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Problem
Seeking
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Fifth Edition
Problem
Seeking
An Architectural
Programming Primer
William M. Peña
Steven A. Parshall
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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This book is printed on acid-free paper. ◯
∞
PROBLEM SEEKING® is a registered trademark owned by HOK Group, Inc.
Copyright © 2012 by HOK Group, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without
either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance
Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the
Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, 201-748-6011,
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or
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Wiley publishes in a variety of print and electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Peña, William.
Problem seeking : an architectural programming primer / William M. Peña, Steven A. Parshall.—5th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-08414-4 (cloth); ISBN 978-1-118-13361-3 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-13362-0 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-15287-4 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-15292-8
(ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-15293-5 (ebk)
1. Architecture—Data processing. I. Parshall, Steven, 1951– II. Title. III. Title: Architectural programming primer.
NA2728.P46 2012
720.285'536—dc23
2011020611
Printed in the United States of America
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Contents
Foreword
vii
Preface
ix
Information Index Matrix
26
Acknowledgments
xi
Organizing Information
28
Two-Phase Process
30
Part One
1
Data Clog
32
Processing and Discarding
34
Problem Seeking
Information
24
An Architectural Programming Primer
Participation
Overview
36
2
User on Team
36
The Primer
2
Effective Group Action
38
The Search
4
Team
40
Programmers and Designers
6
Participatory Process
42
Analysis and Synthesis
8
Background Information
43
The Separation
10
Decision Making
44
The Interface
12
Communication
46
Process
14
Steps
48
Five Steps
14
Establish Goals
48
Procedure
16
Collect and Analyze Facts
50
Uncover and Test Concepts
52
18
Determine Needs
66
The Whole Problem
18
Cost Estimate Analysis
68
Four Considerations
20
Abstract to the Essence
70
Framework
22
State the Problem
72
Considerations
v
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Summary
Programming Principles
74
Variable Conditions
168
74
How to Simplify Design Problems
170
Useful Techniques
Part Two
172
77
How to Use the Method
Data Management
173
Questionnaires
184
Interviews and Work Sessions
194
Introduction
78
Definitions and Examples
78
Audio- and Videoconferencing
206
On Theory and Process
80
Functional Relationship Analysis
208
On Considerations
85
Gaming and Simulation
210
On Goals
85
Space Lists
216
On Facts
89
Program Development
222
On Concepts
90
Brown Sheets and Visualization
231
On Needs
96
Analysis Cards and Wall Displays
236
Electronic White Boards and Flip Charts
246
Electronic Presentations
253
Programming Reports
255
Program Evaluation
256
Building Evaluation
260
On Problem Statements
Programming Procedures
124
146
Establish Goals
146
Collect and Analyze Facts
148
Uncover and Test Concepts
150
Determine Needs
152
Selected Bibliography
265
State the Problem
153
Index
267
Programming Activities
154
About The Authors
273
Typical Programming Activities
154
Four Degrees of Sophistication
164
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Foreword
The fifth edition of Problem Seeking: An Architectural
Programming Primer is written for clients, architects, and
students. The broad range of principles and techniques
presented in this book has evolved over 50 years of
architectural practice. In 1969, William Peña wrote the
first edition of the book, and it was used in 1973 by the
National Council of Architectural Registration Boards as
a basis for the predesign section of the professional exam.
In 1994, Hellmuth, Obata + Kassabaum (HOK) acquired
CRSS Architects, which had evolved from the original
firm of Caudill, Rowlett and Scott (CRS). Many of the
principles and techniques presented in this book can be
attributed to Bill Caudill, one of the founders of CRS,
and an AIA Gold Medalist. HOK’s practice was founded
on the same principle as CRS—both firms viewed
design as problem solving.
William Peña (“Willie”) dedicated his professional
career to the definition, development, and pioneering of
architectural programming. He became the champion,
teacher, and mentor to countless professionals who
followed his path as specialists in the analysis of
architectural problems.
many professionals who worked at CRS and now HOK.
Assisting Willie with the publication of the book have
been several co-authors, including: John Focke, FAIA
(first and second editions), William Caudill, FAIA
(second edition), Kevin Kelly, FAIA (third edition), and
Steven Parshall, FAIA (third, fourth, and fifth editions).
While the method has adapted to new considerations
and techniques with each edition of the book, the
principles outlined in the first part of the book, “The
Primer,” have withstood the test of time. As we look
forward, the role of programmer as analyst and
information manager will increase significantly as the
profession adopts Building Information Modeling (BIM)
to meet client expectations for more sustainable and
integrated design solutions.
HOK is proud to continue the tradition of involving and
interacting with clients in architectural programming as
the first step of the design process.
Bill Hellmuth
President, HOK, Inc.
In the end, Problem Seeking is not the product of one
person, but the theoretical and practical contribution of
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Preface
This book is the fifth edition of Problem Seeking: An
Architectural Programming Primer. The first edition, in
1969, was based on 20 years of prior research and
practice in architectural programming. The subsequent
editions evolved over the next 40 years, reflecting
changes in communication techniques and expanded
scope of applications, although the original theory
remained intact. This edition, then, has the advantage of
some 60 years of professional application experience—
indicating a practice-tested validity.
This is a two-part book. Part One is a primer on
programming. It is written to help you understand one
programming method, whether you are an architect,
a student, or a client getting ready to start a building
project. Part Two explains how to apply the
method; it comprises a collection of definitions,
examples, considerations, activities, and techniques that
expand on the principles explained in the primer.
What is new in this edition?
Published in 2001, the fourth edition of the book has
been read, primarily, by architectural practitioners and,
secondly, by students as a college course text book.
In the fifth edition we have simplified Part One:The
Primer. In Part Two, regarding methods, we take
up new topics that have emerged in the profession since
writing the fourth edition. It addresses the role of
programming when considering sustainability in the
design process, and explains how technology has
enabled new techniques for project delivery, team
communication, and information management.
While the Problem Seeking® process has withstood the
test of time as a powerful problem analysis method, the
content and technology of architectural practice have
evolved over the past decade.
Today, sustainability has become a major consideration
in architectural projects throughout the world. In 1998,
the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) established
the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED) standards and system for rating green buildings.
In addition to updates in content, sustainability practices
encourage an integrated design approach that is highly
participatory among all the stakeholders in the design,
construction, and operation of buildings. Bill Caudill first
introduced this type of collaboration in his book,
Architecture by Team, in 1971. The principles regarding the
user on the team, effective group action, and participatory
process are embedded in Problem Seeking® as well. The
USGBC encourages the organization of a work session at
the outset of the project, during which the key
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stakeholders establish project goals and determine the
level of sustainability to be achieved in design and
construction. Once again, these predesign sustainability
activities are easily incorporated into the programming
process as outlined in Problem Seeking.
Two of the emerging trends in architectural practice that
are enabled by technology involve Building Information
Modeling (BIM) and Integrated Project Delivery (IPD).
BIM is the process of generating and managing building
data during the design process, including the program of
requirements. Typically, it uses three-dimensional,
real-time, parametric modeling software to increase
productivity in building design and construction. The
process produces the building information model, which
encompasses building geometry, spatial relationships,
geographic information, and quantities and properties of
building components. The BIM process begins with
capturing the program of requirements for each phase
of the design process.
IPD is a project delivery method that integrates people,
systems, business structures, and practices into a process
that collaboratively harnesses the expertise and
knowledge of stakeholders to optimize project results,
increase value to the owner, reduce waste, and maximize
efficiency throughout the phases of project delivery.
The fifth edition explains how the role of the
programmer may expand to encompass the program of
requirements for the life cycle of a building. This involves
an extended information management role for the
programmer. Information management has been a
cornerstone of the Information Index, organizing
information, a phased process, data clog, and processing
and discarding information. While principles are
fundamental to the programming process, the
techniques and tools that a programmer uses today take
advantage of current digital technology and software to
capture and manage information.
Not only has technology improved the programmer’s
ability to manage information, it is allowing new forms of
interaction and collaboration among the project team.
Advanced collaboration technologies are proving a viable
alternative to the traditional on-site squatters’ technique.
Now programmers can facilitate virtual squatting with
clients and project team members located worldwide
without ever leaving their place of work.
William M. Peña, FAIA
Founder, Caudill, Rowlett and Scott, Inc.
Steven A. Parshall, FAIA
Senior Vice President, HOK Inc.
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Acknowledgments
HOK Team
Editor:
Melinda Parshall
Project Manager:
Lauren Gibbs
Special Contributors:
Erik Andersen, Robin Ellerthorpe, William Hellmuth, Frank Kutilek, Eberhard Laepple
Graphics & Photography:
Gerald Callo, HOK Visual Communications
Cover Graphics:
Jay Dacon, HOK Visual Communications
We are grateful to those programmers, past and present, who have contributed to this book—some much more
than others—but all contributing more than they realize.
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Problem
Seeking
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Part One
Problem Seeking
An Architectural
Programming Primer
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OVERVIEW
THE PRIMER
Good buildings don’t just happen. They are planned to look good and perform well.
They come about when good architects and good clients join in thoughtful,
cooperative effort. Programming the requirements of a proposed building is the
architect’s first task, often the most important.
There are a few underlying principles that apply to programming—whether the most
complex hospital or a simple house. This book concerns these principles.
Programming concerns five steps:
1
Establish Goals.
2
Collect and analyze Facts.
3
Uncover and test Concepts.
4
Determine Needs.
5
State the Problem.
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The approach is at once simple and comprehensive—simple enough for the process
to be repeatable for different building types, and comprehensive enough to cover the
wide range of factors that influence the design of buildings.
The five-step process can be applied to most any discipline—banking, engineering, or
education—but when applied specifically to architecture, it has its proper content that
is an architectural product: a room, a building, or a town. The principle of this process
is that a product will have a much better chance of being successful if, during the
design, four major considerations are regarded simultaneously.
These considerations (or design determinants) indicate the types of information
needed to define a comprehensive architectural problem:
Function Form Economy Time
Architectural programming, therefore, involves an organized method of inquiry—a
five-step process interacting with four considerations.
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THE SEARCH
Programming
Design
Programming is a process. What kind? Webster’s spells it out specifically: “A process
leading to the statement of an architectural problem and the requirements to be met
in offering a solution.”
This process, derived from the definition and referred to as the five-step process, is
basic. The word “basic” is used advisedly. Since the advent of systematic programming
six decades ago, different degrees of sophistication have evolved. But the procedures
presented here remain basic to all.
Back to the definition.
Note “statement of an architectural problem.” This implies problem solving. Although
usually identified with scientific methods, problem solving is a creative effort. There
are many different problem-solving methods, but only those few that emphasize goals
and concepts (ends and means) can be applied to architectural design problems.
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Almost all problem-solving methods include a step for problem definition—stating the
problem. But most of the methods lead to confusing duality—finding out what the
problem is and trying to solve it at the same time.You can’t solve a problem unless
you know what it is.
What, then, is the main idea behind programming? It’s the search for sufficient
information to clarify, to understand, and to state the problem.
If programming is problem seeking, then design is problem solving.
These are two distinct processes, requiring different attitudes, even different
capabilities. Problem solving is a valid approach to design when, indeed, the design
solution responds to the client’s design problem. Only after a thorough search for
pertinent information can the client’s design problem be stated: “Seek and you shall
define!”
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PROGRAMMERS AND DESIGNERS
Who does what? Do designers program? They can, but it takes highly trained
architects who are specialized in asking the right questions at the right time, who can
separate wants from needs, and who have the skills to sort things out. Programmers
must be objective (to a degree) and analytical, at ease with abstract ideas, and able to
evaluate information and identify important factors while postponing irrelevant
material. Designers can’t always do this. Designers generally are subjective, intuitive,
and facile with physical concepts.
Qualifications of programmers and designers are different. Programmers and
designers are separate specialists because the problems of each are very complex and
require two different mental capabilities: one for analysis, another for synthesis.
It may well be that one person can manage both analysis and synthesis. If so, he or she
must be of two minds and use them alternately. However, for clarity, these different
qualifications will be represented by different people—programmers and designers.
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Photo courtesy of HOK
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ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
The total design process includes two stages: analysis and synthesis. In analysis, the
parts of a design problem are separated and identified. In synthesis, the parts are put
together to form a coherent design solution. The difference between programming
and design is the difference between analysis and synthesis.
Programming Is analysis. Design Is synthesis.
You may not perceive the design process in terms of analysis and synthesis.You may
even question problem solving as an approach.You may think of the design process as
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a creative effort. It is. But the creative effort includes similar stages: Analysis becomes
preparation or exposure, and synthesis becomes illumination or insight. The total
design process is, indeed, a creative process.
Does programming inhibit creativity? Definitely not! Programming establishes the
considerations, the limits, and the possibilities of the design problem. (We prefer
“considerations” to “constraints” to avoid being petulant.) Creativity thrives when the
limits of a problem are known.
Sometimes I think we arrive
at a solution before we
know what the problem is.
We say: “My next design
will be Round!” without
logic or analysis.
—William Peña
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THE SEPARATION
Programming
Design
Programming precedes design just as analysis precedes synthesis. The separation of
the two is imperative and prevents trial-and-error design alternatives. Separation is
central to an understanding of a rational architectural process, which leads to good
buildings and satisfied clients.
The problem-seeking method described in this book requires a distinct separation
of programming and design.
Most designers love to draw, to make “thumbnail sketches,” as they used to call these
drawings. Today, the jargon favors “conceptual sketches” and “schematics.” Call them
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what you will, they can be serious deterrents in the planning of a successful building if
done at the wrong time—before programming or during the programming process.
Before the whole problem is defined, solutions can only be partial and premature. A
designer who can’t wait for a complete, carefully prepared program is like the tailor
who doesn’t bother to measure a customer before starting to cut the cloth.
Corita Kent, artist and
educator, wrote, “Rule
Eight: Don’t try to create
and analyze at the same
time. They are two different
processes.”
Experienced, creative designers withhold judgment and resist preconceived solutions
and the pressure to synthesize until all the information is in. They refuse to make
sketches until they know the client’s problem. They believe in thorough analysis before
synthesis. They know that programming is the prelude to good design—although it
does not guarantee it.
—Today You Need a Rule
Book, 1973
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THE INTERFACE
5
Programming
Design
The product of programming is a statement of the problem. Stating the problem is the
last step of the five-step process in problem seeking (programming); it is also the first
step in problem solving (design). The problem statement, then, is the interface
between programming and design. It’s the baton in a relay race. It’s the handoff
from programmer to designer. In any case, the problem statement is one of the most
important documents in the chain that comprises the total project delivery system.
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While many theorists extol the virtues of the problem statement, few practitioners
stop to formulate a statement, to verbalize it. This programming method requires that
you actually write out a clear statement of the problem. Since this statement is the
first step in design, as well as the last step in programming, its composition must be
the joint effort of the designer and the programmer.
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PROCESS
FIVE STEPS
1
2
3
4
5
The competent programmer always keeps in mind the steps in programming: (1)
Establish Goals, (2) Collect and Analyze Facts, (3) Uncover and Test
Concepts, (4) Determine Needs, and (5) State the Problem. The first three
steps are primarily the search for pertinent information. The fourth is a feasibility test.
The last step is distilling what has been found.
Curiously enough, the steps are alternately qualitative and quantitative. Goals, concepts, and the problem statement are essentially qualitative. Facts and needs are
essentially quantitative.
Programming is based on a combination of interviews and work sessions. Interviews
are used for asking questions and collecting data, particularly during the first three
steps. Work sessions are used to verify information and to stimulate client decisions—
particularly during the fourth step.
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Briefly, the five steps pose these questions:
1. Goals: What does the client want to achieve, and why?
2. Facts: What do we know? What is given?
3. Concepts: How does the client want to achieve the goals?
4. Needs: How much money and space? What level of quality?
5. Problem: What are the significant conditions affecting the design of the building?
What are the general directions the design should take?
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PROCEDURE
1
4
3
2
5
2
3
4
1
5
4
1
2
3
5
The five steps, then, are not inflexibly strict. They usually have no consistent sequence;
nor is the information scrupulously accurate. For example, a 10,000-student university,
a 300-bed hospital, and a 25-student classroom are only nominal rather than actual
sizes. Information sources are not always reliable, and predictive capabilities may be
limited.
The steps and the information, then, do not have the rigor or the accuracy of a
mathematical problem. Programming, therefore, is a heuristic process and not an
algorithm. As such, even good programming cannot guarantee finding the right
problem, but it can reduce the amount of guesswork. The method is just as good as
the judgment of the people involved.
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Working through the steps in numerical sequence is preferable; theoretically, this is
the logical order. But, in actual practice, steps may be taken in a different order
or at the same time—all but the last step. It is frequently necessary, for example, to
start with a given list of spaces and a budget (fourth step) before asking about Goals,
Facts, and Concepts (first, second, and third steps). It usually is necessary to work on
the first four steps simultaneously, cross-checking among them for the integrity,
usefulness, relevance, and congruence of information.
The fifth step is taken only after marshalling all the previous information, extracting,
abstracting, and getting to the very essence of the problem.
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CONSIDERATIONS
THE WHOLE PROBLEM
Function
Time
Economy
Form
It’s important to search for and find the whole problem. To accomplish this, the
problem must be identified in terms of Function, Form, Economy, and Time.
Classifying information accordingly simplifies the problem while maintaining a comprehensive approach. A wide range of factors makes up the whole problem, but all can be
classified in the four areas that serve later as design considerations.
Too little information leads to a partial statement of the problem and a premature and
partial design solution. The appropriate amount of information is broad enough in
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scope to pertain to the whole design problem, but not so broad as to pertain to some
universal problem. As the Spanish proverb states: “He who grasps too much, squeezes
little.” Grasp only what you can manage and what will be useful to the designer.
As a professor might say, “Before you answer individual questions, be sure to look at
the whole examination.” Designers should look at the whole problem before starting
to solve any of its parts. How can a designer who does not have a clear understanding
of the whole problem come up with a comprehensive solution?
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FOUR CONSIDERATIONS
1 People
Function
2 Activities
3 Relationships
4 Site
Form
5 Environment
6 Quality
7 Initial budget
Economy
8 Operating costs
9 Life-cycle costs
10 Past
Time
11 Present
12 Future
Take a closer look at Function, Form, Economy, and Time. There are three key
words to each consideration:
Function implies “what’s going to happen in the building.” It concerns activities,
relationship of spaces, and people—their number and characteristics. Key words are:
(1) people, (2) activities, and (3) relationships.
Form relates to the site, the physical environment (psychological, too), and the quality
of space and construction. Form is what you will see and feel. It’s “what is there now”
and “what will be there.” Key words are (4) site, (5) environment, and (6) quality.
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Economy concerns the initial budget and quality of construction, but also may
include consideration of operating and life-cycle costs. Key words are: (7) initial
budget, (8) operating costs, and (9) life-cycle costs.
Time has three classifications—past, present, and future—which deal with the
influences of history, the inevitability of changes from the present, and projections into
the future. Key words are: (10) past, (11) present, and (12) future.
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FRAMEWORK
1
2
3
4
5
Function
Form
Economy
Time
Use the four considerations to guide you at each step during programming. By establishing a systematic set of relationships between the steps in problem seeking and
these considerations, between process and content, a comprehensive approach is
assured. The interweaving of steps and considerations forms a framework for
information covering the whole problem.
All four considerations interact at each step. For example, in the first step,
when goals are investigated, function goals, form goals, economy goals, and time goals
should emerge. With each of these considerations having three subcategories, the
process includes asking 12 pertinent questions regarding goals alone. Since the first 3
steps constitute the main search for information, 3 times 12 provides the basis for 36
pertinent questions.
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Consider these to be key questions. The answers will provide opportunities for
further questions. The Information Index on the following pages indicates more than
90 items in these 3 steps.
Programmers do not have to know everything the client knows, but they should know
enough of the client’s aspirations, needs, conditions, and ideas that will influence the
design of the building. For this, programmers have to know the right questions to ask;
they start with the 36 subcategories.
The considerations interact in the fourth step to test the economic feasibility of the
project, and in the last step, they interact to state the whole problem.
This interaction provides a framework for classifying and documenting information.
The classification qualities inherent in this framework are particularly useful in
preventing information clogs when dealing with massive quantities of information. The
categories are broad enough to classify the many bits of information gathered during
programming without nitpicking and indecision.
The framework can be used as a checklist for missing information. As such, the
orderly display of information on a wall becomes a good visual scoreboard. One
glance at a wall display of graphic analysis material can spot what is missing and needs
to be documented. It also provides a format for dialogue among the members of the
team.
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INFORMATION
INFORMATION INDEX
The framework can be extended to serve as an Information Index—a matrix of key
words used to seek out appropriate information. These key words are specific
enough to cover the scope of major factors, and universal enough to be negotiable for
different building types. Even if some key words do not seem to apply in a particular
project, it is useful to test them—to ask a question based on those key words. If the
test proves they are applicable, then those key words will encourage a thorough
search for information. They may offer a better and quicker understanding of the
project.
Most key words are “evocative words.” They trigger useful information. Charged with
emotion as well as meaning, they tend to evoke a response, or even to suggest likely
substitutions.
An Information Index may be designed to be very specific and tailored to one building
type; but as with all such checklists, it would soon be obsolete. A general character
prolongs its usefulness.
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Note that the Information Index establishes the interrelationship of information
regarding Goals, Facts, and Concepts. For example, a functional goal for “efficiency” is
related to “space adequacy” and is implemented by effective “relationships”—reading
horizontally on the index. Also note that items under Needs and Problem are more
limited because the fourth step is a feasibility test and the last step abstracts the
essence of the project.
We have adapted the following chart from the Architectural Registration Handbook: A
Test Guide for Professional Exam Candidates, published jointly by the National Council of
Architectural Registration Boards and Architectural Record, 1973.
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Information Index Matrix
Goals
Function
People
Activities
Relationships
Form
Site
Environment
Quality
Economy
Initial Budget
Operating Costs
Life-Cycle Costs
Time
Past
Present
Future
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Facts
Mission
Maximum Number
Individual Identity
Interaction/Privacy
Hierarchy of Values
Prime Activities
Security
Progression
Segregation
Encounters
Transportation/Parking
Efficiency
Priority of Relationships
Statistical Data
Area Parameters
Personnel Forecasts
User Characteristics
Community Characteristics
Organizational Structure
Value of Potential Loss
Time-Motion Studies
Traffic Analysis
Behavioral Patterns
Space Adequacy
Type/Intensity
Physically Challenged Guidelines
Bias on Site Elements
Environmental Response
Efficient Land Use
Community Relations
Community and Ecosystem Improvements
Physical Comfort
Life Safety
Social/Psychological Environments
Individuality
Wayfinding
Projected Image
Client Expectations
Sustainability
Site Analysis
Soils Analysis
FAR and GAC
Climate Analysis
Code Survey
Surroundings
Psychological Implications
Point of Reference/Entry
Cost/Square Feet
Building or Layout Efficiency
Equipment Costs
Area per Unit
Sustainability Analysis
Extent of Funds
Cost-Effectiveness
Maximum Return
Return on Investment
Minimization of Operating Costs
Maintenance and Operating Costs
Reduction of Life-Cycle Costs
Cost Parameters
Maximum Budget
Time-Use Factors
Market Analysis
Energy Source Costs
Activities and Climate Factors
Economic Data
Historic Preservation
Static/Dynamic Activities
Change
Growth
Occupancy Date
Availability of Funds
Significance
Space Parameters
Activities
Projections
Escalation Factors
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Concepts
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Needs
Problem
Service Grouping
People Grouping
Activity Grouping
Priority
Hierarchy
Security Controls
Sequential Flow
Separated Flow
Mixed Flow
Functional Relationships
Communications
Area Requirements
by organization
by space type
by time
by location
Parking Requirements
Outdoor Space Requirements
Functional Alternatives
Unique and important performance
requirements that will shape
building design
Enhancements
Special Foundations
Density
Environmental Controls
Safety
Neighbors
Officing Concepts: On-Premise and
Off-Premise
Orientation
Accessibility
Character
Quality Control
Reduce/Reuse/Recycle
Site Developmental Costs
Environmental Influences on Costs
Building Cost/SF
Building Overall Efficiency Factor
Building System Design Criteria
Green Building Rating System
Major form and sustainability
considerations that will affect
building design
Cost Control
Efficient Allocation
Multifunction/Versatility
Merchandising
Energy Conservation
Cost Reduction
Budget Estimate Analysis
Balance Budget
Cash-Flow Analysis
Energy Budget
Operating Costs
Life-Cycle Costs
Attitude toward the initial budget, and its
influence on the fabric and
geometry of the building
Adaptability
Tolerance
Convertibility
Expansibility
Linear/Concurrent Scheduling
Phasing
Escalation
Time Schedule
Time/Cost Schedule
Implications of change/growth on
long-range performance
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ORGANIZING INFORMATION
1
2
3
4
5
Function
Form
Economy
Time
Programmers establish order so that information can make sense and be used
effectively in discussions and decision making. Programmers organize and classify
information. They extract information and display it. They stimulate decisions from
client groups. They organize the client’s vast world of information within a rational
framework. Without this framework, their verification with the client and their
handoff to the designer would not be possible.
With this framework, programmers can classify information, placing it into broad
compartments. Since the main search for information is made in the first three steps,
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it can be expected that the largest quantities of information will be found in those
first compartments. Refer to the accompanying diagram. Note that the space
requirements and their economic feasibility represent a diminished amount of
information in the fourth step. And, of course, the fifth step represents the least, yet
most important, information, the Problem Statement.
The handoff package—the programming document, including a clear, simple statement
of the problem—must represent the epitome of organized, edited information, free of
irrelevance.
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TWO-PHASE PROCESS
Schematic
Program
Program
Development
Schematic
Design
Design
Development
Schematic program and program development provide the information needed at the
two successive design phases, going from the general scope to particular details.
Programming is a two-phase process related to the two phases of design:
schematic design and design development.
Schematic design depends on major concepts and needs, which should not be lost in
the mass of information unusable in this phase. Designers must have information that
clarifies major design determinants—those factors that will shape the broad composition of the building. The schematic program must provide this important overall
information useful in schematic design. However, equally critical is the filtering out and
postponing of information that is not needed in schematic design. Give designers only
the information they need at the time they need it.
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Design development is what the words imply: the detailed development of schematic
design. Program development provides the specific room details—furniture and
equipment requirements, environmental criteria (atmospheric, visual, and acoustic),
and service requirements (mechanical and electrical). The second phase of
programming may be in progress when the designer is doing schematic design.
We have to establish the
major concepts for a project,
and the flood of details to
follow will not cover up
what is real in planning.
—Bill Caudill
It should be pointed out, however, that the programmer, in dealing with an unfamiliar
building type and critical functional areas, must seek and collect specific details earlier
than normally needed in order to establish adequate and generalized space requirements for schematic design.
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DATA CLOG
The amount of information received from a client can be staggering. Don’t let the
flood of information bother you. One trick is to determine when the information
will be most useful, in schematic design or in design development. Any quantity of
client-furnished information can be organized for use at the appropriate phase. A
programmer needs experience and good judgment to know in which phase to use the
information—and needs even more experience and judgment to cull trivial and
irrelevant information to eliminate data clog.
Yes, people become data clogged with too much unorganized information, which
causes confusion and prevents clear conclusions. Data clog paralyzes the thought
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processes, and a mental block against all information develops. Unable to comprehend
it, designers may decide to ignore it all, throw up their hands, and say, “Don’t bother
me with all those facts. I know what I must do—I’ll limit the information to what I
already know.”
One can assimilate any amount of information as long as it is pertinent,
meaningful, and well organized for effective use. Large amounts of highly
organized material are required to expand the range of possibilities before a new and
useful combination of ideas can be generated by the designer.
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PROCESSING AND DISCARDING
Programming concerns the processing of raw data into useful information. For
example, course enrollments at a college are not useful information—until they can
be manipulated mathematically with average class size, periods attended per week,
total periods available for scheduling, and classroom utilization. Only when the
process produces the number and size of classrooms required does the raw data
become useful information.
Raw data relating to climate analysis or soil analysis also becomes meaningful information only when architectural implications are determined. After that’s accomplished,
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the raw data can be discarded or placed in an appendix of the program report, where
it will not cause data clog.
To quote an old saying, “Any fool can add; it takes a genius to subtract.” It takes a
“genius” to discard information as being irrelevant to a design problem or merely too
trivial to affect the design one way or another. Although programming is primarily
conscious analysis, intuition has its place—the sensitivity to know what
information will be useful and what should be discarded. The risk in discarding
useful information is minimized with experience.
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PARTICIPATION
USER ON TEAM
Users are experts in the use of the building. They may assume that they know what
they want better than anyone else. They may be right, or they may ask the architect or
a consultant to find out what they need. Users must be contributing members
of the project team.
Dealing with users calls for different strategies to determine reasonable requirements;
nevertheless, the building should benefit by intensive user participation in the programming process.
Users are sometimes suspicious that a building will represent only the architect’s
self-expression. This concerns the familiar argument involving form and function. On
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the other hand, the architect is sometimes suspicious that users are being idiosyncratic in their requirements, and that no one else will be able to use the building in
the future without major remodeling.
Usually, architects love to design buildings tailor-made to specific user requirements,
and that provide opportunities for novel designs. This is particularly true of tailored
residences, in which the owner/users are directly responsible for the outcome.
Organizations and institutions with static or dynamic conditions bring up the issue of
idiosyncratic versus negotiable requirements. But remember, the users’ first concern is
how their needs will be met when the building is occupied.
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EFFECTIVE GROUP ACTION
Knowing different ways of thinking gives one a better understanding of individuals and
how they behave in groups, as well as their distinctive patterns of thinking, perception,
and problem solving—specifically, how they intermix in a team endeavor to develop
a building program. You can sharpen your perception if you see the other side of
the coin. You don’t have to like what you see, but remember these points when
organizing the programming process.
• The reconciliation of different ways of thinking cannot be made with a
middle-of-the-road mentality. Consistently riding the median won’t do it.
There’s a time when intuition must dominate logic, and a time when it’s the other
way around; a time for abstract thinking and a time for concrete thinking; and a
time to put science over art and a time for the reverse.
• People think differently because of background and experience. That’s
why an intermixture of distinct individuals is so interesting. Group action often
produces unpredictable results. This may not please those who try to program
with a prejudice—with a building design in mind. But that’s not playing by the
rules. For innovative results, let group action set its own course.
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• Valid information is sometimes elusive. When a large group of design
professionals meet, expect many different points of view, different attitudes, and
different opinions, any or all of which may modify the information itself.
• When in group disagreement, keep cool. Remember there is great value
in the interaction of the architect group and the client group. Try to understand the different ways of thinking during the melee. A cool head can tolerate
confusion. Remember that we can learn to cope with many different minds and
approaches—how to collaborate with people who think differently.
• Consensus is difficult, yet it is possible. The problem-seeking method of
programming acknowledges the real needs and desires of users. The end result is
to reach agreement on how the proposed buildings should respond to those
needs and desires. When there are insurmountable disagreements, then, obviously, management must step in. Delay this as long as you can, and give group
action a chance to take hold. When it does, you may be delightfully surprised at
the results.
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TEAM
Programming requires team effort. The project team should be led by two
responsible group leaders, one to represent the client and the other to represent
the architect. They must work together toward a successful project. Each leader must
be able to:
• Coordinate the individual efforts of his or her group members.
• Make decisions or cause them to be made.
• Establish and maintain communication within, and between, the two groups.
The project team must have good management.
Many people participate in programming a project. There is the traditional
participation of the client/owner and the client/manager. More and more, however, the
client/users and the client/spectators (community members) are becoming active in
programming. This means that the approach to programming should be rational
enough to withstand public scrutiny and analytical enough to achieve a mutual
understanding of the issues.
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Project
Project
Architect
Team
Client
nt
s
C
on
su
lt a
nt
s
ts
Sp
e
is
ci
al
al
ci
is
ts
e
Sp
lt a
su
on
C
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PARTICIPATORY PROCESS
Greater client/user participation generates much more data. This increased
involvement also produces more conflicting information. The users are concerned
with the hope for greater satisfaction of their needs; the owner is concerned with
cost reduction and cost control. Exposure of the owner’s and users’ differences is the
first step in reconciliation. Conflicts are often reconciled by the introduction of human
values not previously considered by the owner.
Participants on the team must communicate and be willing to cooperate with one
another. This precludes the prima donna client or the prima donna architect who
competes to play every role on the team, so as to make every decision in
programming and in design.
Clients have the major responsibility to be creative in programming, for they are the
ones responsible for the operational outcome. Programmers can act as catalysts in
seeking new combinations of ideas. They can test new ideas and spawn alternatives.
Designers must be creative in the design phase, for they are responsible for the
physical and psychological environments. Programmers must keep the client from
making premature design decisions during programming. They should raise the client’s
appreciation and aspiration for better buildings. In short, programmers should prepare
for designers the best possible environment for creativity.
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BACKGROUND INFORMATION
P 1
2
3
4
5
Although the five-step process is the same for any building type, there may
necessarily be a preparatory step. This will depend on the experience (or
inexperience) that the programmer brings to the project. For example, if the project
were a school, and the programmer had no experience in programming schools, then
he or she should develop a background understanding of schools. The programmer
should visit similar schools, do library research, and talk to educators and consultants.
He or she would need to understand the jargon of the client and the general nature
of the building type.
Programmers start with an analytical attitude. They approach the project in an organized manner. Their background and experience relate to the specific type of building. If
not, the preparatory step is required.
With proper background information, programmers help the client to determine the
number and kinds of consultants and when they might be most effectively brought
into the total design process.
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DECISION MAKING
Good programming is characterized by timely and sound decision making by the
clients—not the programmer. During programming, clients decide what they want to
accomplish and how they want to do it. Programmers may have to evaluate the gains
and risks in order to stimulate a decision. They must identify for clients those
decisions that need to be made prior to design.
Although complete objectivity is not required, programmers must emphasize the
client’s decisions and not their own, and their questions should not be based on a
preconceived solution. They may stimulate client decisions by spawning options and by
testing programmatic concepts. Programmers may ask, for example, “Have centralized
kitchen services been considered, as opposed to several decentralized kitchens?”
Goals and concepts must be displayed, so that decision makers can understand
alternative concepts and evaluate their effect on goals.
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The programmer must stimulate client decisions. This prevents having to reprogram
after the designer is at work. When the client’s decisions lead to a well-stated problem, any needed recycling back from design to programming will be a minor activity
and will not seriously affect the design solution.
You ask, “Do you want two
or three bedrooms?” And if
the client can’t make up his
mind, you arrive at
two designs.
When a client postpones decisions, the design solutions tend to be unfeasible. If the
client cannot decide on how much money to spend until he or she sees the design,
the inevitable will happen. The design solution will exceed the extent of funds
available.
“Do you want two or three
baths?” With no decision,
you have to arrive at
four designs.
Decisions made during programming eliminate the expense of numerous design
alternatives. If only two design alternatives are made for each indecision, the number
of alternatives increases exponentially. Indecision, then, increases the complexity of
the design problem, which is definitely to be avoided. On the other hand, every
decision the client makes during programming simplifies the design
problem by reducing the number of alternative design solutions to those that meet
the program requirements. Organizational and functional decisions produce clear
requirements that lead to limited design alternatives, which is highly desirable.
“Do you want a two- or
three-car garage?” With no
decision, you have to arrive
at eight designs.
—William M. Peña
While emphasis is placed on client decision making, it must be realized that this
authority is often vested in other people and agencies. Understanding who will
actually make which decisions is crucial. The Chief Administrator? The administrators
of funding and the code agencies? Generally, the individual who has the responsibility
for the outcome has the authority to make the decision. Interview this person! Then
insist on his or her approval of the program.
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COMMUNICATION
To achieve effective, clear communication among many people—professionals, clients,
and users—information collected must be carefully documented. Undocumented
information is not likely to be considered and evaluated by the client and the designer.
The programmer collects, organizes, and displays the information for discussion,
evaluation, and consensus. Team effort demands communication.
Clients and designers require graphic analysis in order to fully comprehend the
magnitude of numbers and the implication of ideas. This means there is a need to use
communication techniques (brown sheets, analysis cards, and gaming cards) to
promote thorough understanding, which leads to sound decision making.
A flowchart diagram is comprehended more quickly than a written description. Use
graphic images that are simple, and include only one thought at a time. Keep the
images specific enough to clarify the thought, but general and abstract enough to
evoke a range of design possibilities. These should help client understanding and cater
to the designer’s thinking and drawing skills.
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Photo courtesy of HOK
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STEPS
ESTABLISH GOALS
Goals are important to designers who want to know the what and why of things,
rather than a list of spaces. They won’t find inspiration in a list. They will find it in goals.
Project goals indicate what the client wants to achieve, and why.
However, goals must be tested for integrity, for usefulness, and for relevance to the
architectural design problem. To test them, it is necessary to understand the practical
relationship between goals and concepts.
If goals indicate what the client wants to achieve, concepts indicate how the client
wants to achieve them. In other words, goals are implemented through concepts.
Goals are the ends; concepts, the means. Concepts are ways of achieving goals. The
relationship between goals and concepts is one of congruence. The test for the
integrity of goals depends on their congruence with concepts.
Practical goals have concepts to implement them. Lip-service goals, on the other hand,
have no integrity and should be disregarded. They may well be faithless promises in a
public relations publication, with no intent to keep them. Regardless of good
intentions, it is not always what the client says but what he or she really means.
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No one can argue against “motherhood” goals. They are unassailable; however, they
are too general to be directly useful. Who can argue against the goal “to provide a
good environment” or the goal “to get the most for the money”? There’s nothing
wrong with including a few “motherhood” goals, especially if they can be processed to
be specific enough to clarify the situation; however, intellectually hard, clear project
goals are absolutely essential.
That said, a few “motherhood” goals are needed to inspire designers, who like
ambiguity to trigger the subconscious in their search for design concepts.
Do not forget that trying to mix problems and solutions of different kinds causes
never-ending confusion. To put it positively, a social problem calls for a social solution.
After there is a social solution, then it can be part of a design problem for which there
will be a design solution.You cannot solve a social problem with an architectural
solution.
Programmers must test goals and concepts for relevance to a design problem, and not
to a social or some other related problem that cannot be solved architecturally. This
test for relevance includes testing goals and concepts for design implications that
might qualify them as part of a design problem.
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COLLECT AND ANALYZE FACTS
Facts are important only if they are appropriate. Facts are used to describe the
existing conditions of the site, including the physical, legal, climatic, and aesthetic
aspects. These facts about the site should be documented graphically to be really
effective. Other important facts include statistical projections, economic data, and
descriptions of the user characteristics. There’s no end to facts. Yet programming
must be more than fact-finding.
The facts (and figures) can become too numerous to promote definite conclusions.
Collect only those that might have a bearing on the problem, and organize them into
categories. Seek facts that are pertinent to the goals and concepts. Massage these facts
and figures so that they become useful information. Process them to determine the
architectural implications.
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Facts may involve many numbers, such as the number of people that generates space
requirements: 2,000 seats in a concert hall. Numbers need to be accurate enough to
ensure the impartial allocation of space and money, yet rounded out enough to allow
for a loose fit: 150 square feet per office occupant. Predictive parameters have to be
just accurate enough to be realistic: 15 square feet per dining seat.
When programmers ask questions, what they hear may not be what they want to
hear; nevertheless, they must try to avoid a bias so as to collect impartial information.
They must avoid preconceptions and face the facts squarely. They must be realistic,
neither optimistic nor pessimistic. Programmers must separate fact from fantasy. They
must seek what is true, or even what is assumed to be true. Assumptions in this case
are things to be lived with. Programmers must tell the difference between established
fact and mere opinion. They must evaluate opinions and test their validity.
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UNCOVER AND TEST CONCEPTS
It is critical to understand the difference between programmatic concepts
and design concepts, which is very difficult for some people to grasp.
Programmatic concepts refer to abstract ideas intended mainly as functional solutions
to clients’ performance problems without regard to the physical response. Conversely,
design concepts refer to concrete ideas intended as physical solutions to clients’
architectural problems, this being the physical response. The key to comprehension is
that programmatic concepts relate to performance problems, and design concepts
relate to architectural problems.
The difference between programmatic concepts and design concepts is illustrated in
these examples: Convertibility is a programmatic concept; a corresponding design
concept is a folding door. Shelter is a programmatic concept; a corresponding design
concept is a roof.
Abstract ideas are required. Ideas must be kept in a pliable, vague form until the
designer jells them into a physical solution. It’s really best if design can wait until all the
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information is available. Should the client prescribe independent, concrete ideas or
three-dimensional design concepts, the designer would have difficulty in articulating
solid-form solutions into an integrated whole.
Such is the case when a house client drops on your desk a big scrapbook full of
magazine clippings representing a parade of actual design solutions—a Dutch kitchen,
a French Provincial dining room, a Japanese living room, together with a Shangri-La
porch. The scrapbook is the nemesis of the experienced programmer, yet it can be
used as a means to seek the problems behind the solutions.
There are 24 programmatic concepts that seem to crop up on nearly every project,
regardless of the building types—housing, hospitals, schools, shopping centers, or
factories. The next series of diagrams explains briefly these recurring concepts. The
programmer will find them useful by testing to see whether they are applicable to his
or her current project.
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1. Priority
2. Hierarchy
The concept of priority evokes questions regarding the
order of importance, such as relative position, size,
and social value. This concept reflects how to accomplish a goal based on a ranking of values. For
example, “to place a higher value on pedestrian traffic
than on vehicular traffic” may relate to the precedence
in traffic flow.
The concept of hierarchy is related to a goal about the
exercise of authority and is expressed in symbols of
authority. For example, the goal “to maintain the traditional hierarchy of military rank” may be implemented
by the concept of a hierarchy of office sizes.
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3. Character
4. Density
The concept of character is based on a goal concerning
the image the client wants to project in terms of
values and the generic nature of the project.
A goal for efficient land or space use, a goal for high
degrees of interaction, or a goal to respond to harsh
climatic conditions may lead to the appropriate degree
of density—low, medium, or high.
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5. Service Grouping
6. Activity Grouping
Should services be centralized of decentralized?
Test the many services as being best centralized or best
decentralized. Should the heating system be centralized
or decentralized? The library? Dining? Storage? And
many other services? Evaluate the gains and risks to
simulate client decisions. But remember, each distinct
service will be centralized or decentralized for a definite
reason—to implement a specific goal.
Should activities be integrated or compartmentalized? A family of closely related activities would
indicate integration to promote interaction, while the
need for some kinds and degrees of privacy or security
would indicate compartmentalization.
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7. People Grouping
8. Home Base
Look for concepts derived from the physical, social, and
emotional characteristics of people—as individuals, in
small groups, and in large groups. If a client wants
to preserve the identity of individuals while in a large
mass of people, ask what size grouping would implement
this goal. Look to the functional organization, not to the
organizational chart, which merely indicates pecking
order.
Home base is related to the idea of territoriality, an
easily defined place where a person can maintain his or
her individuality. While this concept applies to a wide
range of functional settings—for example, a high school
or manufacturing plant—recently, many organizations
have recommended new settings for office work. These
officing concepts are described in the following pages as
on-premise or off-premise work settings.
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9. Relationships
10. Communications
The correct interrelation of spaces promotes
efficiencies and effectiveness of people and their
activities. This concept of functional affinities is the
most common programmatic concept.
A goal to promote the effective exchange of information
or ideas in an organization may call for networks or
patterns of communication: Who communicates with
whom? How? How often?
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11. Neighbors
12. Accessibility
Is there a goal for sociability? Will the project be
completely independent, or is there a mutual desire
to be interdependent, to cooperate with neighbors?
Can first-time visitors find where to enter the project?
The concept of accessibility also applies to provisions
for the handicapped, beyond signs and symbols. Do
we need single or multiple entrances?
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13. Separated Flow
14. Mixed Flow
A goal for segregation may relate to people (such as
prisoners and the public), to automobiles (such as
campus traffic and urban traffic), and to people and
automobiles (such as pedestrian traffic and automobile
traffic). For example, separate traffic lanes with
barriers, such as walls, separate floors, and space.
Common social spaces, such as town squares or building lobbies, are designed for multidirectional, multipurpose traffic—or mixed flow. This concept may be
apropos if the goal is to promote chance and planned
encounters.
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15. Sequential Flow
16. Orientation
The progression of people (as in a museum) and
things (as in a factory) must be carefully planned. A
flowchart diagram will communicate this concept of
sequential flow much easier than words will.
Provide a bearing—a point of reference within a
building, a campus, or a city. Relating periodically to a
space, thing, or structure can prevent a feeling of being
lost.
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17. Flexibility
18.Tolerance
The concept of flexibility is quite often misunderstood.
To some, it means that the building can accommodate
growth through expansion. To others, it means that the
building can allow for changes in function through
the conversion of spaces. To still others, it means that
the building provides the most for the money through
multifunction spaces. Actually, flexibility covers all
three—expansibility, convertibility, and versatility.
This concept may well add space to the program. Is a
particular space tailored precisely for a static activity,
or is it provided with a loose fit for a dynamic
activity—one likely to change?
EXPANSIBILITY
CONVERTIBILITY
VERSATILITY
EXTERIOR CHANGES
INTERIOR CHANGES
MULTIFUNCTION
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19. Safety
20. Security Controls
Which major ideas will implement the goal for life
safety? Look to codes and safety precautions for
form-giving ideas.
The degree of security control varies depending on the
value of the potential loss—minimum, medium, or
maximum. These controls are used to protect
property and to guide personnel movement.
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21. Energy Conservation
22. Environmental Controls
There are two general ways to lead to energy-efficient
buildings: (1) keep heated area to a minimum by
making use of conditioned, but nonheated, outside
space, such as exterior corridors; and (2) keep heatflow to a minimum with insulation, correct orientation to sun and wind, compactness, sun controls, wind
controls, and reflective surfaces.
What controls for air temperature, light, and sound will
be required to provide comfort for people inside and
outside the building? Look to the climate and sun angle
analysis for answers.
1
2
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23. Phasing
24. Cost Control
Will phasing of construction be required to complete
the project on a time-and-cost schedule if the
project proved infeasible in the initial analysis? Will the
urgency for the occupancy date determine the need for
concurrent scheduling, or allow for linear scheduling?
This concept is intended as a search for economy ideas
that will lead to a realistic preview of costs and a
balanced budget to meet the extent of available funds.
$
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DETERMINE NEEDS
Few clients have enough money to do all the things they want to do. Therefore,
distinguishing needs from wants is important. What the rich man considers a
necessity, the poor man thinks a luxury. Thus, judgments on the quality and adequacy
of space are difficult to make. It is also difficult to identify real needs. The client usually
wants more than he or she can afford. So the client and the architect must agree on a
quality level of construction and on a definite space program relating to funds available
at a specific time.
The fourth step is, in effect, an economic feasibility test to see if a budget can
be determined, or a fixed budget balanced. It should be noted that the best balance is
achieved when all four elements of cost are to some extent negotiable: (1) the space
requirements, (2) the quality of construction, (3) the money budget, and (4) time. At
least one of these four elements must be negotiable. Thus, if agreement is reached on
quality, budget, and time, the adjustment must be made in the amount of space. A
serious imbalance might require the reevaluation of Goals, Facts, and Concepts.
The client’s functional needs have a direct bearing on space requirements, which are
generated by people and activities. Allowance must be made for a reasonable building
efficiency as expressed by the relationship of net areas to gross areas. The proposed
quality of construction is expressed in quantitative terms as cost per square foot (SF).
A realistic escalation factor must be included to cover the time lag between programming and midconstruction.
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Phasing of construction may be considered as an alternative:
• When the initial budget is limited.
• When the funds are available over a period of time.
• When the functional needs are expected to grow.
Cost control begins with programming, and is basic to the whole architectural
design problem to be solved. Cost control does not inhibit an architect’s creativity;
economy is a major consideration, not a constraint. An architect might petulantly
think that cost control is a constraint, but not if he or she is committed to giving
clients what they need, and what they can afford.
Predicting costs at programming is not too difficult since the total planning proceeds
from the general to the specific, from the broad scope to details. During programming,
cost estimates can be made by successive approximations from the roughest tally of
gross area, testing it with different quality levels of construction, while keeping an eye
on building cost and other anticipated expenditures. First-phase programming (for
schematic design) requires schematic estimates. Second-phase programming (for
design development) requires more detailed estimates. As the project advances in
refinement, it is possible to test, to rebalance, and to update the budget estimate.
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COST ESTIMATE ANALYSIS
It is imperative to establish a realistic budget from the very beginning. Realistic
budgets are predictive and comprehensive. They prevent major surprises. They tend to
include all the anticipated expenditures as line items in a cost estimate analysis. The
architect must look to past experience and published materials to derive predictive
parameters.
The influences and impact of the budgeting and estimating process on design cannot be
stressed too strongly. If you understand the budget from the beginning, then you will not
be spending your fee on redesign. At each step in the design, the budget must be
monitored and reviewed in order to keep the project within budget and on schedule.
The budget depends on three realistic predictions: (1) a reasonable efficiency ratio of
net to gross area, (2) cost per square foot escalated to midconstruction, and (3) other
expenditures as percentages of building cost. These predictions have become so
common a practice that they are not considered as predictions but as planning factors.
Understand the owner’s financial issues and how to develop a total program.
First things first: The earliest budget based on gross numbers, cost per SF, cost per unit
measure (i.e., car, student, patient beds, rooms, seats, prisoner etc.). The owner will
typically have a budget in mind even if he or she does not want to share it with you.
What you need to do is find out how the client developed the budget. Was it based
on “a similar structure built in Texas six years ago, and we added 3 percent per year
for inflation,” not realizing that the new building is in a union market, versus Texas,
which is mostly merit shop. So you need to make sure that the owner is starting with
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a realistic budget. Help him or her to understand that in that same six-year period
the real increase in cost was 22 percent, and that the cost differential from Texas to
downtown Chicago is significant (merit shop versus union).
What happens when a trial-run cost estimate analysis results in a total project cost
amount required that is larger than the extent of funds available? In other words, the
client cannot afford the total cost. If the budget is fixed for a specific time, only two
other factors can change: cost per square foot and gross area. This means that the
quality of construction or the amount of space or both must be reduced.
There are many times at
which we can exercise cost
control. But if we don’t
establish and balance the
budget toward the end of
programming, we
jeopardize the project.
—William Peña
Cost Estimate Analysis
A. Building Costs
200,000 SF @ $135.00/GSF
$27,000,000
B. Fixed Equipment
(8% of A)
2,160,000
C. Site Development
(15% of A)
4,050,000
D. Total Construction
(A + B + C)
$33,210,000
E. Site Acquisition/Demolition
$500,000
F. Movable Equipment
(8% of A)
2,160,000
G. Professional Fees
(6% of D)
1,992,600
H. Contingencies
(10% of D)
3,321,000
J. Administrative Costs
(1% of D)
332,100
K. Total Budget Required
(D + E through J)
$41,515,700
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ABSTRACT TO THE ESSENCE
Architects are taught to take a holistic view of the problem, and even to go beyond
the sphere of direct influences to explore other possibilities. However, going too far
afield increases the prospects of irrelevant information.
Architects are also taught to bring order out of chaos, to establish an order of
importance, to get to the heart of the matter. Abstracting—distilling—to the essence
must be an essential talent of the programmer. There must be a filtering process
that brings out only the major aspects of information. This is especially true in
arriving at the statement of the problem.
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There is always the danger of oversimplification in abstracting to find the essence.Yet
the danger of leaving something out can be minimized by analyzing and consciously
including all the complicating factors.
There is need to amplify in order to view the whole problem, but there is also need
to abstract.You amplify and then narrow down; you seek the ramifications of the
information gathered, and then turn around to determine the bare implication. It’s a
continual process.You must be able to see the trees and the forest—not both at once
but consecutively, from two different points of view.
One reason for limiting one
thought, one fact per card,
is to be able to reduce the
number of cards without
losing something important.
—Steve Parshall
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STATE THE PROBLEM
Programming is a process leading to an explicit statement of an architectural problem.
It’s the handoff package—from programmer to designer.
After pondering information derived from previous steps, designer and
programmer must write down the most salient statements regarding the
problem, the kind of statements that will shape the building. These, if skillfully
composed, can serve as premises for design, and later as design criteria to
evaluate the design solution.
There should be a minimum of four statements concerning the four major considerations, components of the whole problem: (1) Function, (2) Form, (3) Economy,
and (4) Time. Typically, they cover the functional program, the site, the budget, and
the implications of time. Rarely should there be more than 10 statements. More
than this would indicate that the problem is still too complex or that minor details
are being used as premises for design. Statements must represent the essence of
the problem.
The problem statements must be clear and concise—in the designer’s own
words—so there is no doubt that he or she understands. The problem statements
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should focus on the obvious—which is often overlooked. Stress the uniqueness of the
project.
The format for a problem statement can vary with individual designers, but it is good
practice to acknowledge a significant and specific condition and establish a general
direction for design. While each condition must be precisely stated, the direction
(what should be done) should be ambiguous enough to prevent the feeling of being
locked into one solution. This direction should be made in terms of performance, so
as not to close the door to alternative solutions, nor to different expressions in
architectural form.
This is where we do the
most reductions. However,
there are some people who
would expand the problem
to make it universal—
which no one can solve.
—William Peña
These qualitative statements relate to the whole problem by including all the
complicating factors, yet they must represent the essence of the previous steps. They
anticipate a comprehensive solution to the whole problem—not by discarding the
information in the previous steps (which is kept on display), but by resolving the initial
complexity of the design problem into simple and clear statements. The act of
resolution pervades the programming process, but it is most vividly expressed in this
fifth step. Resolution requires an intensity of intellectual effort. It is hard work to
simplify and clarify the statement of the problem, yet this is necessary so that
everyone on the project team can cooperate toward the same end.
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SUMMARY
PROGRAMMING PRINCIPLES
To reinforce the concept of Architecture by Team, Bill Caudill believed:
A. The Principle of Product
A product has a much better chance of being successful if, during the design
process, the four major considerations (Function, Form, Economy, and Time) are
regarded simultaneously.
B. The Principle of Process
Every task requires three kinds of thinking action relating to the disciplines of
architectural practice: management, design, and building technology. Teamwork is
in the overlap.
Expanding on these two principles of team action, the following principles are the
foundations of the problem-seeking method.
1. The Principle of Client Involvement
The client is a participating member of the project team and makes most
decisions at programming.
2. The Principle of Effective Communication
Clients and designers require graphic analysis to understand the magnitude of
numbers and the implications of ideas.
3. The Principle of Comprehensive Analysis
The whole problem covers a wide range of factors that influence design, but they
can all be classified in a simple framework of five steps and four considerations.
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4. The Principle of Bare Essentials
Programming requires abstracting—distilling—to the essence, to bring out only
the major aspects of information.
5. The Principle of Abstract Thinking
Programming deals with abstract ideas known as programmatic concepts, which
are intended mainly as operational solutions to clients’ performance problems,
without regard to the physical design response.
6. The Principle of Distinct Separation
The problem-seeking method recognizes programming and design—analysis and
synthesis—as two different processes calling for different ways of thinking.
7. The Principle of Efficient Operation
The programming team requires good project management, clear roles and
responsibilities, a common language, and standard procedures.
8. The Principle of Qualitative Information
The requirements of a proposed building include the client’s goals (what is to be
achieved) and concepts (how they are to be achieved).
9. The Principle of Quantitative Information
Certain project facts and needs are essentially numbers—numbers of people and
things generate area numbers and cost numbers—and they can lead to cost
control and a balanced budget.
10. The Principle of Definite Closure
Programming is a process leading to an explicit statement of an architectural
problem—compensating for the missing parts and resolving the initial complexity
to simple and clear statements.
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Part Two
How to Use the Method
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INTRODUCTION
Definitions and Examples
Programming Procedures
This part comprises a series of seven sections covering
the definitions of terms and examples of applications used
in architectural programming. Each section defines terms
used in the text of this book, as well as related terms not
in the text. Note that the terms do not appear in
alphabetical order, because it is more important to
explain their interrelationships by grouping them together.
For example,Values, Beliefs, and Issues are grouped to
explain their logical relationship to Goals. To find a
definition, then, refer to the Index for the specific page.
The Information Index uses key words and phrases to
trigger specific questions in the context of the project
at hand. Behind these key words are detailed
procedures that are universal enough to be negotiable
for a wide variety of building types. These words are
meant to evoke questions and further inquiry for the
analysis of a design problem. Therefore, their
organization follows the five steps of the Problem
Seeking® process.
The seven sections are:
1. Establish goals.
2. Collect and analyze Facts.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
On Theory and Process
On Considerations
On Goals
On Facts
On Concepts
On Needs
• Area Definition and Measurement Methods
• Building Efficiency
• Cost Estimate Analysis
• Line Item Allocation
• Components of Building Cost
• Interior Cost Estimate
• Site Development Cost
• Building Quality Levels
• Sustainability
• Financial Analysis
7. On Problem Statements
3. Uncover and test Concepts.
4. Determine needs.
5. State the problem.
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Programming Activities
Useful Techniques
The Primer covers the basic programming process. This
section explains how to apply the fundamental process
to a typical project, and then how to apply it to more
complex projects and different client situations. Finally, it
explains three ways to simplify design problems:
Programming techniques deal with how to analyze client
requirements and communicate with users, decision
makers, and, later in the process, with the design team:
First, how to collect, organize, and analyze data, then
how to interview users for information, and, finally, how
to use that information during decision-making work
sessions with the client.
1. Identify Typical Programming Activities.
2. Establish Four Degrees of Sophistication.
3. Define Variable Conditions.
1. Data Management
2. Questionnaires
3. Interviews and Work Sessions
4. Audio- and Videoconferencing
5. Functional Relationship Analysis
6. Gaming and Simulation
7. Space Lists
8. Program Development
9. Brown Sheets and Visualization
10. Analysis Cards and Wall Displays
11. Electronic White Boards and Flip Charts
12. Electronic Presentations
13. Programming Reports
14. Program Evaluation
15. Building Evaluation
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DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES
The following sections contain more than definitions of
terms having very special usage in architectural
programming. They also provide examples to illustrate
the terms themselves, along with related terms to show
their relationships. In addition, the sections include
information linking the technical terms to the process—
connecting meaning and usage.
1. The recognition and formulation of a problem
The section “On Needs” is, perhaps, the most complex
case of definitions and examples, as it covers area
definitions, building efficiency, cost estimates, quality
level, sustainability, and financial analysis.
Traditional Problem-Solving Steps*
On Theory and Process
Architectural Programming: A process leading to
the statement of an architectural problem and the
requirements to be met in offering a solution.
Systems Analysis: The process of studying an activity,
typically by mathematical means, in order to determine
its essential end and how this may be efficiently attained.
Hypothesis: A proposition, condition, or principle that
is assumed, without belief, in order to draw out its
logical consequences, and by this method to test its
accord with facts that are known or may be determined.
Scientific Method: The principles and procedures used
in the systematic pursuit of interdependent, accessible
knowledge, and involving, as necessary conditions:
2. The collection of data through observation and,
possibly, experiment
3. The formulation of hypothesis
4. The testing for confirmation of the hypothesis
formulated
1. Definition of the problem
2. Establishment of objectives
3. Collection of data
4. Analysis of the problem
5. Consideration of solutions
6. Solution of the problem
*Compare with the five problem-seeking steps.
Analysis: Separation, or breaking up, of a whole into its
fundamental elements or component parts.
Synthesis: Composition, or combination, of parts or
elements, so as to form a coherent whole.
Research: Critical and exhaustive investigation or
experimentation having for its aim the discovery of new
facts and their correct interpretation.
Operations Research: The application of scientific
and, especially, mathematical methods to the study and
analysis of complex overall problems.
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Theory: Principles and generalizations, plus their
interrelationships, that present a clear, rounded, and
systematic view of a complex problem or field.
Principle: An empirically derived conclusion about
irreducible qualities of a system. The particular
abstractions that summarize the phenomena of a given
subject field.
Comprehensive: Covering a matter under
consideration completely or nearly completely,
accounting for all, or virtually all, pertinent
considerations.
Complex: Combining various parts. Needing
considerable study, knowledge, or experience for
comprehension or operation.
Generalization: A general statement, law, principle, or
proposition.
Complicated: May heighten notions of difficulty in
understanding.
Generalize: To derive or induce (a general conception
or principle) from particulars.
Organize: To put into readiness for cooperative action.
To arrange elements into a whole of interdependent
parts.
Induction: Reasoning from a part to a whole, from
particulars to generals, from the individual to the
universal.
Unorganized: Not brought into a coherent or wellordered whole.
Deduction: Deriving a conclusion by reasoning.
Inferring from a general principle.
Simplism: Oversimplification. The tendency to
concentrate on a single aspect (as of a problem) to the
exclusion of all complicating factors.
Reductionism: A procedure or theory that reduces
complex data or phenomena to simple terms.
Resolution: The process of reducing to simpler form.
The art of analyzing or converting a complex notion
into a simpler one or into its elements.
Heuristic: Serving to guide, discover, or reveal.Valuable
for stimulating or conducting empirical research, but
unproved or incapable of proof.
Algorithm: A rule or procedure for solving a
mathematical problem that frequently involves the
repetition of an operation.
Method: A particular approach to problems of truth or
knowledge. A systematic procedure, technique, or mode
of inquiry employed by a particular discipline.
Methodology: The approaches employed in the
solution of a problem. A branch of logic that analyzes
the procedures that should guide inquiry in a particular
field. Methods of inquiry, techniques, and procedures
used in a particular field.
Reasonable: Carries a weaker implication of the
power to reason in general. Rather, refers to actions,
decisions, or choices that are practical, sensible, just, or
fair.
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Rational: The power to make logical inferences and
draw conclusions, enabling one to understand the world
around oneself and relate such knowledge to the
attainment of goals.
Logical: That which is in harmony with sound
reasoning and agrees with accepted principles of logic.
Total Design Process: The first three phases in
architectural practice: (1) programming, (2) schematic
design, and (3) design development. Programming is a
part of the total design process in this definition, but is
separate from schematic design.
P
Logic: The science of correct reasoning that deals with
the criteria of validity in thought and demonstration.
Total
SD
DD
Design
Process
Key Words: Words with a crucial meaning.
Evocative Words: Words that trigger useful
information; words charged with emotion, as well as
meaning, that tend to evoke ideas or associations.
Design: The second and third phases of the total design
process: schematic design and design development.
P
SD
DD
Coded Words: Words assigned to arbitrary meanings.
Framework: An open work frame. A frame of
reference. A systematic set of relationships.
Information Index: A matrix or rectangular format of
key and evocative words arranged to express the
relationships of steps and considerations, and the typical
classification of pertinent information.
Total Project Delivery System: A complete series of
operations leading to the occupancy of a completed
building: (1) programming (P), (2) schematic design (SD),
(3) design development (DD), (4) construction
documents (CD), (5) bidding, and (6) construction.
P
SD
DD
Total
Project
CD
Delivery
CONSTRUCTION
System
Program
Design
Schematic Design: The interpretation of the owner’s
project requirements by studies and drawings that
illustrate basic architectural concepts, space
requirements and relationships, primary circulation,
scale, massing, use of site, general appearance, and scope
of the project. Included is a statement of adequacy of
the stipulated project budget.
Design Development: Following approval of
schematic design, development includes the
determination, design, and coordination of architectural,
structural, mechanical, and electrical systems; equipment
layouts; and all related site development. This phase
results in drawings and documentation, plus additional
material as necessary to illustrate “final” development
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and ensure that all significant design questions and/or
problems have been answered.
and can include members well beyond the basic triad of
owner, architect, and contractor.
Construction Documents: This phase transforms the
preceding approved design development documents
into a set of detailed, legal bidding documents that relate
to the construction industry. These documents control
and direct the construction process via construction
drawings, and detail materials and building systems
specifications.
IPD Phases: There are eight main sequential phases
to the Integrated Project Delivery method: (1)
conceptualization phase—expanded programming (EP),
(2) criteria design phase—expanded schematic design
(ESD), (3) detailed design phase—expanded design
development (EDD), (4) implementation documents
phase—construction documents (CD), (5) agency review
phase (AR), (6) buyout phase (O), (7) construction
phase (CON), and (8) closeout phase (CO).
Integrated Project Delivery Guide: The American
Institute of Architects (AIA) National and AIA California
Council published a guide on an alternative to the
traditional total project delivery system. Integrated
Project Delivery is a response to owners’ ongoing
demand for more effective processes that result in
better, faster, less costly, and less adversarial
construction projects, and to new project delivery
capabilities that are enabled by emerging technologies.
The following definitions are adopted from that report,
Integrated Project Delivery: A Guide, version 1, published by
the American Institute of Architects, 2007.
Integrated Project Delivery (IPD): A collaborative
project delivery approach that integrates people, systems,
business structures, and practices into a process that
harnesses the talents and insights of all participants to
optimize project results, increase value to the owner,
reduce waste, and maximize efficiency through all phases
of design, fabrication, and construction. A team can apply
IPD principles to a variety of contractual arrangements
EP
ESD
EDD
CD
AR
CON
CO
OWNER
PROGRAMMER
ARCHITECT
ENGINEER
CONTRACTOR
Total
Project
Delivery
System
IPD Project Teams: Integrated projects involve
collaboration among owner, designer, and constructor,
commencing during programming and continuing
through occupancy. Building upon early contributions of
individual specialists, these teams are guided by
principles of trust, transparent processes, effective
collaboration, open information sharing, team success
tied to project success, shared risk and reward, valuebased decision making, and utilization of full
technological capabilities and support. The outcome is
the opportunity to design, build, and operate as
efficiently as possible.
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IPD Enabling Technologies: The IPD method
leverages the early contributions of project participants’
knowledge and expertise through utilization of
information technologies. These allow team members to
collaborate effectively while expanding the value they
provide throughout the building information life cycle.
TRAT Body of
G&S
Building Information
Cycle:
NINLife
EG
AN
L
P
information generated over the life cycleYof a building,
es
ig
n
er
Op
a
NS
&
EM
ENT
Build
I GN
DES
BIM Process: Begins with capturing the program of
requirements for each phase of design. BIM is one of the
most powerful tools supporting IPD because it can
combine, among other things, the design, fabrication
information, erection instructions, and project
management logistics in one information system. It
provides a platform for collaboration throughout the
design, construction, and commissioning process.
Because the information model and database is useful
for the life of a building, the owner may use BIM to
manage the facility well beyond completion of
construction for such purposes as space planning,
furnishing, monitoring long-term energy performance,
maintenance, and remodeling.
LE
M
TIO
RA
M
A
NA
G
D
Mo
ve-In
N
te
Pro
gram
Evalua
OPE
te
EN
TA
TIO
Real E
st a
ions
olut
eS
te
St
ra
l ac
kp
or
te
ning
ilit y Planconstruction,
involving: programming,
Facdesign,
commissioning, yuse, operation, and maintenance
of the
W
g
built environment.
modeling software to increase productivity in building
design and construction. The process produces the
building information model, which encompasses building
geometry, spatial relationships, geographic information,
and quantities and properties of building components.
P
M
I
&
Building Information Life Cycle
Building Information Modeling (BIM): The process
of generating, using, and managing building data during
its life cycle, including the programming of requirements.
BIM Software: Digital, three-dimensional model of a
building linked to a database of project information.
Typically, it uses three-dimensional, real-time, parametric
Integrated Workplace Management System
(IWMS): Unifies real estate and facility information to
optimize management of the real estate portfolio, facility
operations, space planning, project management, and
environmental sustainability.
IWMS Software: Database application that receives
information feeds from enterprise applications such as
human resources, finance, and accounting into a unified
structure with an interface for use by facility managers.
Automated workflows enable moves, adds, changes, and
reporting capabilities.
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On Considerations
the maximum cost-effectiveness of the operating and
life-cycle costs.
Considerations: Relate to an architectural product
and indicate the four major types of information needed
in programming: Function, Form, Economy, and Time.
Time: Deals with the influence of history, the
inevitability of change from the present, and projections
into the future.
Content: Refers to four considerations that constitute
a comprehensive architectural problem: Function, Form,
Economy, and Time.
Operational: Refers to goals and concepts dealing with
the process—how the client/architect team will
proceed through the total project delivery system to
fulfill the contract.
Function: How the design product will work to do the
job it is supposed to do. The performance. The “do”
refers to the way people and things will move about to
complete the tasks they have been assigned.
Functions: The action for which a person or thing is
specially fitted, used, or responsible, or the purpose for
which it exists.
Functional: Designed chiefly from the point of view of
use: utilitarian work, operations, and/or performance.
Activities: Organized units for performing a specific
function.
Form: In design, refers to the shape and structure of a
building as distinguished from its materials—form is
what you see and feel.
In programming, form refers to what you will see and
feel, avoiding the suggestion of a design solution. It’s the
“what is there now” and “what will be there.”
Economy: The efficient and sparing use of the means
available for the end proposed. Implies an interest in
achieving maximum results from the initial budget and
On Goals
Goal: The end toward which effort is directed. Suggests
something attained only by prolonged effort. Goals can
be classified as: (1) project goals and (2) operational
goals.
• Project goals are concerned with product;
operational goals are concerned with process.
• Project goals are established by the client working
with the architect. These are elicited from the
considerations of Function, Form, Economy, and
Time, and their subcategories.
The following can be used as synonyms for the term
“goals”: objectives, aims, missions, purposes, reasons,
philosophies, aspirations, and policies. Any of these
terms can be used to generate statements that specify
what is to be achieved toward the success of the
project—what the client wants to accomplish and why.
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PROJECT GOALS
1. Function
a. Mission Statement
(1) Explains reasons
(2) Answers why
(3) States purpose
b. Philosophy
rules or guidelines that implement goals and objectives.
A goal or an objective stresses the effort of action; in
contrast, a policy represents a selected course of action.
Concepts are functional or organizational ideas that also
implement goals and objectives. Whereas policies are
classified under goals, concepts are not.
Example:
2. Form
Goal: To promote academic efficiency.
3. Economy
Objective: To reduce student travel time between
classes.
4. Time
Policy: That service courses be decentralized
where desirable.
Consider the use of the following common synonyms
for the word “goal.”
Objective: A more detailed delineation of a particular
goal. Implies something tangible and immediately
attainable. Goals tend to be general; objectives tend to
be specific. Objectives are more time bound and
quantitative and, therefore, a better measure for
evaluating the degree of achievement.
Example:
Goal: To serve as many students from the state of
Texas as possible.
Concept: Decentralized cluster of activity.
Intention: A determination to act in a certain way.
Implies little more than what one has in mind to do or
bring about.
Aim: Something intended or desired to be attained by
one’s effort. Implies effort directed toward attaining or
accomplishing.
Vision: A target that beckons. A mental image of a
desirable future state that is different in an important
way from what exists today.
Objective: To increase enrollment by the amount
of 1,000 students per year.
Vision Session: A goal-setting meeting with the client/
user groups used to communicate and document a
client’s vision and goals.
Policy: A definite course of action selected from among
alternatives and in the light of given conditions to guide
and determine present and future decisions. Policies are
Mission: A task or function assigned or undertaken. A
mission statement of an organization simply explains the
reason for its existence.
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A functional goal answers the question “Why?” It should
state the purpose of the organization to provide
guidance to all subordinate programs and activities.
Example:
This university’s mission is to build knowledge and
to prepare future leadership for change and
improvement.
The mission statement should include the general
functions or services to be performed, without
anticipating implementing concepts.
Example:
The functions of a university are: (1) teaching,
(2) research, and (3) service.
End: The goal toward which an agent should act.
Stresses the intended effect of action, often distinct
from the action or means as such.
Philosophy: A basic theory concerning a particular
subject, process, or sphere of activity. Asking the client
for the philosophy behind the functional program often
results in answers and information that are too esoteric
and too vague to be directly useful.
Top management responsible for comprehensive
planning will necessarily establish the broadest project
goals, while middle management will develop more
specific goals consistent with the broad goals. The user
usually establishes objectives.
Project goals can be established with no immediate
means of achievement available. However, it might be
well to remember that goals must eventually be tested
to determine their integrity and usefulness—depending
on means of achievement.
PROJECT GOALS
1.
2.
3.
4.
“Motherhood”
Lip Service
Inspirational
Practical
Consider the following kinds of project goals:
“Motherhood” Goals: These are unassailable goals;
however, they are too general to be directly useful.
Example:
To provide a good environment for children.
Purpose: Something set up as an end to be attained.
Suggests a more settled determination.
Lip-Service Goals: These are showpieces that look
good in a public relations publication but after testing are
found lacking in sufficient backup for accomplishment.
Aspiration: (1) A goal aspired to, or (2) a condition
strongly desired. The latter indicates the informality with
which a goal can be stated.
Inspirational Goals: These are general “motherhood”
goals whose ambiguity may serve to trigger the
designer’s subconscious to uncover a design concept.
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Example:
To project the dynamic, progressive spirit of the
bank.
Practical Goals: These goals may provide guidance for
the collection of pertinent facts. They are intended to be
accomplished through known concepts and may affect
the statement of the problem.
Example:
Goal: To help maintain the individual student’s
sense of identity within the large mass of
enrollments.
Fact: Enrollments in this school will grow from
the initial 1,000 students to 2,700 students.
Concept: Decentralize the mass of 2,700
students into schools of 900 students with four
houses within each school.
Goals are derived from values, beliefs, and/or issues,
either consciously or unconsciously. In fact, with a client/
user who is not goal-oriented or is even nonverbal, it
might be easier to bring out values, beliefs, and/or issues
that may lead to goals.
Value: Something intrinsically valuable or desirable.
Relative worth, utility, or importance. Aims and
objectives that act as a basis for motivation. Basic
interests or motives.
Example:
Value: The worth of the individual as a human
being.
Goal: To help maintain the individual student’s
sense of identity within the large mass of
enrollments.
Issue: A point of debate or controversy. A matter that
is in dispute between parties.
Example:
Issue: The racial imbalance.
Goal: To develop the performing arts to such an
outstanding level that all races will be attracted to
this school.
Belief: Mental acceptance of something offered as true,
with or without certainty.
Example:
Belief: That a better environment can help people
live better lives.
Goal: To produce forms and spaces with the
quality of architecture.
Operational Goals: These goals generally result from
the architect’s contract or from operational decisions
made by the client/architect team. These goals will affect
how the team will proceed through the project to fulfill
the contract. They will give rise to operational concepts.
Operational goals describe what the team wants to
accomplish in terms of the total project delivery
system—the process, not the product. The effort is to
identify the best possible course of action in terms of
time, people, and cost, and often in terms of information,
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techniques, and location. It is advisable for the
programmer to address the response to these goals
when preparing the proposal for services.
OPERATIONAL GOALS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Time
People
Cost
Information
Techniques
Location
Data: Factual material used as a basis for reasoning,
discussion, or decision.
Relevant: Properly applying to the matter at hand. A
logical connection with a matter under consideration.
Pertinent: Synonymous with “relevant.” Often stresses
a more significant relationship that contributes to the
understanding of a problem or matter at hand.
Assumption: A statement accepted or supposed true
without proof or demonstration. In programming,
classified under facts assumed or fixed opinions.
Examples:
Truth: Conformity to knowledge, fact, actuality, or logic.
Time: To occupy the finished building by
September 2008.
Empirical: Based on factual information. Observation
or direct sense experience, as opposed to theoretical
knowledge.
Time and Location: To keep the present hospital
operational while the new wing is being constructed.
Information and Techniques: To process
enrollment/space data.
Time and Technique: To develop a schedule that
will compress the total project delivery time.
Cost: To effect a 20 percent gross profit on the
whole project.
People: To coordinate the team’s activities to
make the most effective use of consultants.
On Facts
Information: Knowledge obtained from investigation,
study, or instruction.
Fact: Information presented as having objective reality;
truth.
User Characteristics: Those physical, social,
emotional, and intellectual qualities that typify the users
and affect their behavior patterns. Common
characteristics include physical size, age and sex, social
class, likes and dislikes, intellectual ability.
Parameter: The mathematical term for a symbolic
quantity that may be associated with some measurable
quantity in the real world, such as cost/GSF. An arbitrary
constant characterizing by each of its particular values
some particular member of a system.
Disinterestedness: Objectivity toward the uncovering
of information. Detached scrutiny.
Objectivity: The use of facts without distortion by
personal feelings or prejudices.
Skepticism: Delayed judgment until all data is analyzed.
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On Concepts
Concept: Something conceived in the mind: an idea or
notion.
Programmatic Concepts: These refer to ideas
intended mainly as functional and organizational solutions
to the client’s own performance problems. Conventional
or abstract ideas generalized from particular instances.
Programmatic concepts attempt to implement practical
goals. They are a means of accomplishing goals. If goals
are ends, programmatic concepts are means, and design
concepts are the physical responses to them and to the
design premises in the statement of the problem.
PROJECT GOALS (Ends)
PROGRAMMATIC CONCEPTS (Means)
DESIGN CONCEPTS (Response)
Example:
Programmatic Concept: Decentralize the mass
of 2,700 students into schools of 900 students
with four houses within each school.
Design Concepts: The physical responses to the
programmatic concept of decentralization above
may be: (1) the dispersion of three buildings, (2)
the dispersion/compactness of three floors in one
building, or (3) the compactness of a single building
with three identifiable schools on one floor.
Design Concepts: These refer to ideas intended as
physical solutions to the client’s architectural problems.
In programming, programmatic concepts are emphasized,
and design concepts avoided. It is essential to understand
the difference between these two kinds of concepts.
To deal with design concepts during programming
would mean: (1) jumping to conclusions, (2) synthesizing
too early, and (3) determining subsolutions before the
subproblems were identified.
Programmatic concepts are further classified under
Function, Form, Economy, and Time. Since they are
intended as functional and organizational solutions, it
might be thought that most of them are functional. This
is not so.
It might also be thought impossible to avoid the physical
aspects of concepts. This may be so, but the intent is to
state a programmatic concept in such a way as to elicit
alternative responses in design.
Recurring Concepts: These refer to programmatic
concepts that not only appear in just one project or
type of institution, but also appear as potential aspects
of any project or institution. These concepts, then, are
worth testing in any project, to find their applicability.
Operational Concepts: These refer to ideas intended
as procedural solutions to the client/architect team’s
procedural problems. Operational concepts indicate
how the team will proceed through the project to fulfill
the client/architect contract.
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Operational concepts implement operational goals in
terms of time, people, and cost, and often in terms of
information, techniques, and location.
Example:
Operational Goal: To occupy the finished
building by September 2008.
Operational Concept: Scheduling and criticalpath method.
Operational Goal: To keep the present hospital
operational while the new wing is being constructed.
Operational Concept: Concurrent activities.
Operational Goal: To process enrollment/space
data.
Operational Concept: Automation.
Sustainability Concepts: Ideas for achieving triple
bottom-line objectives of environmental, economic, and
social benefits over the built environment’s life cycle.
Example:
Sustainability Goal: To improve the efficiency of
energy consumption in buildings.
Sustainability Concept: Consider the envelope
as a buffer to modify the effect of sun, wind, rain,
and snow.
Sustainability Concept: Natural ventilation and
daylighting.
Water and Energy Sustainability Concepts: We
have found that classifying water and energy concepts
according to envelope, systems, and operations helps to
focus the tasks and responsibilities of the various team
members involved in a project. The architectural
designer’s chief concern is with the site and envelope.
Engineers are experts on mechanical, electrical, and
plumbing systems. As far as operations are concerned,
the building manager or owner has the most control.
Indeed, the most effective design solutions will achieve a
strong integration of all three areas.
Fully Integrated Thinking™ (FIT): An approach to
environmental design solutions inspired through natural
systems and processes that are environmentally,
economically, and socially sustainable. Concepts for
achieving these goals are inspired by general patterns
found in nature and on processes necessary for survival.
FIT CONSIDERATIONS
ENVIRONMENTAL
1. Ecostructure
2. Water
3. Atmosphere
4. Materials
5. Energy
6. Food
SOCIAL
7. Community
8. Culture
9. Health
10. Education
11. Governance
12. Transport
13. Shelter
ECONOMIC
14. Commerce
15. Value
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Water and Energy Sustainability Concepts
Consider the envelope as a barrier to minimize the
flow of heat.
Consider systems for collecting natural flows of water
and energy.
Consider the envelope as a filter to selectively allow
sun, wind, and air into the interior space.
Consider ways to store water and energy after
collection, so that it is available when needed.
Consider the envelope as a buffer to modify the effect
of sun, wind, rain, and snow.
Consider the efficient distribution of water and
energy.
Consider an extended envelope that naturally
conditions outdoor space.
Consider the efficient conversion of energy.
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Consider reclaiming excess water and energy.
Consider monitoring devices of building operation.
Consider conservative operation of buildings.
Consider informing occupants about efficient use of
the building.
Consider the optimum financial impact of
conservation.
Officing Concepts
Consider responsive and fine-tuned controls.
Officing: The application of technology to the process
of doing knowledge work; planning the knowledge work
process through the integration of people, information
technology, and facilities to achieve an organization’s
mission; the organization of knowledge in space and
time to accomplish intellectual work.
Officing Concepts: Workplace ideas for
accommodating people involved in an on-premise or
off-premise officing activity. Accommodating work
profiles requires the integration of human resource
policies, information technology, and facilities.
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On-Premise Officing Concepts
Fixed Address
This concept refers to a traditional work setting where
one person is assigned to a workspace. The concept of a
shared address is similar; for example, a single office
assigned to two or more people—double occupancy.
Main Office
Free Address
This concept refers to workspaces that are unassigned
and shared on a first-come/first-served basis. Hoteling
refers to the reservation of shared workspaces on a
predetermined schedule.
Main Office
Group Address
This concept refers to a designated group or team
space assigned for a specified period of time. Within the
team area, individuals are assigned workspaces on an
as-needed (free-address) or first-come/first-served basis.
Main Office
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Off-Premise Officing Concepts
Satellite Office
Satellite
Office
Main
Office
Home
Office
Main
Office
Home
Office
Virtual
Office
Main
Office
A goal for providing convenient office centers leads to
the concept of satellite offices or remote telecenters.
These places provide offices close to employees’
residences or customer sites and are used on a full-time
or drop-in basis.
Telecommuting
This concept refers to an individual’s use of his or her
residence as a workspace. Electronic communication
and computer technology combine to serve as a
substitute for travel to an office center.
Virtual Office
Virtual officing uses portable computer and
communication technologies to allow an individual to
work in a variety of settings: at home, while traveling, at
a client location, in a hotel, or in a satellite office center.
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On Needs
Needs: Requirements. Something necessary. An
indispensable or essential thing or quality.
Wants: Something lacking and desired or wished for.
Requirement: Something wanted or needed.
Space Requirement: A detailed listing of the amounts
of each type of space designated for a specific purpose.
Performance: Something accomplished or carried out.
The execution of an action that fulfills agreed-upon
requirements.
Performance Requirements: Those requirements
stemming from the unique user needs in terms of the
physical, social, and psychological environment to be
provided. These will involve the adequacy, the quality,
and the organization of space.
Functional Requirements: Those requirements
dealing chiefly with the way people will use the project
with convenience, efficiency, and effectiveness. These also
will involve the adequacy, the quality, and the
organization of space.
Human Requirements: Those requirements
stemming from generalized human needs in terms of the
physical, social, and psychological environment to be
provided. These human needs involve such general
categories as self-preservation, physical comfort, selfimage, and social affiliation—initially expressed as
specific goals.
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Area Definition and
Measurement Methods
The definition of building area and its measurements
varies with the purpose of how architects, facility
managers, or real estate professionals intend to use the
definitions and measures. A diligent programmer should
review with the client the definition and measures being
implemented on each project. Each standard below
responds to a unique industry purpose for its application.
“Classification of Building Areas,” Publication
Number 1235, National Academy of Sciences,
National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1964.
“Methods of Calculating Areas and Volumes of
Buildings,” AIA Document D101, The American
Institute of Architects, New York, 1995.
Designation E1836/E1836M-09e1, “Standard
Practice for Building Floor Area Measurements for
Facility Management,” American Society for Testing
and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 2009; www
.astm.org.
Office Buildings: Standard Methods of Measurement,
ANSI/BOMA Z65.1, BOMA, Washington, DC, 2010;
www.boma.org.
Postsecondary Education Facilities Inventory &
Classification Manual, U.S. Department of Education,
Washington, DC, May 2006.
The purpose of determining the total area for a building
program is primarily to predict the size of a new
building and to provide a sound basis for estimating the
budget for building construction. This size represents
the building gross area, which is the sum of the net
assignable and unassigned areas.
12/20/11 9:58 AM
Unassigned Areas: Consist of all other spaces in the
building, circulation areas, mechanical areas, general toilets,
janitor closets, unassigned storage, walls, and partitions.
The distribution of unassigned areas is shown in the table
below as typical percentages of the building gross.
Tare Area: The remainder after the net assignable area
is subtracted from the gross building area. The tare area
consists of the unassigned areas listed in the table below.
plumbing, and communications systems. These areas
vary considerably based on the building type. For
example, an 8 percent mechanical area for an office
building may simply include heating, ventilating, and air
conditioning equipment to meet minimum code
requirements. In contrast, a 14 percent mechanical area
for a corporate research building may require more
sophisticated mechanical systems to meet safety and
strict environmental control requirements.
Circulation Areas: Include interior corridors, exterior
covered walks (half of full area), and “phantom” corridors, which are undefined circulation paths through
assigned areas, such as a pathway through a lobby space.
Circulation is the largest unassigned component.
Walls, Partitions, Structure: Building area for
structure walls, columns, and dividing partitions.
Generally, this amounts to 7 to 9 percent of the gross
building area.
Primary Circulation: Lobbies, corridors, and vertical
circulation between elevators, public toilets, and building
entrances and exits required to satisfy the building code.
Public Toilets: Public restrooms required by the
building code range from 1.5 percent to 2 percent of
the gross building area.
Secondary Circulation: Corridors providing access
from net assignable areas to the primary circulation.
Janitor Closets: Space for general cleaning supplies;
normally requires less than 0.5 percent.
Mechanical Areas: Areas for the distribution of the
building’s heating, ventilation, air conditioning, electrical,
Building Storage: General building storage; normally
requires less than 0.5 percent.
Distribution of Unassigned Areas as a Ratio of the Building Gross Area
.260
.055
.075
.080
.080
.070
.080
.085
.090
.015
.015
.015
.015
.020
.002
.005
.005
.005
.005
.005
.003
.005
.005
.005
.005
.005
.33
.35
.40
.45
.50
.160
.180
.200
Mechanical
.050
.055
Walls, Partitions, Structure
.070
.070
Public Toilets
.015
Janitor Closets
Unassigned Storage
.30
Unassigned Area
.300
.220
Circulation
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Net Assignable Area or Net Area: The area
required to accommodate a function, equipment, an
occupant, or an occupant group. Net assignable area
includes interior walls, building columns, and projections.
Net assignable area excludes exterior walls, major
vertical penetrations, building core and service areas,
primary circulation, and secondary circulation.
Usable Area: The floor area of a building assigned to
occupant groups or available for assignment. Usable area
includes net assignable areas of interior walls, building
columns and projections, and secondary circulation.
Usable area excludes exterior walls, major vertical
penetrations, primary circulation, building core, and
building service areas.
Compute the Net Assignable Area: Measure to the
inside surface of the exterior building walls, to the
finished surface of walls surrounding major vertical
penetrations, building core areas, and service areas, and
to the center of partitions separating net assignable area
adjoining net assignable areas and from secondary
circulation space.
Departmental Gross Area: The net assignable areas
and required secondary circulation assigned to an
occupant group or department. Same as Usable Area.
Compute the Usable Area: Measure to the inside
finished surface of the exterior building walls, to the
finished surface of the walls surrounding major vertical
penetrations and building core and service areas, and to
the center of the walls dividing the space from adjoining
usable areas.
TOILET
ELEVATOR LOBBY
TOILET
TOILET
MECHANICAL
ELEVATOR LOBBY
TOILET
MECHANICAL
Net Area
Usable Area
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Rentable Area: The floor area of a building available
for assignment to a tenant as a basis for calculating rent.
This area provides a consistent basis of comparison
with other buildings, whether leased or owner occupied.
Rentable area includes the usable area, building core and
service areas, and primary circulation. It excludes major
vertical floor penetrations, such as elevator shafts and
stairs. The definition of rentable area may vary according
to the terms of a specific lease.
Compute the Rentable Area: Measure to the inside
finished surface of the exterior building walls, excluding
any major vertical penetrations of the floor. For sloping
walls, measure floor areas at the floor plane. Include the
areas of columns and building projections in the
rentable area. Exclude exterior walls and major vertical
penetrations from the rentable area.
Building Gross Area or Gross Area: The floor area
of a building for all levels that are totally enclosed within
the building envelope, including basements, mezzanines,
and penthouses.
Compute Building Gross Area: Measure to the
outside face of exterior walls, disregarding cornices,
pilasters, and buttresses that extend beyond the wall
face. The building gross area of basement space includes
the area measured to the outside face of basement
foundation walls.
Note: In 2008, the International Facility
Management Association (IFMA) updated its
measurement standard to use the new version of
ASTM E 1836–08. The terms “rentable” and
“usable” are no longer used. IFMA now applies the
terms “exterior gross,” “interior gross,” “plannable
gross,” “plannable,” and “assignable.”
TOILET
ELEVATOR LOBBY
TOILET
TOILET
ELEVATOR LOBBY
MECHANICAL
TOILET
MECHANICAL
Rentable Area
Gross Area
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Building Efficiency Factors
Building efficiency factors express the relationships
among the various area definitions.Variations in
application lead to several types of efficiency factors as
shown in the accompanying definition and example.
There is a mathematical relationship between the
efficiency factors, as shown here:
Example of Efficiency Factors:
Interior
Base
Overall
Layout
Efficiency
×
Building
Efficiency
=
Building
Efficiency
.61
×
.84
=
.51
Efficiency by
Building Type
Interior
Layout
Base
Building
Overall
Building
Overall Building Efficiency: Differences in
predominating room sizes, occupancy levels, circulation
requirements, and special mechanical requirements lead
to different overall building efficiency factors for various
building types.
For example, the predominance of small rooms
requiring higher percentages in circulation and partitions
leads to an overall building efficiency of 55 percent in a
university administration building. In contrast, the large
gym areas in physical education would indicate small
percentages in circulation and partitions, leading to an
overall building efficiency of 70 percent. Large spectator
areas demanding large areas of circulation would result
in factors of 65 percent and 60 percent.
Another example, sustainability goals, may lead to the
use of renewable resources or material recycling, which
require special mechanical or storage systems. This can
increase the gross building area by as much as 5 to 10
percent compared to a conventional building.
Corporate Office
.620
.80
.50
Corporate R&D
.625
.80
.50
University Administration
.687
.80
.55
University R&D
.750
.80
.60
1 / 1.25
=
.80
1 / .80
=
1.25
Dormitory
.750
.80
.60
1 / 1.33
=
.75
1 / .75
=
1.33
Student Center
.750
.80
.60
1 / 1.42
=
.70
1 / .70
=
1.42
Auditorium
.750
.80
.60
1 / 1.54
=
.65
1 / .65
=
1.54
Museum
.813
.80
.65
1 / 1.67
=
.60
1 / .60
=
1.67
Food Service
.813
.80
.65
1 / 1.82
=
.55
1 / .55
=
1.82
Conference Center
.813
.80
.65
Library
.813
.80
.65
1 / 2.00
=
.50
1 / .50
=
2.0
Academic Classrooms
.813
.80
.65
Physical Education
.875
.80
.70
Building Services
.938
.80
.75
1.000
.90
.90
Warehouse
1/Multiplier = Divisor
1/Divisor = Multiplier
Clients and architects use efficiency factors either as
divisors or multipliers, which are comparable as shown
in the table following.
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Net Assignable Area
Building Gross Area
Overall Building Efficiency =
Interior Layout Efficiency =
Net Assignable Area
Usable Area
Overall Building Efficiency: The ratio of the net assignable
Interior Layout Efficiency: The ratio of the net assignable
areas to the building gross area expressed as a percentage of
areas to the usable area expressed as a percentage of the usable
the gross area. In the programming phase, this factor is used to
area. In the programming phase, this factor is used to calculate
calculate the total building gross area requirements using the net
the total usable area requirements using the net assignable area
area requirements as a base. To do this, divide the sum of the net
requirements as a base. To do this, divide the sum of the net
assignable areas by the appropriate overall efficiency. This
assignable areas by the appropriate layout efficiency. This
factor is commonly used for public and educational building
factor is commonly used for interior design applications.
design applications.
Example: 60% Overall Efficiency
60,000 net assignable area
.60 overall efficiency
Base Building Efficiency =
= 100,000 building gross area
Usable Area
Building Gross Area
Example: 75% Layout Efficiency
60,000 rentable area
.75 layout efficiency
R/U Ratio =
= 80,000 usable area
Rentable Area
Usable Area
Base Building Efficiency: The ratio of the usable areas to the
R/U Ratio: The ratio of the rentable areas to the usable area
building gross area expressed as a percentage of the gross area.
expressed as a multiplier. Use this R/U ratio, sometimes
In the programming phase, this factor is used to calculate the
referred to as “loss factor,” to calculate the total rentable area
total building gross area requirements using the usable area
requirements using the usable area requirements as a base. To
requirements as a base. To do this, divide the usable area by the
do this, multiply the usable area by the appropriate R/U ratio.
appropriate building efficiency. This factor is commonly used
This factor is commonly used to calculate rentable area for
for commercial building design applications.
lease agreements or financial analysis.
Example: 80% Building Efficiency
80,000 usable area
.80 building efficiency
Example: 1.125 R/U Ratio (12.5% loss factor)
80,000 usable area x 1.125 = 90,000 rentable area
= 100,000 building gross area
90,000 rentable area
1.125 R/U ratio
= 80,000 usable area
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Typical Open-Plan Layout*
Typical Enclosed-Plan Layout*
*Drawings are not to scale
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Layout
Interior
Base
Building
1. Circulation
.80
.80
0.36.
Secondary
0.33
.75
75
Open Plan
Overall
Building
.70
0.08
N/A
.65
0.03
0.03
3. Walls, Partitions, Structure .60
N/A
0.070
0.06
N/A
77N//
Primary
2. Mechanical
Interior
Base Building
0.03
A
4. Public Toilets
0.02
0.02
5. Building Storage
0.01
0.01
0.17
0.49
0.51
Unassigned Area
0.39
Net Assigned Area
0.61
—
Usable Area
1.00
0.83
—
—
1.00
1.00
Layout
Interior
Base
Building
1. Circulation
N/A
.80
0.32.
Secondary
0.24
.75
75
Building Gross Area
Enclosed Plan
Overall
Building
N/A
0.10
N/A
N/A.
0.07
0.07
3. Walls, Partitions, Structure N/A
N/A
0.0700
0.08
N/A
77N//
Base Building
0.05
A
4. Public Toilets
0.02
0.02
5. Building Storage
0.01
0.01
0.25
0.49
0.51
Primary
2. Mechanical
Interior
Unassigned Area
0.32
Net Assigned Area
0.68
—
Usable Area
1.00
0.75
—
—
1.00
1.00
Building Gross Area
Base Building Efficiency: Often a building design
separates the building shell (exterior walls, foundations,
and columns) and building core (primary circulation,
mechanical areas, public toilets, janitor closets, and
building storage) from the interior layout of occupantspecific use of a building. When determining the building
gross area for core and shell design, divide the required
usable area by the base building efficiency (typically
ranges from 75 to 85 percent). For a commercial
building, the shell and core design is based on the
rentable area required to meet the client’s financial
goals. In this case, multiply the usable area by the
estimated R/U ratio to calculate the rentable area.
Interior Layout Efficiency: When determining the
areas for an interior design program, one is predicting
the size of the usable area and providing a sound basis
for estimating the budget for interior construction, or
“tenant fit-up.” The layout efficiency will vary according
to the office planning concept, as shown in the
accompanying charts. For example, an enclosed office
arrangement may require 70 percent layout efficiency,
whereas an open-plan layout can range from 60 to 65
percent layout efficiency, depending on the size of the
net assignable areas and adequacy of secondary
circulation. Conversely, the client may have established
the rentable area, and the task is to determine the
usable area available for the design of the interior space.
In this case, divide the rentable area by the estimated
R/U ratio.
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Cost Estimate Analysis
The following formula may be used to reduce Line K,
Total Budget Required, to Line A, Building Cost.
The cost estimate analysis for a new building must be as
comprehensive and realistic as possible, leaving no
doubt as to what constitutes the total budget required.
Once the programmer has determined the total net
assignable area of a project, it is an easy task to arrive at
a reasonable efficiency factor and then calculate the
total gross building area. This area, multiplied by a
realistic unit cost, will produce the estimated building
cost (Line A in the accompanying chart), upon which
depend estimates of many cost items.
Cost Estimate Analysis Example
A. Building Costs
200,000 GSF @ $135.00/GSF
$27,000,000
B. Fixed Equipment
(8% of A)
2,160,000
C. Site Development
(15% of A)
4,050,000
D. Total Construction
(A + B + C)
$33,210,000
(8% of A)
2,160,000
G. Professional Fees
(6% of D)
1,992,600
H. Contingencies
(10% of D)
3,321,000
J. Administrative Costs
(1% of D)
332,100
(D + E through J)
$41,515,700
E. Site Acquisition/Demolition
F. Movable Equipment
K. Total Budget Required
$500,000
Even before determining the total gross area from the
space program, it may be judicious for the programmer
to start with the available funds as comprising the total
budget (Line K) and to work back to building cost (Line
A) to find the approximate area that may be feasible to
build within the total budget.
Building Cost =
(Total Budget – Site Acquisition)
(X + Y + Z)
X = 1+ ( % Fixed Cost*) + ( % Site Development*)
Y = (X) [( % Contingency*) + ( % Professional Fee*)
+ ( % Administrative Cost*)]
Z=
% Movable Equipment*
*Percentages expressed as follows: 15% = .15.
A. Building Costs: These include all costs of
construction within 5 feet of the building line, all
items required by codes (fire extinguisher cabinets,
fire alarm systems, etc.), and items normally found in
buildings, regardless of type (e.g., drinking fountains).
B. Fixed Equipment: This includes all equipment items
that may be installed before completion of the building
and that are a part of the construction contract, such
as lockers, food service equipment, fixed seating, fixed
medical equipment, security equipment, stage
equipment, stage lighting, and the like.
C. Site Development: This includes all work
required that lies within the site boundary and
within 5 feet from the edge of the building; that is,
grading and fill, fencing, electronic perimeter system,
roads and parking, utilities, landscape development,
athletic fields, walks, site lighting, street furniture,
site graphics, on-site sewage treatment plant, and
unusual foundation conditions.
D. Total Construction: Represents the total budget
for construction, usually the contract documents
base bid.
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E. Site Acquisition and/or Demolition: The money
budgeted for purchasing the project site and/or
demolishing existing structures.
F. Movable Equipment: This category includes all
movable equipment and furniture items, but does
not include operational equipment (i.e.,
microscopes, library books, and so on, purchased
from operating funds).
G. Professional Fees: Costs of architectural and
engineering services and consultant services.
H. Contingencies: A percentage of the total
construction cost is included to serve as a planning
contingency, bidding contingency, and construction
reserve (change orders, etc.)
J.
Administrative Costs: Items the owner is
responsible for during the planning process; that is,
legal fees, site survey, soil testing, insurance, and
material testing.
K. Total Budget: This represents the total budget
required to occupy the new facility and/or
renovated areas. Individual parties may have
responsibility for different budget line items, or their
cost of work. It is important for each stakeholder
on a project to define and understand the cost of
work for which he or she has responsibility.
Line Item Cost Allocations
on the building type, existing conditions, and other
factors.
Cost Estimate Analysis Line Items
A. Building Cost:
Building Gross Area
x Unit Cost
= Building Cost
200,000 GSF
x $135/GSF
= $27,000,000
B. Fixed Equipment:
5%
Medium
10–15%
High
20%
Especially High
30%
Percentage of Line A
C. Site Development:
5%
Low
10–15%
Medium
High
20%
Especially High
30%
D. Total Construction Cost:
Sum of A + B + C
E. Site Acquisition and/or Demolition:
Varies widely
F. Movable Equipment:
Low
Medium
High
$ Lump Sum Amount
Percentage of Line A
5%
10–15%
20%
G. Professional Fees, Including Consultants: Percentage of Line D
Varies
5%–10%
H. Contingencies:
Low
5%
Medium
10%
High
15%
J. Administrative Costs:
Use historical percentages of project cost to calculate
the Total Budget Required (Line K). The percentages
listed indicate the usual ranges of variation depending
Percentage of Line A
Low
Varies
K. Total Budget:
Percentage of Line D
1%–2%
Sum of D + E + F + G + H + J = K
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Item Number
Description
Item Number
Description
A.
Building Cost
D.
Construction Cost = A + B + C
A1.
New and Renovated, General Trades,
Mechanical, Electrical
E.
Land Cost
A2.
Contracting Contingency
A3.
Code Upgrades
A4.
Sales Tax
A5.
LEED Certification Requirements
B.
Fixed Equipment
B1.
B2.
C.
E.g., kitchen equipment, casework, cabinet work
(does not include medical, processing, or
laboratory equipment other than casework)
Installation of owner-supplied equipment and
furnishings
E1.
Acreage
E2.
Buildings
E3.
Rights-of-Way, Easements
E4.
Transfer Taxes
E5.
Restrictive Covenants
F.
Movable Equipment & Furniture
F1.
Hospital Equipment — Group I
F2.
Major Movable Equipment — Group II
F3.
Minor Movable Equipment — Group III
F4.
Instruments — Group IV
F5.
Furniture & Furnishings — Group V
F6.
Draperies & Other Window Treatments
Site Development
C1.
Utilities to 5 -0 Outside Building
F7.
Area Rugs (Carpet in Building Construction)
C2.
Landscaping, Grading, Paving, Site Drainage,
and Lighting
F8.
Interior Landscape
C3.
Signage
F9.
Telephone System
C4.
Demolition
F10.
Communication Systems (Paging etc.)
C5.
Off-Site Utilities
F11.
Computer / Data Cabling
C6.
Hazardous Materials / Waste Removal /
Remediation
F12.
Security
Soil Remediation
F13.
Art & Artwork
C7.
F14.
Other Fixed Equipment Not in Building Contract
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Item Number
Description
Item Number
Description
G.
Professional Fees, including Consultant Fees
G. (cont.)
Professional Fees, including Consultant Fees
G1.
Architect / Engineering Fees
G2.
Landscape Designer
G3.
Civil Engineering
G4.
Programming
G5.
Kitchen or Other Speciality Consultants
(Sound, Marine, Environmental, etc.)
G6.
Interior Designer
G7.
A / E & Consultant Reimbursable Costs
G8.
Surveys
Land
Utility
Buildings
Traffic
Environmental or Other Impact
G9.
Inspections, Reviews & Testing (Concrete,
Steel, Peer Review, Third-Party Inspection of
Building Envelope, Soils, etc.)
G10.
Subsurface Investigation & Analysis
G11.
Feasibility Consultant
G12.
Legal or Other Specialty Services
G13.
On-Site Representative
G14.
Project Management
G15.
Construction Management Preconstruction
Fees & Reimbursable Costs
G16.
Commissioning Fees
G17.
Building Enclosure Program
G18.
Partnering
G19.
Value Engineering Services
G20.
LEED Consultant
J.
Administrative Costs (Fees, Taxes, Permits)
J1.
Builders Risk Insurance
J2.
Special Insurance (RR Protective, Umbrella, etc.)
J3.
Utility Connection Fees
J4.
Lease or Rentals — Building, Equipment
Interim / Permanent
J5.
Permits — Zoning, Buildings
J6.
Impact Fees & Assessments
J7.
Business and Occupancy Tax
J8.
Gross Report Tax
J9.
Bonds & Escrow Requirements
K.
Total Project Budget = D + E + F + G + H + J
K1.
Financial Costs
a. Construction Loan Interest
b. Debt Service Reserve or Trustee Fund
c. Bond Costs — Fees, etc.
d. Mortgage Points
e. Leasing Commissions
f. Advertising & Promotion
g. Negative Cash Flow During Start-up
K2.
Other Costs
a. Moving
b. Temporary & Permanent Relocations
c. Disruption Costs
d. Reproduction Costs
e. Mock-ups
f. Groundbreaking and Dedication Ceremonies
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Components of Building Cost
When using the Uniform Classification, the components
of building cost (Line A) include:
for interior fit-up to a usable area parameter, divide the
gross area unit cost by the base building efficiency.
Example:
$45.02 / GSF
.8 Base Building Efficiency
A 1. Foundations: Wall and column foundations and
pile caps, plus special conditions.
A 2. Substructure: Slab-on-grade, basement
excavation, structure walls.
A 3. Superstructure: Floor, roof, stair construction.
A 4. Exterior Enclosure: Exterior walls, louvers,
screens, balcony walls, soffits, doors, windows.
A 5. Roofing: Roof coverings, traffic toppings, paving
membrane, roof insulation, fill, flashing, roof openings.
A 6. Core Finish, Interior Fit-up: Partitions,
interior finishes, and specialties, such as lockers,
toilet accessories, counters, kitchen cabinets, closets.
A 7. Mechanical: Plumbing, HVAC, fire protection,
special systems.
A 8. Electrical: Service distribution, lighting and
power, special electrical systems.
A 9. Conveying Systems: Elevators, moving stairs
and walks, dumbwaiters, general construction items.
A 10. General Conditions and Profit: Mobilization,
site overhead, demobilization, office expense, profit.
The chart on the facing page represents components of
building cost for an office building at a moderate/
excellent level of quality. It also shows the overall building
and costs between the base building unit cost and interior
layout cost. To convert the building gross area unit cost
= $56.35 / USF
Building Systems Design Criteria: Criteria used for
the evaluation and selection of building systems. They
define the functionality sought from building systems to
meet quality level expectations.
Building Systems: Components of a building
organized by a specific discipline, such as architectural,
structural, mechanical, electrical, and plumbing.
For detailed programming, a client/user often defines
the building systems design criteria for the whole
building or for each space type. The unit cost allocated
should achieve the building system performance criteria.
For example, comfort control increases with smaller
HVAC zones. As a result, more mechanical equipment
may be necessary to achieve this performance, and the
unit cost is greater, as shown in the chart below. A
higher initial cost may also yield a greater efficiency
operating cost, resulting in a life-cycle cost benefit, and
achieve sustainability goals for the project.
Performance Criteria
HVAC Zone
Air Distribution
$/GSF
Low Control
3,000 SF
$8
Moderate Control
1,000 SF
$14
300 SF
$45
High Control
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Components of Building Cost
Overall
Building
($/GSF)
Base
Building
($/GSF)
A 1. Foundations
$3.75
$3.75
A 2. Substructure
$16.50
$16.50
A 3. Superstructure
$18.00
$18.00
A 4. Exterior Enclosure
$19.00
$19.00
A 5. Roofing
$7.00
$7.00
A 6. Core/Interior Fit-up
$25.75
0.8
$32.20
$7.70
0.8
$9.65
$7.10
0.8
$8.90
$4.47
0.8
$5.60
$45.02
—
$56.35
$27.00
Base Building
$19.30
Interior Fit-up
$20.50
Base Building
$13.40
Interior Fit-up
A 9. Conveying Systems
$3.75
A 10. General Conditions and Profit
$16.02
$3.75
$11.55
Base Building
Interior Fit-up
Line A Unit Cost
Interior
Fit-up
($/USF)
$6.75
Interior Fit-up
A 8. Electrical
Base
Building
Efficiency
$32.50
Base Building
A 7. Mechanical
Interior
Fit-up
($/GSF)
$164.02
$119.00
*Based on 2010 costs.
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Interior Cost Estimate
Interior Fit-up Costs
Based on 2010 Costs
A 6a.
Interior fit-up is usually defined as the tenant component
of new construction or as the remodeling of existing
interior space. Area references for interior fit-up usually
ignore core and shell components of a building, so only
the usable area applies. The programmer calculates the
usable area, then, instead of the gross area as the primary
parameter for Line A, unit cost.
Partitions
Open
Plan
Enclosed
Plan
$5.20
$11.15
$3.00
$6.00
$6.80
$10.55
$0.75
$3.00
$0.75
$1.50
$0.75
$1.50
$0.40
$0.75
$5.25
$7.40
$5.25
$7.25
$1.10
$1.45
$3.20
$5.60
$32.45
$56.35
Drywall, concrete masonry
unit, folding, and glazed
A 6b.
Doors
Wood, hollow metal, and glass
with frames and hardware
A 6c.
Finishes
Floor, walls, and ceilings
A 6d.
Casework
Office shelving, storage,
Example:
private toilets, work surfaces,
Line A Interior Fit-up
and coffee bars
Usable area × Unit Cost = Interior Fit-up Cost
A 6e.
Specialties
Chalkboards, tack boards,
100,000 USF × $32/USF = $3,200,000
audiovisual equipment, access
flooring, graphics, lockers, and
In the case of new construction, the tenant space is
empty except for the air distribution system, usually the
perimeter diffusers. Light fixtures may be stacked on the
floor. Tenant fit-up typically includes partitions, doors,
casework, finishes on all surfaces, limited plumbing for
coffee bars or private toilets, relocation of sprinkler
heads, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
distribution, supplementary exhaust or cooling systems,
lighting installation, power distribution, and
telecommunications rough-in and fixed equipment. But
it is not necessarily limited to these.
restroom accessories
A 7a.
Plumbing
Private toilets, coffee bar sinks,
and appliance hookups
A 7b.
Fire Protection
Sprinkler head installation
A 7c.
Mechanical
Air distribution, chilled or hot
water distribution, fan coil
units, computer air conditioning, and special exhausts
A 8a.
Electrical
Lighting installation, special
lighting, power distribution, fire
alarm modifications, public
Interior fit-up costs vary as a function of the ratio of
enclosed space to open space, quality of finishes, and
performance level of building systems. Refer to the
following list of components for interior fit-up. Openplan offices with minimal enclosed spaces have a lower
interior fit-up cost.
address, and security
A 8b.
Telecommunications
Phone and data rough-in,
cabling, and/or equipment
A 10.
General Conditions and Profit
Line A Unit Cost per USF
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In comparison, an enclosed-plan office with more
permanent partitions, casework, and finishes will have a
higher fit-up cost. While the Line A unit cost for open
plan is lower than for enclosed plan, open plan most likely
has a higher allocation for movable equipment (Line F)
for the cost of the open-plan layout furniture system.
Interior fit-up costs can range from $12.00 to $100.00
or more per usable area. The level of quality will also
determine the variance in the unit cost. In a lease
agreement, a landlord may provide tenant contract
allowances (work order credits) that cover the cost to
build out the interior space using the building standard
systems and materials, normally at an economical level
of quality. If a tenant does not use the building’s standard
and the actual interior fit-up exceeds the quality and
scope of materials furnished, the tenant must fund the
additional cost. Levels of quality are discussed in the
section that follows.
Site Development Costs
Based on 2010 Costs
C 1.
Site Preparation
Estimate 1 – 3% of building costs
C 2.
Parking
On Grade:
Allow 125 cars per acre
= 350 SF – 400 SF / car
Estimate lump sum
= $1,200 – $1,500 / car
Structural:
Allow 280 – 325 SF / car
Estimate lump sum
C 3.
= $12,000 – $15,000 / car
Roadways
Estimate lump sum per linear foot.
C 4.
Sidewalks and Terraces
Estimate 1 – 7% of building cost.
C 5.
Walls and Screens
Estimate .5 – 2.5% of building cost.
C 6.
Outdoor Sport Facilities
Estimate lump sum per unit and type.
C 7.
On-Site Utilities
Estimate 1 – 3% of building cost.
Site Development Costs
C 8.
Off-Site Utilities (if required)
Estimate 1 – 5% of building cost.
Site development costs (Line C) vary widely depending
on the requirements of the building type, the nature
and location of the site, and the quality level of the
development. Site development costs vary from a low of
5 percent of the Line A building cost to a medium level
of between 10 and 15 percent to a high of 20 percent.
The especially high percentage of 30 percent allows for
extraordinary conditions such as rock excavation, very
steep slopes, and intensive development requirements.
Use the accompanying chart as a checklist to develop a
more detailed estimate.
C 9.
Storm Drainage
Estimate .5 – 5% of building cost.
C 10.
Landscaping
Estimate 1 – 2% of building cost.
C 11.
Outdoor Equipment
Estimate lump sum.
C 12.
Outdoor Lighting
Estimate pedestrian lighting 1% of building cost
and parking lighting lump sum per car.
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Building Quality Levels
The building cost (Line A of the Cost Estimate Analysis)
depends on: (1) the total net area (the sum of all space
needs), (2) a reasonable efficiency ratio of net to gross
area, and (3) the cost per square foot escalated to
midconstruction. Of these, it is the cost per square foot,
the unit cost, that is usually associated with the quality
of the building.
Types of Quality: It is true that the cost per square
foot represents the quality of materials, systems, and
construction—the quality of the architectural fabric. But
it should come as no surprise that both the total net
area and the building efficiency also represent aspects of
quality—functional and spatial qualities, respectively.
Levels of Quality: Before covering the types of quality
in more detail, it is helpful to discuss different levels of
quality. It should be obvious that the architect and the
client must reach an agreement on the level of quality
for the project. The client must be conscious of a wide
range of choices.
Automobile Analogy
One useful device is the analogy of automobiles. A client
can be expected to understand the difference in quality
between a Volkswagen Beetle and a Rolls Royce—
between an austere and a superb quality—without
having to resort to a detailed analysis.
To round out the analogy without using trade names,
consider the following six levels of quality:
For Automobiles
For Buildings
Superluxury
Luxury
Full
Intermediate
Compact
Subcompact
Superb
Grand
Excellent
Moderate
Economical
Austere
The accompanying chart shows the relationship
between the unit cost for automobiles and quality level.
The unit costs are taken from a consumer publication
indicating the “best buys” in each category. Note that
the difference in levels is gradual until the last two. The
superluxury level is actually shown at one third of its
potential.
The point of the analogy is this: autos and buildings
share the same wide range in levels of quality. They also
share similar quality factors, based on: (1) materials,
systems, and construction; (2) function and performance;
and (3) spatial qualities. Clients and architects must be
aware of the wide range in levels of quality, and they
must agree on a realistic quality level for which funds
are available.
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Quality Levels/Unit Costs for Automobiles
(based on 2010 costs)
$500,000
450,000
400,000
350,000
Efficiency and Quality: One aspect of architectural
quality, spaciousness, is inversely proportional to the
overall efficiency of a building. Therefore, it is important
to predict and assign a reasonable efficiency for a
building that would contribute to its expected quality.
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
Subcompact
Compact
Intermediate
Full
Quality Levels/Unit Costs for Civic Auditoriums
Luxury
Super-luxury
(based on 2010 costs)
Per SF
For example, one of the factors affecting the
architectural quality of a civic auditorium is plan
efficiency. A civic auditorium intended as a statement of
community pride would surely have an efficiency of 50
percent net floor area to 50 percent unassigned area. In
contrast, a civic auditorium intended merely as a
necessary solution would have an austere 70 percent
overall efficiency.
400
With a superb and an austere building on opposite ends
of a scale, a value judgment can be made regarding the
quality intended and the reasonable efficiency that can
be assumed for planning purposes. Further still, this
scale can be expanded to provide a full range of quality
levels, but not for the same building type.
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Austere
Economical
Moderate
Excellent
Grand
Superb
Using six levels seems appropriate for most building
types; however, they may not be the same six levels, or
there may be more than six levels. Building services, for
example, would start with a skeletal 90 percent
efficiency depending on the components and on the
predominance of warehousing.
To help clients visualize the quality-level implications of
different efficiency factors, a programmer should do
area takeoffs of existing floor plans and illustrate
graphically how the areas are measured.
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Quality of Construction: The unit cost figure
represents the quality of construction, such as cost per
gross square foot. The unit costs include architectural,
structural, electrical, plumbing, and mechanical work, but
do not include site development and fixed equipment.
The average unit costs are typically identified with
different types of construction or building types related
to building code fire ratings, but these average unit costs
represent only the average quality level of construction
in each type. The average quality represents good
standard construction with adequate mechanical and
electrical services and an average level of finishes. These
average unit costs can be used to advantage; however,
when programming, there is a great need to know a
wider range of unit costs than those representing
national averages.
Building Type
The chart indicates six choices in quality, ranging from
austere to superb.The chart is a heuristic device to find
the appropriate level of quality for a project and to
become aware of the wide range of unit costs. National
averages usually span more than three of these unit cost
figures, most often in the lower end of the range.The level
of quality depends on the level of construction, mechanical
and electrical services, and interior and exterior finishes.
Civic auditoriums range from high school auditoriums
used by the community to halls for the performing arts.
Their unit costs, thus, represent a wide range of quality.
Offices also have a wide range of types: low-rise offices,
high-rise offices, medical offices, and municipal offices.
Most industry sources provide three or four levels of
quality, but for clients who want higher or lower levels,
the chart below provides six levels of choice.
Austere
Economical
Moderate
Excellent
Grand
Superb
($/GSF)
($/GSF)
($/GSF)
($/GSF)
($/GSF)
($/GSF)
Civic Auditoriums
144
162
181
199
271
379
Research Laboratories
188
220
253
313
376
489
Correctional Facilities
135
162
208
244
271
316
Hospitals
162
187
193
233
254
335
Offices
72
99
126
172
244
307
Libraries
108
126
144
162
209
289
Civic Centers
117
135
153
172
199
289
Education Facilities
75
104
122
141
157
217
Warehouses
44
42
62
114
87
122
Approximate national average unit cost per gross building square foot as of December 2010.
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Under educational facilities, the wide range of unit costs
can be justified by the wide range in educational levels:
elementary schools, secondary schools, community
colleges, and university buildings. Generally, warehouses
have unit costs covering the lower ranges, because they
are not usually of high quality in construction, services,
and finishes; but there are exceptions.
Location Factor
City
Atlanta
88.8
Boston
117.2
Chicago
116.0
85.2
Dallas
Denver
94.3
Houston
86.9
97.1
Kansas City, KS
Various national organizations publish unit costs based
on national averages and regional modifiers or location
factors for each state and individual cities.
Los Angeles
112.3
New York
135.2
Orlando
Philadelphia
Phoenix
Three widely used sources of cost information
include:
87.4
110.8
91.2
San Francisco
125.7
Seattle
105.4
St. Louis
101.5
RS Means Square Foot Cost, Annual Edition, RS Means
CMD Group, Kingston, MA.
Design Cost Data magazine. DC&D Technologies, Inc.,
Tampa, FL.
Building Design and Construction magazine, Cahers
Publishing, Des Plaines, IL.
Further, unit costs become obsolete with time, due to
inflation. It is necessary, therefore, to escalate the
adjusted unit cost by a reasonable percentage per year
projected to midway through the construction period.
Example:
To adjust the unit cost for a particular building type
(based on national averages) for the specific location,
multiply the unit cost by the location factor divided by
100 (the average location factor).
8% per year for two years to midpoint construction
$122.35 × (1 + .08) 2 = $141.93
Example:
$126.00 per gross building square foot in Kansas City, KS
97.1
100
× $126 = $122.35
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Functional Adequacy: The six levels of quality are
also applicable to the functional adequacy of a building.
Theoretically, this term refers to the total net area per
unit. Actually, most references of this type are made in
building gross area per unit—which is complicated by a
variable building efficiency that makes comparisons
difficult. Nevertheless, this area per unit is intended to
indicate the level of service and support per unit. Here
are some examples: the area per bed in a hospital; the
area per student in a high school, college, or university;
and the area per seat in an auditorium.
A 1,500-student high school, with an overall efficiency
of 65 percent, could have an austere 120 GSF per
student, but without an auditorium and a spectator gym.
It could have a moderate 140 GSF per student, but with
limited vocational facilities. The superb 200 GSF per
student would include educational enrichments wanted
by many communities. The student capacity of the
school is an important factor related to the central
service facilities.
A 1,000-student high school would have higher areas
per student; a 2,000-student school, lower areas.
Similarly, an auditorium would have a wide range in
levels—from an austere 20 GSF per seat to a superb 90
GSF per seat for the same general capacity of 2,500
seats. Again, the capacity is an important factor. A
500-seat auditorium would have a higher range in
levels—higher in areas per seat. Refer to the chart
showing the 20 GSF to 90 GSF per-seat range. The
austere 20 GSF per-seat capacity would indicate limited
lobbies, offices, storage, stage, and backstage facilities.
These facilities would all increase with the rising levels
of quality, even to include public restaurants.
Establishing Quality Level
Using the automobile analogy, consider the six levels of
quality as heuristic devices to expand the usual narrow
range of quality levels.This helps to establish the
appropriate level of quality for a project.These might assist
both the client and the designer to strive for the same
appropriate level among the kinds of quality.This technique
would prevent the total mismatch of a Volkswagen Beetle
body with a Rolls Royce engine—although some
inconsistency may be necessary to balance the budget.
Civic Auditoriums within a 2,000 – 3,000 Seat Capacity Range
Kinds of Quality
Austere
Economical
Moderate
Excellent
Grand
Superb
20 GSF
25 GSF
30 GSF
40 GSF
60 GSF
90 GSF
Overall Building Efficiency
70%
67%
65%
60%
55%
50%
Cost per GSF
$96
$108
$120
$132
$180
$252
Gross Area / Seat
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The example of civic auditoriums is shown in the
accompanying chart. It can be assumed that a small total
budget imposes a low unit cost and area per seat—
which, in turn, affect the overall efficiency. Compare the
figures for the austere quality with those for the grand
quality. Functional adequacy increased (by a ratio of 1:3),
overall efficiency increased (by a ratio of 1:1.27), and the
building cost increased (by a ratio of 1:1.875).
Building Renovation
Renovation work is becoming very popular with many
organizations that face changing missions yet often have
existing buildings that have become obsolete or do not fit
required new uses. Facilities are left standing empty. So it
is only natural to assume that these buildings can be
renovated more easily and cheaply than building new
construction. But renovation work can be very complex
and expensive. It can range from a simple open-plan office
renovation with minimal impact to hard construction and
utilities to the renovation of an old building for new
occupancy that fails to comply with a variety of codes,
and may have hazardous materials to abate.
The age of a building is directly proportional to the cost
of renovation. Issues that make an old building expensive
are prior occupancy; floor-to-floor height; mechanical,
electrical, and plumbing systems; energy efficiency;
structural capacities; seismic codes; and life safety and
disabilities access guidelines.
If the previous use is not easily adapted to the new
occupancy, expect to achieve a lower layout efficiency,
which will contribute to higher project cost. Even site
development expenses are possible if utility capacities,
parking, and site development are inadequate.
Major renovations almost always require compliance
with all current codes. If the floor-to-floor height is less
than desirable, the mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
design will incur cost penalties.
Often, the original structural drawings are unavailable,
forcing one to do expensive tests to determine
structural conformance to new codes. Exterior wall
glazing may fail to comply with energy codes.
In some cases, the only systems that can be salvaged are
structure and solid exterior walls. A renovation of this
nature will rival new construction in cost.
Always compare major renovation to new construction,
even if it is desirable to salvage the building for historical
purposes. Generally, the programmer should base a
reliable renovation cost estimate on a building condition
assessment that defines the degree of improvement
required.
Sustainability
Sustainability is a holistic approach to design that
incorporates triple bottom-line objectives—
environmental, economic, and social benefits—over
the life cycle of the built environment. As a design
requirement, sustainability is captured in the
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programming phase within the four considerations of
the architectural problem: Function (social), Form
(environmental), Economy (economical), and Time (life
cycle). A focus on sustainability may drive the program
requirements and subsequent design solutions toward
innovative design, construction, and operational
processes, and may impact various components of the
site development, building envelope, building functions,
interior design, HVAC equipment, or building quality
levels. Further, a decision regarding any one component
listed above may have a direct or indirect impact on
another.
Just as there are no singular requirements to designing
sustainably, design solutions are endless and require
buy-in from all stakeholders. The sooner sustainability is
integrated into the program of requirements, the easier
it is to drive decisions, prevent delays, manage project
expectations, and ensure that the balance between
economic, environmental, and social considerations is
incorporated into the final design.
Sustainability: Meeting the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs (Brundtland Commission).
A balance that accommodates human needs without
diminishing health and productivity of natural systems.
Integrated Design: A process that fosters knowledge
sharing among stakeholders during the development of
a holistic design solution. The process leads to increased
project value by seeking synergies among the natural
and built environmental systems.
Stakeholder: A person or group with a direct interest,
involvement, or investment in a project. Stakeholders
may include owners, facility managers, design team
members, engineers, contractors, facility staff, and
occupants.
Sustainable Building Rating System: Involves a
rating, or certification, that ranks a building according to
preset standards and categories of achievement. To
make an environmental assessment, the rating system
analyzes building structure, design, and material options
and determines impacts over the life of the building
based on various design/build options.
During programming, the project team should evaluate
the client’s sustainability goals and establish whether the
project team will use a rating system to evaluate the
facility’s design, construction, and life-cycle impact on
the environment. Clients, architects, and other building
stakeholders use third-party rating systems to
establish the energy and environmental performance
level of the built environment, and quantify the
achievement of sustainability triple bottom-line
objectives.
There are a variety of green rating systems that provide the team with a common, third-party-endorsed
technique to determine a project’s sustainability performance level. Some sophisticated clients have their
own guidelines and standards for achieving sustainability.
The definitions and examples below are adopted from
the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED) sustainability rating system.
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Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), U.S. Green
Building Council (USGBC)—Whole building sustainability rating tool
that provides a road map for measuring and documenting success for
every building type and phase of a building life cycle. http://www.usgbc.org
Green Building Challenge, GB Tool, International Initiative for the
Sustainable Built Environment (IISBE)—Whole building rating tool;
requires technical expertise. http://www.iisbe.org
area of a program; (2) additional exterior cladding for
sun shading increases the building’s gross area; or (3)
greater initial costs are often incurred to achieve higher
building performance criteria and future operating cost
benefits. It is important to analyze the impacts during
the programming phase to ensure the program meets
the sustainable criteria.
Green Globes, Green Building Initiative—Whole building rating tool;
also includes assessment protocol and design guide.
http://www.greenglobes.com
Sustainable Project Rating Tool (SPiRiT)—U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers (USACE), Construction Engineering Research Laboratory
(CERL). Rating tool based on LEED, with Army-specific adaptations.
http://www.erdc.usace.army.mil/pls/erdcpub/www_welcome.navigation_page?
tmp_next_page=50032&page=All
Energy Star Green Building Design, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)—Energy Star is a building label based on energy use.
http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=evaluate_performance.bus_
portfoliomanager_intro
Owners Project Requirements (OPR): The OPR
documents the functional requirements of a project and
the expectations for the building’s use and operation as
it relates to the systems to be commissioned. The OPR
is updated with increasing specificity during the design
and construction process.
Basis of Design (BOD): Information that documents
the primary design assumptions, standards, and
performance criteria for building systems to be
commissioned.
Building Research Establishment’s Environmental Assessment
a scale of PASS, GOOD, VERY GOOD, or EXCEL. http://www.breeam.org
Baseline Analysis: Energy and water use analysis that
is used to establish project budgets and compare to
benchmarks. Provides the basis to analyze and compare
the impact of sustainability concepts.
Sustainability Analysis
Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA): A systematic analysis
of the inputs and outputs of a product, process, or
service, and the potential environmental impact.
The client’s sustainability goals and requirements of
sustainable design impact the needs of a building and
how the program requirements are considered. For
example: (1) Required functions, such as bike storage
and access to employee showers, increase the total net
Commissioning: The process of verifying and
documenting that a building’s systems and assemblies
function in compliance with the project’s design criteria,
and meet the Owner’s Project Requirements (OPR), the
Basis of Design (BOD), and construction documents.
Method (BREEAM), Building Research Establishment Limited
(BRE)—Credits are awarded in each area according to performance. A
set of environmental weightings then enables the credits to be added
together to produce a single overall score. The building is then rated on
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Financial Analysis
Financial analysis addresses the time value of money
when a client is evaluating programmatic alternatives.
The analysis adjusts varying economic values to
comparable figures or to values consistent with other
financial measures used by the client’s organization.
Generally, the assumptions and outcome from the
analysis vary depending on the client’s economic point
of view: as an owner or as an investor.
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis: The client as an owner will
address a combination of income (cost savings) and
payouts (capital and expense cash flows) over a period of
years.
“streams”), discounted (or “brought back”) to an
equivalent dollar amount (in today’s dollars). The benefit
of discounting is that it levels the playing field by
bringing all the future payments (rent, utilities, taxes,
insurance, janitorial costs, and maintenance and repairs)
back to a common date. One of the most common
methods applied to this type of analysis is the
determination of Net Present Value (NPV).
Net Present Value (NPV): The value of an
investment based on a discount rate over a series of
future payments (or costs) and income (or savings).
NPV is very similar to (but the exact opposite of)
calculating interest.
Example:
Investment Performance Analysis: The client as an
investor will address the combination of income
generation and payouts (capital and expense investments)
over a period of years.
Payback: A simple indicator of the benefit of an
investment is the calculation of the point in time when
the income (or savings) equals the payment (or cost) of
the investment.
Example:
Payment
Income
=
$5,000,000
$1,500,000 per year
=
3.3 years
Discounted Cash Flow Analysis (DCFA)
Dissecting this phrase reveals the fundamental meaning
behind the term: DCFA is the analysis of cash flows (or
Assuming that you could put $1.00 received today into a bank at 10
percent interest per year, it would be worth $1.10 at the end of the year.
Similarly, if you will receive $1.10 at the end of a year, and the bank’s
interest rate is 10 percent, the net present value is $1.00.
Present Value of Annuity (PV): The value now of a
level series of payments to be received each period for
a finite number of equal periods.
Technically, Net Present Value and Present Value are not
synonymous; however, the two terms are often used
interchangeably. The distinction is this: NPV recognizes
cash flows only at the end of a period, and
accommodates variable payments or income streams
that occur at regular periods; PV is based on constant
payments made over continuous and equal periods.
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Compounding: Most of us have a savings account. And
most savings accounts accumulate compound interest over
time.The concept is relatively straightforward. Your money
in the account and the interest earned over each earning
“period” (year, quarter, month, and day) both earn interest.
“Compounded interest” is simply interest on interest.
Example:
Assume that you placed $1.00 in an interest-bearing account and left it
there for five years. Also assume that the account pays 10 percent
interest, compounded annually. The following table represents your
analysis functions) has led to more common use of
discounted cash flow analysis.
Discount Rate: A compound interest rate used to
convert expected income, expenses, or future cash
flows to a present value.
Discount Factor: A factor equal to the present value
of 1 discounted for a particular time period and at a
specific compound discount rate. See the table below.
investment and its earnings. At the end of the five-year period, your
initial investment of $1.00 has grown to $1.61.
Period
Discount Factor for
Present Value of 1 at Compound Discount Rates
Investment
Cumulative
Year 1
$1.00
$1.10
Year 2
$1.10
$1.21
Year 3
$1.21
$1.33
Year 4
Year 5
$1.33
$1.46
$1.46
$1.61
Discounting: Discounting is the opposite of
compounding. Discounting is equivalent to asking, “What
dollar amount do I need to invest today (assume 10
percent interest) to ensure that I will have $1.61 five
years from now?” The answer to that question is easy
since it is the opposite of the preceding example.
However, without a financial calculator or spreadsheet,
the answer becomes increasingly more complicated as
you add more variables (like rent, utilities, taxes,
insurance, etc.). Therefore, the introduction of
spreadsheets (especially those with embedded financial
Time
Period
1%
3%
5%
7%
9%
1
0.9901
0.9709
0.9524
0.9346
0.9174
2
0.9803
0.9426
0.9070
0.8734
0.8417
3
0.9706
0.9151
0.8638
0.8163
0.7722
4
0.9610
0.8885
0.8227
0.7629
0.7084
5
0.9515
0.8626
0.7835
0.7130
0.6499
6
0.9420
0.8375
0.7462
0.6663
0.5963
7
0.9327
0.8131
0.7107
0.6227
0.5470
8
0.9235
0.7894
0.6768
0.5820
0.5019
9
0.9143
0.7664
0.6446
0.5439
0.4604
10
0.9053
0.7441
0.6139
0.5083
0.4224
Hurdle Rate: The minimum rate of return for a
particular discounted cash flow analysis. The hurdle rate
may vary depending on the risk profile for the
investment. The general rule of thumb is: the higher the
risk, the higher the hurdle rate.
Internal Rate of Return (IRR): The percentage rate
earned on each dollar that remains in an investment
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each year. The IRR of an investment is the same as the
discount rate at which the sum of the present value of
future cash flows equals the initial capital investment.
Example:
After-Tax Cost of Debt
= Cost of Debt × (1 – the Tax Rate)
After-Tax Cost of Debt
= .08 × (1 – .4)
= .08 × .06
Balance Sheet: A detailed listing of assets and
liabilities for a person or business. The delta between
assets and liabilities is “net worth” or “equity.”
Capital: All funds employed in a business, including
debt and equity.
Example:
Equity
Debt
Total Capital
$42,000,000
$18,000,000
$60,000,000
70%
30%
100%
Cost of Capital: The rate of return from an
investment with similar risk (compared to the base
investment).
Cost of Equity: The rate of return required by a
shareholder or investor.
Cost of Debt: The rate of return required by a bank
or lender.
= .048
Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC): This
is synonymous with a organization’s hurdle rate or
discount rate. It is calculated using the debt and equity
positions for an organization and their relative
percentages. In the example below, 70 percent of the
organization’s capital is equity with a cost of 11 percent,
and 30 percent is debt with an after-tax cost of 4.8
percent. Therefore, the WACC is 9.1 percent.
Example:
WACC =
Equity
Debt
WACC
Cost of
( Equity
×
Percentage
of Equity
After-Tax
) + ( Cost of Debt ×
Weight ×
.7
.3
Percentage
of Debt
)
Cost = Average
11.0%
7.7%
4.8%
1.4%
9.1%
Inflation Rate: The rate at which the cost of living and
working is expected to change.
Economic Life: The useful life of an investment.
Tax Rate: The ratio of a tax assessment to the amount
being taxed.
After-Tax Cost of Debt: The cost of debt adjusted
for the benefit of tax deductions at the tax rate. In the
example below, the cost of debt (e.g., a loan from bank)
is 8 percent, and the tax rate is 40 percent.
Pro Forma: A hypothetical financial analysis involving
assumptions commonly used to analyze what-if scenarios.
In general, the client will provide the programmer with
the assumptions on which the financial analysis should be
based, including inflation rate, cost of capital (or discount
rate), and economic life. For example, for an inflation rate
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construction, and results in an annual operating
cost of $2,500,000.
of 3 percent, cost of capital 9.1 percent (assume a 9
percent discount rate), an economic life of five years,
which programmatic alternative of equal risk should the
programmer recommend?
In the pro forma example below, the net present value
is –$22,670,000 for Alternative A and $24,000,000 for
Alternative B. Since the risks are the same for both
alternatives, the net present value of Alternative A is
$1,330,000 less than Alternative B, and would be the
preferred alternative based on financial criteria.
• Programmatic Alternative A requires a total
project cost of $29,000,000 for design and
construction, and results in an annual operating
cost of $1,000,000.
• Programmatic Alternative B requires a total
project cost of $24,000,000 for design and
Discounted Cash Flow Analysis Example (Dollars in $1,000s)
(Annual operating cost savings for Alternative A equals Alternative B operating cost of $2,500,000 less Alternative A operating
cost of $1,000,000.)
Initial
Period
0
Future
Period
1
Future
Period
2
Future
Period
3
Future
Period
4
Future
Period
5
$0
$1,500
$1,500
$1,500
$1,500
$1,500
× 1.00
× 1.03
× 1.06
× 1.09
× 1.12
× 1.15
$0
$1,545
$1,590
$1,635
$1,680
$1,725
Cash Flow
–$29,000
$1,545
$1,590
$1,635
$1,680
$1,725
• Discount Factor @ 9%
× 1.000
× .917
× .842
× .772
× .708
× .650
Payments
• Initial Design and Construction Cost
–$29,000
Income
• Annual Operating Cost Savings
• Inflation @ 3% / year
• Escalated Annual Operating Cost Savings
Net Present Value ($000)
– $22,670 =
–$29,000
Net Present Value of Alternative B
$24,000,000
Net Present Value of Alternative A
– $22,670,000
Difference
+
$1,417
+
$1,338
+
$1,263
+
$1,190
+
$1,121
$1,330,000
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On Problem Statements
Problem Statement: A description of the critical
conditions and design premises that become the starting
point for schematic design.
Hypothesis: An assumed or real condition taken as a
basis for inference from which to draw conclusions.
Condition: Something established or agreed upon as a
requisite to the doing of something else.
The following pages contain Problem Statements from
actual projects covering different phases and building
types. These have been written by different
programmer/designer teams over the past 50 years.
Note the different styles and formats—even different
titles. Yet the statements follow the format of
identifying a condition leading to a general
design directive. Moreover, each is a comprehensive
statement covering Function, Form, Economy, and Time.
Premise: A condition stated as leading to a conclusion.
Design Premise: A specific condition leading to a
general design directive.
Phase
Building Type
Page
Master Plan
Academic
Office
Headquarters
Research Park
Health Care
Academic
Conference Center
Academic Research
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
Schematic Design
Office
High School
Community College
Health Care
R&D
Convention Center
Office
Manufacturing
Headquarters Office
Criminal Justice
Performing Arts
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
Interior Design
Office
Office
154
155
Criteria: The standards by which performances are
tested or judged.
Design Criteria: The problem statements used as
standards to judge a design solution. See Building Systems
Design Criteria under “Components of Building Cost.”
Evaluation Criteria: Design criteria with an assigned
level of priority used to rate and compare alternative
design solutions.
Abstract: (adj.) Having no reference to a thing or
things; opposed to concrete. (n.) A synopsis or the
concentrated essence of a larger whole, after the
filtering out of unneeded details.
Essence: The intrinsic of indispensable properties. The
essential nature of a thing.
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Military Academy
Master Plan
November 1974
Function
Form
Since the emphasis must be placed on pedestrian
movement in the cadet zone and in the family housing/
community service center, the master plan must
provide for the separation of pedestrian
movement and vehicular traffic.
Since the cadet zone must locate facilities within a fiveto six-minute walking distance, the master plan must
respond with the appropriate density.
Since the predominant cadet formation will be a
company with platoons in line, the master plan
should respond with broad aprons and sidewalks.
Economy
Since the Academy will be a military showcase, the
quality of design and construction must be of a high
level.
Since the area is barren and austere, the master plan
should create green planted areas for the
psychological effect.
Since the projected image of the academic campus must
reflect the military values of strength, order, and
discipline, the master plan should respond to this
image.
Time
Since the Academy may grow even beyond the two
planned phases, the master plan must allow an
open-ended framework for expansion.
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Satellite Office
Consolidation Plan
November 1997
Function
Form
Since the corporation intends to focus on people as its
strength, the project should balance the need for
group and client spaces: neighborhood settings,
technology showcases, and interaction area with
the need for private spaces; work booths,
increased meeting rooms, and individual storage
areas.
Since the corporation intends to create superior value
for the customers, the project should create an
innovative image to showcase its technology and
people to clients, including real-time demos of
their products.
Economy
Since the corporation intends to share one vision/act as
one team, the proposed plan should provide
spaces that allow a shift from the individual to
team focus: project rooms, enclaves, team spaces,
customer presentation rooms, and business
center.
Since the corporation intends to have one standard of
excellence, the project should “put the company
on the map for Marketing in Asia,” creating an
environment that adapts to change and uses the
latest technology in a variety of office settings
(group address, free address, fixed address) to fit
the needs of each particular team.
Since the corporation intends to provide shareholder
value, the project will improve the costeffectiveness through relocation to the
proposed location, and will create operational
synergy by moving two locations into one.
Time
Since the corporation experiences temporary
transformations in organizational structure to create
new teams, the facility must accommodate these
changes.
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Headquarters
Site Selection Plan
October 1996
Function
Form
Since the corporation may expand its hosting
capabilities for a variety of event visitors, the proposed
location(s) within the target city should consider
the potential for development of lodging
accommodations to support conferencing and
training facilities, and/or the proximity to major
hotel chains, airport, ground transportation
centers, and access to other entertainment
facilities.
Since the entrance to any space forms a first and
lasting impression, the entry sequence to the
new location of the headquarters should
communicate the importance of athletics and
education.
Since internal communication between groups is critical,
the proposed facility should strive to satisfy the
adjacency requirements on at least 30,000–
33,000 GSF floor plate/footprint.
Since there is a desire to project an “open” feeling
to the public, yet there are varying degrees of
confidentiality requirements, the location strategy
should accommodate the desire to secure
certain functions from the public while also
providing an open, welcome feeling to visitors.
Time
Since the exhibition hall is a high-profile function,
possibly independent of the offices, that anticipates large
amounts of visitors, the location proposal should
seek locations that receive high public traffic.
Since the corporation is interested in achieving
ownership sooner rather than later, the location
proposal should provide flexible exit strategies
for each proposed location.
Economy
Since the development depends on return on
investment, location proposals must consider
short-term as well as long-term effects of owning
versus leasing.
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University Research Park
Master and Capital Plan
December 1983
Function
Form
Since area requirements for ground tenant sites are not
yet known, the master plan must be designed with
a flexible lot subdivision system.
Since there will be a public street right-of-way dividing
the site, the master plan design must integrate
the two areas into a cohesive whole, as well as
provide appropriate security for tenant site.
Economy
Since the site is relatively featureless, the master plan
design must provide the required image for the
park.
Since the municipal improvement district will be
developed in Phase One, the master plan should
allocate as much of the site development to
Phase One as feasible.
Time
Since the park will be built in phases, the master plan
must locate the common support facilities and
amenities to serve all phases equally well.
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Medical Center and School of Medicine
Master Plan
July 1971
Function
Form
The School of Medicine has strong functional and
administrative ties with the existing university campus;
hence, a physical and visual connection between
the two campuses is important.
The Medical School educational and service programs
are marked by their accessibility—health care for the
walking patient, as well as the acutely ill bed patient,
extension services to the region, and air transport for
emergency care; therefore, the school should have
a corresponding sense of physical openness and
outward orientation.
Ambulant patient care is the dominant aspect of
this medical education, and the character and
positioning of the clinics must visibly reflect
their key role.
Economy
Recognizing the severe limitation of the budget,
continue to use appropriate cost control
techniques and seek creative expression of this
“lean and clean” quality in the architecture.
Since there will be a large daily influx of patients
at the clinics, many making their first visit, special
consideration must be made concerning patient
orientation and direction.
Time
The Medical School will be the core of the future
Medical Center; therefore, the school must be able
to evolve and to grow to meet these new
responsibilities and affiliations.
Medical education concepts and programs will continue
to evolve; therefore, the architecture must have
the convertibility to accommodate change.
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International Science + Technology University
Master Plan Program
January 2007
Function
Creating an international campus will require the free
flow of information, ideas, and the movement of people;
therefore, the master plan should reflect these
norms and behaviors from one’s initial arrival to
the daily activity with communities of scientists
working locally and globally.
should integrate sustainable land use and
building technologies.
Since a hallmark of this university is creativity and
innovation, the master plan should result in a
unique architectural expression that mixes
regional and contemporary elements that
respond the climate in the region.
Since the primary mission of the campus is multidisciplinary research, the master plan should
anticipate six to seven distinct research
institutes and some field stations, yet the design
should encourage the daily interaction and ease
of movement among these research groups on
the campus.
Since the coastal environment contains pristine coral
reefs and a habitat for fish and other wildlife, the
master plan should establish a protected coastal
zone for marine research with managed access
by the public.
Economy
Since the initial phase of the campus should be
complete by September 2009 and ready to be occupied,
the master plan should address concurrent and
ongoing project construction, and systematic
methods for expedited design and construction.
Since the site may offer opportunity for development
beyond the current program of requirements, the
master plan should justify proposed preinvestments beyond that required for Phases One
through Three.
Form
Since energy and water conservation will contribute to
the efficient operation of the campus, the master plan
Time
Since the ramp-up strategy for this institution will
develop as the campus is being built, the master plan
should define a clear framework for change or
growth in programs or in population, and should
anticipate the unknown potential development
of this university.
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International Conference Center
Program of Requirements
July 2010
To protect heads of state and foreign dignitaries, the
master plan should address site security
following the principles of defensible space by
environmental design.
Since the topography and waterfront pose challenges to
maximizing the site’s area for development, the master
plan should explore a range of design approaches
from an ecological response to consider a more
architectural approach that will reshape the land
and create new site/waterfront opportunities.
Since the facility has a range of functions that have
different needs for privacy, the master plan should
separate the residential (private zone) from the
meeting (public zone).
Since Chinese culture follows principles for the layout
and design of buildings and landscape features, the
master plan should adopt and follow these
planning principles.
Economy
Time
Since recreation and amenity facilities are not required
at this site, the master plan should consider
phased reuse of those existing facilities as a way
to temporarily accommodate meeting space.
Since the primary purpose of this site is to provide a
State Guest House, and the client is seeking to
accommodate the G-20 Summit in 2011, the master
plan should satisfy the requirements for a State
Guest House first, then address how to
accommodate the G-20 requirements in the
future with permanent Guest House facilities
and/or with temporary facilities.
Function
Form
Since local officials are seeking a space that offers a
distinguishing characteristic, the master plan should
prove a creative feature for the site.
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University Research Campus
Master Plan
December 2008
Function
Economy
Since the current plans for developing the Women’s
Campus, the Preparatory Campus, the Riyadh Techno
Valley (RTV), and the commercial development along the
campus perimeter will complete the development of all
major land areas on the Deriyah Campus, the master
plan should address the connection among
campus zones that will result in a cohesive
campus environment, including the use of
integrated mass transit systems.
Since the demand for utilities and infrastructure
exceeds existing capacity, the master plan should
include sustainable approaches to the site
development, transportation, and landscape
need, to improve this condition.
Since the university seeks to improve pedestrian
movement within and on the campus, the master plan
should seek a wide range of improvements,
including: improved access from parking areas
into the education buildings and spine; more
shaded, sustainable, and natural walkways; and
advanced people movement or mass transit
systems.
Form
Since there are multiple projects underway or in
planning, including expansion of the University Hospital,
New Faculty Housing, a Sports Complex, various
expansions to college buildings, and a Multidisciplinary
Research Center, the master plan should integrate
new facilities into a comprehensive plan for the
campus.
Time
Since the master plan will be updated every five years,
the master plan update should anticipate shortterm, near-term, and long-term needs that will
result in an attractive campus environment that
will become a knowledge oasis for the knowledge
community.
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Specialized Office Center
Concept Design
March 1992
Function
Since some existing product line functions are in place,
locate the related functions adjacent to the
anchors.
Since it is desired to take advantage of the bid climate,
identify, prioritize, and add alternates up to
15 percent beyond the budgeted concept design.
Form
Since maximizing utilization of existing facilities is
important for efficient use of resources, find
opportunities for compatible fit of facilities and
shared use.
Since the consolidated group represents an opportunity
to create a research, development, test, and evaluation
center of excellence for aircraft development, the
facility should foster a work environment with
optimum facility proximity, interaction areas,
site amenities, and quality workspace.
Since the sites have sensitive environmental ecosystems,
develop mitigation plans in conjunction with the
base environmental committee.
Since the additional population at the base will result in
substandard roadways, optimize the improvement
budget allocation to create a better basewide
transportation system.
Time
Economy
Since the budget is fixed, prioritize construction
dollars for R&D facilities, and address feasibility
of renovation on a building-by-building basis.
Since the corporate requirements will likely change
many times during the life of the building, the facility
must accommodate changes in corporate
philosophy, the organizational structure, and
work process.
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Senior High School
Schematic Design
December 1950
Function
Form
That students spend as much time in halls (more than
an hour a day) as they do in any one classroom or
laboratory. Therefore, halls and other circulation
elements should be designed to help achieve the
aims of the educational program. (Note: Perhaps
this consideration provides the fundamental difference
between the high school plant and the elementary
school plant.)
That a well-balanced, effective program of education
will accent communications among students in the
classroom, as well as communication between the
teacher and the student group. Therefore, teaching
areas should be designed to allow flexibility of
seating arrangement.
Time
That the school plant will be used year-round for
community improvement, education, and recreation.
Those elements that are to be used by both
students and the public, such as the gymnasium
and auditorium, should be grouped in one zone
for efficient use and economical maintenance.
That the high school population will continue to grow,
and that courses of study will continue to be added to,
or subtracted from, the curriculum. Therefore, the
school must be designed so that it can be
expanded economically and efficiently without
marring the beauty of the school.
Economy
That within each individual teaching area, such as
Homemaking, English, or Speech, there will always
be changes in teaching techniques. Therefore,
classrooms, laboratories, and shops should
be designed for economical and efficient
adaptations to these changes.
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Urban Community College
Schematic Design
August 1973
Function
Form
Since there is a diversity of student population and
lifestyles, there is the need to achieve a strong
sense of place, to foster interaction.
Since there is a need for capturing the spirit of a new
urban building type that combines educational,
commercial, and office activities, the design should
respond to this unique need.
Since the major user is the adult part-time student
who spends a short time in the facility, careful
consideration should be given to orientation
and circulation systems.
Since the district has adopted an educational
merchandising concept, the visibility of the
activities becomes a major design objective.
Since the classrooms in the pool are shared by diverse
teaching groups, their physical distribution should
be a major design determinant.
Economy
Since the budget establishes the quality of construction
at “above average,” the design must consider the
effect of urban conditions on materials and
costs.
Since the small urban site has numerous external
physical and legal constraints, the design should
respond to these external influences, as well as
to the needs for functional requirements.
Time
Because of the indeterminacy of the academic
programs now and in the future, convertibility and
negotiability of classrooms should be a major
design objective.
Operational
To meet the goal for September 1976, occupancy,
unique scheduling techniques, efficient construction methods, timely decision making in
review and approvals, and availability of funds
must be coordinated.
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Community Mental Health and Retardation Center
Schematic Design
March 1969
Function
Form
Because of the importance of the functional duality of
the Center as both a state and a community center for
mental health and for mental retardation, the solution
should express this duality.
Because of the relative position of the site to the
university and the community, the solution must
provide for the interfacing of activities and of
scale between the university and the immediate
community.
Since the goal for coordinated service, training, and
research affects the multifunctional aspects, the
solution should encourage an interdisciplinary
mix between these aspects of mental health and
mental retardation.
Because of the psychological-sociological nature of the
people of the community, the solution should
provide the user with a clear sense of
orientation.
Time
Because the methods of addressing mental health and
mental retardation will change, and because the needs
of the community will change, the Center must be
adaptable to these changes.
Because the facility will be used by the community on a
continuing basis, the solution should capture the
spirit of a 24-hour concourse.
Economy
Because of the community’s interest in “economy of
means,” and because of the numerous functions to be
provided within a low-to-medium unit cost of $30.46 SF,
the solution should strive for economy and
multiuse of space.
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Research and Development Center
Schematic Design
July 2001
Function
Form
Since a high priority is placed on encouraging
interaction between the research and the office
personnel, the design should maximize the
relationship between office and lab as an
operating unit.
Since the development of the adjacent land is unknown
at this time, it is important to control access to
the connector road.
Since there is no particular “typical division,” the site
plan and building design should be based on a
general model of a division, group, and sector
organization.
Since the development of this site will serve as a model
for future growth in the area, the site should
communicate that “this quality company leads in
quality growth in a sensitive area.”
Time
Economy
Since this will be a corporate site, building costs and
site amenities should be consistent with those at
other corporate sites.
Since energy-efficient design is important, those
energy conservation measures that show a
four-year-or-better payback should be
considered.
Since the project will be developed in preplanned
phases, the project delivery strategy should allow
for occupancy of Phase One facilities by May
2002, and for occupancy of Phase Two facilities by
June 2004.
Operational
Because Phase Two construction will begin within months
of the completion of Phase One, the site design and
phasing plan should locate Phase Two buildings to
prevent serious construction obstructions to the
users of the Phase One facilities.
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Convention Center
Schematic Design
December 1968
Function
Form
The presence of the Convention Center generates
parking requirements for large numbers of vehicles.
Therefore, the Center should provide adequate
parking facilities without restricting off-site
traffic flow.
The Convention Center site is adjacent to waterfront
property currently serving public use. Therefore, the
Center should be a good neighbor to the
adjacent properties.
The exhibit hall generates a requirement for large truck/
tractor access to, and egress from, the site. Therefore,
the site must accommodate maneuvering and
storage of truck/tractor units without interfering
with off-site traffic flow.
Since the waterfront site is a unique feature of the city’s
image, the Convention Center should touch the
water and establish an activity connection at the
water.
Time
Since the Convention Center site is bounded by major
through-traffic arteries, the new facilities should
minimize the pedestrian-vehicle conflict.
Economy
The budget is adequate for good-quality construction;
however, it is not without design implications.
The current hotel capacity will have to expand to meet
the ultimate requirements of the convention facilities
(1,500 to 2,000 committed rooms). The success of the
facilities depends on this expansion. Phasing the
building program will permit the interim time
necessary for the response of the business
community.
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Additional Headquarters Office
Schematic Design
October 1984
Function
Form
Since more than 30 separate departments or
organizational groups will be co-located on the
same site, the design should strive to
maintain departmental identity while
locating departments for more efficient
interaction and communication.
Since the new building will probably be in a more
contemporary architectural style than the existing
Headquarters, the design should sensitively
integrate a new facility that complements, and
does not clash with, the existing structure.
The number of automobiles on the site is projected to
grow by more than 150 percent by 1997. On-site
circulation and traffic to and from town will
require careful and creative solutions to
minimize traffic problems.
The existing and future facilities will share organizations
and departments that will require constant interaction
and movement. Appropriate site location of the
new building and some form of a connection
between facilities are major design factors.
Time
Economy
Although the budget is adequate for a moderate quality
level of construction, prudent and judicious use of
materials and systems that reinforce the solid
image of the company is advised.
The plan should maintain and reinforce the
natural beauty of the site and the integrity of the
formal entry by the careful placement of new
facilities.
Phased growth of the staff population between move-in
1987 and 1997 will provide for built-in expansion space
in the early years. The plan should recognize this
and locate these expansion areas for maximum
availability and flexibility.
Growth of departments over time may mean relocation
and movement both within and between buildings. The
design should recognize this and consider buffer
areas that easily allow for departmental
movement and interim usage of space.
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Manufacturing Plant
Schematic Design
November 1980
Function
Form
Since the operating center and team concepts lead to a
strong and evolving organizational structure, the
design should respond with clear identity of
areas and flexibility for change.
Since the partnership creates a completely new
company, the design should recognize the facility
as a distinct corporate entity, as well as a
functioning manufacturing plant.
Since safe and efficient traffic is a requirement, the
design must respond with a clear separation of
pedestrian and vehicular traffic, and of car and
truck movement.
Since the surrounding community is an important
consideration, the design must respond with
enhancement of the environment through
sensitive site development.
Since the production goals relate to layout efficiency,
the design must meet these criteria for
efficiency.
Energy
Since the program indicated different environmental
conditions for machining and assembly, the design
should respond with a separation of these
conditions.
Since the manufacturing produces excess heat, the
design should take advantage of it when it is
needed and dispose of it efficiently when it is not
needed.
Time
Economy
Since the type of construction is of moderate cost, the
design must proceed with rigorous cost control.
Since the program indicated three potential stages of
development, the design must respond with
strategies for growth.
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Oil Company Headquarters Office
Schematic Design
March 2006
Function
Since there are several functional uses that the master
plan should accommodate, the master plan should
test the feasibility of including several types of
facilities in order of priority (HQ, Parking,
Amenity, Healthcare, Laboratory, Future Office).
Since it is desirable to separate some facilities from the
headquarters space for use by employees and families in
the evenings, on weekends, and during holidays, the
master plan should evaluate options for placing
facilities on the site that create attractive
pedestrian settings, avoid congestion with the
Headquarter functions, and yet are easily
accessed by HQ occupants throughout the day.
Since some of the HQ functions have visitor traffic, the
master plan should resolve the flow of employees,
visitors,VIPs, and materials move-in and move-out
of the building, while recognizing the need for
building security that is effective but not intrusive.
Economy
Since the site has a high real estate value, the master
plan should study the “highest and best use” of
the site and the maximum site development
potential for long-term business needs.
Form
The site offers one of the most prominent locations in
the region, and a landmark building is desired; however,
the height of the tower should not exceed 30 to
35 floors based on the forecasted need.
Since the expectation is for a large, efficient, and flexible
floor plan (dimensions should meet or exceed 40 SM
(60 SM), the master plan should develop three
distinct tower scenarios, with one tower being
rectangular in shape.
Since the color blue is a feature of the company’s brand,
the building image should reflect the brand
identity.
Time
As the existing site is fully occupied with buildings and
parking, the master plan needs to address the
phasing of development to minimize disruption
to operations, and allow the earliest possible
completion of the headquarters building.
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Criminal Justice/Youth Center
Schematic Design
July 1975
Function
Form
Since the living unit forms the background for the
resident’s identity and well-being, the design must
respond to a concept sensitive to this
requirement.
Since the residents will be between the ages of 18 and
25, the design must respond with a dynamic,
playful, youthful character.
Since the functional organization calls for centralized
service facilities surrounded by decentralized living units,
the design must respond to this grouping of
activities.
Since the Environmental Impact Statement prescribes an
image with a noninstitutional character, the design
should respond with forms of a scale and a
proportion appropriate to satisfy this
requirement.
Since this is to be a medium-security facility, the design
must include provisions for adequate supervision
and control.
Since a normal, real-world psychological environment is
sought, the design should respond with an
atmosphere similar to a college campus.
Economy
Time
Since the budget is adequate, but not luxurious, the
design must respond with simplicity and
directness.
Since expansion of the facility is uncertain, the design
should provide visual and functional unity at each
stage of development.
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Performing Arts Hall
Schematic Design
March 1978
Function
Form
Since all the performing arts need to be seen and heard
under the best conditions, the design should achieve
superior sight lines and acoustical qualities.
Since extraneous noise must be buffered from the
performance area, the design must acoustically
isolate the mechanical room and scene shop.
Since performing-arts events occur primarily in the
evening, the design should emphasize the nature
of night activity.
To reconcile the different seating-capacity preferences
of the performing arts in the large hall, the design
must provide simple mechanical/electrical
technology to reduce the capacity from 2,100
seats to 1,400 seats.
Since convenient flow of sets, costumes, and properties
will reduce setup and breakdown time and costs, the
design should locate the stages at the same
elevation as the receiving area, the scene shop,
and the loading dock.
Economy
Time
Because change is inevitable, the concept of
convertibility is important, particularly in
offices for organizations and in the large hall
(multiform).
Since the large hall must accommodate the symphony,
opera, and ballet, the multipurpose stage design
must reconcile the different requirements of
these arts.
Since the cost for the architectural fabric of the large
hall has been established within an excellent-to-grand
quality, the design should respond accordingly.
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Professional Organization Offices
Space Planning and Interior Design
April 1979
Function
Form
Since the office is accessible to the general public during
working hours, and must be accessible to employees
during evenings and weekends, the design should
resolve the inherent security requirements.
Since the company is a prestigious international
organization, the design should convey an
appropriate and distinguished corporate image.
Although the company seeks an identity as one firm
through uniform spatial and finish standards, the
design should respond to the unique functional
requirements of each department.
Several types of people visit the office, each with unique
circulation requirements: (1) employees, (2) clients, (3)
recruits, and (4) vendors; therefore, the design should
clearly separate conflicting circulation patterns.
Since the core elements in the building are arranged
asymmetrically, the space plan should resolve
special layout requirements for elevator access
and for cross- and vertical circulation.
Since the company partners and managers are
accustomed to the idea of hierarchy, the design
should maintain the arrangement of window
offices.
Time
Economy
Since the company has a substantial investment in
existing finishes and furniture, the design should
reuse these items when appropriate.
Since the company will expand incrementally over the
next 10 years in the building, the space plan should
establish the most economical mix of finished
and furnished spaces.
The most economical leasing strategy requires some
departments to switch floors at different time intervals;
therefore, the space plan should minimize
disruption at each move, while considering the
ultimate office arrangement.
Since the exact growth of each department is uncertain,
the space plan should couple departments that
might have offsetting growth patterns.
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Headquarters Office
Interior Design
June 1997
Function
Since the corporation, like any other cutting-edge
business, considers reorganization and technological
change to be constants, the layout should strive for
a highly flexible universal plan, which reduces the
cost of frequent moves and changes.
Since accommodation of the projected population and
minimum workstation size (3.24 square meters) are the
key drivers, workspace standards should strive to
provide functionality with modularity, allowing
flexibility for the changing population and
workstation units.
Since support/common areas are truly “common,” and
various components of the corporation have changing
common/project function needs, common spaces
should be located to provide easy accessibility
for all users of the building, and should be
designed for easy reconfigurations to satisfy the
diverse needs of users.
Economy
Since the budget must remain within the corporate
guidelines, the design should emphasize areas of
higher quality by “putting the money in public
areas.”
Form
Since the new headquarters is one of the few physical
manifestations of a highly distributed business, the
design should be unique and communicate a
distinct identity, while embodying the principles
of partnership, economy, efficiency, and quality.
Since visiting distributors are the primary focus of areas
hosting tours and visits, these floors should be
designed to be warm, welcoming, accessible, and
structured around the directed nature of a tour—
as much a place to visit as a place to work in.
Time
Since the growth of departments over time may mean
relocation and movement within and between buildings,
the design should recognize this and consider buffer
areas that easily allow for departmental movement and
interim usage of space.
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PROGRAMMING
PROCEDURES
There is a direct relationship between the Information
Index and the Programming Procedures listed in this
section. The Information Index uses key and evocative
words and phrases to trigger specific questions about
the project. The Programming Procedures give meaning
to those words—charging them with significance so
that, thereafter, the words evoke questions beyond any
prepared checklist.
These programming procedures are intended to provide
stimulus to the programming process. There are more
than enough procedures here to get the project under
way. Certain procedures may apply in a specific project,
while others may not; you’ll have to test them to find
out.You should then generate other procedures that
apply to the specific project—still keeping the whole
problem in mind.
The following procedures apply to architectural design
programming as covered in the Primer. Applying
Problem Seeking® to other problem types requires
defining new programming procedures. For example,
there are information indexes for: master planning,
interior design, engineering design, and management
consulting. Each problem type requires the search for
specific types of information. Therefore, while the
five-step process remains the same, the considerations
or content. change accordingly.
Establish Goals
Function
1. Understand why the project is being undertaken.
2. Investigate the policy concerning the maximum
number of people to be accommodated.
3. Identify goals to maintain a sense of individual
identity within a large mass of people.
4. Identify goals for degrees and types of privacy and
for group interaction.
5. Investigate the hierarchy of values of the client/user.
6. Identify goals concerning the promotion of certain
activities as prime interests, and their quality level.
7. Identify the goal concerning the types of security
required.
8. Identify the goal concerning the effective continuity
of progression (flow) of people and things.
9. Investigate policies concerning the segregation of
people, vehicles, and things.
10. Identify goals dealing with the promotion of chance
and planned encounters.
11. Identify the policy concerning transportation
(parking).
12. Understand the implications of a goal for
functional efficiency.
13. Identify the goal concerning the priority of
relationships.
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Form
14. Identify any client attitudes toward existing
elements on the site (trees, water, open space,
facilities, and utilities).
15. Identify client attitudes toward the facility response
to its environment.
26. Identify the client’s goals for achieving a sustainable
environment.
Economy
27. Identify the extent of available funds.
28. Investigate the goal for cost-effectiveness.
16. Investigate the land-use policy for efficiency and
environmental character.
29. Investigate the goal for maximum return—getting
the most for the money.
17. Identify policies concerning coincident planning and
relations with the neighboring community.
30. Investigate the goal for return on investment, for
achieving financial gain.
18. Identify policies concerning the investment in, or
improvement of, the neighboring community and
site ecosystem.
31. Identify the goal for minimizing the operational
costs of the physical plant.
19. Identify the level of physical comfort required.
20. Identify critical life safety considerations.
21. Identify client attitudes toward the social/
psychological environment to be provided.
22. Identify goals concerned with the promotion of the
personal individuality of the user.
23. Identify goals dealing with the flow of people and
vehicles to provide wayfinding with a sense of
orientation (knowing where you are), or a sense of
entry (knowing where to enter).
24. Identify the image that must be projected.
25. Identify client attitudes toward the quality of the
physical environment and the balance of space and
quality.
32. Identify the goal for minimizing maintenance and
operating costs.
33. Identify the goal for establishing a priority on
life-cycle costs or initial costs.
Time
34. Identify client attitudes toward historic
preservation.
35. Determine client attitudes toward being static or
dynamic as a social or functional organization.
36. Identify client attitudes toward anticipated change.
37. Identify client expectations for growth.
38. Identify the desired occupancy date.
39. Identify client goals for availability of funds over time.
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Collect and Analyze Facts
51. Identify the type and intensity of functional
relationships.
Function
40. Process raw statistical data into useful information.
41. Generate area parameters from general activities
(e.g., 150 GSF per office worker).
42. Organize the personnel forecast, listing the number
of persons in each category and, possibly, their
workloads.
43. Analyze the physical, social, emotional, and intellectual
characteristics of the people to be served.
44. Analyze the characteristics of the community involved.
52. Analyze the requirements of special groups of
people, such as the physically impaired.
Form
53. Analyze the existing site conditions, to include:
contours, views, natural features, buildable areas,
access and egress, utilities, size, and capacity.
54. Evaluate the soil test report, and determine its
implications for cost and design.
55. Evaluate the floor area ratio (FAR), the ground area
coverage (GAC), people per acre, and other
comparative measures of density.
45. Understand client organizational structure.
46. Evaluate the potential risk to determine the degree
of security controls required.
47. Study the time-distance movement requirements.
48. Analyze the different kinds of traffic lanes required
by building occupants, pedestrians, and vehicles.
56. Analyze the climate, to include climatological data
on seasonal temperatures, precipitation, snow, sun
angles, and wind direction.
57. Evaluate the form-giving significance of code and
zoning requirements.
58. Analyze local materials and the immediate
surroundings of the site for possible influences.
49. Analyze the behavioral patterns of the client/user.
50. Evaluate the space adequacy for the number of
people to be housed and their activities.
59. Understand the psychological implications of form
on territoriality and the movement of people and
vehicles.
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60. Define points of reference and entry.
61. Establish a mutual understanding of building quality
on a quantitative basis (cost per square foot).
62. Understand the effect of building layout efficiency
(commonly referred as net-to-gross ratio) on
quality.
63. Understand the effect of equipment cost on quality.
64. Establish the functional adequacy (area/unit) of
spaces as an indication of quality.
71. Analyze the climate factors, the wear-and-tear level
of activities, and their implications for building
materials.
72. Analyze economic data related to initial versus
life-cycle costs.
Time
73. Establish the full significance of the existing and
neighboring buildings as having historic, aesthetic,
and/or sentimental values.
65. Analyze the sustainability data for the site, energy,
water, and material use.
74. Generate space parameters from specific activities
and the number of participants (e.g., 15 SF per
dining seat).
Economy
75. Identify the existing activities most likely to change.
66. Establish cost per square foot, considering
escalation factor, local cost index, and construction
quality level.
76. Identify long-term functional projections indicating
growth or no growth.
67. Establish on a trial run the maximum budget required.
68. Analyze the time-use factors for the different
functions tentatively considered for combination.
77. Determine a realistic time schedule for the
complete project delivery.
78. Analyze the implications of escalation factors.
69. Evaluate the market analysis report, and determine
the implications for design.
70. Analyze the different costs for the alternative
energy sources.
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Uncover and Test Concepts
Function
87. Identify the need for a common space dedicated to
multidirectional, multipurpose traffic, and intended
to promote chance and planned encounters.
79. Test the many services as best being centralized or
decentralized.
88. Understand the organizational concepts and
functional relationships.
80. Investigate the sizes and kinds of groups to be
housed—both now and in the future—including the
physical, social, and emotional characteristics of
people.
89. Understand the use of networks or patterns of
communication to promote the exchange of
information.
81. Uncover the need for a family of closely related
activities to be integrated into a unit, or the need
for privacy (audio and/or visual), and for the degree
of isolation (minimum/maximum).
Form
82. Uncover concepts establishing an order of
importance, a priority based on what is valued or
preferred, and affecting relative position, sizes, and
quality.
91. Evaluate the soil analysis report, and determine the
possibility of special foundations and their costs.
83. Test the concept of hierarchy related to goals for
the expression of symbols of authority.
84. Understand how security controls are used to
protect property and control personnel movement.
85. Evaluate the flowcharts dealing with the sequential
movement of people, vehicles, services, goods, and
information.
86. Identify the need to separate traffic lanes to
segregate different kinds of people (e.g., prisoners
from the public), different kinds of vehicular traffic
(e.g., campus and urban traffic), or pedestrian and
vehicular traffic.
90. Evaluate the natural features of the site, and identify
those to be preserved or enhanced.
92. Evaluate climate, demographic data, site conditions,
and land value to establish general density standards.
93. Evaluate the climate analysis, and determine the
implications for climate controls.
94. Evaluate the form-giving implications of the code
survey, and identify the salient safety precautions.
95. Evaluate the policy concerning the neighboring
community to uncover the concept of sharing or
interdependence.
96. Uncover the need for an individual’s home base or
territoriality.
97. Uncover the need for good orientation, maintaining
a sense of direction through a building or campus.
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98. Uncover the need for the concept of accessibility,
which promotes a sense of entrance and of arrival,
providing direct access to public-oriented facilities.
107. Identify ways to reduce cost yet provide effective
solutions.
Time
99. Uncover the general character of the architectural
form that the client intends to project as an image.
100. Understand that quality control is an operational
concept used to provide the highest quality level
feasible after the balance of quality/cost factors.
101. Identify ways to reduce, reuse, or recycle renewable
resources, to achieve a sustainable environment.
108. Uncover the concept of adaptability in recycling a
historic building for new activities and functions.
109. Test the concept of tailored precision, versus loose
fit, in determining the area requirements for an
organization that might be static or dynamic.
Economy
110. Uncover the concept of convertibility used to
provide for interior changes in a building so as to
accommodate future changes in activities.
102. Understand that cost control is an operational
concept used to provide a realistic preview of
probable costs after evaluating the pertinent facts.
111. Uncover the concept of expansibility used to
provide for exterior wall changes in a building so
as to accommodate future growth.
103. Understand that the efficient allocation of funds is
an operational concept that utilizes formulas for
the impartial allocation of space and money.
112. Test the conventional and fast-track procedures
against the occupancy date to determine a realistic
time schedule.
104. Evaluate the time-use factors to determine the
feasibility of combining various functions into a
versatile, multifunction space.
113. Consider the phased approach to implement the
project given constraints of time and cost.
105. Uncover the need for the concept of merchandising used to promote business activities.
106. Test the concept of energy conservation to
determine the design and cost implications.
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Determine Needs
122. Evaluate the level of sustainability desired, using a
rating system.
Function
Economy
114. Identify the appropriate method of measuring net,
usable, rentable, and gross building area.
115. Establish the area requirements for each activity,
by organization, location, space type, and time.
116. Establish parking and outdoor-area requirements.
117. Understand the cost implications of functional
alternatives to providing facility, building, or site
solutions.
123. Analyze the cost estimate, and test for
comprehensiveness and realism, leaving no doubt
as to what comprises the total budget required.
124. Establish a balance between space requirements,
the budget, and quality.
125. Analyze the cash flow required over time.
126. Evaluate the energy budget (if required).
Form
127. Evaluate the outline on operating costs (if required).
118. Identify the components of site development costs.
128. Evaluate the report on life-cycle costs (if required).
119. Consider the factors of the physical and psychological environment, as well as site conditions, as
influences on the construction budget.
Time
120. Establish with the client mutual agreement on the
expressed construction quality for each activity, by
organization, location, space type, and time.
121. Evaluate the efficiency factor that was used to
determine the usable, rentable, or gross area
requirements.
122. Establish the Building Systems Design Criteria.
129. Evaluate the realism of the escalation factor to
cover the time lag between programming and
midconstruction.
130. Determine a realistic time schedule for project
delivery.
131. Establish a time/cost schedule of construction as
an alternative to building the project in a single
phase.
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State the Problem
Economy
Function
138. Establish an attitude toward the initial budget and
its influence on the fabric and geometry of the
building.
132. State the unique performance requirements to
satisfy the personal or popular needs of the client/
user.
133. State the unique performance requirements to
accommodate the major activities in the project.
134. State the unique performance requirements
created by the relationship among activities in the
project.
Form
135. Identify and abstract the major form-giving
influences of the site on the building design.
136. Identify the salient environmental and sustainability
influences on the building design.
139. Determine if operating costs are critical issues, and
establish a design directive.
140. Reconcile the possible difference between the
initial budget and life-cycle costs.
Time
141. Consider the possible influences of historic
surroundings.
142. Consider which major activities will most likely
remain static and fixed and which might be
dynamic and flexible.
143. Consider the implications of change and growth
for long-range performance.
137. Identify the quality of the project and its
implications for the building design.
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PROGRAMMING ACTIVITIES Typical Programming Activities
There is a wide range of programming activities, with
different degrees of sophistication, variable conditions,
and an increasing complexity of building projects. An
experienced programmer knows how to match the
activity and level of resources required to the type of
project at hand.
To provide a point of reference, we describe a typical
programming process that would be suitable for
developing a schematic design program for a single
building or complex of buildings. This represents the
first degree of sophistication; there are three others.
Each builds on the experience of the previous one and on
the basic principles and elementary techniques of the first
degree of sophistication.
There is a close relationship between the degrees of
programming and the variable conditions under which a
programmer would provide services. Programmers must
learn to make adjustments and modifications to the
typical programming activities without inventing a new
programming method.
A beginner in programming must also learn not to be
perplexed by the complexity of a project. The final
section describes how this method, the considerations,
and the client decisions can bring order and
simplification to any design problem.
The typical programming activity described here is
appropriate for medium-sized projects. Small- and
large-sized projects would require adjustments to this
approach. Each project schedule involves management
decisions that will determine how concurrent or how
sequential the programming activities will be. In order
for these activities to be understood more clearly, they
have been listed in the logical sequence that follows.
Project Initiation
Upon notice to proceed, the project manager organizes
the project team and assigns tasks according to the
work plan. The team may consist of a lead programmer,
an assistant programmer, a project manager, and,
sometimes, a specialist or consultant for a particular
building type. A work plan includes a tentative time
schedule, and defines activities, deliverables, and the
team members assigned to complete them.
Before meeting with the client for the first time, the
team analyzes the information on hand and prepares a
list of the initial data needed from the client. The
assistant programmer might conduct an Internet search
to find information that is available in the public domain
about the client, site, or project.
To facilitate the exchange of project information, the
programmer sets up a project website. These websites
are secure and easy to navigate, to encourage use by
clients and subconsultants.
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The project team undertakes a project initiation
meeting at the client’s premises or, alternatively, by
audio- or videoconferencing. One of the main reasons
for the meeting is to identify participants and decision
makers. It can be assumed that those people who have
the responsibility and accountability for the product
have the authority for decision making. The client/owner
is usually identified as the main decision maker; however,
the client/user groups and governmental agencies also
influence decisions.
Optimally, the data will be available electronically. Find
the proper channels to make the data transferable and
readable. This is a critical time to coordinate the
compatibility of computer applications between the
project team and the client team.
Typical Schedule
WEEK
Since project goals can determine the nature of the data
to be gathered, it is prudent to elicit an initial set of goals
from the owner and senior management—before they get
down to details.This is also the time to explain the
programming process and schedule of activities, including
critical meeting dates and times. It is useful to verify the
client’s expectations for the content and organization of
the final report, as well as coordinate the use of computer
applications and project websites for the whole team.
1
Information Request
5
This is the time to obtain data from existing records
and to obtain the project’s requirements for maximum
capacity and the personnel forecast. Data may come
from a variety of sources, including human resources,
accounting/payroll, the group manager, and the facilities
department. For educational clients, for example, data
may come from the enrollment or scheduling offices,
deans, or principals. The project manager seeks to
obtain the site survey and the soils analysis, as well as
plans for the existing facilities.
6
M
T
W
PROJECT
INITIATION
2
T
RESEARCH
PROCESS
CLIENT DATA
CONCURRENT
ACTIVITIES
3
PREPARE WALL DISPLAY
4
PROGRAM SQUATTERS
7
PROGRAM DOCUMENTATION
CLIENT REVIEW
HANDOFF
DESIGN
TEAM
F
FINAL PROGRAM
DOCUMENTATION
PUBLISH
DRAFT
PROGRAM
CLIENT
RETURNS
COMMENTS
PUBLISH
FINAL
PROGRAM
Once the client/manager has been designated, he or she
is asked to distribute the data collection questionnaire
to the users, with instructions for its return at a certain
time.
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The questionnaire serves to identify the types of
information and the level of detail to be discussed at the
user interview. In some cases, consider an orientation
meeting with the client/user representatives prior to
the programming squatters to review the project goals,
schedule and questionnaire content, and procedure for
returning it.
Concurrent Activities
Several concurrent activities need to take place
sometime during the second week: the site analysis, the
tour of existing or similar facilities, and the work of the
client/manager. The client/manager assigns a workroom,
selects the users to be interviewed, and prepares a
schedule for the interviews during the squatters week.
Office Preparation
Back at the office, the programmers research the
pertinent building type, user characteristics, and area
parameters. They contact cost estimators for cost data
at various construction quality levels.
When the users’ questionnaires are received, they are
processed and tabulated. All the data received from the
client is analyzed and interpreted into useful
information. The data is organized and classified through
the use of the Information Index.
Once the information arrives back from the client,
determine: Is the data up to date? Is it complete and
consistent? If new data is necessary, are there adequate
resources to collect and process it in a timely manner?
Often, the information required resides in several places
within an organization, and the programmer must
reconcile the information received. For example, a
facilities department has an accurate list of existing
spaces, with specific labels for each workspace, but
these units and spatial labels may not coincide with
those provided by accounting to report on people,
because accounting uses full-time equivalents rather
than space units. Computer applications can be used to
help to sort the information received and find the
missing or disparate components.
It usually takes five working days to collect the
background information and prepare the wall display or
other presentation media. The programmers compile
and produce the initial space requirements graphically
on brown sheets, and prepare a skeletal set of analysis
cards around the initial goals, researched facts, and
obvious concepts. A review of the Information Index will
indicate missing information and questions to be asked
during the squatters’ interviews. A trial run on balancing
the total budget is useful at this time. The project
manager may prepare a preliminary project delivery
schedule as well.
Programming Squatters
The squatters technique solves a communication
problem with clients at a far distance from the
architect’s office. Setting up an “office” that is practically
in view of the site and on the client’s premises is
certainly a good solution. The users and the owners are
then easily available for interaction and decision making.
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Working efficiency is achieved by isolating the team
members from the office telephone and other projects.
In this way, they can concentrate on the task at hand. A
programming squatters follows a well-thought-out
agenda. It begins on Monday morning with setting up the
workroom. The most important feature of the
workroom is plenty of wall space for pinning up displays.
The programming team holds a kickoff meeting for key
participants as a group. This session involves an
explanation of the programming process, the schedule
of activities, and an overview of the status of the project
at that time. The participants are told what the
interviewer needs to know from them, and by when.
Programming squatters proceeds through Wednesday
with interviews of individual client/user groups. Most
interviews can be accomplished within a period of one
hour. The schedule should provide an hour’s break
between interviews to allow for the transcription of
rough notes to analysis cards or for typing meeting
notes. Each user group reviews its previously submitted
“want list” and modifies it realistically on the brown
sheets. The programmer uses interviews to further
clarify the responses to the questionnaire and to
confirm the programmer’s conclusions.
Typical Squatters Work Session.
Photo courtesy of HOK
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32’–36’
SHOULD BE ABLE TO TAPE OR PIN ON WALLS
Trash
20’–24’
Computer
Work Area
1
2
3
4
5
Work
Supplies
6 TABLES
10–15 CHAIRS
6
Trash
Coffee
Squatters Room
Using the Information Index, the interviewer can pursue
the uncovering of new data. Here, one must act as a
catalyst for decision making. One may present
alternatives or evaluate gains and risks to stimulate a
decision. Details concerning minor equipment are
documented but postponed for use in design
development.
The client/user group might emphasize specific
objectives and functional relationships, as well as the
physical and psychological environment. Interviews with
the client/owner and management staff are good
sources for project and operational goals and overall
concepts. This group is concerned with organization,
finances, change, and cost and quality control. Interviews
depend on the amount and kind of client participation.
With or without interviews, it is difficult to avoid work
sessions. On Thursday, the programmers consolidate
and display all the information reviewed over the past
three days. The display of information may take the form
of feedback to the client. In effect, the display indicates
what the programmer perceives to be the important
and pertinent information.
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MORNING
M
T
T
F
Work Sessions
Work Sessions
Setup
Kickoff
Interviews
AFTERNOON
W
Interviews
Wrap-up
Interviews
Test Feasibility
Cleanup
Squatters Agenda
The programmer then asks the client for confirmation,
and for decisions in the case of conflicting information;
or the programmer may identify issues and ask for their
resolution.
Technology allows real-time output of information, and
becomes essential during the work sessions. Therefore,
it’s important to provide a work area for a portable
computer and printer, perhaps with telephone access to
the Internet. A dedicated team member must keep up
with the information changes during the interviews,
point out missing information when appropriate, and
contribute summary reports to be used in the brown
sheet discussions as changes are made.
This is also an ideal time to hold a sustainability
predesign work session. The project team and key
stakeholders meet to confirm sustainability goals and to
establish the use of a green rating system to set the
performance level of environmental and energy design
requirements. This is a critical time to obtain consensus
on the level of performance expected. For example, it
might be expressed as one of the levels of the LEED
rating system: Certified, Silver, Gold, or Platinum. With
an understanding of the expected performance level, the
team can use various analysis techniques to determine
which sustainability concepts should be considered in
the design process.
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But the most critical function of the work sessions is to
balance the total budget with the space requirements
and the quality of construction. Graphic analysis cards
and brown sheets are used as working tools to
determine the space program and balance the budget.
Electronic spreadsheets can be particularly useful during
management presentations. They can be used to help
the client make decisions, by creating alternatives that
can be weighted—even, sometimes, as the client speaks
about them. Projecting spreadsheets directly from a
laptop to a screen via electronic projectors makes them
available to a large audience. Then it’s important to
translate the spreadsheets to a graphic format, such as
that of brown sheets, to emphasize the relative size of
spaces requested.
A preliminary cost estimate analysis is presented toward
the end of Thursday to key client decision makers, to
determine the project feasibility. Often, the user
requests (the “wants”) are more numerous than are
possible within the budget. It is important, then, to set
priorities, to consider alternatives, and to make
decisions about the project scope. After this session, it
may be necessary to meet again with the individual
groups to adjust the requirements. Friday morning is
reserved for this purpose and for preparing the final
presentation. Early Friday afternoon, the wrap-up
presentation is made to all participants as a group, and a
preliminary approval of the program as it stands is
requested. The squatters week concludes with the
cleaning of the workroom and packing to go back to the
office.
Virtual Programming Meetings
Videoconference technology and digital collaboration
tools enable another technique for meeting with clients,
users, and project team members who are in different
locations. HOK has placed Advanced Collaboration
Rooms (ACR) in each office that combine videoconferencing and electronic flip charts. With these
techniques the programming team has the ability to
rapidly assemble the most cost-effective teams and
interact with clients anywhere in the world. In place of
an on-site squatters room, these virtual sessions link
with multiple ACR locations or with individuals using
computers with the collaboration software.
HOK uses a real-time collaboration technology that
enables individuals and teams to share data in any
format, and brainstorm together regardless of location,
facilities, or time zone. A multiscreen projection system
is used so that data from any source (computer files,
paper sketches, desktop sharing, etc.) can be displayed in
a virtual flip chart and edited in real time, either in the
collaboration room or by remote participants.
Program Documentation
The report for formal approval need not be more than
photocopy reductions of the analysis cards and brown
sheets, together with enough text to explain the total
program. This can be done within a standard report
outline based on the programming steps, or the team
can prepare a more elaborate and refined report. The
programming team submits this draft program to the
client for review and formal approval.
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Advanced Collaboration Room Layout
Approval and Handoff
With such intensive client participation, formal approval
is not difficult. The team incorporates the client’s review
comments into the wall display and the report. It is
essential to present the wall display to the design team
because the information is usually encoded. The graphic
analysis and the concise nature of the program, together
with the verbal presentation, make it possible for the
design team to assimilate what would have been a
complex program. The programmer then helps the
designer to state the problem by flagging the
information perceived to be a potential form-giver. The
statement of the problem is added to the wall display
and the final report. All that remains, then, is to reprint
and distribute the final report to the client and the
design team members. However, it is the wall display or
other visual displays, not the bound report, that
communicates the information to the design team.
Project Closeout
The programming team closes out the assignment by
archiving the reports and wall display in the library, by
entering the references into a document index, and
by placing the critical electronic files in the deliverable
folder, on ProjectWeb, or in a project archive.
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Outline for the Report
A.
Project Initiation
B.
Concurrent Activities
1. Conduct site analysis.
1. Office Organization
A. Organize project team.
2. Tour existing and/or similar facilities.
B. Prepare work plan.
3. Have client/manager arrange participants for
squatters week interviews and work sessions.
C. Prepare list of data needs.
4. Arrange through the client/manager for
D. Establish computer applications and file-
squatters workroom near users and site.
sharing protocols.
5. Collect user questionnaires.
E. Set up project directory.
F. Set up project website.
C.
Office Preparation
1. Research building type/client.
2. Organizational meeting with client/manager
A. Identify client decision makers.
2. Research cost data and area parameters.
B. Elicit initial set of goals from owner/senior
3. Process and tabulate users’ questionnaire.
4. Analyze data received from the client.
management.
5. Prepare wall display:
C. Schedule client/user for programming
A. Present initial space requirements on
squatters interviews and work sessions.
brown sheets.
D. Obtain data from existing records.
B. Draw initial analysis cards.
E. Obtain capacity/staff requirements.
6. Prepare squatters interview questions.
F. Obtain site survey and soil analysis.
G. Obtain plans of existing facilities.
H. Arrange for distribution/return of
questionnaire to users (if required).
3. Orientation meeting with client/user
representatives (optional).
D.
Programming Squatters
1. Set up workroom and wall display.
2. Hold kickoff meeting with users as group
a. Explain approach.
b. Explain what the interviewer needs to know,
and by when.
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a. Present wall display resulting from week’s
3. Main body of interviews
activities.
a. With client/user groups
b. Receive informal approval of program.
(1) Collect specific data.
6. Clean up workroom, and pack up to go back to
(2) Test documented information on wall
office.
display.
(3) Plan for next level of detail.
E.
1. Follow standard outline.
b. With client owner/management
2. Photocopy and reduce analysis cards for draft
(1) Confirm previous data.
program.
program.
(2) Reveal new data.
3. Submit draft program to client for formal approval.
4. Conduct work sessions.
a. Report implications of information to client,
Program Documentation
F.
Approval and Handoff
1. Receive client review comments.
for confirmation.
b. Identify conflicts needing reconciliation.
2. Obtain client approval of program.
c. Identify issues yet to be resolved.
3. Correct wall display and report.
d. Test feasibility of project.
4. Present wall display to design team.
5. Write problem statements with designers.
(1) Balance total budget with space
6. Reprint and distribute final report.
requirement and quality of
construction.
(2) Consider alternatives that result in
balanced budget.
e. Make final revisions.
5. Hold wrap-up meeting with client/owner and
G.
Project Closeout
1. Place wall display and report in archive library.
2. Update document index.
3. Place electronic file in deliverable folder on the
commonserver.
server.
common
users as group.
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Four Degrees of Sophistication
The development of programming has been cumulative through four degrees of sophistication. This
development is the result of many years in the
professional field, working with clients in a wide
variety of situations. The identification of the four
degrees is empirical and well tested.
The problem-seeking method involving the five-step
process and four basic considerations is applicable to all
four degrees. In the fourth degree, the four basic
considerations are expanded to five, to include the
political considerations in urban problems.
First Degree
First-degree programming consists largely of the
traditional architectural services in which the
architect merely organizes the information received
from the client, adds the information on the site analysis,
and tests the simple economic feasibility of the project.
The information is sufficient to formulate the statement
of the problem.
The two-phase process provides the appropriate
information for the two phases of the design process:
schematic design and design development. First-generation
programming leads to the design of a simple, perhaps
single, building—usually, a familiar building type.
If the programmer is inexperienced in the client’s
building type, he or she needs to obtain a background
through library research, a survey of similar projects,
and other sources. This background will improve
communication with the client and understanding of the
nature of the problem.
Decision making is centralized in the client/owner,
who is also the user. With a simple client structure,
the client is an active, working member of the team. As a
result, the client/user participates through the
process. A wall display with brown sheets and analysis
cards, supported by spreadsheet and word processing
applications, are the primary techniques involved.
Second Degree
The expanded scope of second-degree programming
takes advantage of computer applications to process
large amounts of data as a tool that reinforces the
architect in Problem Seeking®. These extended
computer applications include spreadsheets or
databases for:
• Generating space requirements
• Manipulating the space inventory
• Analyzing functional affinities
• Calculating economic information
• Analyzing programmatic options
The two-phase process may become a three-phase
process on projects that require a master planning
phase, as well as schematic design and design
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development phases. The idea of providing the
appropriate information for each phase still applies.
In second-degree programming, the architect begins to
provide consulting services to lead the client through
the decision-making process. The architect takes the
leadership role, to develop the program and provide
most of the information through extensive interviewing,
statistical analysis, and long-range projections.
Goal setting and the resolution of conflicting values are
time-consuming but extremely important aspects of
programming at this level. This is best left to the
specialists who have the experience in the building
type, and the social and political awareness to
communicate effectively with the complex client
organization.
Second-degree programming deals with a complex
building group. The architect must be “specialized” in
the building type, with extensive experience and benchmarking databases as a background for space
parameters and workloads. The architect’s experience
will be useful in testing functional and organizational
relationships and concepts and in understanding the
implications of the client’s organizational structure.
The programming team becomes more interdisciplinary. Specialists are needed to deal with
problems in analysis, and with complex functional
organizational requirements.
The client is still the final authority in decision making.
Characteristically, the client in this level is a
multiheaded group in which the owner is not
necessarily the user. The user group may be composed
of several groups with conflicting interests.
Third Degree
At this level, programming is still aimed at facilities
design; however, there are generally many preprogramming issues that must be resolved before a
design program can be developed. The analysis includes
a survey of existing operational and functional plans
dealing with the management activities concerned with
efficient operation and the social and functional
organization of an institution or organization.
The management of the project team and client
organization becomes a major aspect at this level—the
organization of work, the logistics of trips, the preparation
of presentation material, and the timing of critical
decisions, to permit work to progress without recycling.
This level deals with extremely large, mixed-use
projects, such as an entire industrial community, a
military community, or a university city. The projects
involve a full spectrum of building types within a
comprehensive master plan. This level of programming
will probably remain the exclusive domain of the large,
highly specialized practice of multicompany, jointventure organizations.
The program development requires an extensive
background of experience from a variety of
consultants and volumes of detailed
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documentation to justify and support every decision
and recommendation made by the architect and the
consultants.
One important characteristic of programming at this
level (beyond the size of the project) is the total
leadership of the architect to develop the program
without the involvement of the client organization, or
with minimum involvement at most.
There is likely to be a very complex administrative
organization between the client-owner and the
architect who processes approvals.Yet high-level
decisions tend to be autocratic, whether by corporation
presidents or governmental executives. The user group
may, or may not, be available to the process. Still,
the architect has to create a model of the user
organization and a profile of the characteristics of the
user. To link a large team working in multiple locations,
electronic presentation technology is useful for
large group meetings, along with electronic mail
(email) and Web-based publishing.
Fourth Degree
This degree is involved with urban planning
problems, and, therefore, the major considerations of
Function, Form, Economy, and Time are expanded to
include the political consideration. Involvement by
the architect/planning consultant is at the bureaucratic
level, where planning problems are commingled with
political issues and power struggles.
Fourth-degree programming deals with a whole series of
loosely connected problems in urban development.
These problems are not always facilities-oriented.
Typical of these problems might be publicly financed
projects in which the planning and design of facilities is a
secondary issue to the larger issues of land location and
use, financing, and public acceptance.
Research must be extensive enough for the
recommendations to withstand public scrutiny. The
architect/planner who wishes to serve in this environment
must cope with all of the issues surrounding the project.
He or she must seek alternatives and strategies.
This level of programming is an area for specialty firms
of all sizes, involving all types of publicly funded building
projects, and architects with a strong sense of public
service and a high tolerance for the bureaucratic process.
The Information Index is expanded to accommodate
political motivation. This should indicate that
decision making may put all logic aside for public image
and expediency. The structure of this complex client
would indicate more conflicting values, longer funding
schedules, and public presentations involving advocacy
groups and bureaucratic organizations.
Summary
The four different degrees depend on the levels of
complexity of the problems and the client structure, and
on the team and services required to deal with them.
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Degree of Sophistication Summary
Characteristics
First Degree
Second Degree
Third Degree
Fourth Degree
Phase of Process
Two phase
Two or three phase
Three phase
Bureaucratic
Services Provided
Traditional
Consulting
Preprogramming
Not always
facilities related
Building Type
Familiar
Building-type
specialist
Wide variety of
consultants
Urban plan
Scope
Simple, single
Complex building
Extremely large,
Urban develop-
building
types
mixed use
ment
Single team
Interdisciplinary
Extensive program
Firms specialized
team
management or joint
ventures
in public services
Project Team
Client Organization
Simple client
structure
Complex client
organization
Complex administration organization
process approval
Complex client
structure and
advocacy groups
Decision Making
Centralized
Multihead client
Autocratic and
high level
Politically
motivated
User Participation
Client/owner/user
involvement
Conflictive user
groups
Nonparticipating user
groups
Advocacy groups
Research
Background
research is project
focused
Benchmarking data
on building type
Documented
justification for
recommendations
Research that
withstands public
scrutiny
Computer Applications
Word processing
and spreadsheets
Extensive use of
Electronic
presentation
technology
Multimedia
communication
spreadsheets/
databases
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Variable Conditions
The programmer must be able to identify those
conditions that will determine the scope of
programming services required, as well as the
techniques to be used. Different situations call for
different responses. The following list might help to
identify those conditions:
1. Identify the type of problem.
It makes a difference if the programmer is defining
a rationalization, conceptual shift, or strategic
problem.
A rationalization problem emphasizes the Facts and
Needs steps and seeks justification for the area
requirements requested and budgeted. Generally,
departmental managers must sign off on the
requested allocations. A conceptual shift problem
involves the search for new ideas and emphasizes
the Goals and Concepts steps. Good ideas occur
throughout an organization, so this type of problem
tends to use a highly participatory process often
organized on a focus group basis. A strategic analysis
involves all steps in the process at a broad level of
detail. The purpose is to clarify thinking about a
problem, and participation tends to be on a needto-know basis.
2. Identify the type of program.
It makes a difference if the program is for a site
master plan, building design, or interior design.
The sources of information vary: Board of Trustees’
policies for master planning, management decisions
for schematic design, and detailed room-by-room
user requirements for design development.
3. Define the level of detail required.
It makes a difference if programming is in two
phases: (1) for schematic design, and (2) for design
development; or if programming is in three phases:
(1) for master planning, (2) for schematic design, and
(3) for design development.
It is a matter of level of details. Programming for
master planning can be based on crude figures and
rough information that must be refined for
schematic design and further refined for design
development. It is like going from a reducing glass to
a magnifying glass. The most efficient process
collects the appropriate level of information for the
analysis required.
4. Determine if specific information will
become obsolete at time of use.
It makes a difference if the conditions call for tightly
tailored requirements or loosely fit requirements.
In the first instance, the building will work well
initially; thereafter, it must be altered to fit changing
conditions. In the second instance, the building
works in a spacious fashion, but the loose fit
postpones initial alterations.
5. Quantify the degree of participation.
It makes a difference if the client is essentially one
person or a group of persons.
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To identify the participants, ask: Who are the
decision makers? Who must buy into decisions?
Who knows the information? Who needs to receive
the information?
6. Establish the attitude about participation.
It makes a difference if the client is willing to
participate in the process or if the client relies on
the programmer and consultants for specific
recommendations.
The client’s reliance on proposals and recommendations places a heavy responsibility on the
programmer and consultants to do research
and comparative analyses to justify each
recommendation.
7. Indicate the level of decision making.
It makes a difference if the decision making is
centralized or decentralized.
When the decision making is decentralized, the
programmer faces the most serious challenge to
reconcile the different points of view through
documentation and graphic analysis techniques.
When the decision making is centralized, the
programmer must seek out the decision maker and
interview that person as early as possible. An
important decision maker may be protected by a
large staff from such interviews, yet the staff may
easily misread his or her intentions.
8. Indicate the availability and validity of
existing information.
It makes a difference whether the information is
handed to the programmer by the client and the
consultant or is generated by the client and the
programmer.
In the first instance, the information is likely to be
incomplete; few consultants would provide site and
budget analyses. Even fewer would provide a
reasonable building efficiency. In the second instance,
it is the programmer’s responsibility to see that the
information is complete and predicatively
reasonable.
9. Determine the user and quality of
deliverable.
It makes a difference if the programming report is a
working document for the project team, or if a
refined document with computer graphics and
additional narrative is required for third-party use.
A working document requires copying the analysis
cards with supplemental pages of text and numerical
tables. It takes more time and resources to publish a
refined document when using desktop publishing
and when the client requires electronic files of the
document.
10. Define the size and type of facility.
It makes a difference if the building type has unique
requirements, such as a nuclear science center
might have had in 1958, or if it is a familiar building
type.
With a familiar type, it is possible to use space
parameters derived from past experience. With a
unique type, the programmer is more dependent on
background research and the user for space
parameters.
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11. Identify expected durations and key dates.
It makes a difference if the process is on a
conventional schedule or on a concurrent schedule.
Concurrent (known as fast-track) scheduling
requires that some decisions be made sooner, that
the money be locked in earlier, that the space
program be looser, and that the predictive
parameters be shorter and more general. The
overall amount of time in programming is the same
as for conventional scheduling, but for concurrent
scheduling, the initial programming period is
shorter and requires more experienced
programmers.
12. Determine if the client has a fixed budget.
It makes a difference if there is an established limit
to the client’s available funds, or if the funds
required are undetermined.
Actually, every client’s budget has a limit. Sooner or
later this limit becomes evident. An open-ended
budget implies carte blanche freedom; however, it
merely postpones the balancing of the budget. In
either case, an early trial-run cost estimate can be
used to advantage in approximating the inevitable
fixed budget.
13. Determine if a cost estimator is required.
It makes a difference if the cost and quality of
construction are based on general experience (cost,
location, time, quality), such as $50/GSF, or if these
are dependent on breaking unit costs into
subsystems.
When the definition of performance specifications
for building systems occurs during programming, the
cost estimate is more precise and more timeconsuming. For technical buildings or for renovation
projects involving building condition assessments, a
cost-estimating specialist is often part of the
programming team.
How to Simplify Design Problems
Some architectural design problems are quite simple
and familiar. They are easy to manage. On the other
hand, there are those architectural design problems
that are indeed complex and unique. These must be
simplified and clarified before they become manageable.
Start in an organized manner. Use the Information Index
or just the basic framework of steps and considerations.
If you start with the recommended method of inquiry—
the five-step process—you won’t lose time thrashing
aimlessly.You will know what the end product will be:
the statement of the problem. It is when the problem is
complex and unique that analysis is really effective in
clarification. Use the four considerations as the major
classifications of information.
Undoubtedly, there are many ways to make a design
problem manageable. Clients must be stimulated
intellectually to make sound decisions at the right time.
Sound decisions are needed to simplify the problem.
Good communication techniques and graphic analysis
help. Take a look at the three ways that follow, and note
how they might help to simplify a design problem.
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1. Use the Five-Step Process.
a. To collect information and determine its
validity—separating fact from fantasy by
identifying the interrelationships of information
in the different steps.
b. To spot pertinent information—by testing goals
and concepts for design implications that might
qualify them as part of the design problem.
2. Use the Four Major Considerations and Their
Subcategories.
a. To search for enough information to provide a
clear, well-rounded perception.
b. To classify the wide range of factors that
constitute the whole problem.
c. To concentrate on the whole problem without
excluding the major factors.
c. To process voluminous facts into useful concise
information—by determining the bare implications of data, what it means.
d. To analyze the whole problem—to identify the
subcategories as subproblems, and to understand their interrelationships.
d. To analyze a client’s preconceived solution, to
pinpoint the actual requirement—by tracing the
solution back to a programmatic concept and
even back to a goal.
e. To analyze the subproblems separately within
the limits of their interrelationships.
e. To focus on information critical to schematic
design—by filtering out information more
appropriate to routine engineering or to design
development.
f.
To distinguish major concepts from minor
details—going from the general to the particular.
g. To organize the information for cooperative
evaluation, consensus, and decision making—to
be able to trace the resultant Needs back to
Goals, Facts, and Concepts.
f.
To focus on the elements of an architectural
design problem, as opposed to some other kind
of problem outside the grasp of control.
3. Stimulate Client Decision Making.
a. To establish the program requirements.
b. To reduce the number of unknowns.
c. To provide more complete information.
d. To limit the number of alternative design
solutions to those responding to the design
problem.
h. To lead to a clear statement of the problem—
by seeking the essence, recognizing the obvious,
and discovering the uniqueness of the problem.
i.
To guide individual members of the project
team toward a unified effort.
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USEFUL TECHNIQUES
Information is a basic element in programming. Facts
and ideas, conditions and decisions, statistics and
estimates—all these and many more constitute
information needs. This section covers the processing
of data into information, with an emphasis on communication techniques—how to facilitate decision
making and the transfer of information.
The advancement of technology enables new techniques
for project delivery, team communication, and
information management. These developments are
extending the role of the programmer as a facilitator,
analyst, and documenter to an ongoing project function
of information management, especially in regard to
maintaining and refining client requirements.
Consequently, we begin this section with techniques for
data management, to set the framework for using
current electronic tools that are enhancing the way
architects work with clients to conduct programming.
Building on the fundamentals of the original Problem
Seeking® tools, like analysis cards and brown sheets, this
section introduces new techniques for collecting,
sorting, analyzing, and reporting programming
information. The Internet offers a vast resource for
obtaining information on the project site and
surrounding environment, as well as background
information regarding the client organization and
activities.
Finally, we introduce the rapidly developing telecommunication capabilities for virtual communication
and collaboration. These build on the traditional
face-to-face techniques for interviews and work
sessions on site with the users and clients.
Programmers must be versatile in the management of
digital information, which begins with establishing
protocols for the collection, analysis, retention, and
transfer of project information.
The programmer determines the appropriate computer
applications to manage the amount and complexity of
the programmatic information required for needs
analysis. Graphic communications techniques help
clients and designers understand the magnitude of
numbers and the implication of ideas. As a result, there
is increased emphasis on the digital transfer of information and interoperability of computer applications
used by the design and construction teams.
Programming also involves feedback and feed-forward of
information, which is why we conclude the section with
a technique to evaluate the programming package, along
with a technique for evaluating buildings. Programming
reports are often required for client approval. Ultimately, one should be able to evaluate the programming
package—without reference to the resulting design. Is it
a good architectural program? Use a question set, and
find out.
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Data Management
Building Information Life Cycle
Programming steps are alternately qualitative and
quantitative. Goals, Concepts, and the Problem
Statement steps are essentially qualitative. Facts and
Needs steps are essentially quantitative. Computer
programs offer a variety of functions that can help in the
management and analysis of data, both quantitative and
qualitative. While computers are typically used to
analyze quantitative information, the programmer can
also use the qualitative and interactive nature of a wall
display or electronic presentation using computer
capabilities. Knowledge of computer-based applications
and Building Information Modeling (BIM) is an integral
part of today’s programming process.
The concept of a life-cycle framework for facility
management information was introduced by Douglas
Sherman in the 1980s. Today, for the effective use of
programmatic information, it is useful to consider the
life cycle of building information and how that
information is increasingly processed in a digital format.
The programming process initiates the design and
implementation phase of the life cycle.
NING & STRATEG
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Building Information Life Cycle
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Rooms and Spaces
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The building information requirements are fundamentally similar among individual organizations; they
vary principally in the level of detail. The major items
of data common to all can be described in terms of
entities. Entities address the level of detail found in the
building information life cycle: Land parcels form sites
that support facilities, including buildings that house
floors broken down into rooms and spaces,
supported by fixed and movable items of equipment.
Land
Pro
gram
COST SAVINGS
te
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Evalua
MASTERING
CHANGE
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Facility Information Entities
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Data Sources
An organized programmer seeks to minimize the time and
effort spent in data collection and input while maximizing
the time available for analysis. However, it is extremely
important that valid and clean data be used as the basis
for all analysis. It is much easier to set up programming
data correctly in the first place than to correct a wrong
setup later.To this end, discover the most appropriate data
sources and allocate adequate resources for data entry
and cleanup. Data sources may be available in hard-copy
or electronic formats. Electronic data is often easier to set
up and link. However received, the programmer should
validate the data received through the interviews and
work sessions with the client/user.
Client data is necessary in the programming process.
Sources include human resources, accounting, and other
organizational databases that can quickly define the
existing situation. This helps identify the departments that
need to be interviewed. Having the existing information
in precise detail saves many hours of effort in collecting it
from each group. Likewise, the programmer can access
organizational standards, if they exist, to form the basis of
space standard in the programming process.
The Web supports many information sources, including
organizational data in public filings, that identify business
assets and, at times, key employees and corporate goals.
The World Fact Book, published by the CIA, is useful for
base climate data and economic information for the
region where the project is located. Nonverified sites
include Wikipedia and social networking sites that
contain information about the people and organizations
involved in the process. Government sites include city,
state, economic development, and K–12 and higher
education websites. Any information developed in this
manner must be verified with the client organization.
Hard-Copy Formats
•
•
•
•
•
•
Questionnaire Responses
Organization Charts
Existing Facility Plan/Area Takeoffs
Existing Facility Walk-Through Notes/Photos
Interview/Analysis Cards
Space Allocation Standards
Electronic Formats
•
•
•
•
•
•
Electronic Questionnaire Response
Human Resources (HR) Database
Facilities/Real Estate Database
Computer-Aided Facility Management (CAFM)
Computer-Aided Design (CAD, BIM)
Drawings of Room Utilization
Linking Data Sources
Care must be taken when linking data sources so that
the same data is not duplicated in multiple databases.
For example, when receiving employee and
organizational data, a live data feed should be mapped
from the original source file to the programming file so
that the programming file imports information from the
original source file. In this way, the program can be
updated through the schematic program and program
development phases by updating the original source file
and refreshing the data feed. It is always important to
refresh the programming data prior to reporting. The
project team can incorporate updated program data
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into the BIM and subsequently into an integrated
workplace management system (IWMS).
Interoperability
During detailed programming, the programmer can tie
information to building assets in a format known as
Industry Foundation Class (IFC). IFCs serve as an
organizing element, recognized across BIM-related
applications, and support BIM asset information that is
interoperable through all BIM and further enables
Integrated Project Delivery. The benefit of this capability
is consistent data that supports building assets from
programming through design and construction to building
commissioning and operation. Additional information can
be made relational to an IFC object and reported.
The Structuring of Data
The purpose of data organization is to manage
information received from the users such that it is
analyzed and output in a manner that is both useful for
client decision making and for the design of the building.
While the process of information collection and analysis
is often iterative, it is very beneficial to spend some time
at the outset of a project to determine the possible
information categories and analysis types that may be
required during the programming process. The early
determination of a potential data structure assists in
efficient collection and analysis of information.
At project initiation, set up consistent nomenclature and
classification schemes to organize the data as it is
collected. An understanding of the limitations of various
information sources helps to create a data structure at
a level of detail that optimizes the requirements of the
project and the time available for data collection and
analysis. Avoid duplication.
Electronic Information
Management
Establish a minimum level of team skill set and software
proficiency as the first step to efficient information
management and exchange. Decide the following:
1. Compatibility of computer applications
2. Methods of file exchange
3. Consistent file-naming conventions
4. Accessible file storage locations
5. Protocols for saving original and updated files
6. Ways of exchanging information:
• LAN/WAN-based sharing
• Internet—email
• Internet—Web/FTP Site/Project Web
• Web-accessible SQL database
• SharePoint applications
• Programming applications
Selecting a Data Processing
Application
To analyze quantitative data, use spreadsheets or databases.
Each processing method has unique sorting, summarizing,
and reporting capabilities that make one more appropriate
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than the other, depending on the project. Recent
advancements in database technology and applications
allow multisite, multiuser access to a consistent data set,
enabling beneficial collaboration between the client and
programming team. Systems also allow logging of data
change events, leading to an auditable process.
Characteristics of a
Spreadsheet Application
A spreadsheet preferably has fewer than 1,000 records in
the data set (e.g., employees or spaces). The spreadsheet
works well when client organization, inputs, and reporting
are changing and moving. It allows interaction while
collecting the data for a highly customized, one-time
answer. It is also useful for testing variables and generating
alternatives. The results can then be used to make a
decision, rather than to maintain the data collected.
Characteristics of a Database
Application
Relational database applications are very fast with
large data sets. They are designed for collaborative,
continuous use, maintenance, and feedback. They can
be used by several programmers/clients at once. The
critical data is kept in a central source, typically backed
up to ensure data security. They integrate better into an
organization’s information systems’ landscape. Reporting
is repetitive, static, and less interactive than that for
spreadsheets. All data is in separate, distinct tables,
unlike that in spreadsheets. Relevant items are “linked”
(relational database). Ideally, setup requires the design of
input and output formats prior to collecting data.
Database applications such as SharePoint relational data
fields and tables enable user-customized reporting and a
more collaborative environment.
Pivot Tables
Pivot tables use a spreadsheet application like a
database. The pivot table functions filter and sort
information like a database.
Consider a database over a spreadsheet when:
• There are more than about 1,000 records in a data
set (e.g., employees or spaces).
• There is detailed data available from electronic
sources (CAD, HR databases) that can feed
updated data over time.
• When multiple users in different locations need to
input and process the information.
• When the flexibility of a relational database is
required for complex reporting.
• When there is a requirement for multiple report
versions using large data sets.
The POR–BIM–IWMS Link
The building information life cycle begins with the
program of requirements (POR) and the detailed
information that supports it to feed the design process.
To work effectively, this process must respect the
information developed through the entire building
design, construction, commissioning, and occupancy
process, making for a fluid progression from one step of
the building information life cycle to another.
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POR Phase
Data Feeds
BIM Phase
IWMS Phase
Architecture
(HR, RE, IWMS)
Questionnaire
Responses
Engineering
Programming
Database
Commissioning
Model
Integrated Workplace Management System
(IWMS)
Functional
Interviews
Reports
Consulting
(Program)
Reports
(Program)
Building
Information
Modeling
Reports
(Program)
(BIM)
Reports
(Construction
Documents)
The POR–BIM–IWMS Link
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Building Information Modeling (BIM) is an object-based
process for designing built environments. Objects can
be, among other things, walls, elements of roof systems,
chairs, or fixed building assets. The objects are
supported by data that not only defines its threedimensional shape, but also its characteristics. When
assembled, the objects identify a built environment,
supported by data, which can then report quantities
of materials as well as contribute to assessing the
behavior of assembled objects, such as lighting and
energy studies, structural analysis, or even blast
resistance.
As the programming process determines space and
building performance requirements, the BIM can receive
this information to set the basis for design. Thereby, a
link is created between programming and design in a
three-dimensional context that follows through each
phase of the project—possibly into planning for building
occupancy and management of building operations.
Design iterations can be audited as part of a quality
control process, aligning client expectations with the
constructed building.
As the program matures from schematic through
development, data describing object characteristics
mature by aggregating additional information, either
within the program database or through linkage to
other data sources. For example, a room, loosely
described as a space in the schematic program space list,
becomes a well-defined object with affinities to other
room objects, and “contains” data-driven objects.
Data-driven objects, such as furniture, may be linked to
a manufacturer’s database identifying materials, light
reflectivity, and fire load values, and even a production
schedule and address for delivery. The power of a
Building Information Model, when linked with a POR
database, is realized by this level of data linkage or
interconnectivity. Programming adds information
richness to BIM functionality, particularly by adding
capabilities/functionalities such as “Time” and “Phasing,”
linking the client to a design in an auditable way.
In an idealized programming process, data to support a
design phase is received from human resources (HR),
accounting (AC), and integrated workplace management
system (IWMS) databases. As noted previously, the
information would reside in tables that conform to
the donor source by mapping live data feeds from
the original source file to the file supporting the
programming process. A “slice” of information would be
used to frame the program departments identified to
occupy the space, their interrelationships, space
standards, buildings they currently occupy, or their cost
of occupancy. By discovering what is known, the search
for the unknown can begin. The programmer can
construct questionnaires that, when possible, are
prepopulated from existing data, emailed, and responded
to by clients in a Web environment that is tied to the
programming database. The programmer can reconcile
data, identify missing information, and set the basis for
user interviews. The programmer can record interviews
in the system or provide data for manual entry into the
programming application.
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Once the programming application is populated, the
project team can access reports that support identified
roles—programmer verification, client approval, design
input, and improved data integrity. The designers can
manipulate the information to proceed through the
building design process. A link between the BIM and the
programming database allows for auditing between the
program and design, to assure compliance. The project
team can report changes to programming requirements—
tracked by the database. This provides a tracking tool to
document scope changes. As the schematic program
progresses through development, the project team adds
information to both the program and linked BIM so that
one supports the other through design.
As the constructor adds building assets and modifies the
BIM to capture changes made during construction, the
model becomes the basis for building commissioning.
From there, data is fed into an IWMS application to
maintain and operate the building. The BIM is then
linked to the IWMS for space analysis, systems analysis,
and system/asset troubleshooting during operations.
Customization versus
Reusability
Reusing templates and boilerplates provides
opportunities for saving time. However, the programming methodology defined here works best with
unique, unfamiliar, and complex design problems. Most
often, projects radically change from client to client and
scope to scope, even for the same building type. Usually,
customization of electronic templates is required for
each project.
In general, a programmer can reuse the questionnaire
templates by reformatting the appropriate sections. The
spreadsheet templates created for a given program type
tend to follow the same internal logic. But the time
needed to input all the information in the appropriate
categories and steps to create customized reports may
vary. Templates of the boilerplate text explaining the
methodology and the components of the report are
helpful. Caution is essential to avoid using proprietary
client data.
Interactive Web-based applications such as MS SharePoint
and MS SQL have enabled programmers to develop an
environment that supports an information continuum. A
bidirectional flow of data, such as programming questions
and responses, can be established with the capability to
capture project expectations, monitor design and
construction efforts, and provide operations support
information on project completion.
These environments provide a powerful user interface
with the capability to sort and query data, providing
sophisticated analysis for reporting. The architect’s or
the client’s organization can host these applications and
make them accessible to the entire project team.
Establishing a Web-based programming environment can
be a significant investment, albeit one that can be
leveraged over many users and projects.
Develop new systems when time for this has been
included in the project. But understand, too, that many
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breakthroughs in the use of technology for programming occur when answering a new question in the
midst of a project. Technology introduces creative
analytical processes, and, as such, management of time
is important.
Output of Information
Programmers process data to provide useful information to the designer, and to the client for approval.
While the content of the user’s information is the
same, the format is often different for the purposes of
the designer. The user needs information back for
validation, and the client needs it for approval.
Computer applications allow for quick output of the
same information in a number of different formats. Data
output can also assist in preparing cost estimation and
due-diligence reports, not just for designers and users.
In any case, the programmer must ensure that the data
output is complemented and validated.
The latest technologies enable the programmer and
designer to compress the time and effort required to
convert information to produce various reports or
views into the database. When combined with a Webbased user interface, reporting can be modified by
selecting queries and checking or unchecking
parameters. This time compression can result in more
efficient production of programs concurrently, thereby
increasing the overall quality of the information.
Outline for Structuring Data
The following table offers a methodology for structuring
programming-related data. While the terms listed tend
to form the core of data needed to perform the
programming process, it should also be noted that
standards for capturing and using data should be set up
to assure consistent use of terms and calculations they
relate to.
While Industry Foundation Classes (IFCs) tend to
consistently describe the objects or elements used in a
BIM model, and the Construction Operations Building
Information Exchange (COBie) sets the standard for
combining building designs with constructor equipment
specifications that are passed into operating applications,
there are other emerging standards, such as the Open
Standards Consortium for Real Estate (OSCRE), that
define space and real estate terms. Government
organizations are also setting standards for this
emerging part of the industry.
The bottom line for structuring data is consistency, in its
collection and use. Well-defined data structures form
the bedrock of a successful program, design,
construction, and building operation.
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Information Exchange and
Data Repository
One of the programmer’s first responsibilities is to set
up the system for storing and transmitting project
information. It is useful to consider both internal and
external repositories. Furthermore, the project may
have both physical and electronic files.
While digital information is the primary form, it remains
prudent for the programmer to have physical copies of
questionnaires and documentation of meetings and the
final deliverable as back-up. This is important during the
data collection phase to provide a second source to
validate the accuracy of user/client responses.
Internal: Internal repositories are within the firewall of a
company’s computer network. An electronic repository
involves setting up folders on a server where the inhouse project team stores and archives digital files. HOK
uses Newforma as an information exchange. It provides a
simple and efficient way to search and organize project
files and emails, as well as providing a means to transfer
documents and track issues. Both external and internal
team members can use it to retrieve and exchange
project information. The program allows for easy
browsing and search capabilities that reduce the time to
retrieve project files. It uses the critical path method to
search for email, meeting minutes, program documents,
drawings, specifications, or change orders.
External: As an external information repository, HOK
uses Project Web, a Web-based collaboration tool that
provides a user-friendly way for dispersed project teams
to communicate and share project documents. The
information resides on servers located outside of an
organization’s computer network firewall. Project Web
is accessible by all team members, including consultants
and subconsultants. It provides permissions layers to
manage appropriate access. Features of Project Web
include:
• News Center for posting news articles and
headlines
• File document exchange directory
• Team events/calendar
• ProjectTalk, a forum to post questions and
comments
• Team Directory/contact information
Project Web News Center
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Document Sharing Feature
Project Talk—Discussion Forum Feature
Team Events & Calendar Feature
Project Team Directory
Project Web: An external, Web-based information repository for dispersed teams
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Questionnaires
one for users (focused, operational, functional, and
quantitative).
Questionnaires can be an integral part of background
research; however, they can provide only a part of the
data required for a successful project. The extent of
their value must be understood, and a programmer
must use them judiciously and intelligently.
3. Customize each questionnaire to gather the right
data from the right people.
To be successful, questionnaires must be well thought
out, consciously and carefully designed for a specific
audience, and aimed like a rifle shot, not broadcast like a
shotgun blast. It is good practice to pretest the
questionnaire with representative respondents. Confirm
the correct use of terminology, to determine whether
the respondent is able to provide the information
requested. If not, revise the questionnaire before
distributing to the larger group.
6. Provide clear directions—do not assume the
reader has done this before.
A questionnaire or survey form is often the first impression an architect makes on his or her client and the
facility users. Since questionnaires can help or hurt the
architect’s reputation in the client’s eyes, they must be
designed and used carefully. When designing a
questionnaire, consider these guidelines:
1. Determine the data that is needed and the best way
to get it. Ask these questions:
What is needed?
Who probably has it?
How should the question be asked and answered?
What is the best vehicle for asking it?
2. Consider two or more types of questionnaires: one
for executives (broad, strategic, and qualitative), and
4. Strive for legibility, clarity, and simplicity.
5. Use filled-in sample responses—include examples
of the types of responses.
7. Create the shortest and most specific form
possible—people are busy, and your questionnaire
is just one more unscheduled task for them.
8. Provide enough space for responses/answers.
9. Test the newly designed questionnaire with
colleagues before you distribute it.
10. Use the most efficient delivery method available to
ensure a faster response—electronic versus
hard-copy distribution.
Questionnaire Use
The use of questionnaires can be a valid method of
gathering data before the programming squatters.
Questionnaires are very useful for collecting existing
and proposed personnel, space, and vehicular
requirements. The data will be tabulated by
organizational or functional group, so organizational
charts are very useful in creating your questionnaires.
Analyze the questionnaires received prior to on-site
work sessions with the client. Identify their
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completeness and determine whether there are
responses the programmer must reconcile.
The scope of the project dictates how detailed the
quantitative information request should be. For a small
program, a programmer could have personnel lists by
name. For large projects, however, involving even millions
of square feet, the requests for information vary. In some
cases, given a known building type, a generic program
with predictive area parameters for the forecasted
personnel may suffice. In others, detailed departmental
listings may include space requirements for specific and
unique functions. Adjust your information request
according to the scope of each project.
Electronic Questionnaires
The intranet of an organization can provide a quick and
effective tool for conducting questionnaire surveys.
Electronic questionnaires may simply be an electronic
mail message with the questionnaire in an electronic file
format that the respondent can access, complete, and
return using the email system. The programmer can
collate these electronic responses into meaningful data in
a manner not unlike the collation of hard-copy responses.
In situations where the number of respondents is very
large and the information requested is clearly quantified,
a Web-based questionnaire may be used. These reside on
a website where the respondents can access them and fill
in requested information. Ideally, the website is linked to
a database where responses are automatically collected
and summarized into predetermined categories.
When using electronic questionnaires:
1. Ensure that all respondents have the necessary
access, software, and skill to complete the electronic
questionnaire.
2. Test the use of the questionnaire with one of the
client team members before general distribution.
3. Allow options where qualitative information and
comments may be captured in addition to formbased quantitative information.
4. Test responses for completeness, accuracy, and
interpretive errors.
5. Web-based responses are best managed through
multiple-choice answers so that the respondent is
less likely to make interpretive mistakes.
6. Explain the intent behind the questions in an
easy-to-access help facility.
7. Manage electronic responses and data in an
organized and easily retrievable form.
8. Always back up data.
Types of Questionnaires
Following are two types of questionnaires: an interview
questionnaire where the response is obtained by
interview; and a data collection questionnaire, to gather
detailed information from a large group of respondents.
A programmer uses an interview questionnaire with
high-level officials or executives for the purpose of
obtaining direction and strategic information. A data
collection questionnaire is used to obtain detailed
departmental information about the user groups.
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Example Interview Questionnaire
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Example Data Collection Questionnaire
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Data Collection Questionnaire (continued)
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Data Collection Questionnaire (continued)
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Data Collection Questionnaire (continued)
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Data Collection Questionnaire (continued)
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Data Collection Questionnaire (continued)
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Data Collection Questionnaire (continued)
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Interviews and Work Sessions
The programming process affects two-way communication
between the end users and client decision makers through
interviews and work sessions.There should be a clear
distinction between interviews for data gathering and
work sessions for summaries and decision making. Data is
gathered as a basis for analysis, calculation, discussion, and
decision; and after having its implications determined, it
becomes useful information.The communication role of a
programming team encompasses the subroles of facilitator,
documenter, and building type specialist.
Experienced facilitators will:
1. Focus discussion on the goals of the project.
2. Ask questions pertinent to the project.
3. Periodically summarize or recap.
4. Continue to return to the main ideas until they
are clarified.
5. Remember that clients do not need to tell you
all they know—only what you need to know!
Facilitator
USER
DECISION MAKERS
Documentors
process. The documentation of the responses in an
interview should include: (1) the name of the respondent,
(2) when the interview took place, and (3) the classification of data according to the Information Index.
Specialist
TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION
Communication Roles for Programmers
In the role of facilitator, the programmer represents
an objective party, who guides the processes of inquiry
and encourages the open exchange of ideas and data
among the end users and decision makers. The
documentation role of a programmer is critical to
successful communications during the programming
A verbatim record with opinions and attitudes is not
necessary or desirable. However, accuracy and
completeness are necessary for the kind of raw data
that needs to be processed in order for it to yield
meaningful information. Data should be documented for
continuous team reference. Lost information can lead to
wrong conclusions. The recording programmer should
know when direct quotations may be desirable as
documented data in order to clarify opinions and
attitudes, goals, and concepts. Generally, the recorder
must extract the essence of a response as he or she
records in order to avoid data clog. Further still, having
reduced the response to its essence, one might find that
a diagram or some other form of graphic representation
communicates the response more vividly. Finally, as
building-type specialists, the programming team
provides professional expertise to the analysis of user
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Photo courtesy of HOK
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requirements and the implications of programmatic
options. This role may be played by in-house specialists
or consultants, such as food service or security.
Identifying Decision Makers
It can be assumed that those people who have the
responsibility and accountability for the product also
have the authority for decision making. This premise
would indicate that the client/owner usually be
identified as the main decision maker; however, the
client/user and governmental agencies influence
decisions. The client/owner might be a corporate or
governing board represented by the management group,
the senior administrative staff, or an appointed building
committee. In many cases, the individual identified as
responsible on the organization chart is not the actual
decision maker. All too often, it becomes a guessing
game to determine who, in fact, is the final decision
maker. Nevertheless, it is important to identify the
decision-making structure in each specific situation
prior to the interviews and work sessions. Conflicts can
be expected to arise in this complex decision-making
body. When issues are identified, they should be dealt
with privately by the consultant, not in a public hearing
where decision makers are exposed. The client/user
might include the midmanagement or midadministrative
group and, indeed, the actual or prospective user. Lately,
groups of interested citizens have joined the client/user
group. While this second group is not the final decisionmaking entity, it can cause, influence, and recommend
decisions to be made. Do not expect a group to make
decisions on data that is not available to them.
A third group would include governmental regulating
agencies that exercise control of functional
requirements, public expenditures, and public safety.
These agencies are decision makers on specific issues
and need to be identified early.
Preplanning Interviews
The programmer should not approach the interviews
empty-handed. Identify conflicting issues that need to be
reconciled. Prepare graphic presentations leading to the
impartial allocation of space and sound decisions. Prepare
a list of key words to guide an inquiry and discussion. An
important aspect of preplanning is to identify what needs
to be gathered through the interview technique. The
Information Index is not only a key-word checklist of
questions, but also the format for the classification of
responses. The client need not be aware of the
Information Index, nor should the interview be overly
structured. The obvious use of a checklist inhibits
responses. When arranging appointments, it is best to let
the people to be interviewed know ahead of time what is
to be discussed. This allows them time to prepare and to
collect pertinent information they wish to discuss. A
series of interviews is best scheduled by the client/
manager, who not only may have to arrange the best
appointment times for various individuals but may also
have to arrange for work substitutes for those individuals.
The programming squatters bring together the client
team and the programming team, including special
consultants, so that all are aware of decisions regarding
the allocation of space and money, as well as the
consensus on quality—made within a balanced budget.
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Ways of Thinking
To achieve effective group action, it is important to
understand how people think. Planning a large, complex
building project involves many people of many minds.
We are beginning to appreciate the multiplicity of ideas
that emerges from the total planning team with its
multiheaded client and multiheaded architect: the client
group and the architect group.
By definition, each of these groups carries a different set
of baggage, containing distinct needs, values, and
objectives—indeed, different ways of thinking. This is
inevitable. Recognizing the differences is no less
important than reconciling them, whether they exist
between the client group and the architect group or
among individual group members. The greatest
differences exist within the architect group, and they
usually emerge in architectural programming, the first
phase in the design process. Problem Seeking recognizes
analysis and synthesis as two different processes calling
for two different ways of thinking.
To determine an organization’s needs related to a
proposed building project, senior management generally assigns a group to work with architectural
programmers, the first contingent of the architect
group. This group might include people from the top
to the bottom of the organization chart. If needed,
management brings in outside consultants to augment
the know-how of the client group. As to be expected,
each participant comes with certain biases and
viewpoints, all of which are valid and important.
Programmers seek consensus among these diverse
viewpoints through a series of meetings. The twofold
objective is to cope with the multiplicity of thought and
ameliorate the differences of so many minds. This doesn’t
mean there must be a poor compromise. But we know
this: Participants in group action will argue their
heads off unless they believe that “together we
can do a better job than we can separately.”
Without this maxim, we’re in trouble.
First, there is a kickoff meeting of the entire client group
with the programmers, during which the format and
goals of the programming sessions are clearly spelled
out. Scheduled meetings of individual organizational
components follow, which lead to preliminary
conclusions and program requirements. Work sessions
with senior management are required to resolve issues
and make decisions. Finally, there is a wrap-up meeting
with the entire group to review how the conclusions
affect individual needs and desires. That’s when minds
can clash and communication bogs down.
Team action is not easy. There are always risks. But risks
are minimized when group participants understand and
appreciate the different ways people think during the
search for consensus. Interaction between the client
group and the architect group pays off in more
functional, beautiful, and economical buildings. We think
such results make the risks worthwhile.
On the next pages are 12 antinomies—different ways of
thinking—that are prevalent among the client-architect
team during the programming process.
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Problem
Solution
Some people are solution oriented. This kind of thinking
seeks a solution before distinguishing the parts of the
problem. Transplanting a California building to New
York—or vice versa—is an example of this approach
toward design thinking.
This kind of thinking led to dominance of the
International Style of building: the same style, the
steel-and-glass building, in vastly different geographic
locations. This kind of thinking also explains the Texas
Cape Cod. In these cases, solutions were identified
before the problems were solved.
We contend that problem solving is a valid
approach to design; therefore, problem definition
should be the first step in the design process.
Architectural design is like most everything else: You
can’t solve a problem unless you know what it is.
Analysis
Synthesis
Analytical thinking is said to be based in the left side of
the brain, along with logical and verbal functions. The
right side handles the ability to synthesize, along with
intuitive and spatial capabilities. This is why programmers
and designers predominantly use one part of the brain
more than the other.
If we accept this notion, we can cope with the multiplicity of thought between programmers and designers. If
we practice group action, we can put the many ways of
thinking to work for us.
Analysis is what the explicit process of programming is
all about. Yet some solution-oriented and intuitive
people tend to resist analysis, where the parts are
separated and clearly identified.
Successful programming relies on analysis.
Successful design relies on synthesis. The
possibility for creativity depends on the unexpected,
integrated arrangement of the parts.
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1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Logic
Intuition
Logical thinkers do well in programming. They use an
orderly, well-documented, step-by-step process.
Intuitive thinkers do well when chunks of information
are missing. They are scanners. The systematic approach
bores them. They skip steps in the process to reach
valuable insights. Their weakness is not recognizing the
necessity of documentation for others. They make poor
programmers, but they often make good designers.
Programming requires logic in its systematic search for
information. Designers find that intuition is important in
deciding which information will prove most useful.
Since the design process encompasses programming and design, both logical and intuitive
thinkers are needed on the planning team.
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Algorithmic
Heuristic
The quantitative aspect of information gathering in
programming makes some people expect too much
exactness. On the other hand, the qualitative aspect
provides an evocative ambiguity needed for creativity.
Although the intent of programming is to reveal the
problem, there is no assurance of precision. That’s not
all bad. Precision may deter creativity during design.
Programming is heuristic: Steps are not
rigorously sequential, and information is hardly
ever precise or complete.
When the problem is crucial, such as life safety, an
algorithmic approach is taken. Each step is rigorously
retraced in its proper sequence and rechecked for the
precision of the information. Exactitude is not necessary
for the creation of design concepts. Designers don’t
paint by numbers.
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Program
Abstract
Concrete
Architects and engineers think in three dimensions.
They perceive ideas in concrete, tangible terms. Abstract
thinking, dealing with ideas generalized from particular
instances, is very difficult for some of them, particularly
if they are trained to visualize solutions.
Programming needs abstract thinking—keeping
parts malleable, jellylike, and loose until design
synthesizes the physical solution.
Abstract ideas help to suspend judgment and prevent
preconceptions until all the information is gathered and
processed. This ambiguity provides the leeway necessary
for alternative design solutions. Many design concepts
can be derived from a single programmatic concept.
Design
Feed-forward
Design
Evaluation
Feedback
Programming implies looking ahead, or feed-forward.
Programming is the prelude to design, but it does not
guarantee good design. Postoccupancy evaluation is
feedback that can be used to modify a design or
improve a subsequent program. Unquestionably,
feedback is a great device to fine-tune a new design or a
future program.
Ideally, we should have both feed-forward and
feedback.The building program, as information
feed-forward, forms the basis of design.The
evaluation, as information feedback, offers
refinement of design.
Architects are taught to think in predictive terms—to
visualize the way things will be in the future. They must
look ahead and, occasionally, use the rearview mirror.
In a medical analogy, if programming is diagnosis, postoccupancy evaluation is postmortem! And we learn
from both.
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Art
Science
Objective
Subjective
Programming demands objectivity. We know, of course,
that complete objectivity is not possible. On the other
hand, we need to face facts squarely—to hear what we
might not want to hear. Objective thinking relates to the
realistic view of facts without distortion, but objectivity
does not mean insensitivity to social conditions.
Yet some people approach programming subjectively—
as they would design. Subjectivity deals with personal
prejudices brought to the process.
As programmers, when we search for a clear,
rational statement of the problem, our minds
must think objectively.
These days we hear a lot about the art of architecture
as a product of skill and taste applied to certain popular
aesthetic principles. We also hear about the science of
architecture as a product of knowledge that has been
tested and verified.
Artistic activities emphasize intuitive, subjective
thinking. Scientific activities emphasize logical,
objective thinking. Architecture deals with both.
This causes a lot of confusion. The way we cope with
this antinomy is to think of architects as practicing on
the beach where two worlds meet: the world of arts
and the world of science. Architects often walk too far
inland and forget how to swim, or swim too far out to
sea and forget how to walk. Nevertheless, we love our
beach where the arts and science overlap. By nature,
architectural design must be open to both worlds.
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Comprehensive
Singular
Holistic
Atomistic
There are four major design considerations: Function,
Form, Economy, and Time. All four, not just one, must be
included in a rational design process—and, in some
cases, simultaneously.
Some people are prone to view the design problem in a
holistic approach. They see the forest. Others see the
trees; they love the details that make up the whole. This
is an atomistic approach.
But some people work best on a singular approach.
They focus on one aspect of design. Some users are
single-minded about function, some architects are
obsessed with form, and managers emphasize economy
and time. Since most people limit their thinking to their
specialties, this is the best argument for an inclusive
team with a broad range of views.
Some are big-picture people—conceptual thinkers.
Others are detail people, who like to work in design
development or in interior design. These are opposite
ways of thinking. Programming and design require
both ways of thinking.
A wide mental grasp is needed to account for all
pertinent considerations; however, the individual team
member can have a single-track mind devoted solely to
his or her specialty. Unless empathic to other
views—to how other specialists think—an
individual probably won’t make a good member
of the team, as either a programmer or as a
designer.
The team is the new genius. We want different eyes—
some to see the forest, and others to see the trees.
Although it’s not absolutely necessary, seeing the forest
first has certain advantages.
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Expansion
Reduction
Programmers and designers alike often expand the
design problem beyond the sphere of direct influences.
They want to explore other possibilities—to be allinclusive. This is good. Browning said, “Ah, but a man’s
reach should exceed his grasp, or what’s a heaven for?”
But some people take it beyond the pull of gravity into
the universe. It becomes a universal problem that no
one can define, much less solve. A Spanish proverb
states, “Who grasps too much, squeezes little.”
Other people think that to focus on the heart of the
matter, one should distill the information reduction
down to the essence; however, there is always the
danger of oversimplification. In the search for the
problem (programming) and the search for the
solution (design), both kinds of thinking have
their place.The trick is to decide when one
should take precedence over the other.
Complexity
Simplicity
Complexity in programming can mean too many
tortuous steps, too much detail too soon, too many
categories, dubious problems, obscure jargon,
multiheaded clients, and unclear terms.
Some people enjoy tension, ambiguity, and complexity.
Other people enjoy the intellectual challenge of
simplifying it—boiling it down to its essence. We
advocate the latter. We generally start with complexity
and work toward simplicity throughout the entire
design process. Oversimplification occurs through the
tendency to concentrate on a single aspect of a problem
to the exclusion of all complicating factors. When this
happens, the program becomes simplistic, and design
quality is endangered.
But it is possible to strive for a simplicity that promotes
clarity and intelligibility. Fundamental simplicity is
difficult to achieve and requires disciplined
analytical skills to discriminate among staggering
amounts of information.
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Types of Interviews
QUESTION
C
Interviewing techniques vary with the number and type
of participants. Therefore, it would be well to consider
four generalized categories:
R
RECORD
B1. Small-group interviews usually involve a client leader
in a discipline, accompanied by one or two assistants or
resource people. For all intents and purposes, the
interaction between the interviewer and the leader has
all the characteristics of the individual interview.
A. Individual interviews
B. All group interviews
C. Medium-group interviews
D. Large-group interviews
C
A1. Individual interviews involve essentially two people:
the interviewer and the client respondent (C). The
interviewer asks the questions and records the answers.
The recording function (R) is the most likely to suffer.
R
B2. A series of small-group interviews might well
include the presence of a client coordinator (CC), who
monitors the interview.
C
CC
C
A tape recorder may be used, but there is a chance that
it might intimidate the respondent who is reluctant to
make commitments. Journalists are specialists at asking
questions and recording them. But still, most people are
wary of being misquoted.
A2. It takes two people to conduct a good interview: one
to ask questions, another to record the answers. This
frees the interviewer from having to record and allows
him or her to pursue questioning with more spontaneity.
R
There are many advantages to having a monitor, such as
checking the integrity of the answers, gaining valuable
insight into opposing points of view, and providing
follow-through action some interviews might generate.
The main disadvantage is intimidating the respondent
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C1. Medium-group interviews introduce the possibility
of single-discipline or multidiscipline groups. A group of
6 to 10 people within the same discipline will most
likely have a designated leader who will provide most of
the answers. Nevertheless, the democratic process will
provide the opportunity for different points of view.
CC
C
R
Medium groups require a fairly elaborate initial
presentation to serve as background for the questions
to be asked. The presentation might go as far as
identifying the issues that must be reconciled, or
alternatives that call for decisions. These might be used
as a frame of reference for the type and pertinence of
the data sought.
C2. When a medium group involves several disciplines
or subgroups, members of each discipline might rally
behind a leader. The multidiscipline aspects emphasize
the need for a clear initial presentation or a frame of
reference, so that each discipline can express itself on
the same issues before launching new ones. To give
everyone in a medium group the opportunity to
participate, rotate those sitting in the front row of seats.
This rotation allows time for each discipline to
contribute.
CC
C
C
R
C
D. Large-group interviews involving 15 or 20 people
may be single-discipline or multidiscipline in composition. With these large numbers, only half of them are
likely to participate actively, and then only through the
motivation provided by the interviewer.
CC
R
A single-discipline group would very likely be headed by
a leader. This group might have met previously to discuss
the major issues involved in the project.
Large-group interviews require an initial presentation
that will inform everyone of the background of the
project and the framework for the type of data sought.
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Audio- and Videoconferencing
As an alternative to face-to-face meetings for interviews
and work sessions, sophisticated telecommunications
technology helps the architectural programmer foster
dynamic, real-time collaboration among project team
members in different locations.
The programmer can use audioconferencing to conduct
meetings with client or project groups. This is generally
done in a conference room fitted with a speaker phone.
Augmenting the audioconference, it is common to use
an application for sharing computer desktop information
among the group, such as WebEx. WebEx allows all
participants to see the same image on a computer
screen, and if required, transfer the control of the
computer screen to the participants in different
locations. This technology also has the capability to
record a session and save it as a digital file to recall and
review the information discussed in a meeting. It is
useful for participants who were unable to attend the
scheduled meeting, or for the programmer to review
and analyze the information from the session.
Videoconferencing involves both audio and visual
communication and captures the nonverbal aspects of a
meeting by allowing the meeting participants to see
each other in a conference format. The videoconference
enables participants in different locations to conduct an
interview or work session.
For example, HOK has installed Advanced Collaboration
Rooms (ACRs) that combine high-resolution,
interoperable videoconferencing technology with a
virtual flip-chart system. The integrated system enables
programmers, along with the entire project team, to
conduct interactive videoconferencing meetings.
In an ACR meeting, participants use the virtual flip chart
to display images, videos, documents, and views of
computer desktops as part of a project work session,
client presentation, or project coordination meeting.
The electronic flip chart uses a series of display screens
in each ACR, allowing the facilitator to display multiple
ideas at one time. The virtual flip chart can also save,
print, or email meeting notes and documents to
participants in the session.
Typically, an ACR room is arranged for three to four
participants who are in the direct line of view of the
camera. Other participants may be in the room, sitting
around the table or standing to use the virtual flip chart.
A conference may link a single or multiple locations.
The use of the rooms involves confirming availability of
the ACR and the participants at all locations. Others can
also participate without being in an ACR room by
connecting to the virtual flip chart on their desktop and
using audio conferencing. The ACR meeting is a powerful
tool for programmers. These meetings not only bring a
whole new level of collaboration and efficiency to the
programming process, but also minimize the need for
long-distance car or air travel. As a result, audio- or
videoconferencing results in sustainability benefits and
minimizes the carbon footprint of this process.
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ACR Work Session
Photo courtesy of HOK
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Functional Relationship
Analysis
To undertake a functional relationship analysis, begin by
collecting the formal organization charts and classifying
groups at a consistent level of hierarchy.
One of the qualitative components of the programming process involves the collection and analysis of
organizational structure, concepts, work processes, and
functional relationships. The purpose of the analysis is to
determine the required proximity of the different user
groups.
While the proximity of people and services is the
predominant factor influencing the location of spaces,
flow and access to communication networks are often
key considerations in building organization and design.
The following are concepts that indicate types of
functional relationship requirements:
Flow: The movement of people, material, products, or
information from location to location.
Proximity: The shortest distance required among
groups to ensure a high degree of communication and
interaction and access.
A programmer may use a questionnaire to identify the
desired proximity among groups. An adjacency chart
records the perception of each user group’s functional
relationship requirements to all other user groups or
among functional areas. In a questionnaire, limit the
proximity codes to a few choices, such as critical,
desirable, and accessible.
Adjacency Requirements
Critical
Virtual: An exception to the concept that proximity
is necessary to ensure communication, because
communication technology provides interface.
Organization Chart
Desirable Accessible
None
A
B
C
A
D
E
B
C
D
E
F
F
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It is also important to define what the user may mean
by each proximity code, for example: Critical—Adjacent.
Critical —Adjacent
Once all relationships are checked, create a bubble
diagram. A bubble diagram is a simplified graphic
description of an organization’s functional relationships.
It is useful to record these at two scales:
Desirable —Same floor
Accessible —Same building
Next, transpose the questionnaire responses to an
interaction matrix. Use different-size dots or color
coding in an interaction matrix to record adjacency
requirements among groups or specific program areas,
such as mailroom, loading dock, or laboratory. During
the interviews, cross-check questionnaire responses to
validate requirements from all groups. During test fits of
area allocations for specific locations it is also possible
to use the matrix to record achieved relationships and
score alternative plans.
1. Micro relationships: The depiction of individual
user groups and their specific relationships. Using
questionnaire information and circles to represent
groups, prioritize adjacencies with different-weight
lines to indicate critical, desirable, and accessible
relationships.You may also indicate flow and access.
2. Macro relationships: A diagram summarizing
the overall requirements for interaction and
communication among all user groups or functional
areas.
Bubble Diagram
Interaction Matrix
B
C
A
B
A
D
C
D
E
F
E
F
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Gaming and Simulation
Gaming is a technique to be used when the conditions
of team composition and project type indicate the need
for consensus in decision making. In practice, it is an
activity whose aim is to develop and evaluate a variety
of options for arranging building space and site facilities.
Gaming is also a useful technique for discovering the
relationships among functions and spaces, in addition to
testing programmatic concepts. It is accomplished by a
team or teams made up of people from the client’s
organization and the project team, working in the
context provided according to an approved set of
criteria or goals. The criteria, in effect, set the rules for
the game and a reasonable understanding of the goals
by all participants, and are essential to success. The
gaming technique helps this group simulate how they
will use a site or building in the future. The technique is
used frequently at three levels of planning and design:
site or master planning (large scale), master zoning
(building scale), and departmental (subbuilding scale).
Site/Master Planning: These projects typically involve
complex organizations, a wide range of activities
requiring large or multiple land areas, multiple buildings,
and extensive networks for the movement of vehicles,
people, and material. In this type of large-scale gaming,
the team arranges scaled and color-coded paper
rectangles to examine the planning concepts for
proximity, flow, open space, growth or change, image,
and security. The modeling usually is three-dimensional,
focusing principally on the several layers of activity and
building space adjacent to the ground.
Master Zoning/Blocking: This term refers to the
study of the functional and physical relationships among
the major organizational components to be located in a
building or site. Here, the game is three-dimensional,
and scaled, color-coded paper shapes are used to
represent organizational components. Paper circles,
arrows, and strips are used to represent other
important requirements, such as amenities and points of
access.
Department Arrangements: With the knowledge
obtained from master zoning of the project, the gaming
task at this level is to study the arrangement of space
within the departments or organizational components.
The game is played on a board using room-scaled paper
squares. These are moved about to form arrangements
that have the potential for handling the work of the
department and supporting concepts for image, status,
privacy, and security. The advance work required for
gaming includes distribution of the approved criteria set
and program to the people in the client organization
who are expected to take part in gaming sessions,
constructing gaming models and materials, and preparing
one or more “starter” schemes for the team to
consider at the outset of sessions. The gaming model
should be designed so that its pieces can be shuffled and
rearranged easily to form new schemes.
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Gaming Technique Using a Gaming Board or Stacking Diagram
Photo courtesy of HOK
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It is also helpful to use technology to quickly manipulate
information in databases and charts, testing the validity of
relatively complex concepts as they emerge during the
session.
At the start of the gaming session, the important
aspects of programming and prior planning should be
reviewed to provide a fresh, focused view of the work
for the team. The gaming model and materials should be
explained so that everyone understands the symbols
used, the scale of the pieces, color codes indicating
function or organization, and distinctions made between
existing and proposed features.
State the objective of the session. Make it short and to
the point—for example, “Our objective this morning is
to develop at least one good layout of departmental
space.” Give the ground rules:
• Look for arrangements that support concepts of
operation, image, privacy, and flow.
• Try not to be concerned with shape or looks.
• Avoid spending time on details such as those
related to equipment, hardware, and dimensions.
These will come at a later stage of work.
Explain the schemes prepared in advance of the session.
As the discussion of variations begins, encourage the
talkers to rearrange the pieces, thus “starting the game.”
As gaming proceeds, make note of important comments
and promising schemes, and document them by
photography or sketches. The principles of the gaming
technique are those associated with group dynamics and
professional maturity and ability. As might be expected,
gaming sessions involving small client groups of 10
persons or fewer are much more successful in terms of
individual participation, which depends to a large extent
on having a front-row seat next to the model. With
groups of more than 10 persons, sessions are very likely
to become gaming exercises that actively involve only a
small core of people, with the others being passive
observers, or presentation events where the
architecture-engineering team displays the model and
reviews the schemes prepared earlier. The process (and
product) of gaming can be very unsatisfactory if
members of the group fall back upon their professional
prerogatives. A client member may stiffen if his or her
operational procedures are questioned; an architect may
blanch at a case of runaway aesthetics.
The major benefits of the gaming technique are that:
• Knowledge and study are required, not skill; the
staff member who would not presume to draw a
plan to convey his or her thought to the architect
is generally eager to do this with gaming pieces.
• The gaming pieces are the common media of
exchange. Everyone shares the same understanding
of physical scale, number of units, and their
relationships.
• Increased understanding is likely of the planning
process, its complexity, and compromise.
• It’s possible to achieve greater support of the
project.
• Consensus on basic arrangements is obtained more
readily than with the traditional review of solutions
method.
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Simulation
A more advanced form of gaming uses computer
applications and theories of operations research to
calculate the optimum size and configuration of a site,
building, or room. The computer applications use
algorithms to test multiple factors (or variables)
required to achieve an objective function. The
programmer can also show the results of a simulation
model using visualization techniques that illustrate
dynamic activity in a facility over a time period.
Simulation is useful in the programming process to
determine required size and capacity of functions
required to accommodate demand at a desirable level of
performance. The program can also use the simulation
models to test programmatic concepts and compare the
efficiency or effectiveness of these ideas for achieving a
desired outcome. HOK uses software for airport,
transportation, office, laboratory, and health care
projects, to study the flow of people or materials in a
facility. The following examples include:
• Flow of people evacuating a building, to determine
the size of the stairways and length of time to exit
the building.
• Flow of passengers arriving and departing from an
airport, to determine whether there are conflicts
between these flows, and the adequacy of service
required to process the passenger traffic within an
acceptable waiting period.
Visualization of Building Evacuation Simulation
Image by Legion America Inc.
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Airport Terminal Spaces in Simulation Model
Image by Legion America Inc.
Number of Passengers Arriving and Departing over Time Interval
Image by Legion America Inc.
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Visualization of Mean Density of Passengers in Terminal
Image by Legion America Inc.
Analysis of Adequacy of Size of Space in Terminal
Image by Legion America Inc.
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Space Lists
For the needs analysis in a program, a space list is the
primary requirement to be met by the design. The space
list represents a compilation and interpretation of the
project goals, supported by the collected facts, and
represents the concepts of how the space will be used.
department. This figure is useful for the blocking and
stacking of departmental office space in a building. The
table might also calculate the gross building area by
applying the usable to gross efficiency factor to
determine the total gross area of the building. (See the
section outline for structuring data for categories used
to summarize space lists.)
A space list may be a comprehensive, detailed listing of
every net assignable area and its characteristics, or it
may take the form of summaries.
Common summary forms are:
A space list is typically organized by department or the
organizational unit responsible for the space allocation.
This way it is easy to obtain approval for the space
request from each departmental manager. This list would
identify the function, the number of spatial units, the
area per unit of space, and the total net assignable area
for that function. Sometimes the list includes a code for
a space type, which allows the information to be
summarized by department or sorted and summarized
by space type.
These summaries show in relative terms the area
allocated to functional types of space, such as
conference rooms versus break areas, in relation to the
actual workspace. This type of summary may be for an
entire campus or a single floor. It provides the designer
with a relative listing of the various spaces that are
needed, while allowing the user to understand the
functionality of the proposed facility. The programmer
also will use this summary to develop a cost estimate
analysis when the building costs vary by type of space.
1. Summaries by space type
2. Summaries by client organization
Summaries of Space Lists
Summary tables are useful both to condense the listing
of area requirements, and to perform additional
calculations on the area to transform it to other types
of area requirements. For example, for departmental
office space, the summary table might show the net
assignable area by department and apply the net to
usable efficiency factor to calculate usable area for each
These summaries show the total area allocated to each
client group, such as a department or other appropriate
business unit, relating personnel to the square feet for
each group. Users are often most concerned with these
summaries, as they represent the amount and cost of
space for the particular group. A programmer uses
these reports to justify allocations and to plan functional
relationships among groups.
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Space List Sorted by Client Organization
DEPARTMENT
CENTRAL SERVICES
AREA NAME
CLASSROOM AREA
ROOM NAME
NUMBER
NSF/UNIT
900
MEDIUM CLASSROOM
3
1,600
4,800
ASSEMBLY 1
1
3,000
3,000
ASSEMBLY 2
1
1,800
1,800
STORAGE
1
600
600
15,600
CAFETERIA
1
3,000
3,000
KITCHEN
1
1,000
1,000
STORAGE
1
500
500
4,500
FOOD SERVICES TOTAL
20,10 0
CENTRAL SERVICES TOTAL
ADMINISTRATION
5,400
6
CLASSROOM AREA TOTAL
FOOD SERVICES
NSF
SMALL CLASSROOM
OFFICE SUPPORT
RECEPTION/SEATING
1
200
200
COPY/SUPPLY AREA
1
300
300
PRINTER STATION
2
STORAGE
1
200
SMALL MEETING ROOM
6
150
900
MEDIUM MEETING ROOM
4
300
1,200
LARGE MEETING ROOM
2
450
50
200
800
OFFICE SUPPORT TOTAL
MEETING ROOM
100
900
3,000
MEETING ROOM TOTAL
Space List Sorted by Space Type
ROOM NAME
SMALL MEETING ROOM
DEPARTMENT
150
900
HUMAN RESOURCE
2
150
300
INFORMATION
1
150
150
2
150
TECHNOLOGY
ADMINISTRATION
4
300
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
1
300
ADMINISTRATION
2
450
HUMAN RESOURCE
1
450
STORAGE
STORAGE TOTAL
300
900
450
1,350
3
LARGE MEETING ROOM TOTAL
1,200
1,50 0
5
MEDIUM MEETING ROOM TOTAL
300
1,650
11
SMALL MEETING ROOM TOTAL
LARGE MEETING ROOM
NSF
6
INSTRUCTOR
MEDIUM MEETING ROOM
NUMBER NSF/UNIT
ADMINISTRATION
CENTRAL SERVICES
1
600
600
CENTRAL SERVICES
1
500
500
ADMINISTRATION
1
200
200
HUMAN RESOURCE
1
200
200
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
1
300
300
INSTRUCTOR
1
200
6
200
2,0 0 0
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3. Summaries by location
Conversion of Net Area to Building Area
On larger or more complex projects, a client group may
require space in multiple locations. When this is the case,
the programmer may summarize the space list by
location. Within a location summary, the programmer
can organize the space list by organization or space type.
For the design team, the space list provides the net area
for the internal arrangement of space in a building. The
programmer must make additional calculations to
include an estimate of the unassigned areas of a building.
Combining the net assigned areas of a building (Net
Area) and the unassigned areas gives the overall size of
a building (Gross Area). A Building Area Summary links
the space list subtotals for people, capacity, and net area.
The programmer provides the overall building efficiency
factor (Net:Gross) to calculate the estimated gross
building area for each functional group. These areas are
added to estimate the gross area of a building.
4. Summaries by time period
It is also common for the client requirement to change
given a specific period of time. For example, a
programmer may start with a space list of the client
organization’s existing space and later determine the
client’s future requirements for specific time periods.
Conversion of Building Area to Land Area
Space List of Net Area
Space lists define the number and size of net area. The
example space list below organizes the list by function
(or space type). It defines the number of people
assigned to the space, the capacity, and the type of
capacity. It quantifies the number of spaces required
(Units), the size of the space (Area per Unit), and the
total area for each function (Net Area). The table also
subtotals the area by functional group (or Space Name).
For the client/user, the space list of net area represents
the amount and type of space allocated to achieve the
required performance of a function. The programmer
may use predetermined standards or rules for these
allocations, or the programmer could do a detailed
analysis of the activity taking place in the space to
determine the amount and size of area required.
Another useful type of summary table coverts gross
building area and applies site planning factors to
determine the maximum buildable area, floor area
coverage on a site, building heights, parking site area,
other site facilities, and open space areas. The
programmer would use this table to establish the
maximum buildable areas that are in compliance with
building code, zoning requirements, and sustainability
guidelines and objectives.
The Land Use Requirement links the Gross Building
Area and People Count. The programmer provides an
assumed number of floors to calculate the building
footprint. Based on the site analysis of zoning or other
regulations, it provides a Ground Area Coverage (GAC)
factor to calculate the estimated Land Area required.
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Space List
Function
People
Capacity
Unit
No. of
Units
Area/ Unit
Net Area
16
w-seats
1
1,200
1,200
Net Area
Subtotal
Regional Center
Front Door
Reception/Displays
Subtotal
Regional Leadership Dining
Seating
Serving
Preparation
Subtotal
Board Room
Ante Room
Lounge
Board Room
AV Room
Storage
Catering
Green Room
Phone Room
Board Member Suite
Bathroom
Storage Closet
Subtotal
Leadership Offices
Executive Suite
Office
Bathroom
Storage Closet
Conference Room (20s)
Administrative Assistant
Waiting Area
Subtotal
Management Committee
Office
Bathroom
Storage Closet
Administrative Assistant
Subtotal
Regional Staff
General Managers
Administrative Assistant
Subtotal
1,200
25
d-seats
5
5
w-seats
c-seats
25
c-seats
2
o-seats
c-seats
o-seats
w-seats
4
40
2
4
4
15
15
o-seats
15
30
15
30
o-seats
o-seats
8
8
16
8
8
16
2
600
240
170
600
240
170
1,010
12
25
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
240
240
840
360
240
240
360
60
360
60
60
240
240
840
720
480
240
360
120
720
120
120
4,200
2
2
2
2
2
2
600
60
60
600
240
60
1,200
120
120
1,200
480
120
3,240
15
15
15
15
7,200
900
900
3,600
12,600
8
8
o-seats
480
60
60
240
240
70
1,920
560
2,480
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Building Area Summary
BUILDING AREA
Space Name
PHASE 1
Gross
Building Area
People
Capacity
Unit
Net Area
Net:Gross
5
4
30
16
1
25
25
4
30
16
92
d-seats
c-seats
o-seats
o-seats
o-seats
c-seats
1,200
1,010
4,200
3,240
12,600
2,480
3,780
480
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
56
92
50
c-seats
o-seats
2,400
2,020
8,400
6,480
25,200
4,960
7,560
960
57,980
1,000
1,000
672
24
o-seats
c-seats
d-seats
84,600
35,540
504
4,640
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.55
1,000
672
1,000
c-seats
o-seats
153,818
64,618
916
8,436
227,789
30
20
1
2
1
30
28
605
514
19
60
650
106
155
200
20
24
48
12
o-seats
c-seats
o-seats
c-seats
Lab Modules
Lab Modules
Lab Modules
Lab Modules
Lab Modules
Lab Modules
o-seats
c-seats
d-seats
d-seats
4,260
1,680
64,033
21,490
2,311
7,260
78,650
12,826
18,755
24,200
4,850
2,960
1,523
252
5,440
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.55
0.55
0.50
659
655
o-seats
8,520
3,360
128,066
42,980
4,622
14,520
157,300
25,652
37,510
48,400
9,700
5,920
2,769
458
10,880
—
500,657
Regional Center
Front Door
Regional Leadership Dining
Board Room
Executive Suite
Management Committee
Regional Staff
Common Office Area
Facility Services
Subtotal
General Office
Office Area
Common Office Area
Food Service/Kiosk
Facility Services
Subtotal
R&D Center
Administrative Office
Administrative Common Office Area
Program Office
Program Common Office Area
Electronic Laboratory
Materials Laboratory
Wet Laboratory
Special Lab
Lab Support
Flexible High Bay
Collaborative Research Programs
R&D Front Door
Café
Food Service/Kiosk
Facility Services
Reserve for Expansion
Subtotal
605
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Land Use Requirements
LAND USE AREA
Regional Center
Building
Town Hall
PHASE 1
People Gross Building Area
Floors Building Footprint
GAC
Land Area
People
56
11
57,980
26,038
3
1
19,327
26,038
25%
25%
77,307
104,154
50
35
8
67
Parking Count
19,000
13,300
3,040
119,358
1
1
1
19,000
13,300
3,040
80,705
70%
70%
70%
27,143
19,000
4,343
231,946
People
1,000
227,789
3
75,930
—
—
35%
216,942
—
—
900
100
6
1,000
Parking Count
342,000
38,000
2,280
610,069
3
3
1
114,000
12,667
2,280
204,876
70%
70%
70%
162,857
18,095
3,257
401,152
People
659
3
4
500,657
8,615
6,831
3
2
2
166,886
4,308
3,415
35%
35%
25%
476,816
12,308
13,662
—
—
10,000
960
70%
50%
75,924
8,436
2,280
272,209
70%
70%
70%
Site Facilities
Parking
Leadership
Leadership Visitors
Service
General Office
Building Set Phase 1
Building Set Phase 3
Site Facilities
Parking
Staff
Visitor
Service
R&D Center
Building Set Initial
Auditorium
Partner Center
Building Set Growth
Building Set Ultimate
Site Facilities
Yard Area
Outdoor Garden Seating
Parking
Staff
Visitor Parking
Service
599
67
6
666
Parking Count
227,772
25,308
2,280
771,463
3
3
1
—
14,286
1,920
108,463
12,051
3,257
642,763
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Program Development
For a well-defined project type, such as interior design
of office space, or for design development programming,
once there is an approved master plan or schematic
design, a relational database that has the capacity to
integrate with BIM provides a highly efficient technique
for managing large quantities of detailed client
requirements and design criteria.
Facility Requirement System (FRS)
The Facility Requirement System (FRS) is a Web-based
relational database system to collect, process, and manage
design requirements. This application is primarily used for
development programming.The system supports complex
projects by allowing multioffice data entry, manipulation,
and retrieval of nongraphic building data. The intent is
for project participants to have access to up-to-date
program-related information for a given project. The FRS
accommodates the needs for several user types, from
programmer to designer, engineer and planner, third-party
consultant, client, and contractors. Keys to successful
project execution are efficiency and accuracy of data and
access by multilocation project team members. The data
input side has a hierarchy of definitions and access levels,
which enable data entry by a large team, while ensuring
quality controls in the background and enabling errorfree outputs. In addition, the integration with the BIM
increases planning and design accuracy. Standard report
format is a key productivity feature for the general user
of FRS, although it also accommodates custom queries
and reports. The following are key features of FRS that
apply to development programming:
Schematic Program
(Space List)
Database
Space Types
Organizational
Locational
Building Systems
Design Criteria
Population /
Activity
Space List
Room Data Sheets (RDS)
Time
Period
Building Information
Modeling
(BIM)
Equipment List
(room drawings + performance criteria
SCHEMATIC
DEVELOPMENT
DESIGN
Program Phase
Program Phase
Phases
The FRS Process
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Data Reporting: Provides standard and customizable
reports, depending on each project team’s preferences.
While the reports vary, the source data remains
unchanged and current.
Space Tool: Establishes space types organized into
space categories and subcategories, allowing adjusting
characteristics from global to individual levels, such as
layout and building efficiencies. The space types are
compiled into space lists and assigned to locations (city/
campus/building/floor), linked with organizational groups
(enterprise/division/department).
Room Data Sheets (RDS): Are the means and method
to define the “inside” of a space, addressing architectural
material and engineering requirements, furniture layouts
(uploading drawings), and relevant equipment.This feature
establishes space standards and design criteria for all
space types.Through its Web-based data structure,
in-house and third-party consultants can enter data for
each assigned room data sheet based on their disciplines
without duplicating work.The RDS link directly to the
space types and enable the design team to obtain space
characteristics for design consideration.This feature allows
client review and sign-off on space characteristics.
Laboratory Equipment: Comprises a library of lab
equipment, including equipment specification,
Data Reporting
Space Tool
Room Data Sheets
(RDS)
installations, engineering, space requirements, and unit
cost. The FRS generates an inventory of equipment per
room, based on the input of lab planners or researchers.
This listing is linked to the construction documentation
and becomes part of the laboratory design packages and
enables lab equipment procurement packages.
Furniture, Fixtures, and Equipment (FF&E):
Provides a library of furniture items and related
specifications. When linked with BIM, the feature counts
instances of furniture items. This allows the application
to produce accurate specification packages, based on
the furniture items selected by the design team, and an
exact count of items.
Space Audit: For large and complex buildings,
compares the designed spaces to an initial program or
baseline space list. As a project moves through the
design and approval phases, the initial space list
contained in the schematic program obtains
amendments. Through a BIM connection, the space audit
feature compares the designed space list with the
program space list. It produces a room-by-room audit
and generates Space Discrepancy Reports that are
sorted in various ways, such as by department, floor, or
building. This enables the design team to provide
explanations for area changes, and facilitates client
approval of design revisions.
Laboratory
Equipment
FF&E
Space Audit
FRS Functions
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Web-Accessible Database System. The project team accesses the FRS through the Internet, where the home page provides a menu of features.
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Space List Report from FRS
Space List: In the following examples, the programmer
is using the FRS to develop the design development
fit-out of laboratories. The programmer met with the
principal investigator and research team to obtain their
requirements for space, equipment, and room layout.
The following reports are the result of those work
sessions:
•
Space List
•
Room Data Sheet
•
Equipment List
This example displays a space list report generated from
FRS. These reports follow a standard format, although it
is also possible to generate customized reports as well.
In design development programming, the space list may
include specific room numbers or space identifiers. This
allows the database information to link with the rooms
or spaces in the BIM model.
The space list may contain the initial program area and
the area allocated in the BIM model to the function. This
allows a comparison of the initial program area to the
design and provides a basis from which to track changes
in client requirements or variances that are features of
the design.
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Room Data Sheets
During schematic
programming, room data
sheets generally represent
space types, such as an
office, conference rooms, or
a laboratory. During
development programming,
the room data sheets
become more specific and
may be unique for various
rooms or spaces contained
in the BIM.
Shown here is a roomspecific room data sheet.
The room data sheet
contains a graphic floor plan
or three-dimensional space
representation. The graphic
contains key items of
equipment or furniture
required for the space to
function. The room data
sheet may also note finishes
and materials of the ceiling,
walls, or floors.
Room Data Sheet Report from FRS
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Accompanying the graphic
is a table of design criteria
for various building systems.
These design criteria
correspond with the overall
building design criteria;
however, they represent the
specific function or feature
required for the room.
Multiple project team
members, including the
client, will determine the
performance requirements.
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Equipment List Report from FRS
Equipment List: Contains the equipment associated
with the room data sheet. The room data sheet floor
plan has a symbol that identifies the location of the
equipment item. The equipment list then expands the
design criteria for each item. Furthermore, the table
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may contain links to the manufacturer’s website. The
database may also contain the installation manual for the
piece of equipment. The architects and engineers use
this information to develop how the building systems
integrate with the installed equipment.
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Photo courtesy of HOK
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Brown Sheets and Visualization
Brown sheets graphically indicate space needs that have
been derived from project goals, facts, and concepts. The
brown sheets are intended to convey the magnitude of
numbers and sizes. A client and a designer can visualize
the number and sizes of spaces more easily if they are
indicated graphically and to scale. Brown sheets serve
well as a graphic technique for comparative analysis of
the project’s area requirements. One glance can tell
where the major allocations of area have been made,
the predominance of small spaces requiring a higher
percentage of circulation spaces, or the unjustified size
of different functional areas.
The first purpose of brown sheets is to present the
area requirement as determined during the interviews
or by some predetermined formula for the impartial
allocation of space. For a schematic design program,
net assignable areas are shown; however, the client is
informed that unless an assigned area is shown on
the brown sheets, it is not considered to be an area
requirement. This is intended to check and recheck all
net area requirements.
The second purpose of brown sheets is to serve as
worksheets during work sessions. For that purpose,
they are made of informal materials that not only lend
themselves to revision, but even invite revision. The
feedback to the users starts with the statement, “These
are the area requirements you have indicated to us.”
The confirmation starts with the question, “Are these
correct?” And if work sessions on the balancing of the
budget indicate reallocations, changes, additions, and
subtractions, the brown sheets must be revised on the
spot: adding notes, changing figures, and adding or
deleting the scaled squares representing areas. The
brown sheets displayed on a wall are used to represent
the latest revisions and the latest total tally at all times.
Time and again, the brown sheets have proven to be
excellent communication devices. The total scope of a
project can be communicated through brown sheets to
large groups of people, often representing diverse
disciplines and agencies in a much more efficient manner
than through a typed list of spaces. Changes and
revisions made on a set of brown sheets over a period
of several days on a master copy are readily available for
group display and discussion.
Computer applications allow the efficient and timely
updating of spreadsheets and databases containing space
lists that correspond with the brown sheets. It is
possible to sort this information by client organization
or by type of space. It is also possible to use computer
applications to plot the sheets or simply keep a running
tally of the calculations and totals.
Traditional brown sheets, as shown in the accompanying
picture, were made from brown paper and white
squares. While this technique is still in use, we also see
the use of sheets generated by a computer plotter on
white paper with contrasting color squares. Regardless
of format, the value of the brown sheets is the ability to
perceive all the squares (all the areas) at one glance.
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Visualization Tools
There are a number of computer applications that can
graphically display space lists driven by a spreadsheet or
database table—thus automating the brown sheet
process. In addition, there are applications that correlate
space lists with affinities and interrelationships to
graphically display a stacking or blocking plan for a
building.
SketchUp, a design application that quickly displays the
results of schematic designs, has become a favorite of
architects because of its simplicity, speed, and quality in
describing space. A designer may start with a graphic
display of the spaces in a brown sheet format, then
assemble the spaces three-dimensionally by space type
to develop design concepts. Next, the designer arranges
the space assemblies to develop the initial building
design. The designers can quickly perform iterations to
study different concepts. Once the project team has a
preferred concept design, they can reconfirm designed
space with the approved program before importing data
into a more advanced BIM application for further
refinement.
Graphic Display of Space List
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Assembly of Space Types as Three-Dimensional Forms
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Arrangements of Space Assemblies to Develop Building Design Concept
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Analysis Cards and Wall Displays
Working Advantages
Analysis cards are a technique for graphically recording
information intended to be displayed, discussed,
discriminated, decided on, and, sometimes, discarded
during the programming phase of a project. This graphic
communication technique is also used in the schematic
design phase. Selected cards from these two phases can
then become part of the presentation of the design
solution for client approval.
The technique provides the following working
advantages during the programming process:
Size and Kind
The size of a card is proportional to the frame of a
35mm slide. The standard 2 x 3 proportion can be
expressed in a card 5½ x 8¼-inch or in any other
convenient and proportional size. The face of the card has
an almost imperceptible, nonphoto, blue grid, based on
0.5 cm. The grid is helpful in sketching diagrams, charts,
and lettering. However, a white face is all that is required.
The card is made of 100-pound pasted Bristol stock.
Wall Display
Use strings of analysis cards and brown sheets to
prepare a wall display of the pertinent programming
information. Organize the display according to the
Five-Step Process, beginning with Goals, followed by
Facts, Concepts, Needs, and Problem Statements. It is
useful to organize the strings of cards by subcategory.
Use header cards with titles to identify the topic of the
card string.
1. The cards are relatively small and easy to handle.
They are intentionally small, to accommodate only
one thought or one idea, simply and economically
stated. This should encourage a sharp focus on each
card. The single thought on a single card encourages
easy comprehension. To single out a clear thought
and put it in clear, graphic terms is couching basic
truths. The cards are small enough to ensure the
avoidance of unnecessary detail. This helps to keep
the freshness of a small sketch.
2. The cards may be used freely, sorted, grouped, and
sequenced. Their best use is as a wall display—
tacked and grouped under the process sequence of
Goals, Facts, Concepts, Needs, and Problem
Statements. The visual display, together with proper
classification, helps to make comparisons easier and
to avoid duplications.
3. The cards are ideal for recording information as
discussion with the client progresses during a work
session. These can join other cards in the wall display.
4. Typically, interview notes and preprogramming
information lead to the making of analysis cards.
These are displayed and tested during the work
sessions. It is a process of feedback and feedforward. For example: “In essence, is this what you
said?” and “Good! We’ll pass this information on to
the designer at the right time.”
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5. A wall display of analysis cards makes it easy to
test the interrelationships among Goals, Facts, and
Concepts that lead to Needs, and eventually to the
Problem Statement.
6. A wall display of analysis cards shows, in effect, the
progress of programming at any point in time. As
committees review the cards, they can comment
and make additions and deletions.
7. A wall display of analysis cards should be seen at a
glance or two, to represent the first cut toward
the essence of the project. (Average display: 150
cards.) Too many cards may mean that it is time to
reevaluate, postpone, or discard information.
8. A wall display of analysis cards can be presented to
any new members of the client team coming
aboard and, eventually, to the design team. The oral
presentation can explain the coded nature of the
cards, investing their brief graphic messages with
potent meaning.
9. Since the cards are proportional to a 35mm slide,
they may be photographed and presented to a
large audience in slide form. Alternately, they may
be presented, one at a time, using an opaque
projector. It is also possible to scan the cards into
digital format, and using a computer, display them
with an electronic projector.
10. The cards can be photocopied two or three to a
page on regular 8½ x 11-inch paper. Grouped in
terms of the programming steps, the photocopies
can be augmented by the typed backup data placed
in an appendix. In this plain format, the
programming package can be stored for future
reference. In a more explicit format, including
captions to represent the original oral explanation,
the programming package can be submitted as a
report for formal client approval—and used by
team members at later stages in the project.
The schematic design team will not need to read the
report. They will use the wall display of the original
analysis cards. A design team in action must survey and
check the information with hardly more than a glance.
More sophisticated packaging would depend on the
large number of copies required for approval and on a
specific contract requirement.
How to Draw an Analysis Card
It takes two related activities to make a good analysis
card: thinking and drawing. One needs to think through
one’s hands. The skill of drawing gives expression,
precision, and clarity to one’s thinking.
Analysis Cards Showing Design Concepts for a New Science
Building at a Community College
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Here are eight pointers that lead to good analysis cards:
• Deal with your message as if it were a telegram.
Think what must be said. Reduce it to one thought.
1. Think your message through.
• Put it down graphically, with very few elements.
• Write it out with very few words.
• Add color only for emphasis or for coding.
Note: The illustrations represent a 40 percent
reduction of the actual card size.
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2. Use visual images.
• Use diagrams, symbols, charts, and sketches to aid
communication.
• Assume that a visual image is more easily retained
than a verbal image.
• Label the parts, and give the card a title.
• A flowchart is understood more quickly than a
written description.
• Keep the images simple and specific for clarity, but
abstract enough to evoke a range of possibilities.
• Use an appropriate scale for the graphic image to
project the magnitude of numbers and the
implication of ideas.
• Avoid minute detail, as it is inappropriate.
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3. Use very few words.
• Label the drawings properly.
• Reinforce the drawings with short sentences.
• State the point in as few words as possible. Long
statements impose small, difficult-to-read lettering
on the card.
• Keep in mind: sometimes, the critical information is
a number.
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4. Strive for legibility.
• Legibility is a function of line width and letter
height.
• Use letters 1⁄8 inch high or larger.
• Use a range of pen sizes.
• The use of an opaque projector or slides will not
improve illegible lettering.
• Letters on typewritten copy are usually too small
and have too thin a stem width.
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5. Design for display.
• The difference between analysis cards and book
illustrations is in the viewing distance.
• Design analysis cards for a wall display.
• There is a certain look about good analysis cards.
The bad ones are generally too bold and heavy or
too delicate and light.
• If you have to be wrong, err on the side of too
heavy.
• The two accompanying illustrations are too light
for a wall display, but make for excellent book
illustrations.
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6. Plan for cards of different finish.
• “Think” cards are done quickly by anyone who has
a bit of information for consideration.
• “Working” cards are sketched carefully enough to
clarify the thinking.
• “Presentation” cards are meticulously drawn for
greater precision. Assign one person to prepare
the set for consistency.
• All cards are process documents and as such
should have an informal, loose look (as opposed to
final documents).
THE HOUSE PLAN CONCEPT
1,800
900
900
2,700
900 STUDENTS
SCHOOL W/ “HOUSE”
SPECIALIZED CLUSTERS
CENTRAL SUPPORT FACILITIES
EXPANSION
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7. Encourage documentation.
• Encourage everyone on the team to produce the
initial analysis cards.
• Remove inhibitions caused by the high standard of
“presentation” cards.
• Promote the production of “think” cards.
• Be concerned first with documentation.
• Evaluate and determine which cards need to be
redrawn—later.
• The two accompanying cards document
information—too much of it. These cards need to
be redrawn and simplified. The information may
deserve not one but six separate cards—one
thought per card.
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8. Preplan “routine” cards.
• Order two dozen printed base maps on analysis
cards. Document site information to be considered
exclusively on separate cards.
• Document climate data on preprinted cards. This is
“routine” information.
• If the information is not used in schematic design,
it will be used later. The time spent is a matter of
minutes. But if it is useful, or even a form-giver, the
project gains immeasurably.
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Electronic White Boards and
Flip Charts
An electronic flip chart system creates a truly
collaborative experience in real time. It is ideal for
virtual meetings and work sessions. Like digital analysis
cards, the technique graphically records information for
display and discussion. Furthermore, the pointers for
making successful analysis cards apply to this technique
as well. The digital flip chart, like Thunder Client, is
composed of an easel for editing flip chart sheets and
screens for displaying the flip chart sheets. The number
of display screens will vary, but generally there are two
to four, depending on the room size and display
technology. Remote users can download software to
join the virtual meeting and control the virtual flip chart.
Periodically save your session as you work (like any other
working document). The systems rely on an Internet
connection and Internet connectivity is never guaranteed.
If you do not save your session as you work, you run the
risk of losing your information. Always save as you go.
Electronic White Board Main Easel
When leading a session from a remote location, it is
recommended that at least two attendees have laptops
connected to the session for ease of sharing documents.
Both of these computers must have the same system
software. Identify which easel will be the “host easel,”
typically the one where the meeting facilitator is located.
When you save a session, it will be saved into the host
easel’s server.
Starting a New Session
If the easel and projectors are in sleep mode, just tap the
easel screen to reactivate the system. Click on the file
folder icon and choose Save As. Enter a name for the
session (we recommend including the date, as well).
Basic Use
When a tool or icon is highlighted in yellow, it means it
is selected.
Pen tool: Use this tool to write on the slides with the
stylus. Options include three different line weights,
several colors, highlighters, and whiteout.
Erase tool: This feature erases entire pen strokes. This is
the fastest way to delete markings made with the stylus. If
you just need to erase a small portion of a letter or
symbol, use the whiteout feature of the pen tool.
Cursor tool: This tool allows you to select images on
the page.You can drag a box around text to highlight
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Photo courtesy of HOK
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words (the small yellow boxes that appear on the
corners can be used to zoom in/out). This tool is also
used to select images and drag them onto other pages
or to an output source (e.g., printer, trash can, or
email).
Undo: Click on this icon to undo up to the last
20 actions.
File Folder: This icon functions similarly to the File
option in most applications. Its options include New,
Open, Save, Save As, Close, Print, and so on. This is also
where you can select Templates to add to your page;
and the About option will give you the easel’s IP address.
Cog Wheel: The cog wheel gives you protection
options for your session. Read-Only means that only the
main easel can control the session; virtual participants
cannot modify the flip chart pages. Password contains
the password for the easel. Private prevents others from
joining your session, even if they have the easel
password.
Zoom In/Out: This feature allows you to adjust the
size of the selected image on the page.
Help: This feature opens the help window, where you
can find answers to many different questions (help is
available as audio as well as visually).
Rotate Easel: The icon for this option is in the top
right corner. Selecting it will rotate the easel layout from
portrait to landscape view, and vice versa.
Tools and Instructions for Conducting a Virtual Work Session Using
the Thunder Application
Inputs
To bring an input into a session, select the appropriate
icon and drag it from the toolbar onto a blank page.
Scanner: Place the picture/image on the scanner and
then drag the scanner icon onto a blank page. There is
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no need to push any buttons on the scanner; it will
automatically activate.
Visualizer: Drag in the icon that looks like a film reel
(you may need to turn the visualizer on with its remote
control). The remote control allows you to zoom in,
zoom out, and adjust the focus of the image. The
visualizer is a live image and so is ideal for sharing large
drawings and models during the session.
Participant computer: You can also share images by
dragging in the head icon of a remote participant of the
session. When you drag his or her icon onto a blank
page, that person’s computer desktop appears on the
page. This image is live, so it is very important to pause
the image (upper left corner). If you do not pause the
image, when the person’s desktop changes (e.g., if he or
she proceeds to the next slide of a presentation, opens
a new file, etc.), the image on the Thunder system will
change as well.
Always pause the image when using a laptop to share
images. When a computer screen is live (not paused), it
may be more difficult to write on the image. Make sure
to pause the image before you begin writing, as this also
ensures that the image won’t change when the image on
the person’s computer changes.
Easel-to-Easel: You can connect to another easel
during a Thunder session, as well. Click on the easel icon
with a plus sign. A window will pop up; click OK/yes. The
system will suggest that you save your session. (If you
don’t want to save, click Cancel.) In the next window
popup, enter the name of the easel you wish to connect
to, your current easel’s name, and the easel password.
Once the host easel has been identified, all other easels
should connect to the host easel.
Outputs
Trash Can: Use this option to remove a page from the
session. Select a page and drag it into the trash can.You
can also use the cursor tool to select text or an image
and drag it to the trash can.
USB: You can save sessions to a USB flash drive.
However, documents cannot be uploaded to a Thunder
session from the USB port.
Printer: To print a single page from a session, drag the
page to the Printer icon. A window will pop up with
printer options. Either select the printer in the Thunder
room or another printer on the local server. To print an
entire Thunder session, click the Folder icon and select
Print.
Email: To email a single page, drag the page to the Email
icon; either select one of the users logged in to the
session or type in an email address. To email an entire
session, click the Folder icon and select Print.
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Remote Thunder Session
Photo courtesy of HOK
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Protection
Each Thunder easel is protected by a password that will
be periodically changed by the IT team. You will need to
enter the password to log on from a remote computer.
As mentioned previously, an additional password can be
applied to a specific Thunder session (click Save As to
enter this password).
Logging In from a Remote Computer
You must have the current version of Thunder Client
software and an Internet connection. Then, to log in
from a remote computer, follow these steps:
1. Enter in the easel name or IP address of the easel
you want to connect to.
2. Enter your name and your initials (the initials will
appear below your head icon on the Thunder easel).
3. Enter the easel password (this should be in the
meeting request invite, or ask the IT team).
4. Check all three boxes and click Connect.
Additional Features
Templates
Several templates are included in the Thunder system.
Click on the file folder icon and select Add a Template.
Scroll toward the bottom of the list and select a
template. Options include organization chart, grids, axis,
lines, and others.
Walk-and-Talk
Walk-and-Talk is a projection tool that displays what is
shown on a computer screen. It allows those connecting
to a Thunder session remotely to have a more
collaborative experience than if they were using just a
laptop.
Using Walk-and-Talk: Physically connect one
computer to Walk-and-Talk (similar to connecting to a
projector). Again, the recommendation is to have at
least two laptops available to use during a session: one
to serve as the projection computer connected directly
to Walk-and-Talk and one to have documents ready to
share during the session. Both computers must have the
Thunder Client software.
Log In to a Thunder easel: The Walk-and-Talk system
itself does not have the capability to run a Thunder
session. What appears on the computer screen that is
connected directly to the Walk-and-Talk will appear on
the projected screen.
Features: Remote control allows you to follow the
progress of a presentation without sitting at your
computer. Remote control has both pen and cursor
tool options that enable you to write directly onto
the Walk-and-Talk screen (similar to the Thunder
easel).
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Photo courtesy of HOK
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Electronic Presentations
Technology extends the communication tools of the
presenter. The programmer has access to media
technology enabling different types of interaction
through electronic connectivity.
Synchronous, face-to-face interaction implies that
the presenter and viewers are in the same physical
location and interacting in real time. The traditional
squatters work session is the prime setting for a work
in progress. Electronic media (projection of a computer
screen) can aid in the review and analysis of data during
these sessions, complementing the wall display,
particularly during a decision-making period.
Synchronous, virtual interaction implies that the
presenter and viewers are interacting in real time but
may not be in the same physical location. Communicating
with clients in separate locations includes the use of
long-distance video- and audioconferencing; Internetbased, real-time electronic document sharing, and other
virtual technologies. These technologies allow for
geographically dispersed teams to share information and
mobilize quickly, especially during the organization stage
of the project, and while the team refines a set of
conclusions after the squatters sessions.
Asynchronous, virtual interaction implies that the
presenter and viewers are not only in separate physical
locations but also are not interacting in real time. A
good example is the use of the Internet to present
information. The presenter creates a Web-based
presentation and communicates to the target audience
the location of this material. The viewers are then able
to access the presentation at their own convenience
and post comments back to the presenter or to each
other in a Web-based discussion group. Web pages are
also excellent repositories of live information through
the posting either of questionnaires for data collection
or project findings and recommendations for the client’s
information dispersal process to decision makers and
end users.
Some of the same pointers suggested for drawing
good analysis cards apply to the design of electronic
presentations using computer applications:
1. Reduce the message of each frame or slide to one
thought. A picture is worth a thousand words.
2. Use visual images and diagrams to aid
communication.
3. Keep the ideas simple and specific for clarity.
4. Preview the presentation on a large screen before
delivering it in public.
5. Options, such as black-and-white reproducibility, may
have an impact on the design of the presentation.
Preprint the document to test readability.
6. Consider the file size for electronic transfer. Photographs and diagrams can greatly increase the size of
files, and large files take longer to transmit.
7. Make the presentation interactive whenever possible.
8. Use standard templates and consistent symbols.
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Outline for the Report
4.0
Title Page
0.0
Preface
Organizational Structure
Purpose
Functional Relationships
Organization of Report
Priorities
Participants
Operational Concepts
1.0
Executive Summary
2.0
Goals
3.0
Concepts
5.0
Needs
Area Requirement Summary
Function
Form
By Organizational Unit
Economy
Time
By Space Type
Facts
By Project Phasing
Summary of Statistical Projections
Detailed Area Requirements
Staffing Requirements
Outdoor Space Requirements
User Description
Parking Requirements
Evaluation of Existing Facilities
Land Use Requirements
Site Analysis:
Budget Estimate Analysis
Urban Context
Views from/to Site
Catchment Area
Location
Vicinity Land Use
Site Size/Configuration
Function
Form
Accessibility
Topography
Economy
Time
Walking Distances
Tree Cover
Traffic Volume
Buildable Areas
Issue-Tracking List
Existing Structures
Land Acquisition Potential
Detailed Statistical Data
Project Delivery Schedule
6.0
7.0
Problem Statements
Appendix
Climate Analysis
Workload and Space Projection Methods
Zoning Regulations
Existing Building Space Inventory
Code Survey
Departmental Evaluations
Cost Parameters
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Programming Reports
Often, the client or a funding agency requires a report
for formal approval. The report could amount to no
more than photocopies of the analysis cards and photo
reductions of the brown sheets, together with enough
text to explain the total program. This working
document could be done within a standard report
outline. The report could also be a very elaborate
document intended to be approved by many agencies
concerned with many different levels of detail. In this
case, one might seek approval on a format to make
program evaluations and approvals comparatively easy
for those many agencies.
When publishing a refined document, establish word
processing templates and style guides for consistency of
format. Especially when a multidisciplinary team writes
sections of the report, coordinate the use of computer
applications among the project team and with the client.
A standard outline based on the programming steps has
the advantage of easily accommodating subject matter
that has already been classified according to the steps;
these steps become chapters in the report. Preventing
overlapping among chapters, then, is not a problem.
Often, the problem becomes what to leave out. Use an
appendix for supplemental data.
The appendix should contain the bulky, statistical data
and detailed information that the programmer used to
reach conclusions in the main body of the report. The
location of details in the appendix tends to improve the
readability of the report.
A primary purpose for a program is the client’s review
and formal approval. Some clients require signature
approvals to indicate acceptance of the program as a
basis for design. The preface of the report might contain
the following purpose statement:
The purpose of this program is to convey an
understanding of the problem prior to its solution.
This document serves as a record of the decisionmaking process and is for agreement and approval.
The designer does not write the problem statements
until the client approves the program. These statements,
however, are presented to the client as the beginning of
the schematic design.
Develop a library to store and retain program reports
and wall displays. A document library is a great resource
for background research on building types. A
comparative analysis of each program provides a basis
for identifying recurring client Goals and Concepts.
Furthermore, a comparative analysis of Facts and Needs
reveals guidelines for parameters for size spaces,
establishing ranges of functional adequacy and typical
allocations for the budget estimate. Use indexing tools
and coded filing/shelving systems to assure that you can
retrieve the documents. For electronic files, set
guidelines for the naming of files, and establish a
standard directory structure for storing them.
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Program Evaluation
measures up to predetermined quality goals, and to
determine whether we can improve the “next” project.
What is quality evaluation?
It is the evaluation of the degree of excellence of the
programming package (the product, not the process).
We need to evaluate a project at every stage in the
total design process—starting with programming. For
now, the evaluation of the finished building is another
matter—requiring a different question set.
The evaluation of products should be measured in
terms of Function, Form, Economy, and Time. The real
value of process is found in the quality of the product.
How can we quantify quality?
Why do we need to quantify quality?
Most people like to quantify things. We ask such
questions as: “What’s the score?” and “What grades did
you make?” A symbol, such as “score,” is a good way to
immediately perceive a situation. For that reason, we
need to quantify quality—to keep “score.”
We know all the reasons we should not quantify quality,
too—it is subjective, it is based on a value judgment that
is different for every individual, it is not scientifically
accurate, and so on. Nevertheless, everyone, particularly
users, judges our buildings—the ultimate products of
our services. That is primarily why we are interested in
evaluating our own intermediate products. So we too
must quantify quality.
Throughout the course of a project, we need to check
on its quality and see if we can improve the project
during the “next step.” We need to know what we have
after we complete the project, to ascertain whether it
There are many ways. Here is one method, consisting of
three factors:
1. Using question sets as evaluative criteria.
2. Scoring on the basis of the whole problem—not
just function.
3. Arriving at a single figure called “quality quotient,”
which recognizes the strengths of Function, Form,
Economy, and Time, and the equilibrium of the four.
How are value measurements made?
The whole problem concerns the equilibrium of the
forces of Function, Form, Economy, and Time—the four
forces that shape every product. Equally important as
the equilibrium of these forces, however, is the
magnitude of each force.
The magnitude of each force can be determined
empirically with the following value measurement scale:
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Complete Failure
Critically Bad
Far Below Acceptable
Poor
Acceptable
Good
Very Good
Excellent
Superior
Perfect
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
To aid in determining accurate values for each of the
four forces, we have developed question sets. By our
using the same value-measurement scale to respond to
individual questions covering each of the four categories,
5 Form
the final values can be determined more easily. The
final value for each category does not necessarily have
to be the numerical average of the individual question
responses, but the numerical average helps to understand how the final value was determined. The area
of the quadrilateral formed by the final values of the
four forces yields the quality quotient. For example,
the illustration shows a quadrilateral formed by the
following values: Function, 8; Form, 5; Economy, 6; and
Time, 3. We can assume that these values represent
the numerical averages of the responses to the five
questions in each category. The area of the quadrilateral
can be determined by the following formula:
Function 8
Area = .5 (Function + Time) (Form + Economy)
= .5 (8 + 3) (5 + 6) = 60.5
60.5
Quality Quotient
Question Sets
3 Time
Graphic Analysis of Quality Quotient
Economy 6
The only difference between the accompanying two
question sets is the format. The full-sentence question
set is intended for those people without experience in
its use. After using it several times, a person could
change to the key word question set—an abbreviated
form with implied wording. For example: “Organizational
concept meaning the big functional idea” and “Functional
goals and relationships meaning convenient and efficient
operations.”
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Full Sentence Question Set for Programming
Function
Economy
A. To what extent have organizational concepts been
uncovered?
K. To what extent have the client’s economic goals and
budget limitations been defined?
B. How well documented are the client’s functional
relationships and goals?
L. How well documented is the local cost data, considering
methods of financing, planning, and construction?
C. How much discrimination has been used to distinguish
between important form-givers and details?
M. How well documented are the factors of climate and
activities, considering maintenance and operation costs?
D. How realistic are the space requirements based on
statistical projections, client needs, and building
efficiency?
N. How comprehensive and realistic is the cost estimate
analysis?
O. To what extent have economy concepts been uncovered?
E. How well identified are the user’s characteristics and
needs?
Form
Time
F. How clearly expressed are the client’s form goals?
P. To what extent does the program consider historical
preservation and cultural values?
G. To what degree was rapport established with the client
and the design team on quality as the cost per square
foot?
Q. To what degree have major activities been identified as
static or dynamic?
H. How thoroughly have the site and climate data been
analyzed and documented?
R. To what extent does the program anticipate the effects of
change and growth?
I. To what extent has the surrounding neighborhood been
analyzed for its social, historical, and aesthetic
implications?
S. How well has the time factor been utilized to escalate
costs and determine phasing?
J. To what extent have psychological environment concepts
been uncovered?
T. How realistic is the time schedule for the total project
delivery?
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Key Word Question Set for Programming
Function
Economy
A.Organizational Concept
(the big functional idea)
K. Economic Goals
(budget limitations)
B. Functional Goals and Relationships
(convenient and efficient operations)
L. Local Cost Data
(local index, labor market)
C. Form-Givers vs. Details
(avoiding information clog)
M.Maintenance/Operation Costs
(factors of climate and activities)
D. Realistic Space Requirements
(statistical projections, client needs, building efficiency)
N.Cost Estimate Analysis
(balanced initial budget)
E. Users’ Characteristics and Needs
(physical, social, emotional, mental)
O.Economy Concepts
(multifunction, maximum effect)
Form
Time
F. Client’s Form Goals
(attitudes, policies, prejudices, taboos)
P. Historical Preservation and Cultural Values
(evaluating significance and continuity)
G.Rapport on Quality
(quality vs. space, quality as cost per SF)
Q.Static or Dynamic Activities
(fixed and tailored or flexible and negotiable spaces)
H.Site and Climate Data
(physical and legal analysis)
R. Anticipated Change and Growth
(effects of time)
I. Surrounding Neighborhood
(social, historical, aesthetic implications)
S. Cost Escalation/Phasing
(effects of time on cost and construction)
J. Psychological Environment
(order, unity, variety, orientation, scale)
T. Project Schedule
(realistic delivery)
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Building Evaluation
are more subjective. The following method is pragmatic—
comprehensive, yet simplified enough for practice.
Evaluating facilities is different from facility programming.
The former is feedback to design; the latter is feedforward to design. Both are needed to improve the
quality of the design product.
The process has five steps:
Evaluating facilities involves a systematic assessment by
an evaluation team. The objectives are twofold:
3. Identify and examine qualitative information.
1. To detect, observe, and report accurately on
existing conditions and changes from the original
intent, as represented by the program.
5. State the lessons learned.
2. To modify programmatic factors and design criteria;
to recommend corrective actions; and to state
lessons learned for programming, designing, building,
and managing buildings.
1. Establish the purpose.
2. Collect and analyze quantitative information.
4. Make an assessment.
The process is general enough to be suitable for many
types of facilities. The content makes the evaluation
specific. For the evaluation of building performance, it is
important to address four major considerations:
Function
Form
The most common application is to evaluate the
performance of a facility once it is occupied—a
postoccupancy evaluation (POE). Then the evaluation
team can consider responses from facility users. After
solving the shakedown problems, and after the novelty
has worn off, the first major performance evaluation
should take place between six months and two years
after occupancy.
Five Steps and Four
Considerations
There are many evaluation methods, each suited to a
particular application. Some are rigorous and strive for
objectivity; others must provide expedient answers, and
Economy
Time
Like programming, evaluating involves an organized
process of inquiry, which is comprehensive in content.
The organization of an evaluation (feedback)
corresponds to the framework used in programming
(feed-forward). The similarity of organization, content,
and format increases the usefulness of the results.
1. Purpose
It is essential that everyone involved has a clear understanding of why the evaluation is being undertaken.
While there are several reasons for conducting a POE,
establish these at the initiation meeting.
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An evaluation may serve many purposes:
• To justify actions and expenditures.
• To measure design quality (conformance to
requirements).
• To fine-tune a facility.
• To adjust a repetitive program.
Technical Adequacy: The cost of fixed and special
equipment, such as stage equipment in an auditorium.
Measured as a percentage of the building cost, though it
is also possible to represent as a unit cost.
Energy Performance: A measure of the amount of
energy per gross square foot consumed for the
standard operation of a building.
• To research people/environment/relationships.
• To test the application of new ideas.
2. Quantitative Description
The second step, preparing a quantitative description,
includes collecting factual data on the building as
designed, for example, the floor plan. Analyzing
parametric data provides a basis for comparing this
facility with similar ones.
Functional Adequacy: A measure of the amount of
area per the facility’s primary unit of capacity. Example:
gross area per seat in an auditorium.
Space Adequacy: The gross area of a building is the
sum of the net assigned area and the unassignable area.
The ratio of net assigned area to gross building area
measures the efficiency of the floor plan layout.
Construction Quality: The unit cost associated with
the quality level of the building, measured as the building
cost per gross area.
User Satisfaction: Obtaining some form of a reading
on how satisfied users are with the facility.
3. Qualitative Description
A qualitative description includes examining the client’s
goals for the facility, the programmatic and design
concepts for achieving those goals, and the statements
representing design problems that the designer intended
to solve. This step also includes identifying changes that
have taken place since occupancy and current issues
confronting the occupants and owner:
Goals: These convey the client’s stated intentions.
Sometimes clients express great aspirations that, in the
end, are not fully achievable.
Concepts: These are ideas for realizing goals.
Programming concepts represent abstract relationships
and functional arrangements. Design concepts are
physical responses that provide a unifying theme to the
solution.
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Problem Statements: These represent recognition of
the critical project conditions, as well as a direction for
the design effort.
Changes: These are indicators, since occupancy, of new
requirements or inadequacies. Changes are actions
taken to alleviate undesirable conditions.
Issues: Issues are unsettled and controversial decisions
that are in dispute. They are posed by the occupants or
the owner of the facility or are raised by the evaluation
team.
4. Assessment
The assessment requires interpretation and judgment by
an evaluation team. This team should represent different
points of view and have a unique set of experiences,
prejudices, and expertise. The collection of these diverse
judgments leads to a more objective evaluation.
forms a subjective response as to the degree of
excellence attained by the facility. Refer to page 257.
A comprehensive evaluation concerns the equilibrium of
all the forces that shaped the project, and is represented
by a quality quotient (QQ). Refer to page 257 for the
equation that yields this quotient.
Quality is a value judgment that varies with every
individual. It is subjective. Nonetheless, quantification is
useful.
First, a rating provides a mechanism for identifying the
differences in perception of a building by the various
evaluators. Better understanding is possible when the
evaluation team discusses these differences.
A team might encompass the following roles:
Second, a rating provides an explicit pattern of how the
parts contribute to the whole assessment. Clearer
knowledge of the strengths and weaknesses is possible
when the evaluators compare these patterns and
discuss them.
Owner
5. Lessons Learned
Facilities Manager
User Representative
Programmer
Designer
Project Manager
The evaluation criteria are standard questions that
reflect important values. The evaluation team should
review the question set prior to reaching a judgment, to
understand the meaning of the criteria. Each evaluator
Lessons learned are conclusions about strengths and/or
weaknesses. Rarely should an evaluation conclude with
more than 12 statements. At a minimum, four statements
will cover each of the major considerations: Function,
Form, Economy, and Time. With a trained evaluation
team, it is possible to complete the evaluation procedure
within a week. For a typical building evaluation, however,
the duration of the procedure might last four weeks.
Elaborate user satisfaction surveys may extend the
duration of the preparation phase.
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Sophisticated reports may lengthen the documentation
phase. The chart lists typical activities for an evaluation.
Typical Evaluation Activities
1.
Initiation
• Establish the purpose of the evaluation.
• Identify the background data requirements.
2.
Preparation
• Research the background.
• Prepare the quantitative and qualitative
descriptions on analysis cards.
3.
Tour
• Make a visual inspection of the facility.
• Possibly, undertake random interviews with
users and probe for responses about
performance.
4.
Discussion
• Meet to discuss observation after the tour.
5.
Assessment
• Make a judgment about the facility’s success by
assigning a score.
• Record the ratings on a special graph, which
illustrates the pattern of each assessment.
6.
Summation
• Review the wall display.
• Prepare a statement of the lessons learned.
7.
Presentation
• Using the analysis card, present the
conclusions.
8.
Documentation
• The team leader prepares a report by
photocopying the analysis card.
Function
When evaluating functional performance, refer to the
original Goals and Concepts of the program. The
original program provides an immediate focus on the
important client decisions that influenced the design.
Form
The evaluation must include aesthetic standards to
determine the physical design excellence of the building.
This is the most difficult part of the evaluation since
aesthetic standards are ever-changing.
Economy
It is important to consider the original quality level of the
facility—the quality commensurate with the initial budget.
It is unrealistic to wish for a grand quality if the original
budget allowed for no more than an economical level.
Time
Because two or three years may elapse between
programming and occupancy, the initial users may be
different from those involved in the initial planning. A
certain amount of user satisfaction, therefore, depends
on periodic interior design or on the degree to which
partition and utility service changes are possible within
the basic structure.
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Key Word Question Set for Evaluating Facilities
Function
Economy
A. Response to the Major Task
(intended prime function)
O. Appropriate Level of Simplicity or Complexity
(clarity or ambiguity)
B. The Overall Organizational Idea
(the big functional concept)
P. Ease of Maintenance and Operation
(response to climate and activities)
C. Effective Arrangement of Spaces
(functional activities and relationships)
Q. Most for the Money
(good return on investment)
D. Exciting, Efficient Circulation of People and/or Things
(flow, orientation, and kinesthetic experience)
R. Realistic Solution to a Balanced Budget
(cost control)
E. Provision of an Appropriate Amount of Space
(programmed and unprogrammed)
S. Maximum Effect with Minimum Means
(elegance and efficiency)
F. Response to User Physical Needs
(comfort, safety, convenience, and privacy)
T. Lean/Clean or Rich Elaboration
(machine aesthetics or ornamentalism)
G. Response to User Social Needs
(health, interaction, and sense of community)
U. Energy Conservation
(energy-efficient)
Form
Time
H. Creativity and Excellence in Design
(imagination, innovation, and ingenuity)
V. Use of Materials and Technology of the Time
(spirit and expression of the time)
I. Strong, Clear Statement of Total Form
(plastic, planer, skeletal form)
W. Fixed Spaces for Specific Activities
(major static activities)
J. Response to the Nature of the Site
(physical, historical, and aesthetic)
X. Convertible Spaces for Changes in Function
(dynamic activities)
K. Provisions for Psychological Well-Being
(order, unity, variety, color, and scale)
Y. Provision for Growth
(expansibility)
L. Integration or Expression of Systems
(structural, mechanical, and electrical)
Z. Vitality and Validity over Time
(sustaining quality)
M. Design Excellence of Connections
(ground, sky, and details)
A1. Historical and Cultural Values
(significance, continuity, and familiarity)
N. Symbolism of a Generic Nature
(appropriate expression and character)
A2. Advanced Materials and Technology
(new forms and supportive tools)
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Selected Bibliography
In 1959, we wrote an article titled “Architectural
Analysis,” based on 10 years’ practice of programming.
We were long on practice, short on theory. Serious
students of programming may be interested in the
following selected bibliography, which influenced the
theory behind the evolving Problem Seeking® method.
Peña, William M., and William W. Caudill. “Architectural
Analysis—Prelude to Good Design.” Architectural Record,
May 1959, pp. 178–182.
References from Fifth Edition
References from First Edition
Cherry, Edith. Programming for Design: From Theory to
Practice. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.
Books
Clark, Jeffrey E. Facility Planning: Principles,Technology,
Guidelines. New York: Prentice Hall, 2007.
Bruner, J. The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1962.
Haefele, John W. Creativity and Innovation. New York:
Reinhold Publishing Co., 1962.
Osborn, Alex F. Applied Imagination Principles and
Procedures of Creative Problem Solving. New York:
Scribner’s, 1963.
Polya, G. How to Solve It. Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Anchor, 1957.
Taylor, Irving A. “The Nature of the Creative Process.” In
Creativity, An Examination of the Creative Process, Paul
Smith, ed. New York: Hastings House, 1959.
Magazines
Archer, L. Bruce. “Systematic Method for Designers,”
Design, No. 172, April 1963, pp. 46–49.
Duerk, Donna P. Architectural Programming: Information
Management for Design. New York:Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1993.
Hershberger, Robert. Architectural Programming and
Predesign Manager. New York: McGraw Hill, 1999.
IFMA and Haworth, Inc. Alternative Officing Research and
Workplace Strategies. Houston, TX: IFMA, 1995.
Kumlin, Robert R. Architectural Programming: Creative
Techniques for Design Professionals. New York: McGraw
Hill, 1995.
Mendler, Sandra, William Odell, and Mary Ann Lazarus.
The HOK Guidebook to Sustainable Design, 2nd Ed.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2006.
Parshall, Steven A., and Donald Sutherland. Officing:
Bringing Amenity and Intelligence to Knowledge Work. Tokyo:
LibroPort Co., Ltd. 1988.
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Waite, Phillip S. The Non-Architect’s Guide to Major Capital
Projects: Planning, Designing, and Delivering New Buildings.
Ann Arbor, MI: SCUP, 2005.
White, Edward T. Site Analysis: Diagramming Information
for Architectural Design. Tallahassee, FL: Architectural
Media, 1991.
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Index
Abstracting, 70–71, 75
Abstract thought, 38, 52, 75, 124, 200
Accessibility, 59
Activities, 20, 85. See also Programming
activities
Activity grouping, 56
Adjacency, 208–209
Administrative costs, 105
Advanced Collaboration Rooms (ACR), 160,
206
After-tax cost of debt, 122
Agency review (AR), 83
Algorithm, 81, 199
Analysis:
comprehensive, 74
cost estimate, see Cost estimate analysis
defined, 80
discounted cash flow, 120
functional relationship, 208–209
graphic, 46
importance of, 198
investment performer, 120
life-cycle cost, 120
mental capability for, 6
sustainability, 119
synthesis vs., 8–9, 75, 197
systems, 80
Analysis cards, 236–245
advantages of using, 236–237
steps for drawing, 237–245
Area definition, 96–99
Aspiration, 87. See also Goals
Assessment (building evaluation), 262
Atomistic approach, 202
Audioconferencing, 206, 253
Background information, 43, 184. See also
Research
Balance sheets, 122
Base building efficiency, 101, 103
Baseline analysis, 119
Basis of Design (BOD), 119
Brown sheets, 160, 231–232
Bubble diagrams, 209
Budget:
with cost control, 65
determination of, 66–69, 170
initial, 21
and interior layout efficiency, 103
total, 105
Building area, 218
Building core, 103
Building costs, 104, 108–109
Building efficiency factors, 100–103
Building evaluation, 260–264
Building gross area, 99
Building information, 173
Building Information Life Cycle, 173
Building Information Modeling (BIM):
defined, 84
knowledge of, 173
process, 84
program data in, 175
and program of requirements, 176–179
software, 84
and space list, 223, 225
Building quality, 112–117
Building shell, 103
Building storage, 97
Building systems, 108–109
Building systems design criteria, 108
Buyout phase (Integrated Project
Delivery), 83
Capital, 122
Caudill, Bill, 74
Character, desired, 55
Circulation areas, 97
Clients:
collaboration with, 83
decision making by, 44, 45, 171
financial issues of, 68
goal-setting meetings with, 86
information about, 23
involvement of, 42, 74
level of participation by, 168–169
meeting with, 154–155
Closeout phase (Integrated Project
Delivery), 83
Commissioning, 119
Communication, 40, 46, 58, 74
Compartmentalized activities, 56
Complexity, 81, 203
Complicated (term), 81
Compounding, 121
Comprehensive (term), 81, 202
Concepts:
in building evaluation, 261
defined, 90
displaying, 44
and goals, 48
in Information Index, 25, 27
overview, 14, 52–53
programmatic vs. design, 52
questions posed with, 15
types of, 54–64, 90–95
uncovering and testing, 150–151
Conceptualization, 83
Concrete thought, 38, 53, 124, 200
Concurrent scheduling, 170
Condition, 124, 168–170
Conflicts, 42
Consensus, 39, 197
Considerations, 18–23
defined, 85
economy, 67
establishment of, 9
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Considerations (cont’d )
terminology, 85
types of, 20–21, 171
Construction costs, 104
Construction documents (CD), 82, 83
Construction Operations Building
Information Exchange (COBie),
180
Construction phase (Integrated Project
Delivery), 83
Construction quality, 114–115, 261
Constructors, 83
Content, 85
Contingencies, 105
Convertibility, 52, 62
Corridors, 97
Costs:
building, 104, 108–109
of capital, 122
of debt, 122
of equity, 122
estimation of, see Cost estimate analysis
interior fit-up, 110–111
life-cycle, 21
operating, 21
site development, 111
time-and-cost schedule, 65
unit, 114–115
Cost control, 65, 67
Cost estimate analysis, 104–105
determining need for, 170
overview, 68–69
preliminary, 160
Creativity, 9, 42
Criteria, 108, 124
Criteria design phase (Integrated Project
Delivery), 83
Customization, 179–180
Data:
availability of, 155
defined, 89
list of needed, 154
outline for structuring, 180–181
from questionnaires, see Questionnaires
raw, 34–35
reporting of, 223
repositories for, 182–183
sources for, 174–175
structuring of, 175
Databases, 164, 165, 175–176, 212
Data clog, 32–33
Data collection questionnaires, 185,
187–193
Data management, 173
Dates, important, 170
Debt, 122
Decentralized services, 56
Decision making, 44–45
by clients, 44, 45, 171
identifying decision makers, 196
Deduction, 81
Definite closure, 75
Density, 55
Departmental gross area, 98
Department arrangements, 210
Design:
creativity in, 42
defined, 82
integrated, 118
problem solving as approach to, 5
schematic, 30, 82, 83
separation of programming from,
10–11, 75
as synthesis, 8–9
Design concepts, 90
Design criteria, 108, 124
Design development:
defined, 82–83
overview, 30, 31
in total design process, 82
Designers, 6, 42, 83
Design premise, 124
Detail, level of, 168
Detailed design phase (Integrated Project
Delivery), 83
Digital flip charts, 246–252
Discarding information, 34–35
Discounted cash flow analysis (DCFA),
120
Discount factor, 121
Discounting, 121
Discount rate, 121
Drawings, 82
Economic life, 122
Economy:
in building evaluation, 260, 263, 264
and concepts, 151
defined, 85
and facts, 149
and goals, 147
in Information Index, 26–27
and needs, 152
overview, 3, 21
and problem statements, 153
and programmatic concepts, 90
and sustainability, 118
Efficiency, 25, 75, 100–103, 113
Efficiency ratio, 68
Electronic files, 161, 174, 175, 182
Electronic presentations, 166, 253–254
Empirical (term), 89
Enclosed plans, 103, 111
Energy conservation, 64, 261
Energy Star ratings, 119
Energy sustainability concepts, 91–93, 119
Environment, 20
Environmental assessments, 118–119
Environmental controls, 64
Equipment:
fixed, 104, 173
laboratory, 223
movable, 105, 173
Equipment list, 228–229
Equity, 122
Essence, 124
Evaluation criteria, 124
“Evocative words,” 24, 82, 146
Expanded design development (EDD), 83
Expanded programming (EP), 83
Expanded schematic design (ESD), 83
Expansibility, 62
Expansion, 203
External data repositories, 182–183
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Facilitators (interviews), 194
Facility information, 84, 93, 169
Facility Requirement System (FRS), 222,
225
Facts, 14
collecting and analyzing, 148–149
defined, 89
in Information Index, 25, 26
overview, 50–51
questions posed with, 15
Feasibility, 25, 29, 66–67
Feedback, 200, 231
Feed-forward, 200
Financial analysis, 120–123
First-phase programming, 67
FIT (fully integrated thinking), 91
Fixed address, 94
Fixed equipment, 104, 173
Flexibility, 62
Flip charts, digital, 246–252
Flow:
in functional relationship analysis, 208
mixed, 60
separated, 60
sequential, 61
Flowcharts, 46, 61
Form:
in building evaluation, 260, 263, 264
and concepts, 150–151
defined, 85
and facts, 148–149
and goals, 147
in Information Index, 26–27
and needs, 152
overview, 3, 20
and problem statements, 153
and programmatic concepts, 90
and sustainability, 118
Framework, 82
Free address, 94
Fully integrated thinking (FIT), 91
Function(s):
in building evaluation, 260, 263, 264
and concepts, 150
defined, 85
and facts, 148
and goals, 146
identifying problem in terms of, 18
in Information Index, 26–27
and needs, 152
overview, 3, 20
and problem statements, 153
and programmatic concepts, 90
and sustainability, 118
Functional (term), 85
Functional adequacy, 116, 261
Functional affinities, 58
Functional relationship analysis, 208–209
Functional requirements, 96
Furniture, fixtures, and equipment (FF&E),
223
Future, the, 21, 85, 118
Gaming, 210–212
Goals, 14
in building evaluation, 261
and concepts, 48
and data, 155
defined, 85–86
displaying of, 44
in Information Index, 25, 26
overview, 48–49
procedure for establishing, 146–147
questions posed with, 15, 22
types of, 87–89. See also specific types of
goals
Green building ratings, 118–119, 159
Gross area, 99
Group address, 94
Group interviews, 204–205
Handicapped accessibility, 59
Handoff package, 29, 161
Heat, 64
Heuristic (term), 81, 199
Hierarchy, 54, 208
HOK Inc., 160, 182, 206, 213
Holistic approach, 202
Home base, 57
Hoteling, 94
Human requirements, 96
Hurdle rate, 121
Hypothesis, 80, 124
IFMA (International Facility Management
Association), 99
Image, desired, 55
Implementation documents phase
(Integrated Project Delivery), 83
Individual interviews, 204
Industry Foundation Class (IFC), 175,
180
Inflation rate, 122
Information, 24–35. See also Data
amount of, 18–19
background, 43, 184. See also Research
as basic element in programming, 172
data clog with, 32–33
defined, 89
exchanging, 182–183
Information Index, 24–27
organizing, 28–29
output of, 180
processing and discarding, 34–35
two-phase process, 30–31
validity of, 169
Information Index, 24–27, 78, 82, 146, 158
Information request, 155
Information technology, 93
Initial budget, 21
Integrated design, 118
Integrated Project Delivery (IPD):
defined, 83
enabling technologies in, 84
and interoperability, 175
phases in, 83
project teams, 83
Interaction matrix, 209
Interest rates, 121
Interface, 12–13
Interior cost estimate, 110–111
Interior layout efficiency, 101, 103
Internal data repositories, 182
Internal rate of return (IRR), 121–122
Internet, 172, 174, 246
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Interoperability, 175
Interviews, 14, 194–196
preplanning, 196
types of, 204–205
Interview questionnaires, 185, 186
Intuition, 35, 38, 199
Investment performer analysis, 120
Issues, 88, 262
IWMS (integrated workplace management
system), 84, 175–177
overview, 66–67
questions posed with, 15
types of, 96
Neighbors, 59
Net area, 98, 218
Net assignable area, 98
Net present value (NPV), 120
Net to gross area ratio, 68
Networks, 58
Newforma, 182
Janitor closets, 97
Object-based applications, 178
Objectivity, 89, 201
Office preparation, 156
Officing, 93, 111
Officing concepts:
defined, 93
off-premise, 95
on-premise, 94
Off-premise work settings, 57
On-premise work settings, 57
Open plans, 103
Open Standards Consortium for Real Estate
(OSCRE), 180
Operating costs, 21
Operational (term), 85
Operational concepts, 90–91
Operational goals, 85, 88–89, 91
Operations research, 80
Order, 28, 154
Organization charts, 208
Orientation, 61
Overall building efficiency, 100–103
Oversimplification, 71, 81
Owners Project Requirements (OPR), 119
Key words, 24, 82, 146
Laboratory equipment, 223
Land, 173
Land area, 218
Leadership, 40–41
LEED (Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design), 118, 119,
159
Life-cycle assessment (LCA), 119
Life-cycle costs, 21
Life-cycle cost analysis, 120
Life-cycle framework, 173
Lighting, 64
Line item cost allocations, 105–107
Logical (term), 82
Macro relationships, 209
Master zoning/blocking, 210
Measurement methods, 96–99
Mechanical areas, 97
Method:
defined, 81
scientific, 80
Micro relationships, 209
Mission statement, 86–87
Mixed flow, 60
Movable equipment, 105, 173
Needs, 14
defined, 96
determining, 152, 197
information on, 25, 27
Parameters, 89
Participation, 36–46. See also Team
background information for, 43
communication in, 46
decision making, 44–45
effective group action, 38–39
process for, 42
Partitions, 97
Payback, 120
People, 20, 61
People grouping, 57
Performance, 96
Performance requirements, 96
Pertinent (term), 89
Phasing, 65
Pivot tables, 176
POE (postoccupancy evaluation), 260
Points of reference, 61
Political factors, 166
Practical goals, 88
Premise, 124
Presentations, electronic, 166, 253–254
Present value of annuity (PV), 120
Priority, 54
Problems:
defining, 198. See also Problem
statements
identifying types of, 168
Problem seeking. See also Programming
foundations of, 74–75
group consensus in, 39
and ways of thinking, 197
Problem solving. See also Design
methods for, 4–5
traditional steps in, 80
Problem statements:
in building evaluation, 262
creating, 153
examples of, 125–145
information addressed in, 72–73
and organizing information, 29
overview, 5, 12–15
terminology, 124
Procedure, 16–17
Process:
overview, 14–17
terminology, 80–84
Professional fees, 105
Pro forma financial analysis, 122–123
Programs, 168
Program development, 30, 222–230
Program evaluation, 256–259
Programmatic concepts, 90
Programmers:
role of, 42
skills of, 6
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Programming. See also specific headings
as analysis, 8–9
as basic process, 4
as heuristic process, 16
problem seeking as approach to, 5
separation of design from, 10–11, 75
steps in, 2–3, 14–15, 146, 171
in total design process, 82
Programming activities, 154–163
approval and handoff, 161
concurrent, 156
documentation, 160
information request, 155
office preparation, 156
overview, 162–163
programming squatters, 156–160
project closeout, 161
project initiation, 154–155
schedule, 155–156
virtual meetings, 160
Programming Procedures, 146
Programming reports, 255
Program of requirements (POR), 176–177
Project closeout, 161
Project goals, 85
Project initiation, 154–155
Project Web, 182–183
Proximity, 208
PV (present value of annuity), 120
Qualitative information, 75, 261–262
Quality:
automobile analogy, 112
construction, 114–115, 261
evaluation of, 256
and form, 20
judgments on, 66
levels of, 112–117
Quantitative information, 75, 261. See also
Facts
Questionnaires, 184–193
design of, 184
electronic, 185
reusing templates, 179
samples, 186–193
types of, 185
Rational (term), 82
Raw data, 34–35
Real estate information, 84
Reasonable (term), 81
Recurring concepts, 90
Reductionism, 81, 203
Relationships, 20, 25, 58, 209
Relevant (term), 89
Renovation work, 117
Rentable area, 99, 103
Reports:
data, 223
programming, 255
Requirements, 37, 66, 96
Research, 80, 156, 184
Reusability, 179–180
Room data sheets (RDS), 223, 226–227
R/U ratio, 101, 103
Safety, 63
Schedule, 155–156, 170
Schematics, 10
Schematic design:
defined, 82
expanded, 83
overview, 30
in total design process, 82
Schematic program, 30
Science, 201
Scientific method, 80
Security controls, 63
Separated flow, 60
Sequential flow, 61
Service grouping, 56
Simplicity, 203
Simulation, 213–215
Site, 20
Site acquisition, 105
Site demolition, 105
Site development, 104
Site development costs, 111
Size, building, 96
Skepticism, 89
SketchUp, 233
Social spaces, 60
Solutions, 198
Sophistication, four degrees of, 164–167
Sound controls, 64
Spaces, 173
Space adequacy, 25, 29, 261
Space audit, 223
Space lists, 216–221
Space requirements, 66, 96
Space tool, 223
Specialists, 194, 196
Spreadsheets, 160, 164, 176
Square footage, 68
Squatters, 156–160
Stakeholders, 118, 159. See also Clients;
Users
Storage, 97
Structure, 97
Subjectivity, 201
Summaries, 216, 218
Sustainability, 91–93, 117–119
Sustainability analysis, 119
Sustainability concepts, 91
Sustainability goals, 91, 100
Sustainable building rating system, 118–119
Synthesis:
analysis vs., 8–9, 75, 197
defined, 80
importance of, 198
Systems analysis, 80
Tailored spaces, 62
Tare area, 97
Tax rate, 122
Team. See also Participation
in Integrated Project Delivery, 83
leadership of, 40–41
multiplicity of ideas on, 197
organization of, 154
users on, 36–37
Technical adequacy, 261
Techniques, 172. See also specific techniques
Technology, 93, 159
Telecommunications, 172
Telecommuting, 95
Territoriality, 57
Theory, 80–84
Thinking, ways of, 197–203
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Thunder Client, 246
Time:
in building evaluation, 260, 263, 264
and concepts, 151
and cost, 65, 66
defined, 85
and facts, 149
and goals, 147
in Information Index, 26–27
overview, 3, 21
and problem statements, 153
and programmatic concepts, 90
and sustainability, 118
Time-and-cost schedule, 65
Toilets, public, 97
Tolerance, 62
Total design process, 82
Total project delivery system, 82
Two-phase process (information), 30–31
Unassigned areas, 97
Unit costs, 114–115
Unorganized (term), 81
Urban planning, 166
Usable area, 98, 103
Users, 36–37
conflicting interests of, 165
determination of, 169
goal-setting meetings with, 86
satisfaction of, 261
User characteristics, 89
Values, 88, 262
Value measurements, 256–257
Videoconferencing, 160, 206–207, 253
Virtual functional relationship, 208
Virtual meetings, 160
Virtual offices, 95
Vision session, 86
Visualization, 233–235
Wall display, of analysis cards, 236, 237
Wants, 96
Water sustainability concepts, 91–93, 119
Web-based publishing, 166, 179, 182, 253
Weighted average cost of capital (WACC), 122
White boards, electronic, 246–252
Work plans, 154
Work sessions, 14, 194, 231
Workspaces, 93–95
World Fact Book, 174
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About the Authors
William M. Peña, FAIA
Author of Problem Seeking: An Architectural Programming
Primer, 5th Edition.
After graduating from Texas A&M University in 1948,
Willie Peña joined the architectural firm of Caudill
Rowlett Scott (CRS). A year later, he became the firm’s
fourth partner and programmed his first of many
building projects.
As a practicing researcher, Willie Peña advanced
architectural programming to a sophisticated, analytical
science, benefiting both architects and clients. He gave
to the profession the tools demanded by the complexities of design problems; and to the clients, the
communication techniques to make their needs known.
In 1950, Peña programmed his first project. By the time
he retired in 1984, he had personally participated in the
programming of more than 400 projects—one-third of
CRS projects completed in 38 states and 9 foreign
countries. During his career Peña also conducted
programming workshops and lectured at more than
100 professional, corporate, and academic sessions.
After 20 years of practice, he developed the Problem
Seeking® programming process. In 1969, he wrote the
first edition of Problem Seeking. This publication became
a standard text in architectural programming courses.
Problem Seeking was republished as a second edition in
1977, as a third edition in 1987, and as a fourth in 2001.
This is the publication’s fifth edition.
In 1972, the American Institute of Architects elevated
Peña to Fellow, in recognition of his contributions to the
field. In 2009, the AIA Houston chapter honored Peña
for his lifelong commitment to the architectural
profession as a pioneer in architectural programming,
teaching, and research.
Steven A. Parshall, FAIA
Steve Parshall is Senior Vice President with HOK, Inc.
and Director of Programming.
With over 30 years of contributions to the practice
of architecture, Parshall has expanded the architect’s
role—in architectural programming and in research and
evaluation of the built environment—adding value for
clients throughout the world. Through benchmarking,
training, and publishing, his work has enabled architects
to better understand their clients’ needs, enhancing the
profession’s capability for providing predesign services.
Parshall is a Fellow of the American Institute of
Architects. He received a Bachelor of Science in
Architecture and Master of Architecture and Master
of Business Administration degrees from the University
of Illinois.
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In the late 1980s, Parshall served as Chairman of the
Research Committee of the International Facility
Management Association. He was Chair of the American
Institute of Architects Center for Building Performance
Advisory Committee and is a former member of the
Board of Directors for the CRS Center for Leadership
& Management in the Design & Construction Industry,
Texas A&M University. Additionally, he served on the
HOK Board of Directors from 1998 to 2001.
Parshall was managing editor of the book Officing:
Bringing Amenity and Intelligence to Knowledge Work, a joint
publication effort with Matsushita Electric Works, Ltd.
The bilingual publication focuses on the quintessential
twentieth-century workplace.
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