Contents
 Introduction: Concept of Biodiversity
 Levels/Types of Biodiversity
 Distribution of Biodiversity
 India as a Mega-diversity Nation
 Benefits/Values of Biodiversity
 Biodiversity Hotspot
 Threats to Biodiversity
 Conservation of Biodiversity
 Conventions on Biodiversity
 Conclusion
 Reference
Introduction
• The term Biodiversity was first coined by Walter G. Rosen in 1985.
• Bio = Life, Diversity = Variety (Variety of Lifeforms)
• The biosphere comprises of a complex collections of innumerable organisms, known as the
Biodiversity, which constitute the vital life support for survival of human race.
• Biological diversity, abbreviated as biodiversity, represent the sum total of various life
forms such as unicellular fungi, protozoa, bacteria, and multi cellular organisms such as
plants, fishes, and mammals at various biological levels including gens, habitats, and
ecosystem.
Concept of Biodiversity
• Biodiversity is the variety of life forms on earth and the essential interdependence of all
living things.
• As defined in convention on Biological diversity singed at Rio De Jenerio (Brazil) in
1992 by 154 countries, the Biodiversity defined as “the variability among living organisms
from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic eco-systems and
the ecological complexes of which the area part- this include diversity with in species,
between species and of ecosystem.”
• According to IUCN in 1998, “the variety and variability of species of their population, the
variety of species of their life forms, the diversity of the complex association with species
with their interaction and their ecological process which influences perform.”
Levels/Types of Biodiversity
 Genetic diversity- Basic source of biodiversity
 Gene are basic source of hereditary. Gene found in organisms can form enormous combinations
each of which give rise to some variability.
 Gene within same species show different versions due to new combination, it is called genetic
variability.
 Species diversity- Variability found within the population of a species or between different species
of a community
 Two index for measuring species diversity are • Simpson index• Shannon wiener index
 Represent species richness and abundance.
 Ecosystem diversity- This is the diversity of ecological complexity showing variation in ecological
niches ,trophic structure, food webs, nutrient cycling.
 The ecosystem also show variation in moisture, temperature ,altitude, precipitation.
Levels/Types of Biodiversity
• Genetic Diversity
• Species Diversity
https://www.pngegg.com/en/search?q=genetic+Diversity
•
Ecosystem Diversity
•
Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/10246384/
https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/meaning-of-biodiversity-1440148279-1
India as a Mega-diversity Nation
 India is considered as a Mega Diversity region because it has wide variety of endemic flora
and fauna.
 47000 species of plant
 89451 species of animal
 Flora: India can be divided into 8 distinct floristic region namely
 Western Himalaya• Eastern Himalaya• Central Himalyas• Assam• Indus plain• Ganga Plain•
Deccan• Malabar
 Fauna: • As India has such a huge variety in climate and physical condition it has a great
variety of fauna numbering 89,451 species.
 Mammals include Majestic Elephant, India Bison, Great Indian Rhinoceros, Wild Sheep of
Himalaya, Swamp Deer, Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Kashmir Stag.
 Forest and wetland are inhabited by birds like pheasant, geese, duck, cranes, horn bills and
sunbird.
Rivers harbours crocodile and gharial's.
Value of biodiversity
Consumptive value
 Productive value
 Social value
 Aesthetic value
 Ethical value
 Optional value
 Ecosystem services
Direct Values
Indirect Values
Consumptive value
Food : Sources of Food:
Plants: There are about 3000 species of food plants out of which only 150 species are
commercialized.
 Plant provide wide variety of food like maize, wheat, rice.
Animal: Man consume meat from mainly nine species of animal like cattle, ship, pig, goat, water
buffaloes, chickens, duck, geese and turkeys.
Fishes are now regarded as a domesticated animal because of development of aquaculture.
Curd, cheese, milk are obtained from dairy farms.
Sources of Fats and Oil• oil seed plant like mustard , ground nut, palm oil. The other oil like
soybean, binola (cotton seed) , sunflower are becoming popular.
Fibers: major fiber yielding varieties are cotton, flax, jute, sisal, coir, abaca
New disease resistant verities:• Some commercial species of food plants are susceptible to certain
disease. These species can be made resistant to particular disease by cross bred.• Eg. Potato has been
made resistant to late blight by deriving a resistant strain from solanum demissum.
Fuel, Coal, Petroleum are fossilized biodiversity.
Productive value
 Tusk------- elephant
 Musk ------musk deer
 Lac -------- lac insect
 Silk --------silk worm
 Fur of many animals
Drug and Medicine: A number of herb has been used to cure various ailments.
Various plant contain valuable drugs. E.g.. • Tulsi has the property of
antibacterial.• Quinine is used for the treatment of malaria
Indirect Values
 Social value
• Since the ancient time our culture and festival were associated with various plant and
animals. Eg. Banyan tree, peepal, tulsi has been worshipped by women of India. Some
animal like cow is considered our mother.
• Some animal and plant considered as a national symbol like Peacock, Tiger, Lotus,
Banyan.
Aesthetic value
• Biodiversity provide lots of aesthetic and beautification value.
• Human being is fond of maintaining garden, keeping pets, ecotourism.
• We go to various hill station, national park , zoological garden , sanctuaries to watch
scenic beauties.
Indirect Values
Optional value
• These value include the potentials of biodiversity that are presently unknown and need to be
explored.
• For e.g. potential cure for AIDS & cancer are in the depth of ocean ecosystem and tropical
rainforest.
• Ethical/Moral value
• Live and let live.
• It means that we may or may not use a species but knowing the very fact that this species
exist in nature give us pleasure.
• Feel sorry for Passenger pigeon and Dodo bird is no more on earth
Ecosystem services
 Ecological role
 Protection of Water resource
 Forest and plant cover in water catchments area help
 To maintain hydrological cycle.
 Regulating and stabilizing water runoff.
 Acting as a buffer against natural calamities like flood and drought.
 Forest increase the water table.
 Regeneration of natural spring.• Eg. Wet land and forest act as a water purifying system
 while mangroves trap silt reducing impact of sea waves, tides or Tsunami.
 Soil Formation and protection
 Nutrient Storage and Cycling
 Maintaining Climate Stability
 Vegetation affect climate at macro and micro level.
 Dense forest promote rainfall by recycling of water vapors. Reducing Pollution.
Bio Geographical Classification of India
1. The Trans-Himalayan
2. The Himalayan
3. The Indian Desert
4. Semi-arid Zone
5. Western Ghats
6. Deccan Peninsula
7. The Gangetic Plain
8. North East India
9. The Islands
10. The Coasts
Biodiversity Hotpots
 A biodiversity hotspot is a region with a high level of endemic species that has experienced
great habitat loss While hotspots are spread all over the world, the majority are forest areas
and most are located in the tropics.
The idea was first developed by Norman Myers in 1988.
Currently, 34 biodiversity hotspots have been identified. They once covered 15.7 percent of
the Earth's land surface. The intact remnants of the hotspots now cover only 2.3 % of the
Earth's land surface.
Overall, Hotspots have lost around 86% of their original habitat and additionally are
considered to be significantly threatened by extinctions induced by climate change.
Biodiversity Hotpots
• Biodiversity hotspots are a method to identify those regions of the world where
attention is needed to address biodiversity loss and to guide investments in conservation.
• CRITERIA To qualify as a hotspot, a region must meet two criteria:
1) A highly Biodiversity rich area
2) it has to have lost ≥ 70% of its original native habitat.
3) it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total) as
endemics;
Biodiversity Hotpots in India
• Eastern Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in
Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar).
• Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka).
• Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of
Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China).
• Sundaland (Nicobar Island): Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia,
Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Philippines).
The Red Data Book
• The Red Data Book was first issued in 1963
by the IUCN located in Morges,
Switzerland.
• The Red Data Book is a document
established for keeping records on rare and
endangered species of animals, plants, and
fungi as well as some local sub-species that
exist within the region of the state or
country.
• There are three colored pages in The Red
data book — Red, Pink, and Green.
• The IUCN Red List is an important
indicator of the health of the world’s
biodiversity.
Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/10116542/
Source: https://www.crackops.in/iucn-red-data-book-iucn-categories/
Types of Species
• Native or Indigenous Species: A biological taxon (genus, species, subspecies, variety, etc.)
native to a particular area or region; can be found naturally in other areas.
• Example: Babul, Mango, neem, Fox, Leopard, Hornbill.
• Extinct Species: A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has
died.
• A taxon is presumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at
appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an
individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form.
• Example: The Northern White Rhinoceros, Passenger Pigeon, Dutch Alcon Blue Butterfly, Dodo
Types of Species
• Endangered Species: A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates
that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Endangered (see Section V), and it is therefore
considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild.
• The endangered species are those living organisms which are almost on the verge of
extinction.
• The endangered species in the country are categorized as 1. Vulnerable 2. Rare 3.
Indeterminate 4. Threatened.
1. Vulnerable Species: A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that
it meets any of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable (see Section V), and it is therefore
considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
Types of Species
1. Vulnerable Species:
2. Rare Species: A rare species is a group of organisms that are very uncommon, scarce,
or infrequently encountered.
Example: Himalayan brown bear, Asiatic buffalo
1. Indeterminate Species: There is no definite information about indeterminate species.
These species cannot be categorized into extinct, vulnerable, endangered and rare
category appropriately.
2. Threatened Species: Threatened Species are any species (including animals, plants,
fungi, etc.) which are vulnerable to endangerment in the near future.
Example: Vulture,
•
At risk of becoming extinct or of becoming an endangered species.
Types of Species
• Exotic/alien/foreign Species : A biological taxon (genus, species, subspecies, etc.) that is
not native or indigenous to a particular area or region and that has been accidentally or
deliberately introduced into the area.
• Invasive Species : A species that is non-native or introduced to an ecosystem that becomes
established, spreads, and is likely to cause damage to biodiversity, agricultural production,
or human health.
• Invasive species can be plants, animals, and other organisms (e.g., microbes).
• They can compete with and displace native plants and animals, alter ecosystem functions
and cycles significantly, hybridize with native species, and promote other invaders.
Examples of Invasive Species
 Datura (Mad Plant)
• Nativity: Trop. America to India (throughout)
• Aggressive colonizer, occasional weed.
 Parthenium/Congress grass
• Nativity: Trop. America to India (throughout)
• Aggressive colonizer, Common weed of cultivated fields, forest land.
Nile Perch (An exotic predatory fish)
• Nativity: Ethiopian region of Africa to Victoria lake (South Africa)
• The lake's cichlids fish (endemic species) have no defense against this unfamiliar predator.
 Concept of Biological Invasion: The spread of an organism or species into an area formerly
free of it, typically with detrimental effects such as the displacement or extinction of native species,
destabilization of the invaded ecosystem, etc.
Types of Species
• Endemic Species: A biological taxon (genus, species, subspecies, variety, etc.) native to
and restricted to a particular area or region and not found naturally anywhere else in the
world.
• Many species in Galapagos are endemic to specific islands or volcanoes, while others are
endemic to the archipelago as a whole.
• Endemism on islands is generally much higher than on continents. Endemic species are a
subset of native or indigenous species.
• When a species is found only in a particular geographical region because of its isolation,
soil and climatic conditions, it is said to be endemic.
Types of Species
• Keystone species: A keystone species is an organism that helps define an entire ecosystem.
• Without its keystone species, the ecosystem would be dramatically different or cease to exist
altogether.
• Keystone species are also critical for the overall structure and function of an ecosystem, and
influence which other types of plants and animals make up that ecosystem.
• Ex. Vulture, African Elephant, Asian Elephant.
• Elephant feeding behavior frequently ensures that no one plant species is able to dominate the
environment.
• Vultures or nature’s ‘clean-up crew’ - maintain disease-free environments.
Threats to Biodiversity
• Habitat Loss/Destruction- Habitat destruction is defined as the complete elimination of a localized
or regional ecosystem leading to the total loss of its former biological function.
• Habitat Fragmentation- is a secondary affect of habitat destruction, occurs when remaining
populations are isolated because the links between habitat patches have been destroyed.
• Global Climate Change- for example, heating of the Earth's surface affects biodiversity because it
endangers all the species that adapted to the cold due to the latitude (the Polar species) or the
altitude (mountain species).
• Pollution- Introduction of pollutants such as nutrient overloading with nitrate fertilizer as well as
more immediately harmful chemicals. Human activity influences the natural environment producing
negative, direct or indirect, effects that alter the flow of energy, the chemical and physical constitution of the
environment and abundance of the species;
Threats to Biodiversity
• Alien Species/Exotic Species/Foreign Species- Introduced by humans to regions
where there are no natural predators.
• Diseases- Reduction in habitat causing high population densities, encourages spread
of diseases.
• Genetic pollution:- genetic pollution occurs by uncontrolled hybridization.
• Genetic pollution is detrimental to rare species that come into contact with more
abundant ones.
• Abundant species immediately colonize the new area, vanishing the rare species.
• Alters the genetic pool, which is an irreversible change.
Threat: Over exploitation of resources
• Over exploitation of resources: when the activities connected with capturing and
harvesting (hunting, fishing, farming) a renewable natural resource in a particular area is
excessively intense, the resource itself may become exhausted.
• As for example, is the case of sardines, herrings, cod, tuna and many other species that man
captures without leaving enough time for the organisms to reproduce.
• Over-Exploitation- This also includes the illegal wildlife trade as well as overfishing,
logging of tropical hardwoods etc.
• Mangroves have been cleared for fuel wood.
• Prawn farming, which has led to a decrease in the habitat essential for breeding of marine
fish.
Threat: Habitat loss/ Habitat Destruction/ Habitat Fragmentation
Habitat Destruction/ loss can be described when an animal loses their home. Every animal in the
animal kingdom has a niche, in their animal community and without their habitat they no longer have
a niche.
 Alteration and Fragmentation of the habitats: the transformation of the natural areas determines
not only the loss of the vegetable species, but also a decrease in the animal species associated to them.
• Habitat destruction is currently ranked as the primary causes of species extinction world wide…!!!
Source: https://treesforlife.org.uk/into-the-forest/habitats-and-ecology/human-impacts/habitat-fragmentation/
Source: https://www.swarthmore.edu/environmental-studies-capstone/habitat-destruction-and-fragmentation
Causes of habitat loss/ Habitat Destruction/ Habitat Fragmentation
Reasons of habitat loss by humans (Anthropogenic):
 agriculture, farming
 harvesting natural resources for personal use
 for industrial and urbanization development
 Mining
 Encroachment
 Dam Construction
There are natural causes too..
• Habitat destruction through natural processes such as
• volcanism,
• fire and
• climate change is well documented in the fossil record.
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Some-examples-of-habitat-loss-in-Sri-Lanka-Topleft-Forest-destruction-in-Giribawa_fig5_305324604
Solutions for Habitat loss
• Protecting remaining intact section of natural habitat.
• Reduce human population and expansion of urbanization and industries.
• Educating the public about the importance of natural habitat and bio-diversity.
• Higher fines for illegal dumping
• Protection of our oceans
• Reduction of the use of fertilizers and pesticides
• More nature reserves (National park, wildlife Sanctuary, Biosphere reserve)
• Stop deforestation
• Solutions to habitat loss can include planting trees, planting home gardens so as to reduce need
for man to need large lands for agricultural farms which lead to habitat loss.
Threat: Poaching
• Poaching is the illegal killing and exploitations of animals and plants, hunting and harvesting of
wild plants or animals, such as through hunting, harvesting, fishing, or trapping.
• History of poaching
• Millions of years ago, in the Stone Age
• Followed through the ages, to even the tribal natives
• but it was during the Late Middle Ages that poaching became a punishable offense
• Why Poaching is done???
• Poaching is done for large profits gained by the illegal sale or trade of animal parts, meat and pelts.
• Exists because there is a demand for these products, caused by a lack of education or disregard for
the law amongst the buyers.
• Many cultures believe that certain animal parts have medicinal value.
Poaching Examples
 Specific threats to certain animals are related to large economic benefits.
• Skin and bones from tigers,
• ivory from elephants,
• horns from rhinos and
• perfume from the must deer.
• Bears are killed for their gall bladders.
• The rare whale shark, a highly endangered species, is being killed off the coast of Gujarat.
• Corals and shells are also collected for export or sold on the beaches of Chennai and Kanyakumari.
 A variety of wild plants with real or at times dubious medicinal value are being over harvested.
• The commonly collected plants include Rauvolfia, Nuxvomica, Datura, etc.
• Collection of garden plants includes orchids, ferns and moss.
• Bhringaraj
• Sandalwood
Source: https://twitter.com/denrofficial/status/1302117531344224262
Threat: Poaching
• Poaching is not limited to animals its also for plants too…………! Three of the most often poached
species in the park are Galax, black cohosh, and ginseng.
• How does poaching affect the environment?
• Poaching or illegal hunting causes animals endangered of being extinct.
• If more animals becomes extinct there's a disruption in the food chain, and that will cause major
problems in our ecosystem, resulting eventually in new adaptations of animals, and or species beyond
human control.
• Poaching results in animals being hunted too soon for them to have time to reproduce and repopulate.
Threat: Introduction of exotic species
• "Invasive species"—they may not sound very threatening, but these invaders, large and small, have
devastating effects on wildlife.
• An invasive species is an organism that is not indigenous, or native, to a particular area. Invasive
species can cause great economic and environmental harm to the new area.
https://bengaluru.citizenmatters.in/india-biodiversity-portal-organizes-invasive-species-campaign-spais-7553
Threat: Man-Wildlife Conflict
 Any conflict that arises where the behavior of one (human or wildlife) is unacceptably
disadvantageous to other
 Increase in man wildlife conflict is due to resource limitation like :

1. Space
2. Food
3. Shelter
It is also due to Increasing population of human beings , Loss of forest, decrease in
quality of forest and development activities.
Crops like sugarcane and tea estates are reported to provide excellent cover for wild ani
mals
 In India, wild elephants probably kill far more people than tiger, leopard or lion
Damage to agricultural crops and property, killing of livestock and human beings are
some of the worst forms of man-animal conflict.
Farmers sometimes poison and shoot wild animals as they damage their crops,
but this can be prevented by taking certain measures.
Ways to reduce the conflicts
• Governments is working on improvement of habitat to augment food and water availability
and to reduce movement of animals from the forests to the habitations.
• Training forest staff and police to tackle these situations and creating awareness among the
people about the Do’s and Don’ts to minimize conflicts .
• construction of boundary walls and solar fences around the sensitive areas to prevent the wild
animal attacks.
• Some devices of Information Technology, viz., radio collars with Very High
Frequency, Global Positioning System and Satellite uplink facilities can be used to track the
movements of wild animals .
Lion and leopard conflict in India (Case Study)
• [Asian lion (Panthera leo persica) critically endangered; Leopard (Panthera pardus), endangered]
• In India, in the state of Gujarat, in the proximity of Gir National Park and Sanctuary, the Asian lion
(Panthera leo persica) and leopard (Panthera pardus) use the extensive plantations of sugarcane and
mango to find shelter and water and to hunt prey such as buffaloes, cows, pigs and dogs. Several lions are
reported to have strayed outside the park boundary and into plantations for more than a week, while
leopards have chosen it as permanent habitat and even breed in cultivated fields bordering the edge of
park (Vijayan & Pati, 2002)
• Once again, the overlapping of wild animals’ home ranges with human settlements has resulted in cattle
depredation and attacks on farmers and laborer's.
• The safety of rural people is threatened, livestock depredation is common and the overall ability to
address the conflict is weak.
Man-Wildlife conflict in India (Case Study)
 The worst case of human–elephant conflict
ever recorded was in the northern area of
Darrang (now in Udalguri district, Assam) in
October 1992 when 4,000 villagers belonging to
900 families fled their villages and took shelter
in relief camps set up by the government
(Choudhury, 1999a).
 From 1980 to 2003, as many as 1,010 people in
Assam and more than 1,150 people across NE
India have died from human–elephant
conflicts (A. Choudhury, 2004).
 According to data from the Ministry of
Environment, Forests and Climate Change,
conflict with wild animals (mostly elephants
and tigers), has killed more than 1,100 people
across India between 2014 and 2017.
Threat: Extinction of Species
Extinction is a natural process. In nature at steady rates some species have disappeared and new ones
have evolved to take their place over long geological history of Earth.
Extinction is distinguished in three processes…
1) Natural Extinction: The loss of species
which occurred in the geological past
naturally at a very slow rate is called
natural or background Extinction.
 Mass Extinction: There have
been several periods in the
earth’s geological history when
large number of species became
extinct because of catastrophes.
Mass extinction occurs in million
of years.
For example mass extinction of
Diannasour in Mesozoic era.
https://www.sciencealert.com/here-s-how-biodiversity-expertsrecognise-that-we-re-midst-a-mass-extinction
Anthropogenic Extinction: Due to reckless human activities, a large number of species are
disappearing from the earth within a short period of time. For Example: Dodo bird disappeared due
to hunting from Mauritius.
https://www.thoughtco.com/reasons-animals-go-extinct-3889931
Conservation of Biodiversity
 Restoration of Biodiversity
 Imparting Environmental Education
 Enacting, strengthening and enforcing Environmental Legislation
 Population Control
 Reviewing the agriculture practice
 Controlling Urbanization and Industrialization
 Conservation through Biotechnology
Conservation of Biodiversity
• Biodiversity conservation is about saving life on Earth in all its forms and keeping natural
ecosystems functioning and healthy '
• Conservation is of two kinds : In-situ conservation and Ex-situ conservation
• In-situ conservation, the conservation of species in their natural habitats.
• It is considered the most appropriate way of conserving biodiversity.
• 'Conserving the areas where populations of species exist naturally is an underlying
condition for the conservation of biodiversity.
• That's why Protected Areas (PAs) form a central element of any national strategy to
conserve biodiversity.
Ex-situ Conservation of Biodiversity
Ex-situ Conservation: is the preservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural
habitats.
This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated or species, and draws
on a diverse body of techniques and facilities. Some of these include:
• Gene banks,
• seed banks,
• sperm and ova banks,
• In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture collections;
• Captive breeding of animals and
• artificial propagation of plants, with possible reintroduction into the wild;
• and Collecting living organisms for zoos, aquaria, and botanic gardens for research and public
awareness.
These measures also have a valuable role to play in recovery programs for endangered species.
Conservation of Biodiversity
Biodiversity
Conservation
In-Situ
Conservation
National Park,
Wildlife Sanctury
Sacred Groves,
Sacred lakes
Ex-Situ
Conservation
Biosphere
Reserve
Seed Bank,
Gene Bank,
Cryopreservation
Botanical Garden,
Zoological
Garden, Aquarium
In-Situ Conservation
Ex-Situ Conservation
In-Situ Conservation Methods
Ex-Situ Conservation Methods
Conservation “in the original place”
Conservation “outside the original place”
Carried out on-site such as in the wild areas
Carried out off-site such as in a laboratory,
Botanical garden, zoo or aquarium
Methods are applicable for large population
Methods are applicable for small population
Required a large area
Required a small area
Less Expensive
More Expensive
Experimental conditions are difficult to maintain
Experimental conditions can be easily to maintain
Do not require much equipment and it is less
labour intensive
Require much equipment and it is labour
intensive
Protected Areas (PAs)
• A protected area is a geographically defined area that is designated or regulated and
managed to achieve specific conservation objectives.
• It may be set aside for the protection of biological diversity, and of natural and associated
cultural resources and is managed through legal or other effective means.
• This includes national parks and nature reserves, sustainable use reserves (biospheres),
wilderness areas and heritage sites.
• The Indian government has established 18 Biosphere Reserves, over 515 Wild Life
sanctuaries, 49 conservation reserves, 4 community reserves and 112 national parks.
Biosphere Reserves
• Biosphere reserves are areas comprising terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems.
• Each reserve promotes solutions reconciling the conservation of biodiversity with its
sustainable use.
• Biosphere reserves are nominated by national governments and remain under the sovereign
jurisdiction of the states where they are located.
• Their status is internationally recognized.
• There are 669 biosphere reserves in 120 countries, including 16 transboundary sites.
• They are distributed as follows: 70 in 28 countries in Africa, 30 in 11 countries in the Arab
States 142 in 24 countries in Asia and the Pacific 302 in 36 countries in Europe and North
America 125 in 21 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Zones in a Biosphere Reserve
• A biosphere reserve is divided into three zones: Core, buffer and manipulation (Transition).
a) Core Zone: In core or natural zone human activity is not allowed. This area is legally protected
and undisturbed ecosystem.
b) Buffer zone: The immediate surrounding area of core zone is buffer zone. Here limited human
activities live like research, education and research strategy is permitted.
•
Buffer zone has different parts like forestry, agriculture, tourism and restoration regions.
a) Manipulation (Transition) zone: Manipulation or transition zone is the outermost or peripheral
area of biosphere reserve. With the cooperation of reserve management and local people several
human activities like settlements, cropping, recreation, and forestry are carried out without
disturbing the environment.
Difference Between Biospheres Reserve, National Parks, Wild Life Sanctuaries
• Biosphere Reserves are the biggest entity among the three.
• The level of restriction in the increasing order is Biosphere Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries
and National Parks.
• The Indian government has established 18 Biosphere Reserves, over 515 Wild Life
sanctuaries and 112 national parks.
National Park, Wildlife Sanctury and Biosphere Reserve
Differences b/w Wildlife Sanctuary, Biosphere Reserves and National Parks
Wildlife Sanctuary
Biosphere Reserves
National Parks
It is a natural habitat, owned by the
A reserved area of land established by the
government or private agency, that
government to protect the environment as a
safeguards a particular species of birds whole
and animals
Notified areas that cover a larger area of
land which may cover multiple National
Parks, Sanctuaries, and reserves as well
Animals, birds, insects, reptiles, etc.
Meant to preserve the biodiversity of a
specified area
Flora, fauna, landscape, historical objects,
etc.
Restrictions are less and open to
visitations by the general public
A typical biosphere reserve is divided into the
following
Core (no human activity is there),
Buffer (limited human activity is permitted),
Manipulation zone (several human activities
can occur in this zone).
Highly restricted, random access to the
general public is not allowed
Permission Not required
Permission Subject to the particular area of
the biosphere reserve
Permission is required
International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) has defined it as a
Category IV type of protected areas
It is internationally recognized within the
framework of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere
(MAB) program and nominated by national
governments.
International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN), and its World Commission
on Protected Areas, has defined it as a
Category II type of protected areas
Sacred Groves
 “Segment of landscape , containing vegetation , life forms and geographical features, delimited and
protected by human societies under the belief that to keep them in a relatively undisturbed state is expression
of an important relationship of humans with the divine or with nature.” (Hughes and Chandra,1998).
 Sacred Groves are conserved on the basis of Religion, faith and belief of the community.
 “Sacred Groves are small patches of forests/natural vegetation dedicated by local communities to ancestral
spirit or deities and have traditional means of biodiversity.” (Singh et al., 2010, Basu,2000)
 Origin of Sacred Groves
 Believed that shifting cultivation could be one of the reasons for creation of sacred groves.
 Sacred groves might have also originated as result of its utilitarian nature.
 A social institution or as a part of the taboo that evolved historically over several generation to provide a site
for culturally crucial social interactions. (Gadgil et al.,1976, Hazra 1980).
Sacred Groves
 Environment of Sacred Groves
 “Sacred Groves represent an ancient Indian conservation tradition, protected by lot of Reverence and
Respect, Fear and Sentiments.”
 Sacred Grove are the Repositories of Rare and Endemic species.
 These provides inextricable link between present Society to the past in terms of Biodiversity, Culture,
Religious, and Ethnic Heritage. (Swain et al., 2008).
Sacred
Grooves
of India
People’s attitude
and social changes
Conversion of
religion
Lost of religious
beliefs
Religious beliefs
Fragmentation
Encroachment
SACRED GROVE
Repository of species
Unique centre for the
conservation of species
Developmental
activities
(Modernization
and
urbanization)
Habitat
degradation
Maintain
ecological
balance
Taboos
Increased
population
Socio-cultural
practices
Supply of
resources
(Economic
support)
Exploitation of
resource
Conservation
of
biodiversity
Figure: Diagrammatic representation of sacred grove: it’s benevolent to human and nature, and fortune due to human impacts.
(Source: Khumbongmayum, et al 2004)
77
Conservation of Biodiversity: International Legislation & Acts
• The issue of biodiversity conservation was first raised by Food and Agricultural Organization
(FAO) of UN in 1961.
• After that an United Nation Conference in 1972 on human Environment, where a resolution was
taken to preserve genetic resources of plants cultivated in tropical Countries.
• Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES), 1973, is a significant step in this direction.
• The convention recognized that wild fauna and flora in their many beautiful and varied forms are
irreplaceable parts of the natural systems of the earth, which must be protected by all means.
• The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 is another milestone.
Biodiversity Conventions: International Legislation & Acts
 The first convention on biodiversity organized at Rio De Janerio, capital of Brazil from
June 5
to 16, 1992 named as United Nation Conference On Environment and Development (UNCED),
better known as Rio Summit to maintain ecological balance and enrich biodiversity.
 The agreement on biodiversity signed by 150 countries including three programs -
 To ensure conservation of biodiversity
 Sustainable use of biodiversity
 Rational and equitable share of profit to accrue from use of genetic resources.
• The second convention organized at Johannesburg in 2002 called World Summit On Sustainable
Development (WSSD) where the Biodiversity and Sustainable Ecosystem Management was the issue.
Conservation of Biodiversity: National Legislation & Acts
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, is our national initiative to protect wildlife.
• The Act provides for establishment of a Wildlife Board and setting up of Wildlife Sanctuaries and
National Parks.
• The Act also makes hunting of wild animals a punishable offence.
• Forest Conservation Act (1980), Conservation of forest and its flora and fauna.
The Biological Diversity Bill, 2000 to protect and conserve the biodiversity and endangered species
in India.
Protection of Plant Verities and Farmer's Right Acts (2001)
Biological Diversity Act (2002)
Biological Diversity Rules (2004)
Conservation of Biodiversity: International Legislation & Acts
• Legislation For Protecting Endangered Species:- Considering the importance of flora and
fauna, major national and international efforts have been make to protect and conserve the
rich biodiversity and endangered species of wildlife and flora.
• The Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF):- Focused on In-Situ Coservation and
Joint Forest Management (JFM) Program me.
Project Tiger
 Project Tiger is a most successful wildlife conservation movement
initiated in India in the year April 1, 1973 to protect tigers.
 The project aims at tiger conservation in specially constituted tiger
reserves, which are representative of various bio-geographical regions
falling within India.
 It strives to maintain a viable tiger population in the natural environment.
Project Tiger is administered by the National Tiger Conservation
Authority.
 The overall administration of the project is monitored by a Steering
Committee. A Field Director is appointed for each reserve, who is assisted
by the field and technical personnel.
Project Tiger
• Surviving Subspecies of Tiger:  It is estimated that India had about 40,000 tigers in 1900,
1. Bengal Tiger (Indian tiger)
2. Indochinese Tiger
3. Siberian Tiger
4. South China Tiger
5. Sumatran Tiger.
• Extinct Subspecies of Tiger :
1. Bali Tiger
2. Caspian Tiger
and the number declined to a mere about 1800 in 1972.
 Hence, Project Tiger centrally sponsored scheme was
launched in 1973 with the following objectives:
 To ensure maintenance of available population of Tigers
in India for scientific, economic, aesthetic cultural and
ecological value.
 Initially 9 tiger reserves were covered under the project
and has currently increased to 47, falling in 18 states
3. Javan Tiger
(tiger reserve states).
Source: Map: Location of Tiger Reserves (Source : Ministry of Environment and Forest Website)
Project Elephant
 Elephant: India National Heritage Animal
 Project Elephant was launched in February 1992.
 The project is mainly implemented in13 states/UT.
 “Hathi Mere Sathi” is a campaign launched by the MoEF in partnership with
the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI).
 The campaign was launched at the “Elephant-8” ministerial meeting held in
Delhi on 24 May 2011.
 Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants ( MIKE ) Program me: Project
Elephant has been formally implementing MIKE (Monitoring of Illegal
Killing of Elephants) program me of CITES in Elephant Reserves since
01.04.2004.
 Mike Sites in India:
• Chirang Ripu (Assam )
• Dhang Patki ( Assam )
• Eastern Dooars ( WB )
• Deomali ( Arun Pradesh )
• Garo Hills ( Meghalaya )
• Mayurbhanj ( Orissa )
• Mysore ( Karnataka )
• Nilgiri ( T N )
• Shivalik ( Uttarakhand )
• Wayanad ( Kerala)
Project Elephant
• Project Elephant was launched in 1992 by the Government of India, Ministry of Environment
and Forests to provide financial and technical support of wildlife management efforts by states
for their free ranging populations of wild Asian Elephants.
• The project aims to ensure long-term survival of viable conservation reliant populations of
elephants in their natural habitats by protecting the elephants, their habitats and migration
corridors.
• Other goals of Project Elephant are supporting research of the ecology and management of
elephants, creating conservation awareness among local people, providing improved veterinary
care for captive elephants.
Elephant Reserve in India
Source: https://www.jatinverma.org/first-elephant-colony-in-madhya-pradesh
Source: https://india-seminar.com/2013/651/651_the_problem.htm
Crocodile Conservation Project
• A Crocodile breeding and conservation program was initiated in 1975 with following objectives:
a) To protect the remaining population of crocodilians in their natural habitat by creating sanctuaries.
b) To promote captive breeding
c) To build up a level of trained personnel for better continuity of the project through trainings
imparted at the project-sites
d) To involve the local people intimately and Extend the conservation program to village-level.
• In India successful Ex-situ conservation programmes have been carried out for all our 3 species of
crocodile
1.
Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus),
2.
Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) and
3.
Saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus),
• The Most Successful Ex. Is Madras Crocodile Trust Bank (MCTB)
which has grown from 10 to 8035 crocodile.
One Horn Rhino Conservation
• The Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicorns), also called the greater one- horned rhinoceros and
Indian one-horned rhinoceros.
• Listed as a vulnerable species, the large mammal is primarily found in north-eastern India's Assam
and in protected areas in the Terai of Nepal.
• The rhino's single horn is present in both males and females, but not on newborn young.
• India Rhino Vision – 2020 Implemented by Department of Environment and Forest, Asam with a
partnership of Bodoland Territorial Council, WWF, International Rhino Foundation (IRF), and the
US Fish and Wildlife Service.
• The program aims to: Increase the total rhino population in Assam to about 3000 by the year 2020.
IRV 2020 is an ambitious rhino range and population expansion program.
Vulture Conservation
• India has nine species of vultures in the wild.
• The population of three species i.e. White-backed Vulture, Slender billed Vulture and Long
billed Vulture in the wild has declined drastically over the past decade.
• The decline of Gyps genus in India has been put at 97% by 2005.
• REASON: The cause of their demise is a drug called diclofenac, an anti-inflammatory used by
farmers and veterinarians to ease pain in cattle.
• The drug was banned five years ago, but pharmacies continue to sell it under the counter.
Vulture Conservation
• Vulture Breeding and Conservation Centre had already been established at Pinjore, Haryana in 2001 and
another one has been established in 2005 at Buxa, West Bengal.
• The Central Zoo Authority of India has also committed an amount of Rs1 crore for supporting 4 such
centres in the zoos at Junagadh, Bhopal, Hyderabad and Bhubhaneshwar in 2006-07.
• The Vulture Conservation Breeding Centre (VCBC) is a joint project of the Haryana Forest Department
and the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). It is a collaborative initiative to save the three species
of vultures, the White-backed, Long-billed and Slender-billed, from looming extinction
• Role Of IUCN:
• IUCN is working with the Governments of South Asia and a consortium of organizations known as
‘SAVE’ (Saving Asia’s Vultures from Extinction), which is also supported by SOS – Save Our Species,
to establish 100 kilometer radius ‘Vulture Safe Zones’ clear of diclofenac and other potentially
dangerous veterinary painkillers.
Ecotourism
• Definition: "Responsible travel to natural areas which conserves
the environment and improves the welfare of the local people“
(The Ecotourism Society).
• "Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the
environment, sustains the well being of the local people and
involves interpretation and education“ (The International
Ecotourism Society).
• Ecotourism is a form of tourism that attempts to minimize its
• Common ecotourism
activities:
 Wildlife viewing
 Birdwatching
 Mountain climbing
 Hiking
 Nature photography,
 Agriculture
 Scuba diving
impact upon the environment, is ecologically sound, and avoids
 Snorkeling, and
the negative impacts of many large-scale tourism developments
 Safaris
Principal of Ecotourism
 The
principles of Sustainable Ecotourism are that:
 All
resources should be respected and every effort must be made to use them sparingly
 Education
and training of all parties concerned - local communities, the Eco-tourists, government
and industry - is key to success
 Participation
 Value
by the Eco-tourist should be encouraged at all levels and in all sectors
adding by all parties and at all levels is essential for success
 Partnerships
between all parties involved in the venture should be promoted
 Ethical
and moral attitudes, and responsibility towards the natural and cultural environment,
should be promoted by all concerned with the operation
 The
long term benefits of the resource, to the local community, and to the operation must be
enshrined.
Ecotourism
 The
main advantages of Ecotourism are:
 Source
 Better
of foreign exchange
form of land use than most agricultural pursuits.
 Economic
 ‘Industry
 Peace
development
without chimneys’
industry
 Promote
business partnerships
Benefits:
Local economic growth, Cultural awareness, Environmental conservation & resource
protection, Environmental education, Takes the place of environmentally harmful tourism like
Water Parks and Excessive development.
Ecosystems
By: Dr. Sapna Chourasiya
Ecosystem
• Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of ecology.
• The term ecosystem is coined form a Greek word meaning study of home.
• Definition: A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is
known as ecosystem.
• Thus an ecosystem is a community of different species interacting with one another and
with their non living environment and exchanging energy and matter.
• Example: Animals cannot synthesis their food directly but depend on the plants either
directly or indirectly.
Ecosystem
• An ecosystem is a community of plants, animals and smaller organisms that live, feed,
reproduce and interact in the same area or environment.
• An ecosystem is a community of living and nonliving things considered as a unit.
• Ecosystem is a complex set of relationships among the living resources, habitats and
residents of an area. It includes plants, trees, animals, fishes, birds, micro-organisms, air,
water, soil and people.
• An ecosystem is a self regulating group of biotic communities of species interacting
with one another and with their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter.
• Ecosystems are dynamic interactions between plants, animals, and microorganisms and
their environment working together as a functional unit. Ecosystems will fail if they do
not remain in balance.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
• Natural ecosystem:- Natural ecosystems operate themselves under natural conditions.
• Example: Grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, Rivers ecosystem.
• Based on habitat types, it can be further classified into three types.
• Man – made (or) Artificial ecosystems Artificial ecosystem is operated (or)
maintained by man himself.
• Example: Croplands, gardens.
Natural Ecosystem
1) Terrestrial ecosystem:- This ecosystem is related to land.
Example: Grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc.,
1) Aquatic ecosystem:- This ecosystem is related to water.
It is further sub classified into two types based on salt content.
➢ Fresh water ecosystem
(a.) Running water (Lotic) Ecosystems. Examples: Rivers, Streams
(b.) Standing water (Lentic) Ecosystems Examples: Pond, lake
➢ Marine ecosystem
Example : Seas and sea shores
3) Hybrid ecosystem: Example: Wetland, Marshy areas
Structure (Or) Components of an Ecosystem
• The term structure refers to the various components.
• So the structure of an ecosystem explains the relationship between the abiotic (non –
living) and the biotic (living) components.
• An ecosystem has two major components
❑Biotic (living) components
❑Abiotic (non living) components
Herbivores
Producers
Carnivores
Living/Biotic
Components
Consumers
Omnivores
Decomposers
Ecosystem
Detritivores
Physical Components
Non-Living/Abiotic
Components
Chemical
Components
Biotic components
• The living organisms (or) living members in an ecosystem collectively form its
community called biotic components (or) biotic community.
• Examples:
➢Plants (producers),
➢animals (consumers),
➢microorganisms (decomposers).
• Members of components of an ecosystem (or) Classification biotic components
• The members of biotic components of an ecosystem are grouped in to three based on how
they get food.
➢Producer (plants)
➢Consumer (Animals)
➢Decomposers (Micro-organisms)
Producers (Autotrophs)
• Procedures synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis.
• Example : All green plants, trees, algae.
• Photosynthesis The green pigments called chlorophyll, present in the leaves of plants,
converts CO2 and H2O in the presence of sunlight into carbohydrates.
• 6CO2 + 12H2O ----> C6H12O6 + 6O2+6H2O This process is called photosynthesis
Consumers (heterotrophs)
• Examples Plant eating species Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.,
• Classification of consumers
• Consumers are further classified as
• (i) Primary consumers (Herbivores) (Plant eaters): Primary consumers are also
called herbivores, they directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called
plant eaters. Examples : Insects, rat, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.,
Consumers (heterotrophs)
• (ii) Secondary consumers (primary carnivores) (meat eater) Secondary consumers are
primary carnivores, they feed on primary consumers. They directly depend on the
herbivores for their food. Example Frog, cat, snakes, foxes, etc.,
• (iii) Tertiary consumers (Secondary carnivores) (Meat-eaters) Tertiary consumers are
secondary carnivores, they feed on secondary consumers. They depend on the primary
carnivores for their food. Examples Tigers, lions, etc.,
Decomposers
• Decomposers
• Examples Microorganisms like bacteria and fungi.
• Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and decompose them into
simpler compounds.
• During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released. The inorganic nutrients together
with other organic substances are then utilized by the procedures for the synthesis of their
own food.
Abiotic (non-living) components
• The non-living components (physical and chemical) of ecosystem collectively form a
community called abiotic components (or) abiotic community. Examples Climate, soil,
water l air, energy, nutrients, etc.,
• 1. Physical components They include the energy, climate, raw materials and living space
that the biological community needs. They are useful for the growth and maintenance of
its member. Examples Air, water, soil, sunlight, etc.
• 2. Chemical Components They are the sources of essential nutrients Examples:
• Organic substances : Protein, lipids, carbohydrates, etc.,
• Inorganic substances: All micro (Al, Co, Zn, Cu) and macro elements (C,H, O, P, N, P, K)
and few other elements.
Function of an Ecosystem
• The function of an ecosystem is to allow flow of energy and cycling of nutrients.
• Types of Functions
• Functions of an ecosystem are of three types.
• 1. Primary function The primary function of all ecosystem is manufacture of starch
(photosynthesis).
• 2. Secondary function The secondary function of all ecosystem is distribution energy in
the form of food to all consumers.
• 3. Tertiary Function All living systems diet at a particular stage. These dead systems are
decomposed to initiate third function of ecosystems namely “cycling”.
Function of an Ecosystem
• The functioning of an ecosystems may be understood studying the following terms.
❖ Energy and Nutrients flow.
❖ Food chains
❖ Food webs
❖ Ecological pyramids
Energy Flow in The Ecosystems
• Energy is the most essential requirement for all living organism.
• Solar energy is the only source to our planet earth. Solar energy is transformed to chemical
energy in photosynthesis by the plants (called as primary producers). Though a lot of sunlight falls
on the green plants, only 1% of it is utilized for photosynthesis.
• This is the most essential step to provide energy for all other living organisms in the ecosystem.
• Some amount of chemical energy is used by the plants for their growth and the remaining is
transferred to consumers by the process of eating. Thus the energy enters the ecosystems through
photosynthesis and passes through the different tropic levels/ feeding levels.
Energy flow and Thermodynamics
• The flow of energy through an ecosystem follows the two laws of thermodynamics.
❑ I law of thermodynamics: It states chat “energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but
it can be considered from one from to another”.
• Illustration: Energy for an ecosystems comes from the sun. It is absorbed by plants, herein
it is converted into stored chemical energy i.e., solar energy in converted into chemical
energy.
❑ II law of thermodynamics: It states that, “Whenever energy is transformed, there is a loss
of energy through the release of heat”.
• Illustration: This occurs when energy is transferred between tropic levels. There will be a
loss of energy (about 80-90%) in the form of heat as it moves from one tropic level to
another tropic level. The loss of energy takes place through respiration, running, hunting
etc.,
Nutrient Flow/ Nutrient Cycling/ Biogeochemical Cycle
• In The Ecosystem, The elements, which are essential for the survival of both plants and
animals are called nutrients.
• Macronutrients: The elements needed in large amounts are called macronutrients
Examples Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus.
• Micronutrients: The elements, needed in small amounts are called micronutrients.
Example Boron, cobalt, strontium, zinc, copper.
Nutrient Cycles
• Nutrient Cycles: The cyclic flow of nutrients between the biotic and abiotic components is known
as nutrient cycle (or) biogeochemical cycles.
• The nutrients enter into procedures and move through the food chain and ultimately reach the
consumer. The bound nutrients of the consumers, after death, are decomposed and converted into
inorganic substances, which are readily used up by the plants (procedures) and again the cycle starts.
• The major nutrients like C, H, O and N are cycled again and again between biotic and biotic
component of the ecosystem.
❖ Water Cycle
❖ Carbon Cycle
❖ Oxygen Cycle
❖ Nitrogen Cycle
❖ Sulfur Cycle
❖ Phosphorus Cycle
Food Chain
• A food chain is the sequence of who eats whom in a biological community (an
ecosystem) to obtain nutrition.
• A food chain shows how each living thing gets food, and how nutrients and energy are
passed from creature to creature.
• A simple food chain can be seen below:
Food Chain
➢ Trophic Level: Steps of Food Chain.
➢ Food chains make a full circle, and energy is passed from plant to animal to animal to
decomposer and back to plant.
➢ There can be many links in food chains but not TOO many.
➢ If there are too many links, then the animal at the end would not get enough energy.
➢ The further along the food chain you go, the less food (and hence energy) remains
available.
➢ Most food chains have no more than four or five links (Trophic Level).
➢ In a food chain each organism obtains energy from the one at the level below. A change in
the size of one population in a food chain will affect other populations.
Food Chain
Types of Food Chains
Food Chains
Grazing Food Chains
Predatory Food
Chains
Parasitic Food
Chains
Detritus/Saprophytic Food
Chains
Grazing food chains
• Grazing food chains: Start with green plants and culminate with carnivores.
(a)Predatory food chain – begins with plants and proceeds from small to large
animals. E.g.- crops - field mice – owls
(b) Parasitic food chain – Begins with plants and proceeds from large to small
animals. E.g.- producers - herbivores– parasites
Detritus/ saprophytic food chains
• They start with dead organic matter. Death of organism is the beginning of the detritus
food chain.
• E.g. leaf litter in a forest – fungi – bacteria
• Since the source of energy is not the sun but detritus, this linear feeding relationship is
called a detritus food chain.
Food Web
• In nature, food chain relationships are not
isolated; rather they are complex, because one
organism may form the food source of many
organisms.
• Thus, instead of a simple linear food chain,
there is a web like structure formed by these
interlinked food chains.
• Such interconnected matrix of food chains is
called 'food web'.
• Food webs are indispensable in ecosystems as
they allow an organism to obtain its food from
more than one type of organism of the lower
trophic level.
Food Web
• Food chains are generally found to be
interlinked and inter-woven as a
network and are known as food Web.
• A food web is many food chains linked
together to show a more accurate
model of all possible feeding
relationships of organisms in an
ecosystem.
Ecological pyramids
• An ecological pyramid is an illustration of the reduction in energy as you move through
each feeding level in an ecosystem.
• Each feeding level of the ecosystem is called trophic level.
• Producers form the base of the pyramid.
• Consumers form the upper layers.
• An ecological pyramid is a diagram that shows the amounts of energy or matter contained
within each trophic level in a food web or food chain.
Pyramid of Number
Ecological Pyramid
Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Energy
Pyramids of Biomass
• The total amount of matter present in organisms of an ecosystem at each trophic level is
biomass.
• In other words, the total amount of living or organic matter in an ecosystem at any time is
called 'Biomass'.
• The biomass at each stage goes down as you go from one stage to the next, just like the
amount of energy.
• Pyramid of biomass is the graphic representation of biomass present per unit area of
different trophic levels, with producers at the base and top carnivores at the top.
• Pyramid of biomass records the total dry organic matter of organisms at each trophic level
in a given area of an ecosystem.
Pyramids of Biomass
• This demonstrates the amount of matter lost between trophic levels.
• There are two types of biomass pyramids: upright and inverted.
• An upright pyramid is one where the combined weight of producers is larger than the
combined weight of consumers. An example is a forest ecosystem.
• An inverted pyramid is one where the combined weight of producers is smaller than the
combined weight of consumers. An example is an aquatic ecosystem.
Pyramids of Biomass
• In a terrestrial ecosystem, the maximum
biomass occurs in producers, and there is
progressive decrease in biomass from lower to
higher trophic levels. Thus, the pyramid of
biomass in a terrestrial ecosystem is upright.
• In an aquatic habitat the pyramid of biomass is
inverted or spindle shaped where the biomass of
trophic level depends upon the reproductive
potential and longevity of the member.
Pyramids of Numbers
• A pyramid of numbers is a graphical representation
of the numbers of individuals in each population in
a food chain.
• The pyramid of numbers represents the number of
organisms in each trophic level.
• Pyramid of numbers can be used to examine how
the population of a certain species affects another.
• Often, the autotrophic level in a pyramid of
numbers is much larger than any of the higher
trophic levels, and the numbers decreases upon
ascending the pyramid.
• There are exceptions, however. For example, in a
tree community, a single tree could support many
different populations of larger numbers.
Pyramid of energy
• pyramid of energy represents the total
amount of energy consumed by each
trophic level.
• An energy pyramid is always upright as
the total amount of energy available for
utilization in the layers above is less than
the energy available in the lower levels.
• This happens because during energy
transfer from lower to higher levels,
some energy is always lost.
• 10% Law of Energy:
• Lindeman gave ten per cent
of energy transfer law in food
chains.
• The 10 per cent energy is
transferred from one trophic
level to the next successive
trophic level according to this
rule.
Nutrient/ Biogeochemical Cycle
❖Water Cycle –
H2O-
Water Reservoir
❖ Nitrogen Cycle –
N2-
Air
❖Carbon Cycle –
CO2-
Living Organisms
❖ Oxygen Cycle -
O2-
Living Organisms
❖Sulfur Cycle –
Sulphate-
Mining, volcanoes
❖ Phosphorus Cycle -
Phosphate-
Rocks
Chemical
Bio
Geo
Hydrological/ Water Cycle
• Movement of the water in a cyclic
manner is known as hydrological
cycle.
Source: Creator: VectorStock.com/18516227
Carbon Cycle
• Carbon is the basic component in all the
organic components.
• The carbon is present in all biotic components
in different forms as food. Examples:
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and amino
acids.
• Carbon is present in the atmosphere as CO2.
• The CO2 taken up by the green plants as a
raw material for photosynthesis of different
food.
• This food moves through food chain, finally
the carbon present in the dead matter is
returned to the atmosphere as CO2 by
microorganisms.
Carbon Cycle
• Sources of CO2 in
atmosphere.
• During respiration,
plants and animals
liberates CO2 in the
atmosphere.
• Combustion of fuels
also release CO2.
• Volcanic eruptions
also release CO2
Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as
N2 in large amounts (78%).
• The nitrogen is present in all biotic
components in different forms as food.
Examples Proteins, vitamins, amino
acids, etc.,
• The N2 from the atmosphere is taken up
by the green plants as a raw material for
biosynthesis of different foods (amino
acids, proteins, vitamins) and used in
metabolism.
• These food move through the food
chain.
Nitrogen Cycle
• After death of the plants and animals, the organic nitrogen in dead tissues in decomposed
by several micro organisms (ammonifying and nitrifying bacteria) into ammonia, nitrites
and nitrates, which are again used by the plants.
• Some bacteria convert nitrates into molecular nitrogen (N2) which is again released back
into atmosphere and the cycle goes on.
• Nitrification: The conversion of ammonia into nitrates is termed as nitrification. This is
brought about by nitrifying bacteria.
• Examples Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas.
• Denitrification: The conversion of nitrates into nitrogen (N2) is termed denitrification.
This process is brought about by certifying bacteria.
• Examples Pseudomonas, florescence.
Sulphur Cycle
• The sulfur cycle is the collection of processes by which Sulphur moves between rocks,
waterways and living systems.
• There are several natural sources such as volcanic eruptions, evaporation of water, and
breakdown of organic matter in swamps, that release Sulphur directly into the atmosphere. This
Sulphur falls on earth with rainfall.
• Steps of Sulphur Cycle:
• The process of Sulphur cycle is explained below:
• The Sulphur is released by the weathering of rocks.
• Sulphur comes in contact with air and is converted into sulphates.
• Sulphates are taken up by plants and microbes and are converted into organic forms.
• The organic form of Sulphur is then consumed by the animals through their food and thus
Sulphur moves in the food chain.
• When the animals die, some of the Sulphur is released by decomposition while some enter the
tissues of microbes.
Source: Copyright: (c) Kawin302 | Dreamstime.com
Phosphorus cycle
• Phosphorus is mainly present in the rocks and
fossils.
• The phosphorus is present in all biotic
components in different forms. Examples
Bones, teeth's, guano deposits.
• Phosphate rocks is excavated by man for using
it as a fertilizers.
• Farmers use excess of fertilizers for the crops.
The excess phosphate fertilizers move with the
surface run-off reaches the oceans and are lost
into the deep sediments. Sea birds eat sea –
fishes, which are phosphorus rich, and the
excreta of the birds return the phosphorus to
the land.
• Thus the sea birds, are playing an important
role in phosphorus cycling animals and plants
use these dissolved phosphates during the
biosynthesis.
Ecological succession
• “Ecological succession is a series of changes that occur in an ecological community
over time.”
• Ecological succession is important for the growth and development of an ecosystem.
• It initiates colonization of new areas and recolonization of the areas that had been destroyed
due to certain biotic and climatic factors. Thus, the organisms can adapt to the changes and
learn to survive in a changing environment.
• Types of Succession:
➢ Primary Succession
➢ Secondary Succession
Primary Succession
• Primary succession is the succession that starts in lifeless areas, such as the regions devoid of soil
or the areas where the soil is unable to sustain life.
• When the planet was first formed there was no soil on earth. The earth was only made up of rocks.
These rocks were broken down by microorganisms and eroded to form soil.
• The soil then becomes the foundation of plant life. These plants help in the survival of different
animals and progress from primary succession to the climax community.
• Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem gets destroyed.
• For e.g., a climax community gets destroyed by fire. It gets recolonized after the destruction. This is
known as secondary ecological succession.
• Small plants emerge first, followed by larger plants. The tall trees block the sunlight and change the
structure of the organisms below the canopy. Finally, the climax community arrives.
Source: Image credit: modified from Forest succession by Lucas Martin Frey, CC BY 3.0
Examples of Ecological Succession
• Following are the important examples of ecological succession:
• Acadia National Park
• This national park suffered a huge wildfire. Restoration of the forest was left on to nature.
In the initial years, only small plants grew on the burnt soil. After several years, the forest
showed diversity in tree species. However, the trees before the fire were mostly evergreen,
while the trees that grew after the fire were deciduous in nature.
• Ecological Succession of Coral Reefs
• Small coral polyps colonize the rocks. These polyps grow and divide to form coral
colonies. The shape of the coral reefs attracts small fish and crustaceans that are food for
the larger fish. Thus, a fully functional coral reef exists.
Seral Community
❖“A seral community is an intermediate stage of ecological succession advancing towards the
climax community.”
❖A seral community is replaced by the subsequent community. It consists of simple food webs and
food chains. It exhibits a very low degree of diversity. The individuals are less in number and the
nutrients are also less.
❖There are seven different types of seres:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Types of Seres
Hydrosere
Xerosere
Lithosere
Psammosere
Halosere
Senile
Eosere
Explanation
Succession in aquatic habitat.
Succession in dry habitat.
Succession on a bare rock surface.
Succession initiating on sandy areas.
Succession starting in saline soil or water.
Succession of microorganism on dead matter.
Development of vegetation in an era.
Wetlands Ecosystem
• Wetlands are defined as "lands in low-lying plains, Dominated by hydric soils; inundated
or saturated by surface water or ground water and promoting only hydrophytic vegetation”.
• These zones are found between dry land and waterlogged zones along the edges of
streams, rivers, lakes, and coastlines.
• Wetlands are characterized by the following factors:
➢ Topographically low land
➢ Permanent inundation
➢ Hydric soils
➢ Reducing environment (absence of free oxygen within the soil profile)
SOURCE:https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url =https% 3A% 2F% 2Fserc.carleton.edu% 2Fintegrate% 2Fteaching_ materials% 2Fecosystem_ water% 2Funit1.1.h tml&psig=AOvVaw04TYzLMEwgxkXckVx
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Wetlands: Definition
• Under the Ramsar International wetland conservation treaty, wetlands are defined as
follows:
• Article 1.1: "...wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or
artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or
salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six
meters."
• Article 2.1: "[Wetlands] may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the
wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six meters at low tide lying
within the wetlands.“
Types of Wetlands
• All Wetlands are not alike.
• They vary depending upon the location in a watershed and also with reference to their
abiotic factors.
• Differences in the characteristics like hydrology, water chemistry, biological functions,
vegetation, site-specific factors, the climate and geology of the region, landscape
position, and soils.
• In general, Two major categories of wetlands are recognized as:
a) Inland wetlands.
b) Coastal wetlands.
Types of Wetlands
Inland wetlands are non-tidal environments and coastal wetlands may have a tidal
influence.
❖ The Inland wetlands include:
❖ The Coastal wetlands include:
• Inland freshwater marshes
• Tidal salt marshes
• Peatlands
• Tidal freshwater marshes
• Mangrove wetlands
• Deepwater swamps
• Riparian wetlands
➢ Inland wetlands are most common on floodplains along rivers and streams, and also in
isolated depressions surrounded by dry land.
Functions of Wetlands
• Wetlands can function as…
❖ nutrient sinks,
❖temporary water storage areas,
❖groundwater recharge areas, and
❖critical wildlife habitat.
• Natural and anthropogenic
(human-induced) activities
within a watershed influence the
functions of natural wetlands.
Services of Wetland Ecosystem
• These services include many different kinds of supporting, biological, provisioning,
regulatory, and cultural services.
• Wetlands also help reduce erosion by trapping soil that is washed off of farm fields and
other open areas.
• Many local economies rely on wetland areas used for wildlife and waterfowl preservation,
and hunting.
• In addition, some wetlands help replenish water supplies for local drinking water sources.
• Biological Functions: Wetlands are often called as “nurseries of life.” They provide the
habitat for thousands of species of aquatic and terrestrial plants and animals.
• Good amount of nutrients, and primary productivity are ideal for the development of
organisms that form the base of the food web and feed many species of animals.
STORM/FLOOD PROTECTION
Source: (McIvor et al, 2012)
Non-material benefit of Wetlands
Benefits that contributes to the development and cultural advancement of people
• Aesthetic
• Spiritual
• Recreational
• Educational
• Ecotourism
• Inspiration for music & art
Wetland Loss in India
Threats of Wetlands
Major Causes of Wetland Loss and Degradation are:
• Natural Threats are:
• Human Actions
❑ Drainage
❑ Dredging and stream channelization
❑ Deposition of fill material
❑ Diking and damming
❑ Tilling for crop production
❑Logging
❑ Mining
❑Construction
❑ Runoff
❑Air and water pollutants
❑ Changing nutrient levels
❑ Releasing toxic chemicals
❑ Introducing non-native species
❑ Grazing by domestic animals
❑ Erosion
❑ Land Subsidence
❑ Sea level rise
❑ Droughts
❑ Hurricanes and other storms
Wetland Conservations
• Protecting wetlands in turn can protect our safety and welfare.
• MoEFCC: Providing financial support for conservation of wetlands.
• NWCP: National Wetland Conservation Program.
• NPCAE: National Programme of Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystem.
• Ramsar Convention: It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands. It is named after
the city of Ramsar in Iran, where the convention was signed in 1971.
• Listed Wetlands in India: Chilka Lake (Orrisa), Kewladev National Park (Bharatpur,
Rajsthan), Ashtamudi Wetland (Kerala), Loktak Lake (Manipur)
Desert Ecosystem
• A desert is defined as a region which receives an annual precipitation of less than 250mm
[10 inches] on an average.
• Other than low precipitation, deserts are also characterized by scarce vegetation and extreme
temperatures oscillating between 115F or more during daytime and 32F or less at night.
• Deserts have dry climate due to rain-blocking mountain ranges and remoteness from oceanic
moisture.
• The desert is characterized by extreme, specialized and very sensitive ecosystem.
Characteristics of Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are characterized by the following ecological factors:
➢ Sandy soils and a rocky substratum.
➢ Scanty rainfall and high evaporation.
➢ Hot and Cold weather.
➢ Prevailing Wind action.
➢ Poor Soil Moisture and water resources.
➢ Deserts are dry and hot.
➢ There are very few clouds.
Adaptations: The key to survival in desert organisms
➢ Adaptations in plants
➢ Desert plants have highly modified features that helps them to thrive at extreme climatic condition.
➢ They have short growing seasons and long dormancies.
➢ The well known desert plant, cactus is a succulent, meaning it has thickened, fleshy parts to store
water.
➢ Stem is the only part that stores water and water is stored as a thick viscous liquid.
➢ Cacti have lost true leaves during their adaptation, retaining only spines.
➢ Highly modified leaves - In the absence of true leaves, the stem performs photosynthesis with the
help of stomata.
➢ Transpiration, the process in which CO2 enters and water escapes does not take place during day
at the same time as photosynthesis but instead occurs at night because during the cooler, more humid
night hours water loss is significantly reduced.
➢ Another significant modification of cacti is its extensive root system. The roots may grow up to 100
ft. under the soil to access water and quickly react to rainfall by immediately absorbing water that
reaches the ground surface.
Adaptations: The key to survival in desert organisms
• Adaptations in animals
• To avoid heat : The animals avoid being out in the sun during daytime and live in burrows
to escape intense heat.
• To dissipate heat: Animals have developed long body parts that provide greater surface area
to dissipate heat.
• Light colors are poor absorbers of heat. Most desert animals are pale in color which prevents
their bodies from absorbing more heat from the sun.
• To absorb water: Desert animals have extra tubules in their kidneys that help them extract
most of the water from their urine and return it to the bloodstream and usually the wastes are
secreted in the form of insoluble uric acid.
• They also filter the moisture out of their exhaled breath through specialized organs in their
nasal cavities.
• To preserve water: Water is stored in fatty tissue whose oxidation releases energy as well as
water.
Desert Ecosystem: Flora & Fauna
Types and Example of Desert
❖ Two kinds of deserts:
➢ Hot deserts • Temperatures are very warm all year round • The summers are very hot •
➢ Cold deserts • Short, warm summers • Long, cold winters • Found in places near the north and
south poles.
❖ Some of the Example of major deserts are:
➢ Sahara (Africa)
➢ Great Basin (North America)
➢ Atacama (South America)
➢ Mojave (North America)
➢ Great Victoria (Australia)
❖ Indian Desert:
➢ Thar Desert - Rajasthan
➢ Cold Desert – Ladakh
Environmental Threats to Desert Ecosystem
➢ Global warming and human development are threatening desert survival.
➢ Droughts directly affect the growth of vegetation.
➢ Global warming is raising Earths temperature, increasing the chances of severe drought
➢ Wild Fires will burn away the slow-growing fauna. Thereby drastically changing the landscape.
➢ The long-term ramifications are the problem:
➢ Deserts experience very little rainfall. Trees and plants will not be able to live on the remaining
water.
➢ The salt levels in the soil make the soil unable to support life.
➢ The simple act of gathering firewood is destroying this fragile ecosystem. For example, in the
Sahel countries of Africa, firewood is being used up 30 percent faster than it is being replaced.
Desert Ecosystem Threatened by Human Activities
➢ The area is used for farming/ Agricultural practices.
➢ Animals are killed
➢ Tourists destroy dunes
➢ large herds of animals are grazed in the area which destroys pastures
➢ Resources/oil is mined/drilled in the area and wildlife is killed as habitat is destroyed
➢ The over extraction of groundwater from tube wells lower the water table creating even drier
environment.
Grassland Ecosystem
• A grassland ecosystem is the collection of plants, animals and micro-organisms that live within an
environment where grasses are the primary form of vegetation.
• Examples of grassland ecosystems include the prairies of western North America, the Pampas of
Argentina and the Russian steppes.
• Uses: Grass is also used to thatch houses & farm-sheds.
• The thorny bushes and branches of the few trees seen in grasslands are used as main source of
fuelwood.
• Types of Grassland Eco-system:
• Grasslands may be divided into several types, including savannas, temperate grasslands, tallgrass
prairies, steppes, alpine tundra and flooded grasslands, among others The type of grassland that
occurs in a particular region is based on the latitude, terrain, local climate, precipitation and
wildfire regime It occurs in Regions that are too dry for forest but have sufficient soil water to
support a closed Herbaceous plant canopy that is lacking in Desert.
Types of Grassland Eco-system in India
❖ Shola Grasslands
• The Shola Grasslands consist of patches on hill- slopes that occur alongside the Shola Forests on the Western
Ghats, the Nilgiri and Anamalai ranges.
• These form patchworks of grassland on the slopes and forest habitats along the streams and low-lying areas.
❖ Himalayan Pastures
• The Himalayan Pasture belt extends up to the snowline; the grasslands at a lower level form patches along
with coniferous or broad level forests.
• These Himalayan pastures have large number of variety of grasses and herbs, colorful flowering plants as well
as large number of medicinal plants.
❖ Terai Grasslands
• The world's tallest grasslands are found in this ecoregion, which are the most threatened and rare worldwide •
• The Terai consist of Patches of tall grassland (elephant grass) interspersed with Sal forest ecosystem.
❖ The semi-arid plains of Western India, Central India and Deccan – Grassland covered by patches of thorn
forest.
Threats To Grassland Eco-system
➢ Continued global warming could turn current marginal grasslands into deserts as rainfall patterns
change.
➢ Conversion of grassland into agricultural land.
➢ Development of urban areas is increasingly cutting into grassland habitat.
➢ Drought-hardy, cold-resistant, and herbicide-tolerant varieties of soybeans, wheat, and corn allow
crops to expand into native grassland.
➢ Monoculture causes easily spread of pests and disease, creating the need for potentially toxic
pesticides affecting growth of grassland ecosystem.
Conservation of Grassland Eco-system
➢ Continue education and awareness efforts on how to protect the soil and prevent soil
erosion.
➢ Protect and restore wetlands, which are an important part of grassland ecology.
➢ Rotate agricultural crops to prevent the sapping of nutrients.
➢ Conduct dry season burning to obtain fresh growth and to restore calcium to the soil that
builds up in the dry grasses.
➢ Rotational grazing
➢ Inclusion of Grassland Ecosystem into National Park & Wildlife Sanctuary.
Types of Forest Ecosystem in India
Forests
Coniferous Forest
Grow in Himalayan
Mountain Range
Broad Leaf Forest
Evergreen Forest
Deciduous forest
High Rainfall Areas
Moderate rainfall
areas
Thorny forest
Semi arid region
Mangrove
Grow along the
coast
Needle like leaves
Know as Gymnosperms
Western Ghats,
Northeast India,
Andaman Nicobar
Island
Shed their leaves
all over the year
Light cant easily
enter in forest
Shed their leaves
2 times in a year
Light can easily
enter in forest
Xerophytic
Species
Grow in Brackish
water
Breathing roots
Ecosystem services
Source: https://ecology.fnal.gov/ecosystem-services/
Ecosystem Values
❖ Direct Values – Values quantify in economic terms
➢ Consumptive use values - Fruit, fodder firewood , personal use, not for sale
➢ Productive use values – Commercial values of timber, fish, medicinal plants
❖ Indirect Values – not easy to quantify in terms of economic values or definable price,
➢ Non-consumptive use values – scientific research, bird watching, eco-tourism
➢ Functional Values – climate regulation, flood and storm protection, erosion prevention,
maintain nutrient cycles.
➢ Optional Values – options for the future.
➢ Existence Values – ethical and emotional aspects of the existence of wildlife and nature.
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/summarizes-economic-valuation-methods-that-have-been-used-to-value-the-benefits-of_tbl3_272791575
Bioaccumulation
• The process of accumulating toxic chemicals such as pollutants, pesticides and other toxins
directly into the human body (living Organism) either through air, water, food intake, or directly
through the skin is termed as Bioaccumulation.
• As this toxic compound accumulates within the living body, it increases the risk of chronic
poisoning and other severe health disorders.
❖Factors on which bioaccumulation depends● Uptake of substance
● Storage of substance, storage capacity
● Elimination of substance
● Hydrophobicity
● Concentration of pollutant in water
● Age, sex and type of organism
Source: https://youtu.be/DuYDFlGTIWE
Bio-magnification
• Bio-magnification It is also known as Bio-amplification or Biological magnification.
• It is the increase in concentration of a pollutant that occurs in a food chain as a consequence of:
➢ Persistence (can't be broken down by environmental processes)
➢ Bioenergetics in the food chain
➢ Low rate of internal degradation/excretion of the substance often due to water-insolubility
• Bio-magnification is a process of a buildup of certain chemical substances or toxins at the
higher trophic levels of a food chain.
• The chemical substances include certain toxins, heavy metals, mercury and other harmful
products at a higher concentration.
• When these contaminated substances are consumed by different levels of organisms in a food
chain, it results in severe health hazards.
Source: http://www.brainkart.com/article/Biomagnification_38169/
Source: https://www.toppr.com/bytes/biomagnification/
Bio-magnification
Bioaccumulation
Definition
An increased concentration of a toxic chemical, the higher an
animal is on the food chain.
Accumulation of a toxic chemical in the tissue of a particular
organism.
Causes
An increase in the level as one moves higher in the food
chain.
An increase in the concentration of a substance inside an
organism
Level of concentration of pollutant
An increase in the concentration of pollutants as they move
from one trophic level to the next.
An increase in the concentration of a pollutant in an
organism.
Food Chain
Bio-magnification takes place between two given trophic
levels.
Bioaccumulation takes place or occurs within a given trophic
level
Example
The transfer of pollutants and other absorbed toxins from the
microscopic aquatic organisms into the small fish, which are
later consumed by the larger fish and other aquatic animals.
Buildup or accumulation of mercury in fishes and other
aquatic animals.
Environmental
Movements in
India
Dr. Sapna Chourasiya
Source: https://www.latestgkgs.com/environmental-movement-8366-a
Environmental Movements
 An environmental movement can be defined as a social or political movement, for the
conservation of environment or for the improvement of the state of the environment.
 The terms ‘green movement’ or ‘conservation movement’ are alternatively used to denote the
same.
 The environmental movements favors the sustainable management of natural resources.
 The movements often stress the protection of the environment via changes in public policy.
 Many movements are centered on ecology, health and human rights.
 Chipko Movement (1973)
 Appiko Movement (1983)
 Save Seed Movement (1980)
 Save Silent Valley Movement
 Save Narmada River Movement (1985)
 Jungle Bachao Andholan (1982)
Chipko Movement
 It was started in 1970 aimed to protect trees.
 It was started in the northern Himalayan segment I.e.
Uttarakhand.
 The word “Chipko" refers "to stick" or "to hug".
 The name came from a word meaning "embrace"
 This movement was started in response to the needs of the
people of Uttrakhand.
 Most of the leaders of the movement were village women &
men.
 The main objective of this movement was to ensure an
ecological balance.
Chipko Movement
• History Of Chipku Movement
• Chipko movement was a daring act of non-violence.
• It was carried out all over India in order to save the
trees of the forest from being cut down.
• The First Chipko Movement
• It was originated in Rajasthan in 18 century
• Bishnoi community living around the forest
protested against the king wishes to cut down forest
trees.
• women & men hugged the trees to prevent the king's
men from felling down the trees.
• many people lost their lives during protest.
Chipko Movement
 Causes Of Chipko Movement
 In Uttarakhand during 20th century, large scale deforestation brought a lot of hardships to common
people.
 Problems arose due to inefficient polices of the government.
 Lack of environmental & ecological awareness in the society.
 Heavy effect on ecological balance of the region.
 poor condition of land and Scarcity of drinking water.
 Birth Of Chipko Movement
 Under the leadership of Chandi Prasad Bhatt people formed Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) a
local workshop to build farm tools from forest resources.
 The Govt. & forest department ignored request of DGSS.
 On 24 April, 1973 about hundred of villagers & DGSS supporters stopped lumber contractors.
 Beating drums & shouting slogans.
Chipko Movement
• Aims of chipko movement
• To save the trees in that area because forest is the main source of livelihood in tribal area.
• To maintain the ecological balance of that area.
 Rise Of Chipko Movement
 On March 26,1974 in the absence of men of Reni
village & DGSS workers, lumber Laborers arrived
by truckload to start logging operation.
 Gaura Devi, along with 27 of village women
confronted the loggers.
 Loggers threatened them and women held bravely
& hugged the trees.
 Next day the movement spread to the neighboring villages.
 Eventually only after few hours Stand-off the contractors left.
Gaura Devi
(A Mother of Chipko Movement)
Chipko Movement
• Spread Of Chipko Movement
• The movement also caught fire in Bihar, Uttar
pradesh, Himachal pradesh, Rajasthan, karnataka.
• Founder of chipko movement
• Sunder Lal Bahuguna (Environmentalist):
Padmabhushan winner for his contribution in the
movement of Forest Conservation.
https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/write-a-short-note-on-the-chipko-movement-class-11-biology-cbse5f626a19e5bde9062ff6d2a8
• Chandi Prasad Bhatt: Bhatt’s teachings focus on the
protection of the Himalayan Mountains from
deforestation. Organized rallies to protect the forest
from mass destruction.
• Women were the backbone of the Chipko
Movement. Key women leaders were: Gaura Devi,
Amrita Devi. Sudeshna Devi, Sarala Behn Bachni
Devi, Mira Behn.
Chipko Movement
• Outcomes of Chipko Movement
• Ban on cutting the trees for the 15 years in the forests of Uttar Pradesh in 1980.
• By 1981, over a million trees had been planted through their efforts.
• It generated pressure for a natural resource policy which is more sensitive to people's needs
and ecological requirements.
• New methods of forest farming have been developed, both to conserve the forests and
create employment.
• The Chipko is still working to protect the trees today through the same nonviolent
methods.
Save Seed Movement (Beej Bachao Andolan)
 This Movement began in the Himalayan foothills.
 The ‘Beej Bachao Andolan’ [BBA], begun in the late 1980s, is twenty five year old, led by
farmer and social activist Vijay Jardhari.
 The Andolan started in the village Jardhargaon of district Tehri, Uttaranchal, famous for its
unique movement to save the traditional seeds of the hills.
 The member's collected the seeds of the diverse crops in Garhwal.
 The movement has successfully conserved hundreds of local rice Verities, rajma (kidney beans),
pulses, millets, vegetables, spices and herbs.
 This Movement is not only a crusade to conserve traditional seeds but also to promote
agriculture and local tradition.
 Many different verities are being grown as an outcome of this program in local farmer’s fields.
 This has also been supported by local women's groups who felt these verities are better than
those provided by the green revolution.
Save Silent Valley Movement
• Silent valley situated in Palakkad district, Kerala
• Silent valley- an evergreen tropical forest
• It is home to the largest population of lion-tailed macaque.
• The Kuntipuzha is a major river that flows in silent Valley
• Silent Valley, is perhaps, the only remaining undisturbed tropical rain forest in Indian
peninsula.
• It was a social movement aimed at the protection of Silent valley areas.
• In the 1960, the state government began planning a dam to generate hydroelectricity as the
basis for regional economic development.
• It was started in 1973 to save the Silent Valley Reserve Forest in from being flooded by a
hydro electric project.
• The government eventually abandoned the project in 1983 and the valley was declared as in
Silent Valley National Park 1985.
Save Narmada River Movement
• Narmada Bachao Andolan- Social movement (tribal people, Adivasi's, farmers, environmentalists
and human rights activists) against the Sardar Sarovar Dam being built across the Narmada river,
Gujarat, India.
• Focus of the movement –
• saving the trees and the fauna, rehabilitation of the
poor people living around the area.
• Movement started in 1986 when the World Bank lent
India $450 million for the Sardar Sarovar project.
• Movement started by a social worker named
Medha Patkar
Sardar Sarovar Dam Project
Advantages of Multi-Purpose River Projects
Disadvantages of Multi-Purpose River Projects
 Helps in generation of electricity.
 Natural course of river is affected causing poor
sediment Row.
 Helps in irrigation.
 Excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the
reservoir, resulting in rockier stream beds.
 Helps in supply of water for domestic and
industrial uses.
 Reservoirs submerge the existing vegetation and
soil leading to its decomposition over time.
 Helps in protecting from floods.
 Displacement of people on large scale
 Helps in recreation and inland navigation.
 Poor habitats for the river’s aquatic life.
 Helps is fish breeding.
 Deforestation
Save Narmada River Movement
• Problems!!
 Displacement of 2,50,000 people from their land in three states
 Rehabilitation and resettlement of people
 Loss of agricultural land and forest(approx. 37,000 hectares)
 Destruction of flora and fauna
• Achievement's Of NBA
 The NBA has attracted an international network of support.
Source: https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/rallyforthevalley-narmada-bachao-andolanannounces-jal-satyagrah-on-july-30-in-mp-331035-2016-07-24
 They have gain some success in obtaining concession for the people who have been affected by already built
dam on Narmada river.
 The NBA was able to halt of the construction of Sardar Sarovar Dam in 1994-99.
 The NBA has helped establishing a network of activists across the country – The National Alliance Of People’s
Movement.
Resettlement & Rehabilitation: Problems and Concern
• Resettlement – simple relocation or displacement of human population.
• Resettlement or Population transfer is the movement of a large group of people from one region to
another, often a form of forced migration imposed by state policy or international authority and most
frequently on the basis of ethnicity or religion.
• Rehabilitation – The restoration of someone to a useful place in society.
• The conversion of wasteland into land suitable for use of habitation or cultivation.
• The act of restoring something or someone to a satisfactory state.
• The state of being restored to its former good condition
• Rehabilitation making, system to work again by allowing, system to function naturally. Includes
replacing the lost economic assets, Safeguard Employment, Provide safe land for building.
Resettlement & Rehabilitation: Facts
• Resettlement is the process of physical relocation, while
Rehabilitation, involves a longer process of rebuilding people’s
physical and economic livelihood, their assets, their cultural and
social links, and psychological acceptance of the changed
situation. (Fernandes, 2008).
• The International Displacement Monitoring Centre in 2007
reveal that about 50 million people in India had been displaced
due to development projects in over 50 years.
• The figure for people displaced due to disasters is at least
3,428,000.
Restoration and rehabilitation Techniques
• The survival of human has now become an important issue to be concentrated, as human
faces many threats for his survival too.
• Based on the causes, resettlement activities can be broadly grouped into 2 categories.
1. Voluntary Rehabilitation: Due to natural calamities such as Political, racial, religious
disturbance, floods, cyclones, famines, earthquakes etc.,
2. Involuntary Rehabilitation: Due to construction of various types of developmental
projects.
Causes for displacement of people
 Due to Disaster:
Natural disaster: earthquake, floods, droughts, landslides, avalanches, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes
etc.
 Manmade disasters: Industrial accidents, nuclear accidents, dam bursts ( e.g. Bhopal gas tragedy),
nuclear accidents (Current disaster in Japan), oil spills (Exxon Valdez oil spill), toxic contamination of
sites etc.
 Due to conservation initiatives: national park, sanctuary, forest reserves, biosphere reserve etc.
 Developmental projects like:
 Construction of dams, irrigation canals, reservoirs etc.
 Infrastructural projects like flyovers, bridges, roads etc.
 Transportation activities like roads, highway, canal etc.
 Energy related project like power plants, oil exploration, mining activities, pipelines like HBJ
pipeline etc.
 Agricultural projects
Resettlement and Rehabilitation: Examples (Case Study)
• Displacement due to dams:
• India has been constructing dams and other hydel projects. In the last 50 years, 20 million people have
been affected by the construction of such projects.
• The Hirakud dam displaced about 20000 people living in about 250 villages. The Bhakra Nangal dam
was constructed around 1950's and displaced a number of people.
• Some of them could not be rehabilitated even today.
• Examples: Sardar Sarovar Dam,
• The Theri dam Project, Pong Dam.
Displacement due to dams:
• The Sardar Sarovar project was the first to be taken up (started in 1987), in the
government’s ambitious plan of creating more than 3000 large and small dams. The project
included the construction of a high dam on the Narmada River, the creation of a reservoir
submerging land in the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, and an extensive
canal and irrigation system in Gujarat, that was likely to displace approximately 100,000
people residing in 245 villages of the states of said states (EPW, 1993), largely tribal,s and a
lot more likely to be affected.
Resettlement and Rehabilitation: Examples
• Displacement due to mining: Due to possibility of the
accidents or sinking of the land, people have to
displaced in and around the mining area.
• Mining take up several hectares of land thousands of
people have to be evacuated.
• Jharia coal fields posed a problem years ago to the
local residents due to the underground fire.
• Some 3 lakh people were to be shifted and it became a
problem to find n alternative site.
• A huge amount of money to the tune of Rs 115 crores
has been spent to put out the fire. Still the problem
persists.
• Displacement in Japan due to nuclear crisis You must all be aware of the current nuclear crisis in
Japan where there was an explosion in three of the major reactors of Fukushima city due to tsunami.
Currently, more than 2,00,000 people have been displaced form their native place and yet many are
unable to find an alternative home. people were evacuated to protect them for the possible nuclear
hazard and exposure. They are suffering from acute hunger as all the food supply was interrupted due
to contamination of food particles by radiation.
Rehabilitation & Resettlement: issues
• Displacement of tribal’s increases poverty due to the loss of land, livelihood, food insecurity, jobs,
skills etc.
• Breakup of families
• Communal ownership of property
• Vanishing social and cultural values and spiritual existence.
• Loss of identity between the people and loss of connection between the people and the environment.
• Little or no support: Displacement mainly hits tribal and rural people who usually do not figure in
the priority list of any political authorities or parties.
• Meager compensation: The compensation for the land lost is often not paid, it is delayed or even if
paid, is too small both in monetary terms and social changes forced on them by these mega
developmental projects.
• Lack of facilities: When people are resettled in a new area, basic infrastructure and amenities are not
provided in that area. Very often, temporary camps become permanent settlements.
• Increase in health problems: Lack of nutrition due to the loss of agriculture and forest based
livelihood, lead to the general decline in the health of the people.
Rehabilitation & Resettlement: Laws & Policies
• The Government of India, initiated the drafting of the Resettlement & Rehabilitation policy only in
the year 1985, when the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes indicated
that about 40% of the Displaced Persons and the Project Affected Persons, were tribals.
• A Committee was formed by the Central Ministry of Welfare to prepare a Rehabilitation Policy for
only the tribal Displaced Persons.
• The Rehabilitation and Resettlement Plan in the National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy
(2007) of India, entails carrying out a survey for Social Impact Assessment and census of the affected
areas with participation of the local governing bodies, the Gram Panchayats or the Municipalities.
The R&R benefits include land for land, compensation packages, rehabilitation grant that varies
according to the type of land and purpose of acquisition, employment for at least one person per
nuclear family, vocational training, scholarships and other skill development opportunities, allotment
of outsources contracts shops or other economic opportunities and labour work in the project site.
References
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https://www.slideshare.net/Aiswarya_Mishra/chipko-movement-30784240
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