsp;<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Porifera</span> (parazoa): sponges; feed by filtering water through sponge wall of flagellated cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">choanocytes</span>-flagella creates a flow of water for feed-filter). Water exits through <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""osculum"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>. Choanocytes pass food to amoebocytes (digesting + distribute nutrients); sponge wall contains <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spicules</span> (skeletal needles made from CaCO3 or SiO2. Sessile (fixed).&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Porifera</span> (parazoa): sponges; feed by filtering water through sponge wall of flagellated cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">choanocytes</span>-flagella creates a flow of water for feed-filter). Water exits through <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">osculum</span>. Choanocytes pass food to amoebocytes (digesting + distribute nutrients); sponge wall contains <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">spicules</span> (skeletal needles made from CaCO3 or SiO2. Sessile (fixed).&nbsp;<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Porifera</span> (parazoa): sponges; feed by filtering water through sponge wall of flagellated cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">choanocytes</span>-flagella creates a flow of water for feed-filter). Water exits through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">osculum</span>. Choanocytes pass food to amoebocytes (digesting + distribute nutrients); sponge wall contains <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""spicules"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> (skeletal needles made from CaCO3 or SiO2. Sessile (fixed).&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Porifera</span> (parazoa): sponges; feed by filtering water through sponge wall of flagellated cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">choanocytes</span>-flagella creates a flow of water for feed-filter). Water exits through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">osculum</span>. Choanocytes pass food to amoebocytes (digesting + distribute nutrients); sponge wall contains <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">spicules</span> (skeletal needles made from CaCO3 or SiO2. Sessile (fixed).&nbsp;<br>
"
"<div>Cnidaria: hydrozoans, jellyfish, sea anemones, corals; two body forms (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""medusa"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>-floating, umbrella-shaped body with tentacles; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">polyp</span>-sessile cylinder-shaped with rising tentacles); some alternative between during their life cycle.</div><div><br /></div><div>-cnidoblasts – specialized cells located in the tentacles and bodywalls of coloenterates; interior of cnidoblasts filled with stinging cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">nematocysts</span>)</div>""<div>Cnidaria: hydrozoans, jellyfish, sea anemones, corals; two body forms (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">medusa</span>-floating, umbrella-shaped body with tentacles; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">polyp</span>-sessile cylinder-shaped with rising tentacles); some alternative between during their life cycle.</div><div><br /></div><div>-cnidoblasts – specialized cells located in the tentacles and bodywalls of coloenterates; interior of cnidoblasts filled with stinging cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">nematocysts</span>)</div><br>
"
"<div>Cnidaria: hydrozoans, jellyfish, sea anemones, corals; two body forms (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">medusa</span>-floating, umbrella-shaped body with tentacles; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""polyp"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>-sessile cylinder-shaped with rising tentacles); some alternative between during their life cycle.</div><div><br /></div><div>-cnidoblasts – specialized cells located in the tentacles and bodywalls of coloenterates; interior of cnidoblasts filled with stinging cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">nematocysts</span>)</div>""<div>Cnidaria: hydrozoans, jellyfish, sea anemones, corals; two body forms (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">medusa</span>-floating, umbrella-shaped body with tentacles; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">polyp</span>-sessile cylinder-shaped with rising tentacles); some alternative between during their life cycle.</div><div><br /></div><div>-cnidoblasts – specialized cells located in the tentacles and bodywalls of coloenterates; interior of cnidoblasts filled with stinging cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">nematocysts</span>)</div><br>
"
"<div>Cnidaria: hydrozoans, jellyfish, sea anemones, corals; two body forms (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">medusa</span>-floating, umbrella-shaped body with tentacles; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">polyp</span>-sessile cylinder-shaped with rising tentacles); some alternative between during their life cycle.</div><div><br /></div><div>-cnidoblasts – specialized cells located in the tentacles and bodywalls of coloenterates; interior of cnidoblasts filled with stinging cells (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nematocysts"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>)</div>""<div>Cnidaria: hydrozoans, jellyfish, sea anemones, corals; two body forms (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">medusa</span>-floating, umbrella-shaped body with tentacles; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">polyp</span>-sessile cylinder-shaped with rising tentacles); some alternative between during their life cycle.</div><div><br /></div><div>-cnidoblasts – specialized cells located in the tentacles and bodywalls of coloenterates; interior of cnidoblasts filled with stinging cells (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">nematocysts</span>)</div><br>
"
"Platyhelminthes: three types of acoelomate flatworms; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Free&#x2D;living"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> flatworms (planarians-carnivores in marine or freshwater).&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flukes</span> are internal animal parasites/external parasites that suck tissue fluids/blood. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Tapeworms</span> are internal parasites that often live in digestive tract of vertebrates; appear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">segmented</span> (only as 2nd for reproduction =&gt; not considered true segmented animal). Tapeworms do not have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">digestive</span> tract, only need to absorb predigested food around them.</div>""Platyhelminthes: three types of acoelomate flatworms; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Free-living</span> flatworms (planarians-carnivores in marine or freshwater).&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flukes</span> are internal animal parasites/external parasites that suck tissue fluids/blood. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Tapeworms</span> are internal parasites that often live in digestive tract of vertebrates; appear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">segmented</span> (only as 2nd for reproduction =&gt; not considered true segmented animal). Tapeworms do not have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">digestive</span> tract, only need to absorb predigested food around them.</div><br>
"
"Platyhelminthes: three types of acoelomate flatworms; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Free-living</span> flatworms (planarians-carnivores in marine or freshwater).&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Flukes"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> are internal animal parasites/external parasites that suck tissue fluids/blood. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Tapeworms</span> are internal parasites that often live in digestive tract of vertebrates; appear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">segmented</span> (only as 2nd for reproduction =&gt; not considered true segmented animal). Tapeworms do not have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">digestive</span> tract, only need to absorb predigested food around them.</div>""Platyhelminthes: three types of acoelomate flatworms; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Free-living</span> flatworms (planarians-carnivores in marine or freshwater).&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flukes</span> are internal animal parasites/external parasites that suck tissue fluids/blood. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Tapeworms</span> are internal parasites that often live in digestive tract of vertebrates; appear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">segmented</span> (only as 2nd for reproduction =&gt; not considered true segmented animal). Tapeworms do not have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">digestive</span> tract, only need to absorb predigested food around them.</div><br>
"
"Platyhelminthes: three types of acoelomate flatworms; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Free-living</span> flatworms (planarians-carnivores in marine or freshwater).&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flukes</span> are internal animal parasites/external parasites that suck tissue fluids/blood. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Tapeworms"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> are internal parasites that often live in digestive tract of vertebrates; appear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">segmented</span> (only as 2nd for reproduction =&gt; not considered true segmented animal). Tapeworms do not have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">digestive</span> tract, only need to absorb predigested food around them.</div>""Platyhelminthes: three types of acoelomate flatworms; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Free-living</span> flatworms (planarians-carnivores in marine or freshwater).&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flukes</span> are internal animal parasites/external parasites that suck tissue fluids/blood. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Tapeworms</span> are internal parasites that often live in digestive tract of vertebrates; appear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">segmented</span> (only as 2nd for reproduction =&gt; not considered true segmented animal). Tapeworms do not have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">digestive</span> tract, only need to absorb predigested food around them.</div><br>
"
"Platyhelminthes: three types of acoelomate flatworms; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Free-living</span> flatworms (planarians-carnivores in marine or freshwater).&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flukes</span> are internal animal parasites/external parasites that suck tissue fluids/blood. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Tapeworms</span> are internal parasites that often live in digestive tract of vertebrates; appear <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""segmented"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> (only as 2nd for reproduction =&gt; not considered true segmented animal). Tapeworms do not have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">digestive</span> tract, only need to absorb predigested food around them.</div>""Platyhelminthes: three types of acoelomate flatworms; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Free-living</span> flatworms (planarians-carnivores in marine or freshwater).&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flukes</span> are internal animal parasites/external parasites that suck tissue fluids/blood. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Tapeworms</span> are internal parasites that often live in digestive tract of vertebrates; appear <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">segmented</span> (only as 2nd for reproduction =&gt; not considered true segmented animal). Tapeworms do not have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">digestive</span> tract, only need to absorb predigested food around them.</div><br>
"
"Platyhelminthes: three types of acoelomate flatworms; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Free-living</span> flatworms (planarians-carnivores in marine or freshwater).&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flukes</span> are internal animal parasites/external parasites that suck tissue fluids/blood. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Tapeworms</span> are internal parasites that often live in digestive tract of vertebrates; appear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">segmented</span> (only as 2nd for reproduction =&gt; not considered true segmented animal). Tapeworms do not have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""digestive"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> tract, only need to absorb predigested food around them.</div>""Platyhelminthes: three types of acoelomate flatworms; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Free-living</span> flatworms (planarians-carnivores in marine or freshwater).&nbsp;<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Flukes</span> are internal animal parasites/external parasites that suck tissue fluids/blood. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Tapeworms</span> are internal parasites that often live in digestive tract of vertebrates; appear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">segmented</span> (only as 2nd for reproduction =&gt; not considered true segmented animal). Tapeworms do not have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">digestive</span> tract, only need to absorb predigested food around them.</div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Nematoda"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: roundworms; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pseudocoelomate</span> with complete digestive tract; free-living soil dwellers help decompose and recycle nutrients (causes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">trichinosis</span> in human, incompletely cooked meat).""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Nematoda</span>: roundworms; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pseudocoelomate</span> with complete digestive tract; free-living soil dwellers help decompose and recycle nutrients (causes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">trichinosis</span> in human, incompletely cooked meat).<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Nematoda</span>: roundworms; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pseudocoelomate"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> with complete digestive tract; free-living soil dwellers help decompose and recycle nutrients (causes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">trichinosis</span> in human, incompletely cooked meat).""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Nematoda</span>: roundworms; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">pseudocoelomate</span> with complete digestive tract; free-living soil dwellers help decompose and recycle nutrients (causes <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">trichinosis</span> in human, incompletely cooked meat).<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Nematoda</span>: roundworms; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pseudocoelomate</span> with complete digestive tract; free-living soil dwellers help decompose and recycle nutrients (causes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""trichinosis"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> in human, incompletely cooked meat).""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Nematoda</span>: roundworms; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pseudocoelomate</span> with complete digestive tract; free-living soil dwellers help decompose and recycle nutrients (causes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">trichinosis</span> in human, incompletely cooked meat).<br>
"
"Rotifera: multicellular with specialized organs enclosed in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pseudocoelom"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, complete digestive tract; filter-feeder.""Rotifera: multicellular with specialized organs enclosed in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pseudocoelom</span>, complete digestive tract; filter-feeder.<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Mollusca"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: snail, octopus (complex brain), squids (most have shells), bivalves (clams and mussels); no shell is octopus, small and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">internal</span> shell in squid; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coelomate</span> bodies, complete digestive tract, open circulatory system with internal cavity called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hemocoel</span>. Exoskeletons are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">calcium carbonate</span>.&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Mollusca</span>: snail, octopus (complex brain), squids (most have shells), bivalves (clams and mussels); no shell is octopus, small and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">internal</span> shell in squid; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coelomate</span> bodies, complete digestive tract, open circulatory system with internal cavity called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hemocoel</span>. Exoskeletons are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">calcium carbonate</span>.&nbsp;<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Mollusca</span>: snail, octopus (complex brain), squids (most have shells), bivalves (clams and mussels); no shell is octopus, small and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""internal"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> shell in squid; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coelomate</span> bodies, complete digestive tract, open circulatory system with internal cavity called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hemocoel</span>. Exoskeletons are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">calcium carbonate</span>.&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Mollusca</span>: snail, octopus (complex brain), squids (most have shells), bivalves (clams and mussels); no shell is octopus, small and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">internal</span> shell in squid; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coelomate</span> bodies, complete digestive tract, open circulatory system with internal cavity called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hemocoel</span>. Exoskeletons are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">calcium carbonate</span>.&nbsp;<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Mollusca</span>: snail, octopus (complex brain), squids (most have shells), bivalves (clams and mussels); no shell is octopus, small and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">internal</span> shell in squid; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""coelomate"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> bodies, complete digestive tract, open circulatory system with internal cavity called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hemocoel</span>. Exoskeletons are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">calcium carbonate</span>.&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Mollusca</span>: snail, octopus (complex brain), squids (most have shells), bivalves (clams and mussels); no shell is octopus, small and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">internal</span> shell in squid; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">coelomate</span> bodies, complete digestive tract, open circulatory system with internal cavity called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hemocoel</span>. Exoskeletons are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">calcium carbonate</span>.&nbsp;<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Mollusca</span>: snail, octopus (complex brain), squids (most have shells), bivalves (clams and mussels); no shell is octopus, small and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">internal</span> shell in squid; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coelomate</span> bodies, complete digestive tract, open circulatory system with internal cavity called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hemocoel"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>. Exoskeletons are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">calcium carbonate</span>.&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Mollusca</span>: snail, octopus (complex brain), squids (most have shells), bivalves (clams and mussels); no shell is octopus, small and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">internal</span> shell in squid; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coelomate</span> bodies, complete digestive tract, open circulatory system with internal cavity called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">hemocoel</span>. Exoskeletons are made of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">calcium carbonate</span>.&nbsp;<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Mollusca</span>: snail, octopus (complex brain), squids (most have shells), bivalves (clams and mussels); no shell is octopus, small and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">internal</span> shell in squid; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coelomate</span> bodies, complete digestive tract, open circulatory system with internal cavity called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hemocoel</span>. Exoskeletons are made of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""calcium&#x20;carbonate"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span>.&nbsp;""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Mollusca</span>: snail, octopus (complex brain), squids (most have shells), bivalves (clams and mussels); no shell is octopus, small and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">internal</span> shell in squid; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">coelomate</span> bodies, complete digestive tract, open circulatory system with internal cavity called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">hemocoel</span>. Exoskeletons are made of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">calcium carbonate</span>.&nbsp;<br>
"
"Mollusca<div><div>Class <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Gastropoda"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> – largest Molluscan class; ex. slugs &amp; snails; characterized by single shell</div><div>Class <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cephalopoda</span> – octopus and squid; have high O2 demand, giant nerve fibers, closed circulatory system</div><div>Class <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Bivalvia</span> - clams, mussels, scallops, oysters</div></div>""Mollusca<div><div>Class <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Gastropoda</span> – largest Molluscan class; ex. slugs &amp; snails; characterized by single shell</div><div>Class <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cephalopoda</span> – octopus and squid; have high O2 demand, giant nerve fibers, closed circulatory system</div><div>Class <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Bivalvia</span> - clams, mussels, scallops, oysters</div></div><br>
"
"Mollusca<div><div>Class <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Gastropoda</span> – largest Molluscan class; ex. slugs &amp; snails; characterized by single shell</div><div>Class <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cephalopoda"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> – octopus and squid; have high O2 demand, giant nerve fibers, closed circulatory system</div><div>Class <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Bivalvia</span> - clams, mussels, scallops, oysters</div></div>""Mollusca<div><div>Class <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Gastropoda</span> – largest Molluscan class; ex. slugs &amp; snails; characterized by single shell</div><div>Class <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cephalopoda</span> – octopus and squid; have high O2 demand, giant nerve fibers, closed circulatory system</div><div>Class <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Bivalvia</span> - clams, mussels, scallops, oysters</div></div><br>
"
"Mollusca<div><div>Class <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Gastropoda</span> – largest Molluscan class; ex. slugs &amp; snails; characterized by single shell</div><div>Class <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cephalopoda</span> – octopus and squid; have high O2 demand, giant nerve fibers, closed circulatory system</div><div>Class <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Bivalvia"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> - clams, mussels, scallops, oysters</div></div>""Mollusca<div><div>Class <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Gastropoda</span> – largest Molluscan class; ex. slugs &amp; snails; characterized by single shell</div><div>Class <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cephalopoda</span> – octopus and squid; have high O2 demand, giant nerve fibers, closed circulatory system</div><div>Class <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Bivalvia</span> - clams, mussels, scallops, oysters</div></div><br>
"
"Annelida: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""segmented"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> worms (leeches-suckers at both ends; earthworms, and polychaete worms).""Annelida: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">segmented</span> worms (leeches-suckers at both ends; earthworms, and polychaete worms).<br>
"
"Arthropoda: spiders, insects, crustaceans; jointed appendages, well-developed nervous system; body segments, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""exoskeleton"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (chitin).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Two kinds of life cycles: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Nymphs</span> (small version of adult, change shape as grow proceeds). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Larvae</span> are maggots specialized for eating; when they reach certain size =&gt; enclose themselves within pupa (cocoon) to undergo metamorphosis.&nbsp;</div>""Arthropoda: spiders, insects, crustaceans; jointed appendages, well-developed nervous system; body segments, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">exoskeleton</span> (chitin).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Two kinds of life cycles: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Nymphs</span> (small version of adult, change shape as grow proceeds). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Larvae</span> are maggots specialized for eating; when they reach certain size =&gt; enclose themselves within pupa (cocoon) to undergo metamorphosis.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Arthropoda: spiders, insects, crustaceans; jointed appendages, well-developed nervous system; body segments, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">exoskeleton</span> (chitin).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Two kinds of life cycles: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Nymphs"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (small version of adult, change shape as grow proceeds). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Larvae</span> are maggots specialized for eating; when they reach certain size =&gt; enclose themselves within pupa (cocoon) to undergo metamorphosis.&nbsp;</div>""Arthropoda: spiders, insects, crustaceans; jointed appendages, well-developed nervous system; body segments, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">exoskeleton</span> (chitin).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Two kinds of life cycles: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Nymphs</span> (small version of adult, change shape as grow proceeds). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Larvae</span> are maggots specialized for eating; when they reach certain size =&gt; enclose themselves within pupa (cocoon) to undergo metamorphosis.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Arthropoda: spiders, insects, crustaceans; jointed appendages, well-developed nervous system; body segments, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">exoskeleton</span> (chitin).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Two kinds of life cycles: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Nymphs</span> (small version of adult, change shape as grow proceeds). <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Larvae"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> are maggots specialized for eating; when they reach certain size =&gt; enclose themselves within pupa (cocoon) to undergo metamorphosis.&nbsp;</div>""Arthropoda: spiders, insects, crustaceans; jointed appendages, well-developed nervous system; body segments, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">exoskeleton</span> (chitin).&nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>Two kinds of life cycles: <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Nymphs</span> (small version of adult, change shape as grow proceeds). <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Larvae</span> are maggots specialized for eating; when they reach certain size =&gt; enclose themselves within pupa (cocoon) to undergo metamorphosis.&nbsp;</div><br>
"
"Arthropoda<div><div>- Insects – <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""three"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> pairs of legs, spiracles, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">tracheal</span> tubes for breathing</div><div>- Arachnids – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">four</span> pair of legs and “book lungs” (spiders &amp; scorpions)</div><div>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Crustaceans</span> (subphylum)– segmented body with variable number of appendages and have gills. Crab, shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and barnacles</div></div>""Arthropoda<div><div>- Insects – <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">three</span> pairs of legs, spiracles, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">tracheal</span> tubes for breathing</div><div>- Arachnids – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">four</span> pair of legs and “book lungs” (spiders &amp; scorpions)</div><div>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Crustaceans</span> (subphylum)– segmented body with variable number of appendages and have gills. Crab, shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and barnacles</div></div><br>
"
"Arthropoda<div><div>- Insects – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">three</span> pairs of legs, spiracles, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""tracheal"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> tubes for breathing</div><div>- Arachnids – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">four</span> pair of legs and “book lungs” (spiders &amp; scorpions)</div><div>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Crustaceans</span> (subphylum)– segmented body with variable number of appendages and have gills. Crab, shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and barnacles</div></div>""Arthropoda<div><div>- Insects – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">three</span> pairs of legs, spiracles, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">tracheal</span> tubes for breathing</div><div>- Arachnids – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">four</span> pair of legs and “book lungs” (spiders &amp; scorpions)</div><div>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Crustaceans</span> (subphylum)– segmented body with variable number of appendages and have gills. Crab, shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and barnacles</div></div><br>
"
"Arthropoda<div><div>- Insects – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">three</span> pairs of legs, spiracles, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">tracheal</span> tubes for breathing</div><div>- Arachnids – <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""four"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> pair of legs and “book lungs” (spiders &amp; scorpions)</div><div>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Crustaceans</span> (subphylum)– segmented body with variable number of appendages and have gills. Crab, shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and barnacles</div></div>""Arthropoda<div><div>- Insects – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">three</span> pairs of legs, spiracles, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">tracheal</span> tubes for breathing</div><div>- Arachnids – <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">four</span> pair of legs and “book lungs” (spiders &amp; scorpions)</div><div>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Crustaceans</span> (subphylum)– segmented body with variable number of appendages and have gills. Crab, shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and barnacles</div></div><br>
"
"Arthropoda<div><div>- Insects – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">three</span> pairs of legs, spiracles, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">tracheal</span> tubes for breathing</div><div>- Arachnids – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">four</span> pair of legs and “book lungs” (spiders &amp; scorpions)</div><div>- <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Crustaceans"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> (subphylum)– segmented body with variable number of appendages and have gills. Crab, shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and barnacles</div></div>""Arthropoda<div><div>- Insects – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">three</span> pairs of legs, spiracles, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">tracheal</span> tubes for breathing</div><div>- Arachnids – <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">four</span> pair of legs and “book lungs” (spiders &amp; scorpions)</div><div>- <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Crustaceans</span> (subphylum)– segmented body with variable number of appendages and have gills. Crab, shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and barnacles</div></div><br>
"
"<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Echinodermata"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: sea stars, urchin, sand dollars; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">coelomate</span> deuterostomes; complete digestive tract; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">adults</span> have radial symmetry but are bilateral when <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">young</span>; some features are bilateral (ancestors are believed to be bilateral).""<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Echinodermata</span>: sea stars, urchin, sand dollars; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">coelomate</span> deuterostomes; complete digestive tract; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">adults</span> have radial symmetry but are bilateral when <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">young</span>; some features are bilateral (ancestors are believed to be bilateral).<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Echinodermata</span>: sea stars, urchin, sand dollars; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""coelomate"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> deuterostomes; complete digestive tract; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">adults</span> have radial symmetry but are bilateral when <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">young</span>; some features are bilateral (ancestors are believed to be bilateral).""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Echinodermata</span>: sea stars, urchin, sand dollars; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">coelomate</span> deuterostomes; complete digestive tract; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">adults</span> have radial symmetry but are bilateral when <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">young</span>; some features are bilateral (ancestors are believed to be bilateral).<br>
"
"<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Echinodermata</span>: sea stars, urchin, sand dollars; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">coelomate</span> deuterostomes; complete digestive tract; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""adults"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> have radial symmetry but are bilateral when <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""young"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>; some features are bilateral (ancestors are believed to be bilateral).""<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Echinodermata</span>: sea stars, urchin, sand dollars; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">coelomate</span> deuterostomes; complete digestive tract; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">adults</span> have radial symmetry but are bilateral when <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">young</span>; some features are bilateral (ancestors are believed to be bilateral).<br>
"
"<div>Chordata: temporary features during embryonic development.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Notochord"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> provides dorsal, flexible rod that functions as support; replaced by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bone</span> during development; in most vertebrates, it becomes nucleus pulposus of intervertebral disc; arrived from mesoderm.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Dorsal</span> hollow nerve cord forms basis of nervous system =&gt; brain and spinal cord.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Pharyngeal gill slits</span> provide channels across pharynx to outside body; slits become gills for O2 or filter-feeding; slit disappear during embryonic development in others.</div><div>- Muscular tail: such tail is lost during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">embryonic development</span> in human.</div>""<div>Chordata: temporary features during embryonic development.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Notochord</span> provides dorsal, flexible rod that functions as support; replaced by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bone</span> during development; in most vertebrates, it becomes nucleus pulposus of intervertebral disc; arrived from mesoderm.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Dorsal</span> hollow nerve cord forms basis of nervous system =&gt; brain and spinal cord.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Pharyngeal gill slits</span> provide channels across pharynx to outside body; slits become gills for O2 or filter-feeding; slit disappear during embryonic development in others.</div><div>- Muscular tail: such tail is lost during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">embryonic development</span> in human.</div><br>
"
"<div>Chordata: temporary features during embryonic development.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Notochord</span> provides dorsal, flexible rod that functions as support; replaced by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bone"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> during development; in most vertebrates, it becomes nucleus pulposus of intervertebral disc; arrived from mesoderm.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Dorsal</span> hollow nerve cord forms basis of nervous system =&gt; brain and spinal cord.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Pharyngeal gill slits</span> provide channels across pharynx to outside body; slits become gills for O2 or filter-feeding; slit disappear during embryonic development in others.</div><div>- Muscular tail: such tail is lost during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">embryonic development</span> in human.</div>""<div>Chordata: temporary features during embryonic development.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Notochord</span> provides dorsal, flexible rod that functions as support; replaced by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">bone</span> during development; in most vertebrates, it becomes nucleus pulposus of intervertebral disc; arrived from mesoderm.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Dorsal</span> hollow nerve cord forms basis of nervous system =&gt; brain and spinal cord.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Pharyngeal gill slits</span> provide channels across pharynx to outside body; slits become gills for O2 or filter-feeding; slit disappear during embryonic development in others.</div><div>- Muscular tail: such tail is lost during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">embryonic development</span> in human.</div><br>
"
"<div>Chordata: temporary features during embryonic development.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Notochord</span> provides dorsal, flexible rod that functions as support; replaced by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bone</span> during development; in most vertebrates, it becomes nucleus pulposus of intervertebral disc; arrived from mesoderm.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Dorsal"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> hollow nerve cord forms basis of nervous system =&gt; brain and spinal cord.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Pharyngeal gill slits</span> provide channels across pharynx to outside body; slits become gills for O2 or filter-feeding; slit disappear during embryonic development in others.</div><div>- Muscular tail: such tail is lost during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">embryonic development</span> in human.</div>""<div>Chordata: temporary features during embryonic development.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Notochord</span> provides dorsal, flexible rod that functions as support; replaced by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bone</span> during development; in most vertebrates, it becomes nucleus pulposus of intervertebral disc; arrived from mesoderm.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Dorsal</span> hollow nerve cord forms basis of nervous system =&gt; brain and spinal cord.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Pharyngeal gill slits</span> provide channels across pharynx to outside body; slits become gills for O2 or filter-feeding; slit disappear during embryonic development in others.</div><div>- Muscular tail: such tail is lost during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">embryonic development</span> in human.</div><br>
"
"<div>Chordata: temporary features during embryonic development.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Notochord</span> provides dorsal, flexible rod that functions as support; replaced by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bone</span> during development; in most vertebrates, it becomes nucleus pulposus of intervertebral disc; arrived from mesoderm.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Dorsal</span> hollow nerve cord forms basis of nervous system =&gt; brain and spinal cord.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Pharyngeal&#x20;gill&#x20;slits"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> provide channels across pharynx to outside body; slits become gills for O2 or filter-feeding; slit disappear during embryonic development in others.</div><div>- Muscular tail: such tail is lost during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">embryonic development</span> in human.</div>""<div>Chordata: temporary features during embryonic development.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Notochord</span> provides dorsal, flexible rod that functions as support; replaced by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bone</span> during development; in most vertebrates, it becomes nucleus pulposus of intervertebral disc; arrived from mesoderm.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Dorsal</span> hollow nerve cord forms basis of nervous system =&gt; brain and spinal cord.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Pharyngeal gill slits</span> provide channels across pharynx to outside body; slits become gills for O2 or filter-feeding; slit disappear during embryonic development in others.</div><div>- Muscular tail: such tail is lost during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">embryonic development</span> in human.</div><br>
"
"<div>Chordata: temporary features during embryonic development.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Notochord</span> provides dorsal, flexible rod that functions as support; replaced by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bone</span> during development; in most vertebrates, it becomes nucleus pulposus of intervertebral disc; arrived from mesoderm.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Dorsal</span> hollow nerve cord forms basis of nervous system =&gt; brain and spinal cord.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Pharyngeal gill slits</span> provide channels across pharynx to outside body; slits become gills for O2 or filter-feeding; slit disappear during embryonic development in others.</div><div>- Muscular tail: such tail is lost during <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""embryonic&#x20;development"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> in human.</div>""<div>Chordata: temporary features during embryonic development.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Notochord</span> provides dorsal, flexible rod that functions as support; replaced by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">bone</span> during development; in most vertebrates, it becomes nucleus pulposus of intervertebral disc; arrived from mesoderm.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Dorsal</span> hollow nerve cord forms basis of nervous system =&gt; brain and spinal cord.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; - <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Pharyngeal gill slits</span> provide channels across pharynx to outside body; slits become gills for O2 or filter-feeding; slit disappear during embryonic development in others.</div><div>- Muscular tail: such tail is lost during <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">embryonic development</span> in human.</div><br>
"
"Two groups of chordates: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""invertebrate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> chordates (lancelets, tunicates) and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""vertebrate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (sharks, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) have vertebrae that enclose the spinal cord.""Two groups of chordates: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">invertebrate</span> chordates (lancelets, tunicates) and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">vertebrate</span> (sharks, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) have vertebrae that enclose the spinal cord.<br>
"
"&nbsp;Flagella of prokaryotes (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""flagellin"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>) while of eukaryotes (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""tubulin"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>).<div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Plasma-membrane of prokaryotes (unbranched ester-linked-bacteria or ether-linked-archaea) while eukaryotes are branched <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ester-linked phospholipid</span>.</div>""&nbsp;Flagella of prokaryotes (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">flagellin</span>) while of eukaryotes (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">tubulin</span>).<div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Plasma-membrane of prokaryotes (unbranched ester-linked-bacteria or ether-linked-archaea) while eukaryotes are branched <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">ester-linked phospholipid</span>.</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Flagella of prokaryotes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">flagellin</span>) while of eukaryotes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">tubulin</span>).<div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Plasma-membrane of prokaryotes (unbranched ester-linked-bacteria or ether-linked-archaea) while eukaryotes are branched <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ester&#x2D;linked&#x20;phospholipid"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>.</div>""&nbsp;Flagella of prokaryotes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">flagellin</span>) while of eukaryotes (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">tubulin</span>).<div><br /></div><div>&nbsp;Plasma-membrane of prokaryotes (unbranched ester-linked-bacteria or ether-linked-archaea) while eukaryotes are branched <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">ester-linked phospholipid</span>.</div><br>
"
"Angiosperms are divided into two groups: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""dicotyledons"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (dicots) and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""monocotyledons"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (monocots).""Angiosperms are divided into two groups: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">dicotyledons</span> (dicots) and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">monocotyledons</span> (monocots).<br>
"
"Cotyledons:&nbsp;Storage tissue that provides <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nutrition"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to developing seedling<div>Dicots -&nbsp;2 cotyledons</div><div>Monocots -&nbsp;1 cotyledon</div>""Cotyledons:&nbsp;Storage tissue that provides <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nutrition</span> to developing seedling<div>Dicots -&nbsp;2 cotyledons</div><div>Monocots -&nbsp;1 cotyledon</div><br>
"
"Leaf venation:&nbsp;Pattern of veins in leaves<div>Dicots -<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""&amp;nbsp&#x3B;Netted&#x20;&#x28;branching&#x20;pattern&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Monocots -&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Parallel"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Leaf venation:&nbsp;Pattern of veins in leaves<div>Dicots -<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">&nbsp;Netted (branching pattern)</span></div><div>Monocots -&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Parallel</span></div><br>
"
"Flower Parts :&nbsp;Numbers of petals, sepals, stamens, and other parts<div>Dicots:&nbsp;In <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""4s&#x2C;&#x20;5s&#x2C;&#x20;or&#x20;multiples"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Monocots:&nbsp;In <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3s&#x20;or&#x20;multiples"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div>""Flower Parts :&nbsp;Numbers of petals, sepals, stamens, and other parts<div>Dicots:&nbsp;In <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">4s, 5s, or multiples</span></div><div>Monocots:&nbsp;In <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3s or multiples</span></div><br>
"
"Vascular bundles:&nbsp;Arrangement of vascular tissue (xylem + phloem) in stems<div>Dicots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Organized&#x20;in&#x20;a&#x20;circle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Monocots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Scattered</span></div>""Vascular bundles:&nbsp;Arrangement of vascular tissue (xylem + phloem) in stems<div>Dicots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Organized in a circle</span></div><div>Monocots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Scattered</span></div><br>
"
"Vascular bundles:&nbsp;Arrangement of vascular tissue (xylem + phloem) in stems<div>Dicots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Organized in a circle</span></div><div>Monocots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Scattered"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div>""Vascular bundles:&nbsp;Arrangement of vascular tissue (xylem + phloem) in stems<div>Dicots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Organized in a circle</span></div><div>Monocots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Scattered</span></div><br>
"
"Root:&nbsp;Form of root<div>Dicots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Taproot&#x20;&#x28;large&#x20;single&#x20;root&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Monocots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Fibrous system (many fine roots)</span></div>""Root:&nbsp;Form of root<div>Dicots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Taproot (large single root)</span></div><div>Monocots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Fibrous system (many fine roots)</span></div><br>
"
"Root:&nbsp;Form of root<div>Dicots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Taproot (large single root)</span></div><div>Monocots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Fibrous&#x20;system&#x20;&#x28;many&#x20;fine&#x20;roots&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div>""Root:&nbsp;Form of root<div>Dicots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Taproot (large single root)</span></div><div>Monocots:&nbsp;<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Fibrous system (many fine roots)</span></div><br>
"
"Plant Tissues<div><div>1. Ground tissues: three kinds differ by nature of cell walls.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Parenchyma"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: most common, have thin walls, storage, photosynthesis, and secretion.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Collenchyma</span>: thick but flexible cell walls, serve mechanical support functions.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;c. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sclerenchyma</span>: thicker walls than collenchyma, also provide mechanical support.</div></div>""Plant Tissues<div><div>1. Ground tissues: three kinds differ by nature of cell walls.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Parenchyma</span>: most common, have thin walls, storage, photosynthesis, and secretion.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Collenchyma</span>: thick but flexible cell walls, serve mechanical support functions.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;c. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sclerenchyma</span>: thicker walls than collenchyma, also provide mechanical support.</div></div><br>
"
"Plant Tissues<div><div>1. Ground tissues: three kinds differ by nature of cell walls.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Parenchyma</span>: most common, have thin walls, storage, photosynthesis, and secretion.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Collenchyma"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>: thick but flexible cell walls, serve mechanical support functions.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;c. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sclerenchyma</span>: thicker walls than collenchyma, also provide mechanical support.</div></div>""Plant Tissues<div><div>1. Ground tissues: three kinds differ by nature of cell walls.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Parenchyma</span>: most common, have thin walls, storage, photosynthesis, and secretion.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Collenchyma</span>: thick but flexible cell walls, serve mechanical support functions.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;c. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sclerenchyma</span>: thicker walls than collenchyma, also provide mechanical support.</div></div><br>
"
"Plant Tissues<div><div>1. Ground tissues: three kinds differ by nature of cell walls.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Parenchyma</span>: most common, have thin walls, storage, photosynthesis, and secretion.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Collenchyma</span>: thick but flexible cell walls, serve mechanical support functions.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;c. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Sclerenchyma"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>: thicker walls than collenchyma, also provide mechanical support.</div></div>""Plant Tissues<div><div>1. Ground tissues: three kinds differ by nature of cell walls.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Parenchyma</span>: most common, have thin walls, storage, photosynthesis, and secretion.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Collenchyma</span>: thick but flexible cell walls, serve mechanical support functions.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;c. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Sclerenchyma</span>: thicker walls than collenchyma, also provide mechanical support.</div></div><br>
"
"Plant Tissues<div><div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Dermal"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> tissue: epidermis cells that cover outside of plant parts, guard cells that surround stomata, hair cells, stinging cells, and glandular cells; aerial portions of plants, epidermal cells secrete waxy protective substance <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cuticle</span>.</div><div>3. Vascular tissue: consists of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">xylem</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">phloem</span> =&gt; form vascular bundles.</div></div>""Plant Tissues<div><div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Dermal</span> tissue: epidermis cells that cover outside of plant parts, guard cells that surround stomata, hair cells, stinging cells, and glandular cells; aerial portions of plants, epidermal cells secrete waxy protective substance <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cuticle</span>.</div><div>3. Vascular tissue: consists of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">xylem</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">phloem</span> =&gt; form vascular bundles.</div></div><br>
"
"Plant Tissues<div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Dermal</span> tissue: epidermis cells that cover outside of plant parts, guard cells that surround stomata, hair cells, stinging cells, and glandular cells; aerial portions of plants, epidermal cells secrete waxy protective substance <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cuticle"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>.</div><div>3. Vascular tissue: consists of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">xylem</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">phloem</span> =&gt; form vascular bundles.</div></div>""Plant Tissues<div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Dermal</span> tissue: epidermis cells that cover outside of plant parts, guard cells that surround stomata, hair cells, stinging cells, and glandular cells; aerial portions of plants, epidermal cells secrete waxy protective substance <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">cuticle</span>.</div><div>3. Vascular tissue: consists of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">xylem</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">phloem</span> =&gt; form vascular bundles.</div></div><br>
"
"Plant Tissues<div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Dermal</span> tissue: epidermis cells that cover outside of plant parts, guard cells that surround stomata, hair cells, stinging cells, and glandular cells; aerial portions of plants, epidermal cells secrete waxy protective substance <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cuticle</span>.</div><div>3. Vascular tissue: consists of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""xylem"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phloem"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> =&gt; form vascular bundles.</div></div>""Plant Tissues<div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Dermal</span> tissue: epidermis cells that cover outside of plant parts, guard cells that surround stomata, hair cells, stinging cells, and glandular cells; aerial portions of plants, epidermal cells secrete waxy protective substance <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">cuticle</span>.</div><div>3. Vascular tissue: consists of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">xylem</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">phloem</span> =&gt; form vascular bundles.</div></div><br>
"
"Xylem: conduction of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">water and mineral and mechanical support</span>; have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2nd&#x20;cell&#x20;wall"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for additional strength; some places in walls of xylem cells have pits (absence of 2nd cell wall). Cell are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dead</span> at maturity (no cellular component).""Xylem: conduction of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">water and mineral and mechanical support</span>; have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd cell wall</span> for additional strength; some places in walls of xylem cells have pits (absence of 2nd cell wall). Cell are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dead</span> at maturity (no cellular component).<br>
"
"Xylem: conduction of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">water and mineral and mechanical support</span>; have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd cell wall</span> for additional strength; some places in walls of xylem cells have pits (absence of 2nd cell wall). Cell are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""dead"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> at maturity (no cellular component).""Xylem: conduction of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">water and mineral and mechanical support</span>; have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd cell wall</span> for additional strength; some places in walls of xylem cells have pits (absence of 2nd cell wall). Cell are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">dead</span> at maturity (no cellular component).<br>
"
"Xylem: conduction of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""water&#x20;and&#x20;mineral&#x20;and&#x20;mechanical&#x20;support"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>; have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd cell wall</span> for additional strength; some places in walls of xylem cells have pits (absence of 2nd cell wall). Cell are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dead</span> at maturity (no cellular component).""Xylem: conduction of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">water and mineral and mechanical support</span>; have <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd cell wall</span> for additional strength; some places in walls of xylem cells have pits (absence of 2nd cell wall). Cell are <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dead</span> at maturity (no cellular component).<br>
"
"<div>Two kinds of xylem cells:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Tracheids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: long and tapered where water passes from one to another through pits.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Vessel elements: shorter and wider, have less or no taper at ends. A column of vessel elements (members) is called a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vessel</span>. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Perforations</span> are where H2O passes through from one vessel member to the next (lack both 1st and 2nd cell wall). Perforations are an advantage to tracheids.</div>""<div>Two kinds of xylem cells:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Tracheids</span>: long and tapered where water passes from one to another through pits.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Vessel elements: shorter and wider, have less or no taper at ends. A column of vessel elements (members) is called a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vessel</span>. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Perforations</span> are where H2O passes through from one vessel member to the next (lack both 1st and 2nd cell wall). Perforations are an advantage to tracheids.</div><br>
"
"<div>Two kinds of xylem cells:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Tracheids</span>: long and tapered where water passes from one to another through pits.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Vessel elements: shorter and wider, have less or no taper at ends. A column of vessel elements (members) is called a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""vessel"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Perforations</span> are where H2O passes through from one vessel member to the next (lack both 1st and 2nd cell wall). Perforations are an advantage to tracheids.</div>""<div>Two kinds of xylem cells:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Tracheids</span>: long and tapered where water passes from one to another through pits.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Vessel elements: shorter and wider, have less or no taper at ends. A column of vessel elements (members) is called a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">vessel</span>. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Perforations</span> are where H2O passes through from one vessel member to the next (lack both 1st and 2nd cell wall). Perforations are an advantage to tracheids.</div><br>
"
"<div>Two kinds of xylem cells:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Tracheids</span>: long and tapered where water passes from one to another through pits.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Vessel elements: shorter and wider, have less or no taper at ends. A column of vessel elements (members) is called a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vessel</span>. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Perforations"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> are where H2O passes through from one vessel member to the next (lack both 1st and 2nd cell wall). Perforations are an advantage to tracheids.</div>""<div>Two kinds of xylem cells:</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Tracheids</span>: long and tapered where water passes from one to another through pits.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Vessel elements: shorter and wider, have less or no taper at ends. A column of vessel elements (members) is called a <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vessel</span>. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Perforations</span> are where H2O passes through from one vessel member to the next (lack both 1st and 2nd cell wall). Perforations are an advantage to tracheids.</div><br>
"
"Phloem: transport <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sugar"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. Made of cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sieve-tube members</span> (elements) that form fluid-conducting columns (sieve tubes); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">living</span> at maturity although lack <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">nuclei and ribosomes</span>. Pores on end of member form sieve plates (areas where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with next cell</span>). Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells (living parenchyma that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member) and connected by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">plasmodesmata</span>.""Phloem: transport <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">sugar</span>. Made of cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sieve-tube members</span> (elements) that form fluid-conducting columns (sieve tubes); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">living</span> at maturity although lack <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">nuclei and ribosomes</span>. Pores on end of member form sieve plates (areas where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with next cell</span>). Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells (living parenchyma that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member) and connected by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">plasmodesmata</span>.<br>
"
"Phloem: transport <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sugar</span>. Made of cells called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sieve&#x2D;tube&#x20;members"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (elements) that form fluid-conducting columns (sieve tubes); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">living</span> at maturity although lack <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">nuclei and ribosomes</span>. Pores on end of member form sieve plates (areas where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with next cell</span>). Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells (living parenchyma that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member) and connected by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">plasmodesmata</span>.""Phloem: transport <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sugar</span>. Made of cells called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">sieve-tube members</span> (elements) that form fluid-conducting columns (sieve tubes); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">living</span> at maturity although lack <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">nuclei and ribosomes</span>. Pores on end of member form sieve plates (areas where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with next cell</span>). Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells (living parenchyma that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member) and connected by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">plasmodesmata</span>.<br>
"
"Phloem: transport <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sugar</span>. Made of cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sieve-tube members</span> (elements) that form fluid-conducting columns (sieve tubes); <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""living"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> at maturity although lack <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">nuclei and ribosomes</span>. Pores on end of member form sieve plates (areas where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with next cell</span>). Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells (living parenchyma that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member) and connected by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">plasmodesmata</span>.""Phloem: transport <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sugar</span>. Made of cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sieve-tube members</span> (elements) that form fluid-conducting columns (sieve tubes); <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">living</span> at maturity although lack <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">nuclei and ribosomes</span>. Pores on end of member form sieve plates (areas where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with next cell</span>). Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells (living parenchyma that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member) and connected by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">plasmodesmata</span>.<br>
"
"Phloem: transport <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sugar</span>. Made of cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sieve-tube members</span> (elements) that form fluid-conducting columns (sieve tubes); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">living</span> at maturity although lack <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nuclei&#x20;and&#x20;ribosomes"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>. Pores on end of member form sieve plates (areas where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with next cell</span>). Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells (living parenchyma that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member) and connected by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">plasmodesmata</span>.""Phloem: transport <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sugar</span>. Made of cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sieve-tube members</span> (elements) that form fluid-conducting columns (sieve tubes); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">living</span> at maturity although lack <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">nuclei and ribosomes</span>. Pores on end of member form sieve plates (areas where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with next cell</span>). Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells (living parenchyma that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member) and connected by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">plasmodesmata</span>.<br>
"
"Phloem: transport <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sugar</span>. Made of cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sieve-tube members</span> (elements) that form fluid-conducting columns (sieve tubes); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">living</span> at maturity although lack <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">nuclei and ribosomes</span>. Pores on end of member form sieve plates (areas where <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytoplasm&#x20;of&#x20;one&#x20;cell&#x20;makes&#x20;contact&#x20;with&#x20;next&#x20;cell"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span>). Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells (living parenchyma that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member) and connected by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">plasmodesmata</span>.""Phloem: transport <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sugar</span>. Made of cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sieve-tube members</span> (elements) that form fluid-conducting columns (sieve tubes); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">living</span> at maturity although lack <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">nuclei and ribosomes</span>. Pores on end of member form sieve plates (areas where <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with next cell</span>). Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells (living parenchyma that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member) and connected by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">plasmodesmata</span>.<br>
"
"Phloem: transport <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sugar</span>. Made of cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sieve-tube members</span> (elements) that form fluid-conducting columns (sieve tubes); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">living</span> at maturity although lack <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">nuclei and ribosomes</span>. Pores on end of member form sieve plates (areas where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with next cell</span>). Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells (living parenchyma that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member) and connected by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""plasmodesmata"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span>.""Phloem: transport <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">sugar</span>. Made of cells called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sieve-tube members</span> (elements) that form fluid-conducting columns (sieve tubes); <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">living</span> at maturity although lack <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">nuclei and ribosomes</span>. Pores on end of member form sieve plates (areas where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with next cell</span>). Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells (living parenchyma that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member) and connected by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">plasmodesmata</span>.<br>
"
"<div>The Seed</div><div>- Consists of embryo, seed coat, and some kind of storage material (endosperm or cotyledons-formed by digesting material in endosperm). There are two cotyledons in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""dicot"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (pea). There is 1 cotyledon in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""monocot"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (corn).</div>""<div>The Seed</div><div>- Consists of embryo, seed coat, and some kind of storage material (endosperm or cotyledons-formed by digesting material in endosperm). There are two cotyledons in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">dicot</span> (pea). There is 1 cotyledon in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">monocot</span> (corn).</div><br>
"
"<div>Embryo:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Epicotyl"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (top portion of embryo) becomes shoot tip.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Plumule</span> are young leaves often attached to epicotyl; epicotyl can refer to both together.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Hypocotyl</span> becomes young shoot (below epicotyl and attached to cotyledons).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Radicles</span> develops from hypocotyls into root.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 5. A sheath called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">coleoptiles</span> (in monocot) surrounds and protects epicotyl. In developing young plants, coleoptiles emerge 1st as leaf. True leaves are from the Plumule within the coleoptiles.</div>""<div>Embryo:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Epicotyl</span> (top portion of embryo) becomes shoot tip.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Plumule</span> are young leaves often attached to epicotyl; epicotyl can refer to both together.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Hypocotyl</span> becomes young shoot (below epicotyl and attached to cotyledons).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Radicles</span> develops from hypocotyls into root.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 5. A sheath called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">coleoptiles</span> (in monocot) surrounds and protects epicotyl. In developing young plants, coleoptiles emerge 1st as leaf. True leaves are from the Plumule within the coleoptiles.</div><br>
"
"<div>Embryo:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Epicotyl</span> (top portion of embryo) becomes shoot tip.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Plumule"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> are young leaves often attached to epicotyl; epicotyl can refer to both together.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Hypocotyl</span> becomes young shoot (below epicotyl and attached to cotyledons).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Radicles</span> develops from hypocotyls into root.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 5. A sheath called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">coleoptiles</span> (in monocot) surrounds and protects epicotyl. In developing young plants, coleoptiles emerge 1st as leaf. True leaves are from the Plumule within the coleoptiles.</div>""<div>Embryo:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Epicotyl</span> (top portion of embryo) becomes shoot tip.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Plumule</span> are young leaves often attached to epicotyl; epicotyl can refer to both together.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Hypocotyl</span> becomes young shoot (below epicotyl and attached to cotyledons).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Radicles</span> develops from hypocotyls into root.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 5. A sheath called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">coleoptiles</span> (in monocot) surrounds and protects epicotyl. In developing young plants, coleoptiles emerge 1st as leaf. True leaves are from the Plumule within the coleoptiles.</div><br>
"
"<div>Embryo:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Epicotyl</span> (top portion of embryo) becomes shoot tip.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Plumule</span> are young leaves often attached to epicotyl; epicotyl can refer to both together.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Hypocotyl"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> becomes young shoot (below epicotyl and attached to cotyledons).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Radicles</span> develops from hypocotyls into root.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 5. A sheath called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">coleoptiles</span> (in monocot) surrounds and protects epicotyl. In developing young plants, coleoptiles emerge 1st as leaf. True leaves are from the Plumule within the coleoptiles.</div>""<div>Embryo:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Epicotyl</span> (top portion of embryo) becomes shoot tip.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Plumule</span> are young leaves often attached to epicotyl; epicotyl can refer to both together.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Hypocotyl</span> becomes young shoot (below epicotyl and attached to cotyledons).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Radicles</span> develops from hypocotyls into root.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 5. A sheath called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">coleoptiles</span> (in monocot) surrounds and protects epicotyl. In developing young plants, coleoptiles emerge 1st as leaf. True leaves are from the Plumule within the coleoptiles.</div><br>
"
"<div>Embryo:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Epicotyl</span> (top portion of embryo) becomes shoot tip.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Plumule</span> are young leaves often attached to epicotyl; epicotyl can refer to both together.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Hypocotyl</span> becomes young shoot (below epicotyl and attached to cotyledons).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 4. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Radicles"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> develops from hypocotyls into root.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 5. A sheath called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">coleoptiles</span> (in monocot) surrounds and protects epicotyl. In developing young plants, coleoptiles emerge 1st as leaf. True leaves are from the Plumule within the coleoptiles.</div>""<div>Embryo:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Epicotyl</span> (top portion of embryo) becomes shoot tip.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Plumule</span> are young leaves often attached to epicotyl; epicotyl can refer to both together.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Hypocotyl</span> becomes young shoot (below epicotyl and attached to cotyledons).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 4. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Radicles</span> develops from hypocotyls into root.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 5. A sheath called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">coleoptiles</span> (in monocot) surrounds and protects epicotyl. In developing young plants, coleoptiles emerge 1st as leaf. True leaves are from the Plumule within the coleoptiles.</div><br>
"
"<div>Embryo:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Epicotyl</span> (top portion of embryo) becomes shoot tip.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Plumule</span> are young leaves often attached to epicotyl; epicotyl can refer to both together.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Hypocotyl</span> becomes young shoot (below epicotyl and attached to cotyledons).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Radicles</span> develops from hypocotyls into root.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 5. A sheath called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""coleoptiles"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> (in monocot) surrounds and protects epicotyl. In developing young plants, coleoptiles emerge 1st as leaf. True leaves are from the Plumule within the coleoptiles.</div>""<div>Embryo:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 1. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Epicotyl</span> (top portion of embryo) becomes shoot tip.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Plumule</span> are young leaves often attached to epicotyl; epicotyl can refer to both together.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Hypocotyl</span> becomes young shoot (below epicotyl and attached to cotyledons).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 4. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Radicles</span> develops from hypocotyls into root.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; 5. A sheath called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">coleoptiles</span> (in monocot) surrounds and protects epicotyl. In developing young plants, coleoptiles emerge 1st as leaf. True leaves are from the Plumule within the coleoptiles.</div><br>
"
"<div>Germination and Development</div><div>- Seed remain dormant at maturity until <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""specific&#x20;environment&#x20;cues&#x20;&#x28;water&#x2C;&#x20;temp&#x2C;&#x20;light&#x2C;&#x20;seed&#x20;coat&#x20;damage&#x29;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, others may have required dormancy period.</div>""<div>Germination and Development</div><div>- Seed remain dormant at maturity until <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">specific environment cues (water, temp, light, seed coat damage)</span>, others may have required dormancy period.</div><br>
"
"Germination begins with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""imbibition&#x20;&#x28;absorption&#x29;&#x20;of&#x20;water"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> =&gt; enzymes =&gt; respiration. Absorbed water causes seed to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">swell</span> and seed coat to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">crack</span> =&gt; growing tips of radical produce roots that anchor seedling =&gt; elongation of hypocotyl.""Germination begins with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">imbibition (absorption) of water</span> =&gt; enzymes =&gt; respiration. Absorbed water causes seed to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">swell</span> and seed coat to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">crack</span> =&gt; growing tips of radical produce roots that anchor seedling =&gt; elongation of hypocotyl.<br>
"
"Germination begins with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">imbibition (absorption) of water</span> =&gt; enzymes =&gt; respiration. Absorbed water causes seed to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""swell"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> and seed coat to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""crack"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> =&gt; growing tips of radical produce roots that anchor seedling =&gt; elongation of hypocotyl.""Germination begins with <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">imbibition (absorption) of water</span> =&gt; enzymes =&gt; respiration. Absorbed water causes seed to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">swell</span> and seed coat to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">crack</span> =&gt; growing tips of radical produce roots that anchor seedling =&gt; elongation of hypocotyl.<br>
"
"In young seedling, growth occurs at tips of roots and shoots (apical meristerms); actively dividing (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""meristematic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>) cells. This kind of growth is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">primary growth</span> (produces primary tissues-1st xylem and 1st phloem =&gt; height).""In young seedling, growth occurs at tips of roots and shoots (apical meristerms); actively dividing (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">meristematic</span>) cells. This kind of growth is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">primary growth</span> (produces primary tissues-1st xylem and 1st phloem =&gt; height).<br>
"
"In young seedling, growth occurs at tips of roots and shoots (apical meristerms); actively dividing (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meristematic</span>) cells. This kind of growth is called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""primary&#x20;growth"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (produces primary tissues-1st xylem and 1st phloem =&gt; height).""In young seedling, growth occurs at tips of roots and shoots (apical meristerms); actively dividing (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">meristematic</span>) cells. This kind of growth is called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">primary growth</span> (produces primary tissues-1st xylem and 1st phloem =&gt; height).<br>
"
"<div>- Root cap: root tip, protects <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""apical&#x20;meristem"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> behind.</div><div>- Zone of cell division: formed from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dividing cells of apical meristem</span>.</div><div>- Zone of elongation: newly formed cells <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">absorb water and elongate</span>.</div><div>- Zone of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">maturation</span>: differentiation; cells mature into xylem, phloem, parenchyma, or epidermal cells (root hairs may grow here).</div>""<div>- Root cap: root tip, protects <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical meristem</span> behind.</div><div>- Zone of cell division: formed from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dividing cells of apical meristem</span>.</div><div>- Zone of elongation: newly formed cells <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">absorb water and elongate</span>.</div><div>- Zone of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">maturation</span>: differentiation; cells mature into xylem, phloem, parenchyma, or epidermal cells (root hairs may grow here).</div><br>
"
"<div>- Root cap: root tip, protects <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical meristem</span> behind.</div><div>- Zone of cell division: formed from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""dividing&#x20;cells&#x20;of&#x20;apical&#x20;meristem"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>.</div><div>- Zone of elongation: newly formed cells <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">absorb water and elongate</span>.</div><div>- Zone of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">maturation</span>: differentiation; cells mature into xylem, phloem, parenchyma, or epidermal cells (root hairs may grow here).</div>""<div>- Root cap: root tip, protects <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical meristem</span> behind.</div><div>- Zone of cell division: formed from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">dividing cells of apical meristem</span>.</div><div>- Zone of elongation: newly formed cells <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">absorb water and elongate</span>.</div><div>- Zone of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">maturation</span>: differentiation; cells mature into xylem, phloem, parenchyma, or epidermal cells (root hairs may grow here).</div><br>
"
"<div>- Root cap: root tip, protects <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical meristem</span> behind.</div><div>- Zone of cell division: formed from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dividing cells of apical meristem</span>.</div><div>- Zone of elongation: newly formed cells <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""absorb&#x20;water&#x20;and&#x20;elongate"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>.</div><div>- Zone of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">maturation</span>: differentiation; cells mature into xylem, phloem, parenchyma, or epidermal cells (root hairs may grow here).</div>""<div>- Root cap: root tip, protects <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical meristem</span> behind.</div><div>- Zone of cell division: formed from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dividing cells of apical meristem</span>.</div><div>- Zone of elongation: newly formed cells <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">absorb water and elongate</span>.</div><div>- Zone of <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">maturation</span>: differentiation; cells mature into xylem, phloem, parenchyma, or epidermal cells (root hairs may grow here).</div><br>
"
"<div>- Root cap: root tip, protects <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical meristem</span> behind.</div><div>- Zone of cell division: formed from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dividing cells of apical meristem</span>.</div><div>- Zone of elongation: newly formed cells <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">absorb water and elongate</span>.</div><div>- Zone of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""maturation"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span>: differentiation; cells mature into xylem, phloem, parenchyma, or epidermal cells (root hairs may grow here).</div>""<div>- Root cap: root tip, protects <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">apical meristem</span> behind.</div><div>- Zone of cell division: formed from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">dividing cells of apical meristem</span>.</div><div>- Zone of elongation: newly formed cells <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">absorb water and elongate</span>.</div><div>- Zone of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">maturation</span>: differentiation; cells mature into xylem, phloem, parenchyma, or epidermal cells (root hairs may grow here).</div><br>
"
"Meristems: are areas in plants where <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mitosis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> occurs, due to this cell division, it is also where growth occurs. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Lateral meristems</span> can be at tip of lateral growth in plant. Apical meristems are responsible for vertical growth and found at root and shoot (apex) tips.""Meristems: are areas in plants where <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mitosis</span> occurs, due to this cell division, it is also where growth occurs. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Lateral meristems</span> can be at tip of lateral growth in plant. Apical meristems are responsible for vertical growth and found at root and shoot (apex) tips.<br>
"
"Meristems: are areas in plants where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">mitosis</span> occurs, due to this cell division, it is also where growth occurs. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Lateral&#x20;meristems"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> can be at tip of lateral growth in plant. Apical meristems are responsible for vertical growth and found at root and shoot (apex) tips.""Meristems: are areas in plants where <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">mitosis</span> occurs, due to this cell division, it is also where growth occurs. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Lateral meristems</span> can be at tip of lateral growth in plant. Apical meristems are responsible for vertical growth and found at root and shoot (apex) tips.<br>
"
"<div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Conifers"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""woody&#x20;dicots"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> undergo 2nd growth in addition to 1st growth (extend length). 2nd growth increase girth and is the origin of woody plant tissues; occurs at 2 lateral meristems (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vascular cambium</span>-2nd xylem and phloem and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium-</span>periderm-protective material that lines outside of woody plant).</div>""<div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Conifers</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">woody dicots</span> undergo 2nd growth in addition to 1st growth (extend length). 2nd growth increase girth and is the origin of woody plant tissues; occurs at 2 lateral meristems (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vascular cambium</span>-2nd xylem and phloem and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium-</span>periderm-protective material that lines outside of woody plant).</div><br>
"
"<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Conifers</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">woody dicots</span> undergo 2nd growth in addition to 1st growth (extend length). 2nd growth increase girth and is the origin of woody plant tissues; occurs at 2 lateral meristems (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""vascular&#x20;cambium"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>-2nd xylem and phloem and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium-</span>periderm-protective material that lines outside of woody plant).</div>""<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Conifers</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">woody dicots</span> undergo 2nd growth in addition to 1st growth (extend length). 2nd growth increase girth and is the origin of woody plant tissues; occurs at 2 lateral meristems (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">vascular cambium</span>-2nd xylem and phloem and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium-</span>periderm-protective material that lines outside of woody plant).</div><br>
"
"<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Conifers</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">woody dicots</span> undergo 2nd growth in addition to 1st growth (extend length). 2nd growth increase girth and is the origin of woody plant tissues; occurs at 2 lateral meristems (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vascular cambium</span>-2nd xylem and phloem and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cork&#x20;cambium&#x2D;"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>periderm-protective material that lines outside of woody plant).</div>""<div><span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Conifers</span> and <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">woody dicots</span> undergo 2nd growth in addition to 1st growth (extend length). 2nd growth increase girth and is the origin of woody plant tissues; occurs at 2 lateral meristems (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">vascular cambium</span>-2nd xylem and phloem and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium-</span>periderm-protective material that lines outside of woody plant).</div><br>
"
"Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div>1. Epidermis: outside surface of root. In zone of maturation (epidermal cells produce root hair), when zone of maturation ages, root hair die. New epidermal cells from zone of elongation becomes cells of new <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""zone&#x20;of&#x20;maturation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.</div>""Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div>1. Epidermis: outside surface of root. In zone of maturation (epidermal cells produce root hair), when zone of maturation ages, root hair die. New epidermal cells from zone of elongation becomes cells of new <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">zone of maturation</span>.</div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cortex"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: makes up bulk of root, storage of starch, contain intercellular spaces, providing aeration of cells for respiration.</div><div>3. Endodermis: ring of tightly packed cells at inner most portion of cortex. A band of fatty material (suberin) called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Casparian strip</span> creates water-impenetrable barrier between cells =&gt; All water passing through endodermis must pass through endodermal cells and not between cells =&gt; control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">movement of water</span>.</div></div>""&nbsp;Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cortex</span>: makes up bulk of root, storage of starch, contain intercellular spaces, providing aeration of cells for respiration.</div><div>3. Endodermis: ring of tightly packed cells at inner most portion of cortex. A band of fatty material (suberin) called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Casparian strip</span> creates water-impenetrable barrier between cells =&gt; All water passing through endodermis must pass through endodermal cells and not between cells =&gt; control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">movement of water</span>.</div></div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cortex</span>: makes up bulk of root, storage of starch, contain intercellular spaces, providing aeration of cells for respiration.</div><div>3. Endodermis: ring of tightly packed cells at inner most portion of cortex. A band of fatty material (suberin) called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Casparian&#x20;strip"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> creates water-impenetrable barrier between cells =&gt; All water passing through endodermis must pass through endodermal cells and not between cells =&gt; control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">movement of water</span>.</div></div>""&nbsp;Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cortex</span>: makes up bulk of root, storage of starch, contain intercellular spaces, providing aeration of cells for respiration.</div><div>3. Endodermis: ring of tightly packed cells at inner most portion of cortex. A band of fatty material (suberin) called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Casparian strip</span> creates water-impenetrable barrier between cells =&gt; All water passing through endodermis must pass through endodermal cells and not between cells =&gt; control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">movement of water</span>.</div></div><br>
"
"&nbsp;Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cortex</span>: makes up bulk of root, storage of starch, contain intercellular spaces, providing aeration of cells for respiration.</div><div>3. Endodermis: ring of tightly packed cells at inner most portion of cortex. A band of fatty material (suberin) called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Casparian strip</span> creates water-impenetrable barrier between cells =&gt; All water passing through endodermis must pass through endodermal cells and not between cells =&gt; control <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""movement&#x20;of&#x20;water"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>.</div></div>""&nbsp;Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cortex</span>: makes up bulk of root, storage of starch, contain intercellular spaces, providing aeration of cells for respiration.</div><div>3. Endodermis: ring of tightly packed cells at inner most portion of cortex. A band of fatty material (suberin) called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Casparian strip</span> creates water-impenetrable barrier between cells =&gt; All water passing through endodermis must pass through endodermal cells and not between cells =&gt; control <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">movement of water</span>.</div></div><br>
"
"Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>4. Vascular <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cylinder"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (stele): makes up tissues inside endodermis (phloem, xylem, pericycle). Outer part consists of one/several layers of cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pericycle</span>-from which lateral root arise). Inside pericycle are vascular tissue.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Dicot: xylem cells <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fill center</span> of vascular cylinder (shape X with phloem (sieve-tube members and companion cells) in the spaces of X).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Monocot: groups of xylem and phloem <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">alternate in a ring</span> with the pith in the middle.</div></div>""Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>4. Vascular <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cylinder</span> (stele): makes up tissues inside endodermis (phloem, xylem, pericycle). Outer part consists of one/several layers of cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pericycle</span>-from which lateral root arise). Inside pericycle are vascular tissue.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Dicot: xylem cells <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fill center</span> of vascular cylinder (shape X with phloem (sieve-tube members and companion cells) in the spaces of X).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Monocot: groups of xylem and phloem <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">alternate in a ring</span> with the pith in the middle.</div></div><br>
"
"Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>4. Vascular <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cylinder</span> (stele): makes up tissues inside endodermis (phloem, xylem, pericycle). Outer part consists of one/several layers of cells (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pericycle"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>-from which lateral root arise). Inside pericycle are vascular tissue.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Dicot: xylem cells <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fill center</span> of vascular cylinder (shape X with phloem (sieve-tube members and companion cells) in the spaces of X).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Monocot: groups of xylem and phloem <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">alternate in a ring</span> with the pith in the middle.</div></div>""Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>4. Vascular <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cylinder</span> (stele): makes up tissues inside endodermis (phloem, xylem, pericycle). Outer part consists of one/several layers of cells (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">pericycle</span>-from which lateral root arise). Inside pericycle are vascular tissue.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Dicot: xylem cells <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fill center</span> of vascular cylinder (shape X with phloem (sieve-tube members and companion cells) in the spaces of X).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Monocot: groups of xylem and phloem <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">alternate in a ring</span> with the pith in the middle.</div></div><br>
"
"Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>4. Vascular <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cylinder</span> (stele): makes up tissues inside endodermis (phloem, xylem, pericycle). Outer part consists of one/several layers of cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pericycle</span>-from which lateral root arise). Inside pericycle are vascular tissue.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Dicot: xylem cells <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fill&#x20;center"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> of vascular cylinder (shape X with phloem (sieve-tube members and companion cells) in the spaces of X).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Monocot: groups of xylem and phloem <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">alternate in a ring</span> with the pith in the middle.</div></div>""Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>4. Vascular <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cylinder</span> (stele): makes up tissues inside endodermis (phloem, xylem, pericycle). Outer part consists of one/several layers of cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pericycle</span>-from which lateral root arise). Inside pericycle are vascular tissue.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Dicot: xylem cells <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">fill center</span> of vascular cylinder (shape X with phloem (sieve-tube members and companion cells) in the spaces of X).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Monocot: groups of xylem and phloem <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">alternate in a ring</span> with the pith in the middle.</div></div><br>
"
"Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>4. Vascular <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cylinder</span> (stele): makes up tissues inside endodermis (phloem, xylem, pericycle). Outer part consists of one/several layers of cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pericycle</span>-from which lateral root arise). Inside pericycle are vascular tissue.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Dicot: xylem cells <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fill center</span> of vascular cylinder (shape X with phloem (sieve-tube members and companion cells) in the spaces of X).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Monocot: groups of xylem and phloem <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""alternate&#x20;in&#x20;a&#x20;ring"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> with the pith in the middle.</div></div>""Primary Structure of Roots: from outside of root to center<div><div>4. Vascular <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cylinder</span> (stele): makes up tissues inside endodermis (phloem, xylem, pericycle). Outer part consists of one/several layers of cells (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">pericycle</span>-from which lateral root arise). Inside pericycle are vascular tissue.</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Dicot: xylem cells <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">fill center</span> of vascular cylinder (shape X with phloem (sieve-tube members and companion cells) in the spaces of X).</div><div><span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span>- Monocot: groups of xylem and phloem <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">alternate in a ring</span> with the pith in the middle.</div></div><br>
"
"<div>E2. Primary Structure of Stems</div><div>- Lack endodermis, Casparian strips (not need for water absorb).</div><div>1. Epidermis: contain epidermal cells covered with wax (fatty-cutin) which forms protective layer called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cuticle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.</div><div>2. Cortex: ground tissue types that lies between epidermis and vascular cylinder (many contain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chloroplasts</span>).</div><div>3. Vascular cylinder: consists of xylem, phloem, and pith. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Vascular cambium</span> (dicot) is single layer of cells between xylem (inside) and phloem (outside) may remain undifferentiated and later become vascular cambium.</div>""<div>E2. Primary Structure of Stems</div><div>- Lack endodermis, Casparian strips (not need for water absorb).</div><div>1. Epidermis: contain epidermal cells covered with wax (fatty-cutin) which forms protective layer called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cuticle</span>.</div><div>2. Cortex: ground tissue types that lies between epidermis and vascular cylinder (many contain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chloroplasts</span>).</div><div>3. Vascular cylinder: consists of xylem, phloem, and pith. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Vascular cambium</span> (dicot) is single layer of cells between xylem (inside) and phloem (outside) may remain undifferentiated and later become vascular cambium.</div><br>
"
"<div>E2. Primary Structure of Stems</div><div>- Lack endodermis, Casparian strips (not need for water absorb).</div><div>1. Epidermis: contain epidermal cells covered with wax (fatty-cutin) which forms protective layer called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cuticle</span>.</div><div>2. Cortex: ground tissue types that lies between epidermis and vascular cylinder (many contain <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chloroplasts"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>).</div><div>3. Vascular cylinder: consists of xylem, phloem, and pith. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Vascular cambium</span> (dicot) is single layer of cells between xylem (inside) and phloem (outside) may remain undifferentiated and later become vascular cambium.</div>""<div>E2. Primary Structure of Stems</div><div>- Lack endodermis, Casparian strips (not need for water absorb).</div><div>1. Epidermis: contain epidermal cells covered with wax (fatty-cutin) which forms protective layer called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cuticle</span>.</div><div>2. Cortex: ground tissue types that lies between epidermis and vascular cylinder (many contain <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">chloroplasts</span>).</div><div>3. Vascular cylinder: consists of xylem, phloem, and pith. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Vascular cambium</span> (dicot) is single layer of cells between xylem (inside) and phloem (outside) may remain undifferentiated and later become vascular cambium.</div><br>
"
"<div>E2. Primary Structure of Stems</div><div>- Lack endodermis, Casparian strips (not need for water absorb).</div><div>1. Epidermis: contain epidermal cells covered with wax (fatty-cutin) which forms protective layer called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cuticle</span>.</div><div>2. Cortex: ground tissue types that lies between epidermis and vascular cylinder (many contain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chloroplasts</span>).</div><div>3. Vascular cylinder: consists of xylem, phloem, and pith. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Vascular&#x20;cambium"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (dicot) is single layer of cells between xylem (inside) and phloem (outside) may remain undifferentiated and later become vascular cambium.</div>""<div>E2. Primary Structure of Stems</div><div>- Lack endodermis, Casparian strips (not need for water absorb).</div><div>1. Epidermis: contain epidermal cells covered with wax (fatty-cutin) which forms protective layer called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">cuticle</span>.</div><div>2. Cortex: ground tissue types that lies between epidermis and vascular cylinder (many contain <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">chloroplasts</span>).</div><div>3. Vascular cylinder: consists of xylem, phloem, and pith. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Vascular cambium</span> (dicot) is single layer of cells between xylem (inside) and phloem (outside) may remain undifferentiated and later become vascular cambium.</div><br>
"
"<div>Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots</div><div>- Vascular cambium: becomes cylinder of tissue that extends the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""length"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> of stem and root. Secondary growth in a stem (cambium layer is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">meristematic</span>, producing new cells on both inside and outside the cambium cylinder).</div>""<div>Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots</div><div>- Vascular cambium: becomes cylinder of tissue that extends the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">length</span> of stem and root. Secondary growth in a stem (cambium layer is <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">meristematic</span>, producing new cells on both inside and outside the cambium cylinder).</div><br>
"
"<div>Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots</div><div>- Vascular cambium: becomes cylinder of tissue that extends the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">length</span> of stem and root. Secondary growth in a stem (cambium layer is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""meristematic"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, producing new cells on both inside and outside the cambium cylinder).</div>""<div>Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots</div><div>- Vascular cambium: becomes cylinder of tissue that extends the <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">length</span> of stem and root. Secondary growth in a stem (cambium layer is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">meristematic</span>, producing new cells on both inside and outside the cambium cylinder).</div><br>
"
"Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2nd&#x20;xylem"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2nd phloem</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phelloderm</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Periderm</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">cortex</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">pericycle</span>.</div></div>""Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd xylem</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2nd phloem</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phelloderm</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Periderm</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">cortex</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">pericycle</span>.</div></div><br>
"
"Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd xylem</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2nd&#x20;phloem"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phelloderm</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Periderm</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">cortex</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">pericycle</span>.</div></div>""Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd xylem</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">2nd phloem</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phelloderm</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Periderm</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">cortex</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">pericycle</span>.</div></div><br>
"
"Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd xylem</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2nd phloem</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cork&#x20;cambium"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phelloderm</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Periderm</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">cortex</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">pericycle</span>.</div></div>""Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd xylem</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2nd phloem</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phelloderm</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Periderm</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">cortex</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">pericycle</span>.</div></div><br>
"
"Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd xylem</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2nd phloem</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phelloderm"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Periderm</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">cortex</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">pericycle</span>.</div></div>""Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd xylem</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2nd phloem</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">phelloderm</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Periderm</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">cortex</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">pericycle</span>.</div></div><br>
"
"Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd xylem</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2nd phloem</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phelloderm</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Periderm"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">cortex</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">pericycle</span>.</div></div>""Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd xylem</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2nd phloem</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phelloderm</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">Periderm</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">cortex</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">pericycle</span>.</div></div><br>
"
"Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd xylem</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2nd phloem</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phelloderm</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Periderm</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cortex"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">pericycle</span>.</div></div>""Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd xylem</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2nd phloem</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phelloderm</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Periderm</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">cortex</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">pericycle</span>.</div></div><br>
"
"Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd xylem</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2nd phloem</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phelloderm</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Periderm</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">cortex</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pericycle"" data-ordinal=""7"">[...]</span>.</div></div>""Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots<div><div>- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd xylem</span> accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.</div><div>- Outside of cambium layer, new <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">2nd phloem</span> are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.</div><div>- In order to replace shed cells, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">cork cambium</span> produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">phelloderm</span> may be produced. Together, they are called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Periderm</span>. In dicots, cork cambium originates from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">cortex</span> and in root, it originates from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""7"">pericycle</span>.</div></div><br>
"
"<div>- Wood: formed from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""xylem"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> tissues at maturity (dead), only the recent ones remain active to transport water (sapwood). Older xylem located at center (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">heartwood</span>) functions only as support.</div><div>- Annual rings: alternation of growth (active vascular cambium divides) and dormancy due to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">season</span> in secondary xylem tissue. Size of rings =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">rainfall</span> history. Number of rings =&gt; age of tree.</div>""<div>- Wood: formed from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">xylem</span> tissues at maturity (dead), only the recent ones remain active to transport water (sapwood). Older xylem located at center (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">heartwood</span>) functions only as support.</div><div>- Annual rings: alternation of growth (active vascular cambium divides) and dormancy due to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">season</span> in secondary xylem tissue. Size of rings =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">rainfall</span> history. Number of rings =&gt; age of tree.</div><br>
"
"<div>- Wood: formed from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">xylem</span> tissues at maturity (dead), only the recent ones remain active to transport water (sapwood). Older xylem located at center (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""heartwood"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>) functions only as support.</div><div>- Annual rings: alternation of growth (active vascular cambium divides) and dormancy due to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">season</span> in secondary xylem tissue. Size of rings =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">rainfall</span> history. Number of rings =&gt; age of tree.</div>""<div>- Wood: formed from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">xylem</span> tissues at maturity (dead), only the recent ones remain active to transport water (sapwood). Older xylem located at center (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">heartwood</span>) functions only as support.</div><div>- Annual rings: alternation of growth (active vascular cambium divides) and dormancy due to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">season</span> in secondary xylem tissue. Size of rings =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">rainfall</span> history. Number of rings =&gt; age of tree.</div><br>
"
"<div>- Wood: formed from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">xylem</span> tissues at maturity (dead), only the recent ones remain active to transport water (sapwood). Older xylem located at center (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">heartwood</span>) functions only as support.</div><div>- Annual rings: alternation of growth (active vascular cambium divides) and dormancy due to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""season"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> in secondary xylem tissue. Size of rings =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">rainfall</span> history. Number of rings =&gt; age of tree.</div>""<div>- Wood: formed from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">xylem</span> tissues at maturity (dead), only the recent ones remain active to transport water (sapwood). Older xylem located at center (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">heartwood</span>) functions only as support.</div><div>- Annual rings: alternation of growth (active vascular cambium divides) and dormancy due to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">season</span> in secondary xylem tissue. Size of rings =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">rainfall</span> history. Number of rings =&gt; age of tree.</div><br>
"
"<div>- Wood: formed from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">xylem</span> tissues at maturity (dead), only the recent ones remain active to transport water (sapwood). Older xylem located at center (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">heartwood</span>) functions only as support.</div><div>- Annual rings: alternation of growth (active vascular cambium divides) and dormancy due to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">season</span> in secondary xylem tissue. Size of rings =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""rainfall"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> history. Number of rings =&gt; age of tree.</div>""<div>- Wood: formed from <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">xylem</span> tissues at maturity (dead), only the recent ones remain active to transport water (sapwood). Older xylem located at center (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">heartwood</span>) functions only as support.</div><div>- Annual rings: alternation of growth (active vascular cambium divides) and dormancy due to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">season</span> in secondary xylem tissue. Size of rings =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">rainfall</span> history. Number of rings =&gt; age of tree.</div><br>
"
"<div>G. Structure of the Leaf</div><div>1. Epidermis: protective, covered with cuticle (protective layer containing cutin-waxy) which reduces <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""transpiration"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> (water loss through evaporation); may bear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">trichomes</span> (hair, scales, glands).</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Palisade</span> mesophyll: consists of parenchyma cells with chloroplasts and large <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">surface area</span> (specialized for photosynthesis). Orient at upper surface, but for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">dry</span> habitat =&gt; both surfaces. (leaf Photosynth occurs here primarily)</div>""<div>G. Structure of the Leaf</div><div>1. Epidermis: protective, covered with cuticle (protective layer containing cutin-waxy) which reduces <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">transpiration</span> (water loss through evaporation); may bear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">trichomes</span> (hair, scales, glands).</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Palisade</span> mesophyll: consists of parenchyma cells with chloroplasts and large <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">surface area</span> (specialized for photosynthesis). Orient at upper surface, but for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">dry</span> habitat =&gt; both surfaces. (leaf Photosynth occurs here primarily)</div><br>
"
"<div>G. Structure of the Leaf</div><div>1. Epidermis: protective, covered with cuticle (protective layer containing cutin-waxy) which reduces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">transpiration</span> (water loss through evaporation); may bear <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""trichomes"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (hair, scales, glands).</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Palisade</span> mesophyll: consists of parenchyma cells with chloroplasts and large <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">surface area</span> (specialized for photosynthesis). Orient at upper surface, but for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">dry</span> habitat =&gt; both surfaces. (leaf Photosynth occurs here primarily)</div>""<div>G. Structure of the Leaf</div><div>1. Epidermis: protective, covered with cuticle (protective layer containing cutin-waxy) which reduces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">transpiration</span> (water loss through evaporation); may bear <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">trichomes</span> (hair, scales, glands).</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Palisade</span> mesophyll: consists of parenchyma cells with chloroplasts and large <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">surface area</span> (specialized for photosynthesis). Orient at upper surface, but for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">dry</span> habitat =&gt; both surfaces. (leaf Photosynth occurs here primarily)</div><br>
"
"<div>G. Structure of the Leaf</div><div>1. Epidermis: protective, covered with cuticle (protective layer containing cutin-waxy) which reduces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">transpiration</span> (water loss through evaporation); may bear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">trichomes</span> (hair, scales, glands).</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Palisade"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> mesophyll: consists of parenchyma cells with chloroplasts and large <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">surface area</span> (specialized for photosynthesis). Orient at upper surface, but for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">dry</span> habitat =&gt; both surfaces. (leaf Photosynth occurs here primarily)</div>""<div>G. Structure of the Leaf</div><div>1. Epidermis: protective, covered with cuticle (protective layer containing cutin-waxy) which reduces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">transpiration</span> (water loss through evaporation); may bear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">trichomes</span> (hair, scales, glands).</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Palisade</span> mesophyll: consists of parenchyma cells with chloroplasts and large <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">surface area</span> (specialized for photosynthesis). Orient at upper surface, but for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">dry</span> habitat =&gt; both surfaces. (leaf Photosynth occurs here primarily)</div><br>
"
"<div>G. Structure of the Leaf</div><div>1. Epidermis: protective, covered with cuticle (protective layer containing cutin-waxy) which reduces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">transpiration</span> (water loss through evaporation); may bear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">trichomes</span> (hair, scales, glands).</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Palisade</span> mesophyll: consists of parenchyma cells with chloroplasts and large <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">surface area</span> (specialized for photosynthesis). Orient at upper surface, but for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""dry"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> habitat =&gt; both surfaces. (leaf Photosynth occurs here primarily)</div>""<div>G. Structure of the Leaf</div><div>1. Epidermis: protective, covered with cuticle (protective layer containing cutin-waxy) which reduces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">transpiration</span> (water loss through evaporation); may bear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">trichomes</span> (hair, scales, glands).</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Palisade</span> mesophyll: consists of parenchyma cells with chloroplasts and large <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">surface area</span> (specialized for photosynthesis). Orient at upper surface, but for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">dry</span> habitat =&gt; both surfaces. (leaf Photosynth occurs here primarily)</div><br>
"
"<div>G. Structure of the Leaf</div><div>1. Epidermis: protective, covered with cuticle (protective layer containing cutin-waxy) which reduces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">transpiration</span> (water loss through evaporation); may bear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">trichomes</span> (hair, scales, glands).</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Palisade</span> mesophyll: consists of parenchyma cells with chloroplasts and large <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""surface&#x20;area"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> (specialized for photosynthesis). Orient at upper surface, but for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">dry</span> habitat =&gt; both surfaces. (leaf Photosynth occurs here primarily)</div>""<div>G. Structure of the Leaf</div><div>1. Epidermis: protective, covered with cuticle (protective layer containing cutin-waxy) which reduces <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">transpiration</span> (water loss through evaporation); may bear <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">trichomes</span> (hair, scales, glands).</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Palisade</span> mesophyll: consists of parenchyma cells with chloroplasts and large <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">surface area</span> (specialized for photosynthesis). Orient at upper surface, but for <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">dry</span> habitat =&gt; both surfaces. (leaf Photosynth occurs here primarily)</div><br>
"
"G. Structure of the Leaf<div><div>3. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Spongy"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> mesophyll: parenchyma cells loosely arranged below palisade mesophyll. Numerous <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intercellular spaces</span> (air chambers-CO2).</div><div>4. Guard cells: specialized epidermal cells control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">opening and closing</span> of stomata (allow gas exchange).</div><div>5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span> bundles: consist of xylem (water for photosynthesis) and phloem (transports sugar and by-product to other parts of plants from photosynthesis). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Bundle sheath</span> cell surrounds vascular bundle =&gt; no vascular tissue exposed to intercellular space =&gt; no air bubbles that can enter to impede movement of water; also provide anaerobic environment for CO2 fixation in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">C4 plant.</span></div></div>""G. Structure of the Leaf<div><div>3. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Spongy</span> mesophyll: parenchyma cells loosely arranged below palisade mesophyll. Numerous <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intercellular spaces</span> (air chambers-CO2).</div><div>4. Guard cells: specialized epidermal cells control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">opening and closing</span> of stomata (allow gas exchange).</div><div>5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span> bundles: consist of xylem (water for photosynthesis) and phloem (transports sugar and by-product to other parts of plants from photosynthesis). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Bundle sheath</span> cell surrounds vascular bundle =&gt; no vascular tissue exposed to intercellular space =&gt; no air bubbles that can enter to impede movement of water; also provide anaerobic environment for CO2 fixation in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">C4 plant.</span></div></div><br>
"
"G. Structure of the Leaf<div><div>3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Spongy</span> mesophyll: parenchyma cells loosely arranged below palisade mesophyll. Numerous <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""intercellular&#x20;spaces"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (air chambers-CO2).</div><div>4. Guard cells: specialized epidermal cells control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">opening and closing</span> of stomata (allow gas exchange).</div><div>5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span> bundles: consist of xylem (water for photosynthesis) and phloem (transports sugar and by-product to other parts of plants from photosynthesis). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Bundle sheath</span> cell surrounds vascular bundle =&gt; no vascular tissue exposed to intercellular space =&gt; no air bubbles that can enter to impede movement of water; also provide anaerobic environment for CO2 fixation in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">C4 plant.</span></div></div>""G. Structure of the Leaf<div><div>3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Spongy</span> mesophyll: parenchyma cells loosely arranged below palisade mesophyll. Numerous <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">intercellular spaces</span> (air chambers-CO2).</div><div>4. Guard cells: specialized epidermal cells control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">opening and closing</span> of stomata (allow gas exchange).</div><div>5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span> bundles: consist of xylem (water for photosynthesis) and phloem (transports sugar and by-product to other parts of plants from photosynthesis). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Bundle sheath</span> cell surrounds vascular bundle =&gt; no vascular tissue exposed to intercellular space =&gt; no air bubbles that can enter to impede movement of water; also provide anaerobic environment for CO2 fixation in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">C4 plant.</span></div></div><br>
"
"G. Structure of the Leaf<div><div>3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Spongy</span> mesophyll: parenchyma cells loosely arranged below palisade mesophyll. Numerous <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intercellular spaces</span> (air chambers-CO2).</div><div>4. Guard cells: specialized epidermal cells control <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""opening&#x20;and&#x20;closing"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> of stomata (allow gas exchange).</div><div>5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span> bundles: consist of xylem (water for photosynthesis) and phloem (transports sugar and by-product to other parts of plants from photosynthesis). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Bundle sheath</span> cell surrounds vascular bundle =&gt; no vascular tissue exposed to intercellular space =&gt; no air bubbles that can enter to impede movement of water; also provide anaerobic environment for CO2 fixation in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">C4 plant.</span></div></div>""G. Structure of the Leaf<div><div>3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Spongy</span> mesophyll: parenchyma cells loosely arranged below palisade mesophyll. Numerous <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intercellular spaces</span> (air chambers-CO2).</div><div>4. Guard cells: specialized epidermal cells control <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">opening and closing</span> of stomata (allow gas exchange).</div><div>5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span> bundles: consist of xylem (water for photosynthesis) and phloem (transports sugar and by-product to other parts of plants from photosynthesis). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Bundle sheath</span> cell surrounds vascular bundle =&gt; no vascular tissue exposed to intercellular space =&gt; no air bubbles that can enter to impede movement of water; also provide anaerobic environment for CO2 fixation in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">C4 plant.</span></div></div><br>
"
"G. Structure of the Leaf<div><div>3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Spongy</span> mesophyll: parenchyma cells loosely arranged below palisade mesophyll. Numerous <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intercellular spaces</span> (air chambers-CO2).</div><div>4. Guard cells: specialized epidermal cells control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">opening and closing</span> of stomata (allow gas exchange).</div><div>5. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Vascular"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> bundles: consist of xylem (water for photosynthesis) and phloem (transports sugar and by-product to other parts of plants from photosynthesis). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Bundle sheath</span> cell surrounds vascular bundle =&gt; no vascular tissue exposed to intercellular space =&gt; no air bubbles that can enter to impede movement of water; also provide anaerobic environment for CO2 fixation in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">C4 plant.</span></div></div>""G. Structure of the Leaf<div><div>3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Spongy</span> mesophyll: parenchyma cells loosely arranged below palisade mesophyll. Numerous <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intercellular spaces</span> (air chambers-CO2).</div><div>4. Guard cells: specialized epidermal cells control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">opening and closing</span> of stomata (allow gas exchange).</div><div>5. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span> bundles: consist of xylem (water for photosynthesis) and phloem (transports sugar and by-product to other parts of plants from photosynthesis). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Bundle sheath</span> cell surrounds vascular bundle =&gt; no vascular tissue exposed to intercellular space =&gt; no air bubbles that can enter to impede movement of water; also provide anaerobic environment for CO2 fixation in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">C4 plant.</span></div></div><br>
"
"G. Structure of the Leaf<div><div>3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Spongy</span> mesophyll: parenchyma cells loosely arranged below palisade mesophyll. Numerous <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intercellular spaces</span> (air chambers-CO2).</div><div>4. Guard cells: specialized epidermal cells control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">opening and closing</span> of stomata (allow gas exchange).</div><div>5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span> bundles: consist of xylem (water for photosynthesis) and phloem (transports sugar and by-product to other parts of plants from photosynthesis). <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Bundle&#x20;sheath"" data-ordinal=""5"">[...]</span> cell surrounds vascular bundle =&gt; no vascular tissue exposed to intercellular space =&gt; no air bubbles that can enter to impede movement of water; also provide anaerobic environment for CO2 fixation in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">C4 plant.</span></div></div>""G. Structure of the Leaf<div><div>3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Spongy</span> mesophyll: parenchyma cells loosely arranged below palisade mesophyll. Numerous <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intercellular spaces</span> (air chambers-CO2).</div><div>4. Guard cells: specialized epidermal cells control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">opening and closing</span> of stomata (allow gas exchange).</div><div>5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span> bundles: consist of xylem (water for photosynthesis) and phloem (transports sugar and by-product to other parts of plants from photosynthesis). <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""5"">Bundle sheath</span> cell surrounds vascular bundle =&gt; no vascular tissue exposed to intercellular space =&gt; no air bubbles that can enter to impede movement of water; also provide anaerobic environment for CO2 fixation in <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">C4 plant.</span></div></div><br>
"
"G. Structure of the Leaf<div><div>3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Spongy</span> mesophyll: parenchyma cells loosely arranged below palisade mesophyll. Numerous <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intercellular spaces</span> (air chambers-CO2).</div><div>4. Guard cells: specialized epidermal cells control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">opening and closing</span> of stomata (allow gas exchange).</div><div>5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span> bundles: consist of xylem (water for photosynthesis) and phloem (transports sugar and by-product to other parts of plants from photosynthesis). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Bundle sheath</span> cell surrounds vascular bundle =&gt; no vascular tissue exposed to intercellular space =&gt; no air bubbles that can enter to impede movement of water; also provide anaerobic environment for CO2 fixation in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""C4&#x20;plant&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""6"">[...]</span></div></div>""G. Structure of the Leaf<div><div>3. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Spongy</span> mesophyll: parenchyma cells loosely arranged below palisade mesophyll. Numerous <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">intercellular spaces</span> (air chambers-CO2).</div><div>4. Guard cells: specialized epidermal cells control <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">opening and closing</span> of stomata (allow gas exchange).</div><div>5. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">Vascular</span> bundles: consist of xylem (water for photosynthesis) and phloem (transports sugar and by-product to other parts of plants from photosynthesis). <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">Bundle sheath</span> cell surrounds vascular bundle =&gt; no vascular tissue exposed to intercellular space =&gt; no air bubbles that can enter to impede movement of water; also provide anaerobic environment for CO2 fixation in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""6"">C4 plant.</span></div></div><br>
"
"<div>H. Transport of Water</div><div>- Enter root through root hairs by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""osmosis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>. There are two pathways:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. Water move through cell walls and intercellular spaces from one to another without ever enter cells. This pathway is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">apoplast</span> (nonliving portion of cells).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. Water move through cytoplasm of one cells to another (symblast-living portion) through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmodesmata</span> (small tubes that connect cytoplasm of adjacent cells).</div><div>- Once H2O reaches endodermis, it can only enter by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">symblast</span> (due to Casparian strips) into (stele-outer most layer is the endodermis) vascular cylinder and is selective permeable (K+ pass, Na+ is blocked only common in soil). Once through endodermis, apoplast pathway takes over to reach xylem.</div>""<div>H. Transport of Water</div><div>- Enter root through root hairs by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">osmosis</span>. There are two pathways:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. Water move through cell walls and intercellular spaces from one to another without ever enter cells. This pathway is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">apoplast</span> (nonliving portion of cells).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. Water move through cytoplasm of one cells to another (symblast-living portion) through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmodesmata</span> (small tubes that connect cytoplasm of adjacent cells).</div><div>- Once H2O reaches endodermis, it can only enter by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">symblast</span> (due to Casparian strips) into (stele-outer most layer is the endodermis) vascular cylinder and is selective permeable (K+ pass, Na+ is blocked only common in soil). Once through endodermis, apoplast pathway takes over to reach xylem.</div><br>
"
"<div>H. Transport of Water</div><div>- Enter root through root hairs by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">osmosis</span>. There are two pathways:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. Water move through cell walls and intercellular spaces from one to another without ever enter cells. This pathway is called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""apoplast"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (nonliving portion of cells).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. Water move through cytoplasm of one cells to another (symblast-living portion) through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmodesmata</span> (small tubes that connect cytoplasm of adjacent cells).</div><div>- Once H2O reaches endodermis, it can only enter by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">symblast</span> (due to Casparian strips) into (stele-outer most layer is the endodermis) vascular cylinder and is selective permeable (K+ pass, Na+ is blocked only common in soil). Once through endodermis, apoplast pathway takes over to reach xylem.</div>""<div>H. Transport of Water</div><div>- Enter root through root hairs by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">osmosis</span>. There are two pathways:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. Water move through cell walls and intercellular spaces from one to another without ever enter cells. This pathway is called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">apoplast</span> (nonliving portion of cells).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. Water move through cytoplasm of one cells to another (symblast-living portion) through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmodesmata</span> (small tubes that connect cytoplasm of adjacent cells).</div><div>- Once H2O reaches endodermis, it can only enter by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">symblast</span> (due to Casparian strips) into (stele-outer most layer is the endodermis) vascular cylinder and is selective permeable (K+ pass, Na+ is blocked only common in soil). Once through endodermis, apoplast pathway takes over to reach xylem.</div><br>
"
"<div>H. Transport of Water</div><div>- Enter root through root hairs by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">osmosis</span>. There are two pathways:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. Water move through cell walls and intercellular spaces from one to another without ever enter cells. This pathway is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">apoplast</span> (nonliving portion of cells).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. Water move through cytoplasm of one cells to another (symblast-living portion) through <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""plasmodesmata"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> (small tubes that connect cytoplasm of adjacent cells).</div><div>- Once H2O reaches endodermis, it can only enter by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">symblast</span> (due to Casparian strips) into (stele-outer most layer is the endodermis) vascular cylinder and is selective permeable (K+ pass, Na+ is blocked only common in soil). Once through endodermis, apoplast pathway takes over to reach xylem.</div>""<div>H. Transport of Water</div><div>- Enter root through root hairs by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">osmosis</span>. There are two pathways:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. Water move through cell walls and intercellular spaces from one to another without ever enter cells. This pathway is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">apoplast</span> (nonliving portion of cells).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. Water move through cytoplasm of one cells to another (symblast-living portion) through <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmodesmata</span> (small tubes that connect cytoplasm of adjacent cells).</div><div>- Once H2O reaches endodermis, it can only enter by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">symblast</span> (due to Casparian strips) into (stele-outer most layer is the endodermis) vascular cylinder and is selective permeable (K+ pass, Na+ is blocked only common in soil). Once through endodermis, apoplast pathway takes over to reach xylem.</div><br>
"
"<div>H. Transport of Water</div><div>- Enter root through root hairs by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">osmosis</span>. There are two pathways:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. Water move through cell walls and intercellular spaces from one to another without ever enter cells. This pathway is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">apoplast</span> (nonliving portion of cells).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. Water move through cytoplasm of one cells to another (symblast-living portion) through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmodesmata</span> (small tubes that connect cytoplasm of adjacent cells).</div><div>- Once H2O reaches endodermis, it can only enter by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""symblast"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> (due to Casparian strips) into (stele-outer most layer is the endodermis) vascular cylinder and is selective permeable (K+ pass, Na+ is blocked only common in soil). Once through endodermis, apoplast pathway takes over to reach xylem.</div>""<div>H. Transport of Water</div><div>- Enter root through root hairs by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">osmosis</span>. There are two pathways:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;a. Water move through cell walls and intercellular spaces from one to another without ever enter cells. This pathway is called <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">apoplast</span> (nonliving portion of cells).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;b. Water move through cytoplasm of one cells to another (symblast-living portion) through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">plasmodesmata</span> (small tubes that connect cytoplasm of adjacent cells).</div><div>- Once H2O reaches endodermis, it can only enter by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">symblast</span> (due to Casparian strips) into (stele-outer most layer is the endodermis) vascular cylinder and is selective permeable (K+ pass, Na+ is blocked only common in soil). Once through endodermis, apoplast pathway takes over to reach xylem.</div><br>
"
"H. Transport of Water<div><div>1. Osmosis: moves from soil through root and into xylem by gradient (continuous movement of water out of root by xylem, and high [mineral] inside stele). This osmotic force (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""root"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> pressure) can be seen as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">guttation</span>, formation of small droplets of sap (water and minerals) on ends of leaves in morning.</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Capillary</span> action: rise of liquids in narrow tubes, contribute to movement of H2O up xylem; results from forces of adhesion (molecular attraction between unlike substances) between H2O and tube =&gt; meniscus Is formed at top of water column. No <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">meniscus</span> in active xylem.</div></div>""H. Transport of Water<div><div>1. Osmosis: moves from soil through root and into xylem by gradient (continuous movement of water out of root by xylem, and high [mineral] inside stele). This osmotic force (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">root</span> pressure) can be seen as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">guttation</span>, formation of small droplets of sap (water and minerals) on ends of leaves in morning.</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Capillary</span> action: rise of liquids in narrow tubes, contribute to movement of H2O up xylem; results from forces of adhesion (molecular attraction between unlike substances) between H2O and tube =&gt; meniscus Is formed at top of water column. No <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">meniscus</span> in active xylem.</div></div><br>
"
"H. Transport of Water<div><div>1. Osmosis: moves from soil through root and into xylem by gradient (continuous movement of water out of root by xylem, and high [mineral] inside stele). This osmotic force (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">root</span> pressure) can be seen as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""guttation"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>, formation of small droplets of sap (water and minerals) on ends of leaves in morning.</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Capillary</span> action: rise of liquids in narrow tubes, contribute to movement of H2O up xylem; results from forces of adhesion (molecular attraction between unlike substances) between H2O and tube =&gt; meniscus Is formed at top of water column. No <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">meniscus</span> in active xylem.</div></div>""H. Transport of Water<div><div>1. Osmosis: moves from soil through root and into xylem by gradient (continuous movement of water out of root by xylem, and high [mineral] inside stele). This osmotic force (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">root</span> pressure) can be seen as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">guttation</span>, formation of small droplets of sap (water and minerals) on ends of leaves in morning.</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Capillary</span> action: rise of liquids in narrow tubes, contribute to movement of H2O up xylem; results from forces of adhesion (molecular attraction between unlike substances) between H2O and tube =&gt; meniscus Is formed at top of water column. No <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">meniscus</span> in active xylem.</div></div><br>
"
"H. Transport of Water<div><div>1. Osmosis: moves from soil through root and into xylem by gradient (continuous movement of water out of root by xylem, and high [mineral] inside stele). This osmotic force (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">root</span> pressure) can be seen as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">guttation</span>, formation of small droplets of sap (water and minerals) on ends of leaves in morning.</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Capillary"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> action: rise of liquids in narrow tubes, contribute to movement of H2O up xylem; results from forces of adhesion (molecular attraction between unlike substances) between H2O and tube =&gt; meniscus Is formed at top of water column. No <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">meniscus</span> in active xylem.</div></div>""H. Transport of Water<div><div>1. Osmosis: moves from soil through root and into xylem by gradient (continuous movement of water out of root by xylem, and high [mineral] inside stele). This osmotic force (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">root</span> pressure) can be seen as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">guttation</span>, formation of small droplets of sap (water and minerals) on ends of leaves in morning.</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">Capillary</span> action: rise of liquids in narrow tubes, contribute to movement of H2O up xylem; results from forces of adhesion (molecular attraction between unlike substances) between H2O and tube =&gt; meniscus Is formed at top of water column. No <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">meniscus</span> in active xylem.</div></div><br>
"
"H. Transport of Water<div><div>1. Osmosis: moves from soil through root and into xylem by gradient (continuous movement of water out of root by xylem, and high [mineral] inside stele). This osmotic force (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">root</span> pressure) can be seen as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">guttation</span>, formation of small droplets of sap (water and minerals) on ends of leaves in morning.</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Capillary</span> action: rise of liquids in narrow tubes, contribute to movement of H2O up xylem; results from forces of adhesion (molecular attraction between unlike substances) between H2O and tube =&gt; meniscus Is formed at top of water column. No <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""meniscus"" data-ordinal=""4"">[...]</span> in active xylem.</div></div>""H. Transport of Water<div><div>1. Osmosis: moves from soil through root and into xylem by gradient (continuous movement of water out of root by xylem, and high [mineral] inside stele). This osmotic force (<span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">root</span> pressure) can be seen as <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">guttation</span>, formation of small droplets of sap (water and minerals) on ends of leaves in morning.</div><div>2. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">Capillary</span> action: rise of liquids in narrow tubes, contribute to movement of H2O up xylem; results from forces of adhesion (molecular attraction between unlike substances) between H2O and tube =&gt; meniscus Is formed at top of water column. No <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""4"">meniscus</span> in active xylem.</div></div><br>
"
"H. Transport of Water<div><div>3. Cohesion-tension theory: most water movement is explained by this; major contributor (above two minimal).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. Transpiration: evaporation of water from plants, removes water from leaves =&gt; causing <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""negative"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> pressure (tension) to develop within leaves and xylem.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cohesion</span>: attraction between like substances (water); within xylem cells behave as single, polymerlike molecule.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; c. Bulk flow: when a water molecule is lost from a leaf by transpiration, it pulls up behind an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">entire column</span> of water molecules (generated by transpiration, which is itself caused by heat action of the sun).</div></div>""H. Transport of Water<div><div>3. Cohesion-tension theory: most water movement is explained by this; major contributor (above two minimal).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. Transpiration: evaporation of water from plants, removes water from leaves =&gt; causing <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">negative</span> pressure (tension) to develop within leaves and xylem.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cohesion</span>: attraction between like substances (water); within xylem cells behave as single, polymerlike molecule.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; c. Bulk flow: when a water molecule is lost from a leaf by transpiration, it pulls up behind an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">entire column</span> of water molecules (generated by transpiration, which is itself caused by heat action of the sun).</div></div><br>
"
"H. Transport of Water<div><div>3. Cohesion-tension theory: most water movement is explained by this; major contributor (above two minimal).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. Transpiration: evaporation of water from plants, removes water from leaves =&gt; causing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">negative</span> pressure (tension) to develop within leaves and xylem.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; b. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cohesion"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span>: attraction between like substances (water); within xylem cells behave as single, polymerlike molecule.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; c. Bulk flow: when a water molecule is lost from a leaf by transpiration, it pulls up behind an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">entire column</span> of water molecules (generated by transpiration, which is itself caused by heat action of the sun).</div></div>""H. Transport of Water<div><div>3. Cohesion-tension theory: most water movement is explained by this; major contributor (above two minimal).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. Transpiration: evaporation of water from plants, removes water from leaves =&gt; causing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">negative</span> pressure (tension) to develop within leaves and xylem.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; b. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cohesion</span>: attraction between like substances (water); within xylem cells behave as single, polymerlike molecule.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; c. Bulk flow: when a water molecule is lost from a leaf by transpiration, it pulls up behind an <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">entire column</span> of water molecules (generated by transpiration, which is itself caused by heat action of the sun).</div></div><br>
"
"H. Transport of Water<div><div>3. Cohesion-tension theory: most water movement is explained by this; major contributor (above two minimal).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. Transpiration: evaporation of water from plants, removes water from leaves =&gt; causing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">negative</span> pressure (tension) to develop within leaves and xylem.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cohesion</span>: attraction between like substances (water); within xylem cells behave as single, polymerlike molecule.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; c. Bulk flow: when a water molecule is lost from a leaf by transpiration, it pulls up behind an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""entire&#x20;column"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span> of water molecules (generated by transpiration, which is itself caused by heat action of the sun).</div></div>""H. Transport of Water<div><div>3. Cohesion-tension theory: most water movement is explained by this; major contributor (above two minimal).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; a. Transpiration: evaporation of water from plants, removes water from leaves =&gt; causing <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">negative</span> pressure (tension) to develop within leaves and xylem.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; b. <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Cohesion</span>: attraction between like substances (water); within xylem cells behave as single, polymerlike molecule.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; c. Bulk flow: when a water molecule is lost from a leaf by transpiration, it pulls up behind an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">entire column</span> of water molecules (generated by transpiration, which is itself caused by heat action of the sun).</div></div><br>
"
"<div>I. Control of Stomata</div><div>- When stomata are closed =&gt; CO2 not available =&gt; cannot <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""photosynthesize"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.</div><div>- When stomata are open =&gt; CO2 can enter leaf =&gt; photosynthesize but plant risks <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">desiccation from transpiration.</span></div>""<div>I. Control of Stomata</div><div>- When stomata are closed =&gt; CO2 not available =&gt; cannot <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">photosynthesize</span>.</div><div>- When stomata are open =&gt; CO2 can enter leaf =&gt; photosynthesize but plant risks <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">desiccation from transpiration.</span></div><br>
"
"<div>I. Control of Stomata</div><div>- When stomata are closed =&gt; CO2 not available =&gt; cannot <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">photosynthesize</span>.</div><div>- When stomata are open =&gt; CO2 can enter leaf =&gt; photosynthesize but plant risks <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""desiccation&#x20;from&#x20;transpiration&#x2E;"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span></div>""<div>I. Control of Stomata</div><div>- When stomata are closed =&gt; CO2 not available =&gt; cannot <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">photosynthesize</span>.</div><div>- When stomata are open =&gt; CO2 can enter leaf =&gt; photosynthesize but plant risks <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">desiccation from transpiration.</span></div><br>
"
"- Guard cells: two surrounds the stomata. Cell walls of guard cells do not have the same thickness (<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""thicker"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> when border the stomata). Guard cell expand when water diffuses in. Due to the irregular thickness and radical shape, the sides with thinner cell walls =&gt; expand =&gt; creates opening (stoma). Water diffuses out =&gt; kidney shape collapses and stoma closes.""- Guard cells: two surrounds the stomata. Cell walls of guard cells do not have the same thickness (<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">thicker</span> when border the stomata). Guard cell expand when water diffuses in. Due to the irregular thickness and radical shape, the sides with thinner cell walls =&gt; expand =&gt; creates opening (stoma). Water diffuses out =&gt; kidney shape collapses and stoma closes.<br>
"
"I. Control of Stomata<div><div>- Factors involved in mechanism of opening and closing:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. High Temp =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Close"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Low [CO2] inside =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Open</span> =&gt; photosynthesis.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Close at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">night</span>, Open during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">day</span>. CO2 is low during daylight because used by photosynthesis. CO2 level are high at night because of respiration.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Stomata opening (diffusion of K+ into guard cell =&gt; create gradient =&gt; more water moves in).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. K+ enter =&gt; unbalanced charge state. Cl- can come in or H+ gets pumped out.</div></div>""I. Control of Stomata<div><div>- Factors involved in mechanism of opening and closing:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. High Temp =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Close</span>.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Low [CO2] inside =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Open</span> =&gt; photosynthesis.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Close at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">night</span>, Open during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">day</span>. CO2 is low during daylight because used by photosynthesis. CO2 level are high at night because of respiration.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Stomata opening (diffusion of K+ into guard cell =&gt; create gradient =&gt; more water moves in).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. K+ enter =&gt; unbalanced charge state. Cl- can come in or H+ gets pumped out.</div></div><br>
"
"I. Control of Stomata<div><div>- Factors involved in mechanism of opening and closing:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. High Temp =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Close</span>.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Low [CO2] inside =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Open"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> =&gt; photosynthesis.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Close at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">night</span>, Open during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">day</span>. CO2 is low during daylight because used by photosynthesis. CO2 level are high at night because of respiration.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Stomata opening (diffusion of K+ into guard cell =&gt; create gradient =&gt; more water moves in).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. K+ enter =&gt; unbalanced charge state. Cl- can come in or H+ gets pumped out.</div></div>""I. Control of Stomata<div><div>- Factors involved in mechanism of opening and closing:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. High Temp =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Close</span>.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Low [CO2] inside =&gt; <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""2"">Open</span> =&gt; photosynthesis.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Close at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">night</span>, Open during <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">day</span>. CO2 is low during daylight because used by photosynthesis. CO2 level are high at night because of respiration.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Stomata opening (diffusion of K+ into guard cell =&gt; create gradient =&gt; more water moves in).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. K+ enter =&gt; unbalanced charge state. Cl- can come in or H+ gets pumped out.</div></div><br>
"
"I. Control of Stomata<div><div>- Factors involved in mechanism of opening and closing:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. High Temp =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Close</span>.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Low [CO2] inside =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Open</span> =&gt; photosynthesis.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Close at <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""night"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>, Open during <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""day"" data-ordinal=""3"">[...]</span>. CO2 is low during daylight because used by photosynthesis. CO2 level are high at night because of respiration.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Stomata opening (diffusion of K+ into guard cell =&gt; create gradient =&gt; more water moves in).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. K+ enter =&gt; unbalanced charge state. Cl- can come in or H+ gets pumped out.</div></div>""I. Control of Stomata<div><div>- Factors involved in mechanism of opening and closing:</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. High Temp =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Close</span>.<span class=""Apple-tab-span"" style=""white-space:pre""> </span> &nbsp; 2. Low [CO2] inside =&gt; <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">Open</span> =&gt; photosynthesis.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Close at <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">night</span>, Open during <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""3"">day</span>. CO2 is low during daylight because used by photosynthesis. CO2 level are high at night because of respiration.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Stomata opening (diffusion of K+ into guard cell =&gt; create gradient =&gt; more water moves in).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;5. K+ enter =&gt; unbalanced charge state. Cl- can come in or H+ gets pumped out.</div></div><br>
"
"<div>- <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Translocation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>: movement of carbohydrate through phloem from a source (leaves) to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sink</span> (site of carb utilization). Described by pressure-flow hypothesis:</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Sugars enter <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sieve-tube members</span>: soluble, move from site of production (palisade mesophyll) to phloem sieve-tube members by active transport =&gt; high [solute] at source than at sink [root].</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Water enters sieve-tube members: water diffuses into source by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">osmosis</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Pressure in sieve-tube members at source moves water and sugars to sieve-tube members at sink through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">sieve tubes:</span> when water enter, rigid cell walls do not expand =&gt; pressure build up. Water and sugar move by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">bulk flow</span> through sieve tubes (through plates between sieve-tube members).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Pressure is reduced in sieve-tube members at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">sink</span> as sugar are removed for utilization by nearby cells: pressure begins to build up at sink (from bulk flow source sink). However, sink is where sugar are used =&gt; removed from sieve-tube members by active transport =&gt; increases [water] at sink =&gt; water diffuses out of cell =&gt; relieve pressure.</div>""<div>- <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Translocation</span>: movement of carbohydrate through phloem from a source (leaves) to <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""2"">sink</span> (site of carb utilization). Described by pressure-flow hypothesis:</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Sugars enter <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sieve-tube members</span>: soluble, move from site of production (palisade mesophyll) to phloem sieve-tube members by active transport =&gt; high [solute] at source than at sink [root].</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Water enters sieve-tube members: water diffuses into source by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">osmosis</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Pressure in sieve-tube members at source moves water and sugars to sieve-tube members at sink through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">sieve tubes:</span> when water enter, rigid cell walls do not expand =&gt; pressure build up. Water and sugar move by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">bulk flow</span> through sieve tubes (through plates between sieve-tube members).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Pressure is reduced in sieve-tube members at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">sink</span> as sugar are removed for utilization by nearby cells: pressure begins to build up at sink (from bulk flow source sink). However, sink is where sugar are used =&gt; removed from sieve-tube members by active transport =&gt; increases [water] at sink =&gt; water diffuses out of cell =&gt; relieve pressure.</div><br>
"
"<div>- <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""1"">Translocation</span>: movement of carbohydrate through phloem from a source (leaves) to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sink"" data-ordinal=""2"">[...]</span> (site of carb utilization). Described by pressure-flow hypothesis:</div><div><br /></div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;1. Sugars enter <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""3"">sieve-tube members</span>: soluble, move from site of production (palisade mesophyll) to phloem sieve-tube members by active transport =&gt; high [solute] at source than at sink [root].</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;2. Water enters sieve-tube members: water diffuses into source by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""4"">osmosis</span>.</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;3. Pressure in sieve-tube members at source moves water and sugars to sieve-tube members at sink through <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""5"">sieve tubes:</span> when water enter, rigid cell walls do not expand =&gt; pressure build up. Water and sugar move by <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""6"">bulk flow</span> through sieve tubes (through plates between sieve-tube members).</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp;4. Pressure is reduced in sieve-tube members at <span class=""cloze-inactive"" data-ordinal=""7"">sink</span> as sugar are removed for utilization by nearby cells: pressure begins to build up at sink (from bulk flow source