Т. Л. Barabash
A Guide
to
Better
Grammar
(Пособие no грамматике
современного английского
языка)
ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО «МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫЕ ОТНОШЕНИЯ»
Москва ‘1975
4И (Англ.)
Б 24
Барабаш Т. А.
Б 24
Пособие по грамматике современного английского
языка (A Guide to Better Grammar). M., Междунар.
отношени я», 1975.
288
Пособие предназначено для лиц, владеющих основами английского языка
и желающих усовершенствовать свои знания. Цель пособия — помочь учащимся
выработать навыки грамматически правильной английской речи.
Б 70104—008 48_75
ф Издательство «Международные отношения», 1975 г.
4И (Англ.)
ОТ
АВТОРА
Данное пособие предназначено для лиц, совершенствующихся в
изучении английского языка на курсах или путем самостоятельной
работы, а также для студентов языковых вузов переводческого про­
филя и гуманитарных факультетов университетов. Оно предполагает
владение элементарной грамматикой и лексикой в объеме первого курса
языкового вуза.
Пособие является в своей основе нормативным. Его цель — позна­
комить изучающих английский язык с системой грамматических пра­
вил современного английского языка, с тем чтобы способствовать
улучшению навыков грамматически правильной устной и письменной
речи.
Исходя из практических целей пособия, автор предлагает такую
трактовку грамматических явлений, которая представляется наиболее
приемлемой для достижения этих целей.
Не претендуя на исчерпывающую полноту описания всей системы
грамматического строя современного английского языка, пособие
охватывает лишь узловые темы, представляющие значительные труд
*
ности для изучающих язык.
В пособии отсутствует ряд тем, имеющихся в большинстве курсов
нормативной грамматики; этот материал рассматривается в совокуп­
ности с другими вопросами. Так, например, в разделе “Parts of Speech’’
подробно освещаются лишь такие части речи^ как существительное,
артикль, прилагательное, наречие, местоимение и глагол. Особенности
употребления других частей речи затрагиваются попутно в соответ­
ствующих главах пособия. Например, особенности употребления чис­
лительных в составе словосочетаний рассматриваются в главах об
артиклях, прилагательных, а также о членах предложения; особеннос­
ти употребления союзов и предлогов — как в разделе о частях речи,
так и в разделе о структуре предложения; роль модальных слов, час­
тиц и междометий — в разных главах обоих разделов. В разделе
“Sentence Structure” нет специальной главы, посвященной порядку
слов, поскольку он рассматривается как неотъемлемый компонент
структуры предложения и занимает значительное место в главах, пос­
вященных главным и второстепенным членам предложения.
В основу трактовки большинства тем легла концепция, наложен­
ная в «Грамматике английского языка» Л. С. Бархударова и
Д. А. Штелинга.
При описании грамматических явлений, их форм и функций автор
стремился представить наиболее современную норму употребления,
предлагаемую в английских и американских учебниках грамматики
последних лет издания, с особым упором на профилактику возможных
ошибок, возникающих вследствие интерференции русского языка.
8
В пособии дается стилистическая оценка грамматических явлений,
с тем чтобы способствовать правильной ориентации в области граммати­
ческой синонимии. Кроме того, там где это необходимо, проводится
сопоставление с русским языком что должно помочь выявлению зако­
номерных грамматических соответствий, используемых при переводе.
Большинство иллюстративных примеров взято из современной
английской и американской литературы, периодики, киносценариев,
а также из словарей, лингафонных курсов и курсов грамматики, из­
данных в Англии и США. Часть примеров заимствована из ранее из­
данных в Советском Союзе учебников грамматики.
Практическая часть пособия (“Exercises”) состоит из упражнений
по каждой из тем. Упражнения разработаны с учетом типизированных
трудностей проходимого материала и предназначены, в частности, для
предотвращения наиболее типичных ошибок русских учащихся.
Основные виды упражнений: анализ формы, функции и значения,
реконструкция, трансформация, перевод с английского языка на рус­
ский и с русского на английский. Характер упражнений определяется
как общими целями пособия, так и спецификой каждой конкретной
темы.
Упражнения составлены на основе современных оригинальных
источников. Упражнения типа '‘Translate into English”, имеющие
целью контроль усвоения грамматического материала, предусматри­
вают употребление лексики, доступной учащимся, на которых рассчи­
тано данное пособие.
К пособию прилагается словарь-индекс грамматических терминов
(на указанных в нем страницах впервые упоминаются или раскрываются
значения соответствующих терминов).
Библиографический список включает только те книги, которые
были использованы при написании данного пособия.
Автор выражает глубокую признательность доктору филологичес­
ких наук, профессору Л. С. Бархударову за ценные критические заме­
чания, которые были учтены при подготовке рукописи пособия к
печати.
CONTENTS
Introduction.............................................................
Part I:
7
Parts of Speech
Nouns
.........................................................................
Articles.............................................................................
Adjectives........................................................................
Adverbs
.........................................................................
Pronouns.........................................................................
Verbs...................................................................-.
Tense and Aspect.......................................
Voice.............................................................
Mood.............................................................
Modal Verbs.......................................................
Verbals.............................................................................
The Infinitive..................................................
The Gerund .................................................
The Participle............................................
13.
21
31.
3?
40
64
69
87
93
105
121
122
130
140
Part II: Sentence Structure
Simple Sentences.......................................................
Principal Partsof the Sentence ...
Secondary Partsof the Sentence ...
Composite Sentences
.............................
Reported Speech.......................................................
150
161
176
192
208
Part III: Exercises
Nouns............................................................
. .
Articles........................................................................
Adjectives and Adverbs
Pronouns...................................................................
Verbs.........................................................................
Tense and Aspect............................ <. . . .
Voice.................................
219
220
226
227
229
230
235
6
Mood
..............................................................................
Modal Verbs .
......................................................
The Infinitive............................................................
The Gerund..................................................................
The Participle
......................................................
Simple Sentences......................................................
Principal Parts of the Sentence..............................
Secondary Parts of the Sentence..............................
Composite Sentences......................................................
Reported Speech
......................................................
24^
244
248
251
256
259
262
268
274
Grammatical Terms (Glossary and Index) . .
Bibliography ..............................
.....
281
288
INTRODUCTION
§ 1. Language is realized through speech, i. e. linguistic
intercourse between two or more people. It is exercised by means
of connected communications, chiefly in the form of sentences.
All words in a sentence are grammatically connected. It
means that they are modified and joined together to express
thoughts and feelings.
The main object of grammar as a science is the grammatical
structure of the language, i. e/ the system of laws governing
the change of grammatical forms of words and the building
of sentences.
The aim of this grammar review is to give up-to-date rules
which must be obeyed if one wants to speak and write the lan­
guage correctly.
§ 2. The main difference between the grammatical structure
of English and that of Russian lies in ways of expressing gram­
matical relations between words in word-groups and sentences.
In Russian these relations are expressed by inflexions: заглавие
книги. In English they are mainly expressed by word-order
and structural words: the title of the book.
The former type of grammatical structure is called synthet­
ical while the latter is called analytical.
Thus Modern English is an analytical language, though it
has some survivals of the synthetical structure. These are ex­
pressed in a number of inflexions.
§ 3. Grammatical forms of words can be changed In differ­
ent ways.
By grammatical forms we understand variants of a word
having the same lexical meaning but differing grammatically:
book — books.
There are the following four ways of changing grammatical
forms of words in English: (1) the use of suffixes; (2) the use
7
of sound change; (3) the use of suppletive forms; (4) the use of
analytical forms.
Suffixes are form-changing elements added to the root of
a word; they arc also called inflexions. These are the following:
-e(s)
the plural of nouns
the possessive of nouns
the third person singular of the Present Indefinite Tense
the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood
-(e)d the Subjunctive Mood
participle II
-•ng 1 participle I
gerund
-er, -est the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives
and adverbs
Sound change is the use of different root sounds in different
grammatical forms of a word. These interchanging sounds can
be either vowels (speak — spoke) or consonants (wife —
wives).
Note that sound change can be combined with the use of inflex
ions (child — children, wolf — wolves).
Suppletive forms are grammatical forms of a word coming
from different roots. These are: be — am — is — was, go —
went, I — me, good — better, bad — worse.
Analytical forms are made up of two components, auxiliary
and notional. An auxiliary expresses no lexical meaning of its
own, but changes grammatically. A notional word is used as an
unchanged element and carries a lexical meaning.
Analytical forms are widely used in forming the tense,
voice and mood of the verb, etc.
I
\ written a letter.
He has J
N • t e that out of the four ways of changing grammatical forms
found in Modern English, only two are productive, namely the use of
suffixes and the use of analytical forms.
i 4. The general meaning of two or more grammatical forms
opposed to each other makes up a grammatical category. Com­
pare: student — students, booh -* books.
8
The forms student and book denote singularity, while the
forms students and books denote plurality. The forms of these
two columns when opposed to each other, have one general mean­
ing, that of number. Thus the oppositions of grammatical
forms expressing the grammatical meaning of number makes
up the grammatical category of number.
The noun has the grammatical categories of number and case.
The verb has the grammatical categories of person, number,
tense, aspect, voice and mood. Adjectives and adverbs express
degrees of comparison. Some pronouns express the categories
of person, number, gender, case and degrees of comparison.
The system of grammatical forms of a word is called a para­
digm.
§ 5. According to their lexical meaning, morphological
characteristics, syntactical functions and types of word-groups
they form all words fall into certain classes called parts of
speech. There are twelve parts of speech in Modern English: (1)
nouns; (2) adjectives; (3) pronouns; (4) numerals; (5) verbs;
(6) adverbs; (7) prepositions; (8) conjunctions; (9) articles;
(10) particles; (11) parenthetical words; (12) interjections.
All parts of speech are subdivided into notional and structur­
al words.
Notional words have a full lexical meaning of their own,
i. e. they denote things, their qualities, actions, states and cir­
cumstances. They can function as independent parts of the sen­
tence, i. e. as subject, predicate, object, attribute or adverbial
modifier.
Structural words have no lexical meaning of their own and
cannot be used as independent parts of the sentence. They are
subdivided into connectors and determiners.
Connectors are used to connect words grammatically or shape
the grammatical forms of a certain part of a sentence. Here be­
long prepositions, conjunctions, modal, auxiliary and linking
verbs.
Determiners are used to specify the meaning of the notional
words they refer to. These are articles, particles and some pro­
nouns.
However, the border-line between structural and notional
words is not quite definite. Sometimes it passes between parts
of speech (nouns and articles), sometimes it is drawn inside a
part of speech (notional and auxiliary verbs). One and the same
word may be used as either notional or structural in different
contexts.
9
§ 6. All words in speech are grammatically connected form­
ing word-groups and sentences.
A word-group is an intermediate link between a word and
a sentence. It is a grammatical unit formed by the combina­
tion of two or more notional words expressing one notion: the
latest news, the foreign policy of the British government.
A word-group, as well as a single word, can function as one
integral part of a sentence.
Northern Ireland is otherwise called Ulster.
A combination consisting of a structural word and a notion­
al word is called a phrase: in surprise — a prepositional phrase;
if necessary — a conjunctive phrase.
Most word-groups, as a rule, have one component which
can be regarded as the head-word.
According to the head-word, word-groups are classified as:
(1) noun word-groups, with a noun as the head-word: the Eng­
lish language, rules of grammar, an interesting book’, (2) adjec­
tive word-groups, with an adjective as the head-word: full
of interest, good at mathematics; (3) verb word-groups, with a
verb as the head-word: to write a letter, writing a letter; (4)
adverb word-groups, with an adverb as the head-word: very soon,
fairly well; (5) pronoun word-groups, with a pronoun as the head­
word: they both, some of you.
■ There are also word-groups without the head-word, in which
both components are equal: brother and sister, either you or me,
King Lear, Ann Brown, etc.
§ 7. When two words are connected syntactically, their
relation may be one either of coordination or subordination.
(1) Coordination means that both words are grammatically
equal: one does not depend on the other. Thus homogeneous parts
of the sentence are connected by coordination.
He rose up and went out. Mr Dick and I soon became the
best of friends.
z Coordination may be expressed by structural words (con­
nectors) and by word-order and intonation (asyndetic coordi­
nation).
Pete and John are good friends. Pete, John and'Dick are
good friends.
10
(2) Subordination means that the words are not equal gram­
matically: one word (adjunct) is subordinated to the other
(head-word).
Subordination may be in the form of agreement, government
and adjoinment.
Agreement is the repetition of the grammatical form of
the head-word in its adjunct-word:
this man — these men
All men are mortal.
Agreement is found: (1) between verb-predicate and subject;
(2) between attribute and head-word (demonstrative pronouns).
Government is the change of the grammatical form of a
word as a result of its association with another word.
I see him. He is John’s father. I am his brother.
Government is found: (1) between verb and object; (2) be­
tween head-noun and attributive adjunct (a noun in the pos­
sessive or possessive pronoun).
Owing to the fact that English nouns have no case inflex­
ions (except the possessive case), the English language employs
prepositions to indicate the relations of objects to the govern­
ing verbs. This is the so-called prepositional government.
I gave it to my friend (to him). I looked at my friend (at
him). I waited for my friend (for him). I rely on my friend
(on him). Tell me about your friend (about him).
Adjoinment is the adjoining position of two words joined
by the common grammatical function and meaning. It is the
most common way of connecting words in the English sentence.
Adjoinment is found: (1) between adverbs and verbs; (2)
between attributes and head-nouns; (3) between articles and
nouns.
A special kind of syntactical relation exists between subject
and predicate; this is the so-called predication. Being equal
in rank they are connected by agreement.
§,8. Linguists often use the terms “language” and “speech”.
What is the difference between these two terms?
*
• See: O. Jespersen. Essentials o/i English Grammar. Allen & Unwin LTD,
1969. Б. С. Хаимович, Б. И. Роговская. A Course In English Grammar.
M., «Высшая школа», 1967, p. 9—10.
Language is the system of paradigmatic relations, i. e. the
structure от various units and classes they form.
Speech is the system of syntagmatic relations, i. e. the com­
binations the same units form in the process of communication.
Language and speech are closely connected, for the life of
language consists in speech.
Sentences used in speech are not always such complete and
well-arranged as prescribed by the rigid rules of grammar.
Therefore the object in teaching living grammar is not only to
give rules but also to find out what is actually said and written
by the speakers of the language.
§ 9. Traditionally grammar is divided into morphology and
syntax.
Morphology includes the parts of speech and their grammat­
ical categories. Its object of study is the ways of changing gram­
matical forms of words.
Syntax includes the sentence and the parts of the sentence.
It studies sentence-building, i. e. ways of connecting words
and word-groups in sentences and, also, types of sentences.
Though morphology and syntax have their own objects of
study, they are closely connected. For the morphological charac­
teristics of a word are realized through its syntactical relations
with other words.
Each language has its own system of form-changing and
sentence-building. In dealing with the grammar of a particular
language it is therefore important to inquire into its peculiar­
ities.
As far as Modern English is concerned, it would be proper
to deviate from the traditional division of its grammar into
morphology and syntax.
As is known, most words in Modern English are very poor
morphologically. Therefore morphological characteristics can­
not be taken into account as the main point of classifying words
into parts of speech. Quite essential to this classification are
syntactical functions of words and types of word-groups they
form.
* For this reason, the present course of English is divided into
“Parts of Speech” and “Sentence-Structure” .*
• We fellow the division suggested by Л. С. Бархударов, Д. А. Штелннг
in the book Грамматика английского языка, Мм «Высшая школа»,
Part I
PARTS OF SPEECH
NOUNS
The noun is a part of speech denoting substances, i. e. things
(table, book), living beings (boy, dog), materials (air, gold) and
abstract notions (beauty, happiness, love, courage, struggle,
peace, progress).
The morphological characteristics of the noun are the follow­
ing:
(1) Countable nouns have the category of number expressing
singularity or plurality: a Student (singular) — students (plu­
ral).
(2) Nouns denoting living beings and some other nouns
have the category of case represented by two forms: the student —
the student's (book).
The main syntactical functions of the noun in the sentence
are those of the subject and the object.
The students passed their exams.
It may also be used as predicative, attribute and adverbial
modifier.
This is our teacher. He is the bods father. He is a teacher
of mathematics. I’ve been studying English for a year.
The noun is associated with the following structural words:
(1) articles: a book, the book; (2) prepositions: in the room, on
the table.
It may be modified by the following notional parts of
speech: (1) adjectives: a funny story, fine weather; (2) pronouns:
my brother, every student, this house; (3) numerals: five pages,
page five, the fifth floor; (4) verbals: the rising sun, the lost
letter, generations to come.
Besides, the noun may be modified by another noun: a
stone wall, a news report, birthday presents.
13
CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS
Nouns can be classified in different ways.
I. All nouns fall under two groups: countables and uncountables.
Countable nouns denote things or individuals that can be
counted. These nouns have the grammatical category of number.
Uncountable nouns denote objects that cannot be counted.
The uncountable nouns are subdivided into the so-called singularia tantum and pluralia tantum.
II. According to their lexical meaning nouns fall under two
classes: common nouns and proper nouns.
Common nouns are names applied to any individual of a class
of persons or things, collections of similar individuals or things
regarded as a unit, materials or abstract notions. Common nouns
are subdivided into: (1) class nouns, (2) collective nouns, (3)
abstract nouns, (4) material nouns.
(1) Class nouns denote living beings or things belonging to
a class, such as a man, a dog, a book. They are countables.
(2) Collective nouns denote a number of persons or things
collected together to form a single unit. They are subdivided
into:
(a) Nouns that are used in both numbers: family, company,
crowd, nation, party, government, crew, team, committee, jury, etc.
When such a noun is used in the singular it may be followed
by the predicate verb either in the singular or in the plural. The
verb is singular if the collective noun is thought of as a single
unit. The verb is plural if the collective noun is thought of as
a collection of separate individuals.
The committee agrees to the proposal. The committee
are unable to agree.
(b) Nouns that are used only in the singular: linen, furni­
ture, machinery, money, youth,
(c) Nouns that are used^only in the plural: goods, belongings,
clothes, trousers.
(d) Nouns of multitude that are singular in form but plural
in meaning: people, police, cattle, poultry, such nouns are follow­
ed by plural verbs.
Note. The noun people is always plural In the meaning of «лю­
ди», but it has both numbers in the meaning of «народ».
(3) Material nouns denote materials: air, water, iron, *gold,
bread, milk, paper, cotton,.etc. They are uncountables.
14
(4) Abstract nouns denote notions: idea, science, informa­
tion, progress, unity; qualities: beauty, courage, humour, kind­
ness; states: life, death, happiness, peace, excitement, sleep; ac­
tions: work, struggle, conversation, reading, discussion; feelings
and emotions: love, hatred, pleasure, joy, sadness, anger, disap­
pointment. Most of them are uncountables.
Proper nouns are names given to individuals of a class to
distinguish them from other individuals of the same class.
Here belong: (1) personal names: John, Brown-, (2) geograph­
ical names: England, London, the Thames-, (3) the names of
the months and the days of the week; (4) the names of periodi­
cals, ships, hotels, clubs, etc.
NUMBER
Countables have two numbers — the singular and the plural.
In Modern English the singular form of the nouns is a stem
with a zero-inflexion.
The plural is formed by the inflexion -(e)s pronounced as
[zl, [si, [izl.
[zl dogs, days
[si hats, roofs
[iz] classes, roses, benches, bridges, dishes, garages
This is a productive way of forming the plural of nouns in
Modern English. However, certain nouns form the plural in
different ways, which cannot be regarded as productive. These
are survivals of earlier formations. Here belong the following:
(1) Vowel change in the root of a' word: man — men,
woman — women, foot — feet, tooth — teeth, goose — geese,
mouse — mice.
(2) Suffix -en: ox — oxen.
(3) Vowel change + suffix -ren: child — children, brother —
brethren (the latter is archaic and occurs only in high poetry and
religious prose).
(4) Consonant change + suffix -(e)s:
house — houses [s — ziz]
(
bath — baths
mouth — mouths
path — paths
calf — calves
half —halves
knife — knives
|
J [0—dz]
'
|
| [f—vz]
J
But:
truth - truths | (0_0 &]
youth — youths J
J
But:
hoof — hoofs, hooves) rf_fs vzi
scarf — scarfs, scarves/1
’ J
16
leaf —
life —
loaf —
shelf—
thief—
wife —
wolf —
leaves
lives
loaves
shelves
thieves
wives
wolves
Exceptions (no change
sounds):
[f — vz]
chief —
death —
month —
roof
—
in root
chiefs
deaths
months
roofs
(5) Homonymous forms for the singular and the plural:
deer — deer, sheep — sheep, swine — swine.
(6) Some words borrowed from Greek or Latin retain their
original plural forms.
Greek Loan-Words
Singular
basis ['beisis]
crisis ['kraisis]
analysis [a'naelasis]
thesis ['Gi: sis]
criterion [krai'tiarian]
phenomenon [fi'naminan]
„
Plural
bases ['beisi:z]
crises [Zkraisi:z]
analyses [a'naelaskz]
theses i'Gi:si:z)
criteria [krai'tiaria]
phenomena [fi'namina]
Latin Loan-Words
Plural
Singular
datum ['deitam]
data ['deita]
formula ['fa:mjula]
formulae ['fxmjuli:]
media ['mi:dja]
medium I'mkdjam]
memorandum [^ema'raendam]
memoranda [ymema'raenda]
series ['siari:z]
series Lsiari:z]
These forms tend to be used in the language of science. In
fiction and colloquial English the regular English plural form
in -(c)s is generally used.
Thus in some cases two plural forms co-exist: antennae,
antennas; formulae, formulas; memoranda, memorandums.
Uncountables are subdivided into two groups:
(1) Singularia tantum (nouns used only in the singular).
Here belong the following:
(a) Material nouns: air, water, wood, iron, etc.
, (b) Abstract nouns: love, courage, weather, information, etc.
(c) Some collective nouns: linen, furniture, machinery, etc.
(2) Pluralia tantum (nouns used only in the plural). Here
belong:
(a) Names of things consisting of two similar halves:
scales, scissors, spectacles, trousers, shorts.
(b) Some collective nouns: belongings, clothes, contents,
memories, savings, slums, stairs, outskirts.
(c) Some nouns formed from adjectives: goods, sweets, val­
uables.
(d) Some names of diseases: measles, mumps.
Note 1. In some nouns of this group the final *s loses the meaning
of the plural inflexion and the noun is treated as a singular. This Is the
case with the names of sciences and occupations ending in -ics: mathe­
matics, phonetics, physics, politics, tactics, which are generally considered
singular.
Phonetics is the science of spech sounds. But: Your phonetics are
very good, (not the science, but its practical application)
Here also belong such words as barracks, headquarters, works which
are used in the singular.
The headquarters consists of the.battalion commander and certain
members of his sta'ff.
Compare:
Politics is not in my line.— What are your politics?
Tactics Is the art of war. —Your tactics are wrong.
N о t e 2. The groups of singularia tantum and pluralia tantum do
not always coincide in the two languages under study.
(1) Such words as advice, information, knowledge, money, news *be
long to singularia tantum in English while in Russian they can be used
in both numbers (the words деньги being the exception).
No news Is good news. He knew nothing about money except how
to spend It.
(2) The words сани, часы and some others belong to pluralia tantum
in Russian but in English the words sledge and watch can be used in both
numbers: sledge — sledges, watch — watches.
Compound nouns form the plural in different ways.
(1) As a rule, a compound noun forms the plural by adding
-s to the noun-stem: mother-in-law — mothers-in-law, lookeron — lookers-on, passer-by —* passers-by.
(2) In some compounds the final element takes the plural
form: boy-friend — boy-friends, watch-maker — watch-makers.
(3) If there is no noun-stem in the compound, -s is added
to the last element: forget-me-not — forget-me-nots, merry-go-,
roundmerry-go-rounds.
17
(4) In case the second stem of a compound is the stem of a
noun with a non-productive form of the plural, the plural of
this compound is formed accordingly: house-wife — house­
wives, postman — postmen (both forms are pronounced in the
same way).
(5) Compounds having man- and woman- as the first stem
make an exception to the rule: their both stems have the plural
forms:
man-servant — men-servants,
woman-teacher — women-teachers.
CASE
Nouns denoting living beings and some others have the
category of case, represented by two cases: the common case
and the possessive case.
The common case has a zero-inflex ion.
The possessive case is the survival of the Old English geni­
tive case but its meaning and function is different in Modern
English. The possessive case is realized in the so-called possessive
construction (the possessive). The possessive is a combination
of two components tied up by the form-element (suffix) *s.
The first component can be represented by a noun or a noun wordgroup with the junction 's. The second component is a noun:
Mary's room, half a mile's distance.
The suffix ’s is pronounced in the same way as the inflex­
ion -(e)s of the plural.
If the first component is used in the plural -(e)s, we observe
the fusion of ’s-element with the plural suffix -(e)s (with a
simple apostrophe ’ in writing): students' books, a few hours'
sleep.
With other forms of the plural the suffix ’s is pronounced and
spelled as usual: men's clothes, children's games.
With proper names ending in [si or [z] the possessive element
is denoted by ’s in writing and is pronounced as [izl: Marx's
theory, Burns's poems, St. James's Park.
Compounds are treated as one word, with ’s after the second
stem: my mother-in-law's house.
When the first component is expressed by a group of
nouns connected by the conjunction and, the possessive suffix
’s is placed at the end of the noun word-group: John and Pe­
ter's room, but: John's and Peter's rooms.
The possessive construction is used in two cases:
(1) To express possession; in this case the first component
is normally represented by animate objects: Pete's book, Moth­
er's health, the woman's life.
W
The first component can also be expressed by such nouns as
the names of countries and towns or the words sun, moon, ship,
boat: Britain
*s
interests, the city's parks, the sun's fire, the ship's
course.
There is a tendency to use some other nouns denoting inani­
mate objects as the first component of the possessive.
*
Here
belong nouns denoting: (a) dwelling places and environment:
the apartment's five rooms, the garden's blossom, the sky's
blue, the river's bank; (b) certain social units and organizations:
the nation's future, the medical faculty's chair, the research group's
records; (c) social, political and economic phenomena: Big
Business' failures, the socialist economy's advance, the campaign's
success; (d) events in the field of art and sports: his book's suc­
cess, the play's style, the film's merits, the game's popularity,
hockey's fame; (e) vehicles and their details: the rocket's flight,
the liner's passengers, the sound of a car's brakes, the speedome­
ter's needle.
(2) To denote the qualitative characteristics of a thing;
in this case the function of the first component is like that of an
adjective: a children's room (детская комната), d Bachelor's
degree (степень бакалавра).
The possessive of this type is often used to express time and
space relations. The first component is represented by a noun or
a noun group expressing duration or distance: within a week's
time, after a moment's silence, in five minutes' walk, at a five
*
miles
distance.
Here also belong nouns denoting measures of weight and cost.
Macy’s sells a million dollars' worth of goods every day.
Its docks load and unload a few thousand tons' cargoes
every day.
In certain cases a noun in the possessive is not followed by
the second component — this is the so-called absolute posses­
sive.
The absolute possessive is
*used:
(1) When the second component is dropped to avoid unne­
cessary repetition.
“Whose umbrella is it?” “It’s Ann's." 1 parked my car
next to John's. We heard a howl, like a wolf's.
• See P. Christophersen, A. O. Sandved. An Advanced English Grammar.
Ldn., 1969.
19
(2) When this is introduced by the preposition of to denote
“one of many1’ (the so-called partitive possessive).
He is an old friend of my father's, (one of my father’s old
friends)
(3) In constructions with an of-phrase to express emotional
characteristics (such as disapproval, irony, neglect, etc.).
How do you like that silly joke of Jane's? That’s another
big idea of your uncle's.
When the word in the possessive denotes a shop, a plant, etc.
the ’s element loses the meaning of possession and is actually
used as a word-building suffix: at a chemist's (a hairdresser's,
etc.); a strike at Ford's; I’ve bought it at Macy's.
Proper nouns with the possessive element's are used to de­
note the place of residence: a dinner party at Brown's/the
Browns' .
GENDER?
The grammatical category of gender is not found in English
nouns.
In most cases the sex of animate objects is not indicated
grammatically. Most nouns have the same form for masculine
and feminine: parent, child, cousin, cook, singer, dancer, jour­
nalist, etc.
In some cases, however, such indications are expressed by
lexical means, i. e. by:
(1) the meaning of the word: man — woman, boy — girl,
lord — lady, bull — cow, cock — hen;
(2) the word-building suffix -ess: actor — actress, heir —
heiress, prince — princess, waiter — waitress, lion — lioness,
tiger — tigress;
(3) the first stem of a compound noun: boy-friend — girl­
friend, man-servant — woman-servant, he-wolf — she-wolf.
Sometimes inanimate objects are personified and are re-^
ferred to as belonging to the masculine or feminine gender.
Thus the sun is masculine, while (he moon is feminine. Also
feminine are such nouns as: earth, country, ship, boat, car, etc.
It is pleasant to watch the sun in his chariot of gold, and
the moon in her chariot of pearl. Ireland lost many of
her bravest men in the rebellions against England. The
ship struck an iceberg, which tore a huge hole In her bow.
20
ARTICLES
The article
*
is a structural word used as a determiner of
the noun. There are two articles in Modern English: the indef­
inite article a (an) and the def5nite article the.
Both articles have originated from pronouns.
The indefinite article has developed from the Old English
numeral an (one) which later acquired the meaning of an in­
definite pronoun (некий, какой-то, один). The original numeri­
cal meaning of the indefinite article is quite obvious in such
expressions as in a minute, at a time, twice a year, etc.
Owing to its origin from the numeral one the indefinite
article is not used before nouns in the plural. Its use is limited
to countable nouns in the singular.
The definite article has developed from the Old English
demonstrative pronoun that and in some cases it has preserved
this demonstrative meaning in Modern English: nothing
of the (that) kind, under the (those) circumstances.
These two articles are related to other determiners in the
following way: the = this, that, the same; a (an) = some,
any, such.
THE INDEFINITE AND THE DEFINITE
ARTICLES COMPARED
The indefinite article is used before a noun in the singular
to show that the object denoted by the noun is one of a class.
Therefore it may be qualified as a classifying article.
The indefinite article is generally used with countable nouns.
As a rule, it is not used with nouns of abstract or material
meaning.
The noun used with the indefinite article may have a nonrestrictive attribute. Such an attribute describes the person
or thing denoted by the noun by giving additional information
about it. This information only narrows the class to which the
object belongs.
* This book gives only a brief outline of the most essential points of
the topic. For details see: Л. С. Бархударов, Д. А. Штелинг. Грамма­
тика английского языка. М., «Высшая школа>, 1973, р. 47—48.
М. A. Ganshina, N. М. Vasilevskaya. English Grammar. М., Higher
School Publishing House, 1964, p. 46—78.
2b
She was wearing a necklace of red beads (one of such neck­
laces). A young girl of about sixteen wants to see you
(no more information is given to distinguish her from all
other girls). Father gave me a ten-dollar bill (but not a
pound). The President holds office during a term of four
years (but not for life).
The main cases of the use of the indefinite article are these:
(1) With a predicative noun, when the speaker refers the
object to a certain class.
My husband is a sailor.
(2) With nouns in other functions, when the speaker states
that the object denoted by the noun is one of a class (один,
какой-то, некий).
A lady is calling you up, Sir.
(3) When a noun serves as a typical example of a class:
what is said of one representative of a class can be applied to
any representative of the same class; here the article has the
meaning of “every”.
A policeman is always a policeman.
(4) When the indefinite article preserves its original numer­
ical meaning of “one”:
A week or two passed.
The definite article is used before a noun to show that the
object denoted by the noun is marked as a particular object,
distinct from all other objects of the class. That is why the def­
inite article is described as an individualizing article.
When the noun is used with the definite article the con­
text or the situation of speech shows that the mind of the speak­
er is concentrated on that particular object.
Ann is in the garden (= the garden of this house). He
sent for the doctor (= his own doctor). Please pass the
wine (=the wine on the table.). I’ll leave you a message
with the secretary (=the secretary of the office, or my
secretary).
The noun used with the definite article may have a restric­
tive attribute which shows that the meaning of the object is
restricted to such a degree that it can be easily distinguished
from all other objects of the same class.
2?
к
He saw a familiar face in the second row. Are you sure
the man you saw is the prisoner? I can tell you the very
moment I fell in love with her. She knew precisely the
right moment for doing the right thing. He was well-dres­
sed, the best-dressed man in the room.
Here are the three main cases of the use of the definite ar­
ticle:
(1) It may be used to identify a particular object denoted
by the noun. The object is made definite by the context (very
often, though not always, by being mentioned a second time)
or, rather, by the situation.
There is a tree in the garden. The tree is an oak. How
did you like the film? This is the house that Jack built.
In such cases the definite article retains its demonstrative
force, and is used in this meaning more often than the demon­
strative pronouns “this” or “that”.
Let me have the book. Дайте мне (эту) книгу.
(2) When the noun denotes a unique object (the earth, the
sun, the moon, the universe, the sky, the North Pole, etc.).
Kopernick proved that the Earth goes round the Sun. The
Universe is an awfully big place.
(3) When the noun is used in a generic sense, i. e. the object
is taken as the type embodying all the characteristic features
of the class and, for this reason, denoting the whole class.
The verb is a part of speech denoting an action. The tiger
is a big cat-like animal. The book deals with the novel
as a genre of epic literature.
Here also belong nouns in the singular and plural denoting
social groups and nations: the aristocracy, the bourgeoisie, the
proletariat, the workers, the working people, the Americans, etc.
Note that the nouns man and woman in a generic sense are used
without any article.
What an optimistic animal man is. Woman is not inferior of man.
“Why is woman weaker?” “Because man has done her so.” The
dog is man's best friend. There is no account for woman's logic.
THE ABSENCE OF THE ARTICLE
Sometimes no article is found before a countable noun.
Articles can be omitted for the sake of conciseness in head­
lines, telegrams, stage directions, etc. Here we speak of thestylis23
tic omission of articles, and, if inserted, they would not in­
volve a change of meaning.
Man Killed Saving Workmate. 10,000 In Anti-Nazi March.
Strike Over Government Wage Policy, (newspaper head­
lines) Mission accomplished according to plan. Arrived
here today. Letter following, (telegrams) Room crowded
with guests. Lady Windermere (sits on sofa): Puts book
back into desk, (stage directions)
In many cases, however, the absence of the definite or the
indefinite article has a meaning of its own, that of the so-cal­
led zero-form. Here the insertion of the definite or indefinite
article would bring about a change of meaning. Compare the
following sentences:
The book deals with problems of language.— English
is a Germanic language.— The language spoken in Hol­
land is called Dutch.
Thus the absence of the article may have generalizing force,
or in other words, the zero-form is a generalizing one. It shows
that the speaker does not have in view any individual object
(definite or indefinite) belonging to a class of similar objects,
but expresses a more abstract, a more general idea.
Therefore we find the zero-form with nouns used in the most
general sense, i. e., the names of materials (water, air, bread}
or the names of abstract notions (love, progress)
*
they are all
uncountable nouns.
SUMMING UP
When choosing an article one should remember the follow­
ing:
(1) The definite article has individualizing and generic mean­
ings, while the indefinite article has a classifying meaning.
She treated the teacher with the respect a teacher deserves.
The teacher may find it useful as a reference book.
(2) As said above, the indefinite article is not used with ab­
stract and material nouns taken in the most general sense.
Nor can it be used with countable nouns in the plural. In such
cases the zero-form of the article is to be used.
(3) Thus the definite article is opposed to the other two:
the Za И)
\zero
24'
That is the choice between a (an) and zero depends on the
class to which the noun belongs and its meaning in the context
(see Supplementary Notes).
(4) The definite article is also used to refer back to the object,
which has already been mentioned directly, or, at least, hinted
at. Compare the use of articles in the following sentences:
She murmured a name and the name was not Ralph. All
men and women are in a conspiracy to hide a secret, and the
secret that lies in the hearts of all men and women is that
they want to be loved.
(5) The definite and the indefinite articles can also be compar­
ed from a different angle.
While the definite article is used as a means of identifica­
tion, the indefinite article can serve as a means of indicating
the centre of the communication. It means that the noun deter­
mined by the indefinite article introduces the new object to
which the speaker’s attention is attracted at the given moment.
Compare:
The old man (we know what particular man is spoken about)
is crossing the road. — An old man (not a young one) is
crossing the road.
In the former example the mind of the speaker is concentrat­
ed on that old man: the speaker is watching him. In the latter
the speaker is watching the road and his mind registers a new
object on that road, i. e., an old man.
Also compare:
There stood a desk at the window. У окна стоял письмен­
ный стол.— The desk stood at the window. Письменный
стол стоял у окна.
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON THE USE
OF ARTICLES
1. Articles with Material and Abstract Nouns
With nouns of material (water, air, bread, milk, sugar, tea,
iron, gold, cotton, etc), and abstract nouns (love, fear, truth,
time, science, grammar) taken in a general sense, no article is
used.
Time flies. Truth fears no lies. Blood is thicker than .wa­
ter.
29
Here also belong such uncountable nouns as work, weather,
advice, news, information, progress, permission, business, know­
ledge.
Work first, pleasure afterwards. No news is good news.
What delightful weather we are having. He will do well
in business.
The indefinite article may be used with material and ab­
stract nouns when the speaker wants to narrow the meaning of
the noun by denoting a sort of material or a certain amount of it.
Here is a wine you’ve never tasted, I’m sure. He was able
to mix a cocktail and tell a funny story. Seventy franks for
a beer?
When used with abstract nouns the indefinite article nar­
rows the meaning of something abstract in time or space or
gives it the meaning of something peculiar.
It was a wonderful time', the best time in my life. “Tess,”
he said in a preparatory tone after a silence.,. Soon he
saw a light in the distance.
Nouns of material and abstract nouns modified by the indef­
inite article are often used with a non-restrictive attribute. This
attribute narrows the meaning of the notion denoted by the
noun referring it to a certain class.
He is a national pride. There was an air of Importance
about him. I had seldom heard him speak withsuch an
intensity of feeling.
The definite article used with nouns of material and ab­
stract nouns expresses individualization.
She has never properly got over the feeling she used to
have. The wisdom of living is greater than the wisdom of
the book. She sighed for the air, the quiet and the liberty
of the country.
Compare the use of articles with abstract and material nouns
in the following sentences:
He died a soldier’s death in the cause of Democracy. We
must defend the democracy our forefathers have built in
this country. Oh, we are a democracy, all right. (= a
democratic country)
26
They emptied glass after glass of beer. The man said:
“Give me a beer too.” (one pint of beer) The beer they
were drinking tasted bitter.
2. Special Cases
(1) The nouns day, night, morning, evening when used without
an article express the general meaning of “light” or “darkness”.
Day was at hand. Outside it was night.
(2) The nouns breakfast, lunch, dinner, tea, supper, when
used without articles, have a more general meaning, that of
the time of meals or the process of eating.
I had breakfast earlier than usual. What shall we buy for
supper?
(3) No article is used with nouns in prepositional phrases in
the function of adverbial modifiers. Here belong prepositional
phrases with such nouns as school, college, hospital, court, church,
prison, town, market, bed, table; they are mostly used with the
prepositions at, in, into, to, from, after, etc. Nouns used in
these phrases denote activities or states connected with these
places, rather than places themselves.
They had been to school together. He is still in hospital.
What are you going to do after college? He was in prison,
wasn’t he? I would like to see him here as soon as he comes
in from court. I was told that the family were at table.
(4) When used with articles all these nouns retain their
full lexical meaning and are regarded as countables.
It was a warm summer night. The night being frosty, we
trembled from foot to head.
He settled back in his chair expecting a good dinner.
The dinner was very sound.
Hope is a good breakfast but a bad supper.
Maycomb was an old town. She said nothing all the way
to the town.
3. Articles with Proper Names
Proper nam.s are generally used without articles as the pro
*
per name in itself is to identify the person bearing that name.
So there is no need of using any additional means of identifica­
tion. The same is true of the nouns denoting members of a fam­
27
ily or relatives when these nouns are used as proper names:
Mother (Mummy), Father (Daddy), Aunt, Uncle, Nurse, Ba­
by, Child.
Here also belong the names of countries and towns, of months
and days of the week: England, London, January, Sunday.
No article is used with the following word-groups:
(1) A proper name with a preceding noun to denote the kind
of relationship: Sister Carrie, Uncle Tom.
(2) A proper name with a preceding noun to denote the
title, rank or scientific degree: King Lear, Lord Byron, Presi­
dent Roosevelt, Professor Smith, Doctor Alexander, Colonel Pic­
kering, also Mr Brown, Mrs Brown, Miss Brown.
(3) Proper names preceded by such adjectives as old, lit­
tle, young, poor, dear, etc.: Old Jolyon, Little Dorrit, Poor Tom.
(4) Geographical names with preceding adjectives: Northern
Ireland, Latin America, Ancient Rome.
The definite article may be used with proper names in the
following cases:
(1) To individualize a person so that the person in question
might not be cpnfused with someone else bearing the same name.
Michael, Mr Cassil is the Mr Cassil, the yery famous one
who writes the plays. (Here the individualizing force of
the first article is strengthened by the other two.)
(2) To denote a person, a country or a town in a certain
period of their existence.
*re
You
not the Andrew Manson I married. The England
of today is not what is used to be half a century ago.
(3) With the names of families in the plural: the Jacksons,
the Forsytes.
The Indefinite article may be used with proper names in
the following cases:
(1) To denote a person as belonging to the same family and
being its representative.
When a Forsyte was engaged, married or born, all the
Forsytes were present.
(2) To give the proper name the meaning of “some” or “cer­
tain ’ (какой-то, некий).
*
He was lodging by himself in the house of a certain Mrs
Jippings.
28
(3) To present the proper name as the embodiment of the
characteristic features of the type.
If you are a Napoleon, you will play the game of power.
Note. Traditionally, the definite article is used with such geo­
graphical names as these of:
(1) oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, channels, bays and gulfs: the Paci­
fic (ocean), the Mediterranean (sea), the Thames;
(2) archipelagoes: the West Indies, the Canaries;
(3) chains of mountains: the Alps, the Urals;
(4) deserts: the Sahara, the Gobi.
The definite article is used with geographical names expressed
by a word-group where the key element is represented by a common
noun such as sea, ocean, gulf, cape, etc.: the Black Sea, the Persian Gulf,
the Suez Canal, the Cape of Good Hope, the United Kingdom, the United
States, the Soviet Union (but: Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Cape Horn).
As an exception, the definite article is also used with the names of
some countries, territories, towns, streets, and squares: the Argentine,
the Congo, the Lebanon, the Netherlands, the Sudan, the Ukraine, the Ruhr,
the Caucasus, the Crimea, the Hague, the Strand, the Mall (but: Trafalgar
Square, Piccadilly Circus, Wall Street and so on).
Besides, the definite article is used with the names of:
(1) ships: the “Fearless", the “Potemkin";
(2) hotels: the “Astoria", the “Metropole";
(3) newspapers and magazines: “The Times", “The Guardian",
the “Life", the “Punch";
(4) organizations and parties: the United Nations Organization, the
Labour Party, the Royal Society;
(5) places modified by proper names: the Tate Gallery, the Lincoln
Centre, the Harvard Business School (but: Oxford University).
4. Articles with Noun Word-Groups
Here are a few more examples showing the use of articles
with nouns modified by different kinds of attributes. The choice
of an article is determined by the meaning of the attribute.
(1) Nouns modified by prepositive attributes
Restrictive
the very man —
the same story —
the only case —
Non-Restrictive
a certain man
a long story
a hard case
Note 1. The definite article is generally used with nouns modi­
fied by the superlative degree of adjectives to stress the unique character
of the thing or person; the indefinite article with nouns preceded by
most + ... has a non-restrlctive meaning emphasizing the intensity of the
quality expressed by the adjective (очень, чрезвычайно).
29
She was a most beautiful young girl; the most beautiful he had ever
seen
Note2. Ordinal numerals are usually associated with the def­
inite article as there may be only one thing (person) in a series denoted
by the numeral first or second, eto.
The indefinite article is used in word-groups with the words first,
second and third when it is not the question of tne order but that of enu­
merating or counting things (еще один, другой).
The first time we met was in April. Then came a second meeting
and a third one, and we met every other day.
(2) Nouns modified, by postpositive attributes
Non-Restrictive
Restrictive
the
the
the
the
the
(Which? Whose?)
message of the President
visit of the delegation
story of their love
majority of the voters
battle at Trafalgar
—
—
—
—
—
(What? What kind?)
a message of greeting
a visit of good will
a story of human interest
a majority of three votes
a battle of historic significance
Note 1. The definite article must be used with the nouns daugh­
ter, son, wiffi, husband. (The question to be asked is whose?).
N о t e 2. No article is used when a noun is followed by a cardinal
numeral (the stress being on the number): Part 1, page 15, number 3,
chapter 5, room 10, October 25; or: Cosmonaut No. 1, Lesson No. 2, etc.
X
5. Articles with Predicative and Appositive Nouns
(1) Predicative nouns
As is known, these are generally used with the indefinite
article. The definite article is used if the predicative noun is
modified by a restrictive attribute.
He is a famous explorer. He is the athlete who won the first
prize.
Note. If a predicative noun, denotes a unique post which can be
occupied by one person at a tinje, no article is used. (Such nouns are
usually used after the verbs be, appoint, elect.)
Mr R. K. Fern was President of Magnum Opus, Inc. He should be
elected Chairman. Who will be appointed Prime Ministerr
30
(2) Appositive nouns
The same rules arc applied to nouns in apposition.
The coach, a man of about fifty, watched them boxing.
This is Tommy, the boy who broke the window.
Note. If a noun in apposition stands for the name of a popular
person, the definite article is used.
Paul Robeson, the great singer and freedom fighter, will be seven­
ty-five tomorrow.
But if the person is not so popular, the indefinite article Is used.
The delegation was led by Miss Linda McDonald, a student from
Glasgow.
No article or, occasionally, the definite article is used when
the appositive noun denotes a unique post.
Mr Peterson, dean (the dean) of the college, is on holiday.
ADJECTIVES
The adjective is a part of speech denoting qualities of sub­
stances: size (big, small), colour (white, black), age (young,
old), material (wooden, iron), psychological state (angry, glad)
etc.
The main syntactical functions of the adjective are those
of an attribute and a predicative.
(This is) a difficult task.
The task is difficult.
1--------- 1
Adjectives in Modern English have no grammatical catego­
ries other than degrees of comparison. However, these are found
only within a group of adjectives which denote qualities vary­
ing in intensity.
Adjectives are closely associated with nouns (when used as
attributes) and linking verbs (when used as predicatives). They
are often modified by adverbs: very good, quite clear, still young,
rather late, too hard, etc.
Note 1. Adjectives with the prefix a-such as alive, asleep,
awake, etc. usually function as predicatives. When used .as attributes
theyfollow their head-nouns, thus preserving predicative character.
Is he awake or asleep? (predicative) He grew alarmed, awake
to the danger of his position, (attribute)
Note 2. The adjectives*111 ajid well are not used attrlbutlvely,
but only as predicatives.
31
My friend is ill again. I’m feeling very well.
Survivals of the old attributive use of ill arc found in some phraseological combinations: ill luck, ill news, ill wind, etc.
The adjective well is homonymous to the adverb well.
All is well that ends well.
CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES
According to their meaning and grammatical characteristics,
adjectives are divided into qualitative and relative.
Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of size, shape, col­
our, etc., which may vary in degree. Therefore qualitative
adjectives have degrees of comparison.
Qualitative adjectives have corresponding adverbs derived
by means of the suffix -ly (quick — quickly) or homonymous with
the adjective (fast — fast).
Relative adjectives denote qualities of a substance through
its relation to another substance, i. e. to material (wooden},
place (European), time (daily), etc. Their number is limited
in English.
Relative adjectives have no degrees of comparison..
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
There are three degrees of comparison:
(1) Positive: big, useful,
(2) Comparative: bigger, more useful,
(3) Superlative: (the) biggest, (the) most useful.
Adjectives in the superlative degree imply limitation and
therefore are preceded by the definite article.
There are the following ways of forming degrees of com­
parison:
(a) One-syllable adjectives form their comparative and super­
lative by adding -er and -est to the positive form (synthetical
way).
new — newer — newest
bright — brighter — brightest
(b) Adjectives of three or more syllables form their *
xompara
five and superlative by putting more and most before the posi­
tive (analytical way).
difficult — more difficult — most difficult
interesting — more interesting — most interesting
32
(c) Adjectives of two syllables follow one or other of the
above rules.
Those ending in -ful or -re usually take more and most.
careful — more careful — most careful
secure — more secure — most secure
Those ending in -er, -y, or -ly add- er, -est.
clever — cleverer — cleverest
pretty — prettier — prettiest
early — earlier — earliest
(d) Irregular degrees of comparison.
good — better — best
bad — worse — worst
little — less — least
(e) A few adjectives have two forms of comparison: the
second form has a special meaning and is actually a different
word.
far_ (further_ (furthest (of distance and time)
(farther
(farthest (of distance only)
_ (older
(oldest (of people and things)'
(elder (eldest (of people only)
Both further (furthest) and farther (farthest) are used with
the meaning of более (самый) отдаленный, but only further
may be used with the meaning of дальнейший, добавочный:
further information, further details, until further notice; elder
and eldest imply seniority rather than age. They are chiefly
used for comparison within a family: his eldest boy/girl/nephew,
my elder brother/sister; but elder cannot be placed before than>
so older must be used here: He is older than I.
Superlatives can be preceded by the and used as nouns.
Tom is the eldest. The eldest was only seven years old.
Comparatives can be used similarly.
His two sons look the same age. Which is the elder?
But this use of the comparative is considered rather literary.
In informal English a superlative might be used here instead.
Which is the eldest?
(f) In compound adjectives the first elerpent forms degrees
of comparison with -er, -est (if the two elements retain their
separate meaning).
2—501
33
well-known — better-known — best-known
good-looking — better-looking - bc< I-looking
But forms with more and most are more common,
old-fashioned — more old-fashionul — most old-fashioned
far-fetched — more far-fetched - most far-fetched
CONSTRUCTIONS WITH COMPARISONS
*
(a) Comparison of equals is expressed by as ... as — for
positive comparison and not as ... as or not so ... as — for nega­
tive comparison.
An apple is usually as big as an orange. A grape is not
so (as) big as an orange.
(b) Comparison of two unequal persons or things is expres­
sed by the comparative with than.
He is taller than his brother. A mountain is higher than
a hill. A stream is not wider than a river. This route is
two miles longer than that one.
But: This route is twice as long as that one. His 'salary
is several times as big as mine.
Twice (five times, etc.) as big (long, etc.) as ... is used to show
that one exceeds the other several times.
Note the use of pronouns and verbs after than and as:
(1) When than or as Is followed by a third person pronoun, we usu­
ally repeat the verb.
We are taller than they are. I am not as clever as he is.
(2) When than or as is followed by a first or second person pronoun,
it Is usually possible to omit the verb.
1 am not as young as you. He is better-educated than I.
(3) The pronoun, in formal English, remains in the nominative case
as it is still considered to be the subject of the verb, even though the
verb is not expressed.
(4) In Informal English, however, the pronoun is often put In the
objective case.
He is more persistent than me. They are wiser than us.
When the infinitive is used after than, the to of the infinitive can
be omitted.
It is sometimes quicker to walk than take a bus.
• For more details and examples see A. J. Thomson, A. V. Martinet.
A Practical English Grammar. Ldn., 1971, p. 13-45.
34
(c) Comparison of three or more persons or things is expres­
sed by the superlative with the ... of or the ... in (of place).
Tom is the cleverest boy in the class. She is the prettiest of
them all.
(d) Parallel increase is expressed by the + comparative ...
the + comparative.
The bigger the house is the more money it will cost. The
older he grew the wiser he became.
(e) Emphatic constructions.
Adjectives in the comparative and the superlative can be
made more emphatic by adding some adverbs (much, far, by
far, still, even) or adjectives (possible, imaginable). Comparatives
are preceded by much, far, still, even. Superlatives are followed
by possible or imaginable.
much larger, far more difficult
still larger, still more difficult
even larger, even more difficult
by far the largest, by far the most difficult
the largest thing possible, the most difficult task possible
It was the most difficult task imaginable. Surely, it is
by far the most likely explanation.
SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES
I
The substantivization of adjectives is a kind of conversion.
Adjectives, when substantivized, lose all or part of the character­
istics of the adjectives and acquire all or part of the character­
istics of the noun. Thus in Modern English adjectives may be
either fully or partially substantivized.
Fully substantivized adjectives have acquired all the char­
acteristics of the noun: they have the plural and the possessive
and are associated with the definite and indefinite articles.
Here belong the following groups of words:
(1) Words denoting classes of persons, such as: a native,
a relative, a savage, a progressive, a conservative, a criminal,
a black, a white, etc.
(2) Words denoting nationalities: a Russian, an American,
a German, an Italian, a Greek, a Czech, etc.
N о t e that the nouns of this group ending in [z] or (si — Chinese,
Japanese, Swiss, Portuguese — nave homonymous forms lor the sin­
gular and plural: a Chinese — many Chinese.
2
35
(3) Words denoting periodicals: daily, weekly, monthly.
Partially substantivized adjectives take only the definite
article, but they do not have any other characteristics of the
noun. Here belong:
(1) Words denoting classes of persons who represent some
feature of human character, condition or state. These adjectives
are used in a generic sense: the good/bad, poor/rich, healthy/
sick, young/old, living/dead, wounded/injured (the poor = poor
people, the dead = dead people).
The poor are usually generous to each other. After the
battle they buried the dead.
These words are used as plural nouns and are followed by a
plural verb. If we wish to denote a single person we must add
a noun.
The old receive pensions. But: An old man usually
receives a pension.
Note that these adjectives refer to a group or class of persons con­
sidered in a generic sense. If we wish to refer to a particular group it is
necessary to add a noun.
The young are usually intolerant, (a general statement) But:
The young men are arguing, (particular young people)
(2) Words denoting nationalities ending in -sh, and -ch:
the English, the French, the Scotch, the Irish, the Welsh, the Dutch,
etc.
Note that a single representative of that nationality will be denot­
ed by.a compound noun: an Englishman, an Englishwoman.
(3) Words denoting abstract notions: the good, the beautiful,
the useful, the contrary, the impossible, the unknown, the opposite,
the inevitable. These words belong to singularia tantum.
I shall prove the contrary. The impossible had happened.
A number of such words are used in prepositional phrases:
In the negative, on the contrary, on the whole, for the better, in
the main, at large, in particular, in short, all of a sudden, etc.
(4) Words denoting things: goods, sweets, valuables,
They belong to pluralia tantum.
36
etc.
ADVERBS
The adverb is a part of speech specifying actions or qualities.
The function of the adverb in the sentence is that of an ad­
verbial modifier. Adverbs can modify verbs (ran quickly), ad­
jectives (very glad) and adverbs (fairly well).
Most adverbs do not change morphologically, but some ad­
verbs have degrees of comparison.
CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS
According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
(1) adverbs of time: today, yesterday, tomorrow, now, soon,
after, before, yet, still, already;
(2) adverbs of place: here, there, anywhere, up, down, in,
out, upstairs, outside;
(3) adverbs of direction: forward, backward, away, north,
south, thence, whence;
(4) adverbs of manner: quickly, quietly, kindly, bravely,
strongly, fast, hard, well, together, thus;
(5) adverbs of frequency: once, twice, often, always, frequently, seldom, never, ever;
(6) adverbs of degree: very, fairly, rather, quite, too.
Adverbs of manner are usually formed by adding -ly to the
corresponding adjective: slow — slowly, bad — badly.
Some adverbs of degree are formed in the same way: extreme —
extremely, remarkable — remarkably.
Exceptions:
(a) Adjectives ending in -ly (friendly, lovely, lively, lonely,
likely) have no adverb form. We use a similar adverb or a
word-group instead.
likely (adj.) — probably (adv.)
friendly (adj.) — in a frieridly way (word-group)
(b) The following adverbs have the same form as their ad­
jectives: high, low, near, far, hard, fast, early, late, much, little.
a high mountain (adj.) — The bird flew high, (adv.)
a fast train (adj.) — She drives fast, (adv.)
Steel is hard, (adj.) — He works hard, (adv.)
(c) The adverbs in -ly formed from the same root have dif­
ferent meanings. Thus we find in English pairs of parallel ad­
verbs formed from the same root, one with the suffix -ly, the
37
other without it. As a rule, the derived form has a more abstract
meaning.
high высоко (в прямом смысле) — highly высоко (в
переносном смысле), благосклонно, похвально
deep глубоко (в прямом смысле) — deeply глубоко (в
переносном смысле), весьма, очень
near близко — nearly почти
close близко — closely тщательно, внимательно
late поздно, с опозданием — lately за последнее время,
недавно
t
Не praised her highly. I think highly of her. She is a
highly cultured person.
But: hard много, усердно — hardly едва
He works hard.— He can hardly say a word in English.
There are some adverbs formed from the roots of pronouns,
the so-called pronominal adverbs. They include adverbs of all
kinds and indicate time, place, manner, etc. in a relative way,
similar to that found in pronouns.
Adverbs of time: then, when, wherever;
— place: there, here, where, wherever, somewhere, any­
where, nowhere, everywhere;
— direction: thence, hence, whence, thither, hither,
whither; *
— manner: thus, so, how, why, therefore, wherefore;
— frequency: sometimes, always, ever, never;
— degree: so, somewhat.
Within this group of pronominal adverbs there is found a
group of conjunctive adverbs: when, whenever, how, why, where,
etc. These adverbs may be used as connectors introducing subor­
dinate clauses.
The pronominal adverbs, such as when, where, how, why may
also be used as interrogative adverbs introducing questions.
* These adverbs are archaic and occur only in poetry, high prose, scien­
tific writing (hence) and official documents.
38
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
Some adverbs of manner, degree and frequency have degrees of
comparison.
(a) In most cases they are formed by adding more and most.
quickly — more quickly — most quickly
cleverly — more cleverly — most cleverly
(b) One-syllable adverbs, however,,add -er, -est.
hard — harder — hardest
high — higher — highest
(c) The adverb early forms degrees of comparison in the
same way as one-syllable adjectives.
early — earlier — earliest
(d) Irregular forms:
well — better — best
badly— worse — worst
late — later — last
f _/ farther (farthest (of distance only)
lar
(further (furthest (used of distance, time, and
in an abstract sense)
CONSTRUCTIONS WITH COMPARISONS
Comparisons with adverbs are formed in the same way as
those with adjectives, i. e. we use: as ... as, not so... as, not
as ... as, several times as ... as and the comparative with than.
She dances better than I do (than me). I don’t drive as
(or so) fast as you (do). They arrived earlier than you.
Also: He ran fastest of all.
Most placed before an adverb can mean “very”.
He played most beautifully. She behaved most generously.
SUBSTANTIVIZED ADVERBS
Adverbs may be converted into nouns: these are adverbs of
time and place.
Their noun characteristics are quite obvious when they are
used in prepositional phrases.
I haven’t met her before today. There was no answer from
outside.
89
The substantivization of such adverbs as today, tomorrow,
yesterday, tonight is also obvious from the fact that they can
be used in the possessive and in the functions typical of nouns.
Have you read today's newspaper? Today is my birthday.
PRONOUNS
The pronoun is a part of speech including words with a very
general, or relative meaning. It is used as a substitute of a noun
or an adjective.
Pronouns indicate living beings, things and their qualities
without naming or describing them. It is always clear from the
context or the situation what person is denoted by the pronouns
I, he, or she', or what thing or quality is denoted by the pronouns
it or this.
Being substitutes of other parts of speech pronouns are used
very frequently and form a considerable part of any text or
conversation, though as a class of words they are not numerous.
According to their meaning and syntactical functions pro­
nouns are traditionally divided into noun-pronouns and adjective­
pronouns.
Noun-pronouns substitute for nouns; their syntactical func­
tions are similar to those of nouns.
/ study. Tell me everything. Is that all?
Adjective-pronouns substitute for adjectives; their syntac­
tical functions, are similar to those of adjectives: my family,
all people.
Most pronouns have both noun, and adjective functions.
Noun-pronouns
Some are absent.
What is this?
This is correct^
Adjective-pronouns
Some students are absent.
What colour is this?
This sentence is correct. w
Some pronouns have the following grammatical categories:
(1) Case: personal pronouns and who,
(2) Number: this, that, other,
(3) Gender: he, she, it,
(4) Degrees of comparison: many, much, few, little.
Pronouns are also used to discriminate animate and inani­
mate objects. Most pronouns have special forms for both ani­
mate and inanimate objects, which is shown in the table.
40
Animate objects
Inanimate objects
Personal
Possessive
Reflexive
he, she
his, her
himself, herself
it
its
itself
Interrogative
Conjunctive
Relative
who
who, whoever
who
what
what, whatever
which
somebody
someone
anybody
anyone
something
Indefinite
Distributive
everybody
everyone
everything
Negative
nobody
no one
nothing
Classes of pronouns
anything
Indefinite and some other pronouns denoting animate
objects may be used in the possessive; here belong the pronouns
ending in -body, -one and the pronouns one, other, each other,
nobody's land.
The majority of pronouns are not associated with articles
owing to their highly abstract meaning. They cannot be classi­
fied or individualized like nouns. It should also be remembered
that articles have developed from pronouns and are pronominal
words in themselves. Therefore pronouns and articles are inter­
changeable in Modern English: a book, some book(s); //iebook(s),
this (that) book, these books.
The pronouns both, all and such which may be used together
with articles will always precede the article: both the girls,
all the students, in such a case.
CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS
The subdivision of pronouns into groups is carried but on
the basis of their semantic peculiarities, though some grammatic­
al characteristics of each group are also taken into considera­
tion.
41
Pronouns fall under the following groups:
*
(1) Personal pronouns: /, he, she, it, we, you, they.
(2) Possessive pronouns: my, his, her, its, our, your, their
mine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs.
(3) Reflexive pronouns: myself, himself, herself, itself, our­
selves, yourself (selves), themselves.
(4) Demonstrative pronouns: this (these), that (those), such,
(the) same.
(5) Interrogative pronouns: who, whose, what, which.
(6) Conjunctive pronouns: who, what, which.
(7) Relative pronouns: who, whose, which, that.
(8) Indefinite pronouns: some, any, somebody, anybody any­
thing, something, someone, anyone, one.
(9) Negative pronouns: no, none, no one, neither, nobody,
nothing.
(10) Distributive pronouns: all, both, either, each, every,
everybody, everyone, everything.
(11) Reciprocal pronouns: each other, one another.
(12) Contrasting pronouns: another, other, others.
(13) Quantitative pronouns: much, many, (a) few, (a)
little, several, enough.
All the above-mentioned groups of pronouns may be further
classified in the following way.
**
Class 1 consists of pronouns expressing the categories of
person, number and gender, i. e. personal, possessive and re­
flexive pronouns.
Class 2 consists of demonstrative pronouns which express the
category of number and are similar to articles in meaning.
Class 3 is made up of interrogative, conjunctive and relative
pronouns grouped together on the basis of syntax: they are all
associated with certain types of sentences.
Class 4 includes indefinite, negative, distributive, recip­
rocal and contrasting pronouns which are united semantically.
Class 5 consists oi quantitative pronouns which have degrees
of comparison and are used as pro-numerals and sometimes
as pro-adverbs.
* See for other classifications: A. J. Thomson, A. V. Martinet, op. cit.,
p. 16—37. Б. С. Хаймович, Б. И. Роговская, op. cit., p. 96—116.
•• This classification is based on the idea suggested by Л. С. Бархуда­
ров, Д. А. Штелинг, op. cit., p. 82.
42
CLASSI: PERSONAL, POSSESSIVE
AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
These pronouns have originated from the same roots (me —
my — myself, you — your — yourself). They all have the catego­
ries of person and gender.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
They are used only as noun-pronouns and have two cases:
nominative and objective. This is the table of their case-forms:
1st Person
3rd Person
2nd Person
Case
Singular Plural
Singular Plural
Singular
Plural
Nominative
I
we
*
thou
you
he, she, it
they
Objective
me
/
us
*
thee
you
him, her, It
them
When a personal pronoun is used as subject or predicative
it is in the nominative case.
She knows. It was she who said it.
When used as object, it is in the objective case.
You have seen her, 1 told her everything.
Note. In informal conversation the objective is more often as pre­
dicative than the nominative case.
Yes, It's me. I‘m me and not somebody else. It's her I'm saving.
All men reminded her ef him, and they were not him. They are
not us, are they? There must be ne thought to anyone who is not
them.
The objective case of the 1st person singular is also used:
(a) as the second subject
Oh, you and me, we're cat and dog.
* These forms are archalo and are used in poetry and high prose.
43
(b) in apposition preceding the subject
Me, Гт just one of many...
(c) in elliptical sentences
•‘Did you go to the police about it?” “Who? Me? Not
likely.”
(d) after such, as and than in comparisons
Such as me? As bad as me? No, he is worse than me.
But the nominative must be used if the pronoun is followed
by a clause.
It is I who said it (me would not be possible here).
The pronouns of the 3rd person singular discriminate gender:
masculine (he), feminine (she) and neuter (if).
The pronoun it takes a very special place among personal
pronouns. It has a highly abstract meaning which, however,
can be made more concrete in the context. There are two main
cases of the use of this pronoun:
(1) When used as a substitute for a certain noun or a noun
equivalent, it can follow or precede its antecedent (i. e. the
word for which the pronoun substitutes). Here are a few exam­
ples:
(a) it used as a substitute for the preceding antecedent:
a noun, a noun word-group or a sentence.
Then I saw a car... It was a black Chevrolet. He's the
champion! I’ve just heard it on the radio.
(b) it used as a substitute for a word,, a word-group or a
clause to follow (so-called anticipatory if).
He found it impossible to speak. It's like a nightmare
your talking to me this way. It was doubtful if she really
heard it.
(2) When not used as a substitute, it can denote a certain
object or phenomenon by itself. There are two kinds of this usage:
(a) demonstrative it indicating things or persons that are
made concrete by the context or the situation.
Will you take it away? It's Ann.
(b) impersonal it denoting natural phenomena, especially
in sentences describing weather or time conditions.
44
It is a fine day. It is raining. It is late. It was midsummer.
Besides it, there are three more personal pronouns which
can be used in a highly general meaning, i. e. with indefinite
reference; these are the pronouns you, they, and we.
You can never know what will happen next. They say
no man is a hero to his valet.
We is used instead of I by a person expressing an opinion in
a radio, television or newspaper editorial, or in scientific writ­
ing. This usage is known as the editorial we (for instance,
the “Morning Star” editorial is called “We say”).
Note 1. The pronouns we, you and they can be followed by both
and all which have an emphatic meaning and are therefore stressed.
1 want you both to be happy. He proved to be the best student of
them all.
The word-group it all is also possible in Modern English.
It all seemed very suspicious.
N о t e 2. When the pronouns both and all are associated with the
subject-pronoun they may follow either the personal pronoun or the
auxiliary or linking verb (in case of an analytical tense form or a com­
pound predicate).
They were all coming. We can all agree you are right.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
Possessive pronouns have person, number, and gender. They
are used in two forms: conjoint and absolute.
1st Person
2nd Person
Singular Plural
Singular Plural
Singular
Plural
your
yours
his, her, its
his, hers
their
theirs
3rd Person
Form
i
Conjoint
Absolute
my
mine
our
ours
Possessive pronouns in the conjoint form are used as adjec­
tive-pronouns, i. e. in the function of an attribute.
This is my pen.
Possessive pronouns in the absolute form are used as noun­
pronouns (as subject, predicative or object).
45
This is mine, Mine is here. I want mine, not yours.
The phrase of mine means “one of my...”.
a friend of mine = one of my friends
a sister of hers = one of her sisters.
A friend of ours is here. Would you like to meet him?
The absolute form of possessive pronouns is sometimes
used in emphatic o/-phrases.
I didn’t like that silly joke о/ his. Won’t you give up this
crazy idea of yours?
Possessive pronouns are much more often used in English
than in Russian. They are generally used before nouns denoting
parts of the body, clothes, personal belongings, etc., while in
corresponding Russian constructions there is no possessive pro­
noun.
I thank you with all my heart. He took off his hat. I’ve
lost my spectacles.
In such cases possessive pronouns are not translated into
Russian.
Note. A possessive pronoun is generally used before a noun asso­
ciated with the doer of an action.
If a thing (a part of the body» eto.) belongs not to the doer but to the
person who is the object of an action» the definite article is used.
He held out his hand. She sent the children to wash their hands.
В u 11 I took him by the hand. His assailant hit him on the head.
He refused to look me in the face.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
»
These are compound pronouns and are often called self­
pronouns. They express the attitude of a person, (a thing) to
nimself (itself).
•
They have the grammatical categories of person, number,
and gender (in the third person singular).
Number
- 1st Person
2nd Person
Singular
myself
yourself
himself, herself,
itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
-Plural
<6
3rd Person
Note. Here also belongs the indefinite reflexive emphasizing
pronoun oneself associated with the indefinite pronoun one.
I’m sure one can do anything with oneself, if one tries.
Reflexive pronouns are used as noun-pronouns, 1. e. in one
of the following functions:
(1) As predicative showing that the person is or is not in
his usual state.
Гт not quite myself. She was herself again.
(2) As object (direct, indirect or prepositional) indicating
that the action returns to the doer, i. e. when subject and ob­
ject are the same person.
I cut myself. She saw herself in the mirror. It is not always
easy to amuse oneself on holiday. Tom and Ann blamed
themselves for the accident.
N о t e the change of meaning if we replace the reflexive pronoun
by the reciprocal pronoun each other.
Tom and Ann blamed each other. (1. e. Tom blamed Ann and Ann
blamed Tom)
These pronouns are used similarly after a preposition.
He spoke to himself. She is too young to look after herself.
They looked at themselves in the looking glass.
Compare with:
They looked at each other, (a reciprocal action)
(3) As adverbial modifier of manner emphasizing that a per­
son does something by himself acting without anybody’s help.
I did it by myself (i. e. alone, without help); She sat by
herself (i. e. alone).
(4) In apposition to a noun or a pronoun having an empha­
sizing meaning.
The general himself gave him the medal. 1 have thought
of it myself.
Self-pronouns in this function may be regarded as a separate
group of emphasizing pronouns.
When used in this way the self-pronoun is never essential
and can be omitted without changing the sense. It usually em­
phasizes the subject of the sentence and is thea placed after the
subject.
47
Ann herself opened the door. Tom himself came.
Alternatively it can be placed after the object if there is one.
Ann opened the door herself.
Or after an intransitive verb.
Tom came himself.
If the intransitive verb is followed by a preposition + noun,
the emphasizing pronoun can be placed after this noun.
Tom went to London himself. Or i Tom himself went to
London.
When it emphasizes another noun it is placed immediately
after it.
I saw Tom himself. I spoke to the President himself. She
liked the diamond itself but not the setting.
Note. As a
word with which it
cedent). However,
used by itself (as a
rule, a reflexive pronoun is used if there is another
is associated in the same sentence (the so-called ante­
in colloquial English a reflexive pronoun may be
synonym of a personal pronoun).
Like myselft she got used to it. My wife and myself would be very
glad.
CLASS2: DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
The demonstrative pronouns are: this, that (singular) —
these, those (plural); such, (the) same (singular, plural).
The pronouns this (these) and that (those) are the only words
in Modern English that agree in number with the nouns they
attribute: this (that) book — these (those) books.
The meanings expressed by these pronouns have much in
common with those of articles. Historically, the definite arti­
cle has developed from the pronoun “that”; therefore the defi­
nite article as well as the pronoun (the) same is used to express
identity. The pronoun such is semantically close to the indefinite
article (of this kind).
The demonstrative pronouns may be used as both noun- and
adject ive- pronouns,
This (these) is usually used when the speaker has in mind
something or somebody that is close by
in
*
space or time; that
(those) is used for what is farther off or what refers to the past.
48
This is mv brother. This is a small world. These are
places I used to come to. The old man cast a glance
this way and that before he answered. Those were the
happiest days of my life.
Note 1. This may be used with the nouns country, government,
month, year, denoting the country (or the government), where the speak­
er is at the moment, or the month and the year at the moment of speech.
Respectively these word-groups should be understood as England (USA),
or January, etc. This country referred to by the native means “our
country”.
Who is running this country? This country is going to the dogs.
I’m leaving for Japan this month. This year is a Presidential elec­
tion one.
N о t e 2. That may be used as a substitute of a previously mentioned
noun, noun word-group or, sometimes, a clause. In this case that is fol­
lowed by an of-phrase or a clause.
Her sleep was like that of a child. A direct object is that upon which
the action is performed.
Noted. This and that may be emphasized by the pronoun all.
Sorry to bother you with all this, but I had to say it.
The pronouns such and (the) same are used to indicate objects
or qualities by comparison with those pointed at by the speaker.
The pronoun same is always used with the definite article
expressing identity.
I was no longer the same. They were staying at the same
hotel.
The pronoun such means “of this kind” (такой, такого рода);
it may be followed by the indefinite article.
Such a criticism is unfounded. I’ve got such nice people
coming.
I
C L A S S 3: INTERROGATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE
AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS
They are all used to introduce certain types of sentences or
clauses.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
Here belong the pronouns forming special questions. They
are used to make an inquiry about some object (who, what) or
its properties (whose, what, which). Thus these words may be
either pro-nouns or pro-adjectives.
z .
49
Who is the only interrogative pronoun which has a case
opposite, whom.
Who (or whom) did you see?
Who is used for the subject of a verb, and whom for the object.
Who told you that story? (subject) This is the person, who
brought the message, (subject) He is a person whom every­
one likes, (object) What is the name of that person to
whom you were speaking? (object)
However, there is a tendency in Modern English to substitute
the nominative case (who) for the objective (whom).
Whom did you meet? (formal) — Who did you meet?
(informal)
There is no difference in meaning but the second is more
common in ordinary conversation; whom is used in formal writ­
ten and spoken English.
In formal English the preposition is immediately followed
by whom.
With whom did you go? For whom do you work?
In informal spoken English, however, it is much more usu­
al to move the preposition to the end of the sentence and change
whom into who.
Who did you go with? Who do you work for?
Whose' is used as the possessive of who.
“Whose books'are these?” (“Whose are these?”) “They
are Ann’s.” “Whose car is this?” “It is mine.”
What is mostly used for things.
What is this? What does he do for a living?
When what is used with prepositions, the preposition is
normally placed at the end of the sentence.
What did you open it with? What did she put it into?
Note the use of what ... for, which means why?.
What did she do that for?
What can also be used for persons.
What is he? (■=
* What is his profession?)
00
In all the above examples what is used as a noun-pronoun.
Here are examples where it is used as an adjective-pronoun.
What time is it? What width is the river?
Note that questions about size can also be expressed by how with
an adjective.
How wide Is the river?
Which (pro-noun and pro-adjective) Is used instead of who
and what when there is a restriction of choice, i. e. when a
limited number only is being considered.
Who did this? (general inquiry) — Which of you did this?
(a question addressed to a small group only)
“Who do you want to see?” (general inquiry) “I want
to see your sister.” “I have two sisters, which do you
want?” (limited choice)
“What will you have to drink?” (general inquiry) “There
is tea or coffee: which will you have?” (limited choice)
“Which university did he go to, Oxford or Cambridge?”
(limited choice)
The interrogative compound pronouns whoever, whatever,
whichever have an emphatic meaning and are used to express
surprise or puzzle.
Whatever are you doing? Whoever would have thought it
was? Whichever can it be?
CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS
The pronouns who, what and which are used to introduce the
so-called noun-clauses, such as subject, predicative and object
clauses. They combine a demonstrative meaning with that of
a conjunction.
*
4 ‘
In the clauses they introduce they serve as subject, predi­
cative or object.
What he knows Is no longer a secret. That's what I don't
understand. Do you know who is to blame? I don't know
which of them is right.
Note. The use of who or whom in prepositional object clauses de­
pends on the function of the conjunctive pronoun in the clause.
It all depends on who comes. (Here who is used because It Is the
subject of comes.) It all depends on whom you ask. (Here whom to
used because |t is the object of ask.)
Compound conjunctive pronouns whoever and whatever have
an emphatic meaning owing to which they may be used to in­
troduce adverbial clauses of concession as well.
Whatever he says, take it easy. Don’t change your plans,
whatever happens. Whoever calls me up, tell them I’m out.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
*
They are called so because they serve to introduce relative
clauses, i. e. a variety of attributive clauses, which are always
correlated with some antecedent in the principal clause. The
relatives are used as adjective-pronouns.
Relative pronouns, like interrogative and conjunctive ones,
discriminate animate and inanimate objects: who/whom is used
for persons, which — for things; whose and that are used for both
persons and things.
Relative clauses are of two kinds: (1) restrictive and (2) nonrestrictive. The use of relative pronouns has some peculiarities
in each of these two kinds of clauses.
1. Relative Pronouns in Restrictive Clauses
Restrictive clauses characterize the preceding noun in such
a way as to distinguish it from other nouns of the same class.
A clause of this kind is essential to the clear understanding of
the noun. It cannot be omitted.
The pronouns who/whom and that are interchangeable when
used for persons in such clauses.
The man who robbed you has been arrested.
But that (not who) is necessary after superlatives and certain
pronouns (&//, everything, everyone, no, none, not any, nothing,
nobody, much and little}.
He was one of the greatest writers that ever lived. I have
nothing that would nt you. Much that I have read has been
nonsense. “Are there any bookshops in this street?”
“None that I know of.”
* The presentation of this topio is based gn the material found in A Prao
Heal English Grammar by A. J. Thomson, A. V. Martinet. Ldn., 1971,
p. 31—37.
Б2
The objective whom is considered very formal and seldom used
in spoken English: who or that (that being more usual than who)
are used instead, and it is still more common to omit the rela­
tive pronoun altogether.
The man whom I saw was called Smith. The man who
I saw is called Smith. = The man that I saw...= The
man I saw...
With a preposition, whom or that may be used.
The man to whom I spoke was our dean. (This is formal
but quite often used.)
In informal speech, however, it is more common to move
the preposition to the end of the clause and either change whom
to that, or omit the relative pronoun altogether.
The man7o whom I spoke... (formal but possible even in
spoken English) = The man that I spoke to... (used in
spoken English) = The man I spoke to... (much used
in spoken English)’
The possessive whose stands for persons and, occasionally,
for things.
The people whose houses were damaged will be compensated.
Living in a house whose walls were made of glass
would be horrible. (The latter is, however, often replaced
by a phrase, i. e. ...with glass walls... .)
The pronouns which or that are interchangeable when used
for things: which is more formal and is chiefly used in written
English, that is more common in speech.
The book which caused such a sensation was sold out with­
in a week. The dog that won the race is called Rex.
When these pronouns are used as objects in restrictive
clauses they can be omitted.
The book which I bought is very interesting.« The book
that I bought...= The book I bought...
The preposition is placed immediately before which in for­
mal English.
The address to which I wrote was wrong.
53
In spoken English the preposition is moved to the end of
the clause and which is either changed to that or omitted.
The address that I wrote to was wrong. = The address I
wrote to..»
2. Relative Pronouns in Non-Restrictive Clauses
Non-restrictive clauses are placed after nouns which are
more or less definite in meaning. They merely add some more
information about such nouns. Unlike restrictive clauses, they
are not essential in the sentence,, and can be omitted without
causing confusion. Also unlike restrictive clauses, they are sepa­
rated from their noun by commas. This construction is fairly
formal and more common in written than in spoken English.
Only who can be used for persons in such clauses.
Tom, who is incurably romantic, has just got engaged
for the fourth time.
The objective form whom must always be used and cannot
be omitted.
My uncle Jim, whom I haven’t seen for years, is coming
home next week.
The preposition is normally placed before whom, though it
is possible in conversation to use who and move the preposition
to the end of the clause.
Mr Pitt, for whom I am canvassing, is a most estimable
candidate.
The pronoun which must always be used for things, and it
cannot be omitted.
His old car, which breaks down every few miles, is dearer
to him th^n his wife.
The preposition Is normally placed before which.
Hampton Court, to which he took me on Saturday, has
a wonderful maze. But: Your inefficiency, which 1
have put up with since you came to this office, is begin­
ning to be unbearable.
Thus which, is placed immediately after its noun and follow­
ed by the clause if the predicate of the elause is expressed by
64
such verb-adverb groups as give up, look forward to, put
up with, etc.
The relative which can also be used to refer to a whole clause.
He hit the dog, which was a stupid thing to do. I had to
have my ear filled, which held me up.
The possessive whose may be used for people, animals and
things; of which is, however, more common for things than whose.
My dog, whose temper is very uncertain, often bites the
judges at dog shows. She wore a bunch of cyclamen,
whose scent she was very fond of. His thesis, of which the
last hundred pages are absolute nonsense, will probably
win him a lot of notoriety.
Note. Such constructions should be avoided wherever possible,.
and it would be more usual to say:
My dog has a very uncertain temper and often bites the judges
at dog shows. His thesis will probably win him a lot of notoriety
because the last hundred pages are absolute nonsense.
C L A S S 4: INDEFINITE, NEGATIVE,
DISTRIBUTIVE, RECIPROCAL
AND CONTRASTING PRONOUNS
They all have something in common, both structurally and
semantically, namely the same roots and the same meaning of
generalization.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Here belong the pronouns some and any with their compounds
and the indefinite substitute one.
SOME AND ANY
These pronouns indicate persons and things indefinitely as
“a certain quantity or quality”. They are used as noun---- and
more often — adjective-pronouns with both singulars and plu­
rals, countables and uncountables.
Some are wise and some are otherwise. Some people are
early risers. She was expecting someone. Come any time
you like. Does anyone know what is happening?
These pronouns regularly occur in certain types of sentences,
which depends on their meaning,
W
We use some when we are positive about the actual existence
of something or somebody and any when we deny or Inquire
about the existence of something or somebody. Therefore some
and its compounds are mostly used in affirmative sentences,
whereas any and its compounds are generally used in interroga­
tive and negative sentences, or in conditional clauses. The mean­
ing of some can be interpreted in Russian as некоторый, не­
которое количество, any — какой-либо, сколько-нибудь.
I’ve got some news to tell you. You have some doubt,
haven’t you? Have you got any objections? If you have
any difficulty, ask me for help.
Any is also common with “negative” words, such as hard­
ly and without.
He has hardly any time. I got it without any difficulty.
However, the use of some or any does not so much depends
on the type of a sentence as on their lexical meanings.
Some and its compounds occur in interrogative sentences
when the question is really an Invitation or a request; it can also
be used when the answer “Yes” is expected.
May I have some paper? Will you have some coffee? I’ve
heard a knock; is there someone at the door?
Any and its compounds may be used in affirmative sentences
with the meaning of indifference,.
Any schoolboy knows it. You can buy stamps at any postoffice. Anybody will show you the way.
Compare:
I wish you would tell me something about it; any informa­
tion is better than none.
The compound indefinite pronouns in -body and -one indicate
persons, those in -thing stand for things. They can be accompanied
by the particle else.
I don’t know; ask somebody else. Someone has left his
notebook... Who can it be? There is something strange
about his manners, isn’t there?
It isn’t any use to anyone. I don’t know anything about it.
Did he say anything else?
56
The compounds in -body and -one may be-used in the posses­
sive.
He attended to anybody's business but his own. I can’t
see that it is anyone's business but mine.
Note that someone/anyone can be used to indicate a limited
choice while somebody/a nyboay has a more general meaning and la never
followed by an of-phrase.
Someone (one of them) is sure to come. Does anyone (one of you)
know it? 4‘Would anyone like some cheese and crackers?
**
asked
the hostess.
ONE
It is always used as a noun-pronoun. One either indicates a
person in the most general sense or substitutes for any noun
previously mentioned (the so-called prop-word).
One must do one's duty. Nothing clears up one's ideas so
much as explaining them.
As seen from the examples, one can be used in the possessive.
However, the indefinite pronoun one is not much used because
you can also be employed in a general sense and is more common
in spoken English. “One must be careful when driving a car”, is
possible, but: “You must be careful...” is much more usual.
Note that you here applies to no particular person but merely
replaces one.
The possessive one's is much more often used.
It is easy to lose one's way in the maze. It Is a pity to
spend all one's life in the same place.
When used as a prop-word, one is applied to both things and
persons and may be used in the plural.
The green one tastes- bitter (= apple). My little ones
are in the garden (= children).
When there is some idea of comparison or selection the pro­
noun onefones is often, placed after the demonstrative pronouns,
but this is not essential except when the demonstrative is fol­
lowed by an adjective.
- %
That chair * is not comfortable; sit in this (one). Don’t
biiy those oranges; buy these (ones). I want a cake. I’ll
67
buy this chocolate one. You carry the light cases; Г11 bring
these heavy ones.
(One/ones is necessary in the last two examples but optional
in the first two.)
The prop-word one can be preceded by the definite article.
Open another drawer, the one (or that) on the left.
NEGATIVE PRONOUNS
Most of the indefinite pronouns have their negative equiva­
lents: some — no, none; one — no one, none; something — noth­
ing, none; somebody, someone — nobody, none.
They can be used as pro-nouns (none, no one, nobody, noth­
ing) or pro-adjectives (no); neither is used as both.
Since Modern English admits of but one negation in a verbal
construction the negative pronouns are used .with affirmative
verbs to form negative sentences. They are therefore an alter­
native to the negative verb + any construction.
I have not any apples.— I have not any.
I have no apples. — I have none.
He did not eat any nuts.— He did not eat any.
He ate no nuts.— He ate none.
As shown above, none is an equivalent of a negative noun
word-group.
I have no control over him — none.
None is combined with both singular and plural verbs.
None of the alternatives is/are acceptable.
The negative compounds discriminate animate and inanima­
te objects: nobody and no one stand for persons, nothing — for
things.
Nobody ever knows anything here. No one knew his
name.
I’ve got nothing to tell you.
The negative pronouns nobody and no one can be used in
the possessive.
' It is nobody
*s
quicker.
68
land. No one’s face changed its expression
The negative pronoun neither means “none of the .two
**
It is used for both things and persons.
In neither case can I agree. Both smiled but neither spoke.
DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS
*
Here belong the pronouns all, both, either, each, every and
its compounds (everyone, everybody, everything). Most of them can
be used to indicate both animate and inanimate objects. The
compounds everyone and everybody have the possessive form.
This group includes noun-pronouns (all, both, each, either,
everybody, everyone) and adjective-pronouns (all, both, either,
each, every).
Unlike the indefinite and negative pronouns, the distribu­
tive pronouns are not associated with any definite types of
sentences.
A LL
It has a generalizing force (все, всё). When used as a noun­
pronoun standing for persons (“all people”) it is followed by
a plural verb; when used in a general sense for things, it is fol­
lowed by a singular verb.
All were present. All is well that ends well.
As an adjective-pronoun it is associated with both countables
and uncountables and, if necessary, may be put before the noun
with the definite article.
AU the rooms were occupied.
all Europe, all the money
It may also be used as an emphasizing word with the personal
and demonstrative pronouns.
They all saw it. Any schoolboy knows all that.
BOTH AND EITHER
These pronouns are used when the speaker has in mind two
persons or things; therefore they can stand only for countables.
They can be used as both noun- and adjective-pronouns.
• The term is used by A. J. Thomson and A. V. Martinet, op. dt., p. 16«
58
However, there is some difference in meaning between these
two pronouns.
The pronoun both, like the pronoun all, has a generalizing
meaning, the meaning of unity.
You are both young — you two. Both girls were beautiful.
It may also be used as an emphasizing word with the perso­
nal pronouns we, you and they.
We both know it. You are both wrong.
The pronoun either has no generalizing force; it does not unite
two persons or things but, just on the contrary, emphasizes
their independence. Either has the same meaning of indifference
as any but is used with reference to two persons or things; it
means “any one of two”.
“Which book would you like?” “Either will do.”
You can take either book; I don’t mind which. I don’t
like either of them. There was snow on either side.
EACH AND EVERY
Semantically, these two pronouns have much in common.
They both correspond to the Russian каждый.
Each has an individualizing meaning and can be used as both a
noun- and adjective-pronoun. Every has a generalizing meaning;
it can only be used as an adjective-pronoun. They are both fol­
lowed by a singular verb.
Two boys entered. Each (boy) was carrying a suitcase.
(every could not be used here) Every (or each) man in the
procession carried a torch.
As shown above, each can be used for two or more persons
(things) while every is not normally used for very small numbers.
The generalizing meaning of every and the individualizing
meaning of each are shown clearly enough in the following exam­
ples.
Every day for a week he decided to make the trip to Saint
Helen, but each day the sight of the lake held him.
Everyone and everybody mean “all (the) people”. There is
no difference in meaning between them. Both are followed by
a singular verb.
z
60
Everybody likes him. Everyone knows that the world is
round.
Like all other compounds denoting persons, they can be
used in the possessive.
It is everyone's duty to obey laws.
Everything means “all (the) things”; it is also followed by
a singular verb.
Everything was ready.
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
Here belong the pair-pronouns each other and one another.
They are used to denote the relation of mutuality between two
(each other) or more than two persons (one another). However,
this traditional rule is often ignored, each other and one another
becoming interchangeable.
You and I understand each other. They worked on, helping
one another. They held each other in highest esteem, or
swore by one another.
These pronouns may be used in the possessive.
They looked into each other's eyes.
CONTRASTING PRONOUNS
Here belong another, other and others.
These pronouns mean “not the one (ones) indicated”; there­
fore they contrast with the demonstrative pronouns:
*
this, that (book) — another (book)
these, those (books) — other (books)
these, those — others
The pronouns another and other are used as noun-pronouns and
adjective-pronouns; others — only as a noun-pronoun. Another
is made up of other and the indefinite article and is therefore
used only with countables in the singular.
That’s another pair of shoes. He tore the letter and wrote
another.
* This treatment is suggested by Б. С. Хаймович, Б. И. Роговская,
op. cit., p. 114.
61
Another has two shades of meanings, qualitative (‘‘not this
but a different one”) and quantitative (“additional”, “one
more”).
I don’t want this book, please give me another one. Let
me have another cup of tea. I won’t say another word.
Other can be associated with both singular and plural nouns.
When used as a noun-substitute it takes the noun inflexions
(plural: others, possessive: other's and the definite article: the
other).
Friday won’t do. Let’s meet some other day. Other people
would think otherwise. This is mine, the other is yours.
He knew what the others would say. He walked at the
other's heels. Each thought seriously about the other and
neither of them was happy. He lived at the expense of
other's hearts and pockets.
CLASS 6: QUANTITATIVE PRONOUNS
*
Here belong much, many, (a) few, (a) little, several, enough.
The peculiarity of these pronouns is that they stand not only
for nouns and adjectives, but also for numerals and adverbs
(much, a little).
Much and (a) little are used with uncountable nouns, many,
(d)few and several — with countable nouns, enough — with both.
In spoken English much and many as pro-adjectives are usu­
ally replaced in the affirmative, and sometimes in thejnterrogative, by such expressions as: a lot of, plenty of (= much and
many), a great deal of (= much}.
I have a lot of bread. В u t : I haven’t much butter. Have
you much (a lot of) land round your house? Do you meet
many (a lot of) nice people in your job? She took a great
deal of (a lot of) trouble to please us.
As pro-nouns, however, they are used in the affirmative.
Much has been written on this subject. Many Relieve that
the sun puts out a fire.
* The presentation of the topic is based on the material offered by
A. J. Thomson, A. V. Martinet, op. cit., p. 19—20 and F. T. Wood.
A Remedial English Grammar for Foreign Students. Ldn., 1968, p. 157—
62
Little and few, except when preceded by very, etc., are sel­
dom used in the affirmative. Instead not much and not many
are used.
I haven
*
/ much time (not: “I have little time”). He didn
/
*
write many books (not: “He wrote few books”).
Little and few when preceded by very, too, etc. are used in
the affirmative.
I have very little time. We have too few holidays. Very
few (people) know about this.
Many and much, as well as little, have a partitive meaning
if they are followed by an of-phrase (this use being similar to
“one of”, “some of”, “half of”, etc.).
Many о/my friends are learning English. Much of the land
is uncultivated. Little of the crockery has been broken.
Most quantitative pronouns have degrees of comparison.
much } ~ more ~ the most
few — fewer — (the) fewest
little — less — (the) least
The superlative most can also be used with a partitive mean­
ing. It is immediately followed by a noun (without an article)
when the noun is thought of in a general sense.
Most sand'is yellow. Most accidents happen through care­
lessness.
But when it means a considerable majority, most is follow­
ed by an of-phrase (with the definite article before the noun).
Most of the houses in this street are new. Most of the traffic
goes by the main road.
Note that much can be used to modify adjectives and adverbs in
the comparative degree.
This room is much larger than the other. He drives much more
carefully than he used to.
Both much and many are also used in the following construc­
tions with comparisons.
I know as much as you (do). He has twice as much money
63
(as me). You don’t know half as much (as I do). The new
theatre seats four times as many people (as the old one).
You’ve made twice as many mistakes this time.
VERBS
The verb is a part of speech denoting an action or a process.
The verb is the most developed and complex part of speech
in Modern English. Its system includes such widely differing
phenomena as finite and non-finite forms of the verb.
When used in the finite form the verb has the function of
the predicate of the sentence.
As compared with the other parts of speech, the verb has the
largest number of grammatical categories.
The finite verb has the grammatical categories of person,
number, tense, aspect, voice and mood.
The verb, in its both forms, is associated with an adverb
(or an adverbial phrase) qualifying the action expressed by
the verb or indicating various circumstances in which the ac­
tion occurs. Another characteristic feature of the verb is its as\
sociation with an object (a noun or its equivalent).
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS
Verbs may be classified according to:
(1) the ways of forming the Past Indefinite and Particip­
le II;
(2) their syntactical function;
(3) their association with the subject and the object.
(1) According to the ways of forming the Past Indefinite
and Participle II, verbs are divided into>two groups: regular
and irregular.
Regular Verbs form the Past Indefinite and Participle II
by adding the suffix -ed to the stem of the verbs or only -d if
the stem of the verb ends in -e. This suffix can be pronounced
differently: [d] after vowels and voiced consonants, e. g. play­
ed, changed; It] after voiceless consonants, e. g. asked, passed;
lid] after [t] and Id], e. g. wanted, decided.
The forms of the Past Indefinite and Participle II of the reg­
ular verbs are homonymous.
Irregular Verbs. Here belong the following groups of verbs
(see the tables on p. 66—67):
(1) Verbs with vowel or consonant change (which may be
accompanied by affixation):
64
sing - sang - sung 1 vowel change
win — won — won
I
send — sent — sent
Iconsonant change
build — built — built J
b
speak — spoke — spoken 1 vowei change
affixation
tell — told — told
J
(2) Unchangeable verbs:
put — put — put
set — set — set
(3) Mixed verbs (their Past Indefinite is of the regular type
and their Participle II is of the irregular type):
show — showed — shown
sow — sowed — sown
(4) Suppletive verbs:
be — was, were — been
go — went — gone
(5) Special irregular verbs:
do — did — done
have — had — had
(6) Defective verbs:
can — could
must
ought
may — might
will — would
shall — should
(2) According to their syntactical function, which is close­
ly connected with their semantic value, all verbs are divided
into notional, structural and modal verbs; structural verbs are
subdivided into auxiliary verbs and linking verbs.
Notional verbs have a full lexical meaning of their own and
can be used in a sentence as a simple predicate. Here belong the
majority of English verbs (e. g. speak, read, write, know, live,
etc.).
'
In his own small room Martin lived, slept, wrote and kept
house.
Auxiliary verbs are those which have no lexical meaning
of their own and are used as form-words, thus having only a
purely structural function in the sentence. They are used to
3—501
65
IRREGULAR VERBS
№ 1
TABLE
CUT
HIT
LET
PUT
SET
CAST
COST
HURT
SHUT
SPREAD
CUT
H 1 T
PUT
cast
cost
HURT
shut
SPREAD
— ------—>
,
CUT
HITLET
PUT
SET
CAST
COST
HURT
SHUT
SPREAD
ЛАКЕ MADE МАНЕ МАКЕ МОЕ МОЕ МАКЕ МОЕ МОЕ МАКЕ
LO S Е = SHOOT
hEAr=?^=hEArD hEAu
SHOT SHOT
SIT SAT SAT SITS
5ТАЮ STOOD STOOD STAND ST
STOOD STAND STOOD STOOD J
UNDERSTAND
Bind bound bound
find Found found
WIND WOUND VfoUND
BIUNG
BROUGHT BROUGHT
Buy
BWGHTBOUGHT
CATCH
CAUGHT CAUGHT
FIGHT FOUGHT FOUGHT
SEEK SOUGHT SOUGHT
TEACH TAUGHTTAUGHT
THINK
UNDERSTOOD
hOld
sEll
hEld
sQld
TELL
T.OLD
LAY
SAY
PAY
hEld
sOld
tOld
laidEbOlaid
$aib[q]said
PAin[eij
PAID
SHINE
[oj SHONE
$HONE|b]
THOUGHT THOUGHT
BUILD
BUILT
BEND
LEND
SEND
SPEND
BENT BENT
LENT LENT
SENT SENT
SPENT SPENT
■■■■■■
I STOOD STOOD STAND STOOD
UNDERSTOOD
и
' MEET MET MET
ig
DEAL
*FEEL
L CAD
READ
DREAM
* MEAN
DEALT DEALT
FELT FELT
LEO
LED
REAO READ
DREAMT DREAMT
MEANT MEANT
KEEP KEPT KEPT
L SWEEP SWEPT SWEPT
LEAVE LEFT LEFT
BUILT
SMtL
DI6
HANG
STRIKE
WIN
SPEL
GOT
DUG
HUNG
STRUCK
WON
DUG
HUNG
STRUCK
WON
GOT
MAKE MAIE MADE MAKE МДВЕ MABE MAKE MME MADE MAKE
Г
IRREGULAR VERBS
TABLE
.№2
RAN
BEATEN
RUN
BEAT
BEAT
RUN
BEAT BEAT
BEATEN
SEE SAW SEEN SEE SAW SEEN SEE SAW SEEN
DE ------ RODE
-------- RIDDEN
te—wrOte ---- wr|tten
SE---------- RO SE
---------- RISEN
RISEN
SPEAK SPOKE SPOKEN SPEAK SPOKE SPOKEN
I
I
■
All
fl I I
DrInK DrAnKDrIInK
RING RANG RUNG
SING SANG SUNG
SINK SANK SUNK
sprIng sprAng spdLe
swmsMmm
TAKE TOOK TAKEN TAKE TOOK TAKEN
W W WN W W Wn
вазг ъогеъоггг
year yore yorn
mear more morn
тнеагяюгеътот
DRAW DREW SPAWN
DRIVE DROVE DRIVEN
EAT
beg|n
весДй веоЦы
SHAKE SHAKEN
SHOOK
FLY fl&zt fl^tz.
0l6%T BL&T BL^m
GRtfttr ыеиг ыют,
*ноиг KN®zr KN^m
тнд cur i^euri^owL
FORGIVE mrSAVE
FORGET nhGOT
FORBID firBADE
BITE BIT BITTEN
HIDE HID HIDDEN
ATE
fmGIVEN
fhMTTDI
fmBIJDEN
сит chose cH«sa
FREEZE FROZE FROZE»
EATEN
FALL FELL FALLEN FALL FELL FALLEN FALL FELL FALLEN
3»
make up analytical forms and are always accompanied by notion­
al verbs, i. e. these verbs are parts of analytical forms of the
verb, or rather, grammatical word-morphemes. Here belong
such verbs as be (in Continuous tenses and Passive Voice), do
(in negative and interrogative forms of Indefinite tenses), have
(in Perfect tenses), shall and will (in Future tense), should and
would (in Future in the Past and Subjunctive).
Linking verbs have partly lost their lexical meaning and
are used as part of a compound nominal predicate.
The doctor was quite young.
The main lexical meaning of this kind of predicate is ex­
pressed by the predicative (a noun, an adjective, a verbal, etc.).
Note. In different contexts the same verb can be used differently
(as a notional verb, an auxiliary verb or a linking verb).
No one was there to meet her. (notional verb) She was not very
young, (linking verb) She was coming, (auxiliary verb)
Modal verbs make up a special group of verbs: they cannot
be used independently unaccompanied by notional verbs, though
they have a lexical meaning of their own. The meaning of ac­
tion or process common to all verbs is very scarce in modal
verbs and is dominated by the meaning of modality, i. e. of
the ability, necessity or determination to perform an action de­
noted by a notional verb. They are used as part of a compound
predicate. Here belong such verbs as can, may, must, need,
shall, will, should, ought,
(3) According to their association with the subject and the
object of the action all verbs are divided into transitive and
intransitive.
Most verbs are associated with two nouns (or noun-equiva­
lents) denoting the subject and the object of the action expressed
by the verb.
Some verbs, however, are associated only with nouns Jor
noun-equivalents) denoting the subject of the action.
In the sentence “He entered and greeted them” the verb
greeted is associated with the pronoun he denoting the subject
of the action of greeting and with the pronoun them denoting the
object of the same action. The verb entered is associated only
with the pronoun he denoting the subject of the action.
In the sentence “She looked at them” the verb looked is
also associated with the pronoun them denoting the object of
the action of looking. But there is some difference between
8
the two verbs in the word-groups greeted them and looked at
them. The verb look is associated with the word denoting the
object by means of the preposition at.
Verbs that are connected with their object words directly
are called transitive verbs: in other words, transitive verbs are
those verbs which take a direct object.
I have enjoyed the game.
All other verbs are called intransitive. Such verbs as live,
think, sleep, stand, etc. are intransitive.
There are verbs which can be used either with or without a
direct object (the so-called transitive-intransitive verbs); here
belong such verbs as read, write, see, hear, etc.
There are other verbs whose primary meaning is transitive
and whose secondary meaning is intransitive. Here belong such
verbs as sell, wear, add, etc.
They sell books.— This book sells well.
There are also verbs whose primary meaning is intransitive
and whose secondary meaning is transitive. Here belong such
verbs as run, fly, sail, work, walk, etc.
I can’t run as fast as you.— Who is running the show?
Note. There are verbs which in different contexts can be transi­
tive or intransitive. It is impossible to say which meaning is primary and
which is secondary. Here belong, for instance, such verbs as open, move,
turn, change, etc.
She opened the door. — The door opened
TENSE AND ASPECT
Time is common to all mankind and is independent of lan­
guage. There are three divisions of time which can be presented
in the following way:
the past
the present
the future
The past and the future are limitless, the present being the
point of division.
Tense is the linguistic expression of time relations and it
varies from language to language.
Compared in different languages, tense forms may indicate
whether an action, or state is past, present, or future; they may
also indicate whether an action, or state is, was, or will be com­
plete, or whether it is, was, or will be in progress over a period
of time.
69
Tense forms in modern English include both time and aspect
distinctions. In other words, the grammatical categories of
tense and aspect intermingle in English tense forms.
Tense is a grammatical category of the verb indicating the
time of an action.
The main divisions of time — present, past and future, are
represented in English by the primary tenses (Indefinite and
Continuous). They are also called absolute tenses.
Besides the primary tenses there are the so-called secondary
tenses in English (Perfect and Perfect Continuous).
The perfect tenses do not merely indicate that the action
refers to the present, past, or future, but show that the action
is related to some other action (or point of time) in the present,
past or future. Therefore the perfect tenses are relative tenses.
As already mentioned, tense forms in English serve not on­
ly for time relations but also for expressing aspect distinstions.
Aspect is a grammatical category of'the verb showing the
way in which an action is performed.
Tenses, both primary and secondary, are expressed in two
aspect forms: continuous and non-continuous.
Continuous forms show actions in progress, going on continu­
ously during a limited period of time, while non-continuous forms
state actions in general, not limited by a lasting duration
over a period of time.
I thought about it quite a lot (non-continuous) I am just
thinking about it. (continuous) He said he had thought
about it quite a lot. (non-continuous) Гае been thinking
about it all day. (continuous)
Thus time and aspect indications are intermingled in English
tense forms, which can be generally presented in the following
way:
As is seen, each tense form, perfect or поп-perfect, can also
be regarded as a continuous or a non-continuous one.
This is how tenses are grouped according to their time and
aspect distinctions:
Continuous
N on-Continuous
Primary Tenses
Present Continuous
Past Continuous
Future Continuous
Present Indefinite
Past Indefinite
Future Indefinite
Secondary Tenses
Present Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect Continuous
Future Perfect Continuous
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Future Perfect
Table of Tenses
Time
Tense
group
Present
Future
Past
Indefinite
I work
I worked
I shall work
Continuous
I am working
I was working
I shall be.working
Perfect
I have worked
I had worked
I shall have worked
Perfect
Continuous
I have been
working
I had been
working
I shall have been
working
I. PRIMARY TENSES
-
The forms of primary tenses express the time of an action as
related to the moment of speaking.
From the view-point of the moment of speech, an action may
take place in the present, the past or the future, i. e. it
may include, precede, or follow the moment of speech. Respective­
ly, we can speak of the Present (Indefinite or Continuous),
the Past (Indefinite or Continuous) and Future (Indefinite or
Continuous).
71
1. NON-CONTINUOUS FORMS
THE PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE
The peculiarity of this tense lies in the fact that it denotes
a period of time including the moment of speech.
The Present Indefinite tense is used to express:
(1) An actual present-time action
I study English.
(2) A habitual action
I get up at seven o’clock.
Compare:
I usually wear a fur coat but I am not wearing one today
as it isn’t cold.
(3) A universal truth
Twice two makes four. Being determines consciousness.
Note. The Present Indefinite is often used with adverbs or
adverb phrases such as: often, usually, sometimes, never, always, on Sun­
days, every week, twice a year, etc.
THE PAST INDEFINITE TENSE
It expresses the time of an action preceding the moment
of speech.
It is mainly used in the following two cases:
(1) In narration (i. e. in fiction, news items, historical
documents, etc.).
Somebody knocked at the door and she hurried to open it.
The British Prime Minister arrived in Washington yes­
terday. The Norman conquest of England took place in
1066.
(2) In conversation, to mention facts which took place some
time before the moment of speech.
“You stated to the Police that on the night that Mrs French
was murdered Leonard Vole left the house at seven thirty
and returned at twenty-five past nine. Did he in fact re­
turn at twenty-five past nine?” “No, he returned at ten
minutes past ten.”
...I waited at table: I peddled ties, socks and shirts;
I gave German lessons; ...I wrote some short articles...
72
THE FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE
This tense form shows that an action will take place at the
time following the moment of speech.
The Future Indefinite tense is used:
(1) To denote something which is supposed or expected to
take place.
I shall graduate next year. He will be here any minute.
(2) In statements of general meaning to denote something
that will be always true, i. e. to express the idea of the inevi­
tability of an action.
Water will boil at 100 Centigrade. No gentleman will
remain seated with a lady standing.
The peculiarity of this tense is that its meaning contains
some modality, i. e. that of possibility, necessity or volition.
Thus any action in the future is an action which is possible,
necessary or desirable.
Note. The form “will + Infinitive" may be used even in subor­
dinate clauses of condition when the meaning of modality (volition)
prevails over that of time indication.
“I’ll be with you in ten minutes If. you will wait for me."
“Going my way?" “Yes. ffi you will give me a lift."
Ifi you'll excuse me, I have to go now. My wife Is waiting for me.
fl you will resembles the Russian Если вы изволите...
Other Ways of Indicating Future Actions
*
The Future Indefinite is only one of a number of ways of
indicating actions in the future. Its equivalents are the Present
Indefinite, the Present Continuous and the going to form.
The Future Indefinite is preferred to its equivalents if there
are some external circumstances that may effect the future activ­
ity or state. When the subject is a person, an element of willing­
ness may often be present; then one of the Future Indefinite
equivalents may be preferrable.
The Present Indefinite is used to indicate a future activi­
ty, as part of a plan or arrangement, particularly when it con­
• See: A. J. Thomson, A. V. Martinet, op. cit., p. 118—126. A. S. Hornhjr. A Guide to Patterns and Usage In English. Ldn., 1971 , p: 104—
78
cerns a journey. It is often the case with verbs of motion, arriv­
al, or departure.
We leave here at six, arrive in Dublin at midnight and take
a plane on to Amsterdam, (from a travel agency program)
Soviet Prime Minister Arrives Here Tomorrow, (a newspa­
per headline)
The use of the Present Indefinite to express actions planned
for the immediate future is typical of formal style.
The Present Continuous is also used for a definite future ar­
rangement and is more typical of informal conversational style.
The time indication is nearly always given (usually in the imme­
diate future).
I am leaving for Glasgow next week. He is playing in
the concert tonight. We are meeting him after the perform­
ance.
The verbs go and come can be used without a time indication
and may then imply a less definite arrangement.
“Where are you going?'’ “I’m going for a walk. Are you
coming with me?” “Yes, Vm just coming. Wait for me.”
, The going to form expresses the subject’s intention to per­
form a certain future action. It implies that some preparation
for the action has already been made. This form can be used
with or without a time indication.
When used with a time indication, it is an alternative to
the Present Continuous; there is then very little difference be­
tween these two future forms.
I am meeting Tom at the station at 6.0.= I am going to
meet Tom at the station at 6.0.
When used without a time indication, the going to form re­
fers to the immediate or near future.
He is going to lend me his bicycle. Oh, we are going to
see one another in London.
This form is also used to express the speaker’s feeling of
certainty.
I think it is going to rain. Look at those clouds. “They are
going to murder some woman at 11.15tonight... I’ve over­
heard their conversation.” “What makes you think the mur­
der is going to be committed in your neighbourhood?”74
Note that It is not very usual to put the verbs go and come into
this form. The Present Continuous is normally used Instead (i. e. “I
am going" and “I am coming").
2. CONTINUOUS FORMS
These tenses express an action in progress; therefore they are
sometimes called progressive tenses.
The action expressed by a verb in the continuous form is re­
garded as being performed at a certain limited period of time
in the past, present or future.
The time of an action can.be either indicated by some adver­
bial modifiers (now, from ... till, during, while, at six o'clock)
or made clear by the context (in narration) or the situation
of speech (in conversation).
\THE PRESENT CONTINUOUSTENSE.
It is used to express:
(1) A process taking place either at the moment of speech
or dn the period of time including the moment of speech.
Hallo, darling. You are looking very tragic. This is hap­
pening all over the world.
(2) A process regularly observed as taking place under spe­
cial conditions.
I don’t like being watched when I am eating. I don’t inter­
rupt people when they are reading.
Note. The Present Indefinite m^y be used Instead of the Present
Continuous if the cause of the action is more important than the action
itself.
“Why do you tell me all this?'1 “I want you to know the truth."
Why don't yoy answer? ... What has happened?
THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
It is used to express:
(1) A process that took place at a definite moment or pe­
riod of time in the past.
Only a moment ago he was standing where you are.
I was working in the library from nine till twelve.
76
(2) A process that was taking place at the moment when
another action (or a series of actions) expressed by the Past In­
definite took place.
She heard him laugh while he was reading. The ship was
sailing north when a violent storm broke out.
In such cases a process expressed by the Past Continuous
serves as the background for other actions in the Past Indefinite.
George who was passing, noticed them and paused with
his broad smile.
THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
Being a form of the future it expresses an action that is
planned, expected or supposed to take place.
Being a continuous form it expresses a process that will
be going on at a certain time in the future.
Meet me at Fourteenth and Broadway at two o’clock, Г//
be looking out for you. I shall soon be starting my studies
at King’s College.
II. SECONDARY TENSES
Perfect tense forms are opposed to non-perfect ones in the
following way:
Non-perfect forms (i. e. primary tenses) denote an action as
unrelated to any other action, but only viewed from the moment
of speech.
Perfect forms (i. e. secondary tenses) denote an action related
to some action or point of time as preceding it and, in most
cases, completed by that time.
1. NON-CONTINUOUS FORMS
THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
This tense takes a very special place among all other per­
fect forms. Besides denoting priority and completion, it also
contains some additional meaning: it shows that the action which
took place some time prior to the present situation is connected
with the present situation through its consequences. That means
that the action of the past expressed by the Present Perfect has
affected the present state of things. Thus the kind of relation
76
between the past action and the present state of things is that of
cause and effect.
Гое lost the key to the door. (I can’t get in.) Ray has learn­
ed a number of languages. (Now he knows these lan­
guages.) She has spent ten years in prance. (So now she
knows a lot about France and the French.)
Mr Green has been out of work for several months. (So now
he and his family are short of money.)
Note. The Present Perfect can be used with time expressions,
such as:
(1) ever, never, always
“Have you ever been to France?” “No, Гое never been there.
**
I have always believed that this is Impossible.
(2) just, lately, recently, yet
He has just gone out. (=He went out a few minutes ago.)
I've been very busy lately. There have been a lot of changes recenily. We haven't finished yet.
(3) today!this week!month!year
Have you seen him today? (=at any time today) 1 haven't seen
him this week. (= at any
*
time this week) We'oe had a lot of storms
this winter. (=at various times during the winter)
The Present Perfect In all these examples implies that the past ac­
tion has had an effect on the situation at the moment of speaking. Thus
the implication of the statement in the last sentence may be: “The storms
have caused great damage to the crops.
*'
THE PRESENT PERFECT AND THE PAST INDEFINITE
COMPARED
This connection between the accomplished action and the
present situation expressed by the Present Perfect is a point
of difference between the Present Perfect and the Past Indefi­
nite. Both tenses refer the action to the past; but when we use
the verb in the Past Indefinite we disconnect the action from
the present; we do not look upon that past action in the light
of its result or consequences. Therefore the Past Indefinite (but
not the Present Perfect) is used in questions beginning with
when.
When did you meet him last? But: “Have you seen him?”
“Yes, I have.” “When did you see him?” “I saw him five
minutes ago.”
Here is another example:
“Where have you been?” “I’ve been at the sales.” “What
have you bought/What did you buy?” (either could be used)
“I have bought/X bought you some yellow pyjamas.” “Why
did you buy yellow? I told you never to buy yellow for
me.” “I couldn’t resist it. They were very much reduced.”
The Present Perfect can also be used to denote an action
which began in the past and still continues in the present.
He has been in the army for two years (he is still in the
army).
Compare with:
He was in the army for two years (he is not in the army
now). I have smoked since I left school (I still smoke).
Since means from that point to the time of speaking.
She has been here since six o’clock (and is still here).
Note. If the emphasis is on the duration of time, rather than the
action, there may be the Present Indefinite in the principal clause
(chiefly with the verb to be).
It Is thirty years since the war ended.
It Is also the case when the situation described In the principal elause
is the result of the action expressed in the subordinate clause.
She Is nervous of riding In a ear since she was involved in that
accident.
The Present Perfect is sometimes used for an action which
began in the past and has finished at the moment of speaking.
I haven't seen you for ages (but 1 see you now). This room
hasn't been cleaned for months (but we are cleaning it now).
The Present Perfect is also used in the subordinate clause
introduced by since to express an action continuing up to the
moment of speaking.
Since I have been at this school we have had three head­
masters. (“Since I was” would mean ”1 am not at that
school now”.) Or : He has never been to see me since
I have been ill (I’m still ill).
The Present Perfect can occasionally be used for actions which
occurred back in the past, provided their connection with the
present-is still maintained, i. e. that the action could be repeat­
ed in the present.
78
I have seen wolves in that forest (it Is still possible to see
them).
Generally speaking, the Present Perfect is extremely common
in conversation, while the Past Indefinite occurs more often
in narration.
THE PAST PERFECT TENSE
It is used to indicate an action (or a state of being) completed
in the past before some other action or point of time also in
the past; the time indication by which the action has been com­
pleted may be expressed by an adverb, an adverbial phrase,
or a clause, or may be clear from the context.
They had done the work by the end of the day. Unfortunate­
ly, by the time we reached the station, the train had
left, I suddenly realized that I hadn't eaten since lunchtime.
He found a message that someone had telephoned in his
absence. Kent gazed around... Had all this happened? It
had happened and it was over.
THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
It is used to denote an action that will take place before a
certain moment in the future and will have been completed by
that time.
I shall have left for Greenleaf Hut by noon. You will have
forgotten me by then. When I do come again, I hope your
English will have improved,
2. CONTINUOUS FORMS
s
The forms of Perfect Continuous tenses are a combination
of perfect and continuous forms.
Being forms of the continuous aspest they present an action
in progress.
Being perfect forms they express priority.
Thus perfect continuous forms present an action in progress
as having taken place in the preceding period and related to
some moment following that period.
Perfect continuous forms are used to show that the past
(before-past or before-future) is connected with the present (past
or future) through the uninterrupted progress of an action that
79
began before some point of time (in the present, the past or
the future) and is (was, will be) still going on.
Perfect continuous forms tend to be more and more widely
used in Modern English, but their usage is limited by the
lexical meaning of verbs.
THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
As a form of Present it expresses an action related to the
moment of speech.
As a form of Perfect it expresses an action which was taking
place in the preceding period but affecting the present state
of things.
As a form of Continuous it expresses an action in progress.
The Present Perfect Continuous is used to express:
(1) A process which has been going on for some time before
the moment of speech and is still going on (the so-called inclu­
sive Present Perfect Continuous).
Ray has been teaching mathematics for a number of years.
Ever since I gave up smoking I’ve been putting on weight.
(2) A process which has been going on up to the moment of
speech (the exclusive Present Perfect Continuous).
It may be connected with the present situation through its
consequences (like the Present Perfect).
“Nora, you look a bit tired — what have you been doing
all day?” “I’ve been cleaning the whole house.” (for)
three hours (now)
I have been waiting for you since three o’clock. (I am tired
’ of waiting)
Nott. The Present Perfect is sometimes used Instead of the Present
Perfect Continuous to express an action as having taken place in the past
and continuing into the present. This depends on the lexical meaning
of the verb.
I’ve been In England three months now. 1 have loved you as long
as I have known you.
♦
THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
It is used to express a process that was taking place for some
period before a certain point or period of time in the past; it
may also be inclusive or exclusive.
80
I had been feeling nervous ever since we set foot in this
place. Rain had been falling, but now it had stopped.
In the latter example both verbs are in perfect forms, one
indicating a process (Past Perfect Continuous), the other — a
completed action (Past Perfect); both are prior to the moment
of speech in the past.
THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
It is used to denote a process lasting during some period
of time before a definite moment in the future and continuing
into the future.
I shall have been staying here for three weeks (by) next
Monday. I shall have been taking final examinations when
you arrive on June 13. (Compare this example with the
following: I shall have passed final examinations when
you arrive.)
This tense form is not much used.
SPECIAL CASES OF THE USE OF TENSE FORMS
English tense forms may also be used to express meanings
other than those of time relations and aspect distinctions.
1. The Present Indefinite
(1) Dramatic Present. In writing about past events the Pres­
ent Indefinite is sometimes used to increase vividness, or pres­
ent actions in a more dramatic way.
General Patton sees the enemy troops are disorganized.
He throws the balance of his tanks into a thrust at the
enemy’s left flank.
A refugee from the nightmare of Nazi Germany, Joseph
risks a brutal death by returning for his wife Helen. To­
gether they escape across war-scarred Europe, tracked down
by Helen’s brother Georg — a sadistic Gestapo officer
who has sworn revenge on Joseph.
The dramatic present is very widely used in fiction.
For a moment everything seems to tremble and he doesn't
know what is trembling — the ruined city... or the little
yellow book in his hand.
81
Suddenly everything is forgotten. He no longer under­
stands why he had come to the station alone, no longer
understands anything.
This form is useful when describing the action of a play, ope­
ra etc., and is often used by radio commentators at sport
events, public functions, etc.
When the curtain rises, Juliet is sitting at her desk. The
phone rings. She picks it up and listens quietly. Meanwhile
the window opens and a masked man enters the room.
Barret slams into Redding, steals the puck and starts
down ice...
It is also commonly used in newspaper headlines.
Parents Find Child After Being Lost All Night. Pay
Freeze Protest Grows.
(2) Present Indefinite in stage directions. The author uses
brief remarks (in brackets) to show what the actors are to do.
Airs Fitzgerald — Is George home? (She sits beside Mrs
Pearson on the settee.)
(3) Present Indefinite may be used in conversation when
the speaker wants to emphasize that he does know certain facts
or just on the contrary, has-forgotten them; here, the Present
Indefinite of such verbs as hear and forget is frequently used.
IJtear vou (are 2oing to be married3
(have got married.
I forget how old he is. Я забыл... (Я не помню...)
I forget is used here as a kind of negative to I remember.
2. The Present Continuous
The form of Present Continuous showing action in progress,
Is, for this reason, more vivid and dynamic than that of Present
Indefinite; the use of the Present Continuous gives more life
and emotional power to a statement while the Present Indefi­
nite states things in a matter-of-fact way.
Therefore the Present Continuous is often used to make a
statement more expressive, to emphasize the intensity of ac-.
tion (or state of being) or to convey emotional colouring to it.
This is characteristic of conversational English, therefore
is far more often used in dialogue than in description.
92
Thus, the Present Continuous is used: .
(1) To characterize a person by describing his habitual ac­
tion that causes the speaker’s irritation or irony or just on the
contrary, approval or admiration.
You’re always losing things. You’re always finding fault
with me. He is always asking questions. She is always
helping people.
Note that the continuous verb Is to be used here with the adverb
always (or its synonym).
(2) To stress the intensity of physical perception, feeling
or mental process; verbs of senses, feeling, thinking and saying
are frequently used in this case (otherwise they are very rarely
used in continuous form).
She is constantly thinking of you. Она днем и ночью ду­
мает о вас. Vm not finding it so difficult. Я вовсе не ду­
маю, что это так трудно. Vm beginning to feel I hardly
know him — as if he were a stranger. Да, теперь я пони­
маю, как мало я знаю его...
(3) То give a kind of emotional colouring to an action or
state; a number of verbs, the linking verb to be among them,
are used here to express a great variety of emotional shades.
She is knowing too much. (It implies irony: Уж очень
много она знает!) I see you are still being sentimental.
(The speaker is sorry about the fact: А вы все так же сенти­
ментальны, как я вижу.) Lady Chevierix-Gore is being
wonderful. Grand woman! Full of courage. (It expresses
admiration: Леди Чеверикс-Гор держится просто вели­
колепно. Прекрасная, мужественная женщина!)
Note. Other continuous forms may also be used for the same sty­
listical purposes, though less frequently than the Present Continuous.
The use of the Present Continuous is limited by conversa­
tional English.
3. The Past Continuous
It may also be used in narration — to attain a better ex­
pressiveness of style by conveying emotional colouring to it,
I never used to be sure when he was being serious or when
he wasn’t. They were quarrelling now, like two insane
83
people. They were both stretched beyond normal reason.
“Excuse me. You were saying — ?” “What?” “You were
saying something — or about to say something.”
4. The Present Perfect Continuous
It is more and more widely used in spoken English for the
same stylistical purposes as the Present Continuous.
I suppose you have been telling lies again. Vve been asking
you for years not to keep your books in the kitchen. One
talks, and then weeks and months later one learns the
meaning of the things one has been saying.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
*
By sequence of tenses we mean the back-shifting of tenses
in reported speech if the introductory verb used in the main
clause is in the past.
When we change direct speech into indirect, tenses change
as follows:
Direct speech
Present Indefinite changes to
Present Continuous
»
Past Indefinite
»
Present Perfect
»
Past Continuous
»
Future
>
Indirect speech
Past Indefinite
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Future in the Past
The back-shifting of tenses Is quite natural when the fact
reported belongs definitely to the past.
He told me that she .was ill, but now (he tells me that)
she is all right again.
Very frequently, however, the shifting is not required logi­
cally. The speaker simply goes on speaking in the tense adapted
tq the main idea.
* See: O. Jesperseo. Essentials oj English Grammar. Allen & Unwin,
LTD., 1969. P. Christophersen, A. Sandved. An Advanced English
Grammar. Ldn., 1969.
84
I didn’t know you were here. (You are here, but I didn’t
know.) 1 tried to forget who I was. What did you say your
name was? Who’s in the house besides you? I thought it
was empty.
Thus there may be two kinds of sequence of tenses: formal
and logical.
The former is normally used in object clauses, no matter
how illogical it may look.
However, formal sequence of tenses is not observed where
logical time relations are of more significance than formal
rules; thus tenses are not shifted in statements of universal truth.
We learned at school that two and two is four. Columbus
proved that the earth is round. В u t : I thought you were
a gentleman (now I see you are not). The ancients thought
that the sun moved round the earth (which is wrong).
These examples show that the use of the past indicates that
the thinking was untruthful.
NOTES ON RENDERING ENGLISH TENSES IN RUSSIAN
Problems in translation are caused by:
(1) the difference of the aspect meanings expressed by the
English tenses and the Russian aspect forms;
(2) special cases of the use of tense forms;
(3) the existence of the formal sequence of tenses in English.
1. Aspect Problems
The aspect forms of the Russian verb show whether an ac­
tion is completed or not completed; in English an action is
presented as continuous or non-continuous.
Generally speaking, the continuous tense forms correspond
to the Russian несовершенный вид (an action in progress)
while some perfect tense forms correspond to the Russian со­
вершенный вид (a completed action).
He is translating an article. Он переводит (какую-то)
статью.
Не has translated the article. Он (уже) перевел статью.
As for perfect continuous forms, they usually correspond
to the Russian несовершенный вид.
y
85
He has been translating the article for three days (now)..
Он переводит эту статью уже три дня.
The time distinctions expessed by the Present Perfect Con­
tinuous may be conveyed in Russian either by the present or
the past tense of the imperfective aspect. It depends on whether
we deal with the inclusive or the exclusive perfect continuous
forms.
Vve been cleaning the house since morning. I think, Г11
be through in a couple of hours. Я занимаюсь уборкой
с утра. Думаю, что часа через два закончу ее.
Гое been doing it since morning. Now I’m through with
it and can have a rest. Я занимаюсь этим с самого утра.
Теперь я закончил и могу отдохнуть.
The indefinite tense forms present an action in a general
way, irrespective of its completion or incompletion. Therefore
these tenses may be rendered by either of the Russian aspect
forms.
He read a lot of stories by A. Christie during his summer
vacation. Он прочел... (совершенный вид)
Did you read any other stories by A. Christie? Вы читали..?
(несовершенный вид)
2. Special Cases
Rendering the dramatic present is no problem, for we have
the similar use of the present tense in Russian. But the emphatic
use of the continuous tense forms is a peculiarity of the English
language. Emotional characteristics expressed by English tense
forms can be conveyed in Russian lexically (see p. 83).
3. Sequence of Tenses Problem
We should take into consideration the formal character of
the sequence of tenses in English which is not to be reproduced
in Russian translation.
What did you say your father’s name was? Как» вы ска­
зали, зовут вашего отца?
(The past tense form ...звали вашего отца would be wrong
in translation because it would mean that the man is dead now.)
The Reuter Agency reported that the British troops were
retreating towards the coast. Агентство Рейтер сообщило,
что войска отступают к побережью.
(The use of the past form in Russian would be wrong, as
it would bring about a change of meaning. The right transla­
tion is отступают, denoting the action simultaneous with the
moment of speech.)
VOICE
Voice
*
is a grammatical category of the verb which indicates
the relation between an action and its agent. It shows whether
the subject is the doer of the action or whether it is acted upon.
The verb in Modern English has two voice forms: the Active
Voice and the Passive Voice.
The Active Voice shows that the person or thing denoted by
the subject is the doer of the action expressed by the predicate,
i. e. the action is performed by its subject.
The Passive Voice shows that the person or thing denoted
by the subject is acted upon, i. e. the subject is the recipient
of the action.
Most of the active, tenses in English have passive equiva­
lents. These are formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be
in the appropriate tense and participle II of the notional verb.
Tense
Present Indefinite
Present Continuous
Past Indefinite
Past Continuous
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Future Indefinite
Active Voice
(often) discuss it
Passive Voice
It is (often) discus­
sed
We are discussing it It is being discussed
We discussed it
It was discussed
We were discussing It was being dis­
it
cussed
We have discussed It has been discus­
it
sed
We had discussed it It had been discus­
sed
We shall discuss it It will be discussed
* See: Л. С. Бархударов, Д. А. Щтелинг, op. cit.„ p. 46—65. E. M. Гор­
дон, И. П. Крылова. Tense and Voice in Modern English. M., «Меж­
дународные отношения», 1971, p. 139—166.
67
We shall have discussed it
etc.
Future Perfect
etc.
It will have
discussed
etc.
been
Verbals can also be expressed in two voices:
Active Voice
Infinitive
Gerund
etc.
to discuss
discussing
etc.
Passive Voice
to be discussed
being discussed
etc.
A word-group formed by a noun (or its equivalent) + a
verb in the passive voice is called a passive construction.
The second component of a passive construction can be ex­
pressed either by a finite verb or by a verbal.
The news was published in yesterday’s issue. We are waiting
for the news to be published. They are discussing the news
to be published in tomorrow’s issue. We are waiting for
the news to be published. They are discussing the news to
be published in tomorrow’s issue. The editor was against
the news being published. The news being published on
the front page, the editorial comments on it.
TENSE FORMS IN THE PASSIVE VOICE
The use of tense and aspect forms in the active and the pas­
sive is much the same.
Present: The students are examined each term.
Past: The students were examined last month.
Future: The students will be examined next month.
(
Perfect
Present: The students have been examined this
month.
Past: The students had been examined by July 15.
Future: The students will have been examined
by July 15.
Continuous
Present: The students are being examined in
room 10.
Past: The students were still being examined
when I left.
88
Note 1. The forms of the Future Continuous and those of the
Present, Past and Future Perfect Continuous are not to be found in the
Passive Voice.
Note 2. An action going on at a definite moment in the future
may be expressed either by the Future Continuous Active or by the Fu­
ture Indefinite Passive.
Professor Brown will still be examining the students when you
come.— The students will still be examined when you come.
Note 3. An action that began before a definite moment in the
present, past or future, and continued up to that moment is expressed
either bv the Present, Past and Future Perfect Continuous Active or by
the Present, Past and Future Perfect Passive.
Professor Brown had been examining the students for two hours
when you came.— The students had been examined for two hours
when you came.
THE USE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE
The Passive Voice is used in English when it is more impor­
tant to stress the thing done rather than the doer of it, or when
the doer is unknown.
My watch has been stolen. The results will be 'published
tomorrow. Silence is requested. Five miners were injured
in a pit explosion in Sapporo, Japan, yesterday.
The agent, when mentioned, is preceded by the preposition
by.
“Pygmalion” was written by Bernard Shaw. St Paul’s
Cathedral was designed by Christopher Wren.
A passive construction is also used when the agent is not
mentioned for some special reason (tact or delicacy of feeling,
etc.). The mentioning of the first person is usually avoided in
scientific writing.
This dictionary has been compiled to meet the needs of
foreign students of English. Enough has been said here
of the subject which will be treated more fully in a subse­
quent chapter.
' PECULIARITIES OF THE PASSIVE VOICE IN ENGLISH
The main difference between the Passive Voice in English
and that in Russian is the following:
(1) Passive constructions are more widely used in English
than in Russian.
89
(2) A much greater number of verbs can be used in the
Passive Voice in English than in Russian.
The reason why passive constructions are more widespread
in English than in Russian can be accounted for by the analyti­
cal structure of English grammar.
English nouns have no case-inflexions; therefore it is im­
possible to express the object of an action by changing the gram­
matical form of the noun. What is indicated in Russian by inflex­
ions is often expressed in English by word-order; thus the
object is normally placed after its verb.
They met the delegation at the station<
But when the object of the action is more important than
its subject, an active construction is turned into a passive one.
The delegation was met at the station.
Russian being highly inflexional, the same idea can be ex­
pressed in two ways:
Делегацию встретили на вокзале.
Делегация была встречена на вокзале.
There is no alternative of this kind in English: the only
possible way of expressing this kind of subject — object rela­
tions is by using a passive construction. And this is one of the
reasons why passive constructions are more widely spread in
English than in Russian.
The other reason is that the second component of a passive
construction can be expressed in English by a much greater
number of verbs than it is normally expressed in Russian.
There are cases when the use of the Passive Voice in English
seems very peculiar to Russian students because we find noth­
ing of the kind in Russian. These cases are the following:
(1) Transitive verbs taking two objects, direct and indirect,
form two kinds of passive constructions:
He gave me a book.
book
8’ven (to) me.
Б
11 was given a book.
The last sentence shows that the indirect object of an ac­
tive construction can be made the subject of a passive construc­
tion in English, which is quite impossible in Russian.
Thus the verbs advise, allow, ask, deny, forgive, give, grant,
offer, order, pay, promise, refuse, show, teach, tell are widely used
in the Passive Voice.
00
She was shown the way. We were told to wait. He was offer»
ed a better job. Negroes are denied civil rights in the U. S.
(2) Intransitive verbs taking a prepositional object can
be used passively too, which is out of the question in Russian.
Here belong the following verbs: account for, agree to, upon,
arrive at (an agreement, a compromise, a conclusion, a decision),
call for, call on, comment on, count on, depend on, hear of, insist
on, interfere with, laugh at, listen to, look after, look at, look down
on, look up to, look upon, provide for, put up with, tefer to, rely
on, run over, sendjor, speak about, of, to, talk about, over, to.
In this case the prepositional object of an active construc­
tion becomes the subject of a passive construction, the prepo­
sition being put after the passive verb.
The decision was arrived at. The statement was widely
commented on. The film was much talked about. I’m not
going to be talked to like this. He only spoke when he was
spoken to.
Note. To send for can be used only in connection with people.
“Where is the doctor?” “He has been sent for."
(3) Some other intransitive verbs such as live, sleep, etc.
may be used in passive constructions similar to those with the
above-mentioned intransitive verbs. The peculiarity of this case
is that the subject of a passive construction corresponds to the
adverbial modifier of an active construction (or to that of the
corresponding Russian sentence).
The bed had not been slept in. The room had been lived in
too long.
(4) A number of phraseological verb + noun groups can also
be used in the Passive Voice and thus form passive construc­
tions. Here belong the following: find fault with, lose sight of,
make fun of, make use of, pay attention to, put an end to, take
care of, take (no) notice of, etc.
The boat was soon lost sight of In the fog. The child
should be taken care of. His remark was taken no notice of.
This bloodshed must be put an end to.
Note. Care should be taken not to confiise a simple predicate ex­
pressed by a verb in the passive with a compound nominal predicate
consisting of the linking verb to be + a predicative in the form of parti­
ciple II. The matter is that either of them is made up Of the same elements.
However, be +. participle II denotes an action when it is a simple predi­
01
cate and it denotes a state in case of a compound predicate. Compare
these two sentences:
When I came, the gate had already been locked, (an action denoted
by a simple predicate)
As It was a late hour, the gate was locked. ( a state denoted by a
compound predicate)
The use of tense forms depends on these two meanings of the group
to be + participle II; it also affects the way of rendering it in Rus­
sian. Thus, it is ...ворота уже заперли in the former of the two sentences,
and ...ворота были заперты in the latter.
NOTES ON RENDERING PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS IN
RUSSIAN
As already said, passive constructions are much more used
in English than in Russian. Therefore it is not always possible
to retain a passive construction in translation from English
into Russian.
(1) When a verb in the original passive construction corre­
sponds to a transitive verb in Russian, this construction may
be rendered in two ways:
The defendant was acquitted. ’• Подсудимый был оправдан.
*
2. Подсудимого оправдали.
The second variant is more conversational, while the first
one is typical of formal o; literary style.
Thus a passive construction of the original is sometimes trans­
formed in translation in an active one for stylistical reasons.
A passive construction often retains in translations of news­
paper articles and official documents.
The resolution was adopted by an overwhelming majority.
Резолюция была принята подавляющим большинством
голосов. The protest was timed for the third anniversary
of the public execution of the young patriot. Демонстра­
ция протеста была приурочена к третьей годовщине пуб­
личной казни молодого патриота.
(2) When a verb in the original passive construction corre­
sponds to an intransitive verb in Russian, it is impossible to
convey its meaning by a passive construction in Russian.
The report was followed by a long debate. За докладом
последовали долгие прения.
(3) This is also the case with sentences containing the socalled complex subject; such sentences are frequently used in
reporting news.
92
The delegation is expected to arrive tomorrow.
The passive verb of this construction is conveyed in Rus­
sian either by an indefinite personal construction (неопреде­
ленно-личный оборот) or by a parenthetical phrase (вводный
оборот).
1. Ожидают, что ч
2. Ожидается, что ^делегация прибудет завтра.
3. Как ожидают, J
Here are another two examples:
A lawyer is supposed
to know what to do
under such circum­
stances.
1. Предполагается,
что юрист должен
знать,
2. Юристу положено
знать,
3. Юрист
должен
знать,
The flood is reported
to have caused great
damage to the crop.
1. Сообщают, что}
2. Как сообщают,]
что делать в
таких обстоя­
тельствах.
наводнение на­
несло большой
ущерб урожаю.
MOOD
Mood * is a grammatical category of the verb expressing
modality, i. e. the relation of the action denoted by the predi­
cate to reality from the speaker’s point of view.
Finite verbs have three moods in Modern English:
(1) the Indicative Mood,
(2) the Imperative Mood,
(3) the Subjunctive Mood.
Non-finite verbs have no moods.
1. THE INDICATIVE MOOD
z
The Indicative Mood represents an action as a fact of real­
ity, or as in close relation with reality; the latter refers to con­
• See: A. J. Thomson, A. V. Martinet, op. cit., p. 213—223, 270-272.
E. M. Гордон, И. П. Крылова. ModalItyjn Modern English, M.,
«Международные отношениям 1968, p. 79—131.
93
ditional sentences expressing a real condition that can be
easily realized.
The sun rises in the east, (a fact) I shall not go to the
country, if it rains, (a real condition)
Note. Future tense forms are not to be used in conditional
clauses and are replaced by the forms of the present.
Morphologically the Indicative Mood is the most developed
system including all the categories of the verb.
2. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD
The Imperative Mood represents an action as a command
or request. It is a direct expression of the speaker’s will.
Morphologically it is the least developed of all moods.
The imperative of the second person (the most common form)
is the same as the infinitive without to:
' Cornel Gol Stopl
The auxiliary verb do 4- not is used to form the negative.
Don’t come (go, stop)!
The pronoun you is understood but not normally used.
There are also analytical forms of the Imperative Mood for
ihe first and the third person made up according to the model
let + noun or pronoun 4- infinitive (without to).
Let us ask him. Let him go. Let them do it.
The first person plural is usually contracted.
Let’s go. Let’s do it.
The negative is made by adding not before the infinitive.
Let’s not go. Let them not go.
Note. The third person negative forms are not common and are
normally replaced by must.
They must not go.
. There is also an emphatic form, which is used to make the imperative more persuasive. It is done by putting do in front
of the ordinary form. The word do is stressed in speech.
Do let’s go. (with the negative: “Don’t let us go”.) Do
come and help me. Do tell me more about it.
94
3. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
The Subjunctive Mood presents an action as a non-fact,
' as something imaginary or desirable, i. e. as something problemat­
ic. It does not reflect an actual reality, but shows something
formed in the mind of the speaker as a supposition, desire,
volition, etc.
THE FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
What we understand by the Subjunctive Mood includes two
entirely different kinds of forms, synthetical and analytical,
united by the same grammatical meaning of irreality.
The synthetical forms of the Subjunctive Mood are survivals
of the old simple subjunctive. They are divided into the socalled Present Subjunctive (be, have, do, work, etc. for all the
persons, singular and plural) and the Past Subjunctive (were,
had, did, worked, etc.).
The Present Subjunctive forms have become archaic and are
found as survivals in poetry, high prose, official documents and
some set expressions. They are not used in colloquial speech in
British English, but are rather common in American English
where many archaic features are better preserved:
He insisted that you be present.
The Past Subjunctive has lost its past meaning and its forms
are used to denote an unreal action referring to the present or
to the future. An unreal action prior to the moment of speech
(i. e. referring to the past) is expressed by the Past Perfect Sub­
junctive (i. e. the form of the subjunctive homonymous to the
Past Perfect Indicative).
I wish he were here (now). I wish he had been here (yesterday).
Thus there are two forms in the Subjunctive Mood which
are homonymous to those of the Indicative Mood: the Past Sub­
junctive — the Past Indefinite Indicative, the Past Perfect
Subjunctive — the Past Perfect Indicative.
The new analytical forms with should or would have replaced
the former Present Subjunctive in conversational English.
Should (would) + simple infinitive denotes an unreal ac­
tion not preceding the moment of speech, while should (would) +
perfect infinitive is used to denote an unreal action preceding
the moment of speech.
95
I would buy it if I had the money. I would have bought
it if I had had the money.
The Subjunctive Mood has no tense forms to denote time
relations. The forms of the Subjunctive Mood indicate only
whether an action is thought of as prior or not to the moment
of speech.
Note. The rules of the sequence of tenses are not applied to re­
ported speech expressed in the Subjunctive Mood.
She said she would buy it if she had the money.
(The Subjunctive Mood forms here express an unreal action referring
to the time following the moment of speech: Она сказала, что купила
бы это... . These forms are homonymous to those of the future in the
past: Она сказала, что купит это. . . .)
She said she would have bought it if she had had the money.
(The Subjunctive Mood forms here express an unreal action prior to
the moment of speech.)
Thus the Subjunctive Mood forms used in indirect speech are the
same as in direct speech.
THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Simple Sentences
Here the synthetical forms of the Subjunctive Mood are
more frequent than the analytical ones.
The Present Subjunctive is used:
(1) in a few expressions of wish and hope
Де it sol Да будет так! Come what willl Будь что будет!
Success attend youl Да сопутствует вам успех! Long live
our country! Да здравствует наша страна!
(2) in oaths and imprecations
Manners be hangedX Damn you!
The Past Subjunctive is used in exclamatory sentences to
express an unreal wish.
If only he were free! If only he knew it!
The analytical would + simple or perfect infinitive is used
to express belief or disbelief, or, rather, to state what would be
likely or unlikely under certain circumstances.
96
I would do it by all means. He wouldn't do a thing like
this. 1 would do anything for you. I wouldn't have the cour­
age to do so. Five years before, I would not have under­
stood it. “Why didn’t you leave him?” “What would
have been the good of that?”
The emotional should 4- simple or perfect infinitive is used
to express irritation or indignation. It is found in why-questions
corresponding to the Russian С какой стати...? К чему...?
Why should you and I talk about it? Why should there be
one law for men, and another for women?
Complex Sentences
The Subjunctive Mood forms can be used in the main or
subordinate clause, or in both parts of different types of complex
sentences.
1. The Use of the Subjunctive Mood in Subject Clauses
In subject clauses introduced by it the use of different forms
of the Subjunctive Mood depends on the lexical meaning of
the predicate of the main clause.
(1) The analytical subjunctive should + infinitive is used
after expressions of necessity or recommendation.
ft is (was)
necessary
important
obligatory
advisable
desirable
urgent
that they should discuss it.
(2) The same form is found after the passive construction
of some verbs expressing suggestion, order, decision.
suggested
demanded
decided
proposed
that we should meet at 5 o’clock.
agreed
it is (was)
arranged
determined
required
requested
recommended
4—601
07
Note. In formal style the Present Subjunctive Is used instead of
the analytical form.
It was proposed that the conference open at 10 o’clock.
In all these cases the action of the subordinate clause refers
to the present or future. As a result should is never combined
with the perfect infinitive in such constructions.
As a rule, subject clauses of this type are introduced by the
conjunction that.
(3) The Past Subjunctive is used after the expression it
is time (also it is high time, it is about time).
It is time you knew the rule. It is high time they made
up their quarrel.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed here.
It is time he stopped behaving like that. It was time he
stopped behaving like that.
2. The Use of the Subjunctive Mood in Predicative Clauses
Here the forms of the Subjunctive Mood depend either on
the lexical meaning of the subject of the main clause or that of
the linking verb.
(1) When the subject of the main clause is expressed by such
abstract nouns as wish, suggestion, aim, condition, idea, etc.
the analytical subjunctive with should (for all persons) is Used.
His aim was that his enemies should be discredited. The
condition was that I should join one of those clubs.
(2) When the linking verb (be, feel, look, seem, etc.) is fol­
lowed by the conjunction as if or as though the Past or Past Per­
fect Subjunctive is used as the predicative.
r
It was as if she were angry with me. He looked as if he
knew it to be true. I felt as if I had gone blind. It was as
though the world had gone dark.
These examples show that the Past Subjunctive is used
when the action of the predicative clause is simultaneous with
that of the main clause (or the linking verb). When the action
of the predicative clause is prior to that of the main clause
(or the linking verb) the Past Perfect Subjunctive is used.
98'
3. The Use of the Subjunctive Mood in Object Clauses
In object clauses the use of different forms of the Subjun­
ctive Mood depends on the lexical meaning of the verb in the
main clause.
(1) Thus should 4- infinitive is used in object clauses aft­
er verbs of suggestion or order.
In all these cases the action of the subordinate clause follows
the action of the principal clause. As a result, should is never
combined here with the perfect infinitive. Object clauses of
this type are generally introduced by the conjunction that.
He
suggests (suggested)
demands (demanded)
orders (ordered)
insists (insisted)
proposes (proposed)
moves (moved)
requests (requested)
requires (required)
that they should do
it right away.
Note. In official English should + infinitive may be replaced by
the Present Subjunctive.
I move that Mr N. be expelled from this club. The doctor insists
that he give up smoking.
(2) Past or Past Perfect Subjunctive is used in object
clauses after the verb wish.
If the action expressed in the object clause is thought of
as simultaneous with the moment of speech (or, rather, the time
of expressing wish) the Past Subjunctive is used.
I wish he were here. Как бы мне хотелось, чтобы он был
здесь сейчас. (Как жаль, что его здесь нет.) I wish I
knew what to do. Хотел бы я знать, что мне делать.
(К сожалению, я не знаю, что мне делать.)
If the action expressed in the object clause is thought of as
prior to the moment of speech the Past Perfect Subjunctive is
used.
I wish he had been with us. Как жаль, что его не было тогда
с нами. I wish we had thought of it before. Как жаль, что мы
не подумали об этом раньше.
4*
99
Note 1. The analytical subjunctive with would may be used
with the second or third person in clauses referring to the present or fu­
ture.
I wish you would help us. I wish she’d [ind something to do. I
wish he would tell me the truth.
N о t e 2. The analytical form could -f- simple or perfect infini­
tive may be used for all persons.
1 wish I could help you. I wish you could believe that.
I wish he could have told me that before.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in this construc­
tion.
I wish he were with us. I wished he were with us.
4. The Use of the Subjunctive Mood in Attributive Clauses
In attributive clauses which are usually introduced by the
conjunction that the use of the Subjunctive Mood depends on
the lexical meaning of the noun they modify.
We find should + infinitive (or rarely the Present Subjunc­
tive) after nouns expressing order, suggestion, wish, agreement
and decision. Here belong such nouns as suggestion, proposal,
demand, order, request, requirement, recommendation, understand­
ing, decision, agreement, wish, desire, ambition, etc.
We remember his request that all his books should be
kept in place. They unanimously supported the proposal
that a committee should be appointed to deal with the
matter.
The Present Subjunctive is found in statements of formal
style.
The proposal that a special committee be set up to inves­
tigate the matter met with unanimous support.
5. The Use of the Subjunctive Mood in Conditional Sentences
Conditional sentences have two parts: the if-clause and the
main clause. The Past or Past Perfect Subjunctive is used in
the if-clause to express an unreal condition, and should (would) +
+ simple or perfect infinitive — in the main clause to express its
possible consequence.
Ю0
There are three types of sentences of unreal condition.
Type 1.
Improbable condition
The verb in the if-clause is in the Past Subjunctive. The
verb in the main clause is in the analytical form should (would} +
4-simple infinitive. The Subjunctive Mood here is used to indi­
cate that the supposition is imaginary and refers to the present
or future.
If I saw him I should (would} speak to him.
If you started off tomorrow morning, you would (could,
might} be at your destination, by evening.
T у p e 2. Impossible condition
The verb in the if-clause is in the Past Perfect Subjunctive.
The verb in the main clause is in the analytical form should
(would} 4- perfect infinitive.
Here the condition cannot be fulfilled because the situation
refers to the past.
If I had known of your arrival I should (would} have met
you. (but I didn’t know so I didn’t meet you)
If you had started off yesterday evening, you would
(could, might} have been at your destination by morning.
T у p e 3. Mixed
There are two cases here:
(1) The condition refers to the past and the consequence
refers to the present or future.
If you had taken the medicine yesterday, you would be bet­
ter now.
(2) The condition refers to na particular time and the con­
sequence refers to the past.
If she were not so absent-minded, she would not have lost
the way.
Note 1. As is known, sentences of real condition are expressed
in the Indicative Mood.
If I don't have my breakfast on time, 1 arrive at work late. If
1 start smoking, I sfta/Z start that silly Irritating cough again.
101
Note 2. There may be cases of the Subjunctive Mood used in
the conditional clause and the Indicative or Imperative Mood in the
main clause.
If you should come to my place, I shall be only glad. If he should
come, ask him to wait.
N о t e 3. W'en’-to-infinitlve can be used instead of the Past Sub­
junctive in type 1 to emphasize that the supposition is very unlikely.
И 1 passed the exam, everyone would be astonished. О r: If 1 were
to pass the exam, everyone would be astonished.
Both mean the same, but the second implies that the speaker does
not expect to pass (Если бы случилось так..., Случись так...).
N о t е 4. Conditional clauses with the auxiliary verbs were, had
and should are often introduced without any conjunction. Inversion is
used in such cases.
Were I to pass the exam, everyone would be astonished. Should
you come, I shall be too glad. Had you let me know beforehand,
I would have come Ьуч all means.
This construction is more used in writing than in conversation.
NoteS. Unreal condition can also be expressed in the following
ways.
(1) Bui for the rain, we should go to the country. Если бы не дождь,
мы бы поехали за город. But for the rain, they would have gone
to the country yesterday. Если бы не дождь, мы бы вчера пое­
хали за город. (The same situation refers to the past.)
(2) If it were not for the storm, we should arrive on time, Если бы не
шторм, мы бы, пожалуй, и смогли прибыть вовремя. If it
had not been for the storm, we should have arrived much earlier.
Если бы не шторм, мы бы прибыли гораздо раньше.
6. The Use of the Subjunctive Mood in Adverbial Clauses
Besides conditional sentences, the Subjunctive Mood forms
expressing unreality are found in adverbial clauses of purpose,
of comparison and of concession.
(1) Clauses of purpose are introduced by the conjunction
so that (sometimes that, in order that which are more characteris­
tic of literary style or $o which is colloquial). The predicate in
these clauses is expressed by might or could 4- infinitive.
I spoke to them so that they might (could) tell me the truth.
I tried to forget it so that I could go on living.
The analytical subjunctive form should + infinitive (es­
pecially in the negative) is also often used in clauses of purpose.
102
She spoke In a low voice so that the baby should not wake
up. We hurried up so that we should not miss the train. He
advised him to marry so that he’d have someone to look
after him.
Note. In literary style clauses of purpose are sometimes Introdu­
ced by the conjunction lest, In this case should 4-lnflnitlve is used in the
affirmative as the conjunction lest has a negative meaning.
He hid the letter lest his father should read it.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in
clauses with the Subjunctive Mood.
(2) Clauses of comparison may be also Interpreted as clauses
of manner (the question asked is How?). They are introduced by
the conjunction as if or as though.
The Past Subjunctive is used to show that the action of
the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the main
clause.
She speaks of the man as if she knew him very well. She
moved about as if she were made of glass.
The Past Perfect Subjunctive is used to show that the ac­
tion of the subordinate clause is prior to that of the main clause.
She -speaks of the book as if she had read it. He looked at
me as if I had gone mad.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in this
kind of clause.
(3) Clauses of concession introduced by the conjunction
even if or even though have much in common with conditional
clauses. Complex sentences with clauses of concession are built
up on the same pattern as sentences of unreal condition: the.
Past or Past Perfect Subjunctive is used in the subordinate
clause and the analytical form should or would + simple or
perfect infinitive— in the main clause.
. Even if he knew about it, he wouldn't tell us anything.
Even if he had known about it, he wouldn't have told us
".
anything.
Nott 1. In complex sentences with a clause of concession intro­
duced by though, although, no matter how. whenever, wherever, eta the
Indicative Mood is usea In both clauses.
Though it will be cold we shall go skating. No matter how hard you
try, you f/ail to do it.
N о t e 2. In literary style may (might) + infinitive is occasion­
ally used.
No matter what may happen I will always be loyal to him.
103
NOTES ON RENDERING SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS IN
RUSSIAN
(1) In many cases the English Subjunctive Mood can be
conveyed by the corresponding Subjunctive Mood forms in
Russian.
If she had seen me there, she would have been puzzled. Если
бы она встретила меня там, это ее очень удивило бы.
They passed her in silence as if she did not exist. Они молча
прошли мимо нее, как будто бы ее вообще не сущест­
вовало.
(2) However, the English Subjunctive is occasionally re­
placed by the Indicative Mood in Russian translation.
He dropped his voice so that the other men in the room
should not hear him. Он заговорил тише, чтобы другие
люди в комнате не слышали его. Не withdrew his eyes lest
she should read them. Он отвел глаза в сторону, чтобы
она не догадалась обо всем по их выражению. She urged
that they should go to Europe. Она настаивала на том,
чтобы они поехали в Европу.
(3) When the subject of the subordinate clause is the same
as that of the principal clause, the infinitive may be used in
Russian to render the English Subjunctive Mood.
It was raining and I suggested we should stay at home. Шел
дождь, и я предложил остаться дома. We hurried up
so that we should not miss the train. -Мы поторопились,
чтобы не опоздать на поезд.
(4) The Subjunctive Mood forms used in object clauses after
the verb wish can be rendered in two ways:
(a) either by the subjunctive forms Я бы хотел, Мне бы
хотелось followed by the infinitive or the object clause, with
the predicate in the Indicative;
(b) or by Как жаль, что... followed by the object clause
of the Russian sentence, with the predicate verb in the Indica­
tive.
I wish 1 deserved
compliment.
your
'
104
1. Я очень бы хотел быть doстойным вашего компли­
мента.
2. Как жаль, что я не достоин
вашего комплимента.
I wish you didn't inter
rapt me.
1. Мне хотелось бы, чтобы вы
меня не перебивали.
2. Как жаль, что вы меня пе­
ребиваете.
MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs
*
make up a small group of structural words
having certain semantic and grammatical peculiarities.
The most important modal verbs are: can (could), may
(might), must, need, ought, should, shall, will (would).
Besides, there is a group of the so-called equivalents of mod­
al verbs, namely the verbs to be (to) and to have (to) and the
phrase to be able (to). Being different from modal verbs
morphologically, they have much in common with them in
meaning and function.
Unlike all other verbs, modal verbs do not denote an action
but are used to express abstract modal meanings of possibility,
necessity, volition, etc. Sometimes they are also used to express
different emotions such as doubt, surprise, reproach, etc.
As far as their function in the sentence is concerned, modal
verbs are structural. Due to the fact that they express modal
relations, they are never used as independent parts of a sen­
tence. They are always used in combination with the infinitive
making up part of the compound modal predicate.
She cannot deceive me. You must not allow children
do it.
to
The infinitive associated with a modal verb may be used
in any form, i. e. non-perfect or perfect, non-continuous or
continuous, active or passive.
Modal verbs express the grammatical categories of primary
tense and mood.
Indicative Mood
Subjunctive Mood
Present
Past
can
may
will
could
might
would
could
might
would
* For more details see: A. J. Thomson, A. V. Martinet, op. cit., p. 109—
159, 224—236. E. M. Гордон, И. П. Крылова. Modality in Modern
English. M., «Международные отношения», 1968, p. 7—76. Л. С. Бар­
хударов, Д. А. Штелинг, op. cit., p. 309—327. '
105
Some modal verbs, for instance must, should, ought, have
only one unchangeable form.
Modal verbs are called defective because they lack some
grammatical forms:
(1) They do not take the s-inflex ion in the 3rd person sin­
gular.
(2) All of them lack verbals and analytical forms.
(3) All of them, except ought and sometimes need, are fol­
lowed by the infinitive without the particle to.
Most of the modal verbs have more than one meaning. Some
of their meanings may be found in all kinds of sentences; others
occur only in affirmative or negative or interrogative sentences.
Different meanings may be associated with different forms
of the infinitive.
If modal verbs have more than one form (can — could, may —
might, will — would, to have and to be), their different meanings
are not necessarily found in all those forms.
CAN
The verb can is used to express:
(1) Physical or mental ability; in this meaning it is used
only with the indefinite infinitive in all kinds of sentences.
Can you swim? Could anyone run faster? He can read French.
She could speak English fluently. I can't promise you any­
thing. He couldn't help me last time.
Its equivalent to be (un)able + infinitive is used in the mean­
ing of physical ability, especially with reference to the future
or past.
Our baby will be able to walk in a few weeks. Henry was
unable to move, as he had been badly hurt in the game.
(2) Possibility due to circumstances; in this meaning it
is also used with the indefinite infinitive.
One can Use either the definite or the indefinite article
in this case. Can I have my photo taken right now? You
ycould see this picture at the exhibition last year.
This meaning is occasionally expressed by be able to, which
is usually found with a future or past time reference.
He will be (was) able to get the book from the library to­
morrow (yesterday).
106
The subjunctive could + indefinite infinitive Is used with
a present or future time reference when there is an idea of con­
dition.
Could you get another job (if you left this one)? I could
get a copy if you want.
The subjunctive could + perfect infinitive is used for pos­
sibility in the past, when:
(a) the action was not performed
He could have stopped the train (but he didn’t). I could
have lent you the money if you had asked me.
(b) we don’t know whether it was performed or not
“The money has disappeared! Who could have taken it?”
“Tom could have (taken it); he was here alone yesterday.”
(3) Doubt, uncertainty, improbability; in these meanings
canlcould is found in interrogative and negative sentences.
Can/could it be true? Неужели это правда? It can't!
couldri t be true. He может быть,- чтобы это было так.
(The subjunctive form could expresses a greater doubt.)
Depending on the time reference, canlcould is
different forms of the infinitive. Thus, if reference
the present, the indefinite infinitive is found with
cannot have the continuous form (see the above
With verbs that can have the continuous form, the
infinitive is used.
used with
is made to
verbs that
examples).
continuous
Can/could she be telling lies? She can't/couldn't be telling
lies.
Can + perfect infinitive is used to refer the action to the
past.
Can he have said it? Неужели он сказал это? Не can't
have said it. He может быть, чтобы он сказал это. (Он
не мог этого сказать.)
The subjunctive could is occasionally used to express the same
meanings.
“Who brought the piano upstairs?’’ “Perhaps it was Tom.”
“He can't/couldrit have done it by himself.”
Ю7
Either can/can't or could/couldn't can be used when the de­
duction is made in the present. However, only could/couldrit
must be used when the deduction is made in the past or when the
event mentioned is disconnected from the present.
We were silent... Could we have run out of conversation
so quickly? Could I have dropped my wallet in the shop?
I turned to go back... I knew that he couldrit have caught
the 9.00. train for he only left his house at 9.15. He was not
old. He couldri t have been more than fifty. “A man answe­
red the phone. I suppose it was her husband.” “No, it
couldn't have been her husband. He’s been away from London
for months.”
(4) Request, permission, prohibition; can/could is followed
by the indefinite infinitive in all kinds of sentences.
"Can I take your dictionary?” “Yes, you can," (Please
do.) “No, you can't."
You can use my phone. (= You have my permission to
do it.)
Can used for permission is an informal alternative to may.
Both can I? and could I? are used for requests, could being
more polite.
Can I/could
I borrow your dictionary?
w Could you? is used for a polite request as an alternative
to would you?
Could you show me the way? Could you wait half an bcur?
Couldn't you? is also possible as a request.
Couldn't you come a little earlfer? I'm afraid I'll be in
a hurry.
Can/could with all persons in the affirmative expresses the
idea of having permission.
w You can park outside my house. He said we could park
outside his house.
Can't/couldrit expresses prohibition.
You can't leave before six. (= I don’t allow you. You
are not allowed.) The junior clerks couldn't use the front
door. (= weren’t allowed to)
108
Note. When ян action was permitted and performed» It Is better
to use was/were allowed.
Each child was allowed to take one book home. Mary chose “Ro­
binson Crusoe”.
MA Y
The verb may
(1) Possibility
might is generally
by the indefinite
is used to express:
due to circumstances; in this meaning may!
used in affirmative sentences and is followed
infinitive.
From here you may go to London by bus or by car, but
you cannot go by train. He said we might go by bus there.
May can occasionally be used in negative sentences to ex­
press the idea of possibility-mixed with uncertainty.
He may or may not come tomorrow. Don’t worry. Things
may not be so bad after all.
The subjunctive form- might + perfect infinitive shows that
the action was not performed due to certain circumstances.
He might have been injured if Ъе hadn’t driven the oar so
carefully.
(2) Supposition implying uncertainty; in this meaning it
occurs in affirmative and negative sentences with all forms
of the infinitive. It is an alternative to perhaps or maybe.
May/might + indefinite or continuous infinitive expresses
uncertainty about present or future actions.
She may come today/tomorrow. (Perhaps she will come.)
She might still come. (The idea of uncertainty is empha­
sized still more in the subjunctive form.) She may/might
not know that you are here. She may/might be waiting for
you.
However, only might is to be used with a past time refer­
ence. Compare:
He said, “I may/might be late tonight.” He said that he
might be late that night.
May/might is not used in interrogative sentences in the
meaning oi supposition. Instead we use such expressions as
Do you think...? or Is he likely...?
10?
Is he likely to meet us? Do you think it will rain?
May!might + perfect/perfect continuous infinitive is used
in speculations about past actions.
She may/might have come. (= It is possible that she came.)
She may/might have been waiting for us since morning. I
think she may/might have missed the train.
Might is used when the main verb is in the past.
He thought she might have missed the train.
Only might is used when the uncertainty no longer exists.
The boy came home alone. You shouldn’t have let him do
that; he might have got lost, (but he didn’t get lost)
Might, not may, is also used when the matter was never put
to the test.
Perhaps we should have taken the other road. It might
have been quicker. If we had taken the other road, we
might have arrived earlier.
(3) Permission, request; in, these meanings may is found in
affirmative and interrogative sentences. In negative answers
to questions May I? it is usually replaced by can't (the form may
not is too formal).
Formal permission is always expressed by may\ informal
permission by can.
May I smoke in here?
Yes, you may.
No, you can't.
You may/can smoke in here. Candidates may not leave
the room till the end of the examination.
Might 1} can be used instead of May /? when asking for per­
mission and is a more polite form.
May/might I use your phone?
(4) The subjunctive form might can be used in affirmative
sentences to express a mild request or reproach.
You might tell me what he said.
It may mean: (a) Please tell me. (b) I am annoyed that you
haven’t told me already. You should have told me. I have a
right to know.
no
When followed by the perfect infinitive it expresses the speak­
er’s irritation at the non-performance of the action in the past.
You might have helped me.
(5) The expression may/might as well.
(a) 1 may as well + infinitive is a very mild and emphatic
way of expressing an intention. It can be used with other per­
sons to suggest or recommend an action.
I may as well take it with me. Я, пожалуй, возьму это с
собой. You may as well give him the letter. Пожалуй,
отдайте ему письмо.
It is also possible to use might instead of may.
I might as well take it with me.
(b) Might just as well means “It would be equally good to”
and is used to suggest alternative actions.
“Г11 go on Monday by the slow train.” “You might just
as Well wait till Tuesday and go on the fast one.” (Уж луч­
ше вам подождать до вторника... С таким же успехом
вы можете уехать во вторник скорым поездом.) “Г 11
go at six.” “That is far too late; you might just as well
not go at all.” (Это все равно, что не ездить туда совсем.
С таким же успехом можно вообще не ехать туда.)
CAN AND MAY COMPARED
I. Both verbs can be used to express possibility due to cir­
cumstances. However, they are not interchangeable in this mean­
ing for the following reasons.
(1) Can is used to express a real possibility whereas the de­
gree of possibility expressed by may is much smaller.
You may break the body, but you cannot break the spirit.
A fool may ask more questions than a wise man can answer.
(2) In this meaning the use of may is restricted to affirma­
tive sentences whereas can is found in all kinds of sentences.
He may (can)
them there.
meet them there. But: He can't meet
(3) Their time reference is also different. May refers only
to the present or future; can (could) may refer to the past as well.
Ш
He may (can) find the book at the library.
He may (can) find the book at the library tomorrow. But:
He could find the book at the library yesterday.
II. Both verbs can be used to express permission. The dif­
ference between them is rather that of style than of meaning,
may being more formal than can which is commonly used in
colloquial English. Besides, may in negative sentences expres­
sing prohibition is not much used. Compare:
Can I come in late tomorrow May I leave before the end
night?
of the examination?
Yes, you can.
, Yes, you may.
No, you can't.
No, you can't.
III. In the meaning of supposition the degree of doubt ex­
pressed by may and can is different. Compare:
He may not be right. =It is possible that he is right.
He can't be right. = It is impossible that he is right.
MUST
The verb must is used to express:
(1) Necessity or obligation; in this meaning it is followed by
the indefinite infinitive referring the action to the-present or
to no particular time.
It is getting late. I must go. A transitive verb must take
a direct object.
The verb must may be used in reported speech to refer the
action to the present time even when the main verb is in the past?
The teacher said we must do it.
The verb must in the meaning of necessity is found in affir­
mative and interrogative sentences; when used with a negative
it has the meaning of prohibition.
This is serious, you mustn't joke about it.
The absence of necessity is expressed by needn't,
Yes, you must.
No, you needn't, (не нужно)
No, you mustn't, (нельзя)
(2) Probability or supposition; in this case it is a supposi­
tion implying a very high degree of probability, almost a con­
(
112
viction. When used in this meaning the verb must is synonymous
to the modal words evidently, obviously, apparently, certainly,
surely, or the word-groups most likely, most probably, etc. Its
meaning corresponds to the Russian modal expression должно
быть.
In this meaning must may be followed by different forms
of the infinitive. If reference is made to the present, the contin­
uous infinitive is generally used.
Professor Brown must be examining the students now. Oh,
there’s the boy. He must be still waiting for you...
However, with verbs which are not normally used in the
continuous form, the indefinite infinitive is used.
She must be ill; she looks very pale. He must be quite
middle-aged now. He must be fifty. You must think I
have a very short memory.
Must in combination with the perfect infinitive refers the
action to the past. •
They must have finished the work. She must have come home
by now.
The combination of must with the perfect continuous infin­
itive indicates an action begun in the past and continued up
to the moment of speech.
It must have been raining since the morning. They must
have been waiting for an hour.
However, if must is followed by a verb which cannot be used
in the continuous form, the perfect infinitive is used.
She must have been ill for a week now. He must have known
it all along.
Must in the meaning of supposition is not used with refer­
ence to the future. In this case it is replaced by its synonyms.
He will probably come tomorrow. They are not likely to
come so late.
Note. To express supposition of negative character some other
lexical means are used in addition to the modal verb must.
He must have tailed to carry out the task. He must have misunder­
stood you. He must be unaware of that. He must never have gues­
sed the truth. No one must have told him about It.
113
(3) In a number of set-phrases the modal meaning of must
is weakened.
I must be going. I must be off. You must come and see me
some time. You must come and stay with us for the week­
end. (conversation formulas of invitation) I must tell you
that... I must say... (formulas used in speech-making)
MA Y AND MUST COMPARED
(1) Both verbs are used to express supposition but they are
not interchangeable in this meaning.
May denotes supposition implying uncertainty whereas
must expresses supposition implying strong probability.
He may be a student of our college. His face seems familiar.
He must be one of the students I examined the other
day.
(2) Both verbs are used to express prohibition in negative
sentences. However, the use of may in this meaning is rather
rare; in negative answers to questions asking for permission
mustn't or can't are generally used.
May I smoke inhere? (N°, you mustn’t.
V
(No, you cant.
TO HAVE (TO)
To have as a modal verb is not a defective one and has a
full paradigm of finite and non-fihite forms. Its interrogative
and negative forms are built up with the help of the auxiliary
verb to do.
The verb to have is used to express necessity or obligation
imposed by circumstances. In this meaning it is found in all
kinds of sentences and is combined with the indefinite
infinitive.
As the
to take
again.
should
114 ‘
manager was out, we had to wait. Did they have
a taxi? She was glad she didn't have to go there
It’s all right. You don't have to explain. Why
I have to do everything?
In colloquial English the verb to have in its modal meaning
is often replaced by the phrase to have got.
I ne got to go there at once. Have you got to go there?
He hasn't got to go there.
TO BE (TO)
To be as a modal verb has the forms of the Present and Past
Indefinite. It is usually followed by the indefinite infinitive.
It is used to express:
(1) Necessity based on a previously arranged plan or agree­
ment.
We are to meet at half past six. We had an agreement —
I was to do the questioning.
In both sentences it may be translated asf Мы условились.
You are not to leave before I come back. He was to leave
that night on board the ship in which he was to make the
voyage.
In the past time contexts the modal verb to be may be fob
lowed by the perfect infinitive; that means that the action plan­
ned did not take place.
We were to have met last night, but she was not there.
(2) Necessity or obligation resulting from instructions or
orders which are not to be discussed.
All junior officers are to report to the colonel. The students
were to submit their course papers before the examination.
z
(3) Something that is destined to happen.
She was to become a film star. It was to be expected.
This meaning of the verb to be may be rendered in Russian
as суждено.
If we are to be neighbours for life we should be on friendly
terms. If we are to remain friends you must tell me the
. truth.
When used in an if-clause it has the meaning synonymous
to the verb to want (Если мы хотим...).
115
(4) Possibility. In this meaning to be is followed by the pas­
sive infinitive.
Where is this book to be found? He was not to be seen any­
where. Nothing was to be done under the circumstances.
This meaning of the verb to be is synonymous to can or may.
NEED
The modal verb need may be used either as a defective or
as a regular verb.
(1) Need as a defective verb has only one form. It is followed
by the infinitive without to.
Need is used to express necessity. It is used in interrogative
and negative sentences.
In interrogative sentences need shows that the speaker is
doubtful about the necessity of performing the action in ques­
tion.
Need we discuss the question again? Need you give it so
much attention?
In negative sentences need expresses an absence of neces­
sity.
You needn't worry about it. You needn't go into details.
The negation is not always associated with the verb, but
may be found elsewhere in the sentence.
I don’t think we need continue the discussion. I need hard­
ly say that I agree with you.
>
Needn't 4-perfect infinitive denotes an action which was
performed though it was unnecessary. It implies a waste of
time or effort.
You needn't have gone to the library. We’ve got here all
the books you need. You needn't have taken so much
trouble. It was obvious. You needn't have argued.
In reported speech need remains unchanged.
The teacher said that we needn't translate the text. He
told me that I needn't come.
(2) Need as a regular yerb has all the necessary forms and
is followed by the infinitive with to,
116
It is used to express necessity (in interrogative and negative
sentences).
Did you need to do all this? They did not need to hurry.
It should be noted, however, that the use of this need is
less common that that of the defective one.
SHOULD
The modal verb should is unchangeable. It occurs in all kinds
of sentences and is followed by different forms of the infinitive.
It is used to express:
(1) Obligation as something recommended or required.
You should tell me the truth. You shouldn't mention it
in her presence. A critic should above all things be fair.
Is there any reason why I should do this? I’m always saying
what I shouldn't say.
Should 4- perfect infinitive shows that a desirable action
was not carried out. It has the additional meaning of reproach
or regret.
You should have told me the truth. Where’s he now? He
should have been back long ago.
In negative sentences it indicates ap undesirable action
which was carried out.
You shouldn't have concealed these facts. You shouldn't
have mentioned his name in her presence.
It corresponds to the Russian вам следовало, вам не сле­
довало.
(2) Reproach, regret, surprise or indignation, i. e. different
shades of the emotional attitude of the speaker to the action
recommended or thought of. It is the so-called' emotional
should.
’ Why should I help him? С какой стати я должен ему по­
могать? . How should I know? Откуда мне знать? (Почем
я знаю?) I don’t see why we shouldn't make friends? Я не
понимаю, почему бы нам не стать друзьями? There is
no reason why you shouldn't get on very well together. Нет
причины, почему бы вам не ладить друг с другом. I
don’t see any-reason why they shouldn't be happy. Я не
117
вижу причины, почему бы им не быть счастливыми. The
door opened and who should come in but Tom. Дверь от­
крылась, и кто бы, вы думали, вошел? Никто иной как Том!
OUGHT (ТО)
The verb ought is also unchangeable. It is always followed
by the infinitive with to.
It is used to express moral obligation or necessity which
is naturally expected.
You ought to help your friends. You ought to be more
considerate to other people’s feelings. I suppose I ought to
say a word or two about myself. You are a Bachelor of
Arts and you ought to know.
When used with the perfect infinitive ought shows that the
obligation was not carried out.
You ought to have told the
have known that the whole
discuss at night. We have
have done, and left undone
truth long ago.
subject was too
done things we
things we ought
She ought to
dangerous to
ought not to
to have done.
SHOULD AND OUGHT COMPARED
In the first place they both should be compared with must.
Must sounds more forceful and imperative than either of them.
Should and ought express obligation in a milder way.
The difference in the meanings of these two verbs is some­
times very vague. Therefore they are often interchangeable.
I ought to have married} yes, I should have married long ago.
In war-time, a man should not part with his rifle. It’s
murder, and we ought to stop it.
Unlike the verb should which is used to express an individual
opinion, the verb ought expresses something which is generally
accepted or naturally expected under the circumstances. This
is something that ought to be done from the standpoint of com­
mon decency.
He was a lawyer, and thought that things ought to be done
according to judicial formulas which he
* had learned. I
know that from every practical standpoint, from the
standpoint of common decency, from the standpoint of
118
what is right and wrong, I have done what I ought to do.
Many students in Great Britain have a strong sense of what
ought to be done not only in relation to their colleges and
universities but in society as a whole.
SHALL
Shall is still used to express obligation with the second
and third person, but at present this use is restricted to formal
or even archaic style and is mainly found in subordinate clauses.
It has been decided that the second reading shall not be
opposed.
At present it is generally used to express volition, or deter­
mination on the part of the speaker, i. e. promise, threat or
warning directed to the second or third person.
Who seeks blows shall perish by blows. I must speak and
you must listen. You tfiall listen. He shall not go. I wish
him to remain. That’s the last time. You shall never see
me again.
The verb shall is used only with the indefinite infinitive.
In interrogative sentences with the first and third persons it
denotes a request for instructions addressed to the secorid person.
The speaker uses this form to ask after the will of the person ad­
dressed.
Shall I begin? Shall he go there right now? Shall he call
you up or will you call back?
WILL
.
The modal verb will has three forms: the present and the
past indicative (will — would} and the subjunctive (would).
It is used to express:
(1) Volition or determination on the part of the speaker.
In this meaning the verb will Is used in the first person and is
followed by the indefinite infinitive.
We stand for peace, and we will do all in our power to
ensure that it shall be a lasting peace.
The same meaning is sometimes expressed by the subjunc­
tive would.
119
A good dictionary is, of course, indispensable to anyone
who would know words and their use.
When used with a negation the verb will expresses unwil­
lingness or refusal to do something.
I want him to go away but he won't. 1 told him to do it,
but he wouldn't listen to me.
(2) Order or suggestion on the part of the speaker directed
to the second or third person.
You will read three pages for tomorrow. The battallion
will start out at 5 a. m.
(3) Polite address or request. This meaning is found either
in interrogative sentences
Will you come in, please? Will you lend me your
dictionary? Would you pass me the salt?
w in if-clauses:
Г11 join you, if you will wait for me. If you will lend me
your dictionary I shall be very much obliged to you. If
you would help me I should be very grateful.
There is hardly any difference between the use of will and
would here; would makes the request still more polite.
(4) Supposition.
You will note that proper names begin with a capital letter.
I knew his father Professor Harold Pyle — you’ll have
heard of him. He will have gone another way. Parliament
will have heard of this early in the week.
The modality expressed here may be rendered in Russian
by вероятно, должно быть.
NOTES ON RENDERING MODAL VERBS IN RUSSIAN
When rendering the meanings of English modal verbs in
Russian one should keep in mind the following:
(1) The number of modal verbs in English is larger than in
Russian.
(2) English modal verbs are polysemantic; therefore they
have no full equivalents in Russian.
120
Due to these differences, modality expressed by modal verbs
in English is not always rendered in the same way in Russian.
Only a few meanings of English modal verbs are regularly
rendered in Russian with the help of modal verbs; here belong,
for instance, the verbs can and may in the meaning of possibili­
ty, must and its equivalents expressing necessity.
As for the other meanings expressed by the English modal
verbs, these are rendered in Russian by a great variety of modal
words and expressions, mainly by adverbs and adverbial wordgroups.
Thus supposition implying certainty (must) may be rendered
in Russian by должно быть, по всей вероятности, очевидно.
Supposition implying uncertainty (may, might) corresponds
to the Russian может быть, возможно, пожалуй.
Doubt or improbability (can in interrogative and negative
sentences), may be expressed in Russian by не может быть,
неужели.
Strong determination to do something (1 wilt) is rendered
in Russian by the combination of the adverbs непременно or
обязательно with the corresponding verbs.
The speaker’s volition directed to another person is not al­
ways rendered in Russian grammatically, or lexically; it may
be conveyed by an emphatic intonation.
That’s the last time. You sliall never see me again. Эго
все. Ты никогда меня больше не увидишь.
VERBALS
The verbals * include three non-finite forms of the verb
in 'English: the infinitive, the gerund and the participle.
Unlike the finite forms of the verb, they do not express the
grammatical categories of person, number or mood. Therefore
they cannot be used as the predicate7 of a sentence.
What are the main characteristics of the verbals in Modern
English?
(1) Their syntactical functions differ from those of the finite
verb and are typical of parts of speech other than the-verb.
• A detailed description of the verbals is found in: E. M. Гордон,
И. П. Крылова. The English Verbals. М.» «Международные отношения»,
1973. A. J. Thomson, A. V. Martinet, op. cit., p. 147—169. Л. С. Бар­
хударов, Д. А. Штелинг, op. cit., p. 211—263, 371—374.
121
(2) They are widely used in the so-called predicative con­
structions, consisting of two elements, nominal and verbal.
The components are related to each other like the subject and
the predicate of a sentence. They make up a syntactical unit
(or a complex) treated as one part of a sentence.
(3) The verbals have relative tense distinctions showing whe­
ther the action expressed by the verbal is simultaneous with,
or prior to, the action expressed by the finite verb. Thus they
have non-perfect and perfect forms.
(4) They also express the category of voice represented by
the opposition of active and passive forms.
(5) Like all other verbs, the verbals take objects and are
associated with adverbial modifiers.
THE INFINITIVE
FORMS
The infinitive is the most verbal of all the non-finite forms
of the verb.
Besides the categories of relative tense and voice common
to all the verbals, the infinitive also has the category of aspect.
Voice
Aspect
Tense
>4.
Non-Prefect
Perfect
Active
NonContinuous
to write
to have
written
Passive
Continuous
to be
writing
to have been
writing
NonContl nuous
Continuous
—
to be
written
to have been
written
'
— .
MEANING AND FUNCTIONS*
Having developed from the verbal noun, the infinitive can­
not be used in the function of the predicate; however, it can
form part of the predicate when used in combination with a
finite form of a verb, or, very often, with a modal verb.
He began to work. He can speak English.
* See, for instance, A. J. Thomson, A. V. Martinet, op. cit., p. 237—251.
122
When used as an independent part of a sentence, the infin­
itive can function as:
(1) Subject
To err is human. To live in a world without fear is the goal
of progressive mankind.
(2) Object
I want to study French. I have never learnt to dance.
(3) Attribute (in post-position)
I’ve got a lot of things to do. He wants something to read.
There is a house to let.
(4) Adverbial modifier (of purpose or result)
He rose to go. He went to Africa to die there.
(5) Predicative
Her dream was to become an actress.
As we see, all these functions of the infinitive speak of its
double nature: being a non-predicative form of the verb, it
retains certain traits of the noun. Nevertheless, when used in
these functions which are unusual for the finite verb, the infin­
itive has some peculiarities which distinguish it from the noun
and show its verbal character still more obviously. These
peculiarities are as follows:
(1) As subject the infinitive is very seldom used without the
anticipatory it. It is more usual to place the pronoun it first,
and move the infinitive to the end of the sentence. Compare:
To obey the laws is everyone’s duty, (formal) It Is every­
one’s duty to obey the laws, (informal)
Note. The gerund can be used instead of the infinitive when the
action is being considered in a general sense, but it is always safe to use
an infinitive. When we wish to refer to one particular action we must
use the infinitive.
He said, “Do come with me.” It was impossible to refuse.
(Here we are referring to one particular action, so the gerund is not
possible.)
But: “It .is pot always easy to refuse the invitations” can be re­
placed by: “Refusing invitations is not always easy.”
(Here the action Is considered in a general sense, and either gerund
or infinitive is possible.)
123
(2) As object the infinitive is used differently from the
noun: it can never be used with a preposition. When used as a
direct object the infinitive forms a very close unit'with the fi­
nite verb and is sometimes regarded as part of the so-called aspective predicate. Compare these two sentences:
I want to study French. 1 began to study French.
(3) As attribute the infinitive is used in the following cases:
(a) after abstract nouns; the infinitive makes the meaning
pf such nouns quite concrete. „
I have no desire to do it. There is every reason to believe it.
Note. This case is typical of the Russian
infinitive
as well.
(b) after concrete nouns to show how they are to be used.
This is the only thing to do. I want some paper to write on.
Note. Such constructions are impossible in Russian.
(c) after pronouns, with the same meaning as in case (b).
I have nothing to tell you. I want someone to speak to.
Note that the meaning of the infinitive in cases (b) and (c) is pas­
sive though the active infinitive is used. The passive is possible when the
verb to be precedes the noun or pronoun, but the active infinitive is more
common.
Here are articles to be translated. О ri Here are the articles to
translate.
(d) after adjectives
Adjectives expressing emotion are followed immediately
by the infinitive.
I was glad to meet him. I am sorry to say that I can't come.
He was angry to see that nothing had been done.
Adjectives of personal quality and such as typical, character­
istic, etc. are usually followed by of + noun or pronoun with
the infinitive.
It was brave of him to do it. It is typical of verbals to
be used attributively.
Most other adjectives can be followed immediately by the
infinitive or by for + noun or pronoun with the infinitive.
The horse is hard to control — The horse
Tom to control.
124
is hard for
The book seems easy to read.— It is easy for him to under­
stand.
The construction for + noun (pronoun) -T infinitive is cal­
led a “/or-complex”.
(e) after too + adjective or adverb; for + noun or pronoun
can also be used here as above.
He is too stupid to understand. It is too hot to run. It is
too heavy for you to carry. He speaks too quickly for us
to understand.
(f) after adjective/adverb enough.
I am old enough to be your father. You have enough sense
to know better. It was hot enough to fry an egg on the pave­
ment.
(4) As adverbial modifier it can express:
(a) purpose
They rose to go. He stopped to have a smoke.
Note that it Is not usual to place an infinitive of purpose after
the imperatives go and come except when we_use the Infinitive of the verb
to see, i. e. we can say:
Go to see him. Come to see me.
With most other verbs it is necessary to change the infinitive into
another imperative, joining the two imperatives by and.
Go and get him. Come and help us.
(b) result
He went to Africa to die there. I woke one morning to find
myself famous.
Here the infinitive expresses the result of the action expres­
sed by the predicate; it is the so-called continuative infinitive.
It should be translated as: Он отправился в Африку и умер
там. Я проснулся... и обнаружил} что я знаменит.
An infinitive of reSult may be used with only~to express dis­
appointment.
He hurried to the house only to find that it was empty.
He picked himself up only to fall again heavily.
12»
Note. Care should be taken not to confuse an infinitive of purpose
with that of result. Compare the following two sentences:
He looked around to see if someone was waiting for him.— He
looked around to see them coming up.
PREDICATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE INFINITIVE
The infinitive is widely used in such predicative construc­
tions as the complex object, the complex subject and the forcomplex.
THE COMPLEX OBJECT
(THE OBJECTIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE
)
*
This construction is used as the object of a transitive verb.
The most important of the transitive verbs followed by a com­
plex object (a noun or a pronoun + an infinitive) are: want,
wish, expect, help, ask, mean, intend, like, prefer, tell, order, ad­
vise, allow, permit, forbid, make, let and the verbs of sensation:
see, hear, feel, watch, notice, observe.
I want him to do it. I asked him to show it to me. He or­
dered his men to search th,e prisoner. Did he allow you to
take the dictionary?
The verb let, the causative verbs have and make and the verbs
of sensation are followed by the infinitive without to.
She lets her children do what they want. I will not have
my children misbehave themselves. The teacher made
the pupil do the work all over again. Several people saw
him leave the house. We heard someone knock at the door.
Did you notice anyone come out of that door? We watched
4 the plane disappear into the clouds. We felt the floor vi­
brate.
Not e 1. When feel denotes mental perception, and is therefore
more or less equivalent in meaning to think, it takes an infinitive with to.
We felt the Idea to be a good one.
This construction is confined almost exclusively to the infinitive
to be.
Noto 2.«The verbs know and help may be followed by an infini­
tive either with or without to.
• It is called so, because the pronoun in this complex is in the objective
case.
126
I have never known him (to) lose his temper. I helped him (to) mend
the puncture.
After help it is more usual to insert to (at least, In British English).
There are cases where its omission would be unidiomatlc, as for instance:
These tablets will help you to sleep. Writing out a poem will help
you to learn it.
After know it is more usual to omit the to except with the verb to
be when it denotes the existence of a fact or situation. Thus we should say:
I have never known him be angry with the children. I have never
known him be cruel with animals.
Here be refers to a person’s attitude, conduct or behaviour, and there­
fore denotes an action rather than a state. But we could not omit the
to from such sentences as:
Everyone knew him to be the author of the pamphlet. I have al­
ways known him to be an honest man.
Generally speaking, the to is not omitted if the infinitive construc­
tion could be replaced by an object clause.
Everyone knew that he was the author of the pamphlet.
THE COMPLEX SUBJECT
(THE NOMINATIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE
*)
As a rule, a passive verb is followed by the infinitive with
to, even if the to is omitted in the corresponding active form of
the sentence.
We heard the teacher give the instruction, (active) — The
teacher was heard to give the instruction, (passive)
The latter sentence includes the so-called complex subject.
This construction is used as the subject of a sentence and is
expressed by a noun (or pronoun) 4- an infinitive which follows
the passive predicate. The two elements of this construction,
though standing apart, are closely connected and form one
syntactical unit. Thus in the sentence “The teacher was heard
to give the instruction” the italicized words form a complex
subject to the predicate was heard. It means “What was heard
is the teacher giving the instruction”.
The complex subject is used:
(1) with verbs expressing permission, request, intention,
order, compulsion (allow, permit, order, force, make, request,
mean, intend, etc.).
• The pronoun in this complex is In the nominative case.
127
The children were allowed to play in the open.
He was made to do the work all over again.
(2) with verbs of sense perception (see, hear, feel, notice,
etc.).
He was seen to leave the house early in the morning.
(3) with verbs of mental perception (expect, know, believe,
think).
The delegation was expected to arrive the next day. He
is believed to be a great authority on the subject.
(4) with verbs of saying and reporting (say, report, etc.).
This medicine is said to be very effective. The plane was
reported to have crashed not far from the airfield.
The complex subject is typical of literary or formal style;
it is also widely used in newspaper articles.
Less formal is the construction with the anticipatory it.
It was reported that the plane had crashed near the air­
field.
THE FOR-COMPLEX
- This construction is introduced by the preposition for.
It consists of-a noun or a pronoun in the objective case + an
infinitive (or an infinitive word-group).
The for-complex is used as:
(1) Subject
For him to admit it would be to surrender. It is not for
me to decide. It is time for you to act.
(2) Predicative
The best thing to do is for us to come to an agreements
(3) Object
We waited patiently for the letter to be answered. Father
thought it necessary for me to accept the offer. The confe­
rence called for the Government to take measures against
*
growing unemployment.
(4) Attribute
It was the only thing for me to do. The speaker proposed
a draft resolution for the T. U. Council to act upon.
128
(5) Adverbial modifier of purpose
For good relations to develop the other party must give up
its policy of aggression.
NOTES ON RENDERING THE ENGLISH
INFINITIVE IN RUSSIAN
The infinitive in English has certain forms and functions
which are not typical of the Russian infinitive. Therefore it
is not always possible to retain the infinitive in Russian trans­
lation.
(1) One of the most difficult cases is the use of the perfect
infinitive which has no equivalent in Russian. Compare the
following examples:
I’m glad to see you.
I’m glad to have seen
you.
I’m sorry to leave you.
He was sorry to have said it.
Рад вас видеть.
1. Я рад был повидаться с
вами.
2. Рад тому, что повидался
с вами.
3. Рад тому, что нам уда­
лось повидаться.
Мне жаль с вами расставать­
ся (уходить от вас).
1. Он пожалел о том, что
сказал.
2. Не успел он сказать это,
как тотчас же пожалел
об этом.
(2) The infinitive used as attribute is sometimes translated
by the Russian infinitive, but it is more often rendered by an
attributive clause.
I have nothing to tell you. Мне нечего вам сказать.
The task is difficult for a С этой задачей трудно спра­
виться ребенку.
child to cope with.
Here is the text to translate. _Вох текст, который нужно
перевести.
Это
единственное, что можно
This is the only thing to do.
(остается) сделать.
(3) The predicate verb followed by the infinitive of result
is sometimes transformed into two homogeneous predicates (the
Б-501
129
English infinitive becoming the second predicate in the corre­
sponding Russian sentence) or into coordinate clauses.
The Prime-Minister hurried
home to see demonstrations
protesting against the treach­
erous agreement.
The delegation came up to
the White House only to
be ignored by the Presi­
dent.
Премьер-министр
поспешно
вернулся из поездки и был
встречен демонстрациями
протеста против предатель­
ского соглашения.
Делегация направилась к Бе­
лому дому, но президент
не пожелал принять ее.
(4) The complex object with the infinitive is rendered ei­
ther by a similar construction in Russian (i. e. by a noun/
pronoun in the accusative with the infinitive) or by an object
clause.
The manager got them to
work overtime.
He ordered them to search the
prisoners.
But:
He ordered the prisoners to
be searched.
I want you to do It all over
again.
We were waiting for the au­
thorities to come.
Управляющий заставил их
работать сверхурочно.
Он приказал обыскать воен­
нопленных.
Он приказал, чтобы военно­
пленных обыскали.
Я хочу, чтобы ты сделал
это заново.
Мы ждали, когда прибудет
начальство.
(5) The complex subject with the infinitive is rendered by a
clause in Russian introduced by the words сообщают (как со­
общают), говорят, ожидают (ожидается), etc.
The spaceship is reported to have reached the Moon. Со­
общают, что космический корабль достиг лунной по­
верхности.
THE GERUND
FORMS
The gerund has the grammatical categories of relative tense
and voice, but has no aspect forms.
The forms of the gerund in Modern English are as follows:
130
Voice
Active
Passive
Tense
Non-Perfect
Perfect
writing
having written
being written
having been written
The tense distinctions of the gerund are relative, i. e. the
non-perfect gerund denotes an action simultaneous with the
action exrpressed by the finite verb, while the perfect gerund
denotes an action prior to’that of the finite verb.
I am surprised at
his doing it
so quickly.
his having
done it so
quickly.
как быстро он
..
это делает.
Меня уди- как быстро
вило то,
он зто
лал.
However, the non-perfect gerund is often used even when
the meaning is past. Thus we can say:
He was accused of deserting his ship. О r : He was ac­
cused of having deserted his ship.
This is often the case when it follows the prepositions on,
after and without.
On arriving at the hotel I was given a message. After eating
he felt better. He left without paying the bill.
The non-perfect gerund is also often used after the verbs
remember, excuse, thank and forgive.
I remember meeting her at a party. Thank you for asking
me tp come. You must excuse my not answering you ear­
lier.
To sum it up, the non-perfect form of the gerund is prefer­
red to the perfect form in spoken English if there is no ambi­
guity.
The voice distinctions of the gerund are expressed by its
active and passive forms.
I hate lying'. I won
*
t stand being lied to. I remember being
taken to Paris when a small boy. The dish showed no signs
6*
131
of having been touched. After having been interviewed he
was offered the job.
It should be noted that the passive gerund is not much used.
Sometimes it is replaced by the active gerund even when the
meaning is passive; it occurs after the verbs want, need, re­
quire, deserve and the adjective worth.
My watch needs repairing. The film is worth seeing.
MEANING AND FUNCTIONS
*
Like any other verbal, the gerund is dual by its nature:
it combines the characteristics of the verb with those of the
noun. However, the verbal characteristics of the gerund are
less obvious than those of the infinitive:
(a) the gerund does not express the category of aspect, while
the infinitive does;
(b) the gerund presents an action in a more general sense
than the infinitive; it actually names a process, like a verbal
noun:
methods of teaching — Seeing is believing.
On the other hand, the nominal characteristics of the gerund
are more obvious than those of the infinitive:
(a) unlike the infinitive, the gerund is often preceded by
a preposition: this is one of the most characteristic nominal
properties of the gerund;
(b) like the noun, the gerund can be modified by a noun in
the possessive or by a possessive pronoun.
The nominal characteristics of the gerund are also expressed in
its functions which are the following: subject, object, predi­
cative, attribute and adverbial modifier.
Complaining will not help matters. Most boys like play­
ing lootball. Her fault is idling her time away. The art
of dancing is an ancient one. The driver was fined for ex­
ceeding the speed limit. He answered me withouUraising his head.
(1) The gerund as subject
Either infinitive or gerund can be the subject of a sentence
when an action is being considered in a general sense, i. e. we
can say:
* See A. J. Thomson, A. V. Martinet, op. clt., p. 252—262.
132
It is easier to read French than to speak it. О r : Reading
French is easier than speaking it.
The gerund usually implies that the speaker or person addres­
sed has had personal experience of the action, having performed
it himself probably more than once, i. e. in the second of the
above examples we get the impression that the speaker can, or
has tried to read and speak French while the speaker in the first
example may only be expressing an opinion or theory.
Similarly in the sentences: “It requires patience to look
after children” and “Looking after children requires patience”
the second implies that the speaker has looked after children.
The gerund can also imply that the action is being consid­
ered as a habit. “Talking only of oneself is a sign of bad man­
ners” and “It is a sign of bad manners to talk only of oneself'
are both correct, but the first emphasizes the idea of habit.
The gerund as subject may also stand in apposition to the
anticipatory it and may sometimes be used as the real subject
after the construction there is:
It’s no use waiting. There won’t be another bus. It’s
foolish arguing over trifles. There is no pleasing some peo­
ple. There is no knowing what may happen.
(2) The gerund as object
Unlike the infinitive, the gerund may be used as both a
direct and a prepositional object.
There are a number of verbs which can take either an in­
finitive or a gerund as a direct object, but usually there is a
slight difference of meaning. The infinitive refers to a specific
occasion of a specific! instance, whereas the gerund refers to
something that is more general.
We prefer to go by air (on. a particular journey). — We
prefer going by air (a general preference).
I do not like to argue over trifles (myself). — I don’t like
arguing over trifles (either myself or when somebody
else does it).
With the phrase be afraid (of) the infinitive denotes the
action that fear prevents one from doing.
The child was afraid to stroke the dog. The old lady was
afraid to cross the road.
The gerund denotes a possible consequence that causes the
fear.
133
The child was afraid of being bitten by a dog. The old lady
was afraid of being knocked down by a car.
Either gerund or infinitive can be used without any dif­
ference after the following verbs: attempt, begin, start, intend
and propose.
But verbs of knowing and understanding are better in the
infinitive. Thus we can say: “I began working.” Or: “I began
to work.” But: “I began to understand” (no alternative).
After like, love, hate, remember, regret and prefer the gerund
is usually used for habits and past actions, and the infinitive
for future and conditional actions.
I like climbing, (habit) — I should like to climb the top
of this mountain.
I like riding but my brother prefers walking, (habit)
I prefer riding to walking.— Would you like to go by sea
or by air? I’d prefer to go by sea.
I hate getting up early.— I’d hate to spend the night alone
in the woods.
I remember seeing it on the notice-board, (past) — I must
remember to post the letter, (future)
I regret going there, (past) — I regret to say that there is
no wine.
After allow, permit and advise the infinitive is used if there
is an indirect personal object, otherwise the gerund is used.
“I allow him to smoke”, but: “I allow smoking.”
The expressions it needs, it requires, it wants, where it re­
fers to a thing, are normally followed by a gerund or a passive
infinitive, the gerund being the more usual.
My hair needs cutting. О r: It needs to be cut.
However, there are verbs which always take the gerund as
an object.
Only the gerund is used as a direct object after the following
verbs and verb-adverb groups: avoid, burst out, deny,
dislike, enjoy, excuse, finish, forgive, give up, go on, imagine,
keep (continue), keep on, mind (in negative and interrogative
sentences), postpone, prevent, risk, stop, suggest.
Avoid mentioning it in her presence. He denied having
been there. Give up smoking, if you don’t want to ruin your
health. Keep moving, otherwise you’ll get frozen. She didn’t
risk going on the expedition. I don’t mind walking to
the station. Would you mind waiting a moment?
134
Note 1. Step meaning “cease” must be followed by the gerund,
but stop meaning “halt” can be followed by an infinitive of purpose.
Stop talking].
I stopped to speak to her.
Note 2. Go on may be followed by an infinitive as well as by a
gerund but the meaning is different.
He went on telling us about his
us about his schooldays.
schooldays. He went on to tell
The first means that he had been telling us about his schooldays be­
fore, and he continued to do so. The second means that he had been telling
us about something else previously, and then, when he had finished that,
he continued talking, but on a new subject, his schooldays. So the second
case is an infinitive of purpose.
The gerund is also used after the expressions can't help and
can't stand.
I couldn’t help being late. My train was delayed by fog.
I can’t stand being fooled down.
The gerund is used as a prepositional object after the follow­
ing verbs and verb groups: accuse of, agree to, aim at,
approve of, charge with, complain of, depend on, feel like, give up
the idea of, insist on, look like, look forward to, miss the chance,
the opportunity of, not to like the idea of, object to, persist in, pre­
vent from, rely on, speak of, succeed in, suspect of, thank for,
think of.
Do you feel like having a cup of coffee? I think of moving
to another flat. We look forward to meeting you soon. He
was charged with breaking a shop window.
The gerund is also used as a prepositional object after the
following phrases consisting of to be + adjective or participle
II: be accustomed to, be aware of, be capable of, be engaged
in, be fond of, be good at, be guilty of, be indignant at, be interest­
ed in, be pleased (displeased) at, be proud of, be responsible for,
be suitable for, be sure of, be surprised (astonished) at, be tired
of, be used to.
She is not capable of doing the work. Are you interested
in collecting coins? Who is responsible for cooking in your'
party? We are all tired of listening to his complaints.
I am not accustomed to sleeping during the day.
(3) The gerund as , attribute
135
Unlike the infinitive, the gerund as attribute is always pre­
ceded by a preposition. It is commonly used as an attribute to
abstract nouns.
Everybody must possess the art of being a good neighbour.
The child had no difficulty in solving the puzzle. She
had the feeling of being deceived.
(4) The gerund as adverbial modifier
When used as adverbial modifier, the gerund is always pre­
ceded by a preposition. Its adverbial functions are different from
those of the infinitive. It may be used as an adverbial modifier
of:
(a) time (after the prepositions after, before, on, in, at)
Before crossing the road stop and look both ways. She
hurried home on hearing the news of his arrival. In leav­
ing the house she paused at her son’s room.
(b) manner (after by, in, without)
He could arouse suspicion by being up so early. She walk­
ed quickly without looking back.
(c) reason (after for, owing to, through)
He was in jail for having killed a person in a fight.
Through being careless, he met with an accident.
(dj purpose (after for)
The hall was used for dancing.
(e) concession (after in spite of)
In spite of being tired, he continued working.
THE GERUNDIAL COMPLEX
When associated with a nominal word (a noun or a pronoun),
the gerund forms the so-called gerundial complex. The nomi­
nal element may denote a person or a thing; it is expressed in
different ways.
(1) И it denotes a thing, it is expressed by the noun in the
common'case or the pronoun it, this, that.
I didn’t know about the train arriving at night. We can’t
make a decision without this being cleared up.
(2) If it denotes a person, it is expressed by:
13$
(a) the noun in the possessive or the possessive pronoun which
is typical of formal English.
I disliked my chief's interfering in the affair. Can we rely
on your assistant's doing it? I don’t approve of his neglect­
ing his duty. It’s no use their complaining about it.
(b) the noun in the common case or the pronoun in the ob­
jective case which is used in spoken and less formal English.
I dislike my mother Interfering, She doesn’t mind her
son coming in late. I don’t like them coming here. Do you
remember him paying the money? Did you ever hear of
a man of sense rejecting such an offer?
Predicative constructions with the gerund are used in all
the functions typical of the gerund. Thus we can speak of a
gerundial complex used as subject, object, predicative, at­
tribute or adverbial modifier.
A gerundial construction used as subject is often introduc­
ed by an anticipatory it.
It was quite unexpected his coming back so soon. Is it
worth while your trying to convince him of being wrong?
THE GERUND AND THE VERBAL
NOUN COMPARED
The gerund has developed from the verbal noun; now these
two forms co-exist in the language and should not be confused.
The main points of difference between the gerund and the
verbal noun in ing are the following:
э
(1) The gerund expresses an action in progress and may be
associated with the doer of the action as part of a predicative
construction.
The verbal noun, like any other noun, expresses a substance
rather than an action; therefore it cannot be associated with
the noun denoting the doer of the action.
(2) The gerund and the verbal noun are different grammati­
cally:
4
(a) the verbal noun may be used with an article, which is
impossible with the gerund.
I was very tired from all the questioning. The making of
the English language was a long process. A clapping of
hands told that the waltz had ended.
137
(b) the verbal noun has both singular and plural forms while
the gerund, like any other verbal, lacks the category of number.
She was watching the comings and goings in the house.
Our likings are regulated by our circumstances.
(c) the gerund of a transitive verb takes a direct object.
He was against giving me an interview.
The verbal noun may be followed by an of-phrase introduc­
ing a noun attribute.
The writing of letters was a dull thing.
(d) the gerund, like any other verb, can be modified by an
adverb.
The child was tired of sitting still.
The verbal noun, like any other noun, can be modified by
an adjective.
What you need is a good beating.
NOTES ON RENDERING
THE GERUND IN RUSSIAN
There is no verbal form in Russian similar to the English
gerund. To render its meaning we can use nouns, other verbals
or clauses. As for gerundial complexes, they are nearly always
rendered by clauses.
The choice of the right variant is determined by the lexical
meaning of the gerund, its form and function and also the situ­
ation in which it is used.
Here are a few examples.
1. Voting is done by a show
of hands.
2. It’s no use arguing about
such trifles.
3. He left without saying
good-bye.
4. I remember meeting him
in Paris.
5. He was grateful to her for
being there.
|38
Голосование происходит пу­
тем поднятия рук.
Бесполезно спорить о таких
пустяках.
Он ушел не попрощавшись.
Помнится, я встречал его в
Париже.
Он был благодарен ей за то,
что она была рядом с ним.
6. He was aware of being
spied on.
7. After having been inter­
viewed he was offered the
job.
8. His being a foreigner was
bad enough.
9. I insist on your
there immediately.
going
Он знал, что за ним следят.
После того, как с ним побе­
седовали, ему предложили
эту работу.
То, что он был иностранец,
само по себе уже было
плохо.
Я настаиваю на том, чтобы
вы поехали туда немедлен­
но.
The fact that certain verbs in English can be followed either
by gerund or by infinitive creates additional difficulties for
translation.
It is believed that the difference between these two forms is
of aspective nature, the gerund representing an action in prog­
ress and the infinitive representing an action as a fact. Besides,
the gerund is believed to denote a general action, the infini­
tive — a concrete one.
Let us analyse the following examples.
After supper Sir Pitt Crawley began to smoke his pipe (за­
курил трубку), and producing a huge mass of papers be­
gan reading them.and putting them in order (начал читать и
приводить их в порядок).
The difference between the gerund and the infinitive here
reminds цэ of the difference between the continuous and noncontinuous aspect forms: the ing-form denotes the action in
progress, while the infinitive merely states the fact. Or:
He started to say something but caught himself. Qh было
заговорил, но затем одернул себя.— Не began speaking
with confidence. Он начал говорить, и в.его голосе слы­
шалась уверенность.
In the following two examples the gerund expresses an ac­
tion in a general sense, while the infinitive has a more concrete
' meaning.
She does not like trifling with serious things (когда серьез­
ное превращают в фарс).— She does not like to trifle with
serious things (превращать в фарс серьезные вещи).
139
THE PARTICIPLE
FORMS
There are two participles in Modern English: participle I
(the present participle) and participle II (the past participle).
Participle I expresses the category of relative tense and voice
(the latter is proper to participle I of transitive verbs). Parti­
ciple II is unchangeable.
Participle I
Tense
Non-Perfect
Perfect
Active
writing
Passive
being written
Participle II
written
having written having been written
A prior action is usually, though not always, expressed by
the perfect form of participle I: with some verbs of sense percep­
tion and motion, such as see, hear, feel, come, arrive, enter,
turn, etc.; the non-perfect form of participle I is used even when
the action is prior.
Having done the job, we decided to rest a little. But:
Hearing the bell she went to open the door. Turning round
the corner, he saw a policeman.
A passive action is denoted by passive forms of participle
Д, both non-perfect and perfect.
Being badly wounded, he recovered slowly. Having been
badly wounded so many years ago, he would now and then
feel a sharp pain in his chest.
Participle II has no tense distinctions. When formed from
transitive verbs it has a passive meaning: a broken cup, stolen
money.
Intransitive verbs, such as exist, die, lie, etc. which are not
used in the Passive Voice, have no participles II used independ­
ently, i. e. not as part of analytical forms.
Such forms as gone, fallen, drunken, learned, retired, faded,
vanished, runaway, etc., should be treated as adjectives in Mod­
ern English: the idea of action is suppressed, whereas the notion
of quality is made prominent in these words: a retired officer,
a learned man, a fallen idol, faded beauty, vanished civilizations.
140
Both participles are widely used in English as structural
elements of analytical forms of the verb.
Thus participle I is used in the formation of continuous
tenses.
I am
I was
I shall be
reading
I have been
etc.
Participle II is used in the composition of Perfect Tenses
and Passive Voice.
I have (had) read, etc.
I am (was) asked, etc.
Now we shall discuss the meaning and use of both participles
as independent parts of a sentence.
MEANING AND FUNCTIONS
*
The grammatical nature of the participle consists in com­
bining the characteristics of the verb with those of the adjec­
tive or the adverb.
The verbal characteristics of the participle are expressed
in its meaning and grammatical categories.
The adjectival-adverbial characteristics of participles are
represented by their syntactical functions (predicative, attri­
bute, adverbial modifier).
Participle I and participle II differ morphologically and
their syntactical functions are not quite similar. Therefore
these two kinds of participles should be discussed separately.
PARTICIPLE 1
The paradigm of participle I shows that Its grammatical
forms are homonymous to those of the gerund. The distinction
between participle I and gerund is made on the basis of meaning
and function.
Participle I expresses an action as characterizing a person
or a thing (like an adjective) or as modifying another action
(like an adverb).
• A. J. Thomson, A. V. Martinet, op. cit., p. 263—267.
141
The gerund expresses an action in its most general sense,
actually naming it, and, for this reason, looks more like a noun
than an adjective or an adverb.
Both participle I and gerund can be used in the functions
of attributes and adverbial modifiers, the difference being that
participle I is not preceded by prepositions.
(1) As attribute participle I can either precede a noun or
follow it.
As a prepositive attribute it is normally used alone, without
any modifiers or objects.
It was pleasant to look at the rising sun. The dancing
people were beautifully dressed. She tried to calm the
crying child.
When used in post-position, participle I, as a rule, has one
or more accompanying words.
He came up to the policeman standing at the corner. The
room was full of people waiting for the doctor. I want to
write a book summing up the results of my experiments.
The conference taking place in Paris is devoted to radio­
electronics.
Note that the attributive function of participle I is proper only
to its non-perfect active form. Neither perfect nor passive forms of parti­
ciple I are used in this function. Participle I as attribute corresponds to
the Russian present participle of the active voice: восходящее солнце;
танцующая девушка; люди, ожидающие врача; конференция, прохо­
дящая в Париже.
The meaning of priority expressed by the Russian past participle
active (конференция, проходившая в Париже) is conveyed by an attrib­
utive clause in English.
The conference that recently took place In Paris was devoted to
radio-electronics.
Or compare the following two sentences:
The man making the report is a good speaker.— The man who made
the report is a good speaker.
A participial construction used as a postpositive attribute is synonym­
ous to an attributive clause, the latter being more conversational.
(2) As adverbial modifier participle I is used to express
relations of:
(a) time
Coming up to the door Г found it locked. Having said
all he knew the witness left the box. Having been away
so long he was happy to be coming back.
142
The forms used here express priority.
Participle I in the function of an adverbial modifier of time
expressing an action simultaneous with the action of the finite
verb is often preceded by the conjunction when or while.
While travelling one sees a lot of interesting things.
He came across this expression when reading a newspa­
per.
Note that the verb to be in the form of participle I non-perfect
should not be treated as an adverbial modifier of time; it is used to de­
note an adverbial modifier of cause.
Being very tired he soon fell asleep. Будучи усталым... Устав...
Так как он устал...
The clause of time Когда я был студентом can be expressed In Eng­
lish by “When a student..." or “When I was a student... .
(b) cause
Being a foreigner she couldn’t get accustomed to it.
Having lived in the country for many years, he spoke Eng­
lish without a foreign accent. Knowing what she did she
couldn’t trust him.
Participle constructions used as adverbial modifiers of time
and cause are replaced by adverbial clauses in spoken English.
Having learnt the sad news she got upset. = She got up­
set as she learnt the sad news.
(c) manner
He waited growing more and more impatient. The man lay
half asleep, coming back to consciousness. During the war
he had made a name, working in one of the Admiralty
scientific departments.
(d) comparison
When used in this function participle I is introduced bythe conjunctions as if or as though.
He stood still for a minute as if debating with himself.
He stopped at the door-way as if hesitating what to do
next. She looked at me in surprise as though not believ­
ing my story.
(3) The use of participle I as predicative is rare in Modern
English.
143
The roar of the engines was deafening.
(4) Participle I of verbs of motion, such as run, jump, dance,
etc. following the verb to come should be treated as part of a com­
pound verbal predicate.
The boy came running In (убежал). The dog came jumping
to its master (подбежала).
(5) Participle I occurs in a number of set-phrases in the func­
tion of parenthesis: judging by..., frankly speaking, etc.
PARTICIPLE II
Unlike all other verbal forms, participle II is unchangeable.
It expresses the result of an action (quality or state) rather than
an action itself.
It has no tense distinctions but in speech it denotes simulta­
neousness or priority, which depends on the lexical meaning
of the verb and the context.
I read the note written in French. The children were play­
ing watched by the nurse. I confined my reports to a
few lines sent every two or three days.
Participle II of transitive verbs has a passive meaning:
a broken chair (разбитый), the method used (использованный).
As a rule, participle II of intransitive verbs is not used
independently. There are but a few exceptions, such as arrived,
collapsed, come, departed, faded, fallen, gathered, gone, grouped,
risen, retired, returned, seated, vanished, withered. However, their
use as independent parts of a sentence is rare in Modern English.
Arrived at the ship, the passengers were shown their cab­
ins. They followed the' route of the recently departed
party.
Such participles used attributively either have become
adjectives or are in the process of adjectivization: a fallen tree,
a retired captain, a deserted village, "Gone with the Wind”
(the name of the novel by M. Mitchel).
The syntactical functions of participle II are the following:
(1) Attribute
In this function participle II corresponds to the Russian
passive participle and either precedes or follows 'the noun modi144
fied. It may be used with or without accompanying words:
The stolen papers were never found. It is a beautifully writ­
ten poem. The problem discussed is of great importance.
The news published on the front page is very interesting.
A construction with participle II in post-position is more
formal than an attributive clause (“The problem we are dis­
cussing...^ or “The news that was published...").
(2) Adverbial modifier
In this function participle II Is usually introduced by the
conjunctions when,while, if, as if, as though, though, etc. When
used without a conjunction it may be treated either as an ad­
verbial modifier or as a detached attribute.
Exhausted by the long journey be soon fell asleep. Так
как он был утомлен... (Утомленный...)
Participle II can be used as an adverbial modifier of:
(a) time
When shown the letter she confessed everything. When
interviewed he refused to answer this question.
(b) condition
He never spoke unless spoken to. The crime, if discovered,
might cost you a death sentence.
(c) manner or comparison
I did as requested. She did not see me as if blindedby her
misery.
(d) concession
Though exhausted by the sleepless night he went on with
his experiment. Her spirit, though crushed, was not broken.
Participle II in its adverbial function belongs to literary
or formal style.
Note. When used attributively or adverbially the forms of parti­
ciple I and participle II are opposed to each other like the forms of the
active and passive participles In Russian.
Asked whether the talks had been successful he said... — He
received a message asking him... She would sit watching the
[alien leaves... — As she had watched the [ailing ashes...
145
(3) Predicative
The shop is closed. You look exhausted. She seemed ex­
cited.
PREDICATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
WITH THE PARTICIPLE
Both participles are widely used in object and subject pre­
dicative constructions as well as in the so-called absolute parti­
cipial constructions with the subject of their own. Let us analyse
each of these constructions.
COMPLEX OBJECT
(THE OBJECTIVE WITH THE PARTICIPLE)
It consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the
objective case 4- participle I or П.
(a) With verbs of sense perception (see, hear, eto.) participle
I is mostly used.
I saw her smoking a cigarette. We felt the house shaking
in the wind.
N о t e. As is known,the Infinitive can also be found In this construc­
tion. Compare the following sentences.
She heard him come in.— She heard him coming In.
There Is a slight difference between the two forms. The infinitive
can only be used for a completed action while participle I Is used for both
a complete and Incomplete action and is therefore much more often used.
Participle II used in the same construction has a passive
meaning.
I saw the luggage weighed. He. heard his name mentioned
in the conversation.
(b) With verbs have and want participle П is used to denote
something done by someone else.
I want It done well. I must have my hair cut. She had
her photograph taken, I won’t have a fuss made over such
nonsense.
146
COMPLEX SUBJECT
(THE NOMINATIVE WITH THE PARTICIPLE)
It consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in
the nominative case -h participle I or II. This construction
formsone part of a sentence. The predicate of a sentence contain­
ing it is generally expressed by a verb of sense perception (see,
hear, feel, watch, notice} used in the passive voice.
They were heard speaking in a lively manner. He was seen
surrounded by a group of newsmen.
This construction is mostly used in literary or scientific
writing and in news stories.
ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION
(THE ABSOLUTE NOMINATIVE CONSTRUCTION)
The peculiarity of this construction is that it has a subject
of its own expressed by a noun in the common case (or more
rarely by the pronouns it or //its). The second component is
expressed by participle I or II. This construction expresses ad­
verbial relations and is synonymous to an adverbial clause.
It is much more often used in literary and scientific style, than
in spoken .English.
The absolute nominative construction can be used as an ad­
verbial modifier of:
(a) time
Things packed, we started off.
(b) cause or reason
This being so urgent, we must reconsider our decision.
The situation being so grave, urgent measures had to be
taken»
(c) condition (rare)
Weather permitting, we shall go to the country. Granted
health, he may still live to pay off his debts.
(d) manner or attending circumstances
The Communist Party is conducting a series of meetings,
speakers receiving warm applause. The delegates were rep­
resented by whites and Negroes, a third of them being youth.
147
When an absolute participial construction is used in this
function, it may be introduced by the prepositions with or with­
out.
The resolution was adopted by a majority of 53 against
10 with 4 abstaining. They could not go ahead, without their
plan being approved by the management.
Note that there may also be absolute constructions without a
participle, the second element being expressed by an adjective, a noun
with a preposition or an adverb.
The preliminaries over, we began to talk business. We found him
lying dead in the alley, face downward. In the dead of the night
my host burst into my room, a lamp In his hand.
Absolute constructions of this type may also be introduced by the
prepositions with or without.
It underlines the gravity of the economic crisis, with at least
five million people out of work. He sat writing, with the dog at his feet.
NOTES ON RENDERING THE ENGLISH
PARTICIPLE IN RUSSIAN
(1) The main functions of the participle in a sentence are
those of attributes or adverbial modifiers and, for this reason,
it is most frequently rendered in Russian by причастие or дее­
причастие.
We can’t sit by closing our eyes to the impending danger.
Мы не можем праздно сидеть, закрыв глаза и не видя
надвигающейся опасности. The measures were directed
against trade-unions acting in defence of their rights.
Эти меры были направлены против профсоюзов, высту­
пающих в защиту своих прав. We made a mistake getting
involved there. Мы сделали ошибку, ввязавшись в это дело.
(2) However, it is not always possible to use these forms In
Russian translation. In many cases subordinate clauses are used
in Russ.ian to render English participles. Sometimes It is done
for stylistical reasons.
The police station referred to in the report was Hornsey
Road police station and not Hornsey police station as
published. Полицейский участок, упомянутый в докладе,
был участок Хорнси Роуд, а вовсе не участок Хорнси,
как об этом сообщалось в газете.
148
(3) Another reason why a subordinate clause will be used in
Russian translation is that no participle can be formed from the
corresponding Russian verb.
Films starring Elisabeth Taylor were estimated to have
had the greatest box-office appeal. Было подсчитано, что
фильмы, в которых главную роль исполняла Элизабет Тей­
лор, делали наибольшие сборы.
(4) Predicative constructions with the participle (i. e. the
complex object and the complex subject) are nearly always
translated into Russian by subordinate clauses; the type of
a clause chosen in translation is determined by the syntac­
tical relations expressed by the English construction.
The air attache said he would arrange to have me flown
to Paris without delay. Военно-воздушный атташе сказал,
что он позаботится о том, чтобы меня без промедления,
доставили на самолете в Париж, Не was photographed
addressing a student meeting at the campus. На фото было
видно, как он выступает на студенческом митинге во
дворе университета.
(5) Absolute constructions have по equivalents in Russian.
Therefore they are usually rendered by means of subordinate
or coordinate clauses.
All things considered, the offer seems reasonable. Если
учесть все стороны дела, предложение представляется
вполне приемлемым. With so little time left now, there is
no time for delay. Времени осталось слишком мало, и
медлить больше нельзя. Newspapers being a Big Business,
the views of newspaper owners are the views of Big Busi­
ness. Поскольку газеты являются частью большого биз­
неса, естественно, что их владельцы выражают интересы
большого бизнеса. After the war, his face severely disfig­
ured by an accident, he lived in Saxony with falsified
papers. После войны он жил в Саксонии с фальшивым
паспортом, причем его лицо, обезображенное в результате
несчастного случая, изменилось до неузнаваемости.
Part II
SENTENCE-STRUCTURE
SIMPLE SENTENCES
THE SENTENCE
(General Notion)
The sentence is the smallest unit of speech conveying a
thought and built in accordance with the laws of grammar.
It serves as a unit of communication.
*
By using sentences
in conversation and in writing one tells something to others,
asks them about something, or makes them do something.
I am ready. Are you ready? Get ready.
- Unlike a word or a word-group, a sentence is always charac­
terized by a certain intonation. Compare:
. cold — Cold.
a cup of tea — A cup of tea!
The centre of a sentence is the predication formed by the
subject-predicate structure of a sentence.
The predication is a structural expression of predicativity,
i. e. the relation of the thought of a sentence to the situation
of speech. The latter includes:
(1) the time correlation of the^act of speech with all other
events mentioned in the sentence which is grammatically ex­
pressed by the category of tense;
(2) the speaker’s relation to other persons and things men­
tioned in the sentence which is grammatically expressed by the
categories of person and number;
' (3) the speaker’s attitude to the action mentioned in the
sentence from the viewpoint of reality which is grammatically
expressed by the category of mood.
* See Л. С. Бархударов. Структура простого предложения соеремен­
ного-английского языка. М., «Высшая школа», 1966, р. 141—142.
150
The subject-predicate structure of a sentence has certain mor­
phological characteristics: the predicate is always expressed
by a finite (predicative) form of the verb; it agrees with the subject
in person and number.
The so-called predicative constructions
*
cannot serve as
units of speech as they do not have the subject-predicate struc­
ture.
The verbal element of a predicative combination is expres­
sed by a non-finite (non-predicative) form of the verb and, for
this reason, it cannot agree with its nominal element in grammat­
ical forms; nor can it express any modality. Therefore predi­
cative constructions cannot be used independently; they are
always included in the structure of a sentence.
The subject (nominal) element of the predicative construc­
tion is different from the subject of the sentence. The substi­
tution of the second (predicative) element of the predicative
construction for the whole combination would bring about a
change of semantic relations between the parts of the sentence.
He stood up for me to sit down
**
He stood up to sit down.
This change of meaning is caused by the change of the struc­
ture of the sentence.
By using methods of transform grammar we can show that
the sentence containing the predicative construction is made up
of two sentences with two different subjects.
He stood up.)
z I sat down. J He stood up for me to sit down.
В u t:
He stood up. ) He stood up
He sat down. J
The analysis of the so-called basic sentence patterns,
***
from
which most English sentences can be obtained, shows that every
sentence consists of a centre (a predication), plus zero or more
constructions.
Sentences are built in accordance with one of the patterns
existing in the language. Here are the most frequently used pat­
terns for all English sentences.
****
*
*•
***
♦♦♦•
Л. С. Бархударов, op. clt., p. 129—131.
The example is taken from op. cit., p. 130—131.
P. Roberts. English Sentences. N. Y., 1962, p. 18—19.
$ee Hook's Quids to Good Writing. N. Y., 1962, p.-399.
161
(1) Subject 4- verb
Babies cry.
(2) Subject + verb + object
Girls like clothes.
(3) Subject + verb + predicative
Dictionaries are books. Dictionaries are useful.
(4) Structural subject + verb + notional subject
There is evidence. It is easy to learn knitting.
(5) Minor patterns
Are you sure? Who did you invite? Brush your teeth.
What a day!
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
Sentences can be classified either according to the purpose
of the utterance or according to the structure.
I. According to the purpose of the utterance we distin­
guish four kinds of sentences:
(1) Declarative sentences (statements) state facts in the af­
firmative or negative form. They are characterized by a direct
word-order and are generally pronounced with a falling into­
nation.
He 'always 'comes >late. He does 'not 'come so Nearly.
Note that the structure of a negative statement In English has
■some peculiarities. The use of the full negation not (n't) excludes the ne­
cessity of the partial negation (no, never, nothing, nobody, etc.). There­
fore the predicate of a sentence can have only one negation In English,
while in Russian it can have more than one. Compare:
He does not come so early. 1-'Он никогда не приходит
He never comes so early.' /
так рано.
(2) Interrogative sentences (questions) ask questions. They
are formed by means of inversion (the predicate or part of it
being placed before the subject). There are four types of ques­
tions: general, special, alternative and disjunctive:
(a) General questions (yes-or-no-questions) require the an­
swer yes or no\ they are uttered with a rising intonation.
'Are you 'asking /me? 'Shall l be /gin? 'Do you /know
it?
152
When used in the negative form, such questions emphasize
astonishment or doubt.
Don’t you know it? Haven’t you read this book?
They correspond to the Russian questions with the particles
разве, неужели.
General questions are sometimes rhetorical ones; they do
not require any answer, but are veiled statements expressing
some kind of emotion.
Is poverty a crime?
Note that in spoken English general questions may be asked with­
out inversion, a rising intonation being the only sign of a question.
You
think so? You 'were in the / war?
(b) Special questions (wh-guestions) begin with an interro­
gative word showing what kind of information is required. They
are pronounced with a falling intonation.
'What are you >doing? 'When will he >come? 'Why
didn’t they >come? 'How 'long did it >take you?
When the interrogative word is the subject of the sentence,
no inversion is used.
Who told you that? But: Who did you tell that? Which
is better?
(c) Alternative questions imply choice. Structurally they are
compound sentences with two coordinated interrogative clauses.
The first clause is spoken with a rising intonation, the second
with the falling one,
'Is he /living or 'is he >dead? 'Are you / going or (are
you) >staying?
Note that the second clause of an alternative question is often used
in elliptical form.
(d) Disjunctive questions (also tail- or tag-questions) re­
quire the answer yes or no. Structurally they are complex sen­
tences, the principal clause being a statement and the subordi­
nate clause — a short general question.
Although they nominally ask the opinion of the person to
whom they are addressed, they do not really do so; they take
his agreement for granted. Therefore both parts of such ques­
tions are usually spoken with a falling intonation.
153
Disjunctive questions are used only in conversation and in
informal correspondence.
The chief points to notice are as follows:
1. A positive statement takes a negative tag, and a negative
statement takes a positive tag.
It is'very >cold today,
today, >is it?
isn’t it? It is'not'very >warm
2. Semi-negative words like little, few, hardly, scarcely,
rarely, seldom are treated as negatives, and take a positive tag.
Few people knew the answer, did they? Little progress
has been made, has it? We could scarcely hear what he said,
could we? You seldom see them now, do you?
Though few and little are negative, a few and a little are posi­
tive, and therefore need a negative tag:
A few people knew the answer, didn't they? A little prog­
ress has been made, hasn't it?
The adverb only may take either a positive or a negative
tag.
There were only six people present, were there? There were
only six people present, weren't there?
The positive is more usual.
3. Although everybody and everyone are singular, for the
purpose of the tag they are usually treated as plural, and re­
ferred to by they.
Everybody can’t come in first, can they? Everyone cheered
wildly, didn’t they?
4. The interrogative form of I am used in a negative tag is.
aren't I (not “am I not” which is very formal).
I’m rather late, aren't I? I’m older than you, aren't Г?
5. If the speaker is uncertain of his statement, the tag is
presented more as a true question, with a rising' intonation
used.
You can 'drive a >car, I/can’t you? It’s a ’long 'way
from >here, I /isn’t it?
154
6. As distinct from Russian, an affirmative answer to a
negative disjunctive question should always be Yes (like in
answers to general questions). Compare:
“You don’t know him, do you?” Вы его не знаете, не
так ли?
“Yes, I do.” Нет, знаю.
“No, I don’t.” Да/нет, не знаю.
(It would be wrong to answer: “No, I do”, or:
don’t.”)
“Yes, I
* (3) Imperative sentences (requests or commands) serve to
induce a person to do something.
The verb-predicate in such sentences is always used in the
imperative mood. They are characterized by an elliptical struc-.
ture; the subject implying the second person is normally omit­
ted.
Requests are pronounced with a rising intonation.
'Come to-'see me to/night.
'Open the /door, please.
Commands have a falling intonation.
'Stop ^talking! 'Open the >door.
Occasionally non-elliptical imperative sentences, wfth you
as the subject, occur in emphatic speech.
You try and get seats. Попробуй-ка достать места. Don't
you believe it. He’ll come back. Да не верь ты. Он вер­
нется.
\
Requests and commands are made still more imperative by
placing the emphasizing do before the notional verb.
Do listen to me. Do come with me.
In highly colloquial speech an imperative sentence may
contain no verb but only a noun, an adverb, etc.
Water, please! All aboard!
(4) Exclamatory sentences express various emotions, such
as joy, anger, surprise, sorrow, etc.
Any of the above-mentioned kinds of sentences may be trans­
formed into an exclamatory sentence; this transformation will
be marked only by stress and intonation (or by a sign of excla­
mation in writing).
155
Oh, you cannot be out of your mind! Have you ever heard
such a thing! In the name of our love, forgive me!
Sometimes exclamatory sentences have a special structure,
with a linking verb of the compound predicate omitted.
You of all people! My ideas obsolete!
Very often exclamatory sentences begin with an exclamatory
word (what, how) preceding the word emphasized by the speaker.
What is used with reference to a noun, how — to an adjective,
or an adverb. There is no inversion in such sentences. These
sentences are characterized by a falling intonation.
'What a 'lovely >day! 'How >wonderful! 'How 'fast
you >walk!
II. According to their structure sentences may be simple
and composite.
Sentences with only one predication are called simple sen­
tences. Sentences with more than one predication are composite.
Simple sentences may be complete or incomplete in form.
The former is a sentence with full predication, i. e. contain­
ing both subject and predicate.
Incomplete sentences, with some part (or parts) omitted
for the sake of conciseness of style, are traditionally called
elliptical. The missing part (or parts) of such sentences can be
easily understood from the context or the situation. Being in­
complete in form, elliptical sentences are quite complete in
thought when used in their proper places in speech.
Victorian and antique furniture wanted.
Admission free. Further details from Secretary.
Sam was in her blood. Had always been. Would always be.
“How were the races?” “Fine.”
“What were you doing?” “Reading.”
“I’m looking for the dog.” “Dog?” says he. “What dog?”
“Streptococcus.” “Couldn’t be ’flu, could it?” “Afraid
not.”
Elliptical sentences are chiefly used in colloquial speech and
especially in dialogue. In accurate thinking we need a large vo­
cabulary and correct grammatical form; but speech adapts it­
self to the'simpler needs of practical life, where action, tone,
and the situation are often more expressive than words and
grammatical form. Therefore elliptical sentences, though brief,
156
are quite complete in the broader context of speech. However,
they would become incomplete and devoid of sense if isolated
from the sentences with which they are combined in speech.
Here is a dialogue made up of elliptical sentences which
may be easily reconstructed and made complete.
“Where to?”
“Class.”
“Math?”
“No, Spanish.”
“In a hurry?”
“Rather.”
“What for?”
“Almost ten.”
“Well, so long. Call me up.”
Besides, there are sentences having only one principal part
which can only conditionally be interpreted as subject or predi­
cate. We cannot speak here about the other principal part being
omitted, as this only “part” makes the thought complete.
One-word sentences are not speech modifications of some
other types of sentence which is the case with elliptical sentences.
They represent a special type existing in the language alongside
of the prevailing subject-predicate structure.
Here belong, in the first place, the so-called sentence-words,
*
such as:
(1) words of affirmation and negation: Yes, No.
(2) conversational formulas of greeting (Good-morning. How
do you do.), leave-taking (Good-bye. So long.), thanking (Thank
you. Thanks.), congratulating (A Happy New Year. Many
happy returns.), apologizing (Sorry. Excuse me.).
Other kinds of one-word sentences include the following parts
of speech as the principal (or the only) part:
(1) Nouns
Attention} Happy New Year} What a day}
These are the so-called nominal sentences,
(2) Verbs
(a) in the form of the imperative
Stop! Come here!
(b) in the form of the infinitive
• This term is introduced by H. Sweet in
Part I. Oxford, 1940.
A New English Grammar,
7
167
To think of it! Why not tell him!
(3) Adjectives
Splendid! So kind of you! How romantic!
(4) Modal words
Certainly. Of course! All right.
One-word sentences are widely used in emotional speech.
Simple sentences of both types may be extended or unextended.
An unextended sentence contains no other parts but the sub­
ject and the predicate (or only one principal part).
It is raining. Cold.
An extended sentence contains some other words besides the
predication.
Two young girls were talking in a lively manner.
(predication)
Stop talking!
(predication)
A sentence with two or more subjects to one predicate or
two or more predicates to one subject is called a contracted
sentence.
Ann and Tom live in London. She rose and went to the door.
PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
The subject-predicate structure is characteristic of most
sentences.
The subject and the predicate are the principal parts of the
sentence. They are grammatically equal parts of the sentence
and make up its centre. All the other words in the sentence
depend on the principal parts and are grouped around them.
Besides the subject and the predicate the sentence may in­
clude other words, modifying or specifying the principal parts
of the sentence. These words or word-groups which are gram­
matically dependent on the principal parts of the sentence, are
called the secondary parts of the sentence. These are attributes,
objects and adverbial modifiers.
The secondary parts of the sentence can be classified, accord­
ing to the words they modify, as:
Verb complements: (1) objects
(2) adverbial modifiers
Noun (implements: (3) attributes
158
The subject and the predicate with their complements make
up respectively the subject group and the predicate group.
Transitive verbs always take objects,
subject group
predicate group
The secondary parts of the sentence may have their own modi­
fiers and thus form their own syntactical groups (the object
group, the attributive group, the adverbial group).
Thus most sentences consist of twoor more syntactical groups.
The structure of each group is built after one of the patterns
existing in the language. It may be either an unextended wordgroup or an extended one.
*
Unextended word-groups cannot be divided into smaller
ones: fine weather, to tell a story,-nothing of interest.
Extended word-groups consist of two or more simple wordgroups: the foreign policy of the British government.
There are two types of extended word-groups:
(1) Word-groups with direct extension where each compo­
nent is directly related to the head-word.
..
. /of the press
the comments |on
conference
(2) Word-groups with consecutive extension where compo­
nents are joined together like links of a chain.
A call
for
a strike
in protest against
4
the sack of
four shop-stewards of
the Ford plant
A degree of grammatical connection between parts of syn­
tactic groups may be different. There are the so-called close
*
and
loose syntactic groups.
We speak of a close group when one of the parts is syntacti­
cally the leading element oi the group. We speak of a loose
group when each element is comparatively independent of the
other parts.
The secondary parts of the sentence are always subordinated
to the principal parts. However, this subordination may be
* See Л. С. Бархударов, Д. А. Штелинг. Грамматика английского
языка. М., «Высшая школа», 1973, р. 25—26.
169
rather loose, when we deal with the so-called detached parts
of the sentence, i. e. those secondary parts of the sentence which
assume a certain degree of grammatical and semantic inde­
pendence.
Their loose connection with the head-words may be due to
the position of these words, their meaning and structure, or the
speaker’s desire to make them prominent.
In spoken English detached parts of the sentence are marked
by intonation, pause, and special stress; in writing they are
generally separated by commas or dashes.
That is important — very. We entered a forest, dark and
gloomy.
Apart from the principal and secondary parts of the sen­
tence, there are the so-called parenthetical parts of the sentence,
i. e. words and word-groups which are not grammatically
dependent on any other part of the sentence. They refer to the
whole of the sentence, specifying the modality of the utterance
or connecting the utterance with the preceding one.
Possibly you have heard of the tragic end of his life.
This theory certainly seems to be well grounded. May
be, after all, there is something in that wild idea of his.
Parenthetical parts of the sentence may be expressed by:
(1) Interjections, such as oh, hurrah, hallo, hush, why, eh,
alas, etc.
Oh, that’s you againl What a day, eh?
‘ (2) Direct address
How do you do, Mr Butt. Hallo, baby!
(3) Parenthetical (modal) words and expressions: of course,
to be sure, after all, in any case, indeed, in fact, frankly speaking,
to tell the truth, etc.
Two or more parts of the sentence used in the same function
and connected by coordination are called homogeneous parts of
the sentence.
It was the room where he slept and worked. The sky was
clear, remote, and empty.
Note that any part of the sentence can be expressed not only
by a word or a word-group. but also by a clause.
I got up late. 1 had breakfast later than usual. Before leaving 1
called him up at the office. Breakfast over. Г rose to go. When we
finished breakfast. 1 made a call to the office.
160
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
The subject and the predicate, i. e. something named and
something said about it, make up the predication. They are
traditionally regarded as the principal (primary) parts of the
sentence.
Birds fly.
The word birds (subject) names something, and the word
fly (predicate) says something about the birds.
THE SUBJECT
The subject is the independent part of a predication, on which
the second part of the predication (predicate) depends grammati­
cally. It denotes a living being, a lifeless thing, or an idea spo­
ken about in the sentence.
WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE SUBJECT
Owing to the fact that the subject is the basic nominal ele­
ment of the sentence it can be expressed by any word, wordgroup or clause of nominal meaning. Thus it can be represented
by:
(1) A noun or a noun-pronoun
The sky was cloudy. It was raining. We were walking in
the rain.
(2) Any other substantivized word
The wounded were taken care of. The impossible had hap­
pened. Today is Tuesday. And is a conjunction.
(3) A numeral
Five are reported missing. The first was an old woman.
Two and two is four.
(4) An infinitive
To see is to believe. To go on like this was dangerous.
How to do this is a problem.
(5) A gerund
Walking is a good exercise. Seeing and doing are two dif­
ferent things.
6-601
161
(6) A clause
What you told me is a lie. How he managed this is a puzzle.
Then, what he expected, began.
ANTICIPATORY IT
The pronoun it may be used as a structural subject in appo­
sition to the real subject which occurs later in the sentence.
It often happens when the real subject is expressed by an infin­
itive, a gerund (both often forming complexes), or a clause.
It is wrong to think so. It is useless (of no use) for you to
say anything. It is no use arguing. It was silly your ar­
guing with them. It is unlikely that he will come. It is be­
lieved that the robbery was committed during the night
*
Such sentences with anticipatory it are translated into Rus­
sian by means of impersonal constructions (Бесполезно...,
Глупо..., Непохоже на то, что... , Полегают, что..., etc.).
Anticipatory it may also be used as a means of emphasizing
some other part of the sentence.
Thus instead of saying: “The thing that Г object to is his
rudeness” or “The father that knows his child is a wise fa­
ther” we may say: “It is his rudeness that 1 object to.”
“It is a wise father that knows his child.”
In such cases the relative clause qualifies itt not the noun
by which it is preceded, but the verb of the relative clause
takes its person and number from the preceding noun or pro­
noun, i. e. from its antecedent.
It is I who am to blame. It is the children who are most
interested.
Sentences introduced by the emphatic it are rendered in
Russian with the help of an emphatic word-order or, special em­
phatic words or word-groups,
INTRODUCTORY THERE
/
In a statement the subject normally precedes the predicate.
A page is missing from this be ok,
Sometimes, particularly before be, the word there occurs in
the position of the subject. It happens when the speaker wants
162
to call special attention to the subject by withholding it for
a time and thus causing suspence. There is used in such cases
as a structural subject.
There is a page missing from this book. There was a dreadful
thunderstorm last night. There has been a railway accident
the other day.
Besides the verb be, some other verbs, such as live, come,
etc., are occasionally used after the introductory there.
There once lived a very rich king. At that moment there
came a knock at the door.
There is/are is also used to denote the mere existence of some­
thing.
There is a saying that the third time is lucky. At one time
there were houses where that large factory now stands.
Often also it denotes an occurence.
There was a loud explosion (i. e., a loud explosion occured).
There is to be an inquiry into the cause of the accident
(i. e., an inquiry is to take place).
PRONOUNS USED AS INDEFINITE
OR GENERAL SUBJECT
The pronouns one, we, you, they are often used with general
or indefinite force.
Thus the pronoun they may be used to denote an indefinite
group of people; the same meaning is rendered in Russian by
the so-called impersonal sentence (L e., a sentence without the
subject).
They say, the third time is lucky. (Говорят...)
The pronouns one, we, you may be used in a generic sense;
one being more formal than we or you.
4
As long as one is young, one easily acquires new friends.
The tragedy of old age is not that one is old, but that one
i$ young. We learn to restrain ourselves as we get older. We
don’t like to be flatly contradicted. You ought to be very
.careful while driving a car, You don’t like to be criticized.
The pronoun we is often used by apjhors and speakers in­
stead of /; it is the so-called editorial we.
6*
163
We have tried to view English as compared with some
other languages.
Note
that we is sometimes used with the force of you (we=you).
Are we down-hearted today?
It
may be used with the same force sarcastically.
How touchy we are!
THE PREDICATE
The predicate is the other principal part of the sentence.
It expresses an action or a state characterizing the subject. The
predicate contains the mood and tense components of the predi­
cation which are denoted by the finite form of the verb. It de­
pends on the subject for the forms of person and number.
There are different kinds of predicates. They are classified
either according to their meaning or according to their structure.
According to the meaning the predicate may be verbal or
nominal. Besides, there is the so-called double predicate (i. e.
verbal-nominal).
A verbal predicate expresses the action of the subject. A
nominal predicate gives the qualitative characteristic of the
subject.
John works. He is a good worker.
According to the structure the predicate may be simple
or compound.
A simple predicate is expressed by one verb combining both
lexical and grammatical meanings.
John works.
A compound predicate consists of two elements, structural
and notional: the former expressing grammatical meanings (per­
son, number, tense, mood, etc.), the latter expressing the lexical
meaning.
Jphn is a worker.
4
THE SIMPLE PREDICATE
The simple predicate may be expressed by:
(1) A finite verb in a synthetical or analytical form.
Birds sing. The birds were singing.
heard from the distance.
164
Their singing' was
(2) A phraseological equivalent of a finite verb. Here be­
long, for instance, such phraseological units as have a smoke,
have a look, have a talk, give a laugh, give a cry, give a push,
pay a visit, make noise, make fuss, make fun, take place, take
part, pay attention, take care, make use, take leave, lose sight,
make up one's mind, change one's mind, etc.
Let’s have a smoke. You never pay attention to your spel­
ling. 1 asked why she had changed her mind.
THE COMPOUND NOMINAL PREDICATE
The compound nominal predicate consists of a linking verb 4a predicative expressed by a nominal element. The linking verb
expresses the grammatical categories of person, number, tense,
aspect, mood and voice. The predicative carries the lexical mean­
ing of the predicate (the state or quality of the subject).
I am a student. It is (was, has been, will be) difficult.
Linking verbs, with regard to their meaning, fall under three
groups:
(1) Verbs of being: be (also: look, feet, sound, smell, taste).
(2) Verbs of becoming: bedflne, grow, get, turn.
(3) Verbs of remaining: remain, keep, stay.
Compare:
He was angry.— He became angry.— He remained angry.
When used as linking verbs, they make the structural ele­
ment of the predicate and partly lose their primary lexical mean­
ing. However, in' other contexts they are used as verbs of full
predication, i. e. as notional verbs retaining their full lexical
meaning.
Notional verbs
Linking verbs
He is no more.
He is dead.
She turned back.
She turned pale.
Г11 remain with you.
I’ll remain loyal.
All such verbs, when used as linking verbs, are to be follow­
ed by an adjective, not by an adverb. This is because the word
is a .complement used to qualify the subject, not to modify
the verb.
It sounds quite correct, (not correctly) She looks very nice.
(not nicely) The apple tastes bitter, (not bitterly)
165
However, when some of these verbs are used as notional
verbs, they may need an adverb.
He turned quickly, (not quick) Those trees have grown very
rapidly, (not rapid)
The predicative, making the significant part of the nominal
predicate, may be expressed by:
(1) A noun, or a noun group
She is a beauty. She is a most beautiful girl.
(2) An adjective (or an adjective combination)
The problem is difficult. The problem is difficult to solve.
(3) A pronoun
It’s me. The book is mine. Who are you? She was herself
again.
(4) A numeral
Г И be twenty-one tomorrow.. Lady’s first.
(5) An infinitive (or an infinitive construction)
My plan is to start off immediately. The best thing is for
you to join us.
(6) A gerund (or a gerundial construction)
My hobby is fishing. This is not playing the game.
(7) A participle
He looked embarrassed. It is ^o disillusioning!
(8) A clause
That’s what I think. The best thing to do i$ what your
adviser suggests.
THE COMPOUND VERBAL PREDICATE
There are three types of this kind of predicate:
(1) the compound verbal modal predicate;
(2) the compound verbal aspect predicate;
(3) the group-verb predicate.
166
I. The compound verbal modal predicate consists of a finite
verb with a modal meaning and an infinitive. The first compo­
nent expresses a shade of modality, i. e., it shows whether the
action denoted by the infinitive is considered as possible, obli­
gatory, necessary, desirable, doubtful, etc. The second component
carries the lexical meaning of the predicate.
There are the following variants of the compound verbal mod­
al predicate:
(1) A modal verb + an infinitive
Something must happen. Someone must have been here.
You needn't bother. Can I see the manager?
(2) A modal verb equivalent + an infinitive
л
1 have to pay the debt. Who Zs to do the job? You are un­
able to do that.
(3) A modal expression 4- an infinitive
He was compelled to accept the proposal. We are anxious
to cooperate. Гт not going to stand this sort of thing. Are
you willing to prove that? You’d better join us. He is sure
to cope with the task. She is likely to accept the invitation.
IL The compound verbal aspect predicate consists of a finite
verb with an aspective meaning and a verbal (an infinitive or a
gerund). The first component expresses the beginning, repeti­
tion, duration or end of the action denoted by the infinitive
or the gerund. The most common verbs used as the first component
in this kind of predicate are: begin, start, continue, keep, go on,
stop, finish. Here also belong would (-^infinitive) and used
(+infinitive) denoting a repeated action dn the past. .
He began to ask questions again. They went on talking.
He did not say a word and kept smiling. At last they stop­
ped shooting. He would call on us every other day. I used
to dance a lot when I was young.
III. The group-verb predicate consists of a finite verb and
a verbal, making up a very close unit. The first component may
be a verb of intention (mean, try), seeming (seem, appear), chanc­
ing (chance, happen, prove, turn out), position (sit, stand, lie),
or motion (come, go, run). The second component is an infini­
tive (a linking verb with a predicative) or participle I.
167
I didn't mean to hurt you. He seems to know. I happened to
meet her at the party. He proved to be a clever man. The
grandmother sat knitting in the shadow. The children
came running across the road.
MIXED TYPES OF COMPOUND PREDICATE
Compound predicates may include elements of different
types. .Thus we observe:
(1) The modal nominal predicate
It cannot be true.
(2) The aspect nominal predicate
I began to feel irritated.
(3) The modal aspect predicate
I had to begin living all over again.
THE DOUBLE PREDICATE
This is the combination of a verbal and nominal predicate,
or, otherwise, a verbal-nominal predicate.
The sun rose bright.
The first component is a finite verb of full lexical meaning
denoting an action performed by the subject. The second compo­
nent is a nominal word qualifying the subject.
The first component is commonly represented by:
(1) Verbs of motion: come, go, run, fly, ride, rise, fall, re­
turn, etc.
(2) Verbs of position: stand, sit, lie, hang, etc.
They came back defeated. The snow fell soft on his facQ
and hair. She sat motionless. I was lying awake thinking.
He died flat broke. I had walked in a happy healthy man.
I crawled out a decrepit wreck.
In some cases the lexical meaning of such verbs becomes
so vague that they can be treated as linking verbs in a nominal
predicate.
1 stand alone in the world. = I am alone in the world.
168
When these verbs are followed by an adverb, not by an ad­
jective, the predicate is treated as simple.
The cat was sleeping peacefully at the fire-place. The sun
shone brightly.
SUBJECT-PREDICATE AGREEMENT
The predicate must agree with the subject in person and
number.
These are the rules to keep:
(1) Normally, when the subject consists of two or more nouns,
it has the force of a plural and takes a plural verb.
Radio and television have changed social habits. Barley,
wheat and rice are cereals. On the mantel-piece stand a
clock and two pictures.
(2) But when two or more nouns represent a compound name
of one thing, then the compound is thought of as singular and
takes a singular verb.
Bread and butter is a wholesome food. (Bread and butter
is a dish of food.) There is eggs and bacon for breakfast.
Whisky and soda is his favourite drink.
(3) Similarly when a plural number applies to distances,
weights, heights or amounts of money and represents a single
figure or quantity, it is treated as singular and takes a singu­
lar verb.
Ten pounds is as much as I can give you. Twenty miles
is not a great distance in these days of rapid travel. Two
pounds of coffee costs seven and sixpence.
(4) If the title of a literary work, or the name of a newspaper
or a magazine (or that of a house or a hotel) is plural, for pur­
pose of agreement it is treated as a singular, since it is only one
title or one name.
4‘Five Little Pigs” was written by Agatha Christie. “New
Times” is a political journal. “The Rose and Crown”
is situated in the High Street.
(5) When the subject is the formal there, the predicate agrees
with the real subject.
In case of homogeneous subjects it agrees with the one stand­
ing first. This is known as the “rule of proximity”.
169
There is an easy-chair at the medicine table, and a chair
at each side of the dressing table. There was much traffic
at night and many mules on the road.
(6) A lot of and plenty of take a plural verb when they denote
number, and a singular verb when they denote quantity or
amount.
There were a lot of people at the exhibition. There are
a lot of lakes in this district. There are plenty of opportu­
nities for well-qualified people. There is a lot of truth in
that. There is plenty of time.
(7) Half and most take either a singular or plural verb accor­
ding to the construction.
Half the money/most money/half of it/most of it comes
from donations. Half the members/most of the members/
half of them/most of them are willing.
(8) A number of always takes a plural verb, since it means
“several” or “many”.
There have been a number of accidents at that spot. But :
The number of accidents registered is fifty-five.
(9) When two singular subjects are connected by the conjunc­
tions either ... or, neither ... nor, or, nor, not only ... but (also),
the predicate is normally singular.
Either Tom or Harry
Neither Tom nor Harry
is coming.
Not only Tom, but (also) Harry
‘A motor-car or a bicycle is absolutely necessary. It was
neither failure, nor success.
If the homogeneous subjects are of different person or number,
the predicate agrees with the one next to'it (the same proximity
rule).
Neither my assistant nor I am at fault. Neither you nor
your assistant is to blame.
Either Tom or his parents
)
Neither Tom nor his parents
| are coming.
Not only Tom, but also his parents
J
(10) The pronouns either, neither and each are often treated as
plurals in informal speech but regularly as singulars in formal
170
writing. That is, we frequently say, “Neither of them are
going”, but we would write, “Neither of them Is going”. And
similarly:
Either/neither/each of the alternatives is acceptable.
The pronoun none is now treated in both ways, even in se­
rious writing:
None of the alternatives is/are acceptable.
' '
(11) Words joined to the subject by with, together with, as
well as, in addition to, and including do not affect the predicate.
Professor Brown, together with his assistant, has written
an article on this problem. Activity, as well as cell cul­
ture, is an essential condition of life. My whole equipment,
including fishing rods, tackle, and knapsack, cwas lost on
the trip.,
However, there may be exceptions to this rule.
The headmaster with the rest of the staff were having a
heated discussion.
(12) If the subject is expressed by a collective noun (fam­
ily, company, board, committee, crew, team, band, gang, etc.),
the predicate is either a singular or a plural verb. This depends
on whether the subject is thought of as a unity of people or a
collection of individuals considered separately.
The committee is still in session.— The committee dis­
agree on the decision.
His family is a distinguished one. — His family are great
musicians.
It should be noted that in contexts where these nouns are
used with a singular verb they will also normally take the rela­
tive «ЛйЛ and will be referred to as it, whereas a plural verb goes
with the relative who and the pronoun they.
His family, which is a very distinguished one, can trace its
history back to the Middle Ages.— His family, who are
great musicians, have all received their education in Paris.
(13) Nouns\plural in form but singular in meaning take a
singular verb. Here belong such words as news, mathematics,
physics, phonetics? economics, politics, tactics, ethics, mumps,
measles, etc.
171
Here is the news. Measles is sometimes dangerous.
Mathematics is a difficult subject. But: My mathemat­
ics is/are rather shaky.
Politics is not in my line. But: What are his politics
(= political views)?
Also compare:
The new barracks/headquarters is.,, — These barracks/
headquarters are...
(14) The nouns of multitude clergy and police nearly always
take a plural verb.
The police are still in search of that dangerous criminal.
But: The police, as well as the army, is a weapon of the
state power.
The noun cattle is also used as plural..
The noun people can be used in two different ways with
two different meanings:
(a) As a synonym for “persons’* (люди). In this sense it is
always regarded as plural.
People say he’s a lunatic.
(b) As a regular class noun in the sense of “nation(s)M.
a people (народ = нация) — different peoples (народы)
The former, i. e. the singular a people, is not much used.
(15) If the subject is expressed by a word-group, denoting
such arithmetic calculations as addition, subtraction, and di­
vision, the predicate is singular; with multiplication it is either
singular or plural.
Two plus two is four. Five minus two is three. Twenty
five divided by five is five. Twice two makes (or make)
four.
(16) Fractions require a singular verb to describe a total
amount and a plural verb to consider individuals.
Three-fourths of the roof is painted. — Three-fourths of
the members are here.
POSITION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
In Modern English syntactical relations between parts of
the sentence are very often indicated by word-order.
The English language is characterized by a rigid word­
order in accordance with .which the subject of a declarative
172
sentence normally precedes the predicate. This is the so-called
direct word-ordcr.
The sequence of words in which the subject Is placed after
the predicate is called inversion.
There may be either full inversion, when the whole predi­
cate verb is put before the subject, or partial inversion, with
the structural part of the predicate preceding the subject.
Down flew the bat. Is it true?
The latter type of inversion is prevailing in Modern English.
There are two main cases of the use of inversion in English:
(a) to construct certain types of sentences (grammatical
inversion);
(b) to make a certain word in the sentence prominent (sty­
listical inversion).
Grammatical inversion is used to construct:
(1) Interrogative sentences
Is he working? Can I help you? Did you enjoy it? Where
does she live?
(2) Sentences introduced by there or here.
There are dances every Friday night at the community
centre. Here are the tickets for the dance. f
(3) Exclamatory sentences expressing wish
Be it so! Long live our country!
(4) Imperative sentences of negative meaning, with the subject
expressed by a pronoun
Don't дои listen to him!
(5) Clauses of "unreal condition, when the conjunction if
is omitted (in formal style)
Should anything happen, inform us.
he would have succeeded.
Had he. tried hard,
(6) Sentences Introduced by so or neither, nor followed by
structural verbs
“Гт disappointed.” “So are we.”
“He doesn’t know what to do.” “Neither do I.”
Pedro can’t speak Russian, neither (nor) can Olaf.
173
Stylistical inversion is used to emphasize a certain part of
a sentence by placing it in the front position. This part of the
sentence becomes the logical centre of the communication. It
may be a predicative, a predicate or one of its complements (an
adverbial modifier or an object). Inversion thus caused can be
full or partial. The auxiliary do is occasionally used if the predi­
cate does not contain any structural verb. Here are a few
examples:
(1) Such is life. So important was the news that the mes­
senger was instantly taken to the King. Party to be
held 7 p. m. Saturday. Invited are all students. Paul
Robeson’s 75th birthday will be celebrated April 15th
at New York’s Carnegie Hall. Participating in the event
will be Harry Belafonte, Angela Davis, Sidney Poitier
and many others.
(2) Up flew the rocket... Up go prices, down go wages. Out
came the police in full force. Now comes my great news.
Never shall I forget this scene. Thus ended that riskv enter­
prise of mine. There stood a big desk at the window. On
the desk were a typewriter and a huge heap of paper.
(3) Not a syllable didshe utter. (Here the negative particle
not is used to emphasize the direct object, which results
in inversion.)
Now he began praying... To his black god could he
bring all his sorrows. (The inversion is caused by empha­
sizing the prepositional object.)
NOTES ON RENDERING ENGLISH
WORD-ORDER IN RUSSIAN
The functions of word-order in English and Russian are dif­
ferent.
In English it is one of the ways of expressing grammatical
relations between words, direct word-order being typical of
most sentences.
In the Russian language, grammatical relations between
words are mostly expressed by inflexions, and we know that word­
order in Russian is not as rigid as in English. However, it would
be wrong to believe that Russian word-order is absolutely free.
Combined with intonation, it serves as a means of indicating
174
the logical centre of the communication, hi unemphatic speech
the most significant word or word-group tends to be placed at
the end of the sentence. It means that the last word or wordgroup contains that piece of information for which the sen­
tence has been said or written.
The direct word-order ol the English sentence is determined
by the rules of grammar requiring that the subject should be
placed before the predicate. Very often, however, the logical
centre of the sentence does not coincide with its subject. It
may be any other part of the sentence.
Before trying to render the English sentence in Russian we
should, first of all, find out what its logical centre is.
Thus, in the first of the following two sentences: “A life of
journey began for Lane. He lectured all over the U. S. on his
findings”,— the logical centre is the subject which is proved
by the indefinite article before the noun ‘life’ and the character
of information communicated by the subsequent sentence.
One of the possible variants in translation will be: И вот
начались поездки Лэйна (по стране)... Он выступал с лекция­
ми, в которых сообщал о результатах своих расследований.
In the sentence: “The only daily newspaper which working
people fighting for their rights can depend on completely, and
all the time, is the “Morning Star” ”— the centre of the communi­
cation may be either the subject or the predicative. It depends
on the kind of connection of this sentence with the one that pre­
cedes and the one that follows it.
Or another example: “A few M.P.’s demanded cuts in mili­
tary expenditure to ensure the release of money to pay for trade
union rights.” To choose the right word-order in translation,
we should find out in what way this sentence is connected with
the preceding one. If the sentence has been said to answer the
question “What did they demand?”, the translation will read
as follows: Для того чтобы высвободить средства, необходимые
для (реального) обеспечения прав членов профсоюзов, ряд
членов парламента потребовали сокращения военных расхо­
дов. If the sentence is the answer to the question “For what did
the M.P.’s demand cuts in military expenditure?”, the trans­
lation will be: Ряд членов парламента потребовали сокращения
военных расходов для того, чтобы высвободить средства, не­
обходимые для (реального) обеспечения прав членов проф­
союзов.
Inversion, which is used in English to emphasize a certain
part of the sentence, is rendered in Russian lexically or by em­
phatic word-order, very often in combination with certain em­
175
phatic words or expressions. The stressed word in Russian em­
phatic speech may be placed either at the head or at the end of
the sentence. Here are a few examples:
x Thus ended our long journey. Так окончилось наше дол­
гое путешествие. Up flew the rocket. И вот ракета взви­
лась вверх. Money he had none. Денег у него не было
ни гроша. Never shall I forget this scene. Никогда мне
не забыть этой сцены. Not a syllable did she utter. Она
не вымолвила ни словечка.
SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
The secondary parts of the sentence are othervise called
complements. They are represented by attributes (noun comple­
ments), objects and adverbial modifiers (verb complements).
THE ATTRIBUTE
The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence qualifying
a noun or a noun equivalent, e. g. fine weather, a cup of tea,
every day, nothing particular.
Structurally, attributes are indicated by their position in
the sentence. Besides, the demonstrative pronouns (this —
these, that — those) agree in number with their head-nouns.
Semantically, attributes may express various shades of
relations with their head-words. They may be qualitative (the
bright sun), quantitative (five days), circumstantial (his life
in France).
WAYS OF EXPRESSING ATTRIBUTES
An attribute can be expressed by:
(1) An adjective (most frequently) or an adjective-pronoun
Every dark cloud has a silver lining. It is the only solution
possible. He is an old friend of mine.
(2) Д noun or a noun with a preposition (a prepositional
phrase)
He was wearing a tweed coat. The manager's office was
empty. Such is the story of my life. They spoke about the
house on the hill.
3) A numeral (cardinal or ordinal)
176
We've pot five minutes left. Ours was the first boat.
(4) An adverb
All inside was quiet.
(5) A verbal or a verbal complex
She bent over the crying child. The sight of the ruined
city was distressing. Paul made the mistake of putting
his idea into practice. I have nothing to write home about.
This is a difficult task for me to do. There was no chance
of my letter reaching them in time.
(6) An attributive group consisting of several attributes
of various kinds
He was a man of action, forced into a state of thought. It
is aimed at achieving a higher level of administrative effi­
ciency.
(7) A clause
I thought of yesterday’s incident which seemed to have hap­
pened years ago. Do you remember the last time we were
out together?
Of particular interest are extended attributive groups
made up of different parts of speech. The interconnections be­
tween the components of such attributive groups should be thor­
oughly analysed so as we could see whether each component
is directly related to the head-word or whether it is subordina­
ted to some other word within the group. Before trying to trans­
late such attributive groups we should establish the kind of
relation of each component to the subsequent one, and then,
if possible, divide the whole group into smaller units of closely
connected components, each having its own head-word.
Now it is time to relax fr.om our very effective antiballistic missile system fight. The largest, most representative
and significant world forum for peace ever closed its ses­
sion here today. The Communist Party election campaign
committee called on all supporters to follow the official
Communist how-to-vote exactly, by voting Communists
in all states.
г
Such extended attributive groups are widely used in formal
and literary styles, i. e., in the language of science, newspaper
and fiction.
177
. Occasionally, extended attributes of predicative structure
can be used in pre-position, which is aimed at achieving a bet­
ter expressiveness of style.
He had a don' t-touch-me-otherwise-Г ll-kill-you
look.
There is a sort of Oh-what-a-wicked-world-this-is-andhow-I-wish-I-could-dosomething-to-make-it-better-and-nobler
expression about Montmorency.
KINDS OF ATTRIBUTES
Semantically, attributes are subdivided into restrictive
and non-restrictive (see p. 22).
As regards their position, there can be prepositive and post­
positive attributes.
The position of an attribute depends both on the head-word
and on the attributive word or word-group.
A noun is mostly modified by attributes in pre-position, but
some attributes are regularly used in post-position. If the head­
word is a pronoun, the attribute is normally in post-position.
He told me an interesting story. I can’t tell you anything
- important.
A prepositive attribute, is generally expressed by a word
having the meaning of quality or quantity, i. e. an adjective,
an adjective-pronoun, a numeral, or a participle.
An attribute in pre-position forms a close unit with its
head-noun. It is never separated from the head-word by a pause;
the group “attribute 4- head-word” is treated as one into­
nation unit. If the head-noun is not mentioned for some rea­
son, its place is taken by a substitute pronoun (one or that)
to preserve the structural unity of an attributive word-group.
It is an interesting story and an instructive one. Это инте­
ресная история и к тому же поучительная.
If there аге two or more prepositive attributes to one and
the same noun, their order of sequence depends on their semantic
and stylistic characteristics.
The general rule is to place closest to the head-noun the attri
bute to which the greatest importance is attached in the context:
a short killing remark.
An attribute of a more general meaning comes before the
one more special: a nice good-natured smile.
178
There is a tendency to follow a certain rhythmical pattern
by placing a shorter adjective before a longer one: that rude
ignorant man.
We may speak of certain rules of arranging homogeneous
attributes in accordance with their meanings. The following
table shows the rules to keep.
E.g. just a remarkably handsome young Englishman, an old
red brick house, a big round marble table
A postpositive attribute is mostly expressed not by. a single
word, but by a group of words, such as:
(1) A prepositional phrase (preposition + noun)
A young girl of about seventeen wants to see ybu. No clue
to his whereabouts could be found.
(2) A verbal construction
There is nowhere else for you to go, nothing else for you
to do. This is a book read and enjoyed by young and old,
a book for you to read. Major attention was given to factors
relating to maneuverability at high speeds. We had'to give
up the idea of making another series of experiments.
(3) An attributive clause
That’s the thing / want. My uncle Jim, who will be seventyfive tomorrow, is a very entertaining person.
(4) An adjective word-group
This is a stylistical device typical of the eighteenth century
novel.
Single words are less frequently used as attributes in post­
position; these are:
4TO
(5) Adjectives in -able, -ible used in emphatic attributive
groups
I’ll be the happiest man imaginable. This is the only solu­
tion possible.
(6) Adjectives with the prefix a-
Г11 stand up to any man alive. Barbara asleep was a symbol.
(7) Some adjectives of French origin
from time immemorial, the first person singular. They were
the only people present.
(8) Some adverbs
He could not recognize the voice upstairs. She looked out
at the street below.
(9) An infinitive
The Prime-Minister had no comment to make.
(10) Participle II
The methods used did not prove to be very effective.
Attributes in post-position express a broader range of mean­
ings than those in pre-position. Besides qualitative and quan­
titative meanings, they also express a great variety of circum­
stantial meanings: a man of action, a man. in love, a majority
of 20 votes, the key to the door, the house on the hill, etc.
A noun can be simultaneously modified by attributes of
both kinds.
There were only five people present. She was a nice old
woman of about seventy-five. He was a tall man, welldressed and good-looking.
There is a special kind of attribute — an apposition. It is
a noun denoting the class or group to which the modified per­
son or thing belongs. It may be a title, rank, profession, kind of
relationship, name, geographical name, etc. An apposition is
placed either before or after the head-noun. Its connection with
the head-noun may be very close or rather loose.
A close apposition forms one intonation unit with the head­
word; in most cases it precedes the head-noun: Professor Hig-
180
gins, Captain Gray, President Kennedy, Aunt Polly, Uncle
Tom, but: William the Conqueror, Ivan the Terrible.
Sometimes it is joined to its head word by the preposition
of' The Prince of Wales, the Duke of Edinburgh, the City of Lon­
don, the Straits of Dover.
A loose, or detached, apposition is not so closely connect­
ed with the head noun. It is always separated by commas and
has a stress of its own. As a rule, it stands in post-position.
John, my eldest son, is sitting for Oxford. Next morning,
Christmas day, came fine and clear.
A detached attribute can also be expressed by:
(1) A group of homogeneous adjectives or participles
We entered a forest, dark and gloomy. He was standing
there, proud, loved and respected by everyone.
(2) A prepositional phrase
The sky, of a clear bright blue, with white promising
clouds, began to have the evening look.
(3) An absolute construction
He saw his father, black-coated, with knees crossed, glasses
balanced between^thumb and finger.
Detached attributes are frequently used to modify proper
names and pronouns.
Soames Forsyte, flat-shouldered, clean-shaven, flat-cheeked,
flat-waisted, looked downwards at Aunt Ann. Tall,
straight-shouldered, neither lean nor stout, he was an impos­
ing figure.
THE OBJECT
The object is a secondary part of the sentence completing
or restricting the meaning of a verb. It may be attached to a
transitive verb in its both forms (finite and non-finite).
He wrote a letter. The letter was written by a child. I hate
writing letters.
Besides, an object
valent of a verb (give
part (in), 'catch sight
(of), be full (of), be
may be attached to a phraseological equi­
up, put on, take off, take care (of), take
(of), get rid (of), be fond (of), be glad
good (at), etc.).
181
WAYS OF EXPRESSING OBJECTS
An object can be expressed by any word or word-group
having the meaning of a substance, i. e. by:
(1) A noun (or a noun word-group)
I’m solving a puzzle. He carried out experiments in sur­
gery(2) A noun-pronoun
I don’t forget it. I promise nothing. He looked at her in
surprise.
Note that the pronoun it is sometimes used to introduce a real
object expressed by a verbal construction or a clause. It is mostly used
after such verbs as think, find, consider, etc.
I found it impossible to agree to such terms. 1 consider it risky invest­
ing so much money in it. I don’t like it when you interfere in other
people’s affairs.
(3) An infinitive or a gerund
Don’t forget to post the letter. I didn’t know where to go.
Would you mind waiting a moment. She is very good at
cooking.
(4) An infinitive or participial complex (the so-called complex
object)
The servants did not hear the car drive up to the house.
They saw the car . riding along the road.
(5) A clause
1 don’t know what you mean.
KINDS OF OBJECTS
In English objects are primarily divided into preposi­
tional and prepositionless. The latter are, according to
their meaning and position in the sentence, further divided
into direct and indirect objects.
Besides, there is a special kind of object called a complex
object.
A direct object denotes somebody or something directly af­
fected by the action of the verb. It is used after transitive verbs
162
without a preposition. As a rule, a transitive verb is followed im­
mediately by a direct object.
She wrote a letter.
A verb may be, however, separated from a direct object by
an indirect object (which is never used without a direct one).
She
wrote
him a
(indirect)
letter.
(direct)
A direct object is also frequently separated from its verb by
such adverbs as on, in, up, out, off, etc.
He took off his hat. О r : He took his hat off.
Personal pronouns are never separated from the verb in
such cases.
Take it off.
In English there are more verbs taking direct objects than
in Russian. Thus, if a transitive verb takes only one object
expressed by a noun or pronoun, without a preposition, it is
always a direct object.
I helped him (my father) in his work.
Consequently, very often a direct object in English corre­
sponds to an indirect object in Russian.
I helped him. Я помогал ему.
Verbs + direct objects often form phraseological units, such
as, for instance, have a smoke, give a smile, take place, take part,
take steps, pay a visit, pay attention, etc. They should be treated
as equivalents of single verbs.
An indirect object denotes a living being to whom the ac­
tion of the verb is directed.
She wrote him a letter.
It always follows the verb and precedes the direct object.
I must tell him the truth.
The exception is when both objects are expressed by personal
pronouns; in this case the indirect object follows the direct
object.
1 won’t tell- it you.
183
When the direct object precedes the indirect object the latter
is often used with the preposition to:
I won’t tell it to you.
In this case it may be treated as a kind of prepositional
object.
There is a special kind of object in English which is called
a cognate object. It has the following peculiarities:
(1) It is used with intransitive verbs though it has no pre­
position.
(2) It is expressed by a noun which is either of the same root
as the verb or is similar to it in meaning.
(3) It is regularly modified by an attribute with which it
forms a word-group having a meaning close to that of an adver­
bial modifier: to live a happy life = to live *
happily, to
smile a bitter smile = to smile bitterly, to fight a hard battle =
to fight hard.
The construction with a cognate object is more emphatic than
with an adverbial modifier.
A prepositional object is used after many verbs and phraseo­
logical equivalents of verbs.
He looked at her in surprise. Гт fond of him too.
The prepositional object with the preposition to very often
occurs in constructions parallel to those with the indirect object.
I gave John a book.— I gave the book to John.
There is a certain difference between these two constructions;
in the latter case the object placed at the end of the sentence
has an emphatic stress. Compare:
1 gave the book to John (in reply to: Who did you give
the book to?) — I gave John a book (in reply to: What
did you give John?)
The construction with the indirect object can have another
parallel, namely the construction with the preposition for.
Compare:
I bought you a present.— I bought a present for you.
Won’t you sing to me?— Гт singing for you.
Note that the verbs ask, envy, and, in most cases, answer and [or
*
five, are used with the indirect object; they have no parallel construeions with the prepositional object.
184
I asked him a question. 1 envy you your health.
It is also the case with such phraseological units as do somebody a
favour, do somebody justice, do somebody credit, do somebody service, etc.
On the other hand, the verbs announce, dictate, explain, introduce,
mention, and some others, are used only with the prepositional object
(i. e. with the to-phrase).
She explained the whole affair to us.
Like any other part of the sentence, an object may be ex­
pressed by a complex; it is the so-called complex object.
A complex object consists of two components, of which the
second stands in predicate relation to the first. The two compo­
nents form a syntactical unit regarded as one part of the sen­
tence.
A complex object can be either non-prepositional or preposi­
tional which depends on the verb it modifies.
I heard him shout at her. I regard it as a threat, I waited
for him to finish it.
It is frequently used after verbs of physical or mental percep­
tion (such as see, hear, feel, watch, notice, observe, think, consider,
regard, find, etc.), causative verbs (make, order, force, etc.),
verbs of saying and some others.
The first component of a complex object is expressed by
a noun or a noun-pronoun; the second component is expressed
by an infinitive, a gerund, a participle, an adjective, or a pre­
positional phrase.
I saw him pass down the street. One could hear her sing
as she ran downstairs. I found it rather amusing. I consider
this picture a masterpiece. He believed me to be plotting
against him. I want you both to be happy. He ordered his
luggage to be labelled. I made him feel uneasy. Let me tell
you the truth. Have your secretary type it. I won’ t have her
insulted. I can prove it wrong. She told me to keep it se­
cret. I insist on you doing your duty.
POSITION OF OBJECTS
Grammatically, an object is connected with its verb by
means of word-order.
A direct object is normally placed right after the verb unless
there is an indirect object preceding it.
He offered me his help.
185
A direct object is placed at the head of the sentence when:
(1) It is an interrogative word introducing a special question.
What did you say?
(2) It serves to connect two thoughts.
He’s too sensitive. His sensitivity I can understand.
(3) It is made emphatic.
Talent Mr Micawber has, capital Mr Micawber has not.
What wonderful blue eyes you have, Earnest.
The front position of a direct object may result in partial inversion.
Not a word did she say.
A direct object can also be made prominent if placed at the
end of the sentence, after adverbial modifiers. In this case it
may be modified by an extended attribute.
He took out of his portmanteau a picture,
framed up.
carefully
An indirect object is regularly placed before a direct object
without which it cannot be used in the sentence.
It gave me an idea.
The only possible exception to the rule is the use of the direct
object it before the indirect object.
I gave it him.
A prepositional object, in most cases, follows a direct object,
though sometimes it may be placed at the head of the sentence,
for emphasis.
Г11 do it for you. Of his love he would tell her nothing. To
Martin the future did not seem so dim. Success trembled
just before him.
The front position of the prepositional object may cause
inversion.
To this circumstance may be attributed the fact that none
of the letters reached my hand.
IM
Occasionally, the prepositional object may be placed before
the direct object (particularly if the prepositional object happens
to be a to-phrase).
I recommended to them some effective measures.
The prepositional object is sometimes detached and thus
made more prominent.
For a modern American or Englishman, waiting is a psycho­
logical torture.
THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER
The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence
modifying a verb in any of its forms or functions.
Adverbial modifiers convey qualitative, quantitative or
circumstantial characteristics of the actions denoted by verbs.
She woke up early. She was waiting too long. She left
without saying good-bye.
' _
WAYS OF EXPRESSING ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS
An adverbial modifier can be expressed by:
(1) An adverb
She did not sleep well that night. She almost fainted.
.
(2) A phraseological equivalent of an adverb (expressions
of the type at hand, by chance, side by side, from time to time,
tooth and nail, etc.)
They walked silently side by side. I learnt it quite fy/cftonce.
(3) A noun with a preposition (a prepositional phrase)
Two American girls sat at the next table. I wouldn’t go
there at night.
(4) A noun word-group/ (without a preposition)
I’ve been waiting three hours. The Assembly is meeting
next week.
(5) A noun with an attribute in post-position
Your grandfather died the day you were born on..
m
(6) A syntactical group consisting of several modifiers
We came home early in the evening. She had once before
seen it long ago.
(7) A verbal or its complex
I’ve come to say good-bye. Life is funny when you stop
to think of it. On arriving at the hotel he found a message
from his father. Analyse the sentence before trying to trans­
late it. We sat on the beach watching the sunset. It being
late, we went home.
(8) A conjunctive phrase
He started back as if in surprise. Гт prepared to do that,
if necessary.
(9) A clause
After she had left the room, he remained standing in front
of the fire. Xs soon as he learnt the news, he hurried to in­
form us.
KINDS OF ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS
According to their meaning, adverbial modifiers can be
classified as follows:
(1) Adverbial modifier of time and frequency
1’ 11 be with you at latest by ten. She had so often waited
for me to come home at just this place and hour.
(2) Adverbial modifier of place and direction
Outside it was getting dark. She followed me upstairs.
(3) Adverbial modifier of manner or attending circumstances
She could run like an Amazon. She started the car and drove
at full speed. She was doing her hair differently, allowing
it to fall back and straight over her shoulders. Now I can
go to bed at last without dreading tomorrow.
(4) Adverbial modifier of cause or reason
She asked it out of curiosity. She told me we must part,
and told me why. Being very tired with his walk, he soon
fell asleep and forgot his troubles.
188
(5) Adverbial modifier of purpose
He stopped to buy an evening paper. She strained her ears
to catch the words. To help him win the Olympic title they
started a nation-wide advertising campaign.
(6) Adverbial modifier of result
He looked up to see Harry coming up from behind. Ben
was too busy to hear him. The rest of the conversation is
not important enough to be related. That was forty years
ago; most of my readers are too young to have heard of the
Reichstag fire at the time.
(7) Adverbial modifier of condition
If necessary, it might be, done at once. In case of your ab­
sence I shall leave you a message. But for the storm, the
ship would have arrived in time.
(8) Adverbial modifier of concession
The day was fine and dry, though cold. Despite his youth,
he is quite an authority on the subject. With all her faults,
there was nobody better for him. Though terribly tired,
he went on with his experiment.
(9) Adverbial modifier of degree and measure
I like him very much. He was now a hundred yards from
the water. Today she weighs three hundred pounds.
Despite a great variety of meanings expressed by adverbial
modifiers, they can all be divided into two main groups: (1)
adverbial modifiers of inner qualities; (2) adverbial modifiers
of outer circumstances.
The former express the inner qualitative and quantitative
characteristics of the action, whereas the latter characterize
circumstances under which the action Is performed. The adver­
bial modifier of the first type (i. e. adverbial modifiers of man­
ner, frequency, degree and measure) are more closely connected
with their head-words than the adverbial modifiers of the second
type (i. e. adverbial modifiers of time, place, cause, purpose,
result, condition, comparison, concession and attending circum­
stances).
189
POSITION OF ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS
Adverbial modifiers are regarded as the most mobile parts
of the sentence. Though their position is more varied than that
of the other parts of the sentence, it is not altogether free.
Generally speaking, adverbial modifiers of qualitative and
quantitative meanings (i. e. those of manner, frequency, degree
and measure) stand closer to their head-words, than adverbial
modifiers of circumstancial meanings (i. e. those of time, place,
cause, purpose, result, condition, concession and attending cir­
cumstances).
Adverbial modifiers of frequency (always, never, ever, often,
seldom, eto.) are placed before a synthetical form or with­
in an analytical form of the predicate verb.
He always speaks the truth. We’ve never met before, have
we? I have hardly ever met him.
Adverbial modifiers of degree, measure and manner are most­
ly placed either after the verb or after the direct object if there
is one.
1 know him Quite well. He weighs about two hundred pounds.
Don’t talk so loudly.
If there is a prepositional object in the sentence
*,
the word­
order is “verb 4- adv. mod. of manner + prep, object”.
She. looked tenderly at the child.
Adverbial modifiers of time and place are normally put ei­
ther at the end or, at the beginning of the sentence.
It happened on Saturday.—On Saturday he came again. A
. long procession moved along the narrow street.—Along
the narrow street moved a long procession, (emphatic)
In case there are both modifiers in the sentence, the adver­
bial modifier of place comes nearer the verb than the-adverbial
modifier of time (the so-called PT-order).
They were married In Brighton in 1876.
Note that a more specific modifier precedes a more general one.
Thus in case of an adverbfal modifier of time the indication of hours
precedes the indication of the day of the week or the part of the day.
Meet me at six o'clock on Friday. Wc arrived there at three o'clock
In the afternoon.
190
If the verb has an object, adverbial modifiers of time or
place arc normally put after it.
Sorry to bother you on Saturday, old man. He was waiting
for her outside.
In emotional speech, some adverbial modifiers, when placed
at the head of the sentence, may be the cause of inverted word­
order.
These modifiers are expressed by adverbs of frequency (nev­
er, nowhere), time (no sooner,., than, only, only now, only then),
place (up, in, out, off, away), manner (so, thus) and some others.
They are pronounced with an emphatic stress.
Never have I heard such a silly story. Nowhere was he to
be seen. Only then did I realize the danger. Only in north­
west Scotland have I seen such scenery as that. No sooner
had he opened the door than the dog ran .up jumping to
him. Hardly had we begun the climb when the snow began
to come down. Up flew the swallow. Out came the sounds
of music. So seriously was he injured that he was taken
to hospital at once. Thus ended her narration.
Inversion is also caused by the initial position of such ad­
verbial modifiers as here, there (вот, вон) and. now, then (теперь,
затем). When used at the head of the sentence, these modifiers
acquire demonstrative force (if the subject is a noun).
Here's Ma. (But: Here she is.). There comes my brother.
(But: There he is.) Now comes your turn. Then came
another blow.
For the purpose of emphasis, any adverbial modifier can be
used as a detached one. Adverbial modifiers of circumstantial
meaning are more often placed in detached position than adver­
bial modifiers of inner qualities.
A detached adverbial modifier is mostly extended. It is main­
ly expressed by an adverb or a noun word-group, a participial
or gerundial complex, or an absolute construction.
Detached adverbial modifiers may stand either at the front
or at the back of the sentence, and sometimes in the middle of
it; they are separated by commas.
Slowly, silently, she went. In the night, as always, things
looked unfamiliar. The Reichstag fire took place very long
ago, namely in 1933. There, in the wonderful pine forest,
we spent a delightful fortnight. Without saying a word,
he went hurriedly out of the room. Scanning the horizon,
191
Williams sightea a ship. We can’t talk like that, with
a lady in the room. She sat for a long time at the window,
watching the moonlight. He sat reading, the dog at his feet.
Our mission ended, we may take leave.
COMPOSITE SENTENCES
These are sentences with two or more predications. They
are divided into two main types: compound and complex sen­
tences.
Either type of the sentence consists of two or more clauses
united semantically and grammatically. Each clause has a
subject and a predicate of its own.
Clauses of such sentences may be connected syndetically,
i. e. by means oT conjunctions and conjunctive words (adverbs
or pronouns), or asyndetically, i. e. without any connectors.
The difference between compound and complex sentences
is in the relations of coordination and subordination.
The clauses of a compound sentence are independent; there­
fore . a compound sentence may be treated as a sequence of
simple sentences. The clauses of a complex sentence form a
unit resembling a simple sentence in which some part is replaced
by a clause.
Besides compound and complex sentences, there are also
sentences of intermediate and mixed types.
COMPOUND SENTENCES
A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses coordi­
nated with each other.
Semantically the clauses of a compound sentence are con­
nected more closely than independent sentences.
The order of clauses within a compound sentence is rigid;
it reflects a logical sequence of actions, events or thoughts ex­
pressed by the sentence.
He came at six and we had dinner together.
,
There are the following types of coordination between the
clauses of a compound sentence:
(1) Copulative coordination (and, neither, nor). It has the
meaning of agreement.
He pressed the on-button and the rocket flew up.
The clauses introduced by the conjunctions neither, nor
have partial inversion.
192
She did not tell me the truth, nor did she lie.
(2) Adversative coordination (but, yet, still, nevertheless,
however). It has the meaning of opposition.
I cried for help, but nobody was there to help me. It was
midsummer, yet it was rather chilly.
(3) Disjunctive coordination (or, else, or else, otherwise).
It has the meaning of choice.
Take it or leave it. Put the key in its proper place, else
you will lose it.
(4) Causative coordination (for, so, therefore, etc.). It has the
meaning of cause and effect.
I didn’t hear all that he said, for my mind was else­
where. Everything is all right, so you needn’t worry.
Note. The same kind of relations may be expressed by a complex
sentence with a subordinate clause of cause or result (because, as, so...
that). The difference is that the connection between the coordinated
clauses is much looser than between the subordinate and principal
clauses. The cause or result expressed in coordination is added as a kind
of afterthought, both clauses being independent and separated by a
comma or semicolon. Compare:
The windows were [ The windows were open because it was hot.
open, [or it was
< 4s it was hot, the windows were open.
hot.
I It was so hot that the windows were opened.
Coordinated clauses can also be connected asyndetically,
separated by a comma, a semicolon or a colon. The relations
between clauses coordinated asyndetically are similar to those
connected by conjunctions.
The moon went down, Jhe stars grew pale, the cold day
broke. To know things by name is one thing; to know them
by seeing them, quite another. Thank you for reminding
me; I might, forget it. Take your raincoat with you; it
may rain.
INTERMEDIATE TYPES OF COMPOSITE SENTENCES
'
There are sentences which are intermediate between subor­
dination and coordination. They have the form of complex sen­
tences, but the relations between their clauses are similar to
those between the clauses of compound sentences. Here belong
sentences with correlative and consecutive clauses.
7—501
I93
SENTENCES WITH CORRELATIVE CLAUSES
These sentences consist of two clauses connected by corre­
lative conjunctions. The second clause is more significant se­
mantically.
The first clause has partial inversion if it is introduced by
the following conjunctions: not only .. but, hardly ... when, no
sooner ... than.
Not only could she play the piano, but she also sang beau­
tifully. Hardly had I reached the station, when the train
started. (He успел я добраться до’станции, как поезд
тронулся /а поезд уже тронулся. No sooner had the ship
sailed off, than a terrible storm broke out.
But there is no inversion when the conjunction is not placed
at the head of the sentence.
I had hardly been there five minutes when she came in with
the coffee. I had no sooner come than I regretted it.
Neither is there any inversion in correlative clauses intro­
duced by the conjunction either ... or, the ... the.
Either our union must be sealed by marriage, or it cannot
exist. The more he knew, the more he desired to know.
SENTENCES WITH CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES
The second clause of these sentences is introduced by the
conjunctive pronoun which. This pronoun is correlated with the
whole preceding clause. The second clause is not subordinated
to the first one but is a kind of afterthought, developing the
idea expressed by the first clause.
I had to have my car filled, which held me up. It was evident
that she wished me to drop the subject, which I did accord- *
ingly.
Note. Such sentences resemble complex sentences with attribu­
tive-Clauses introduced by which. The difference is that the attributive
clause is subordinated to some part of the principal clause which is not
the case here. Compare:
*
He made me an offer which I did not accept, (attributive clause) —
He wanted me to accept the offer which I did not do (and!but I
did not do it), (consecutive clause)
-
194
COMPLEX SENTENCES
A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses Joined
by subordination. In most cases one of the clauses is treated
as a principal clause and the other (others) as subordinate (ex­
cept for sentences with subject and predicative clauses where
there is no principal clause).
The clauses of a complex sentence may be connected
asyndetically, or by means of subordinative conjunctions or
conjunctive words (adverbs or pronouns).
I wish you knew that. I knew that he was right. He al­
ways knew what was the right thing.
There is some difference between a conjunction and a con­
junctive word. A conjunction is only a structural element con­
necting two clauses; it does not have any other function in the
sentence. A conjunctive word does not only serve as a connector,
but it also has a syntactic function of its own in the subordi­
nate clause it introduces. Compare:
I knew that something had happened, (conjunction) — He
told me all that he knew, (relative pronoun)
The relation of a subordinate clause to some part of the prin­
cipal clause may be indicated by means of the same prepositions
which are used before the similar parts of a simple sentence.
It all depends on what he might answer (on his answer).
Didn't she say anything about what had happened (about
that)? -
A subordinate clause may follow, precede or interrupt the
principal clause;
1 had done it before she came. As / was in a hurry, I had to
take a taxi. The letter which she wrote was never posted.
A subordinate clause may be subordinated to the princi­
pal clause or to another subordinate clause. Accordingly, we
distinguish subordinate clauses of the first, second, third, etc.
degree of subordination.
I hope you
* ll appreciate it. I was sure he would under­
stand it when the time came around.
The functions of subordinate clauses are similar to those of
the parts of a simple sentence. Accordingly, subordinate
7?
195
clauses are classified as subject, predicative, object, adverbial and
attributive clauses.
Besides
there are the so-called parenthetical clauses
inserted into the structure of the sentence to make comments
on the statement expressed by the sentence.
SUBJECT CLAUSES
Subject clauses are used in the function of the subject of a
complex sentence. The peculiarity of subject clauses is their inte­
gration with the principal clause.
In the sentence “What you told me is a lie” the subject clause
is at the same time the subject of the whole sentence. If it is
cut off from the rest, what remains (“is a lie”) cannot be treat­
ed as a clause either in meaning or in structure; it makes sense
only in combination with the subject clause. For this reason,
subject clauses can hardly be treated as subordinate.
Subject clauses are introduced by: (1) conjunctions: that, if,
whether, (2) conjunctive pronouns: who, what, which, whoever,
whatever, (3) conjunctive adverbs: when, where, why, how\ (4)
asyndetically.
Structurally, complex sentences with subject clauses are
subdivided into two groups:
(1) Sentences with the order “subject — predicate”:
Whether she believed me was not clear. What you want is
plenty of exercise. Whoever wants to succeed should plan
his time carefully. Why she left him is a mystery.
(2) Sentences with the order
—predicate — subject”:
It was evident that he did not understand. It was doubtful
if he knew it. It was surprising how little she had changed.
It was lucky they received the telegram in time.
Subject clauses of the latter type are much more frequent in
colloquial English.
PREDICATIVE CLAUSES
Predicative clauses are used as part of a compound nominal
predicate.
In the sentence “That’s what I want” the predicative clause
makes the notional part of the predicate. The remaining part
of the sentence “That is” (subject + linking verb) is not'com196
plete without it. This case is much the same as with a subject
clause.
Predicative clauses are introduced by: (1) conjunctions:
that, if, whether, as if, as though-, (2) conjunctive pronouns:
who, what, which', (3) conjunctive adverbs: when, where, why,
how, (4) asyndetically.
The trouble is that it is too late now. That was what /
wanted to know. It looks as if spring will never come. This
is how you should have done it. The question is why she
told me a lie. The fact was he did not understand them. What
she says, is not what she means. (The subject and the
predicate of this sentence are both expressed by clauses.)
OBJECT CLAUSES
Object clauses are used as objects in complex sentences.
They may be used after verbs, finite and non-finite, or after
phraseological equivalents of verbs.
I’m glad you've come. I’ve come to ask if you need my help.
Don’t pay attention to what he says.
Object clauses are introduced by: (1) conjunctions; that,
if, whether, lest', (2) conjunctive pronouns: who, what, which’,
(3) conjunctive adverbs: when,^where, why, how; (4) asyndeti­
cally.
4
,
She said that it was too late. I wonder if she knows the truth.
•I don’t know what you mean. He asked why she had refus­
ed the invitation. I’m afraid f've taken too much of your
time. t
Object clauses may be preceded by prepositions (preposi­
tional object clauses).
I was not satisfied with how he had done it. I am sorry
for what / said to you the other day.
Object clauses are sometimes preceded by the anticipatory
it.
I don’t like It when you make fuss about nothing. I insist
upon it that you confess everything.
The usual place of an object is after the verb it modifies.
However, there are cases when it is placed at the head of the
197
sentence (before the subject), then it becomes the logical centre
of the communication.
What he would do next, he did not know. What I have gone
through, you can’t imagine. Why he declined that offer
I can’t tell.
Object clauses are frequently used after verbs of saying (say,
tell, ask, answer, etc.) to express indirect statements, questions
and requests.
She said she did not know about it. I asked her if she knew
about it. He told me that I should find it out.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Adverbial clauses express a great variety of adverbial rela­
tions and are introduced by a great number of conjunctions and
conjunctive adverbs. Asyndetic subordination is not typical
of adverbial clauses (except clauses of condition) since it is
mainly the connector that enables us to distinguish one kind
of adverbial clause from another. Compare:
When he was young... — Though he was young... — Be­
cause he was young. „
Adverbial clauses may occupy different positions in a com­
plex sentence: before the principal clause, after it, or even with­
in it.
If you want to succeed, you must plan your time carefully.
We’ll get along very well if you take me as you find me.
I advise you, if you cherish your private life, not to take
any foolish chances.
Of the three types of adverbial modifiers — qualitative,
quantitative and circumstantial — adverbial clauses mostly
function as the last mentioned.
According to their meaning, adverbial clauses are classi­
fied as:
- •
(1) Clauses of time, introduced by the conjunctions when,
while, as, until, till, before, after, since, as soon as, as long as,
whenever.
When we finally arrived at the station, the train had al­
ready left. I was watching him while he was filling the car.
As they reached a shady spot on the road, the cars stopped.
198
We reached camp just as the sun was setting. Stay here
until you hear from me. We went on till we came to another
hotel. Before he started on the camping trip, he bought a new
sleeping bag. After he had made all arrangements, he exam­
ined his car carefully. He had done nothing since he
came back from his mission. We have gone a long way since
we started a year ago. As soon as the sun rose, I rose too.
I will remember you, as long as I live. Г11 be glad whenever
you come.
As previously mentioned, verbs in clauses of time can never
be used in a future tense. After a conjunction of time, therefore
we use: (a) the Present Indefinite instead of the Future Indefi­
nite; (b) the Past Indefinite instead of the Future in the Past;
(c) the Present Perfect instead of the Future Perfect.
(a) He will arrive at six. But: As soon as he arrives, he
will start work.
(b) We knew that he would arrive at six. But: We knew
till he arrival, nothing would be done. -
(c) I shall have finished in two hours. В u t f When 1 have
finished. I’ll tell you.
(2) Clauses of place, introduced by the
where or wherever (уж бы ни, куда бы ни).
conjunctions
Не took over where his father had left off. They came out
where they had gone in. Wherever he went, he saw nothing
but ruins.
(3) Clauses of cause or reason introduced by the conjunc­
tions because, as, since.
I am late because foe been held up by the traffic. As you
are here,_you had better help me. Since you won't take
advice, there is no point in asking for it.
(4) Clauses of result, introduced by the conjunctions so
that (так что), so ... that, such ... that.
Clauses of result introduced by that correlated with so of
such in the principal clause express not only the meaning of
result but also that of degree.
There was enough fuel in the tank so that we were able to
go on without refilling. It was so hot /Ла/nobody wanted
to do anything. The snow fell so fast that our footsteps
199
were covered up in a few minutes. (So is used before ad­
jectives and adverbs denoting degree; that introduces re­
sult.) They had such a fierce dog that no one dared to go
near their house. (Such is used before an adjective 4- noun.)
(5) Clauses of purpose, introduced by the conjunctions
that, in order that, so that, lest, in case.
~
Ships carry lifeboats so that the crew can escape if the
ship sinks.
In most cases purpose is expressed by an infinitive. How­
ever, clauses are necessary when the person to whom the pur­
pose refers is stated, instead of being merely understood.
Clauses of purpose can. be formed by:
(a) So that 4- subject 4- will/would or cantcould 4- infini­
tive. Сап/could is used to express ability. Will/would is used
in other cases. Can and will are used when the main verb is in
the present tense. Could and would are used when the main verb
is in the past tense.
Say it loudly so that 1 can hear. Гт buying a lot of coal
so that the house will be warm. She left the key under a
stone so that he could get into the house whenever he wanted.
(b) That, so that, in order that 4- subject 4- shall/should
or may/might+inf initi ve.
The supply is rationed so that everyone may have a share.
He spoke slowly so that / might understand him. He put
a statement in the newspaper in order that everyone should
know what had really happened.
The only difference between these constructions and the
one given in (a) above is that these are slightly more formal
(that used without so or in order is very formal indeed).
(c) Negative purpose is expressed by a negative verb, usu­
ally will not or would not, though should not is also quite common.
He often changes his address so that the police won't find
him. He placed glass on top of his Wall so that boys wouldn't
climb over it. He wrote down the number so that he should
not forget it. He disguised himself so that nobody should
recognize him.
(d) When an action is taken as a precaution against pos­
sible future events, we use in case with Present or Past Indefi200
nite, or with should + infinitive, or lest with should 4- infin­
itive (lest is rather formal and old-fashioned).
Note the sequence of tenses:
Г11 leave out some cold meat in case you are hungry when you come
in. (на тот случай, если...)
He takes a torch in case it gets dark before he returns.— He took
a torch in case it got dark before he returned.
Should 4- infinitive, however, can be used with both pres­
ent and past.
She doesn’t let him leave the train in case he gets lost.
Or: ...in case he should get lost, .„lest he should get lost.
She didn’t let him leave the train in case he got lost. О r :
...in case he should get lost, ...lest he should get lost.
Note. In all other cases purpose is expressed:
(1) By a simple infinitive
•
He went to France to learn French.
When there is a personal object of the main verb, the infinitive will
refer to this and not to the subject.
He sent his son to .the town to buy spare parts. (The son was to buy
them.)
(2) By so as or in order with the infinitive
He is studying higher mathematics in order to qualify for < better
job.
This construction can also be used:
(a) When there is a personal object of the tnain verb, but the purpose
refers to the subject.
Peter sent his son into the garden so as to have some peace. (Peter
was to have the peace.)
Compare with: Peter sent his son into the garden to play. (The son was to play.)
(b) When the purpose is less immediate.
. We joined the library so as to have plenty to read. She learnt French
In order to help her husband with his work.
(c) With a negative purpose.
He left his gun outside the house so as not to frighten the children.
He came in quietly so as not to wake the child.
(3) Negative purpose is also expressed by:
201
(a) to prevent + noun/pronoun + gerund
He disguised himself to prevent us recognizing him.
(b) to avoid + passive gerund
He disguised himself to avoid being recognized.
These constructions are preferred to negative purpose clauses.
(6) Clauses of condition, introduced by the conjunctions
if, in case, unless, provided, on condition.
If 1 were you, I wouldn’t risk it. I want to see him, if
I can, in case he has anything to tell me. It’s no fun, unless
we take them by surprise. We shall do it provided you sup­
port us. He agreed to go on with the experiment on con­
dition we did not interfere with him.
The conjunctions provided and on condition are rather
formal.
Clauses of condition can be joined to the principal clause
asyndetically; in this case there is inversion in the subordi­
nate clause.
Should he come, tell him to wait for me. Had she stayed
there longer, I could have met her.
The use of verb forms in clauses of condition depends on
the type of condition, i. e. whether it is real or unreal, and wheth­
er it refers to present, future or past.
In clauses of real condition the predicate verb is used in
the Indicative Mood (with the main verb also in the Indicative
or Imperative).
(a) If condition refers to the present or future, the predicate
of the conditional clause is in the present.
I always walk in, the evening if the weather is fine. Г ll
walk if the weather is fine. Let's walk if the weather is
fine.
(b) If condition refers to the past, the verb of the conditional
clause is also in the past.
In the evening we used to walk if the weather was fine.
In clauses of unreal condition the predicate is used in the
Subjunctive Mood while the main verb may be in the Indica­
tive, Imperative or Subjunctive.
.
202
(a) If condition refers to the present or future the-predicate
of the conditional clause is used in the Past Subjunctive or in
the analytical form should 4- non-perfect infinitive (with
should/would 4- non-perfect infinitive in the principal clause).
If you knew him better, you would like him more. If any­
one should inquire (Should anyone inquire), Vll say you
are out (tell him I’m out).
(b) If condition refers to the past the predicate of the condi­
tional clause is used in the Past Perfect Subjunctive (with
should/would 4- perfect infinitive in the principal clause).
If I hadn't seen it myself, I would have never believed it.
(c) . If condition refers to the future, the conditional predi­
cate can also be expressed by were to 4- infinitive.
If you were to do it all over again, would you do it in the
same way?
(d) There are mixed types of sentences, with condition refer­
ring to the past and consequence to the present, and vice versa.
If you had followed the doctor's advice, you would be much
better now. If you were not so absent-minded, you wouldri t
have made that mistake.
(7) Clauses of concession, introduced by the conjunctions
though, although, even if, even though, however, whatever,, no
matter how (what, where, eto.).
He did not feel cold though he was wet to the skin.
Although he has good manners, I do not like him. However
carefully you drive, you will probably have an accident
eventually;
Note that however must be followed immediately by an adjective
or adverb.
In pure suppositions, may/might + infinitive can be used
However rich one may be, there is always something one
wants.
But this type of remark is very uncommon in conversation.
No matter what he says, don't believe him = Whatever
he says, don't believe him.
No matter how hard he tried to win the first prize, he failed.
203
Note that no matter is Immediately followed by an adjective,
adverb or pronoun.
Even if you try hard, you won’t win the first prize.
Note that no future verb Is used to denote this type of
concession.
After even if we can, as in conditional sentences, replace a
present tense by should 4- infinitive to indicate an unlikely
supposition.
Even if he should find out, he won’t do anything about it.
(8) Clauses of manner or comparison, introduced by the conjunc­
tions as, as ... as, not so ... as, than, as if, as though.
These clauses characterize an action by comparing it with
the action expressed in the principal clause. Thus the meaning
of manner (how?) is intermingled with that of comparison.
She did exactly as he told her. We were going up the road
as fast as we could. My wife worked as hard as / did. This
is not so easy as it looks. It isn't so bad as it might appear
at first sight. It is much later than you think. It cost more
than I had Intended to spend. He moved slowly as if he
were blind. He didn’t see anything as if he had got blind.
N о t e the use of the subjunctive forms in clauses of comparison
after as it (a
* though).
x
ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES
Attributive clauses are used as postpositive attributes of
some noun or pronoun in the principal clause. This noun or pro­
noun is called an antecedent.
The car which you wanted has been sold. Ask me anything
that I don't make clear. I told her the reason why I was not
coming.
Attributive clauses are Commonly divided into relative
and appositive clauses. They differ both in meaning and in the
way they are joined to the antecedent.
1. Attributive Relative Clauses
They serve to qualify the antecedent. According to their mean­
ing, they are subdivided into restrictive and non-restrictive.
A restrictive clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent
204
so that it cannot be omitted without affecting the sense of the
sentence. It is not separated by a comma.
f
Restrictive clauses are introduced by: (1) relative pronouns:
who, whose, which, that, as\ (2) relative adverbs: where, when,
(3) asyndetically.
The man who called on you left a message. The man (that)
I spoke to is my professor. The book (which) you asked for
has been taken. I think my father is the best man / have
ever known. He came to the street where she lived. The time
when he was to leave came quickly. He was such a listener
as most musicians would be glad to welcome.
If the relative pronoun is used with a preposition, the pre­
position is normally placed after the verb, at the end of the rela­
tive clause.
The girls (that) I work with are having lunch. The book
(that) I told you about is still on sale.
As seen from the examples, restrictive clauses may be subor­
dinated asyndetically in most cases.
The relative clauses in which relative pronouns or adverbs
are omitted are called contact clauses.
The antecedent of a contact clause is any part of the prin­
cipal clause but the subject. In other words, the relative pro­
noun, if inserted, would not be the subject of the contact clause.
The money he lost has never been found. (He is the subject
of the relative clause.) The money (which) he lost has never
ч been found. (Which is the object of the relative clause.)
But: The money which was here has been stolen. (Which
is the subject of the relative clause and therefore cannot
, be omitted.)
In colloquial speech, however, there may be contact
clauses which have the subject of the principal clause as the
antecedent; usually such clauses occur after the constructions
it is, there is or here is.
It is an ill wind blows nobody good, (proverb) That’s a
thing might happen to any man. There’s a policeman wants
to see you. Here’s a gentleman asks for you.
A non-restrictive clause describes the antecedent by giving
some additional information about it. It does not restrict its
meaning and therefore can be left out of the sentence without
205
affecting its sense. It Is separated from the rest of the sentence
by a comma.
Non-restrictive clauses are introduced by: (1) relative pro­
nouns: оЛо, which; (2) relative adverbs: where, when. Asyndet­
ic coordination is not typical of these clauses.
My sister, who lives In New York, visited us. He pointed
to the dog, which was looking at me hopefully. He just came
back from Indiana, where he spent his holiday. The year
1929, when the crisis broke out, was disastrous for the firm.
. 2, Attributive Appositive Clauses
They are used as appositive attributes specifying the mean­
ing of the antecedent, when it is expressed by an abstract noun
(idea, thought, question, reason, etc.).
Appositive clauses are introduced by conjunctions or con­
junctive words, such as that, who, what, which, where, when, why,
how. They are never joined asyndetically.
An appositive clause is not separated from the principal
clause by a comma.
The thought that I might never have met her was dreadful.
We haven't yet settled the question who will lead the dele­
gation. He refused to tell me the reason why he had not
accepted the invitation.
PARENTHETICAL CLAUSES
Parenthetical clauses express the speaker's attitude to the
statement made in the sentence or they show the relation of
this statement to the one previously mentioned or to the source
of information. ,
In most cases parenthetical clauses are introduced asyndet­
ically, though sometimes the conjunction as is used: as you
know, as.I told you, as I see it, as you put it, etc.
Parenthetical clauses may be placed at the end, in the mid­
dle, and, less frequently, at the beginning of the sentence. They
are separated by commas or dashes. k
You are not afraid, / hope. You won't be safe here, /
am afraid. Her singing is quite exceptional, / think. As
you know, we’ve been friends since childhood. He is, as
1 told you, their only son. He had a very agreeable face, and
206
/ thought, was handsome. Nursing a wounded heart, he
thought cynically, would not lead to happiness.
The principal clauses of complex sentences with object
clauses, as well as the combinations “if 4- predicate” in complex
sentences with subject clauses, tend to be used as parenthetical
clauses in Modern English. It happens when the predicate of
the principal clause is expressed by verbs of saying (say, tell)
and thinking (think, believe, suppose, remember).
You’re from Kansas City, they tell me. You know what
happened, I suppose. Sleep, it seemed, refused to come.
EMPHATIC COMPLEX SENTENCES
Besides all types of complex sentences mentioned above,
there is a special type of sentences in English which should be
discussed separately. These are the so-called emphatic complex
sentences. They serve to emphasize some word or group of words
in the sentence.
*
'
The structure of emphatic sentences is as follows: It is/was +
emphatic word 4- subordinate clause (group of words).
Thu? the subordinate clause stands in apposition to the
pronoun it.
If the emphasized element is expressed by a noun, a noun
word-group or a pronoun (without a preposition), the subordi­
nate clause is introduced by the relative pronoun аЛо or
which, and sometimes by that, or asyndetically.
It was you who called the sheriff, not I. (You called the
sheriff.) It is not / that am to blame. (/ am not to blame.)
It was home-sickness which made him come back. (Home­
sickness made him come back.) It's Brown you ought to
thank. (You ought to thank Brown.)
In all other cases (i. e. when the emphasized element is
expressed by a prepositional phrase, adverb, clause, etc.) the
subordinate clause is introduced by that or, less frequently,
asyndetically.
It was on the beach that I found them. (I found them on
the beach.) It was then he noticed us. (Then he noticed us.)
Thus emphatic sentences may be regarded as transforms of
unemphatie sentences. The emphasized element may correspond
207
to any part of the unemphatic sentence, except a verb-predi­
cate and an attribute.
It was Ann who said it.— Ann said it. (subject)
It was a camping holiday they chose.— They chose a
camping holiday, (object)
It was in Italy that they met.— They met in Italy, (ad­
verbial modifier)
These emphatic clauses are rendered in Russian by special
emphasizing words or word-groups (Именно Анна..., He кто
иной, как Анна...) or by means of emphatic wprd-order (and
intonation in oral speech).
MIXED TYPES
Sometimes coordination and subordination are combined
within one sentence. In this case we have compound-complex
or complex-compound sentences.
COMPOUND-COMPLEX
SENTENCES
A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more coor­
dinate clauses in which at least one coordinate clause is complex
in structure.
I know that she hates me, but Г11 make her love me.
I
COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCES
A complex-compound sentence has two or more subordinate
clauses connected by coordination.
He realized that he had a terrific responsibility and that
the best thing to do was to keep his mouth shut, to speak
only when spoken too, and to make his answers short.
REPORTED SPEECH
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
There are two ways of relating what a person has said: di­
rect and indirect.
*
In both cases we deal with peculiar types
of composite sentences.
• A. J. Thomson, A. V. Martinet. A Practical English. Grammar. Ldn.,
1971. (The presentation of Reported Speech here is based on op. dt.,
p. 17в—103)
.
4
,
'
,
.
208
In direct speech we repeat the original speaker’s exact words.
She said, “I have lost my umbrella.” Hamlet said, "I
must be cruel, only to be kind.”
Remarks thus repeated are placed between inverted commas
(quotation marks), and a comma or colon is placed immediately
before the remark.
Direct speech is found in conversations in books, in plays,
and quotations.
In indirect speech we give the exact meaning of a remark or
speech, without necessarily using the speaker’s exact words.
She said that she had lost her umbrella. Hamlet said that
he had to be cruel in order to be kind.
In other words, when using indirect speech we report in
our own words what another person has said; therefore indirect
speech is commonly called reported speech.
Indirect speech is normally used in conversation, though
direct speech js sometimes employed here to give a more dra­
matic effect.
Direct speech can be described as a syntactical unit with two
centres of predication.
*
It consists of the introductory part and
the quotation. The introductory part of direct speech may precede
the quotation, follow it, or be inserted in it. The quotation may
contain more than one sentence.
She said, “Oh, that’s you again.”
“Here I am,” he said.
“I’ve just called,” he said, “to see you. I miss you so.”
What is known as reported speech does not differ grammati­
cally from the conventional types of sentences.
He said he missed her. (a complex sentence with an object
clause) What he said was that he refused to stay, (a complex
sentence with subject and predicative clauses) She told
me to stay, (a simple sentence)
When we turn direct speech into indirect some changes are
usually necessary, such as the back-shifting of tenses, the
change of persons, adverbs and, sometimes, word-order.
To study all changes brought about by turning direct speech
into indirect,. we should consider statements, questions, com­
mands, suggestions and greetings separately.
* Б. С. Хаймович, Б. И. Роговская, op. cit., p. 293/
209
INDIRECT STATEMENTS
When the introductory verb is in the past tense, which it
usually is, the verbs in the subordinate clauses change according
to the rules of the sequence of tenses. These rules have been pre­
viously dealt with in Tense and Aspect.
He said, *4 am French.” — He said that he was French.
He said, “Mother is working in the garden.” — He said
that (his) mother tews working in the garden.
He said, “1 was there.” — He said that he had been there.
He said, “The dog has eaten it all.” — He said that the
dog had eaten it all.
He said, “She will be there.”— He said that she would
' be there.
He said, “I shall meet her.”— He said that he would meet
her.
“In theory the past tense changes to the Past Perfect, but
in spoken English it is often left unchanged, provided this can
be done without causing confusion about the relative times of
the actions.”* “He said, ‘I loved her
*
** must become: “He
said he had loved her” as otherwise there would be a change of
meaning. But: “He said, ‘Ann arrived on Monday’ ” could
be reported: “He said Ann arrived (or had arrived) on Monday.”
In written English past tenses usually do change to Past
Perfect but there are a few exceptions:
(1) Past tenses used in time clauses do not normally change.
He said, “When we were living/lived in Paris we often
saw Paul.” — He said that when they were living/lived
in Paris they often saw Paul/had often seen Paul.
(2) A past tense used to describe a state of affairs which still
exists when the speech is reported rejnains unchanged. .
She said, “I decided not to buy the house because it was
on a main road.” — She said she had decided not to buy
the house because it was on a main road.
(3) The Past Continuous usually remains unchanged except
when it refers to a completed action.
• A. J. Thomson, A. V. Martinet, op, cit., p. 179.
210
She said, “We were thinking of selling the house but we
have decided not to?’ — She said that they had been
thinking of selling the house but had decided not to. В u t :
He said, “When I saw them last they were playing tennis?’
— He said that when he saw them last they were playing
tennis.
It would also be possible to say:
,
He said that when ht had seen them last they had been play­
ing tennis.
(4) No sequence of tenses is used when verba In reported
statements are in the Subjunctive.
She said, “I would help him if I could.” — She said she
would help him if she could.
He said, “I wish I knew.” — He said that he wished be
knew.
(5) Must in direct speech normally becomes had to in in­
direct speech, when the introductory verb is in the past tense.
He said, “I must go?’ — He said that he had to go.
But must remains unchanged:
(a) When it expresses a permanent general obligation.
He said, “Every man must obey laws?’ — He said that
every man must obey laws.
(b) When it expresses deduction.
He said, “It must be cold outside?’ — He said that it must
be cold outside.
Some other changes are necessary when we turn direct state­
ments into indirect statements:
(1) Personal and possessive pronouns normally change from
first to third person.
He said, “/ can’t find my hat?’ — He said (that) he
couldn’t find his hat.”
But, of course, when someone is reporting his own words,
pronouns do not change.
1 said, “/ like my new house.”
my new house.
1 said (that) / liked
211
(2) This change of pronouns will affect the verb also when
it is in the future tense.
He says “/ shall come.” — He says (that) he will come.
He said, “/ shall come.” — He said (that) he would come.
(3) Demonstrative adjectives also change: this changes
to that, these changes to those.
He said, “I want this one.” —He said (that) he wanted
that one.
(4) The adverb here, and adverbs vand adverbial phrases of
time change as follows:
here — there
today — that day
yesterday — the day! before
tomorrow — the next day, the following day
next week, year, etc.— the following week, year, eto.
last week, year, eta.— the previous week, year, etc.,
the year before
But if the place is unchanged, here can be used in the indi­
rect speech; and if the speech is made and reported on the same
day, these time changes are not necessary either.
She said, “It is very peaceful here." — She said that it
was very peaceful. (There may not be necessary to the
sense and would probably be omitted.)
On Monday he said, “My son is coming today." — On
Monday he said that his son was coming that day.
Ten minutes ago he said, “My son is coming today." — 4
Ten minutes ago he said that his son was coming today.
He said, “I saw her yesterday." — He said that he had
seen her the day before.
I said, “I’ll do it tomorrow." — Lsaid that I’d do it
the next day. (I’d = I would)
He said, “I’ll be going away next week." — He said he
*d
1 be going away the following week, (he’d = he would)
She said, “My father died last year." — She said that
her father died the year before.
INDIRECT QUESTIONS
When we turn direct questions into indirect questions, the
following changes are necessary:
(1) Tenses, pronouns and adverbs of time and place change
as in statement.
212
(2) The word-order of a question changes to that of a state­
ment: subject — predicate; no question mark is used.
He said, “Where does she live?" — He asked where she
lived.
(3) If the introductory verb is say, it must be changed to
a verb of inquiry, i. e., ask, inquire, wonder, want to know, etc.
He said, “Where is the station?” — He asked where the
station was.
The verbs ask, inquire, etc. can also be used in direct
speech. They are then usually placed at the end of the sentence.
“Where is the station?” he inquired.
(4) If the direct question begins with an interrogative word
(when, where, who, how, why, etc.), the interrogative word is
repeated at the beginning of the indirect question.
“Why did you come?” she asked.— She asked why he had
•come.
He said, “How will you do it?” — He asked how she
would do it.
If there is no interrogative word, the word whether or if
is placed after the main verb. Whether is always correct, but if
cannot be used with all verbs.
“Are you going to the party?” he asked.— He asked me
whether I was going to the party. Or : He asked me if
I was going to the party.
He said, “Is anyone there?” — He asked if anyone was
there.
(5) As indirect questions have the same subject-predicate
order as statements, they use the same form of the verb. It
means that the auxiliary do is not used in positive indirect ques­
tions, because it is not used in the corresponding positive
statements.
“Do you like coffee?” she asked.— She asked whether I
liked coffee, (not “whether I did like coffee”)
But the auxiliary do is used in the corresponding negative
indirect questions, because it is used in negative statements.
“Don’t you like coffee?” she asked.—< She asked him why
he didn't like coffee.
,
213
(6) Questions beginning with shall I/wel. These can be of
two kinds: speculations and requests for instructions.
(a) Speculations, when put into indirect speech, follow the
ordinary rule about shall/will and are usually introduced by
the verb wonder.
He said, “Wheresfta/f I be in 1980?” — (Possible answer —
‘‘Perhaps, Г11 be on Mars.) — He wondered where he
would be in 1980.
(b) Requests for instructions, however, retain shall/should.
He says, “Where shall I put it?” (Possible answer —
“Put it in the safe.”) — He asks where he shall put It.
О r : He asks where he Is to put it. (more usual)
He said, “Where shall I put it?” — He asked where
he should put it. О r: He asked where he was to put it.
Note that an alternative to shall/should here is is tolwas to. This
is often used, especially in indireot speech. There is no difference in
meaning.
"Shall I take the car?
**
he asked.
*
— He asked if ha should take the
car/if he was to take the oar.
(7) Indirect questions are not enclosed in inverted commas,
and they do not have a question mark at the end. But a ques­
tion mark is necessary if the whole complex sentence in which
the indirect question is included as a clause is itself a direct
question.
Did you remember to ask when the train arrived?
If the whole question were reported, so that the present main
clause became a subordinate one, then the question mark would
not be used.
He inquired whether I remembered to ask when the train
arrived.
INDIRECT COMMANDS
' When we turn direct commands into indirect commands, the
following changes are necessary;
(1) The introductory verb, say, etc., changes to a verb of
command or request, such as tell, order, command, ask, etc.
He said, "Close the gate, Tom.” — He told Tom to close
the gate.
214
(2) The introductory verb of the indirect command must
be followed immediately by the person addressed and the in­
finitive (i. e. the complex object).
He said, “Get your coat, Tom.” — He told Tom to get
his coat.
In direct commands the person addressed is often not men­
tioned.
She said, “Go away.”
But in indirect commands the person addressed must be
included, so that in cases such as the above it is necessary to
add a noun or a pronoun.
She told me (the children) to go away.
(3) Negative commands are expressed by placing not before
the infinitive.
He said, “Don't move, boys.” —He told the boys not
to move.
(4) Pronouns and adverbs of place and time change as in
statements.
She said, “Shut the door after you, children." — She
told the children to shut the door after them.
I said, “Stop making this noise.” — I told him to stop
makjng that noise.
He said, “Please, come with me." — He asked her to
come with him. (“please” is omitted)
“Don't go,” I said.— I told them not to go.
•‘Don’t sit on my hat,” he shouted.— He told them not
to sit on his hat.
He said, “Don’t come tomorrow as I won’t be here." —
He told us not to come the next day as he wouldn’t be there.
Two Other Ways of Expressing Indirect Commands
Indirect commands can also be expressed by object clauses
containing be + infinitive or should + infinitive.
(1) islarelwerelwas + infinitive >
This construction can be used instead of tell + noun/pronoun 4- infinitive, but it is less imperative.
She said, “Open your, books.” — She told us to open
our books. О r: She said that we were to open our books.
216
It is more usual than tell Ч- complex object
ductory verb is in the present tense.
when the intro­
She says, “Meet me at the station.” — She says that we
are to meet her at the station.
It can also be used when the person who is to obey the
order is mentioned but not necessarily addressed directly.
She said that he was to leave the house. (We don’t know
whether she gave the order directly to him or sent it by
another person.)
(2) order + should + infinitive
He ordered that they should leave the country.
The conjunction that must be placed after the verb and can­
not be omitted.
This construction can be used instead of the be + infini­
tive construction, but it is more formal and therefore less
common.
He said that Tom was to apologize. = He ordered that
Tom should apologize.
Like the be + infinitive construction, it can be used when
the recipient of the order is mentioned but not necessarily
addressed directly.
Indirect Commands in the Passive
Indirect commands can also be used in the passive, but in
the first type (tell + complex object) tell must be replaced by
order or give orders (for).
The
The
The
The
Captain
Captain
Captain
Captain
ordered a salute to be fired:
ordered that a salute should be fired.
gave orders for a salute to be fired.
gave orders that a salute should be fired.
MIXED TYPES
Direct speech may, of course, be a combination of question and
statement, statement and command, etc. When we turn such
sentences into indirect speech, each of the questions, commands,
and statements must be introduced by its proper verb.
216
He said, “Магу looks terrible. Is she ill?” — He said
that Mary looked terrible and asked if she was ill.
He said, “I don’t know the way. Ask the old man sitting
on the gate.” — He said that he didn’t know the way and
told me to ask the old man.
She said, “Did you hear that crash? Go and see what has
happened.” — She asked if he had heard the crash and
told him to go and see what had happened.
THE USE OF THE VERBS SA Y AND TELL
Say can be used with both direct and indirect speech. z
He said, “It is snowing.”
He said that it was snowing.
It can be used with or without the person addressed (in the
former case — preceded by to).
He said, “I have no time.” — “I have no time,” he said
to me. (This is the usual order when the person addressed
is mentioned.)
He said that he had no time.— He said to me that he had
no time. (“He told me that...” would be more common
here.)
Tell can mean “say”, “order”, or “narrate”. It is not usu­
ally used with direct speech. It is always followed by the per­
son addressed without, preposition, except when it is used as
shown in (c) below.
He told Tom that the dog had bitten him.
(a) It is used for indirect statements, as above, and for in­
direct commands.
He told me io keep the gate closed.
(b) It is often used to mean “narrate”.
He told met about his adventures.
(c) When we have tell ... how it is possible though not very
usual to omit the person addressed.
He told how he had crossed the desert.
Note. We can also use tell in such expressions as tell stories!
tales!lies!the truth. Here the person addressed need not be mentioned.
217
FREE REPORTED SPEECH
*
There may be reported speech without reporting verbs.
Pronouns, adverbs and tenses are shifted, but otherwise the
structure remains as in direct speech.
(1) Statements
Unfortunately, / can't come. / have an appointment with
my solicitor tomorrow, (direct) — Unfortunately,
he
couldn't come. He had an appointment with his solicitor
the next day.
(2) Questions
Are you coming? (direct) — Was she coming? (reported)
This type of reported speech is often used in story-telling
making a more vivid impression.
The two types of reported speech (i. e. dependent and free)
are not always kept strictly apart. Reporting clauses are some­
times added to what looks like free reported speech. It is com­
mon in everyday informal speech, especially, when reporting
questions.
He asked, was she coming. I asked, were they satisfied
with their apartment. My mother says, please may she
borrow the key;
Sometimes the two types of indirect speech are mixed up
within one sentence.
They asked if she knew his address, and had she seen him
lately.
• See P. Christophersen, A. O. Sandved, op. cit., p. 250—251.
Part III
EXERCISES
NOUN
I. Give the plural (in spelling and transcription).
house, mouth, month, mouse, bath, roof, half, shelf, chief,
woman, foot, ox, deer, swine, crisis, thesis, phenomenon, cri­
terion, datum, series, formula, antenna, medium, means,
memorandum, house-wife, woman-teacher, passer-by, brotherin-law, boy-friend, postman, man-servant
IL Replace the of-phrase by the possessive.
the assistant of the director, the nephew of Sir Charles, the
order of the Commander-in-Chief, the old coat of my father,
the birthday of my boy-friend, the duties of men-servants, the
last letter of my mother-in-law, the recent statement of President
Ford, the last novel of Hemingway, the early poems of Robert
Burns, one of the greatest tragedies of Shakespeare, the latest
record of the champion, games of children, clothes of men, an
interval of ten minutes, a distance of five miles, the crew of the
ship, the population of England, for the sake of economy, the
mother of Mary and John, the rooms of the daughter and the
son, the new house of the Parkers
III. Translate into English.
1'
A. 1. Эти новости уже всем известны. 2. Не знаю, на­
сколько важны эти сведения. 3. Это твои деньги, не так ли?
Мне они не нужны. 4. Боюсь, что ваши советы неприемлемы.
5. Думаю, что ваши знания недостаточны. 6. Какого цвета
у неё волосы? — У нее рыжие волосы^ а глаза зеленые, как
у кошки. 7. Это очень трудная, но интересная работа. 8.
Эго очень интересная работа по проблемам современной фи­
зики. 9. Фрукты будут доставлены на самолете. 10. Какие
фрукты выращивают *на Кавказе? 11. Каково содержание пер­
вого тома? 12. Разве белье все еще в прачечной? 13. Твои
21Э
часы неправильно идут. Отнеси их к часовщику. 14. Фоне­
тика — наука о звуках речи.
В. 1. Казарма находится в пяти минутах ходьбы отсюда.
2. Из кого состоит штаб батальона? 3. Старые родители Джона
очень гордились успехами своего старшего сына? 4. Вам
не понравился вечер у Ричардсонов, да? 5. Сколько томов в
полном собрании сочинений Голсуорси? 6. Какой счастливый
человек! Ему удалось купить последнее издание стихов Берн­
са. 7. Это машина не Джона, а его приятеля. 8. Меня только
что представили отцу Мэри и Джона. 9. Родители Анны и
Александра раньше не были знакомы. 10. Как, вы сказали,
зовут сестру вашего приятеля? 11. Прежний секретарь дирек­
тора женился на младшей дочери м-ра Роджерса. 12. В нашем
учреждении работает сын нового директора. 13. Мне не пон­
равилась эта глупая шутка Чарльза. 14. Выпускники англий­
ских университетов получают степень бакалавра. 15. В га­
зетах опубликовано заявление нового президента. 16. Вы
читали новое заявление президента? 17. Комитет все еще спо­
рит по этому вопросу. Когда же они придут к соглашению?
18. Олимпийская команда — молодые девушки и парни не
старше 25 лет. 19. Мне сказали, что я сделал большие успехи
в английском языке.
ARTICLES
I. Comment on the use of articles.
1. Man said to the Universe: “Sir, I exist!” “However”,
replied the Universe, “The fact has not created in me a sense
of obligation.”
2. “Had a good day, Nora?” “Not very good. People kept
knocking at the door all the morning.” “Oh, who were they all?”
“Oh, nobody special, just the electric light man to read the
meter, the man selling fruit, the postman — all the usual peo­
ple...”
3. I went to the Press Conference. A young and too beauti­
ful French colonel presided. He spoke in French and a junior
officer translated. The French correspondents sat together like
a rival football-team.
The interpreter said: “77te colonel tells you that the enemy
has suffered a sharp defeat and severe losses — the equivalent
of one complete-battalion. The last detachments are now making
their way back across the Red River...” An American correspond­
ent asked: “What are the French losses?”
220
The colonel knew perfectly well the meaning of the question;
but he paused, until it was interpreted. Then he answered:
“Our losses have not been heavy. The exact number is not yet
**
known.
4. A Salute to Paul Robeson
A statement by the Birthday Committee for Paul Robeson
reads: “On April 9, 1898, the people’s struggle for liberation
was given new energy, for on that day Paul Robeson was born.
In his 75 years, he has been a great scholar; a great figure in
sports; one of the greatest actors and singers the world has ever
known; and undoubtedly, one of the most distinguished Black
Americans in the -service of freedom and justice for all peoples.
“On Sunday, April 15, 1973, a cultural salute to Paul
Robeson will pay tribute to his lifetime of struggle and achie­
vement, and to his artistic integrity and commitment. This
celebration will help to initiate the “Paul Robeson Archives”
to be housed in New York City, that will assemble, preserve and
make available to scholars and the interested public a complete
record of Paul Robeson’s life' and work.
“The Birthday Committee invites you to join them in this
expression of admiration for Paul Robeson — distinguished
artist, great American, citizen of the world.”
5. Soviet National Cultures Moving to a Single Communist
Culture
Socialist culture incorporates the most valuable features
and traditions of the culture and way of life of every nation in
the Soviet Union.
The development of an internationalist culture, common for
all the Soviet peoples, is connected with the fraternal mutual
aid of the socialist nations, and especially with the assistance
ckthe Russian people. The socialist cultural revolution has
reached the most remote parts of the country. All its republics
have an advanced system of education and enlightenment, and
big science has come into being and gained firm footing.
The socialist culture of the Soviet peoples is bilingual. Along
with the native language, three-quarters of the country’s popu­
lation have a perfect command of Russian as the language of
intercourse among nations, a language used constantly. The
peoples, with their own national literary languages, regard
the Russian language as a potent means of quick cultural devel­
opment and exchanges of cultural values, as a language of inter­
221
course of all the nations and nationalities of the Soviet Union,
generally acknowledged at present as a world language.
II. Insert articles where required.
I. Rules of Grammar
Student', There is one thing that rather puzzles me. Sometimes
we are told, “That is not good grammar.” Who makes
“rules” of grammar? Who decides whether sentence is right
or wrong?
Teacher: No one.
Student: But isn't there Academy that does it?
Teacher: Not in England.
Student: Hasn’t Oxford University or Cambridge anything to
do with it?
Teacher: No. You see, grammar of language is not list of rules
forced on people who speak it; it is just record made by
careful observation of how people speak language.
Student: But you have “rules” and laws of grammar to say
“this is right and this is wrong”. Surely, language must obey
these rules.
Teacher: You have “rules and laws of Nature”, but these are
not rules for Nature that Nature has to obey; they are just
few things that wise men have observed as to way Nature
acts. If we find that Nature is not acting according to these
rules we don’t try to force Nature to obey them; we change
rules and make new ones.
Student: And is it the same with grammar?
Teacher: Exactly. Language is living thing, always changing;
old words die, new words come in; some constructions gra­
dually fall out of use, others push their way in. English of
today is not quite the same as English of seventeenth cen­
tury. What was good grammar for Shakespeare could be
bad grammar for Shaw.
Student: To come back to this question of what is grammatical­
ly “right” and what is grammatically “wrong’^how do you
decide?
Teacher: Wbatever form is used by majority of educated speak­
ers or writers is correct; or, as Henry Sweet puts it,
“Whatever is in general use in language is, for that reason,
grammatically correct.” That is all.
222
2. Tale of Tail
There was once shepherd who went out to hills to look after
his sheep. Day was cold and deep cold mist lay over valley where
sheep wandered. He had trouble In finding them, but finally
found all but one. After long search he found that one too
but in very unfortunate position. It was in pool, half drowned.
Shepherd bent down, took hold of sheep and tall and pulled.
Sheep was heavy with water and he could ndt lift her, so he
took off his coat and he pulled! Exertion was too much for
shepherd and he fell back. Gathering all strength that he had
he took a good hold of tail again and he pulled 11 — and tail
broke! And if it had not been for broken tail, and for fact
article drill had come to end, this tale would have been a great
deal longer.
3. John Galsworthy
John Galsworthy was greatest English novelist of first
half of 20th century. He was son of rich country gentleman,
was educated at Harrow and Oxford; but instead of practising
law, devoted himself to literature. In 1932 he was awarded No­
bel Prize. His most important work is “The Forsyte Saga”,
trilogy composed of novels “The Man of Property”, “In Chan­
cery” and “To Let”. Trilogy shows Galsworthy as writer of
deep psychological insight and remarkable artistic skill and
gives proof to his mastery in constructing dramatic situation.
In his novels, he gives realistic description of English bour­
geoisie. He portrays very dramatically strong sense of property
and ownership which underlies entire psychology of bourge­
ois class.
'
#'
4. Commerce and Industry
4
Not being great agricultural country, England has to obtain
her food supplies largely from abroad. She also has to import
many raw materials, such as wool from Australia; timber from
Sweden and Finland; cotton, petroleum and tobacco from
United States, and so on.
One of most extensive industries in England is textile
dustry; immense quantities of cotton and woollen goods and
artificial silk are produced and exported. English leather goods
are also in great demand in other countries
*
223
Great Britain is noted for its coal mines and for iron and
steel goods, and it supplies many countries with certain classes
of machinery. Another leading industry in this country is ship­
building; motor industry is also very flourishing.
5. Appeal for AlUEuropean Peace Pact
Ending friendly and business-like gathering, delegates at
conference of European Communist Parties unanimously cal­
led on all peoples of Europe to take action for collective se­
curity.
Danger, represented by possibility of armed conflict in Eu­
rope, bringing with it possibility of nuclear world war weighs
heavily on peoples of Europe. Upsurge of new-nazism has
deeply disturbed European opinion.
Conference, in which Communist Parties of capitalist and
socialist countries in Europe have met, was successful. Parti­
cipants achieved -unity on main questions affecting peace in
Europe.
Present situation, the delegates said, urgently needs:
Treaty between all European States to renounce use of
force, or any such threat.
Treaty to prevent spread of nuclear weapons.
Active support for all people who are striving against neonazi trends and for democracy.
Normal relations between European States and German
Democratic Republic, and between G. D. R. and F. R. G.
“It is high time to establish new relations in Europe based
on real relaxation of tension and mutual trust,” statement said.
“We, Communists in different national conditions, will spare
no effort toward building collective security system.”
«
II. Translate into English.
1. а) К воротам подъехала машина, b) Машина подъеха­
ла к воротам. 2. а) Утро было холодное и ветреное. Ь) Было
холодное и ветреное утро. 3. а) Мы не знали, что собака в
доме. Ь) Мы не знали, что в доме есть собака. 4. а) Не стоит
трогаться в путь в плохую погоду. Ь) Мы не тронемся в путь,
пока погода не переменится. 5. а) Проблема, которую мы
обсуждаем, очень важна. Ь) Мы обсуждаем проблему, которая
не представляет никакой важности. 6. а) Была ночь, но это
была летняя ночь, и погода стояла ясная. Ь) Он проснулся
и не мог понять, что это — утро или вечер. За окном было
светло, и на небе сияла луна. 7. а) В комнате была тишина.
224
b) Кто первым нарушил молчание? 8. а) Я с детства люблю
музыку. Ь) Это очень красивая музыка, с) Музыка велико­
лепная, не правда ли? 9. а) Язык — средство общения. Ь) Вы
изучаете язык или литературу? с) Как известно, английский —
аналитический язык, d) Это явление типично для языка ана­
литического строя, е) Английский язык времен Шекспира
совсем не похож на современный английский, f) Как назы­
вается язык, на котором говорят в Бразилии? g) На каком
странном языке они говорят! 10. Мы позавтракали рано утром.
Завтрак состоял из яичницы с ветчиной и кофе. 11. а) Что у
нас сегодня на обед? Ь) Мы заказали обед из четырех блюд.
c) Обед был очень хороший, d) Это был очень хороший обед,
е) Мама спросила, нравится ли нам обед, f) Мать ежедневно
давала ему денег на дорогу и на обед. 12. Чай слишком креп­
кий; я не люблю крепкий чай. 13. а) Лимон очень полезен.
Ь) Нарежь лимон, с) Положи лимон в чай. d) Купи лимон
к чаю. 14. а) Больного необходимо отправить в больницу.
Ь) Недалеко от школы находится больница, с) Она предложила
встретиться у входа в больницу. 15. а) Моя дочь работает
лаборанткой в медицинском колледже. Колледж находится
на расстоянии пятнадцати минут ходьбы отсюда. Ь) Мой стар­
ший сын в колледже, а младший все еще ходит в школу, с) Мы
вместе учились в колледже, d) Что ты собираешься делать
по окончании колледжа? 16. Глагол — часть речи, обозначаю­
щая действие. 17. Аргентина и Бразилия — наиболее крупные
государства Южной Америки. 18. Разве вы никогда не были
в Музее Пушкина? 19. Спектакли Шекспировского Мемори­
ального Театра всегда пользовались огромным успехом у
публики. 20. а) Великий американский писатель Эрнест
Хемингуэй проявлял большой интерес к русской литературе.
Ь) Вторая глава посвящена английской литературе первой
половины двадцатого века. 21. Это одна из наиболее интерес­
ных работ по истории развития английского романа. 22. Меня
интересует не история английского языка, а английский,
на котором говорят в современной Англии. 23. а) Откройте
книгу на 25-й странице и прочтите отрывок, начинающийся
словом «Форсайты...! Ь) Он был Форсайтом и, как у всех Фор­
сайтов, у него было сильно развито чувство собственности.
24. Джордж Вашингтон, главнокомандующий революцион­
ной армией, был избран президентом в 1789 году. 25. По
сообщениям печати' вчера в Волгоград прибыла делегация
членов муниципалитета города Ковентри. Делегация посе­
тила Мамаев Курган и возложила венок на Могилу Неизвест­
ного Солдата. Вечером состоялась встреча гостей с ветерана8-501
225
ми войны. Мэр города Ковентри г-и Джонсон произнес
речь, в которой он приветствовал ветеранов войны и всех жи­
телей города-героя от имени своих сограждан. 26. Советский
Союз всегда выступал и выступает за мирное сосуществование
государств, за безопасность народов мира.
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
I. Give the comparative and the superlative degrees.
new, old, big, little, good, bad, near, far, easy, early, pretty,
happy, clever, useful, comfortable, well-known, good-looking,
well-educated, kind-hearted, open-minded.
II. Give the English equivalents of:
а) более трудный; гораздо более трудный; еще более труд­
ный; самый трудный;
в) большее число; гораздо большее число; еще большее
число; самое большое число;
с) более трудная задача; гораздо более трудная задача;
еще более трудная задача; самая трудная задача; самая труд­
ная задача, какая только возможна
III. Translate into English.
К. 1. а) Он так же способен, как и его братья. Ь) Он не
так способен, как его старший брат. 2. а) Он гораздо умнее
своих братьев. Ь) Он самый умный из всех братьев. 3. Который
из двух братьев старше? 4. Я думаю, вы не намного старше
меня. 5. Кажется, он на пять лет старше своей сестры. 6. Я
слыхал, что он вдвое старше своей жены. 7. Второй текст
гораздо труднее первого, а третий еще более трудный. 8. Это
самое лучшее решение, какое только можно себе представить.
9. Какой город Англии дальше всего от берега моря? 10. Он
сказал, чтобы мы ждали дальнейших инструкций. 11. Когда,
ты сказал, отходит последний поезд? 12. Вы не слышали
последние известия? 13. Сочинение должно быть как можно
- короче. 14. Чем короче будет ваше сочинение, тем лучше.
15. Чем больше ваша машина, тем больше горючего она будет
потреблять. 16. Чем внимательнее вы будете, тем меньше
ошибок сделаете. 17, Последняя модель машины вдвое надеж­
нее, чем старая. 18. Билеты в театр раз в пять дороже, чем би­
леты в кино. 19, Они потребовали4 более высокой зарплаты.
20. У отца гораздо более высокая зарплата, чем у сына. 21. Его
226
зарплата втрое больше моей. 22. Что, вы сказали, требуют
безработные? 23. Число безработных еще более возросло за
последние пять лет. 24. Кажется, случилось невозможное.
25. Если хотите, я могу доказать обратное.
В. 1. Не подходите близко: собака может укусить вас.
2. Подойдите ближе, если плохо видите. 3. Я плохо слышу вас,
говорите громче. 4. Мы видели, как самолет поднимается все
выше и выше. 5. Самолет летел так высоко, что мы едва
могли его видеть. 6. Чем более усердно вы будете работать,
тем большие успехи вы будете делать в английском языке.
7. Чем скорее начнете, тем скорее кончите. 8. Кто из них сде­
лал работу быстрее всех? 9. Он прекрасно говорит по-англий­
ски, гораздо лучше, чем все остальные студенты. 10. Ты
бегаешь вдвое быстрее, чем я. 11. Неужели вы не читали
сегодняшней газеты?
PRONOUNS
I. State the group to which each of these pronouns belongs.
Give all the other pronouns of the same group.
I, it, mine, myself, this, who, which, that, some, the same,
one, anyone, none, both, each, either, one another, other,
everything, much
II. Open the brackets using the proper form of the pronoun.
1. “Who told you that (I, me)?” “No, it isn’t you. It’s
(she, her).” 2. “Are they rich?” “I don’t think they are. They
are poorer than (we, us).” 3. Гт (I, me) and not somebody else.
4. That’s (I, me) who am to blame. 5. You and (I, me) are both
in trouble. 6. Who are you looking for? (She, her) or (I, me)?
7. She was looking for him. Npne of them were (he, him).
8. It’s (he, him) all over: absent-minded as always. 9. “Isn’t
it Ann, sitting over there?” “Yes, it must be (she, her).”
10. (Who, whom) do you side with, (they, them) or (we, us)?
11. “I’m getting married.” “(Who, whom) to?”
Ш. Translate into English.
1. Это ты? — Да, это я. 2. Это я звонил тебе вчера вечером.
3. Кто из нас ошибается, я или ты? 4. Ты болен? — Я? Нет.
б. Мой брат старше, чем я. 6. Брось ты эту свою глупую при­
вычку. 7. Упражнения 5-го урока легче, чем упражнения пре'
227
дыдущнх уроков. 8. Как называется столица этой страны?
9. Раньше я никогда не переводил таких трудных текстов,
как этот. 10. Я уже нс тот, кем был три года назад. 11. То,
что он сказал,— правда. 12. Все, что он сказал,— ложь.
13. Все эти сведения очень важны. 14. Новости, которые ты
мне сообщил, очень интересны. 15. Все это кажется довольно
странным. 16. Мы все согласны с вами. 17. Я хочу, чтобы вы
оба подумали об этом. 18. Они винили сами себя за то, что
произошло. 19. Они обвиняют друг друга, но, должно быть,
оба виноваты. 20. На ком, высказали, он женат? 21. Бармен
спросил, что они будут пить. 22. Какой университет он выбрал,
Оксфорд или Кембридж? 23. Я не знаю, кто из вас прав. 24.
Как фамилия человека, с которым ты только что разговаривал?
25. Человек, который только что звонил, просил вам кое-что
передать. 26. Адрес, по которому я написал, оказался непра­
вильным. 27. Это письмо от моего старшего брата, которого
я не видел полтора года. 28. Замок Баскервилей, в который
он привез своего друга, был построен в XV веке. 29. Он один
из самых интересных людей, которых я когда-либо встречал.
30. Вы просили меня напомнить вам об этом, что я и делаю.
31. Не меняй своего решения, что бы ни случилось. 32. На этой
улице есть книжные магазины? — Нет, насколько мне извест­
но. 33. Если у вас есть какие-нибудь возражения, скажите нам.
34. Она разрешила выбрать любую книгу, которая мне по­
нравится. 35. Если у него есть хоть какое-то чувство юмора, он
оценит вашу шутку. 36. Может быть, в этом и есть какойлибо смысл, но я его не вижу. 37. Я поинтересовался, есть ли
кто-нибудь в доме. 38. Я думаю, это никого не касается, кроме
меня. 39. Кто-нибудь из вас знает об этом? 40. М-р Стейплтон
поинтересовался, подозревает ли Шерлок Холмс кого-нибудь
в убийстве. 41. Нельзя пренебрегать своими обязанностями.
42. Долг каждого — соблюдать законы. 43. Очень скучно
прожить всю свою жизнь в одном и том же месте. 44. М-р
Паркер вызвался нести тяжелый чемодан, а миссис Паркер
взяла легкий. 45. Некоторые из нас предпочйтают лететь,
другие поедут поездом. 46. Открой другой ящик, тот, что на­
лево. 47. Я видел, как она разорвала письмо и начала писать
другое. 48. Она попросила еще одну чашку кофе. 49. Все эти
проблемы много раз поднимались, но ни одна из них еще не
решена. 50. К сожалению, ни одно из этих решений неприем­
лемо. 51. Который из этих двух словарей ты предпочитаешь? —
Любой подойдет. 52. Какой из двух фильмов тебе больше нра­
вится? — К сожалению, я не видел ни одного из них. 53. Оба
улыбнулись, но ни один из них не заговорил. 54. По обеим
228
сторонам шоссе росли огромные деревья. 55. Газетные киоски
здесь на каждой стороне улицы. 56. Оба брата — музыканты:
один — композитор, а другой — дирижер. 57. Вошли двое
юношей, оба в плащах. 58. Сзади шли два носильщика. Каж­
дый нес большой чемодан. 59. По улице шли демонстранты.
Каждый нес плакат. 60. Большинство населения этой стра­
ны занято в сельском хозяйстве. 61. Кто-нибудь звонил мне
в мое отсутствие? — Да, звонил опять все тот же человек.
Знаете, у него такой хриплый неприятный голос. 62. Они
собирались купаться ежедневно, но каждый раз вид холодной
воды останавливал их. 63. Не могли бы вы сказать мне обо
всем в нескольких словах? 64. Как всегда, он говорил много,
но сказал мало. 65. Он сказал, что прочел много детективных
романов во время каникул. 66. К сожалению, у меня мало
времени. 67. Жаль, что у нас слишком мало праздников.
68. Некоторые из моих друзей изучают шведский. 69. Боль­
шинство несчастных случаев происходит из-за неосторож­
ности. 70. Большинство ошибок в контрольной работе — на
употребление времен. 71. Большинство домов на другой сто­
роне улицы нуждаются в ремонте. 72. Я думаю, мало кто зна­
ет об этом. 73. Большая часть земли здесь болотистая.
74. Большая часть этой земли принадлежит частным вла­
дельцам. 75. Многое из того, что он сказал, было ново для
нас. 76. Говорят, он написал мало книг, но почти все его
книги имели большой успех. 77. Вы сделали гораздо больше
ошибок, чем другие. 78. Вы сделали примерно столько же
ошибок, как в прошлый раз. 79. Я сделал на три ошибки
больше, чем он. 80. На этот раз вы сделали в три раза больше
ошибок, чем в прошлый раз. 81. Я знаю вдвое больше, чем
ты. 82. Ты не знаешь и половины того, что знаю я.
VERBS
I. Give the three forms of the following verbs.
лгать, лежать, класть (2 варианта), держать (2 варианта),
бить, кусать, тратить, прятать, терять, находить, основывать,
тонуть, ловить, копать, продавать, ударять, вешать (2 вариан­
та), стоить, запрещать (2 варианта), распространять(ся),
подниматься, поднимать (2 варианта)
II. Point out notional and structural verbs. \
1. a) The boy grew steadily, b) The boy grew tall. 2. a) All
went wrong, b) They all went downtown. 3. a) The girl smiled
229
happily, b) She seemed happy. 4. a) They spoke quietly, b) He
remained silent. 5. a) Let me feel your pulse. b)She felt very sad.
6. a) The milk tasted sour, b) The milk turned sour. 7. a) Roses
smell sweet, b) Bloodhounds smell well. 8. a) He is no more
b) You are a liar, c) You must be here, d) You are to speak the
first, e) They are coming, f) The tigers were inside, g) We were out.
III. Translate into English using the Past Indefinite,
1. Она чувствовала себя очень плохо. 2. Наконец дети
выросли. 3. Хозяйка накрыла на стол. 4. Я никогда не лгал
своим друзьям. 5. Цены в Швеции снова поднялись. 6. Не
знаете, кто повесил эту вывеску? 7. Мы подняли этот вопрос
на вчерашнем собрании. 8. Я знаю, кто украл ваши докумен­
ты. 9. Летом мы много плавали и загорали (лежали на солнце).
10. Она разорвала письмо и бросила .его в огонь. 11. Это он
одолжил мне машину. 12. Я немного подумал и выбрал дру­
гую тему. 13. Дети нарисовали забавные картинки. 14. Поли­
ция поймала преступника, да? 15. Наша команда вчера снова
выиграла матч. 16. Он гнал машину на большой скорости.
17. Конференция была проведена на прошлой неделе. 18. Эти
новости были переданы по радио в 7 часов утра.
TENSE AND ASPECT
I. Comment on the use of tenses,
1. The ship was being controlled skilfully by Its pilot-na­
vigator. The equipment was talking nervously to itself —
cycling, whirring, clicking, buzzing. It was sensing and avoid­
ing hazards to the sides, seeking an ideal landing place below.
The designers of the pilot-navigator had purposely obsessed
the equipment with one idea — and that idea was to seek shel­
ter for the troops and material It was supposed to be carrying.
The pi lot-navigator was to set the troops and material down in
the deepest hole it could find. The assumption was that the
landing would be In the face of hostile fire.
Twenty Earthling minutes later, the pilot-navigator was
still talking to itself — finding as much to talk about as ever.
And the $hip was still falling, and falling, and falling fast.
The seeming searchlights and sky-scrapers outside were no
longer to be seen. There was only inky blackness.
Inside the ship, there was silence of a hardly lighter shadle.
Unk and Boaz sensed what was happening to them'— found
what was happening unspeakable.
*
230
They sensed correctly that they were being buried alive.
The ship lurched suddenly, throwing Boaz and Unk to the
floor. The violence brought violent relief.
“Home at last!” yelled Boaz. “Welcome home!”
Then the ghastly feeling of the leaf-like fall began again.
Twenty Earthling minutes later, the ship was still falling
gently.
Its lurches were more frequent.
To protect themselves against the lurches, Boaz and Unk
had gone to bed. They lay face down, their hands gripping the
steel pipe supports of their bunks.
To make their misery complete, the pilot-navigator decreed
that night should fall in the cabin.
A grinding noise passed over the dome of the ship, forced
Unk and Boaz to turn their eyes from their pillows to the port­
holes. There was a pale yellow light outside now.
Unk and Boaz shouted for joy, ran to the portholes. They
reached them just in time to be thrown to the floor again as
the ship freed itself from an obstruction, began its fall again.
One Earthling minute later, the fall stopped.
There was a modest click from the pilot-navigator. Having
delivered its cargo safely from Mars to Mercury, as instructed,
it had shut itself off.
It had delivered its cargo to the floor of a cave one hundred
and sixteen miles below the surface of Mercury.
2. “Nora, you look a bit tired. What’ve you been doing
all day?” “I’ve been cleaning the whole house. I said I was
going to do.” “But I wanted you to wait until the week-end
so that I could help.” “Oh, well, I thought I might as well
get on with it. It was about time. The furniture has been
looking shabby for months, so this morning I took all the loose
covers off the arm-chairs and I washed them. That bit of sun ear­
ly this afternoon helped to dry them.” “Well, I hope you had a
rest this afternoon.” “No, since lunchtime I’ve been turning
out the rooms upstairs. I haven’t quite finished them yet.”
“My goodness! You have been working hard.”
II. Replace the infinitive by the correct tense form.
I. Back from the Holidays
Lucille: We (to be) back at work now for three days.
Jean: I (to feel) as if I (to be) back for three months. It (to seem)
years since the morning I (to have) that grand breakfast
231
at Victoria Station.
Lucille: It (to be) exactly three weeks today since Christmas Day.
Jean: The best Christmas Day I (to have) for many years, and
the first one I (to spend)- in anyone’s home since the day I
(to leave) France.
Lucille: How long ago (to be) that?
Jean: I (to live) in England now for nearly two years, since 1970.
Lucille: Well, you (not to have) to wait for two years before
you (to spend) another Christmas in someone’s home, I’m
sure. Uncle Albert (to invite) you to his home. By the way,
I (to have) already two letters from my mother since the
day we (to come) away, and in both of them she (to say) she
(to hope) Jean (to come) to Switzerland in the summer, not
just for a few days but for the whole holiday.
Jean: That is very kind of her. I can’t say how much 1 (to enjoy)
the holiday and how much I (to look forward) to the next one.
Lucille: It’s a funny thing about holidays^ no matter how long
a holiday we (to have), 1 always (to feel) I (to want) a few
days more.
Jean: You (to hear) a story about the schoolboy who wanted a
few more days’ holiday? He (to phone) to the teacher and
(to say), in a voice, that, he hoped, (to sound) like his fa­
ther’s: “I regret to say that Smith (to be) ill and (not to be
able) to return to school for three or four days/’ “Oh,”
said the teacher, “I’m sorry to hear that. Who (to speak)?”
“My father, sir.” What you (to do) at Christmas, Lucille?
Lucille: I (to go) to Paris for three or four days — I (not to
be) to Paris since last Easter. Then I (to spend) a couple
of days at home and (to come back) to London.
2. A Grammar Lesson
Mr Priestly: Here is a little conversation that I (to hear) in
my house yesterday. It (to be) about five o’clock; my wife
(to iron) in the kitchen, my daughter Margaret and my niece
Lilian, who (to stay) with us for a while (to be) in the sit­
ting room. Then my wife (to leave) her ironing and (to come)
into the sitting-room, and this is what I heard:
Mrs Priestly: Margaret, I want you to go to the baker’s before six
o’clock. I have this ironing to do, but I (to do) it in half an
hour and I need the loaf for supper.
Margaret: Can I go after six o’clock, Mother? I (to listen) to
the program on the radio and it (not to finish) by six o’clock.
232
Mrs Priestly: I’m sorry, Margaret, but the baker’s shop (to
close) by the time the radio program (to finish).
Lilian: Г11 go, Aunt Mary. I don’t want to listen to the radio and
I (to write) my homework lesson before six o’clock.
Margaret: Oh, thank you, Lilian.
Mr Priestly: 1 (to give) you this piece of conversation, not to
show you Margaret’s love of putting off work as long as she
can, but to show you the use of the Future Perfect Tense.
3. A Letter from New York
Apartment 109
1717, Fifth Avenue, .
New York. 5th April,
1972.
Dear Mr Priestly,
The address is rather a surprise, isn’t it? Yes, I’m actually
in America; I (to live) here for three months, but I (to be) so
busy going about “seeing America” that I (to have) hardly any
time for writing letters. All the same, I (not to be) lazy, I (to
keep) a “journal”. I know you (to find) this hard to believe after
the way I so often (to waste) my time when you (to be) my
teacher, so, to prove what I (to say) I (to send) the journal to you
now, under separate cover. I (to see) and (to hear) so many things
that interested me that I (to want) to write them down while
the impressions (to be) still fresh in my mind. I hope that what
I (to write) in the journal may interest you and my old friends.
I often (to think) about you and (to hope) we (to meet) again
before very long. Kind regards and best wishes to you all,
, Yours sincerely,
Lucille.
4. Presence of Mind
A fire (to break out) in the middle of the night in a country
inn where a number of guests (to stay). Now they all (to stand)
outside wrapped up in shawls, sheets and blankets. One of the
guests was the last to join the crowd. He (to say) he (not to be)
at all excited and (not to lose) his usual presence of mind in
spite of the danger. He (to draw) everybody’s attention to the
fact that he (to put on) not<only his shirt and tie but (to find)
even time to fetch his pipe and his tobacco-pouch. The other
833
guests (to admire) his self-possession. Only one of them (to won­
der) why together with his shirt and tie he (not to put on) his
trousers.
6. True to Himself
An old businessman on his death-bed (to make) his will.
He (to tell) his lawyer he (to leave) three thousand pounds to
each of his employees who (to work) for him for twenty years
or more. The lawyer (to be struck) with such generosity. But the
old man (to say) he (not to mean) to be generous at all, for none
of his employees (to stay) with him longer than a year. He (to
mean) to produce a favourable impression on the public, for he
was sure it (to look) splendid in the newspapers.
III. Translate into English,
1. Вы еще не говорили с директором? — Нет, говорил.—
А когда вы с ним говорили? 2. Вы бывали когда-нибудь на
Кавказе? — Да, я ездил туда дважды, когда был школьником.
3. В мае исполнится пять лет, как они женаты. 4. Что с ним?
Он странно ведет себя последнее время. 5^ Мы дружим с тех
пор, как поступили в институт. 6. Я учусь в институте два с
половиной года. А раньше я служил в армии. 7. Он окончил
институт три года назад и с тех пор работает переводчиком.
8. Они прибыли в два часа ночи и все еще отдыхают. 9. Утро
было солнечное, но с 11 часов погода изменилась, и сейчас
идет дождь. 10. Когда я пришел, она уже вернулась и сидела
у камина. 11. Он все еще пишет курсовую работу? Сколько
же времени он ее пишет? 12. Сколько времени продолжалась
дискуссия до того, как председатель объявил перерыв? 13. Про­
фессор псе еще экзаменовав студентов, когда я вошел в ауди­
торию. 14. Он спросил, что я буду делать в это время завтра.
15. Я думаю, что они не закончат строительство к Новому
году. 16. Как сообщили по радио, экспедиция Хэйердала ра­
ботает в океане уже две недели. 17. Я не знал, когда отходит
поезд, и позвонил в справочное бюро. Оказалось, что поезд
ушел еще утром и уже подходит к Варшаве. 18. Управляющий
сегодня вечером вылезает в Лондон. Мне нужно связаться с
ним, пока он не уехал. 19. Он сказал, чтобы я позвонил ему,
как только прибуду в аэропорт. 20. Он сказал, что ему пора
уходить и попрощался со всеми. 21. Хирург сказал, что будет
оперировать бального только в том случае, если его родные
дадут на это согласие. 22. Преподаватель сказал, что не будет
234'
экзаменовать нас, пока мы не сдадим курсовые работы. 23. Се­
стра Джеймса сказала, что не получает от брата никаких вестей
с тех пор, какой переехал на новое место. 24. Что, Бэбс сказал,
ему придется делать в случае, если его исключат из универ­
ситета? 25. Они тренировались около двух часов, пока, на­
конец, тренер не сказал, что пора сделать перерыв. 26. Лорд
Уилкот сказал, что Роберт сильно изменился с тех пор, как
приезжал в последний раз. 27. Ты все еще делаешь домашнее
задание? Ведь осталось полчаса до начала игры.— Ничего, я
думаю, что закончу все до того, как начнется передача.
28. Ты не знаешь, родители Джека еще живы или умерли? —
Отец умер, а мать жива.— Когда же умер его отец? — Он
умер за год до того, как Джек женился. А Джек, насколько
я помню, женился в 1970 году. Значит отца нет в живых уже
пять лет.— Отчего умер старик? — Говорят, он умер от раз­
рыва сердца. 29. Я не знал, что твоя бабушка в больнице.
Давно она там? — Ее отвезли в больницу два дня назад.,—
А сколько времени она болела до того, как ее отправили в
больницу? —Она очень долго страдала от головной боли, но
говорила, что чувствует себя хорошо, и не хотела, чтобы ее
клали в больницу. Но вот позавчера у нее был сердечный
приступ, и мы вызвали врача. Врач предложил отправить ее
в больницу. Он сказал что ей будет хуже, если она останется
дома. 30. Он сказал, что едва узнает родной город.— Неуди­
вительно. Последний раз он был здесь вскоре после войны.
С тех пор многое переменилось. 31. Когда твой брат окончил
университет? — Он его еще не окончил. Он сейчас пишет ди­
пломную работу.— Давно он ее пишет? — Нет, только что
начал. Но он сказал, что напишет ее ко дню своего рождения.
32. Ты уже просмотрел газету? — Подожди. Я читаю пере­
довицу.— О чем т^м пишут? — Вот уже три дня идет сессия
Верховного Совета. Сейчас приняли закон об охране окру­
жающей среды. Передовица комментирует его.
VOICE
I. Transform the sentences using the Passive Voice.
1. An impressive silence followed the answer. 2. He has Just
told me the news. 3. The policeman showed them the way to
the station. 4. We should pay more attention to the framing
of business letters. 5. They won’t give me the chance to explain,
I’m afraid. 6. The teacher explained a new rule to the students
and dictated a few examples to illustrate it. 7. I don’t think
235
you should mention these facts to your opponent. 8. The pub­
lic talked much about the new film. 9. I don’t want anybody
to talk to me like this. 10. Have they sent for the doctor? 11. We
shall deal with this problem in the second chapter. 12. The
hotel takes no responsibility for the loss of personal property.
13. Nobody took notice of his remark. 14. I’m sure she’ll take
good care of the children. 15. The porter will look after your
luggage. 16. Soon we lost sight of the boat. 17. a) How often do
you examine the students? b) He is still exami nig the students.
c) He has been examining the students for three hours now.
d) He had been examining the students for three hours when I
came, e) He will have examined all the students by three o’clock,
f) He’ll be examining the third year students this time tomorrow.
18 a) The police are still looking for him. b) The police have
been looking for him since last Christmas. 19. a) Is the commit­
tee still considering this question? b) How long has the committee
been considering the question? 20. They arrived at the
decision after along debate. 21. Great Britain imports a num­
ber of raw materials from other countries. 22. We must put
an end to racial discrimination. 23. The press is widely com­
menting on the President’s recent statement. 24. We believe
Dr Shepherd to be a great authority on social psychology. 25. The
commentator expects them to resume the negotiations early
next year. 26. Newspapers report that the two countries con­
cluded a new trade agreement.
II. Translate into English.
1. Журналистам сообщили об этом за день до начала чем­
пионата. 2. Эти новости были только что переданы по радио.
3. Я поинтересовался, какие упражнения нам задали для до­
машней работы. 4. Он сказал, что у него украли документы.
5. Нам объяснили новое правило и продиктовали несколько
примеров. 6. К сожалению, этот словарь уже распродан.
7. Телеграмму только что послали, так что вряд ли она будет
доставлена к концу рабочего дня. 8. Почему здесь так холод­
но? — Зал только что проветрили. 9. Не помните, когда было
подписано это соглашение? 10. Какие еще товары, вы сказа­
ли, ввозятся из социалистических стран? 11. Надеюсь, что
об этом факте больше не будут упоминать. 12. Как вы думае­
те, можно положиться на эти данные? 13. Неужели за этими
детьми не присматривают? 14. Все эти проблемы рассматри­
ваются в следующей главе. 15. Не беспокойтесь, о вашем
багаже позаботятся, и он будет вовремя доставлен в гостини­
цу. 16. Интересно, почему на эту книгу так часто ссылаются?
236
17. У бабушки сердечный приступ.— А за доктором послали?
18. Как вы думаете, почему этих вопросов не коснулись в
дискуссии? 19. Не удивительно, что об этом фильме так много
говорят. 20. Жаль, что на это замечание не обратили внима­
ния. 21. Я узнал, что в этом доме никогда раньше не жили.
22. Мы не знали, что его разыскивает полиция. 23. Послышался
выстрел, но никого не было видно. Стреляли из-за угла. 24. Этот
вопрос все еще обсуждается? — Да, его обсуждают уже два
часа. 25. Сколько времени обсуждался этот вопрос до того,
как вы попросили слово? 26. а) Новая библиотека была по­
строена до того, как вы поступили в институт? Ь) Когда я
поступил в институт, библиотека все еще строилась. 27, Ду­
маю, что библиотеку не построят к новому учебному году.
28. Больного не будут оперировать, если он не даст согласия
на операцию. 29. Так как мы вернулись поздно, ворота были
закрыты. 30. К тому времени когда мы вернулись, ворота
уже были закрыты. 31. Как жаль, что булочная закрыта.
Сколько времени осталось до того, как она снова откроется?
32. После того как делегатам показали выставку, они сде­
лали запись в книге посетителей. 33. Интересно, будет ли
опубликована эта брошюра до того, как откроется конферен­
ция? 34. К этому решению пришли после долгих споров.
35. Ожидают, что эти новости будут опубликованы в вечер­
них газетах. 36. Он награжден многими орденами и медалями
за заслуги перед родиной. 37. Особое значение следует уде­
лять идеологическому воспитанию молодежи. 38. Сделана еще
одна попытка прийти к взаимному соглашению. 39. Надеюсь,
что все пункты программы будут согласованы в ближайшем
будущем. 40. Сообщают, что резолюция ООН одобрена боль­
шинством делегаций. 41. Мы уверены, что с агрессией будет
покончено в ближайшем будущем. 42. Новое заявление Совет­
ского правительства широко комментируется в печати.
MOOD
I. Analyse the form and meaning of the Subjunctive. Translate
the sentences into Russian.
1. Oh, if I only knew what to do. 2. If it would only stop
raining for a single day. 3. I would never allow anybody to hurt
my child. 4. A few years ago I would have thought it wrong.
5. Come what may she was determined that they should never
meet again. 6. It was urgent that he should look into the matter.
7. It was proposed that the conference open at 10 a. m. 8. 1
237
move that the meeting be adjourned. 9. Now, then, children. It
is high time you were washed and dressed. 10. It was time
they made up their quarrel. 11. a) I wish he were with
us. b) I wish he had been with us yesterday, с) I wish it were
not raining now. 12. I wish I knew what to do. 13. I wish he
had thought of it before. 14. I wish you would believe me. 15. We
wished he would accept our proposal. 16. We wished she wouldn’t
find fault with everybody. 17. I wish I could help you. 18. I wish
you could have let me know beforehand. 19. a) I felt as if I were
blind, b) I felt as if I had gone blind. 20. She looked as if she
were angry with me. 21. He looked at me as if I had gone mad.
22. She moved about as if she were made of glass. 23. The de­
tective made up his mind to see the driver so that he might give
him the details of the accident. 24. He dropped his voice so that
the other men in the room should not hear him. 25. He withdrew
his eyes lest she should read them. 26. And if anything should
happen, keep in touch. 27. Should you care for a full explana­
tion, you may call any day between 10 and 11 a. m. 28. But for
the rain we would make an outing. 29. If it had not been for
the storm, the ship would have arrived much earlier. 30. I
should feel absolutely happy, but for your unpleasant remark.
31. If it had not been for that war, he would have graduated by
now.
II. Transform the sentences using the Subjunctive Mood in object
clauses after the verbs: suggest, demand, order, recommend,
propose, move.
A. 1. The doctor advised me to give up smoking. 2. His
father told him to join the Navy. 3. The chairman’s motion
was to discuss the resolution point by point. 4. His proposal was
to set iip a special commission to investigate the matter.
B. 1. The chief said: “Clear up the matter.” 2. The marchers
shouted out: “Put an end to the bloodshed!” 3. The police in­
spector said: “You must get more evidence to prove his guilt.”
4. The president said: “Mr Douglas must be expelled from the
club.”
III. Transform the sentences using subject clauses introduce! by
It is (was) time.
1. It’s time for the children to go to bed. 2. It’s time for
them to make up their quarrel. 3. It’s time for you to know this
rule. 4. Isn’t it time to have dinner? 5. Isn’t it time for him to
stop behaving like this?
238
IV. Transform the sentences using object clauses after the verb
wish.
1. a) It’s a pity he is not with us. b) It’s a pity he was not
with us yesterday. 2. What a pity, it is raining. 3. It’s a pity
you don’t believe me. 4. It’s a pity you didn’t follow the doc­
tor’s advice. 5. I’m afraid I don’t know what to do. 6. It’s
a pity you don’t do anything to improve your pronunciation.
7. I’m sorry I can’t help you. 8. I’m sorry I couldn’t help you
when you needed it. 9. I’m afraid he is very angry with me.
10. We were afraid he had failed us. 11. He was afraid everybody
knew his secret. 12. I’m afraid they’ve lost the way. 13. She
was afraid she had made a mistake.
V. Replace the infinitive by the Subjunctive.
1. If it (not to be) so dark, I (to read) a little before I go
to sleep. 2. If .it (not to be) so dark, we (not to lose) the way last
night. 3. The flowers (to grow) much better if you (to water)
them regularly. 4. I (cannot go) today even if you (ask) me.
5. We’ve got only ten minutes left. We (not to make) it even if
we (to hurry up). 6. If we (to book) tickets well in advance, we
(not to be queuing) for them now. 7. Even if I (to want) to, I
(can do) nothing about it now. 8. The accident (not to happen)
if the driver (to observe) traffic rules. 9. It’s too cold. I (to go)
for a swim if it (to be) warmer. 10. If he (not to be) so absent­
minded, he (not to lose) his papers. 11. You’re wrong. I (to re­
consider) your decision if I (to be) you. 12. I had too little time.
I (not to translate) the article even if I (to have) a dictionary.
VI. Transform each pair of statements into a conditional sentence.
1. It is raining hard. We can’t go to the country. 2. You
didn’t let me know beforehand. Therefore I didn’t come. 3. He
is very absent-minded. No wonder, he lost his papers. 4. Too
bad, you didn’t take the medicine yesterday. You would be
better now. 5. No wonder he failed. He hadn’t worked hard for
the exam. 6. I was about to finish the translation, but you inter­
rupted my work. 7. I have no dictionary. I shan
t
*
have translated
the article by tomorrow. 8. The goal-keeper was hurt badly.
The team lost the game. 9. I didn’t get the’ticket yesterday.
Pity, I shan’t be able to leave tonight. 10. We’ve been queuing
for three hours now. J wish we had booked the tickets well in
advance.
239
VII. Translate into English using the Subjunctive.
1. Народы мира требуют, чтобы ядериое оружие было за­
прещено. 2. Предлагаю обсудить резолюцию по пунктам.
3. Я настаиваю на том, чтобы м-ра Фишера исключили из
нашего клуба. 4. Было необходимо, чтобы комиссия немедленно
обсудила этот вопрос. 5. Было предложено созвать конферен­
цию на следующей неделе. 6. Желательно, чтобы студенты
говорили друг с другом по-английски. 7. Странно, что она
всегда придирается ко мне. 8. Доктор порекомендовал, чтобы
я бросил курить. 9. Отец потребовал, чтобы сын отказался
от своего плана. 10. Я бы советовал тебе подумать об этом
еще раз. Было бы глупо с твоей стороны отказаться от такого
предложения. 11. Если бы сейчас были каникулы! 12. Если
бы я только знал, что делать. 13. Если бы мы встретились
раньше... 14. Вам давно пора знать это правило. 15. Им дав­
но пора помириться. 16. Не пора ли вам перестать вести себя
таким образом? 17. Отец подумал, что сыну пора жениться.
18. Как жаль, что идет дождь. 19. Хотел бы я знать, что мне
делать. 20. Как бы я хотела быть сейчас дома! 21. Как жаль,
что его нет с нами. 22. Жаль, что вы не пошли с нами в кино
вчера. 23. Жаль, что они вмешиваются в чужие дела. 24. Жаль,
что ты мне мешаешь работать. 25. Я пожалел, что не принял
участия в экскурсии. 26. Жаль, что вы мне не верите. 27. Жаль,
что вы не поверили моему рассказу. 28. Мне очень хотелось
бы помочь вам. Но это не в моих силах. 29. Жаль, что вы не
смогли известить меня заранее. Я, конечно, встретил бы вас,
если бы знал о вашем приезде. 30. Он бы очень удивился,
если бы встретил меня там вчера. 31. Интересно, узнал бы я
его, если бы мы встретились сейчас? 32. Интересно, что бы
вы ответили, если бы вам когда-нибудь задали этот вопрос?
33. Жаль, что вы отвергли это предложение. На вашем месте
я бы принял его. 34. Вы бы чувствовали себя лучше, если бы
соблюдали режим. Неужели это так трудно? 35. Если бы сей­
час не шел дождь, мы бы поехали за город. 36. Жаль, что вы
не послушались совета врача. Вы бы чувствовали себя лучше
сейчас. 37. Если бы мы заказали билеты заранее, мы бы не
стояли сейчас за ними в очереди. 38. Если бы мы заказали
номер в гостинице по телефону, нам не пришлось бы сейчас
ждать. 39. Если бы он вел машину осторожнее, несчастного
случая не произошло бы. 40. Если бы не дождь, мы бы пошли
сейчас кататься на лодке. 41. Если бы не плохая погода, мы
бы уже давно добрались до места назначения. 42. Хорошо,
что мы взяли такси. Иначе мы бы опоздали на поезд. 43. Слу­
240
чись вам бывать в нашем городе, обязательно заходите ко
мне. 44. Даже если, бы у меня был билет, я бы не смог вчера
пойти на хоккей. 45. Я не скажу вам ничего, даже если бы и
знал что-нибудь. 46. Ты смотришь, словно ничего не пони­
маешь. 47. Она посмотрела на меня так, как будто бы я гово­
рил неправду. 48. Он выглядел усталым, как будто не спал
всю ночь. 49. Она обращалась с ним так, словно он был ребен­
ком. 50. Ты так загорел, как будто только что приехал с юга.
51. Я пришел к вам для того, чтобы вы помогли мне. 52. Мы
поторопились, чтобы не опоздать на поезд. 53. Они говорили
тихо, чтобы дети не слышали их. 54. Хозяйка приказала за­
жечь все лампы, чтобы в зале было светлее. 55. Я бы сделала
все что угодно, чтобы мои дети были счастливы.
MODAL VERBS
I. Analyse the meaning of the modal verbs. Translate the sen­
tences into Russian.
1. The inevitable must be accepted. 2. Cars must not be
parked in front of the entrance. 3. All Americans said Miss
Davis must send a new request to the Governor. 4. If one must
die, and clearly one must, I can die. 5. You may break the body,
but you cannot break the spirit. 6. A fool may ask more ques­
tions than a wise man can answer. 7.’It is fantastic and it cannot
be true. 8. I’m wondering if something can be done about it.
9. We were both silent. What we had said could not be taken
back. 10. It was very hot and I had to take a drink of beer to
cool my mouth. 11. I’ll have to push my way through the crowd
to get out. 12. It’s one of those things a person has to do; some­
times a person has to go a. very long distance out of his way.
13. I know everything. You don’t have to explain. 14. Why
should I have to do everything to please him? 15. What is to
be done? We can’t sit around like this the whole day. 16. The
arrangement was that you were to give your views and I was to
say what I thought of them. 17. If I were a failure, I did not
know what was to become of me. 18. I promised to take her to
the theatre last Saturday and I really forgot all about it. We
were to have met at the station. 19. You needn’t hurry; we have
plenty of time. 20. If we didn’t want to tell him the truth, we
needn’t have told him a lie. 21. Wisdom shouldn’t be spoken
about when you are happy. 22. He looked more than ever out
of place. He should have stayed at home, he thought. 23. I
think you ought to show some respect for the dead. 24. I am
sorry. I oughtn’t to have said it in the presence of the children.
25. He felt very low and I thought I ought to do all I could to
241
cheer him up. 26. Give him my card, please, and ask if he might
see me. 27. “I think you’d better stay a while.” “I might as
well.” 28. George was so fond of sleeping that he might just
as well be dead. 29. Time adverbs may come at either end of the
sentence, but not in the middle. 30. Never mind, old chap. It
might happen to anyone. 31. In weather like this a native hut
must be a rather uncomfortable place to live in. 32. He is not
to be found anywhere. He must have left. 33. I can’t imagine
what he must bethinking of me. 34. Who can he be? Can I have
met him before? 35. For all I know, he may be an actor. His face
seems so familiar. 36. He was an actor; could anyone know when
an actor was true and not acting. 37. He must be an actor. I
must have seen him in some film recently. 38. We may have
run across one another in the war. 39. I may not have made a
very distinguished career, but I certainly have done nothing to
be ashamed of. 40. I’m not to blame. You might have warned
me. 41. What can have happened to change him so much? 42. So
if you heard a stranger come out of Mrs Wood’s back door, it
must’ve been before three thirty. 43. The waiter must have mis­
understood the foreigner and brought him a wrong dish. 44. You
shall stay just where you are! 45. Forgive me. I promise you it
shall not happen again. 46. I will not have you speak to me like
that. 47. You must control your temper: I will not have these
scenes repeated. 48. If you will forgive my saying so, you shouldn’t
have done what you did. 49. He told me he would be glad
if I wouldn’t come. 50. All nurses annoy me; they always will
think that you’d like “a nice cup of tea” at 5 in the morning.
51. It was after midnight and I suggested going but he would not
hear of it. 52. No matter how hard he tried, the engine would
not start. 53. You will translate the text in writing for tomorrow.
54. The aircraft' will take off at 1 a. m. 55. Parliament will
have heard of this earlier. 56. I knew his father Professor Ha­
rold Pyle — you’ll have heard of him. 57. Mr Twain, it will
be observed, is suggestively silent about his perjury.
II. Compare the following sentences containing modal verbs.
Translate them into Russian. Take care not to confuse these
forms of modality and their meanings.
1. He must have left.— He should have left. 2. He had to
do it.— He should have done it. 3. She needn’t have taken the
trouble.— She didn’t have to take the trouble. 4. I have to
tell you everything.— Let me say what I have to say.
III. Transform these sentences using modal verbs.
242
1. The president will perhaps call a press conference. 2. It’s
a pity you’ve destroyed the document. 3. Perhaps, you are right,
but I’m not going to change my mind. 4. It was, certainly, very
foolish of him, for everybody laughed. 5. I’m sure she didn’t
do anything of the kind. 6. I don’t think it was necessary to help
him. 7. I don’t believe he has betrayed his friends. 8. It was clear
the family were expecting some guests. 9. Is it possible that he
should have refused to help them? 10. It is quite possible that he
has refused to help them. 11. This fellow, he thought, doesn’t
look like a criminal. 12. In all likelihood the criminal will be
sentenced to long term imprisonment. 13. This is a silly busi­
ness, and likely to give us a lot of trouble. 14. His sudden disap­
pearance admittedly put the detective off the track. 15. Why
blame the secretary? May be she didn’t know it was.so urgent.
16. The election agent, evidently, didn’t take care of his candi­
date. 17. Perhaps, you changed at the wrong station, that’s
why it took you so long to get here. 18. I see no reason why we
should argue. 19. Was it so very necessary that you should have
gone there at all? 20. I’m sure, Roger has failed to win the bet.
21. And so, plainly, Clyde was lying: his story was too thin.
22. It’s impossible to be a hundred per cent sure. There isn’t
enough evidence. 23. Their neighbours, unseen and unheard,
were apparently still away fqr the summer.
IV. Translate into English.
1. Самолет должен подняться в воздух в час ночи. 2. Эк­
спедиция должна была вернуться во вторник, а сейчас уже чет­
верг. 3. Боюсь, что я не смогу двигаться после такой тяжелой
тренировки. 4. Выбора не было, и ему пришлось согласиться
на наше предложение. 5. Надеюсь, что вам не пришлось долго
ждать, нет? 6. Нам незачем торопиться, и мы можем пойти до
станции пешком. 7. Преподаватель сказал, что нам не нужно
переписывать текст. Но он сказал, что мы должны сделать все
упражнения в письменной форме. 8. Вам не нужно было по­
купать этот словарь. У меня есть лишний экземпляр, и я мог
бы дать его вам. 9. Можете не отвечать на этот вопрос, если не
хотите. 10. Этого следовало ожидать. Ведь он такой рассеян­
ный! 11. Ей суждено было стать знаменитой кинозвездой.
12. Право же, вы могли бы дать мне об этом знать заранее.
13. Стоит ли волноваться из-за таких пустяков? 14. Я думаю,
вам не следует обращать на это внимание. 15. Вы врач, и вам
следует знать симптомы этой болезни. 16. Вам следовало бы
подумать об этом раньше; теперь уже ничего не поделаешь.
17. Можно мне взять твой словарь? — Пожалуйста. 18. Нам
243
можно пользоваться словарями? — Нет, нельзя. 19. Пере­
вести весь текст? — Нет, не нужно; переведите только подчер­
кнутые предложения. 20. Вы этого не сделаете! Так и знайте. —
Я это сделаю во что бы то ни стало! 21. Возможно, он и знает
обо всем, да не желает нам сказать. 22. Я присоединюсь
к вам, если вы будете так любезны подождать меня. 23. Ваши
часы, должно быть, спешат. Не может быть, чтобы сейчас
было десять. 24. Официант, должно быть, неправильно понял
иностранца и принес ему не то блюдо. 25. По всей вероятности,
они все еще сдают экзамен. 26. Они, наверное, пишут сочи­
нение около двух часов и скоро должны закончить. 27. Не
может быть, чтобы он подвел нас. 28. Как вы неосторожны!
Вы могли сломать себе ногу. 29. Вряд ли она забыла об этом.
Я напоминал ей неоднократно. 30. Должно быть, ей не удалось
убедить его отказаться от этого плана. 31. Разве мог кто-ни­
будь подумать, что эта команда займет первое место? 32. Если
бы полиция вмешалась вовремя, преступления могло бы не
быть.
х
THE INFINITIVE
I. State the form and function of the infinitive. Translate the sen­
tences into Russian.
1. To go on with this discussion is to waste time. 2. Oh,
Гт sorry to have taken so much of your time. 3. It all sounds
too good to be true. 4. We assembled to discuss and arrange our
plans. 5. Now, the first thing to settle is what to take with us.
6. We made a list of things to be taken. 7. George suggested eggs
and bacon, which were easy to cook. 8. That’s Harris all over —
so ready to take the burden of everything himself, and put it
on the back of other people. 9. Harris said he felt such extraor­
dinary fits of giddiness come over him at times, that he hardly
knew what he was doing. 10. I don’ t think I ever remember to
have seen Mousley Lock before, with only one boat in it. 11. A
celebration such as this was a chance not to be missed. 12. They
waited in silence fortheir dinner to be served. 13. After the third
lesson I left his class never to return. 14. Look back to make
sure you haven’t left anything behind. 15. In leaving the compart­
ment she looked back to see she had left the parcel on the berth.
16. The captain ordered the passengers to be shown their
cabins. 17. I like a story to have a beginning, a middle and an
end. 18. Love is said to be blind. But the statement seems to
be completely wrong. For some fellows in love appear to see more
244
virtues in their sweethearts than any other people are ever like­
ly to see. 19. “It’s time to go to bed, baby.” “Why, mummy!
You always make me go to bed when I don’t want to sleep, and
you want me to get up when I am quite sleepy.” 20. “You’re
a bachelor with no family to take care of. You have only your­
self to please.” “So far you are right, but don’t imagine it’s
an easy task to perform.” “I don’t see what you mean.” “I
mean I’m a person hard to please.”
В. 1. This is the lesson to be learnt from a study of history.
2. To abolish war is a problem that man has got to solve. 3. It
is high time to establish new relations in Europe based on a
real relaxation of tension and mutual trust. 4. It is vital to
recognize the European status quo as the starting point. 5, The
period of prosperity in America may be said to have ended in
1928. 6. The bill to be put before the House is to be published and
considered at the first reading. 7. The enemy was reported to
have suffered heavy losses in manpower and material. 8. Vol­
canos are said to be active when eruptions occur frequently.
9. Then Falcon Island was reported to be missing again. 10. All
the attempts to confirm this suggestion have failed. 11. It of­
ten happens that things turn out to be different from what they
at first appear to be. 12. The very possibility of communication
through a language depends on the lexical and grammatical
conventions to be accepted by all speakers of the language. 13. To
translate a sentence is to discover its meaning and then con­
struct a sentence in the target language that possesses the same
meaning. 14. To tell the truth, it is impossible from the compari­
son of the two versions to determine which was the original
and' which the translation. 15. It is quite possible for an edu­
cated person to speak with a very marked provincial accent and
yet to write perfectly good English. 16. There are many modern
marvels to match the wonders of the ancient world. 17. The
traditional role of science is to make people healtny and the
world a brighter place to live. in. 18. A scientist is supposed to
be able to read modern science and is expected to know the
latest work on his own'speciality. 19. Scientists consider this
effect to be the result of an experimental error. 20. It’s still
too early to speak about the efficiency of this method. 21. This
assumption was faulty, to begin with. 22. This theory was found
to have disagreed with practice. 23. He would have been the
last to claim to have solved the problem. 24. To begin with,
all maps must have a clear indication of direction and scale.
25. Power enables work to be performed without great physical
245
labour. 26. The Sun Is the first object to be studied by rocket
astronomy. 27. To complete a journey round the sun requires
nearly 29 1/2 years. 28. Newton made use of the three laws of
motion to explain the movement of
the
*
moon around the earth
and of the planets around the sun. 29. This new planet is too
small and faint to be observed even in the most powerful tele­
scope. 30. To encourage research work, the degree of Bachelor of
Science was set up in Oxford in 1895. 31. The aim of the book
exhibition is to exchange experience and to display the finest
editions.
II. Transform each pair of sentences into one with a complex
object.
1. The announcer called the flight. I’ve heard it. 2. The plane
took off. We all have seen it. 3. The children should go on with
the game. Please let them. 4. He has taken your dictionary.
Did you allow him? 5. Pete didn’t know how to fix the TV set.
I helped him. 6. Ann can’t be cruel with children. I’ve never
known her that way. 7. He is the author of that bestseller.
Everybody knows it. 8. You must search the prisoner. It’s the
commander’s order. 9. We were waiting for the delegation.
It was due to arrive. 10. The speaker called on all those pre­
sent to support the campaign. You’ve heard it, haven’t you?
III. Transform these sentences using a complex subject.
1. We heard the commander give the instruction. 2. People
saw the rocket fly up. 3. The colonel ordered the lieutenant to
question the prisoner. 4. The mother allows her children to play
in the open. 5. The instructor made him do the work all over
again. 6. They say this medicine is very effective. 7. We
believe him to be a great authority on the subject. 8. They expect­
ed the delegation to arrive the next day. 9. We suppose that
Bob Wilcot will appear on TV tonight. 10. As was reported
in the press, the plane crashed while landing.
IV. Translate into English using the infinitive.'
1. Сказать так — значит солгать. 2. С ним трудно иметь
дело. 3. В таком доме приятно жить. 4. Вам пойдут на пользу
занятия спортом. 5. Стихи труднее переводить, чем прозу.
6. Никогда не поздно признать свою ошибку. 7. Вам нечего
бояться. Вы не виноваты. 8. Я думаю, вам не на что жаловать­
ся. О. Она сказала, что ей не к кому обратиться за помощью.
10. Мне нечего добавить к тому, что вы сказали. 11. Я сожа­
лею, что отнял у вас так много времени. 12. С вашей стороны
246
было очень любезно пригласить нас. 13. Я рад, что заблаго­
временно заказал номер в гостинице. 14. Мы очень гордимся
тем, что победили на чемпионате. 15. Не представляю, что
делать дальше. 16. Вы наверняка получите большое удоволь­
ствие от спектакля. 17. Непохоже на то, что Холмс забыл о
своем обещании. 18. Первое, что вам нужно сделать — это
заказать билеты на пароход. 19. Единственное, что вам по­
может сейчас — это хорошо отдохнуть. 20. Это я должен
задавать вопросы, а вы — отвечать на них. 21. Здесь несколь­
ко трудных слов, которые нужно посмотреть в словаре. 22. Ко­
мандир приказал ждать дальнейших указаний. 23. Я распо­
ряжусь (to get), чтобы секретарша напечатала ваш доклад.
24. Надо, чтобы (to have) студенты сделали.это упражнение
в письменной форме, (повелит.) 25. У меня двое маленьких
детей, о которых нужно заботиться. 26. Вряд ли он позволит
себе купить такую дорогую машину. Ведь ему приходится
содержать большую семью. 27. Он подвинулся, чтобы я мог
сесть рядом. 28. Мы остановились, чтобы прочитать объявле­
ние на стене. 29. Они встретились, чтобы вновь расстаться.
30. Он выбрался из воды, но тут же снова упал в реку, (ин­
финитив результата) 31. Я изучал голландский язык три
года, но мне так и не довелось пользоваться им. (инфинитив
результата) 32. Он почувствовал, как кто-то "тронул его за
плечо. 33. Вы помните, кто ушел из лаборатории последним?
34. Я слышал, как он нескрлько раз упомянул об этом. 35. Мо­
гу я рассчитывать на то, что вы сохраните это в тайне? 36. Все
ждали, когда Холмс объявит им, в чем дело. 37. Мы все знали
его как честного человека. 38. Никто не ожидал, что он окажет­
ся таким беспринципным человеком. 39. Мы ожидаем, что
опыт пройдет успешно. 40. Кажется, дети заблудились. 41. Ка­
жется, он все еще расследует,это таинственное преступление.
42. Сэр Уилфред считался одним из лучших адвокатов в Лон­
доне. 43. Как известно, Оксфордский университет — старей­
ший в Англии. 44. Говорят, что этот дворец был построен в
начале XVII века. 45. Я слышал, что профессор Хилл рабо­
тает над этой проблемой у>ке свыше двух лет. 46. Полагают,
что комиссия все еще рассматривает этот вопрос. 47. Сооб­
щают, что советские хоккеисты снова заняли первое место.
48. Известно, что Байрон и Шелли были хорошими друзьями.
49. По правде говоря, мне было трудно читать эту книгу в ори­
гинале. 50. Начать с того, что никто не видел, как преступник
входил в дом. 51. Вопрос, который предстоит обсудить, имеет
огромное значение. 52. Роман этот написан для того, что­
бы сказать человечеству: «Остановитесь, пока не поздно!»
53.Чтобы перейти в наступление, нам необходимо собрать дан­
ные об оборонительных сооружениях противника. 54. Наша
часть первой прорвала оборону противника в районе города Н.
55. Сообщалось, что противник понес большие потери в живой
силе в технике. 56. Цель моего сообщения — сделать обзор
последних событий внутри страны и за рубежом. 57. Обеспе­
чить длительный и прочный мир — главная цель внешней
политики Советского Союза. 58. Чтобы обеспечить безопас­
ность в Европе, необходимо прекратить гонку вооружений и
развивать экономическое и культурное сотрудничество евро­
пейских стран на основе принципов мирного сосуществования.
THE GERUND
I. State the form and function of the gerund. Translate the sen­
tences into Russian.
1. Arguing over trifles is a waste of time. 2. Do you mind
my putting down your address and telephone number? 3. She
enjoyed giving parties. 4. She was very proud of being admired.
5. I shall never forget seeing the Swiss Alps for the first time.
6. I remember meeting him before the war. 7. I don’t remember
ever having seen him. 8. He had never liked being a military
man and devoted the rest of his life to growing flowers. 9. He
had a way of talking with women. IQ. Before going on an expe­
dition we had to test the equipment. 11. We’ve gone too far,
there’s no backing out. 12. There’ll be some sweating to check
it up. 13. Being alone in your country is worse than being alone
anywhere else. 14. His being absent-minded was noticed by
everybody. 15. There is no danger of it happening again. 16. It
was a silly thing, his telling them the truth. 17. Is it worth
while your trying to convince him of being wrong? 18. She never
did a thing without consulting her solicitor. 19. He was repri­
manded for breaking the rules of the game. 20. Can I rely on you
setting matters right? 21. We must consider whether it is worth
while accepting this proposal. 22. He was wakened by someone
knocking at the door. 23. There catne the sound of the door
closing, then being locked. 24. Nora hated her husband always
throwing his things about. 25. Nora, I can’t bear it lying flat
on my back and doing nothing. 26. He succeeded in taking first
place in the speed skating contest. 27. He was charged with
murdering Mrs Ann Baker, a widow of 45. 28. He was in jail
for having killed a man in a fight. 29. Father didn’t approve
of my having rejected the offer. 30. He insisted on repeating the
248
experiment to control the results. 31. I insist on being treated
with a certain consideration. 32. The delegation objected to dis­
cussing this proposal thus formulated. 33. He objected to Mr
Dixon being elected Chairman of the club. 34. There are a lot
of things to consider before making a final decision. 35. I pre­
fer thinking matters over and over again rather than jumping
to conclusions. 36. Century after century passed without such
discoveries being made. 37. Negroes marching has peacefully
challenged white supremacy. 38. The British Prime Minister
arrived in Paris with the object of resuming negotiations about
entering the Common Market. 39. This line of thinking has prov­
ed to be very useful in designing such structures. 40. X-raying
is the basic principle in revealing the structure of these atoms.
41. Protecting the personnel against radioactive radiation holds
an important place in workingout the scheme. 42. The problem
could not be solved without necessary experiments being carried
out. 43. The art of writing good prose is largely the lost one of
calling things by their right names. 44. Communists will spare
no effort toward building a collective security system. 45. In
preparing his work for the press Marx virtually rewrote the en­
tire manuscript. 46. Marx and Engels took an active part in
establishing the Democratic Association in Brussels which
aimed at uniting international democracy. 47. He began by ex­
plaining the situation in the North. 48. The greatest trial of
patience is hearing a stammering barrister examining a stutter­
ing witness in the presence of a judge hard of hearing. 49. Old
man: One can’t help saying that old age is the least pleasant
time of our life. Young woman: What would you give for being
now as young as I am? Old man: Oh, a great deal. I would put
up with being as foolish as you are. 50. Young girl: Could you
tell me, Grannie, how you have succeeded in preserving my grand­
father’s love and respect through all these long years of your
married life? Grandmother: Well, my child, by very simple
means: by doing all that pleased him and by enduring silently
all that displeased me.
II. Transform each pair of sentences Into one with a gerund or
a gerundial construction.
1. They are arguing over trifles. It’s waste of time. 2. My
watch doesn’t keep good time. It needs to be repaired. 3. I re­
member the man. I met him in London. ,4. She is always gos­
siping. I think she is fond of it. 5. Don’t interrupt me. 1 hate
it. 6. I couldn’t answer earlier. Please, forgive me. 7. You’ve
helped me a lot. I’m so grateful to you. 8. My mother is sure to
249
interfere in my affairs. I’m against it. 9. You smoke too much.
Give up this habit. 10. I may come in late tonight. Do you mind
it? 11. I .think you must see the film. It is good. 12. We must
repeat the experiment. The professor insists on it. 13. He is
sure to settle the matter. You can rely on him. 14. I am afraid
to sign the document. I must consult my solicitor. 15. The gang
was on trial. They had robbed a mail train. 16. First they inter­
viewed him. Then he was offered the job. 17. John can’t have
left yet. Why, he hasn’t said good-bye! 18. I’m being fooled
down. I won’t stand it. 19. You are trying to convince him
of that? Is it worth while? 20. Don’t treat me like that. I’m
not used to it. 21. He was being spied on. He suspected it.
III. Translate into English using the gerund.
1. Езда с большой скоростью опасна. 2. Думаю, что этот
вопрос не стоит обсуждать. 3. Бесполезно спорить с ним. Его
ни в чем не убедишь. 4. Вам не хочется выпить чашку кофе?
5. Похоже на то, что скоро пойдет дождь. 6. С нетерпением
жду, когда снова увижу вас. 7. Он увлекался чтением при­
ключенческих книг и мечтал стать путешественником. 8. Нам
всем надоело выслушивать твои жалобы. 9. У него дар рас­
сказывать смешные истории. 10. Я не привык спать днем.
11. Лекция посвящена новым методам обучения иностранным
языкам. 12. Что вы предпочитаете, ездить поездом или летать
на самолете? 13. Ребенок боялся, что его накажут. 14. Я не
понимал, почему она избегает говорить об этом. 15. Я помню,
встречал его в Париже до войны. 16. Свидетель сказал, что
не помнит, чтобы когда-либо раньше видел этого человека.
17. Он вынужден был извиниться за то, что подвел нас.
18. Простите меня за то, что не ответил на ваше письмо раньше.
19. Очень благодарен вам за то, что вы мне дали об этом знать.
20. Они продолжали опыт, несмотря на то, что были усталые
и голодные. 21. Если бы ты бросил курить, ты бы перестал
кашлять. 22. Неужели вы думаете, что он способен предать
своих товарищей? 23. Как вы думаете, что помешало ему
принять участие в чемпионате? 24. Что заставило его отка­
заться от мысли написать сценарий по своему рассказу?
25. Я поинтересовался тем, кто отвечает за организацию ве­
черов на английском языке. 26. Члены экспедиции Нобиле
были уверены, что достигнут полюса. 27. Должно быть, она
не рискнула отправиться с ними в экспедицию. 28. Он поду­
мал о том, чтобы переехать на другую квартиру. 29. Нельзя
было не рассмеяться при виде лорда Бебберли, переодетого
в женское платье. 30. Какова причина того, что Бэббе был
250
так расстроен? 31. Жаль, что я упустил случай посетить
галерею Тейта, когда был в Лондоне. 32. Разве кто-нибудь
отрицает важность изучения иностранных языков? 33. Терпеть
не могу, когда спорят по пустякам. 34. Он уехал, не попро­
щавшись ни с кем. 35. Она не привыкла, чтобы с нею так
обращались. 36. Почему, вы думаете, доктор предложил ста­
рику заняться рисованием? 37. Вы настаиваете на проведе­
нии еще одного эксперимента? 38. Все мы знаем по собственному
опыту, как трудно добиться успеха в изучении иностранного
языка. 39. Советую вам хорошо все обдумать, прежде чем от­
казываться от такого предложения. 40. Вряд ли кто-нибудь
одобряет его за то, что он вмешивается в чужие дела. 41. Мать
упрекнула Питера в том, что он пренебрегает своими обязан­
ностями. 42. Отец сказал, что не выносит, когда ему лгут.
43. Посмотрев в словаре новые слова, он начал переводить
текст. 44. Вернувшись в. гостиницу, он поинтересовался, нет
ли писем на его имя. 45. Она никогда ничего не делала, не
спросив разрешения у родителей. 46. Мы сможем добиться
цели только путем преодоления всех трудностей. 47. Могу
ли я рассчитывать на то, что вы сохраните это в тайне? 48. Тре­
нер гордился тем, что его команда заняла первое место.
49. Профессор настаивает на том, чтобы больного немедлен­
но оперировали. 50. Д-р Уотсон подозревал Бэрримора в toml
что тот помогает преступнику. 51. Шерлок Холмс обвинил
Стейплтона в убийстве владельца поместья Баскервиллей.
52. Она сказала, что никак не может привыкнуть к тому, что
ее называют бабушкой. 53. Драматург был против того, чтобы
его пьесу экранизировали. Й. Докладчик начал с того, что
прокомментировал последние события на Ближнем Востоке.
55. Кто, по-вашему, несет ответственность за то, что перего­
воры были сорваны? 56. Народы Европы заинтересованы в
создании системы коллективной безопасности. 57. Все народы
мира выиграли бы оттого, что была бы прекращена гонка
вооружений. 58. Объясните нам, почему английские тру­
дящиеся всегда были против вступления Англии в Общий ры­
нок? 59. Всем ясно, почему США возражает против принятия
этой страны в Организацию Объединенных Наций. _
THE PARTICIPLE
I. State ttie form and function of the participle. Translate the
sentences into Russian.
A. 1. The actress starring in the film is very young. 2. He
spent all spare time training for the contest. 3. Entering the
2Я
room the detective found it empty. 4. Knowing the harmful
effects of the rays they took special precautions. 5. The house­
keeper must have heard her mistress talking with the visitor.
6. The girl was photographed addressing the students’ meeting.
7. They looked at her in surprise as though not believing her
story. 8. While giving evidence the witness avoided looking
at the accused. 9. They carried out a number of experiments
using the most up-to-date methods and equipment. 10. Having
completed the experiments they compared the results. 11. Spe­
cial mention must be made of the extensive research now being
conducted in bio-chemistry. 12. The Israeli vessels were seen
sailing toward Port Said. 13. The participants of the conference
achieved unity on the main questions affecting peace in Europe.
14. Ending the discussion, the delegates adopted a resolution
calling on the peoples of Europe to take action for collective
security.
B. 1. “Will you give me a hand?” “Of coursel What do you
want done?” 2. We must have some pictures made of the exact
position where the body was found. 3. We tried all the methods
recommended. 4. The article referred to was published in the
latest issue of the ‘Nature’. 5. All people concerned are to sub­
mit papers to the Committee. 6. A list of commonly used terms
suggested by Dr Stanley Gill was circulated. 7. The type of
a clause chosen in translation may be determined by syntacti­
cal reasons. 8. The discovery made by the scientist is of vital
importance for space exploration. 9. They were playing football
watched by the coach. 10. The problem may be considered
solved. 11. Bitterly disappointed, the explorers set out on the re­
turn journey. 12. The children were taught not to speak to the
grown-ups unless spoken to. 13. The game, if lost, might cost him
a fortune. 14. They did all, as instructed. 15. Do you think we
may regard the matter, as settled? 16. When interviewed, the
scientist refused to comment on the latest discovery. 17. When
completed, the new building will house all the basic laborato­
ries.
C. 1. Being a foreigner she found it difficult to understand
English spoken outside classroom. 2. Towering in front of the
explorers, rose a great range of mountains covered with ice.
3. In the tent there was a letter addressed to Captain Scott say­
ing: “Welcome to the Pole. With kind regards. Roald Amund­
sen.” 4. The danger, represented by the possibility of armed con­
flict in Europe, bringing with it the possibility of nuclear war,
weighed heavily on the peoples of Europe.
252
II. Transform each pair of sentences into a complex sentence or
a simple sentence with a participial construction where pos­
sible.
1. They were quarrelling in the adjoining room. Didn’t
you hear it? 2. His name was often mentioned in the conversa­
tion. I heard it. 3. Peter was in London at that time. He often
visited the British Museum. 4. Helen is a foreigner. She can’t
understand spoken English. 5. The children were playing in
the garden. They were being watched by the nurse. 6. Dr Brown
operated on me for appendicitis. He is dead now. 7. The film
“My Fair Lady” is starring Audrey Hepburn. It is a great success.
8. “Look Back in Anger” is a play. It is written by John Os­
born. 9. Anthony Richardson directed the play. He is young
and talented. 10. The conference is devoted to the problems of
ecology. It is being attended by over 200 scientists. 11. Over
200 scientists are attending the conference. They are all experts
on the problems of ecology. 12. The results of the research have
been reported at the conference. They are of vital importance.
13. The conference took place in Paris early in the month. It
was widely commented on in the press.
III. Compare the forms and functions of the participles and the
participial constructions in the following sentences. Tran­
slate these sentences into Russian.
1. The patient operated on is still unconsious. 2. The pa­
tient operated on yesterday is feeling better now. 3. The patient
now being operated on has a weak heart. 4. The students
watched their professor operating on the man. 5. They watched
the patient being operated on. 6. You must have your husband
operated on. 7. The woman was waiting in the reception-room,
her busband being operated on upstairs. 8. The patient operated
on, the surgeon could rest a little.
IV. Translate into English.
1. Обсуждаемая проблема интересует всех нас. 2. Проб­
лемы, обсуждавшиеся на конференции, имеют огромное зна­
чение. 3. Вас, кажется, не интересует обсуждаемая пробле­
ма? 4. Корреспондент слушал, как участники конференции
обсуждали важную проблему. 5. Вы разве не слышали, как
обсуждалась эта проблема? 6. Я хочу, чтобы эту проблему
обсудили на завтрашнем собрании. 7. Участники конференции
обсуждали доклад, а корреспондент время от времени делал
заметки в записной книжке. 8. После того, как обсудили
доклад, председатель объявил перерыв.
253
V. Translate into English using participles where possible.
1. Кто-нибудь видел, как они садились в самолет? 2. Неу­
жели ты не слышал, как об этом объявляли? 3. Я слышал,
как его имя было упомянуто в разговоре. 4. Зачем обгонять?
Ты ведь не хочешь, чтобы нас штрафовали? 5. Я поинтересо­
вался, где ему сшили костюм. 6. Я Хочу, чтобы доклад напе­
чатали к четвергу. 7. Итак, мы можем считать проблему ре­
шенной, не правда ли? 8. Мы сидели на пляже, наблюдая,
как солнце поднимается над морем. 9. Путешествуя, мы узна­
ем много нового и интересного. 10. Не зная ее адреса, я обра­
тился в справочное бюро. 11. Ассистенты профессора Джек­
сона провели ряд опытов, используя самые современные
методы. 12. Увидев полицейского, он перешел на другую сто­
рону улицы. 13. Придя к такому заключению, доктор решил
ничего не говорить пациенту. 14. Закончив опыты, они обсу­
дили результаты. 15. Прожив долгое время за границей,
он был рад вернуться на родину. 16. Конькобежцы продолжа­
ли тренироваться под наблюдением тренера (наблюдаемые
тренером). 17. Он мчался на машине, преследуемый полицией.
18. Разбуженный шумом на улице, он долго не мог заснуть.
19. Когда ученому задали этот вопрос, он отказался отвечать
на него. 20. Они сделали все, как было приказано. 21. Будучи
тяжело ранен, он выздоравливал очень медленно. 22. Будучи
студентом, он принимал участие во многих спортивных сорев­
нованиях. 23. Будучи иностранкой, она с трудом понимала
английскую разговорную речь. 24. Оставленный один в тем­
ноте, ребенок заплакал. 25. Окружив противника, мы заста­
вили его сдаться. 26. Окруженные противником, мы не соби­
рались сдаваться. 27. Доктор испробовал все рекомендованные
методы. 28. Обсуждаемая проблема имеет огромное значение.
29. Роберт получил телеграмму, сообщавшую о прибытии
Аннабел в Эрндейл. 30. Письмо, адресованное редактору,
осталось без ответа. 31. Мужчина, выступающий сейчас с
речью — наш начальник. 32. Ученый, сделавший это открытие,
награжден Нобелевской премией. 33. Он просматривал почту,
доставленную за несколько последних дней. 34. Они вспоми­
нали о днях, проведенных в Англии во время Шекспировского
фестиваля. 35. Законы, существовавшие в Америке, позволяли
покупать и продавать негров. 36. Драматург, написавший эту
Пьесу, еще совсем молод. 37. Пьеса, поставленная молодым
режиссером, пользуется большим успехом. 38. Статья коммен­
тирует исследовательскую работу, проводимую во вновь
созданном центре. 39. Зимние Олимпийские игры, проходив-
254
шве в прошлом году в Саппоро, широко комментировались в
печати. 40. Профессор Аллен, принимающий участие в кон­
ференции, посвященной космическим исследованиям, высту­
пит сегодня вечером по телевидению. 41. Большинство ученых,
принимавших участие в конференции, являются крупными
специалистами в области космических исследований. 42. Ми­
ролюбивая политика, проводимая Советским Союзом, встре­
чает поддержку прогрессивных людей во всем мире. 43. Кон­
ференция, посвященная проблемам европейской безопасности,
приняла резолюцию, призывающую народы Европы уси­
лить борьбу против опасности ядерной войны. 44. Заявление,
принятое участниками конференции, наметило задачи, стоя­
щие перед демократическими организациями в борьбе за
укрепление международной безопасности. 45. Опубликованная
во вчерашнем номере «Правды» статья уделяет особое внимание
мерам, направленным на дальнейшее повышение жизненного
уровня советского народа. 46. Все прогрессивное человечество
осуждает агрессивную политику, проводимую империализ­
мом. 47. Война, продолжающаяся на Ближнем Востоке, нано­
сит большой ущерб экономике всех стран, принимающих в
ней участие.
VI. State the forms and functions of the absolute participial con­
structions .and translate the sentences into Russian,
1. Weather permitting, we shall sail off tomorrow morning.
2. The outside temperature being ten degrees below zero, it was
unusually cold in the schoolroom. 3. The mission carried out,
they were granted a three day leave. 4. The matter being so
urgent, they had to reconsider the original plan. 5. Time drag­
ged on, each day dull and cheerless. 6. Flo kept on smiling, good
temper being her special charm. 7.1 have something to be thank­
ful for, all things considered. 8. Then they heard him shoot,
the shot smashing an echo back. 9. For the moment the shop
was empty, the mechanic having disappeared into a room at the
back. 10. The pupils having previously acquired all sorts of
wrong language habits, the teacher’s chief duty is to eliminate
these and replace them by sound habits. 11. Plants grown in
the dark are always colourless, chlorophyll becoming green
only under the action of light. 12. The research group could
not go on with the experiments without their plan being approv­
ed by the scientific superviser. 13. The main feature of the
nation’s economy is the consolidation of capital at an unprece­
dented level, with profits going up, wages going down and in­
flationaccelerating. 14. The attendance of Western European
255
countries was regrettably small, about half of the overseas
visitors being from North America.
VII. Translate into English using absolute constructions.
I. Вещи упакованы, и мы можем отправляться в путь.
2. Если позволит погода, мы завтра поедем на рыбную лов­
лю. 3. Он мчался на большой скорости, и полицейская маши­
на продолжала следовать за ним. 4. Докладчик подробно
остановился на работе профессора Гринвуда, поскольку ее
результаты имеют огромное теоретическое и практическое зна­
чение. 5. За докладом последовало обсуждение, причем в нем
приняли участие не только участники конференции, но и
иностранные гости. 6. Резолюция была принята подавляющим
большинством голосов, при трех воздержавшихся. 7. После
того как была принята резолюция, председатель объявил
собрание закрытым. 8. Как только прибыли подкрепления,
наши войска перешли в наступление. 9. У Англии мало при­
родных ресурсов, и большая часть сырья ввозится из других
стран. 10. Соединенные Штаты имеют высокоразвитую про­
мышленность, причем господствующее положение занимают
отрасли тяжелой промышленности, такие, например, как
металлургия, машиностроение, химическая промышленность.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
I. Analyse types of syntactical relations found in the following
sentences.
1. The weather is fine today. 2. He came up and greeted me.
3. These two girls are sisters. 4. He passed £11 his exams. 5. He
is her husband. 6. Tom, Pete and Dick are classmates. 7. They
gave me an interesting book. 8. You can rely on this man. 9. The
teacher explained a new rule to the class. 10. You should drive
more carefully. 11. The third-year students attend lectures on
grammar once a week.
II. Classify the sentences according to the purpose of .the utterance.
1. Shall I start from the very beginning? 2. He always comes
in time. 3. He is never late. 4. What a lovely day! 5. All aboard!
6. Is he living or is he dead? 7. Гт right, aren’t I? 8. Come to
see me tonight. 9. You try and do it. 10. Stop talking, please.
III. Classify the sentences according to their structure. Analyse
them in detail.
256
1. a) We study, b) We study English. 2. a) To err is human.
b) It is human to err. 3. a) John left, b) John left for Paris.
c) John left for Paris yesterday, d) My brother John left for
Paris yesterday. 4. a) Mary and John went to Paris, b) They
went to Paris by sea. 5. John booked tickets and they both went
to Paris. 6. 1 learnt that they had left for Paris. 7. “Have they
left?” “Yes.” “When?” “A couple of days ago.” “What a pity!”
IV. Point out one-word and elliptical sentences.
1. a) Stopl b) Stop being funny. 2. Hallo! Glad to see you.
3. “Irra hurry?” “Rather.” 4. “How are the boys?” “Fine.”
5. “I wish you a nice weekend.” “Thanks. The same to you.”
6. “Did you see the film?” “Yes.” “Like it?” “No.” 7. No
smoking! 8. Arrived yesterday. Letter following. 9. Glass.
Handle with care. 10. Ten Killed in Accident.
V. Point out parenthetical parts of the sentence and say by what
they are expressed. Comment on their meaning.
1. Oh, that’s you again. 2. Of course, you are right. 3. You
are wrong, I’m afraid. 4. I am mistaken, I daresay. 5. Frankly
speaking, I’m not sure of it myself. 6. Please, forget all about
it. 7. Don’t make a joke of that, darling. 8. This, surely, was
the low point in their relationship. 9. She certainly was a good
teacher. 10. What on earth is that?
VI. Analyse sentences in the following conversation.
Dr Watson: I’ve got him. (To the cabman) Come on in, Clayton.
Come this way. This is John Clayton, number 2704.
Cabman: That’s it. How do you do?
Sherlock Holmes: Won’t you sit down? It won’t keep you long.
It’s good of you to come. ,
Cabman: Thank you, Sir.
Holmes: Now, Clayton, I wish you to tell us who your fare was
that watched a certain house in Baker Street this evening
and later followed these two gentlemen.
Cabman: You know as much as I do.
Holmes: Not quite as much, I hope.
Cabman: The gent said he was a detective, Sir.
Holmes: Oh, he did?
Cabman: Yes, Sir.
Holmes: How would you describe this gentleman, Clayton?
Cabman: I see. I suppose he was 35 years of age, dressed like
a toff, had a small black beard.
9—601
267
Holmes: And the colour of his eyes?
Cabman: I can’t say, Sir.
Holmes: I see. When did he tell you he was a detective?
Cabman: At the station, Sir, when he gave me the two guineas
that he promised me.
Holmes: Did he tell you his name?
Cabman: Yes, Sir.
Holmes: What did he say it was?
Cabman: Sherlock Holmes.
Holmes: What?!
Cabman: That is the name he gave me, Sir.
Holmes: Sherlock Holmes! Ha, ha... Whoever he is, at least he
has a sense of humour. Here, Clayton. (Giving him money).
Here is something for your trouble.
Cabman: Thank you kindly, Sir. Is there anything else I can
tell you, Sir?
Holmes: Nothing at all, I think.
Cabman: Good day, Sir.
Holmes: Good day.
VII. Transform these sentences into emphatic statements, ques­
tions and requests using the auxiliary do.
1. I know it. 2. I reminded him of that. 3. Who knows the
right answer? 4. Who told you this nonsense? 5. Come with me.
6. Come and help me. 7. Let us go. 8. Let’s not quarrel. 9. Tell
me more about it.
VIII. Add tail questions,
1. I’m older than you, ...?2. I’m afraid, I’m late, ...?3. There
are only five students present, ...? 4. All can’t speak at a
time, ...? 5. Everybody can’t come in first, ...? 6. Everyone
cheered wildly, ...? 7. Very little progress has been made, ...?
8. A little progress has been made, ...? 9. Few people knew the
answer, ...? 10. A few people knew the answer, ...? 11. You
seldom see them, ...? 12. He can hardly speak English, ...?
♦ 13. We could scarcely hear what he said, ...?
IX. Translate into English.
1. а) Вы знаете этого человека? b) Разве вы не знаете этого
человека? с) Вы ведь не знаете этого человека, не так ли?
2. Вы не узнаете меня, да? — Нет, узнаю. 3. Он не сдал экза­
мен? — Да, не сдал. 4. а) Какой чудесный день! Ь) Какая чу­
десная погода! 5. Как быстро вы ходите! 6. а) Я дважды напо­
минал ему об этом. Ь) Я ведь дважды напоминал ему об этом.
258
7. а) Кто знает правильный ответ на этот вопрос? Ь) Кто же
знает правильный ответ? 8. а) Поверьте мне. Ь) Поверьте же
мне. 9. а) По верьте этому. Ь) Да не верьте вы этому. Это ложь.
10. а) Пойдемте. Ь) Ну, пойдемте же. И. Ну, расскажите же
мне всю правду. 12. Попробуйте-ка достать билеты на этот
спектакль! 13. Я прав, разве нет? 14. Я не виноват, не так ли?
15. Я гораздо старше вас, не так ли? 16. Каждый знает это,
не так ли? 17. Все об этом знают, разве нет? 18. Не может же
каждый получать только отличные оценки, правда? 19. Толь­
ко пять студентов получили отличные оценки, не так ли?
20. На собрании присутствовало мало студентов да? 21. На
собрании присутствовало несколько студентов, не так ли?
22. Он сделал мало успехов в английском, да? 23. Он уже сде­
лал небольшие успехи, не так ли? 24. Мало кто из студентов
решил задачу правильно, да? 25. Несколько студентов реши­
ли задачу правильно, не так ли? 26. Вы редко встречаетесь
с ними теперь, да? 27. Она едва ли помнит об этом, не так ли?
PRI NCIPAL PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
I. Point out the subject and say by what it is expressed.
1. Henry brought his mother some flowers. 2. Uncle Jim
considered him a fool. 3. The leading lady was excellent.
4. There are a lot of letters in the mailbox. 5. The brave deserved
the reward. 6. Only five were injured in the accident. 7. That
sounds too strange. 8. He is believed to be a great authority
on the subject. 9. Where to get the money was a problem.
10. Reading for the examination took most of his time. 11. To
see is to believe. 12. Today is Thursday. 13. “But” is not al­
ways a conjunction. 14. Somebody is knocking at the door. Who
is it? 15. It is raining cats and dogs. 16. It was foolish to say so.
17. It is a matter of vital importance for me to know the truth.
18. It is no use trying to convince him. 19. It is unlikely that
he will tell you the truth. 20. One would certainly think it
wrong. 21. They say, the third time is always lucky. 22. We
intend to discuss it in Chapter V. 23. What happened puzzled
everybody.
II. Point out the predicate and state its type.
1. All birds sang. 2. The birds were singing beautifully.
3. This bird is a good singer. 4. She grew fine roses in her gar­
den. 5. The children grew troublesome. 6. The boy grew a line
young man. 7. The explanation sounds false. 8. They were enjoy9*
259
ing the game. 9. 1 believe it the truth. 10. He seemed an interest­
ing chap. 11. She gave a little laugh. 12. The snow fell soft on
his face and hair. 13. The policeman made a careful search.
14. They made him the scapegoat. 15. It is unlikely to happen.
16. The cry resounded loud and clear. 17. The leading man acted
very well. 18. He acted insane. 19. We live to learn. 20. We’ll
wait and see. 21. Ann may have left for Paris. 22. I’d rather
go for a walk after dinner. 23. They went on arguing. 24. No­
body took notice of his remark. 25. I happened to meet him a
week later. 26. The dog went running after its master. 27. a) The
sun rose bright, b) The sun was shining brightly. 28. She began
to feel nervous. 29. The detective had to begin reconstructing
the whole scheme. 30. I cannot help feeling that you have let
me down. 31. I tried to look unconcerned.
III. Mind the agreement of the predicate with the subject and use
the proper form of the verb,
1. The newspaper and the dictionary (to be) over there, on
the desk. 2. There (to be) a large desk and an armchair at the
window. On the desk (to be) a dictionary and several notebooks.
3. There (to be) a dictionary and a few books on the shelf. 4. Bread
and butter (to be) good for breakfast. 5. Here (to be) bread
and butter for breakfast. 6. Our only guide (to be) stars. 7. Stars
(to be) our only guide. 8. A number of new books (to be) display­
ed at the book show in the library. 9. The number of new books
in our library (to be) ever growing. 10. There (to be) a number
of accidents on this road last year. 11. The number of road acci­
dents (to have) decreased this year. 12. There (to be) one or
two things I’d like to talk over with you. 13. You don’t have
to say much; a word or two (to be) sufficient. 14. “Five Little
Pigs” (to be) written by A. Christie. 15. Five pounds (to be)
a small sum. 16. Five miles (to be) a long distance to walk.
17. Two pounds of coffee (to cost) about eight shillings. 18. Twen­
ty years (to be) not a long period of time in human history.
19. Two plus two (to be) four. 20. Twice two (make) four.
21. Three-fifths of the population (to be) employed in industry.
22. Two-thirds of the members (to be) present. 23. Three-fifths
of the roof (to be) fresh painted. 24. Two-thirds of the work (to
have) been done. 25. The news published (to be) very brief.
26. The headquarters (to be) across the road. 27. Economics
(to be) not in my line. 28. Tactics (to be) the science of war.
29. Your tactics (to be) wrong. 30. The audience (to be) carried
away by the play. 31. The audiencq (to be) applauding noisily
and shouting loudly for an encore. 32. The family (to have)
260
been helping me all along. 33. The family (to have) been quar­
relling since my return. 34. The police (to be) still looking for
him. 35. The cattle (to be) being driven horn?. 36. Pete and I
(to have) been friends since our schooldays. 37. It is I who (to
be) leaving, not you. 38. It (to be) her lies that (to irritate) me
so much. 39. Neither the boy nor the girl (to be) a good singer.
40. Neither my brother nor I (to be) to blame. 41. Either of the
alternatives (to be) acceptable. 42. Neither of the problems
(to be) soluble. 43. None of the problems (to have) been solved
yet. 44. None of the tourists (to be) able to explain what they
wanted. 45. No one (to be) eager to be examined the first.
46. Neither the old man nor his dog (to be) to be found anywhere.
47. Either my parents or one of my relations (to be) likely
to meet me at the station. 48. The ship with its load of timber
(to be) leaving the port tonight. 49. The President, together
with his wife and children, (to be) going on holiday. 50. Pro­
fessor Smith, as well as his assistants, (to be) sure of the experi­
ment being successful. 51. I as well as you, Sir Henry, (to be)
greatly worried about the situation.
IV. Translate into English. Mind the agreement of the predicate
with the subject.
1. Статья и словарь — на письменном столе. 2. На столе
словарь, журнал и несколько листов бумаги. 3. Яичница с
ветчиной на столе. 4. На небе не было ни луны, ни звезд.
5. Это я виноват, не так ли? 6. Ведь ни ты, ни я не виноваты,
правда? 7. Когда были опубликованы «Большие ожидания»?
8. На конференции присутствует ряд известных ученых.
9. Число высших учебных заведений в нашей стране растет
из года в год. 10. Опубликованные сведения недостаточны для
доклада. 11. Семья все еще спорит о том, как провести лето.
12. Где находится штаб батальона? 13. Полиция разыскивает
его уже вторую неделю. 14. Генерал сказал, что политика —
не по его части. 15. а) Два плюс два — четыре. Ь) Пятью пять —
двадцать пять., 16. Три четверти населения этой стра­
ны заняты в сельском хозяйстве. 17. Две трети -забора уже
покрашено. 18. 30 лет — не очень большой период времени.
19. Десять миль — слишком далекое расстояние, чтобы идти
пешком. 20. И тот и другой ответ правилен. 21. Ни один из
этих двух планов неприемлем. 22. Ни одна из проблем еще
не решена. 23. Никто из туристов не собирается оставаться
здесь на ночь. 24. Ни Джон, ни его старший брат не женаты.
25. Мой брат, так же как и я, готов помочь вам. 26. Профессор
Браун, так же как и его ассистенты, продолжают эксперимент.
261
к.
27. Я, так же как 11 ПЬ1> очень обеспокоен этим. 28. Премьерминистр с супругой и детьми выезжаю! завтра в Париж.
V. Translate into English using inversion where necessary.
1. Такова история этого знаменитого путешествия. 2. Так
закончилось это мое удивительное приключение. 3. Никогда
я не видел более глупого фильма. 4. Прошло пятнадцать се­
кунд. И вот ракета взвилась вверх! 5. В доме раздался взрыв.
Выбежал человек, за ним другой... 6. Стены были уставлены
книжными полками. На полках стояли книги в ярких пере­
плетах. 7. Настолько важны были сведения, что разведчика
немедленно доставили в штаб. 8. На дорогу в аэропорт ушло
полчаса. Пока ехали, он не проронил ни слова. 9. В субботу
в студенческом общежитии состоится вечер на английском язы­
ке. Приглашаются все студенты и преподаватели. 10. На Кубу
прибыли гости из многих стран мира, чтобы принять участие
в праздновании 10-й годовщины кубинской революции. Среди
гостей — представители всех социалистических стран. 11. В Ка­
ире состоялась конференция, в которой приняли участие
представители большинства арабских стран. Ниже следует
полный текст резолюции, принятой участниками конферен­
ции.
SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
1. Point, out the attribute, state its type and say by what it is
expressed.
1. Great talkers are little doers. 2. A friend in need is a
friend indeed. 3. Two milch of a good thing is good for nothing.
4. The third time is always lucky. 5. The next day’s journey
was a long one. 6. The new visitor was a fine tall man with a
pleasant open face. 7. The ex-chemistry professor was a small,
dreamy-looking man, gentle and kindly in manner, and usu­
ally completely absent-minded. 8. That was a very different
and a very much more difficult thing. 9. He pointed to the dog
looking at me hopefully. 10. The methods used proved to be
very effective. 11. He asked her to give him a few books to read.
12. He never kept his promise to come back. 13. He knew there
was no chance of succeeding. 14. There was little hope of the
mail being delivered in time. 15. They had no difficulty in
identifying the picture stolen from the museum. 16. Why can’t
you give up that wild idea of yours? 17. He was engaged by the
26S
government on a matter of great importance. 18. There are
plenty of dogs in the town of Oxford. 19. His only daughter Edna,
a teacher of French at Franklin High School, kept house for
him. 20. Many of the old houses, round about, speak very plain­
ly of those days when Kingston was a royal borough. 21. Aus­
tin, the capital of Texas, is one of wealthiest towns in the United
States. 22. There is, of course, one easy explanation for his
behaviour: he is in love. 23. Three animals: a horse, a camel and
a bear, were led across the stage. 24. Accustomed to rely on his
instincts, he was perfectly sure in his own mind. 25. We have
here an example of the “program teaching”, so common in
the high school these days. 26. I suggest we speak on the manto-man level. 27. It was a rather Agatha Christie-style little
English woman. 28. John was of the look-before-you-leap, the
think-before-you-speak sort. 29. L’Unita frontpages Italian
Communist Party’s 50th Anniversary Pledges. 30. The senator
was Frederick Prentice, California Democrat, chairman of the
Senate Armed Services-Committee, a power in his party and a
virtual overseer of the Pentagon. 31. Leaders of the 1,500,000strong Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers are to use
all their resources to develop a mass campaign at district and
national level, including strike action, to defeat the Industrial
Relations Act.
II. Point out the object, state its type and say by what it is ex­
pressed.
1. What have you got there to ask? 2. Who told you that?
3.1 know all about it. 4. We watched the cab drive away. 5. You
must forgive me coming at such a late hour. 6. She didn’t know
how to talk with him about it. 7. She smiled an encouraging
smile and said: “I wish you good luck.” 8. He wanted not to
arrest a criminal red-handed, but to prevent a crime being com­
mitted. 9. Hang sorrow, care’ll kill a cat. 10. You must look
into people as well as at them. 11. When you have nothing to
say, say nothing. 12. Never take anything for granted. 13. Ask
me no questions, and I’ll tell you no lies. 14. If you do not think
about the future, you cannot have one. 15. Modern poets mix
too much water with their ink. 16. We drink one another’s
healths and spoil our own. 17. It is impossible to enjoy idling
thoroughly unless one has plenty of work to do. 18. The best
way to make the children good, is to make them happy.
19. People ask you for criticism, but they only want praise.
20. When people agree with me I always feel that I must be
wrong. 21. Everybody talks about the weather but nobody does
263
anything about it. 22. Every quotation contributes something
to the stability or enlargement of the language.
III. Point out the adverbial modifier, state its type and say by
what it is expressed,
1. We’ve never met before, have wo? 2. It’s bitterly cold
outside. 3. They booked tickets well in advance. 4. The bus
went on at full speed without stopping. 5. I arrived at three
o’clock in the afternoon. 6. We were to meet at Victoria Station
the next day. 7. That very evening I came across her at a party
in my friend’s house. 8. I stepped aside so as to let her pass.
9. By half past nine I was at home again. 10. Some time ago Mr
Sherlock Holmes and I spent a few weeks in one of our great
university towns. 11. New stations were set up at the pole to
study meteorological conditions. 12. She stopped to look at
the shop window. 13. I asked the question out of curiosity.
14. With all her faults, she was quite charming. 15. He can’t
have left without saying good-bye. 16. To win the world title
the team had done a lot of training every day throughout the
winter. 17. Read the text thoroughly before trying to translate
it. 18. Now you can sleep quietly without worrying. 19. They
parted never to meet again. 20. I was too tired even to dream.
21. Most of my readers are too young to have heard of the Reich­
stag fire at the time. 22. This is how I got out of the fryingpan into the fire. 23. It is easy to be brave from a safe distance.
24. My honour is dearer to me than my life. 25. People hate, as
they love, unreasonably. 26. Being very tired from his trip, he
soon fell asleep. 27. Though terribly tired he went on with the
experiment. 28. It being a late hour, he hurried home. 29. He
walked rapidly, his head bent, looking neither to the right nor
left. 30. “Well, where does that door lead to?” “To my bedroom.”
“Have you been in it since your adventure?” “No, I came
straight away for you.” “I would like to have a look at it. Perhaps
you will kindly wait a minute, until I have examined the floor.”
IV. Classify the detached parts of the following sentences.
1. A jolly mess he is in! 2. The moon rose from behind,
nearly full. 3. Then they went in — not too soon — to dinner.
4. Up, up they shot, out of the depths, б. I fear you would never
see me again, save to bury me. 6. To them it was the most usu­
al thing in the world. 7. And, with a start, Jon looked at her.
8. Yet, in spite of himself, he was impressed by the man. 9. Just
press this button and up we fly. 10« He was a bright boy,
healthy and strong. 11. A leaf, golden, yellow, drifted to her
264
feet. 12. It was the hour of sunset, unnoticed in cities, so beau­
tiful and solemn in the country. 13. With the approach of Christ­
mas the weather turned colder-crisp, frosty days and still,
starry nights. 14. Mary’s affair was an open secret, more open
than secret. 15. He looked again at the man opposite him, the
man charged with wilful murder. 16. He makes no friend who
never made a foe. 17. Curious accent, that girl has! Dam few
consonants and no vowels at all. 18. She began suspecting the
young man. Of her suspicions she would tell nobody. 19. The
reports of these facts I gave in my second article. 20. He had had
courage enough, but mercy he had not known. 21. For a modern
American or Englishman waiting is a psychological torture.
22. Mr Fern, ageing President of Magnum Opus, stood at a floorto-ceiling window, looking out over the city. 23. Exhausted
from nearly thirty-six hours of rowing, he fell asleep and slept
all night long. 24. He had three major interests — baseball,
stamps and jazz. 25. They were indeed a queer looking party
that assembled on the bank — the birds with dragged feathers,
the animals with fur clinging to them and all dripping wet,
cross and uncomfortable.
V. Comment on the cases of inversion.
1. Here is the book you are looking for. 2. Bee was in New­
port, too. So was Bee’s son, Chrono. 3. Constant wasn’t eager to
fly back to Earth, and neither was his mate Beatrice. 4. I was
a victim of a series of accidents, as are we all. 5. He knew that
somewhere not far away were the men who had kidnapped his
child. 6. Not a penny could George find in his pockets. 7. Not
a single soul did they find in the deserted town. 8. Never shall
I forget the scene. 9. Never have I heard such a lie in my life!
10. Never before could they afford a thing like that. 11. Not for
an instant did he believe that she spoke the truth. 12. Only in
the morning could poor George fall asleep. 13. Only once did
Michelangelo go to the master of the studio for help. 14. a) Only
then did Harris realize that he had been mistaken, b) Only
when I had the man’s story did I realize that you were in danger.
15. Many a time in the course of that week did I bless the good
fortune. 16. Hardly had she said it, when he turned and walked
down the stairs. 17. No sooner had the house burst into flame,
than the stranger rushed out of the garden. 18. Out of the garden
ran somebody. 19. Off ran Montmorency, deeply disappointed.
20. Down the slope went the car, then it turned up and started
rolling downhill. 21. Nowhere else had he been given such an
enthusiastic welcome. 22. In front of him appeared the front door.
265
23. At the wall stood a gentleman, looking steadily at me.
24. At the sides of the house were the bushes of lilac entirely
hiding the farm building behind. 25. Outside, waiting at the
entrance, was a tall, well-proportioned youth of about 19 years
old. 26. On the third finger, set in a gold ring, was the great
white sapphire. 27. In vain did she want him to do that. 28.
Slowly started he walking up the dark lane. 29. Timidly
looked Montmorency at the black dog. 30. With fear approached
they the black entrance. 31. In no other way could such perfec­
tion have been achieved. 32. By no means will it be a proper way
for you to behave. 33. He was a poor thing — had always been
a poor thing — no pluck! Such was his thought. 34. On the
Friday morning he got drunk, so greatly was he affected. 35. At
seven o’clock they started... Twice only did husband and wife
exchange remarks on the way. 36. Between Cape God and the
ocean is a war sinister and incessant. 37. Behind that one man
were hundreds of others ready to help him. 38. Behind those
630 members of Parliament stand the voters who put them there.
And heavy indeed is the responsibility that they bear! 39. Sel­
dom has America been brought to a halt for a day of mourning.
Such as was seen when the Rev. Dr Martin Luther King was
buried. 40. A golden space ship landed in the untouched snow
of the street. Out stepped a stocky, red-headed man with a big
cigar. He wore the uniform of the Martian Assault Infantry.
41. Paul Robeson’s 75th birthday will be celebrated April 15th
at New York’s Carnegie Hall. Participating in the event will
be Harry Belafonte, Angela Davis, Sidney Poitier and many oth­
ers. 42. Following is an excerpt from a speech by Judge George
W. Crockett at “Freedomways” * tribute to Paul Robeson. The
full speech will be published in the spring issue of “Freedom­
ways.”
VI. Translate into English using inversion where required.
1. Вот и автобусная остановка! 2. Мы собираемся поехать
за город.— Я тоже. 3. В этот ранний час на улице не было ни
души. 4. У окна стоял письменный стол. На столе лежала
огромная кипа бумаги и толстая книга. 5. В начале главы
автор дает определение инверсии. Затем идет описание раз­
личных типов инверсии и основных случаев ее употребления.
6. Никогда в жизни я не забуду этой сцены. 7. Только тогда
я понял, что был неправ. 8. Только одно окно было освещено.
Из окна доносились звуки рояля. 9. Лишь однажды она на­
помнила мне об этом неприятном случае. 10. Всю ночь я ду­
мал о том, что случилось. Заснуть я смог только утром. 11. Они
266
молчали всю дорогу, только дважды они обменялись корот­
кими репликами. 12. Напрасно я пытался доказать ему это.
13. Он ошибается и ошибался всегда. Таков был его вывод.
VII.
Translate into English.
A. 1. Стоянка такси, кажется, в 5 минутах ходьбы отсюда.
2. Между ними состоялся короткий десятиминутный разговор.
3. Мне не нравится эта твоя шутка. 4. Как тебе нравится
этот мой новый друг? 5. Эта последняя книга моего отца так и
осталась незаконченной. 6. Мировая печать продолжает ком­
ментировать недавнее выступление президента. 7. Он будет
присутствовать на завтрашнем заключительном заседании
Экономического Совета ООН. 8. Мой зять, спортивный журна­
лист, вел репортаж о только что закончившемся матче между
сборными нашей страны и Канады. 9. Статья посвящена Полю
Робсону, выдающемуся певцу 'и общественному деятелю.
B. 1. а) Здесь очень жарко. Сними пиджак. Ь) Тебе должно
быть очень жарко в пиджаке. Сними его. 2. а) Я этого тебе не
скажу. Ь) Я это скажу тебе и никому больше. 3. Дайте-ка
мне последний номер журнала.— А разве я не дала его вам?
4. а) Напишите мне письмо. Ь) Напишите мне поскорее. 5. а) Ко­
му он адресовал свое письмо? Ь) По-моему, это письмо адре­
совано мне, а не тебе. 6. а) Боюсь, что не смогу ответить н.а
ваш вопрос. Ь) Интересно, что он ответил на твое письмо?
7. а) Вы спрашивали у него об этом? Ь) Спросите у него его
имя. с) Попросите у нее еще чашку кофе. 8. Вы не могли бы
найти мне более интересную книгу? 9. а) Я купил эту книгу
для вас, а не для себя. Ь) Купите мне несколько экземпляров
последнего журнала. 10. а) Учитель объяснил новое правило.
Ь) Не могли бы вы объяснить нам это еще раз? 11. а) Продик­
туйте письмо машинистке. Ь) Продиктуйте ей письмо. 12. Рань­
ше ты никогда не упоминал об этом факте. 13. Секретарь гром­
ко объявил об этом всем присутствующим.
C. 1. Мы выезжаем в воскресенье в 7 часов утра. 2. Он
родился в Лондоне 29 июня 1924 года. 3. Вчера в 10 часов
утра в московском парке «Сокольники» открылась междуна­
родная выставка «Почта-70». 4. Мы вылетели из Лондона в
7 часов. В полдень наш самолет приземлился в Римском
аэропорту. 5. Прошлым летом мы ездили в Уэльс; этим летом
мы собираемся в Шотландию.
267
COMPOSITE SENTENCES
I. State the type of the composite sentences in the following texts.
Translate them into Russian.
1. What is Grammar?
1. There are many ways of thinking about grammar, many
senses in which the term is used. 2. One way is this: grammar
is something that produces the sentences of a language. 3. This
is what we shall mean by grammar in this book. 4. Grammar
is the heart of language, and language is the foremost of the
features that make human beings human. 5. We are sometimes
told that grammar is dull but useful. 6. It is better to look at
it differently: properly approached, grammar is an absorbingly
interesting study, and it may even do us some practical good.
2. The System of a Language
1. One of the most puzzling things about languages is that
human beings are able to learn to speak them. 2. Listen to any
English conversation and note the tremendous diversity of the
structures that occur. There seems to be no end to the variety.
3. Scholars who have tried to put all of English into grammar
books have sometimes found that four or seven or ten large
volumes are not enough. 4. When we look at this apparently
immense complexity, we wonder how anyone can be bright enougn
or have a powerful enough memory to learn a language and use
it. 5. Yet, we all do this. Even those of us who are not very bright
and those who have poor memories manage somehow or other to
learn at least one language. 6. We master virtually all of its
grammar (though, of course, riot all of its vocabulary), and
we achieve this without conscious study and at a very early
age. Some children do more than this. 7. If their homes are
bilingual, they learn two languages. In some parts of the world —
the Middle East, for instance — it is not uncommon to find
children of six or seven speaking four languages. 8. If there is
any explanation at all, it must be that language structure is
not really as complicated as it looks at first. There must be some
kind of system to it simple enough to be grasped and held by
any human mind, however ordinary. The grammarian’s task
is therefore to seek out this system, to be always trying to de­
scribe languages in the shortest and simplest way possible.
268
3. Basic and Transformed Sentences
1. When we try to describe English, we find that we get
the shortest and neatest description if we suppose that it consists
of two fundamentally different kinds of sentences. 2. There is
first of all a kernel or base — a rather small set of sentence types
which we have here called basic sentences. All the rest of English
is transformation. That is, all the more complicated sentences
of English can be explained as deriving from the basic sentences.
3. Given the kernel, the set of basic sentences, we can describe
the great variety of English by explaining the rules by which
complicated sentences are made out of basic sentences.
II. State the type of the sentence. Analyse the ways in which the
clauses are connected. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Two is company but three is none. 2. Take care of the
pence and the pounds will take care of themselves. 3. Will
you be able to help me, or shall I ask someone else? 4. It was
very cold outside, so they put on fur coats and high boots.
5. The more he knew, the more he desired to know. 6. The moon
went down, the stars grew pale, the cold day broke. 7. To know
things by name is one thing; to know them by seeing them,
quite another. 8. The triumph of the revolution is guaranteed,
for the majority of the people are supporting it. 9. The party
took no doctor with them to the Pole, nor did they take a cook.
10. I had no sooner arrived in London than there began a big
bus drivers strike. 11. Hardly had Ashley done it, when he
regretted it. 12. No sooner had the dog seen the stranger than it
began to growl savagely. 13. Not only an almost breathtaking
face did April Morrison have, but it was very clever too. 14. He
made an offer, which I did not accept. 15. He wanted me to
accept the offer, which I did not do. 16. Here is what is going
to happen. 17. That’s all I need. 18. It was surprising how little
she had changed. 19. All I did was to perform a common act of
courtesy. 20. What I want is to be paid for what I do. 21. What
he had been waiting for happened. 22. The question is why she
told me a lie. 23. It looks as if spring will never come. 24. I
turned out all the lights to make it look no one was in.
25. It was hard to imagine that this small man had any impor­
tance. 26. I wrote him a letter expressing my gratitude for the
impression his book had made on me. 27. I love everything
that’s old: old friends, old times, old manners, old books, old
wines. 28. Mrs Skinner liked to say aloud all the thoughts that
passed through her head. 29. The next day (which was Friday)
269
we met in the evening to pack. 30. He had no enemies; none,
that is, whom he knew. 31. He looked like a respectable family
solicitor, which indeed he was. 32. It was a gloomy day which
made us all depressed. 33. We shall see what we shall see.
34. What did you say your name was? 35. Only after her depar­
ture did he realize that nothing could be changed. 36. He knew
on which side his bread was buttered. 37. Who and what he
was, Martin never learned. 38. What I have gone through you
can’t imagine. 39.1 don’t like it when you make fuss about noth­
ing. 40. “Do as I tell you,” he said. 41. You look at me as if
I were talking absolute nonsense. 42. You’d better look for the
umbrella where you may have left it. 43. I will remember you
as long as I live. 44. Don’t trouble trouble until trouble troubles
you. 45. Do not count your chickens before they are hatched.
46. If youth knew; if age could. 47. If you want to succeed, you
must plan your time carefully. 48. Had he been more polite,
he wouldn’t have talked like that. 49. If you knew him better,
you would like him more. 50. Since you won’t take advice, there
is no point in asking it. 51. It was so hot that nobody wanted to
do anything. 52. There was enough fuel in the tank, so that
we were able to go on without refilling. 53. It isn’t so bad as
it might appear at first sight. 54. I intend to go on fighting
this election as if nothing had happened. 55. He didn’t see any­
thing as if he had got blind. 56. Whatever advice you give, be
short. 57. No matter what he says, don’t believe him. 58. I
know you won’t say anything until it’s all over. 59. I can’t
blame a man if he is born a fool, but I can blame even a fool
for being lazy. 60. As I was saying, we have no enemies — at
least, none 1 know. 61. “It will make it easier for all of us if
we know the truth.” “I don’t think you’ll much like the truth
if I tell you.” 62. That’s extraordinary how I am recognized
wherever I go these days. 63. A man of his age — he was nine­
ty-eight in August of that year—should not have been enco
*
uraged to play such games. 64. A classic is something that every
body wants to have read and nobody wants to read. 65. There
is nothing more tragic in life than the utter impossibility of
changing what you have done. 66. In a little cottage near the
river it was where we decided to stop for the night. 67. Ships
carry life-boats so that the crew can escape if the ship sinks.
68. I want to see him, if I can, incase he has anything to tell me.
69. However rich one may be, there is always something one
wants. 70. Philip Bosinney was known to be a young man with­
out fortune, but Forsyte girls had become engaged to such be­
fore, and had actually married them. 71. Now that war and the
270
problems of war are things of the past, I think I may safely ven­
ture to reveal to the world the part which my friend Poirot
played in a moment of national crisis. 72. Anybody may become
a candidate in one of Britain’s constituencies providing he is
a British adult who is not a peer, a lunatic or in jail. 73. It.
is of the highest importance in the art of detection to be able to
recognize out of a number of facts which are incidental and which
are vital. 74. One hundred years ago today, on November 4,1869,
there appeared the first issue of the journal “Nature”, the most
influential of all scientific periodicals and the pioneer of scientific
journalism as we know it today. 75. It was in 1929 that an eco­
nomic crisis broke out, the most violent and devastating in the
history of capitalism.^ 76. There was, however, one country at
whose borders the crisis came to an abrupt halt — the Soviet
Union. 77. There is no more compelling argument for
socialism as a way of organizing the economic, political and
social life of a country than the fact that it was when the eco­
nomic life of the capitalist world was prostrated that the Soviet
Union, launching its first Five-Year Plan, made the greatest
strides forward.
- •
III. Comment on the cases of parenthesis.
1. He is, as I told you, their only son. 2. Spring, he thought,
will never come. 3. As I was saying, he was arrested on a charge
of murder. 4. Your husband will have to stand trial, I am
afraid. 5. As you may have heard, he was awarded the Nobel
Prize last year. 6. Of course, I told myself, he might have been
detained for some reason in the office. 7. Was there anything
he failed to mention, the professor wondered? The invitations,
the names, the general air of encouragement... Oh, yes, one more
touch. 8. Here I am, Erik thought, talking to Professor Fox,
a scientist who won the Nobel Prize. 9. The girl was murdered...
And her lover wrote a song — you see, he was a poet... 10. Yes,
well, I am sure, you all appreciate Bob’s sincerity. 11. Well,
viewers, as I said, today is Nomination Day in the Earndale by­
election. 12. The eyes of the country are on Earndale all rightl
And Earndale, l am sure, has but one thought in mind. 13. What
I intend to do if I am elected, oh, I beg your pardon, I mean,
when I am elected? 14. As was reported in the press, there is
a strong -feeling against the anti'-labour legislation. 15. Kurt
Vonnegut is, as Graham Greene has declared, “one of the best
living American writers.” 16. Among the witnesses you have
heard Chief Inspector Hearne who has given his testimony in
a fair impartial manner, as he always does. 17. It took us too
271
long to realize that a purpose of human life, no matter who is
controlling it, is to love whoever is around to be loved. 18.
“What’s she like, this Miss Stoker?” “Oh, one of those blue
stockings, I gather.” 19. “This flaming romance has got to be
nipped in the bud.” “Yes, but how?” “Turn them against each
other... We could do with an old flame. The old infernal tri­
angle, if you will pardon a cliche.”
IV. Classify the sentences; then transform each of them into two
or more simple sentences.
Archie Sluter had one burning ambition: to cross the Atlan­
tic in a rowboat. His friends tried to argue him out of it, de­
scribing the undertaking as foolhardy, nevertheless Sluter per­
sisted. “I know,” he would say, “that the dangers are great,
but I am perfectly willing to risk my life in the interests of
science.” When asked what scientific interests could be served
by such a stunt, Sluter would talk vaguely of phenomena he
proposed to observe: ocean currents, winds, marine life. But
actually, as he himself knew perfectly well, his real motivation
was a simple one: a boundless craving for adventure. Sluter
proposed to leave from Finley, a small seaport near Derve.
Since he expected the voyage to last between a hundred and two
hundred days, depending on how fast he rowed, he gave a great
deal of thought to provisions. He finally decided to depend
mainly on three staples: dried beef, raisin, and powdered milk.
Coffee, which he liked very much , was a luxury that he couldn’t
manage, for he would have no way to heat it. However, since
he was very fond of sweets, he did put them in such items as
chocolate bans and licorice sticks. The citizens of Finley, a
town which had seen many adventurers go forth, regarded Slu­
ter’s venture with interest and good humor. One oldster, in
particular, a sea captain, whose career went back to the days of
sailing ships, gave Sluter a great deal of advice. “You’ll want
to have a good compass,” he remarked one day, “in order to
tell which way you’re going.” Sluter who hadn’t thought of
this thanked the Captain and put it down on his list. Another time
Cap’n Bob — his real name was George, but everyone called
him Cap’n Bob —asked whether Sluter had remembered to leave
space for water kegs. “I don’t need water,” Sluter replied,
“because I shall be drinking powdered milk.” “Yes,” said Cap’n
Bob', “but you’ll be needing water, Mr Sluter, to put the milk
into liquid form.” Sluter, seeing the force of the argument, put
water on the list too. At last the day of departure arrived and a
large crowd estimated at five hundred people came down to
272
the beach to see Sluter off. Willing hands helped him get the
boat through the breakers and everyone cheered when he broke
out the oars and started to row. Encouraged by this send-off,
Sluter rowed briskly for two hours. Then he rested for a bit
and had lunch: dried beef, raisin, and powdered milk. He was
well through the surf though he could still see them, but he
couldn’t distinguish faces. Sluter rowed much of the night and
all the next day he was determined to get out of sight of the
crowd which embarrassed him. When on the second evening
he could still see the well-wishers on the beach he felt rather
discouraged. Exhausted from nearly thirty-six hours of rowing,
he fell asleep and slept all night long. Awakening he found that
the sun was shining and that several people were standing
around the boat which had drifted ashore. “Where you made
your mistake, Mr Sluter,” said Cap’n Bob, who was among
those present, “was in starting from this side of the ocean. The
winds and currents are all against you whereas they’d be help­
ing you if you were coming the other way.” Sluter, feeling
a little piqued that the Captain had not told him this before,
nevertheless thanked him courteously. However, he proposed
to rest a little before deciding whether to cross the ocean and
try again.
V. Translate into English.
1. Вот что она мне сказала. 2. Все, что она вам сказала —
ложь. 3. То, что она вам сказала — ложь. 4. Она не солгала
нам, но и не сказала правды. 5. Поторопитесь, а то опоздаете
на поезд. 6. Он решил принять их предложение, ибо это был
единственный выход при создавшихся обстоятельствах.
7. Он не только бегло говорил, но и не делал грамматических
ошибок. 8. Не успел я добраться до станции, как поезд тро­
нулся. 9. Едва собака увидела незнакомца, как начала гром­
ко лаять. 10. Чем больше он путешествовал, тем больше узна­
вал интересного. 11. Либо вы принимаете наше предложение,
либо мы отказываемся вести дальнейшие переговоры. 12. Мне
пришлось чинить машину на дороге, что и задержало меня.
13. Они сделали предложение, которое я не мог принять.
14. Они хотели, чтобы я принял их предложение, чего я не
мог сделать. 15. Что вам нужно, так это заняться спортом.
16. Весьма сомнительно, что они знают обо всем. 17. Как
удачно, что вам удалось достать билеты за час до отхода поезда.
18. Это все, что я хочу спросить. 19. Беда в том, что теперь
уже ничего нельзя изменить. 20. То, что я говорю, это то, что
я думаю. 21. Я пришел спросить, нужна ли вам моя помощь.
273
22. Я не был доволен тем, как они выполнили работу. 23. Мне
не нравится, когда ты поднимаешь шум из-за пустяков.
24. Что они будут делать дальше, он не знал. 25. Я дам вам
знать, как только прибуду на место. 26. После того как он за­
кончил все приготовления в дорогу, он еще раз тщательно
осмотрел машину. 27. Вас не будут экзаменовать, пока вы не
сдадите письменный зачет. 28. Собака ждала хозяина там, где
он ее оставил. 29. Где бы ни появлялся знаменитый актер, его
тотчас же узнавали. 30. Так как присутствовало большинство
членов комиссии, председатель предложил начать заседание.
31. Поскольку стороны не пришли к соглашению, перегово­
ры были прерваны. 32. Все так устали, что никому не хотелось
говорить. 33. У нас было достаточно провизии, так что мы
могли продолжить путь, не заезжая в город. 34. Говорите
громче, чтобы всем было слышно. 35. Иностранец говорил
медленно, с тем чтобы мы могли понять его. 36. Шерлок Холмс
замаскировался под нищего, с тем чтобы никто не узнал его.
37. Случись вам быть в нашем городе, пожалуйста, заходите
ко мне. 38. Что сказать ему в случае, если он позвонит вам
на работу? 39. Он согласился продолжать опыт при условии,
что никто не будет ему мешать. 40. Если бы он был вежливым
человеком, он не ответил бы мне так грубо. 41. Если бы вы
знали его лучше, вы бы думали о нем по-другому. 42. Если бы
я не видел этого своими глазами, я бы никогда этому не по­
верил. 43. Если бы вам пришлось проделать все заново, вы
бы поступили точно так же? 44. Что бы они вам ни говорили,
не верьте им. 45. Как он ни старался перегнать лидера, ему
это не удалось. 46. Даже если ты очень поспешишь, ты все
равно не успеешь. 47. Я сделал все так, как вы сказали.
48. Текст оказался гораздо Труднее, чем мне показалось с перво­
го взгляда. 49. Человек, который заходил сюда утром, оставил
вам записку. 50. Машина, которая тебе понравилась, уже
продана. 51. 1929 год, когда разразился кризис, оказался
гибельным для фирмы. 52. Мы еще не решили вопрос о том, кто
будет главой делегации. 53. Боюсь, что я отнял у вас слиш­
ком много времени. 54. Джон, как я узнал накануне, приезжа­
ет сегодня вечером. 55. Весна, казалось, никогда не наступит.
56. Не ктр иной, как Шерлок Холмс, сыграл с ними эту шутку.
57. Именно там и именно тогда мы и встретились.
REPORTED SPEECH
I. Compare the sentences in direct and indirect speech» Comment
on the use of tenses in reported speech,
274
1, He said, “I lived in London/’ He said he had lived in
London. 2. He said, “Ann arrived on Monday.” He said Ann
arrived (had arrived) on Monday. 3. She said, “When 1 was
walking down the road the other day, I saw a ring in the gutter.”
She told me that when she was walking down the road tne other
day, she saw a ring in the gutter. 4. Harry said, “My wife is
ill.” Harry told me this morning that his wife is ill. 5. George
to Mary: “I’ll come and see you tonight.” Mary to Ann:
“Georgesaid he’ll come and see me tonight.” 6. George to Harry:
“I’m leaving tomorrow.” (on Saturday) Harry to another:
“George told me he’s leaving today.” (on Sunday) Harry to
another: “George told me he was leaving yesterday.” (on Mon­
day) Harry to another: “George told me on Saturday that he
was leaving the next day.” (much later) 7. Joan to Mary: “We’ve
made many changes in the house.” Mary to another: “Joan
told me last month that she and her husband had made many
changes in the house.” 8. Mr Morgan to Mr Hurst: “Our company
made a lot of money during the war.” Mr Hust to his son: “Mr
Morgan said that their company made a lot of money during
the war.” 9. He said, “I might be there.” He said that he might
be there. 10. She said, “I would come if I could.” She said
that she would come if she could. 11. He said, “If my children
were older I would leave this country.” He said that if his children
were older he would leave the country. 12. She said, “I wish he
were here.” She said that she wished he were here. 13. He said,
“People must obey their country’s law.” He said that people
must obey their country’s law. 14. She said, “I’m always run­
ning into him; he must live quite near here.” She said that
she was always running into him and that he must live quite
near. 15. He said, “I must be there by nine tomorrow.” He
said that he had to be there by nine the next day. 16. “I have
just received a telegram,” he said; “I must go home at once.”
He said that he had just received a telegram and would have to
go home at once. 17. He said, “You must start at once.” He
said that she must/had to start at once. 18. The tutor said, “If
you want to stay on here you must work harder.” The tutor
told Ann that if she wanted to stay on in college she must/
would have to work harder. 19. He said, “You mustn’t tell
anyone.” He said that she mustn’t tell anyone/that shewasn’t
to tell anyone. He told her not to tell anyone. 20. I said, “If
you can lend me the money, I needn’t go to the bank.” I said
that if he could lend me the money I needn’t/wouldn’t have
to go to the bank. 21. He said, “I needn’t be in the office till
ten tomorrow morning,” He said that he needn’t/didn’t have
275
to be in the office till ten the next morning. 22. “Need I re­
write my composition?” asked the boy. The boy asked if he had
to rewrite his composition.
IL Comment on the change of pronouns and adverbial modifiers
of place and time in reported speech.
1. Tom said, “He came in through the window.” Tom said
that the burglar/the cat had come in through the window. 2. He
said, “She is coming this week.” He said that she was coming
that week. 3. He said, “I bought this pearl/these pearls for my
mother.” He said that he had bought the pearl(s) for his mother.
4. He said, “We will discuss this tomorrow.” He said that they
would discuss it (the matter) the next day. 5. The detective
came back with two bullets and said, “I found these in the yard.”
The detective said he had found them in the yard. 6. “I saw
her the day before yesterday,” he said. He said he’d seen her
two days before. 7. “Г11 do it tomorrowl” he promised.
He promised to do it the next day. 8. “I’m starting the day after
tomorrow, mother,” he said. He told his mother that he was
starting in two days’ time. 9. She said, “My father died a year
ago.” She said that her father had died a year before/the pre­
vious year. 10. At breakfast this morning he said, “I’ll be very
busy today.” At breakfast this morning he said that he would
be very busy today. 11. Jack to Tom: “I’m leaving the day
after tomorrow.” (on Monday) Tom to Ann: “Jack said he
was leaving tomorrow.” (on Tuesday) 12. We met at the bridge
and he said, “I’ll be here again tomorrow.” We met at the
bridge and he said that he’d be there again the next day. 13. She
said, “You can sit here, Tom.” She told Tom that he could sit
beside her/on the rug, etc. 14. She said, “Pu.t it here, please.”
She asked me to put it on the table near the window.
III. Comment on the sequence of tenses in the sentences taken from
a) fiction and b) newspapers. Translate these extracts into
Russian.
A. 1. Anyway, I never said I was a gentleman. 2. I told
you one can’t trust her. 3. I have remarked a little while back
that I have invented nothing. 4. I was saying that all of us
here have heard of your husband but no one yet has seen him.
5. You said just now you suspected what he’s been after all these
years. What did you mean? 6. Auntie, he — he told me that
father has been married before. 7. “Who is she?” he asked one
day; “I was told she is beautiful.” 8. You said just now that
276
you owe no man anything, and that you are rolling in money.
9. He asked me if I had seen you in town yet. I said Roy isn’t
my father and he isn’t in town and you’ll never catch him when
he does come in. 10. The story she related was as follows: her
husband and child had left the hotel about 10.30 in the morning
for a trip to Mount Vernon. She had remained in her room because
of a headache. Half an hour later, feeling somewhat better, she
dressed and went out, intending to get some fresh air.
В. 1. He said that “Daily Worker” was an indispensable
paper for all trade unionists from the shop floor to the general
secretary. 2. Newcastle manager Jor Harvey yesterday said
his club will be watching Bennett play for Rotherham in their
Cup-tie against Lincoln on Saturday. 3. The Soviet Union has
announced that it will boycott the conference unless the German
Democratic Republic is allowed to participate on an equal
footing with the F. R. G. 4. The speaker said that direct aggre­
ssion having failed, the imperialists were trying to manoeuvre
“donning the deceptive toga of peace-makers”. 5. The state­
ment said there are only 50 wiretaps in America. 6. He said
his “peace proposal is on the table and'it is going to stay there
until we get a reply from them.” 7. Deputy Premier P. said
Greek people are tired of elections. “They want to rest up a bit.”
8. The editorial said the giant I.T.T. multinational conglomerate
is a “perfect example of imperialism”. 9. Swedish officials
said on Thursday that US Army LT John Vequist is expected
to make formal application for political asylum in Sweden
within the next few days. 10. Tass said the most favourable
times for launches towards Mars occur only every 25 months
or so. 11. The Prime Minister was told last night in no
uncertain terms what the British people want him to do with the
Common Market. The message informed him that the British
public has consistently declared its opposition to Britain
joining the Common Market, by majorities of three to one.
12. Scientist Konstantin Feoktyistov, who flew on the Voskod
orbital mission in October 1964, told Soviet television viewers
yesterday that Salyut-type stations will also be able to help
solve many of the earth’s problems — forecasting harvests
or finding mineral deposits. In the near future, he said, it will
be possible to change the scientific equipment and scientists
aboard Salyut, according to the type of the problem to be
studied. 13. Scientist Victor Alimov suggested yesterday that
weightlessness may prove useful in treating certain diseases.
14. *
scientific
Tass
commentator Vladimir Denisov said last
277
night the link up had shown that Soviet space scientists had
solved the difficult problem of servicing space stations.
IV. Change into reported speech.
1. Ann said, “1 like my new house I” 2. The manager said,
“I know your father. We’ve been in college together.” 3. “I
saw them the day before yesterday,” he said. 4. He said, “They
were playing chess when I saw them last.” 6. She said, “Гт
leaving the day after tomorrow.” 6. I said, “Where does the
doctor live?” 7. The stranger said, “Where is the station?”
8. “Is there anyone in here?” I asked. 9. Jane said, “I’ve been
thinking a lot about your offer, but I haven’t yet made up my
mind.” 10. Jack said, “What will you be doing this time to­
morrow?” 11. The school-master said, “You needn’t copy down
the text, but you must do the exercises in writing.” 12. The
student said, “When shall I know the result of the test?” 13. The
shop assistant said, “Shall we send it to your flat, madam?”
14. “Where shall we meet?” he said. 15. “Shall we meet at
the theatre?” he said. 16. “Shall I bring you some tea?” she
said. 17. He said, “Will you have lunch with me tomorrow?”
18. Mary said, “Will you post the letter for me?” 19. “Would
you wait a moment?” said the secretary. 20. “Can I use your
phone?” he said. 21. Bob said, “Can I nave a shilling, Mum?”
22. She said, “Get your raincoats, children.” 23. Jean said,
“Please, don’t tell anyone.” 24. The mother said, “Remember
to thank the hostess when, you are saying good-bye.” 25. The
doctor said, “Give up smoking.” 26. We said, “Congratula­
tions.” 27. She said, “Happy Christmas.” 28. The instructor
said, “If your brakes are bad, don’t drive so fast.” 29. Mother
said, “You can walk a little before supper.” 30. The sergeant
said to the soldier, “Stay here to guard the gate.” 31. “Let
the gates be left open,” said the commander. 32. Sherlock Hol­
mes said, “Let’s not make any conclusions till we have more
facts.” 33. The strike leader said, “Let’s show the bosses that
we are united.” 34. “It’s not my business”, said the_postman.
“Let the authorities do something about it.” 35. “Let her come
with us, mother, we’ll take care of her,” I said. 36. Mr Parker
said, “I don’t know the way, Nora. Do you?” 37. The nurse said,
“Ugh! It’s a snake. Don’t go near it, children.”
V. Turn the conversations into reported speech.
1. Mrs Parker: Do you think it’s too damp to sit on the grass?
Mr Parker: Oh, по! I should think it’s dry enough for that
after yesterday’s sunshine. Well, is it warm enough for
278
you? Who said the English climate is changeable? It hasn’t
rained for at least 48 hours.
Mrs Parker: Don’t speak too soon! There’s a nasty looking cloud
just coming up behind you.
Mr Parker: Oh, that cloud isn’t big enough to do any harm.
Robert: What have we got to eat, Mum?
Mrs Parker: Don’t worry, Robert! I’ve got enough food here
for a dozen people.
Mr Parker: Pity Peter couldn’t cornel It would have done him
good.
Mrs Parker: Never mind! He gets quite enough fresh air since
he joined the Scouts.
Mr Parker: Don’t be too quick about spreading that table cloth,
Nora. I felt a spot of rain.
Mrs Parker: Oh, dear! What did I tell you? It’s coming on to
pour!
Robert: We’d better run for it.
Mrs Parker: Where to? There’s no shelter in sight.
Robert: What about that pub we came past?
Mrs Parker: It’s much too far away. Look! There’s a bam
over there. We’d better head for that.
Mr Parker: I don’t think it’ll last long.
Mrs Parker: Long enough to soak us to the skin, if we don’t hurry.
Robert: The English climate isn’t at all changeable, is it, Dad?
f
2. Dr Watson: What are you doing, Barrimore?
Barrimore: Oh, nothing, Sir. It was the window.
Dr Watson: The window?
Barrimore: Yes, Sir. I was just seeing that it was fastened.
Dr Watson: Will it matter whether it’s fastened or not, the
window on the second floor?
Barrimore: I go round every night seeing that they are fastened.
Sir Charles always insisted upon it.
Sir Henry: Oh, that sounds reasonable enough.
Dr Watson: Now, will you go back to bed?
Barrimore: Yes, Sir, thank you.
Dr Watson: Do you see anything?
Sir Henry: Nothing. Nothing except a pin-pointed light a long
way off, over there by the rocks.
Dr Watson: Keep your eye on that point alert. Tell me what
happens. Do you see anything now?
Sir Henry: It’s gone now.
279
Dr Watson: There it is again. There it goes. Just as I thought.
Barrimore was signalling to someone. Come on! Get some
clothes. We’ll find out.
Sir Henry: It’s still there.
Dr Watson: Yes, try not to lose sight of it.
VI. Translate into English,
1. Она сказала, что с детства занимается спортом. 2. Он
поинтересовался, давно ли мы знаем друг друга. 3. Она сказала, что очень занята и ни разу не была в театре после кани­
кул. 4. Мать надеялась, что сын вернется через неделю.
5. Я узнал, что покойный отец нашего директора работал здесь
инженером до войны. 6. Меня спросили, где я купил этот сло­
варь. 7. Начальник сказал, что должен поехать в команди­
ровку через неделю. 8. Я подумал, что на улице должно быть
очень холодно. 9. Директор сказал, что не разрешает менять
расписание. 10. Разве тренер не сказал, что нам незачем
брать с собой теплые пальто? 11. Почему же вы не сказали,
что эту статью не нужно переводить? 12. Я подумал о том,
как жаль, что они отказались от приглашения. 13. Он сказал,
что на моем месте он ни за что бы не отказался от этого за­
мысла. 14. Учительница сказала, что мы можем провалиться
на экзамене,, если не повторим все правила. 15. Она сказала,
чтобы мы сделали все упражнения в письменной форме. 16.
Когда, ты сказал, отходит поезд? 17. Следователь спросил,
что они делали, когда я видел их в последний раз. 18. Он
сказал, что сначала думал стать летчиком, но потом решил
стать инженером авиации и поступил в авиационный инсти­
тут. 19. Она сказала полчаса назад, что ее сын приезжает
ровно в три. Значит, он будет здесь через час. 20. Джон сказал
сегодня утром, что их учитель заболел. Интересно, будет
ли кто-нибудь заменять его? 21. Мама сказала, что гости при­
едут в субботу, а сейчас только пятница. Так что вечером мы
сможем пойти в кино. 22. Я только что видела Роберта. Он
сказал, что его жена еще в больнице. Я собираюсь навестить
ее. 23. Давай подождем. Дежурный по станции сказал, что
поезд опаздывает на полчаса. 24. По радио сообщили, что
американские космонавты все еще находятся на Луне. Ин­
тересно, когда они должны вернуться. 25. Я прочел в жур­
нале, что наиболее благоприятное время для запуска косми­
ческих кораблей на
* Марс бывает раз в 25 месяцев.
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
(Glossary and Index)
adjective прилагательное 31
adjoinment примыкание (вид под­
чинительной связи) 11
adjunct зависимый, подчиненный
компонент словосочетания 11
adverb наречие 37
adverbial адвербиальный 37
adverbial modifier обстоятель­
ство 37
affix аффикс
agent (doer of an action) агент;
деятель, субъект действия 87
agreement согласование (вид под­
чинительной связи) 11
analytic(al) аналитический
analytic(al) form аналитичес­
кая форма 8, 95
analytical language язык аналити­
ческого строя7
animate одушевленный
animate objects одушевленные
предметы 18, 40
antecedent определяемое слово или
предложение 52
anticipatory (introductory) пред­
варяющий, стоящий в поло­
жении перед реальным субъек­
том (или объектом действия)
44, 162
apposition приложение 180
close apposition необособлен­
ное приложение 180
loose apposition обособленное
приложение 181
In apposition в приложении
appositive стоящий в приложении
article артикль 21
the definite article определен­
ный артикль 21
the Indefinite article неопре­
деленный артикль 21
aspect вид (грам. категория) 70
asyndetic бессоюзный
asyndetically без союза 192
attribute определение 13
attributive атрибутивный, опре­
делительный
case падеж (грам. категория) 13
the common case общий падеж 18
the possessive case притяжатель­
ный падеж (существительных) 18
the nominative case именитель­
ный падеж (местоимений) 43
the objective case объектный па­
деж (местоимений) 43
characteristics черты, свойства 21
classifying классифицирующий 21
clause предложение-компонент
сложного предложения 192
principal (main) clause глав­
ное предложение 195
subordinate clause придаточное
предложение 195
subject
clause предложениеподлежащее 196
predicative clause предложениесказуемое 196
object clause придаточное до­
полнительное 197
attributive clause определитель­
ное придаточное 204
relative clause
относительное
придаточное 204
relative restrictive clause отно­
сительное
ограничительное
придаточное 204
relative non-restr let ive clause
относительное неограничите­
льное придаточное 205
appositive clause определитель­
ное придаточное-прнложенне
206
281
adverbial clause of придаточное
обстоятельства /98
time времени /98
place места 199
cause or reason причины 199
result следствия 199
purpose цели 200
condition (real or unreal) усло­
вия (реального или нереаль­
ного) 202
concession уступки 203
manner or comparison образа
действия или сравнения 204
parenthetical clause вводное 206
communication (intercourse, ut­
terance) общение, коммуника­
ция, высказывание
unit of communication единица
коммуникации 150
means of communication сред­
ство^) коммуникации 7
the centre of the communication
центр высказывания (комму­
никации) 25
complement второстепенный член
предложения 176
noun complements определения
verb complements дополнения и
обстоятельства 176
complex (predicative construction)
комплекс (предикативная кон­
струкция) 122, 126—129, 136—
137
compound сложное (о слове))
сложносочиненное (о предло­
жении) 17, 192
conjunction союз 9
conjunctive союзный 195
connector служебное слово-связка 9
construction конструкция 88, 122,
147
coordination сочинение (вид син­
таксической связи) И
copulative coordination соедини­
тельная связь 192
adversative coordination проти­
вительная связь 193
disjunctive coordination разъе­
динительная связь 193
causative coordination причинноследственная связь 193
countable п, ad] исчисляемое (су­
ществительное) 14
countable
nouns
(countables)
282
исчисляемые
существитель­
ные /4
degrees of comparison (of adjec­
tives, adverbs and quantitative
pronouns) степени сравнения
(прилагательных, наречий и ко­
личественных местоимений) 31,
39, 63
the positive degree положитель­
ная степень 32
the comparative degree сравни­
тельная степень 32
the superlative degree превосход­
ная степень 32
detached обособленный 160
determiner определитель или огра­
ничитель (служебное слово, на­
пример, артикль) 9
ellipsis (pl -ses) эллипс
elliptical эллиптический 156
emphasis (pl -ses) эмфаза
emphatic эмфатический 94, 207
finite личный, предикативный
finite forms of tne verb личные
(предикативные) формы гла­
гола 64
form-word (structural word) слу­
жебное слово 9
function функция
syntactical function
синтакси­
ческая функция 9
gender род 20
masculine мужской (род) 20
feminine женский (род) 20
generic собирательный 24
In a generic sense в собиратель­
ном значении 23
gerund герундий 130
gerund lai герундиальный
gerundial complex герундиаль­
ный комплекс 136
government управление (вид под­
чинительной связи) 11
prepositional government пред­
ложное управление 11
grammar грамматика 7
grammatical грамматический
grammatical category граммати­
ческая категория 6
grammatical form грамматичес­
кая форма 8
grammatical meaning граммати­
ческое значение 9
grammatical relations граммати­
ческие отношения, связи 7
grammatical structure граммати­
class
noun
существительное
предметное 14
collective noun существительное
собирательное 14
abstract noun существительное
homonym омоним
абстрактное 15
homonymous омонимичный 16
material noun существитель­
impersonal безличный 44
ное вещественное 14
inanimate неодушевленный
noun of multitude существитель­
inanimate objects неодушевлен­
ное множества
ные предметы 40
number число (грам. категория) 13
individualizing
индивидуализи­
the singular (number) един­
рующий 22
ственное число 15
infinitive инфинитив 122
the plural (number) множест­
inflexion (flexion) флексия (окон­
венное число 15
чание) 7
in the singular (plural) в един­
zero inflexion нулевая флексия 15
ственном (множественном) числе
interjection междометие 9
numeral числительное 9
inversion инверсия (непрямой по­
cardinal numeral количествен­
рядок слов) 173
ное числительное 30
grammatical inversion граммати­
ordinal
numeral
порядковое
ческая инверсия 173
числительное 30
stylistical inversion стилистичес­ object дополнение, объект, предмет
кая инверсия 174
direct object прямое
допол­
full inversion полная инверсия
нение 182
173
indirect object косвенное до­
partial inversion частичная ин- полнение 183
версия 173
prepositional object предлож­
modal модальный 68
ное дополнение 184
modality модальность 93
cognate object однокоренное до­
mood наклонение 93
полнение 184
the Indicative Mood изъявитель­
complex object сложное допол­
ное наклонение 93
нение 185, 126, 146 ч
the Imperative Mood повелитель­ objective объектный
ное наклонение 94
the objective case объектный па­
the Subjunctive Mood сослага­
деж (местоимений) 43
тельное наклонение 95
paradigm парадигма 9
morphology
(accidence)
морфо­
paradigmatic парадигматический
логия 12
morphological морфологический 12
parenthesis (pl -ses) вводный член
nominal именной 122
предложения
non-finlte неличный, непредика­
parenthetical
вводный,
незави­
тивный
симый 160, 206
non-finite forms of the verb не­
participle причастие 140
личные (непредикативные) фор­
participle I (the present parti­
мы глагола 64, 121
ciple) причастие I (причастие
non-restr let ive
неограничнтельнастоящего времени) 141
ный 21
participle II (the past participle)
notional знаменательный, полнопричастие II (причастие про­
энаЧный 9
шедшего времени) 144
noun существительное 13
participial причастный
proper noun существительное
absolute participial construction
собственное 15
(the Nominative with the Parti­
common noun существительное
ciple) абсолютная причастная
нарицательное 14
конструкция 147
ческий строй 7
head-nord ключевой, ведущий ком­
понент
словосочетания
или
сложной.) слова 10
283
particle частица 9
parts of the sentence члены пред­
ложения 158
(the) principal parts of the sen­
tence главные члены предло­
жения 158, 161
(the) secondary parts of the sen­
tence (complements) второсте­
пенные
члены
предложения
158, 176
homogeneous parts of the sentence
однородные члены предложения
detached parts of the sentence обо­
собленные члены предложения
160
parentehtical parts of the sentence
вводные члены предложения 160
parts of speech части речи 9
notional parts of speech полно­
значные части речи 9
structural parts of speech (form-,
words) служебные части речи 9
person лицо (грам. категория) 9
the first {second, third) (the
singular, plural) person пер­
вое (второе,
третье)
лицо
(единственного, множественного
числа)
phrase оборот; сочетание, состоя­
щее из служебного и полно­
значного слова 10
conjunctive phrase союз + на­
речие, прилагательное,
при­
частие и т. д. 10
prepositional phrase предлог +
существительное 10
of-phrase существительное-оп­
ределение, вводимое предлогом
of 20
plural la tantum существительные,
имеющие только множествен­
ное число 16
the possessive п притяжательная
конструкция 18
in the possessive в притяжатель­
ной конструкции
the absolute possessive абсолют­
ная притяжательная форма 18
post-position постпозиция
postpositive постпозитивный 179
predicate сказуемое,
предикат
161, 164
verbal predicate глагольное ска­
зуемое 164
284
nominal predicate именное сказуемое 164
simple predicate простое ска­
зуемое 164
compound
nominal
predicate
составное именное сказуемое 165
compound verbal predicate состав­
ное глагольное сказуемое 166
compound verbal modal predi­
cate составное глагольно-модаль­
ное сказуемое 167
compound verbal aspect predicate
составное глагольно-видовое ска­
зуемое 167
group-verb predicate сказуемое
в форме глагольного словосочета­
ния 167
double predicate двойное сказуе­
мое 168
aspect nominal predicate состав­
ное глагольно-видовое
имен­
ное сказуемое 168
modal nominal predicate составное
модально-именное сказуемое 168
modal aspect predicate составное
гла гол ьно-модальное
видовое
сказуемое 168
predicative (predicative complement)
предикативный член, именная
часть составного сказуемого
165
predication предикация; предло­
жение 11, 150
predicativity предикативность 150
preposition предлог 9
prepositional предложный 10.
pre-position препозиция
prepositive препозитивный 178
pronoun местоимение 40
noun-pronoun
субстантивное
местоимение 40
adjective-pronoun
адъективное
местоимение 40
personal pronoun личное местои­
мение 43
possessive pronoun притяжатель­
ное местоимение 45
reflexive pronoun возвратное
местоимение 46
demonstrative pronoun указатель­
ное местоимение 48
Interrogative pronoun вопроси­
тельное местоимение 49
conjunctive pronoun союзное ме­
стоимение 51
relative pronoun относительное
местоимение 52
indefinite
pronoun
неопреде­
ленное местоимение 55
negative pronoun отрицательное
местоимение 5^
distributive pronoun дистрибутив­
ное местоимение 59
reciprocal pronoun возвратное
местоимение 61
contrasting pronoun контрастное
местоимение 61
quantitative pronoun количест­
венное местоимение 61
pronominal местоименный 38
qualitative качественный
qualitative adjective качествен­
ное прилагательное 32
qualitative characteristics
ка­
чественные характеристики 19
quantitative количественный 61
question вопрос 152
general question (yes
*
or no­
question) общий вопрос 152
special question (wh-question) спе­
циальный вопрос 153
alternative question альтерна­
тивный вопрос 153
disjunctive question (tail-quest ^^разделительный вопрос 153
relation отношение, связь
syntactical relations синтакси­
ческие связи 9
paradigmatic relations парадиг
магические отношения 12
syntagmatic relations синтаг­
матические отношения 12
relative относительный 12
relative clause относительное
придаточное предложение 204
relative pronoun относительное
местоимение 52
relative (secondary) tense отно­
сительное время 70
restrictive (restricting) ограничи­
тельный, ограничивающий 22
restrictive attribute ограничи­
тельное определение 22
root корень 8
sentence предложение 150
declarative sentence повествова­
тельное предложение 152
interrogative sentence вопроси­
тельное предложение 152
Imperative sentence повелитель­
ное предложение 155
exclamatory sentence восклица­
тельное предложение 155
simple sentence простое пред­
ложение 156
complex sentence сложноподчи­
ненное предложение 195
composite sentence сложное пред­
ложение 156, 192
compound sentence сложносочи­
ненное предложение 192
one-word sentence (sentence word)
односоставное предложение 157
complete sentence полное пред­
ложение 156
incomplete (elliptical) sentence
неполное (эллиптическое) пред­
ложение 156
extended sentence распростра­
ненное предложение 158
unextended sentence нераспро­
страненное предложение 15a
contracted sentence простое пред­
ложение с двумя или более
подлежащими к
сказуемому
(или наоборот) 158
sentence-building построение пред­
ложений 7
laws of sentence-building зако­
ны построения предложения 7
sequence of tenses (back-shifting
of tenses) согласование времен 84
singularia tantum существительные,
имеющие только единственное
число 16
sound interchange перегласовка в
vowel Interchange изменение ко­
ренного гласного 8, 67
consonant interchange изменение
коренного согласного в, 67
speech речь 12
direct speech прямая речь 209
indirect (reported) speech косвен­
ная речь 209
stem основа 15
structure структура, строй
grammatical structure граммати­
ческий строй 7
sentence structure структура
предложения 12, 150
structural структурный, служеб
ный
structural words служебные слова 9
structural parts of speech слу­
жебные части речи 9
288
subject подлежащее, субъект 161
real subject реальное подле­
жащее 162
formal (structural) subject фор­
мальное
(структурное)
под­
лежащее 162
indefinite (general) subject не­
определенно-личное подлежа­
щее 163
subordination подчинение (вид син­
таксической связи) 11
syndetic subordination подчини­
тельная связь с помощью союза 195
asyndetic subordination бессо­
юзная подчинительная связь 195
substantivized субстантивирован­
ный 35, 39
suffix суффикс. 8
suppletive супплетивный
suppletive forms супплетивные
формы (формы, образованные
от разных корней) 8
syllable слог
one-syllable word односложное
слово 32
syndetic союзный
syndetical 1у с помощью союза 192
syntax синтаксис 12
syntactical синтаксический
syntactical characteristics син­
таксические свойства 12
syntactical unit синтаксическое
единство 122
synthetic(al) синтетический
synthetical) form синтетическая
форма 95
synthetic(al) language язык син­
тетического строя 7
tense время (грам. категория) $9
primary (absolute) tense абсо­
лютное время 70
secondary (relative) tense отно­
сительное время 69
f Present .
72 и
J Indefinite 'Tense 72 •S
the/ Past
eg
73 a> S’*
(Future J x
4
75 3
Present'
5 co
я СП
the Past
Continuous Tense 75 CL
~
Future
76 *
Present
76
the Past
л
Perfect Tense
79 а
1|
Future,
79
Present] Perfect Contin- 80
S a
theJ Past luous Tense
80 a>
(Future J
81 9*n
uncountable n, adj неисчисляемое
(существительное) 14
uncountable nouns (uncountables)
неисчисляемые
существитель­
ные 14
utterance высказывание 152
verb глагол 64]
finite verb личный (предикатив­
ный) глагол 64
non-finite verb неличный (не­
предикативный) глагол 64
regular (standard) verb правиль­
ный (стандартный) глагол 65
irregular
(non-standard) verb
неправильный (нестандартный)
глагол 65
notional verb полнозначный
глагол 67
structural verb служебный гла­
гол 65
auxiliary verb вспомогательный
глагол 67
linking verb связочный глагол
68
modal verb модальный глагол
68
defective verb недостаточный
глагол 106
transitive verb переходный гла­
гол 68
intransitive verb непереходдый
глагол 68
verbal глагольный 121
verbals (non-finite forms of the
verb)(the infinitive, the gerund,
the participle) непредикативные
формы глагола (т. е. инфинитив
герундий, причастие) 121
voice залог 87
the Active Voice действительный
залог 87
the Passive Voice страдательный
залог 87
In the Active в действительном
залоге
In the Passive в страдательном
залоге
word-group словосочетание 10
word-order порядок слов 7
direct word-order прямой поря­
док слов 173
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Тамара Александровна Барабаш
ПОСОБИЕ ПО ГРАММАТИКЕ
СОВРЕМЕННОГО АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА
Редактор М. А. Аполлова. Издательский редактор Н. П. Бычкова. Оформление ху­
дожника A. Я. Толмачева. Художественный редактор Р. А. Казаков, технический
редактор Я. Г. Макарова. Короектор Г. Г. Петропавловская. Младший редактор
с. П. Политова. Сдано в набор 2/VII 1974 г. Подписано в печать 24/XII 1974 р.
Формат 84х108
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