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Module 1: Introduction to Business Research
Learning Outcomes:
After studying this module, the student should be able to:
1. define business research;
2. understand the difference between qualitative and quantitative business research and the
difference between basic and applied research;
3. know the kinds of business research;
4. determine the criteria for a good business research; and
5. distinguish the different formats of business research.
What is business research?
Business research is a type of scientific research that tries to address the concerns of the
firm and/or the industry. It offers (recommends) solution/s to the affected functional area
(marketing, management, human resource, finance, entrepreneurship, etc.) or analysis about the
perception, preference, and behavior of the customers, employees, and other stakeholders. The
processed result of the business research (information) becomes the basis for making decisions.
If the result of the business research is intended only for a particular company use, then it is a
contracted business research. If the result is intended for general application and appreciation of
the business, the industry, and the academic community, then it is an institutional research.
Difference between qualitative and quantitative research
Basic business quantitative research uses survey questionnaire for collecting primary data
(perception and preference of respondents), whereas business qualitative research uses
observation (behavior of respondents) or depth interview (opinion and ideas of respondents) for
collecting data. However, the findings of qualitative business research cannot be generalized
across the population, as it is treated like a case study; meanwhile, quantitative business research
can be generalized across the population, if the sampling method was done randomly.
Can quantitative and qualitative business methods be combined?
Yes. The result of qualitative business research can be used to validate the result of
quantitative business research. This process is called triangulation. An example of triangulation
is the use of survey to respondents and interview to another group of respondents within the
same study. A specific example is when a researcher tries to evaluate the Human Resource
Practices of a certain company. Employees will evaluate the services and functions of the HR
Department using a survey questionnaire, and HR Practitioners will be interviewed to check on
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the details of their services and functions rendered to employees. The researcher will compare
the results of the study and will have to come up with various levels of analysis.
Difference between basic business research and applied business research
Basic (Academic) business research is strict on APA compliance, whereas applied business
research is lenient and would depend on the preference of the client (for their easy interpretation
and decision).
Basic business research is dependent on the problematic situation identified by the
researcher and the findings are expected to be generalized across the population of the study.
Applied business research is dependent on the problem that the client would want to be solved
and the findings cannot be generalized as it is just a case study.
Kinds of business research
1. Conclusive (for quantitative business research) – designed to help managers make decisions
based on the information provided by business research. Through it, the manager or decision
maker makes informed decisions. Informed decisions rely on researched information as basis
for making decisions. Conclusive research can be applied through descriptive research,
correlational research, causal research, or a combination of descriptive research with
correlational or causal research.
a) Descriptive research – is a kind of quantitative research that describes the problem or
phenomenon that the researcher or client wants to address or know. It answers the
questions who, what, when, where, why, and how in the statement of the problem. Most
business studies are done using descriptive research. If the client would want to address
many of the areas of business operations through descriptive research, then this kind of
research would be lengthy and time consuming. The results are presented through
frequency count, percentage, ratio, rank, some descriptive statistics, or mean (by
interpreting the scale, its level and meaning).
b) Correlational research – is a kind of quantitative research that measures the relationships
of variables statistically to determine its dependence or interdependence. It could simply
be done using correlations or t-test and ANOVA. It could also be done using some
multivariate techniques like factor analysis, multiple regression analysis, cluster analysis,
perceptual mapping, or conjoint analysis. The results can be inferred (deduce and conclude
with statistical basis). In most business studies, descriptive research and correlational
research are combined to have a comprehensive result.
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c) Causal research – is a kind of quantitative research that hypothesizes the cause and effect
of variables. It is intended to address the complicated relationships of variables. It uses
multivariate tools like covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) or partial
least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM).
2. Exploratory (for qualitative business research) – is designed to find more information about
the problem, issue, or phenomenon. It is also intended to reduce the research options to a
manageable size. Exploratory research can be applied through depth interview, focus group
discussion, and ethnographic research.
a) Depth interview – is a kind of exploratory research where the researcher conducts a detailed
personal interview (with guide questions that the respondent is aware of earlier) with the
respondent. The activity is normally recorded so that the transcript can be printed and used
as a support for the depth interview. The raw transcript will be summarized and interpreted
by the researcher. Because the activity relies on the expert opinion of the respondents, only
a handful of respondents are included in the interview – around 8–10. If a quantitative
research is done with similar concerns or problems, the result of the depth interview
(qualitative research) can be used to validate the result of the quantitative research. The
process is called triangulation.
b) Focus group discussion (FGD) – is a kind of exploratory research where the researcher
solicits ideas about a particular topic or problem from the target respondents. The
researcher selects around 10–12 respondents (representing the population) in one area
and serves as the facilitator. The researcher asks questions to the respondents and allows
them to process the questions, while recording it for documentation purposes. There must
be some identifier for the respondents (but not the name of the respondent) for purposes
of documentation. The raw transcript is summarized and used as basis for qualifying a
particular concern (e.g., a product, idea, or variable) in the quantitative research.
c) Ethnographic or observation research – is a kind of qualitative research where the researcher
observes the respondent or respondents directly. It is done through:
1. direct observation (with the respondent informed beforehand of such observation)
2. direct observation (with the respondent uninformed of such observation)
There are issues and concerns here:
1) If the respondent is made aware of such observation, he or she may be conscious of his
or her behavior, thus defeating the purpose of observing the behavior normally.
2) If the respondent is not made aware of such observation (assuming a spy eyeglasses with
video-recording capability is applied), there is an ethical issue involved – intrusion of
privacy.
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3) If the observation is successful, could the researcher interpret the observed behavior? In
this regard, we need experts like a psychologist to interpret perception, motivation, etc.;
we need a sociologist to interpret social behavior; and we need an anthropologist to
interpret culture and symbols.
3. Business case analysis – involves the study of a particular company, group, or person through
personal interviews and published literature. The personality of those involved in the case
(company officers or personnel) is reflected and discussed in the case to make it interesting.
The case is written for purposes of class discussion. The case is intended to elicit the students’
participation by applying whatever concepts they have learned from the business courses they
have taken. It cannot be generalized as it is about a particular company only.
Criteria for a good business research
1. For quantitative basic business research, it must be grounded on theory and empirically
verifiable, especially if the research model is confirmatory in nature, where the findings should
validate the variables of the theory; if it is exploratory in nature and no existing theory is
available, then some valid explanation would suffice, but subject to hypothesis testing and
more empirical testing (to avoid accidental generalization).
2. It must contribute to the advancement of knowledge in business and management.
3. It results in scientific knowledge that is ethically neutral (not offensive).
4. For qualitative basic business research, the observation could be interpreted by the experts
(psychologist, sociologist, or anthropologist). Their interpretation serves as the basis for the
managers to understand the customers to pave the way for a correct strategy.
Format of a business research
In general, the format for basic business research is still based on the traditional format,
which is known as Format A. Format A has five chapters. The American Psychological Association
(APA) has come up with its format called Format B. Format B, meanwhile, has four chapters. The
chapters 1 and 2 in format A are merged into one chapter in format B; that is why it is comprised
of four chapters only. Some schools are also modifying the research format to suit their specific
research requirements.
There is no standard format for applied research. It still incorporates some chapters and
components of the traditional format, but it is much more simplified to suit the needs of the
clients. In addition, the institutional format of the university has to be observed by the students.
Learning Activity 1.1
1. How useful is Business Research for a manager in any organization?
2. Which method would you prefer in Research, is it qualitative, quantitative or both? Why?
Learning Activity 1.2
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1. Why do you consider Business research a scientific endeavor?
2. When is Exploratory method necessary in a research?
Learning Activity 1.3
1. Based on your readings, what are the criteria of a good Business Research?
2. When do you use a Business Case study?
Questions for Critical Thinking
1. What is Triangulation method and when is it necessary?
2. Explain why the findings of qualitative business research cannot be generalized across the
population?
Reference:
Business Research with Statistical Applications
Danilo M. Te, DBA, *Divina V. Sabanal, DBM, *Jovelyn A. Castro, LPT, DM * Christhoffer P.
Lelis, LPT, PhD
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CHAPTER 2 – Research Structure and Content
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. determine the structure of business research;
2. identify the problem, state the background of the study, develop the conceptual framework, link the
conceptual work with the theoretical framework, and understand the reason why the conceptual
framework variables must be anchored to theories;
3. hypothesize problems and know how to state a null-hypothesis;
4. make the assumptions in the study;
5. determine what should be included in the significance of the study;
6. identify what to include in the scope and limitation of the study; and
7. know what to include in the definition of terms.
Structure of Business Research
What is your problem?
Problem is the dilemma faced by the managers in the organization which needs their immediate
attention. This is the time where the managers also should come up with a very crucial decision for the
success of the whole organization. Researchers and students alike face the same problem when writing
or doing business research. The problem is the starting point. For applied research, it is easy to formulate
the problem as it comes from the proponent or client where the request emanates. But for basic (or
academic research), identifying the problem is a formal process and should conform with the format and
content prescribed by the American Psychological Association (APA).
When a student wants to write a thesis, the first thing that comes to his/her mind is what kind of
research problem should be addressed: Is it something that I like to do research with? Is it something that
has not been researched on? Is it something that I can finish in a short possible time? Is it something that
I can measure and solve within my capability as a student? Is it something that has been recommended
in the previous research for further study? And the list goes on. One of the common errors of students in
identifying the real problem is that some of them may be confused to identify the real one amongst the
numerous concerns presented by the company manager. Therefore, it is the student’s responsibility to
diligently analyze the situation and identify which of the varied concerns of the company should be given
priority.
It is important for students and researchers to choose a topic that they are interested in or
knowledgeable with. Also, they may look for pressing problems in the various fields or industries in
business by reading business magazines, online news, and articles. Lastly, they may consider the research
agenda of their university or local business associations.
It is also possible that students may want to study further those studies which were already made
in the past using different factors this time. Moreover, if the studies conducted before were utilizing
descriptive methods only, it is also possible that students may opt to use another method like
triangulation to have a deeper analysis of the variables being studied.
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Whatever is the reason or option, the student should face it objectively and begin his/her
literature buildup. Reading on studies where the problem is linked would be a good direction as it
crystalizes some areas unclear before. It would pave the way for understanding the variables involved in
the study as manifested by theories behind it. Part of the literature buildup is to read a number of journals
and articles related to the chosen topic. If there are published studies that are related to the field, then it
is easier to find a gap that needs to be researched further. Also, checking on the existence of relationships
among variables chosen will likely increase the success and generalizability of the study. A portion of the
published studies is the recommendation for future researcher. It will give students the idea on what to
research. The student or researcher should begin to scout for any problematic situation, a situation that
warrants a study since it has not been addressed before. The problematic situation must be of importance
to warrant such study.
The business research model (basic research) will help the students understand the relationships
of the problem with the frameworks (theoretical and conceptual), related literature and studies, problem
measurements, findings, validation of results, conclusion and recommendation.
Research Model Explained
The research should have a model to guide the researchers and the students to understand how
the components are interrelated. Without explaining the system of interrelationships of the components
through the model, the researcher might wander around during the writing stage and not connect all the
dots. As observed, most undergraduate students do not connect all the components of research when
writing their thesis; thus, the readers and the panel of examiners are lost in comprehending the research
paper – as the discussion ( from the problem to the frameworks, to the measurement, to the findings, to
the implication of the findings to the frameworks and literature considered in the study, to the conclusion
of each problem, to the recommendation of the gaps found in the findings) is not seamlessly connected.
Any research would always start with a problem. The researcher, however, should support the
problem by reading any literature about it. Through reading more literature about the problem, the
researcher will also deepen his understanding about the topic and may even crystalize some areas that
are unclear before. Some support literature for the problematic situation should also be uncovered at this
stage, to strengthen and justify the need to conduct the research. Once the problem statement has been
finalized, then the next step is to develop a conceptual framework that represents the problem and subproblems. The framework should graphically show the interrelationships of the major variables (whether
based on dependence or interdependence; whether based on simple or multiple relationships). The
conceptual framework should also mention how its variables are anchored to the variables of the
theoretical framework/s. The reason behind this is to have some basis for validation as the conceptual
framework variables are still to be tested empirically. Validating it with theoretical framework variables is
more scientific as these variables are supported by theories and proven to be true again and again.
Conceptual framework variables if proven true will validate the theory or theories where they are
anchored. It is also a test whether the theory behind it should undergo theory testing as theories can also
be affected from new developments – and necessitating it to be updated or revised.
The conceptual framework variables must be measured by the appropriate statistical tool and
such measurement tool is also modeled in the conceptual framework (measurement model). Normally,
multivariate techniques are being applied as they more are scientific in measuring the relationship of
variables. However, if one is doing descriptive research, there is no need to apply the multivariate
techniques; a simple frequency count, with percent or ratio supporting it would suffice.
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The findings of research should be validated with the theories applied to see if the conceptual
framework variables validate or complement the theoretical framework variables. If some conceptual
framework variables do not, it does not mean the research is not good; there could be some other factors
not included in the conceptual framework variables, which might affect the result positively, if included.
But this should be pursued in another study (further research).
The findings should also be compared with literature topics in the review of related literature (as
the topics are based on the variables of the conceptual framework) and check if the findings of the study
corroborate with the findings of the literature in RRL. So, there is a dual validation process here – one with
the theoretical framework, the other with the RRL.
The implication to theory (its variables) and to literature (the variables covered) must be stressed
in the findings.
Then, when the findings are fully discussed relative to the problem and sub problems, each
problem must have a conclusion. Each conclusion should be able to explain how the finding for a particular
problem can be generalized. Any situation that cannot be addressed by the findings requires some
intervention. The gap found (situation not addressed in the finding) is suggested in the recommendation
section for some future action.
Business Research Writing Part 1
How to state and discuss the macro, micro, and problematic situation in the background of the study.
In this part, the researcher will discuss the general background (macro) of the problem or situation
related with the problem. The discussion should cover the factors or trends that affect or might affect the
problem. After the macro is briefly discussed, it proceeds with the brief discussion of the specific
background (micro) of the problem. This is the part where a problematic situation is going to be identified
and assessed. If there are no existing studies that address the specific problem, then the challenge of the
researcher is to uncover the facts that might lead to the assessment, analysis, and solution of the problem.
This is the main purpose and objective of the study.
One of the ways to present the problematic situation in the background of the study is to start
from the global scale. For example, if one intends to study the employee turnover in the call center
industry, it is good to check if the same situation occurs in other places (countries in other continents).
The next is to proceed with the regional scale (ASEAN Region, or East Asian, or other economic blocs).
Lastly, to proceed with the national and local scale by examining problems in the country’s capital and
other industrialized areas.
The introduction, which starts with the background of the study should contain substantial information
to be able to present the problems or certain gaps that the researcher is trying to address. It should not
contain any opinions or perceptions. Since this is the first part of the research paper, the researcher should
be able to excite or create interest so that panelists and readers will be interested to scan the succeeding
pages of the research study.
How do you develop a conceptual framework that models the problem and sub-problems in your study?
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The conceptual framework is considered as the backbone of the research study. All other
important parts of the research should be anchored to this, especially the title, sub-problems, objectives,
instrument, and statistical treatment.
The problem and sub-problems of the study are presented in the statement of the problem. The
statement of the problem must be represented in a conceptual framework through a graphical model
showing the relationships of variables in the study. Aside from the graphical model, the conceptual
framework must state how and where the variables are anchored in the theoretical framework (though
the variables of the theory). Then the variables used in the conceptual framework are briefly discussed to
clarify how it will be applied in the study.
It is not necessary to include a conceptual framework in every research. Some authors assert that
descriptive research may not need a conceptual framework. This is because the primary purpose of the
conceptual framework is to subject the variables to hypothesis testing.
Just a word of caution. When coming up with a conceptual framework, be careful in illustrating the
relationships of the variables with the use of arrows or lines. Concepts must be inside the boxes, processes
are shown by arrows.
Moreover, in coming up with a conceptual framework, the following points should be considered:
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2.
3.
4.
5.
Only Include the concepts that will be operationally defined and measured
Present the diagram from left-to-right or top-to-bottom
Use arrows to imply causality
Label concepts clearly
Do not include operational definitions or values of variables in the model
How to you link the conceptual framework with the theoretical framework?
The conceptual framework variables must be anchored to theoretical framework variables.
Matching conceptual variables with theoretical framework variables may not be easy. It might take more
than one theory to anchor the conceptual framework variables.
The researchers must be resourceful in finding theories, laws, models, and concepts that are
related to his/ her studies. In the next few pages, you will find various theories and concepts that are
classified into specific disciplines.
What is the reason why the conceptual framework variables must be anchored to a theory?
First let us understand what is a theory. A theory is composed of variables that are systematically
related in order to provide an explanation or prediction. A theory is not just based on concept. A theory
is empirically tested and proven to true again and again. In other words, there is no doubt about its
capacity to explain or predict. On the hand, a conceptual framework is composed of variables that are
going to be tested through hypothesis testing. If the conceptual testing proves the variable/s true, then it
validates the variable or variables in a theory where it is anchored; thus, it complements the theory. If it
is not true, then there must be some explanation or need to conduct another study to further explain why
it is not true. The conceptual framework is a candidate for a theory if proven to be true again and again
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by many researchers. The joy of every researcher is to know that his/her conceptual framework has been
adopted by other researchers.
Being able to find the appropriate theories and concepts will assure better generalizability of the
study given that these variables and indicators used were already tested in the past by various authors.
Researchers should also be selective in finding journals and should prioritize those published in honorable
spaces. Also, aspiring researchers should not limit to the feature of its own variable/s to the published
studies and theories but should investigate the level of predictability. For example, one must consider the
R square of the variable in previous studies, otherwise it is not certain if it will have greater generalizability
when the new study will be conducted in a different context.
How do you measure (solve) the problem and sub problem/s as represented by the conceptual
framework?
The problems and sub problems represented in your conceptual framework should be relevant to
the issues or business dilemma you are trying to address. In translating the relationships of variables into
research questions, you have to consider appropriate words to be used given that you will use statistical
treatment to compute for the data that will answer each of your research problems. It is also important
to note that your research instrument should be able to represent all the research questions.
What is a hypothesis?
Hypothesis is a statement about an educated guess on the effect of a particular variable to other
variable/s. The effect could be measured in terms of statistical significance (p-value of .05 or less) or
through other measures where the difference can be computed or observed.
Burns, R.B. and Burns, R.A. (2008) stressed: “If research were limited to simply gathering facts, knowledge
could not advance. Without some guiding idea, every investigation would be fruitless, since we could not
determine what is relevant and what is irrelevant.”
Hypothesis can be stated in negative form (null hypothesis) or in positive form (alternative
hypothesis). Some schools would prefer to state both forms, while others would go only for the nullhypothesis. Statisticians would argue that it is easier to measure the null-hypothesis as one only needs to
disprove it. The alternative hypothesis on the other hand must be proven thoroughly for its significance
to be worth its acceptance.
Which problem/s should be hypothesized?
Not all problems need hypothesis testing. If the problem is going to be addressed descriptively,
then it is hypothesis free. However, for problems that would require significance testing (p-value of .05 or
less) or statistical measuring (for example, significant factor loading, significant beta coefficient), then
there is a need for a hypothesis testing.
How should a null-hypothesis be stated?
A null hypothesis is a statement explaining how it is tested negatively by inserting the word ‘no’.
For example, there is no significant relationship between variable A and variable B. If the word ‘no’ in not
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included in the statement, then it becomes an alternative hypothesis – there is a significant relationship
between variable A and variable B.
Another way to state it:
Variable A does not significantly relate to Variable B (null-hypothesis); or Variable A does relate
significantly to Variable B (alternative hypothesis).
What should be assumed in the study?
The assumption of the study is a supposition about a situation that does not require to be studied
or researched anymore. Therefore, it is assumed to be present or observed and no need for its justification
through research. This saves time as the situation will be accepted as part of study. Normally, there is a
section in chapter 1 (after the hypothesis of the study) that allows it if there is something to be assumed.
The assumption can also be included in the background of the study; if it is, then the assumption section
is not required.
What should be included in the significance of the study?
The significance of the study is an important component of research. If there is nothing the study
can contribute significantly, then it has little value to the study or research. If such is the case, then it is
not worth emulating by other researchers or stakeholders.
It should be arranged either from general (macro) to specific (micro) significance or from specific
to general significance; either way is correct. The macro level may include institutions, groups, or
associations, whereas micro may include specific individuals from various fields who will benefit from the
findings of the study. This people may get idea from the recommendations of the researcher to
incorporate in their strategy improvements and major decision making.
Moreover, some researchers want to emphasize the name of the specific group to general and
consequently state the relevance of the study for them.
What should be included in the scope and limitation of the study?
The scope and limitation of the study discusses briefly what is being covered in the study (what
and who are included in the study) as well as the limitation that is evident or might be encountered during
the data gathering phase or analysis phase. Some limitations of the study may include the following: the
number of respondents to be surveyed, financial constraint, access to relevant information, unsafe
locations, etc.
What should be included in the definition of terms?
The Definition of Terms includes the conceptual and operational definition of terms used
extensively in the study. The conceptual definition is intended to clarify the meaning of a particular term
(which can be sourced easily from the dictionary) and to guide the reader on how it is intended to be used
in the study. The operational definition is about how a term is technically used in the study and how such
term is applied to the variable/s in the study. The definition of terms must be arranged alphabetically (and
no need to separate or group the conceptual terms from the operational terms)
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Learning Activity 2.1
1. What is the importance of a hypothesis in any business research?
Learning Activity 2.2
1.
What are the things included in the significance of the study?
2. How do you present your background of the study?
Learning Activity 2.3
1. What is the role of a model in a particular business research?
2. What are the two types of definitions. Differentiate it.
Reference:
Business Research with Statistical Applications
Danilo M. Te, DBA, *Divina V. Sabanal, DBM, *Jovelyn A. Castro, LPT, DM * Christhoffer P.
Lelis, LPT, PhD
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Module 3: Literature Review and Citation
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. explain how to support the conceptual framework variables with literature review;
2. learn how to synthesize the RRL; and
3. know how to cite the sources and paraphrase concepts or ideas of other writers.
Business research writing: Part 2
Why are the variables used in the conceptual framework supported by literature review and
synthesized?
The RRL is composed of related literature and related studies. The literature should focus on each
of the conceptual framework variables. It discloses some unexplored area or gap that the researcher will
focus on. The RRL may also include the background of the industry/group being studied. The related
studies are necessary for correlational studies to find out the relationship/degree of influence or
predictability of variables in prior studies. A researcher may look for published journals or repository of
completed studies in the university library. Some universities have extensive subscription of online
journals. Not only that the researcher will look for the literature of variables and indicators in different
journals, but should also check the findings of those studies seriously, and if the variables and indicators
have high predictability or can explain the dilemma or problems in the dependent variables.
The literature about the variables covered in the conceptual framework is discussed in this
chapter. The reason for this is to validate the findings of the study (the variables measured or described)
with the existing literature and studies, aside from validating the variables with the anchored theory. This
way, the researchers could determine if the pattern or trend has been sustained. It would also crystalize
the finding as there is a supporting literature to back it up.
For the benefit of the reader, the topics covered in this chapter should be listed in the introductory
part and each topic should have a label. Each topic can also be explained or complemented by several
authors – international or local.
It should be noted by writers/researchers that this chapter is a not a “cut and paste” way of
gathering the literature/articles. If possible, rephrase the words written by the author but make sure that
the main thought is still the same.
Some schools/mentors would allow the discussion of the major tool applied in the study. The
discussion (literature about it) should not be a duplication of what is being discussed in the statistical
treatment (how it is used to measure the data).
Moreover, some schools would require a synthesis at the end of this chapter. The synthesis is the
means to capture the ideas of the different authors/writers in a more holistic and understandable fashion
and connect the dots in the RRL. It should be brief but interesting enough. Analyzing any trends or
relationships among the various literatures and studies compiled is the main purpose of coming up with
a synthesis.
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How should the literature supporting the study be cited or paraphrased in the study?
As stated in the 6th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association
(APA, 2010), researchers have to acknowledge the words and ideas of another writer either by citing it
directly using quotation marks (where the exact words are stated) or by paraphrasing it (summarize it,
rearrange the order, and change some words). However, the writer should take note that the
words/thoughts should not distort the original meaning of the sentence.
How the writer and the article publication date should be cited
Citing it based on the author/s (author-prominent):
1. If one author, cite the last name of the writer and the year the article was written. This is especially
done when the citation is part of the sentence: Te (2007) stated that……; or at the end of the statement,
insert the author, year in a parenthesis: …. as stated in the study of Positioning the HEIs (Te, 2012).
2. If there are five authors, cite all the names if cited for the first time. Then in succeeding citations, just
write the name of the first author and attach the Latin words et al. (meaning: and others) after it: for
example: Te et al. (2012).
3. If there are six authors or more, cite the name of the first author, and attach et al. after it, even for the
first citation.
4. If there are two or more authors with the same family name, include their first name initial. For
example: Cruz, F. and Cruz, M. (2018)….
5. Join the authors with an ampersand (&). For example: Lee, Te, Tan, & Yap (2018) in the reference list,
but not when part of the sentence.
6. If the date is not known, then indicate it with a notation: n.d., meaning no date. For example: Te (n.d.)
or (Te, n.d.)
7. If the article is not sourced directly from the main author but from the citation of another author, state
it as follows: Lim (2015), as cited by Te (2018), posited the idea of…
8. If the article cited is a personal communication of someone with authority, state it as follows: In the email of Mr. X, the author of the book (cite the book), to this researcher last November 16, 2017, Mr. X
states…
Citing it based on the organization/ institution or information (organization/information-prominent):
1. If the author is not known, then cite the organization or institution publishing it. For example: The
Expert Organization (2018) states….
2. Do not use the organization/company acronym if mentioned for the first time. Use the full
organization/company name and attach the acronym after it. For succeeding citation, the acronym
can be applied. For example: The National Economic Development Authority (NEDA) in its Davao
Regional Development Plan 2017-2022 shows…. NEDA further shows…
3. Do not use Wikipedia as the main source (as it is editable). Check out the source of Wikipedia and
refer to it. Just mention that it is cited by Wikipedia (if this where you found the information). For
example: Author (year), research title, as cited by Wikipedia (year), states….
Learning Activity 3.1
1. What is the importance of the Related Studies and Literature for your research?
3
2. How should the literature supporting the study be cited or paraphrased in the study?
Learning Activity 3.2
1. Write a sample of citing the source of the study in a particular paragraph.
2. How to cite the names of two or three authors in a given study?
Learning Activity 3.3
1. How to write the names of the Authors in the citation if there are five of them?
2. Explain the importance of literature review in supporting the variables of the study?
Reference:
Business Research with Statistical Applications
Danilo M. Te, DBA, *Divina V. Sabanal, DBM, *Jovelyn A. Castro, LPT, DM * Christhoffer P.
Lelis, LPT, PhD