TOPIC 4: Air Atmosphere as a Resource Atmospheric Composition Nitrogen 78.08% Oxygen 20.95% Argon 0.93% Carbon dioxide 0.04% Ecosystem services Blocks UV radiation Moderates the climate Redistributes water in the hydrologic cycle 6 minutes Video Sharing www.youtube.com Air Quality 101: The Basics By: utahplanning.org, 2009 By: SW Choon 3 Defining Air Quality Air quality is defined through standards that set limits on anthropogenic pollutants Anthropogenic pollutants are contaminants associated with human activity Natural pollutants are those that come about through nonartificial processes in nature By: SW Choon 4 Major Air Pollutants Sources of Outdoor Air Pollution Two main sources Transportation Industry Intentional forest fires is also high Indoor Air Pollution Pollutants can be 5-100X greater than outdoors Most common: Radon, cigarette smoke, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, formaldehyde pesticides, lead, cleaning solvents, ozone, and asbestos Indoor Air Pollution - Radon Overview of U.S. Air Quality Legislation Current U.S. Policy 1990 Clean Air Act (CAA) Amendments use some market-based approaches, but the underlying structure continues to be command-and-control oriented By: SW Choon 9 Overview of Malaysia Air Quality Legislation The Environmental Quality Act 1974: sets standards for emission sources The EQA controls pollution through: • Licensing • Regulations, guidelines By: SW Choon 10 Overview of Malaysia Air Quality Legislation ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT 1974 (AMMENDMENT 2001) Control of Industrial Emissions •Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1978 •Environmental Quality (Compounding of Offences) Rules 1978 Control of Motor Vehicle Emissions • Motor Vehicles (Control of Smoke & Gas Emission) Rules 1977 • Environmental Quality (Control of Lead Concentration in Motor Gasoline) Regulations 1985 • Environmental Quality (Control of Emission From Diesel Engines) Regulation 1996 • Environmental Quality (Control of Emission From Petrol Engines) Regulation 1996 By: SW Choon 11 Overview of Malaysia Air Quality Legislation LAWS APPLICABLE TO OPEN BURNING Section 29A EQA (Amendment 1998) Section 29AA EQA (Amendment 2001) Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities)(Open Burning) Order, 2000 Environmental Quality (Delegation of Powers)(Investigation of Open Burning) Order, 2000 Environmental Quality (Compounding of Offences)(Open Burning) Rules, 2000 EQA SECTION 29A • No person shall allow or cause open burning on any premises • Maximum fine RM 500,000 • Maximum jail term 5 years • Or Both By: SW Choon 12 Overview of Malaysia Air Quality Legislation AIR QUALITY MONITORING MILESTONE 1977 - Initiated the program 1980 – Introduce continuous automatic samplers 1989 – Developed Ambient Air Quality Guideline 1995 – Privatized the ambient air monitoring program By: SW Choon 13 Overview of Malaysia Air Quality Legislation AIR QUALITY MONITORING: OBJECTIVES: To determine representative concentrations in areas of high population density To determine maximum pollution concentrations in populated areas To determine pollutant concentrations near major industries To determine air pollution trends To develop a database for future pollution control strategies By: SW Choon 14 Identifying Major Air Pollutants Criteria pollutants are substances known to be hazardous to health and welfare, characterized as harmful by criteria documents Hazardous air pollutants are non-criteria pollutants that may cause or contribute to irreversible illness or increased mortality By: SW Choon 15 Setting Standards to Define Air Quality in US Environment Protection Agency (EPA) sets national standards for the major air pollutants to be met by potentially controllable sources Stationary sources are fixed-site producers of pollution, such as a building or manufacturing plant Mobile sources are any non-stationary polluting sources, including all transport vehicles By: SW Choon 16 US Standards for Criteria Air Pollutants National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) set maximum allowable concentrations of criteria air pollutants Primary NAAQS are set to protect public health from air pollution, with some margin of safety Secondary NAAQS are set to protect public welfare from any adverse, nonhealth effects of air pollution By: SW Choon 17 6 Criteria Air Pollutants in US particulate matter (PM-10 and PM-2.5) sulfur dioxide (SO2) carbon monoxide (CO) nitrogen dioxide (NO2) tropospheric ozone (O3) lead (Pb) By: SW Choon 18 Particulates Particulates - small pieces of solid materials and liquid droplets (2.5 mm and 10 mm) Examples: ash asbestos from insulation, dust Easily noticed: e.g. smokestacks Can accumulate in lungs and interfere with the ability of lungs to exchange gases. Some particulates are known carcinogens Those working in dusty conditions at highest risk (e.g., miners) from fires, brakes and Sulfur Dioxide Produced by burning sulfur containing fossil fuels (coal, oil) Coal-burning power plants major source Reacts in atmosphere to produce acids One of the major components of acid rain When inhaled, can be corrosive to lung tissue London very 1306 banned burning of sea coal 1952 “killer fog”: 4,000 people died in 4 weeks tied to sulfur compounds in smog Carbon Monoxide Produced by burning of organic material (coal, gas, wood, trash, etc.) Automobiles biggest source (80%) Cigarette smoke another major source Toxic because binds to hemoglobin, reduces oxygen in blood Not a persistent pollutant, combines with oxygen to form CO2 Most communities now meet EPA standards, but rush hour traffic can produce high CO levels Nitrogen Oxides Produced from burning of fossil fuels Contributes to acid rain, smog Automobile engine main source New engine technology has helped reduce, but many more cars How Acid Deposition Develops Ozone Tropospheric Ozone Man- made pollutant in the lower atmosphere Secondary air pollutant Component of photochemical smog Stratospheric Ozone Essential component that screens out UV radiation in the upper atmosphere Man- made pollutants (ex: CFCs) can destroy it Setting Standards to Define Air Quality in Malaysia The ambient air quality measurement in Malaysia is described in terms of Air Pollutant Index (API). The Malaysian API system closely follows the Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA)1. The air pollutant index scale and terms used in describing the air quality levels are as follows : By: SW Choon 25 Figure 1 : Air Pollution Index Flowchart By: SW Choon 26 5 MAJOR POLLUTANTS MEASURED IN MALAYSIA Particulate Matters ( PM10 ) Sulphur Dioxide ( SO2 ) Nitrogen Dioxide ( NO2) Carbon Monoxide ( CO) Ozone (O3) By: SW Choon 27 Analysis of Air Quality Policy Evaluation Criteria Equity criterion Environmental justice In 1993, environmental justice became one of the EPA’s seven guiding principles Economic criterion Allocative efficiency Arises where marginal social costs (MSC) and marginal social benefits (MSB) are equal By: SW Choon 28 Portney’s Benefit-Cost Analysis of 1990 Policy Offers a point estimate for MSB of $14 billion and a point estimate for MSC of $32 billion annually Since MSC far outweighs MSB, it might be 1990 Amendments overregulate society By: SW Choon 29 Graphing Portney’s Findings MSC 32 Inefficiency 14 MSB By: SW Choon 0 AE A1990 Abatement 30 Health Effects of Air Pollution Sulfur Dioxide and Particulate material Nitrogen Dioxides Irritate respiratory tract and impair ability of lungs to exchange gases Causes airway restriction Carbon monoxide Binds with iron in blood hemoglobin Causes headache, fatigue, drowsiness, death Ozone Causes burning eyes, coughing, and chest discomfort Children and Air Pollution Greater health threat to children than adults Air pollution can restrict lung development Children breath more often than adults Children who live in high ozone areas are more likely to develop asthma Ozone Depletion What is Ozone Depletion? Ozone depletion refers to the thinning of the stratospheric ozone layer Result is a loss of earth’s protection from UV radiation Primary ozone depleters are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons These break down in UV light, releasing chlorine, which destroys stratospheric ozone molecules By: SW Choon 34 10 minutes Video Sharing www.youtube.com Ozzy Ozone By UNEP & TVE, 2003 By: SW Choon 35 Ozone Depletion in Stratosphere Ozone Protects earth from UV radiation Part of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths just shorter than visible light Controlling Ozone Depletion International and Domestic Policy International Policy Montreal Protocol and Amendments Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987 by 24 major countries Called for 50% reduction of CFC consumption and production through 2000 Amendments outlined a full phase out plan for CFCs, halons, and other depleters HCFCs to be phased out by 2020; all other ozone-depleters were phased out of production on or before 2005 Tradeable allowances were issued to Protocol participants An Interim Multilateral Fund was established in 1990 to help developing nations develop CFC replacement technologies By: SW Choon Fund became permanent in 1992 38 Ozone Depletion in Stratosphere Ozone thinning/hole First identified in 1985 over Antarctica Caused by human-produced bromine and chlorine containing chemicals Ex: CFCs Effects of Ozone Depletion Higher levels of UVradiation hitting the earth Eye cataracts Skin cancer (right) Weakened immunity May disrupt ecosystems May damage crops and forests Implementing the Montreal Protocol in Malaysia The government faced many challenges to implement its commitments given the importance of CFCs and Halons to the industrial sector. The Government of Malaysia created a National Steering Committee (NSC) to oversee the implementation of the national action plan. The NSC is comprised of a Technical Committee and industrial working groups (IWGs) on solvents, foam, aerosol, mobile air conditioning, refrigeration and fire protection. By: SW Choon 41 Implementing the Montreal Protocol in Malaysia In 1996, Department of the Environment created the Ozone Protection Unit (OPU) to serve as the focal point and monitor Malaysia's phase-out activities. Malaysia was one of the first and longest-running members to serve on the Executive Committee (EXCOM) of the Interim Multilateral Fund. Main Actions: 1. Integrated stakeholder partnership with the industrial sector 2. Partnerships with NGOs - awareness raising activities, particularly on the use of non-ODS technologies By: SW Choon 42 Implementing the Montreal Protocol in Malaysia Malaysia's Action Plan aims to progressively reduce the consumption of ODS in each sector via 1. Control measures (e.g. enforcement of the Customs Duties Order), 2. Incentives (e.g. exemption of import taxes on ODS recycling machines), 3. Partnerships for awareness activities, road shows and training, 4. Project implementation and monitoring. By: SW Choon 43 US Policy on Ozone Depletion Title VI of 1990 CAA Required EPA to publish a list of ozone depleters Assign each an ozone depletion potential (ODP) value Establish phaseout schedule for each Established a national mandatory recycling program to allow use of recycled chemicals beyond phaseout date Called for programs and research to find safe substitutes Legislated 2 market instruments to meet phaseout schedule Escalating excise tax on production for sale Marketable allowance system By: SW Choon 44 Excise Tax on Ozone Depleters Enacted by Congress in 1990 Excise Tax per pound = baset * ODP, where base is the tax rate per pound t is the year in the phaseout schedule The base as t (i.e., escalating) In 1990, base tax rate = $1.37/pound In 1995, base tax rate = $5.35/pound In 2002, base tax rate = $8.50/pound based on an annual increase of $.45/pound starting in 1996 Acts as a product charge By: SW Choon An excise tax set equal to the MEC at the efficient output level, QE, achieves an efficient resource allocation 45 Modeling an Excise Tax MSC = MPC + MEC $ MPC + excise tax MPC Excise Tax MPB = MSB 0 By: SW Choon QE QC Q of Ozone-Depleting Substances 46 Allowance Market For CFCs Tradeable allowances were issued to largest producers and consumers Each allowed a one-time release based on its ODP The number of allowances were gradually reduced to 0 to meet phaseout deadlines For HCFCs EPA By: SW Choon is establishing an analogous program 47 Economic Analysis of Ozone Depletion Policy Regulatory Impact Analysis (RIA) for the Phaseout of Ozone Depleters Benefit estimate= $6.5 trillion through 2075 includes Cost estimate = $27 billion through 2075 impact health and non-health effects on air conditioning and refrigeration Result: U.S. regulations to control ozone depleters were announced in August 1988, less than one year after the signing of the Montreal Protocol By: SW Choon 49 Incentives and Disincentives Market for CFC substitutes Incentive Profit advantage of producing substitutes when prices were high may encourage production Disincentive Market power of the relatively small number of firms holding allowances may have deterred development of substitutes power high prices on CFCs abnormal profits less incentive to find substitutes Market Corrected in part by the excise tax, which redistributed some of these profits By: SW Choon 50 Global Warming GHGs Contribution to Global Warming Nitrous Oxide, 4.60% Methane, 8.70% HFCs, and other gases , 2.10% Other Carbon Dioxide, 1.60% Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide , 83.00% Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting (December 2004). By: SW Choon 52 Separating Myth from Facts Most agree that GHGs (CO2) are rising Scientists agree that rising GHGs will affect climate Uncertainty is when this may happen and extent of effect By: SW Choon 53 Controlling Global Warming International Policy International Response U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was an agreement reached at the 1992 Rio Summit that dealt with global warming and other air quality issues In 1997, a Conference of the Parties (COP) was held in Kyoto, Japan Called for nations to implement national strategies to limit GHG emissions Goal was to reach an agreement, or protocol, that would address the issue of GHG emissions beyond 2000 In July 2001, 178 nations reached an agreement, known as the Kyoto Protocol Before the 2001 conference, President Bush had taken the United States out of the agreement By: SW Choon 55 Kyoto Protocol Agreement reached in 2001 38 industrialized nations must cut GHG emissions to 5.2% below 1990 levels by 2012; no requirements for developing nations Emissions targets would be achieved using several marketbased instruments, known as flexible mechanisms, including… GHG allowance trading system for participating developed nations. Credits available for carbon-absorbing forestry practices and for implementing emissions-reducing projects in other nations Protocol entered into force in 2005 after being ratified by developed nations representing at least 55% of carbon emissions By: SW Choon 56 U.S. Policy Global Climate Change Policy Book (Feb 2002) Objective is to reduce GHG intensity by 18 percent over next 10 years Equivalent to the average across Kyoto participants GHG intensity is emissions/economic output Initiatives include Improving the registry program for voluntary GHG emissions reductions for which transferable credits are provided Providing funding for energy tax credits to encourage technologies like hybrid cars Developing and promoting research projects for fuel-efficient vehicles and other climate change issues By: SW Choon 57 Economic Analysis of Climate Change Policy Benefits of Controlling GHGs Important to Policy Development OECD estimates ($1990) of annual damage $61.6 B (based on 2.5° C rise) $338.6 B (based on 10° C rise over 250-400 years) Mendelsohn and Neumann (1999) estimate the net benefit to the U.S. would be 0.1 percent of GDP Nordhaus and Boyer (2000) estimate the comparable value at approximately –0.5 percent of GDP 59 By: SW Choon
