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Topic 4(AIR)

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TOPIC 4:
Air
Atmosphere as a Resource


Atmospheric Composition

Nitrogen 78.08%

Oxygen 20.95%

Argon 0.93%

Carbon dioxide 0.04%
Ecosystem services

Blocks UV radiation

Moderates the climate

Redistributes water in the
hydrologic cycle
6 minutes
Video Sharing
www.youtube.com
Air Quality 101: The
Basics
By: utahplanning.org, 2009
By: SW Choon
3
Defining Air Quality

Air quality is defined through standards that set
limits on anthropogenic pollutants
 Anthropogenic
pollutants are contaminants
associated with human activity
 Natural
pollutants are those that come about
through nonartificial processes in nature
By: SW Choon
4
Major Air Pollutants
Sources of Outdoor Air
Pollution


Two main sources

Transportation

Industry
Intentional forest fires is also
high
Indoor Air
Pollution

Pollutants can be
5-100X greater
than outdoors

Most common:

Radon, cigarette
smoke, carbon
monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide,
formaldehyde
pesticides, lead,
cleaning solvents,
ozone, and
asbestos
Indoor Air Pollution - Radon
Overview of U.S. Air Quality Legislation

Current U.S. Policy
 1990
Clean Air Act (CAA) Amendments use
some market-based approaches, but the
underlying structure continues to be
command-and-control oriented
By: SW Choon
9
Overview of Malaysia Air Quality Legislation

The Environmental Quality Act 1974: sets
standards for emission sources

The EQA controls pollution through:
• Licensing
• Regulations, guidelines
By: SW Choon
10
Overview of Malaysia Air Quality Legislation
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT 1974 (AMMENDMENT 2001)

Control of Industrial Emissions
•Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1978
•Environmental Quality (Compounding of Offences) Rules 1978

Control of Motor Vehicle Emissions
• Motor Vehicles (Control of Smoke & Gas Emission) Rules 1977
• Environmental Quality (Control of Lead Concentration in Motor
Gasoline) Regulations 1985
• Environmental Quality (Control of Emission From Diesel Engines)
Regulation 1996
• Environmental Quality (Control of Emission From Petrol Engines)
Regulation 1996
By: SW Choon
11
Overview of Malaysia Air Quality Legislation

LAWS APPLICABLE TO OPEN BURNING

Section 29A EQA (Amendment 1998)

Section 29AA EQA (Amendment 2001)

Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities)(Open Burning) Order, 2000

Environmental Quality (Delegation of Powers)(Investigation
of Open Burning) Order, 2000

Environmental Quality (Compounding of Offences)(Open Burning) Rules, 2000

EQA SECTION 29A

• No person shall allow or cause open burning on any premises

• Maximum fine RM 500,000

• Maximum jail term 5 years

• Or Both
By: SW Choon
12
Overview of Malaysia Air Quality Legislation
AIR QUALITY MONITORING MILESTONE

1977 - Initiated the program

1980 – Introduce continuous automatic samplers

1989 – Developed Ambient Air Quality Guideline

1995 – Privatized the ambient air monitoring program
By: SW Choon
13
Overview of Malaysia Air Quality Legislation
AIR QUALITY MONITORING:
OBJECTIVES:

To determine representative concentrations in areas of high population
density

To determine maximum pollution concentrations in populated areas

To determine pollutant concentrations near major industries

To determine air pollution trends

To develop a database for future pollution control strategies
By: SW Choon
14
Identifying Major Air Pollutants

Criteria pollutants are substances known to
be hazardous to health and welfare,
characterized as harmful by criteria
documents

Hazardous air pollutants are non-criteria
pollutants that may cause or contribute to
irreversible illness or increased mortality
By: SW Choon
15
Setting Standards to Define Air Quality in US

Environment Protection Agency (EPA) sets
national standards for the major air pollutants
to be met by potentially controllable sources
 Stationary
sources are fixed-site producers
of pollution, such as a building or
manufacturing plant
 Mobile
sources are any non-stationary
polluting sources, including all transport
vehicles
By: SW Choon
16
US Standards for Criteria Air Pollutants

National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) set maximum allowable
concentrations of criteria air pollutants
 Primary
NAAQS are set to protect public
health from air pollution, with some margin
of safety
 Secondary
NAAQS are set to protect public
welfare from any adverse, nonhealth
effects of air pollution
By: SW Choon
17
6 Criteria Air Pollutants in US

particulate matter (PM-10 and PM-2.5)

sulfur dioxide (SO2)

carbon monoxide (CO)

nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

tropospheric ozone (O3)

lead (Pb)
By: SW Choon
18
Particulates

Particulates - small pieces of
solid materials and liquid droplets
(2.5 mm and 10 mm)

Examples:
ash
asbestos from
insulation, dust

Easily noticed: e.g. smokestacks

Can accumulate in lungs and
interfere with the ability of lungs
to exchange gases.

Some particulates are known
carcinogens

Those working in dusty conditions
at highest risk (e.g., miners)
from
fires,
brakes and
Sulfur Dioxide

Produced by burning sulfur
containing fossil fuels (coal, oil)

Coal-burning power plants major
source

Reacts in atmosphere to produce
acids

One of the major components of
acid rain

When inhaled, can be
corrosive to lung tissue

London
very

1306 banned burning of sea
coal

1952 “killer fog”: 4,000 people
died in 4 weeks

tied to sulfur compounds
in smog
Carbon Monoxide






Produced by burning of organic
material (coal, gas, wood, trash,
etc.)
Automobiles biggest source (80%)
Cigarette smoke another major
source
Toxic because binds to hemoglobin,
reduces oxygen in blood
Not a persistent pollutant, combines
with oxygen to form CO2
Most communities now meet EPA
standards, but rush hour traffic can
produce high CO levels
Nitrogen Oxides

Produced from burning of
fossil fuels

Contributes to acid rain,
smog

Automobile engine main
source

New engine technology
has helped reduce, but
many more cars
How Acid Deposition Develops
Ozone

Tropospheric Ozone
 Man-
made pollutant in the lower
atmosphere
 Secondary
air pollutant
 Component

of photochemical smog
Stratospheric Ozone
 Essential
component that screens out
UV radiation in the upper atmosphere
 Man-
made pollutants (ex: CFCs) can
destroy it
Setting Standards to Define Air Quality in Malaysia

The ambient air quality measurement in
Malaysia is described in terms of Air Pollutant
Index (API).

The Malaysian API system closely follows the
Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) developed by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency
(US-EPA)1.

The air pollutant index scale and terms used in
describing the air quality levels are as follows :
By: SW Choon
25
Figure 1 : Air Pollution Index Flowchart
By: SW Choon
26
5 MAJOR POLLUTANTS
MEASURED IN MALAYSIA

Particulate Matters ( PM10 )

Sulphur Dioxide ( SO2 )

Nitrogen Dioxide ( NO2)

Carbon Monoxide ( CO)

Ozone (O3)
By: SW Choon
27
Analysis of Air Quality Policy
Evaluation Criteria

Equity criterion

Environmental justice
 In
1993, environmental justice became
one of the EPA’s seven guiding principles

Economic criterion

Allocative efficiency
 Arises
where marginal social costs (MSC)
and marginal social benefits (MSB) are
equal
By: SW Choon
28
Portney’s Benefit-Cost Analysis of 1990 Policy
 Offers
a point estimate for
MSB of $14 billion and a point
estimate for MSC of $32 billion
annually
 Since
MSC far outweighs MSB,
it might be 1990 Amendments
overregulate society
By: SW Choon
29
Graphing Portney’s Findings
MSC
32
Inefficiency
14
MSB
By: SW Choon
0
AE
A1990
Abatement
30
Health Effects of Air Pollution

Sulfur Dioxide and Particulate material


Nitrogen Dioxides



Irritate respiratory tract and impair ability of lungs to exchange gases
Causes airway restriction
Carbon monoxide

Binds with iron in blood hemoglobin

Causes headache, fatigue, drowsiness, death
Ozone

Causes burning eyes, coughing, and chest discomfort
Children and Air Pollution


Greater health threat to children than adults

Air pollution can restrict lung development

Children breath more often than adults
Children who live in high ozone areas are more likely to
develop asthma
Ozone Depletion
What is Ozone Depletion?

Ozone depletion refers to the thinning of
the stratospheric ozone layer
 Result
is a loss of earth’s protection from
UV radiation

Primary ozone depleters are
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons
 These
break down in UV light, releasing
chlorine, which destroys stratospheric
ozone molecules
By: SW Choon
34
10 minutes
Video Sharing
www.youtube.com
Ozzy Ozone
By UNEP & TVE, 2003
By: SW Choon
35
Ozone Depletion in Stratosphere

Ozone Protects earth from UV radiation

Part of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths just
shorter than visible light
Controlling Ozone
Depletion
International and Domestic Policy
International Policy
Montreal Protocol and Amendments

Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987 by 24 major
countries


Called for 50% reduction of CFC consumption and production
through 2000
Amendments outlined a full phase out plan for CFCs,
halons, and other depleters

HCFCs to be phased out by 2020; all other ozone-depleters
were phased out of production on or before 2005
Tradeable allowances were issued to Protocol
participants
 An Interim Multilateral Fund was established in 1990 to
help developing nations develop CFC replacement
technologies


By: SW Choon
Fund became permanent in 1992
38
Ozone Depletion in
Stratosphere

Ozone thinning/hole
 First
identified in 1985 over
Antarctica

Caused by
 human-produced
bromine
and chlorine containing
chemicals
 Ex:
CFCs
Effects of Ozone Depletion

Higher levels of UVradiation hitting the earth
 Eye
cataracts
 Skin
cancer (right)
 Weakened
immunity

May disrupt ecosystems

May damage crops and
forests
Implementing the Montreal Protocol in
Malaysia

The government faced many challenges to
implement its commitments given the importance of
CFCs and Halons to the industrial sector.

The Government of Malaysia created a National
Steering Committee (NSC) to oversee the
implementation of the national action plan.

The NSC is comprised of a Technical Committee
and industrial working groups (IWGs) on solvents,
foam, aerosol, mobile air conditioning, refrigeration
and fire protection.
By: SW Choon
41
Implementing the Montreal Protocol in
Malaysia

In 1996, Department of the Environment created the
Ozone Protection Unit (OPU) to serve as the focal point
and monitor Malaysia's phase-out activities.

Malaysia was one of the first and longest-running members
to serve on the Executive Committee (EXCOM) of the
Interim Multilateral Fund.

Main Actions:
1.
Integrated stakeholder partnership with the industrial
sector
2.
Partnerships with NGOs - awareness raising activities,
particularly on the use of non-ODS technologies
By: SW Choon
42
Implementing the Montreal Protocol in Malaysia
Malaysia's Action Plan aims to progressively reduce the
consumption of ODS in each sector via
1.
Control measures (e.g. enforcement of the Customs
Duties Order),
2.
Incentives (e.g. exemption of import taxes on ODS
recycling machines),
3.
Partnerships for awareness activities, road shows and
training,
4.
Project implementation and monitoring.
By: SW Choon
43
US Policy on Ozone Depletion
Title VI of 1990 CAA

Required EPA to publish a list of ozone depleters

Assign each an ozone depletion potential (ODP) value

Establish phaseout schedule for each

Established a national mandatory recycling program to allow
use of recycled chemicals beyond phaseout date

Called for programs and research to find safe substitutes

Legislated 2 market instruments to meet phaseout schedule

Escalating excise tax on production for sale

Marketable allowance system
By: SW Choon
44
Excise Tax on Ozone Depleters
Enacted by Congress in 1990

Excise Tax per pound = baset * ODP, where
base is the tax rate per pound
 t is the year in the phaseout schedule


The base as t (i.e., escalating)
In 1990, base tax rate = $1.37/pound
 In 1995, base tax rate = $5.35/pound
 In 2002, base tax rate = $8.50/pound
 based on an annual increase of $.45/pound starting in
1996


Acts as a product charge

By: SW Choon
An excise tax set equal to the MEC at the efficient output
level, QE, achieves an efficient resource allocation
45
Modeling an Excise Tax
MSC = MPC + MEC
$
MPC + excise tax
MPC
Excise Tax
MPB = MSB
0
By: SW Choon
QE
QC
Q of Ozone-Depleting Substances
46
Allowance Market

For CFCs
 Tradeable
allowances were issued to largest
producers and consumers
 Each
allowed a one-time release based on its ODP
 The
number of allowances were gradually reduced
to 0 to meet phaseout deadlines

For HCFCs
 EPA
By: SW Choon
is establishing an analogous program
47
Economic Analysis of
Ozone Depletion Policy
Regulatory Impact Analysis (RIA) for
the Phaseout of Ozone Depleters

Benefit estimate= $6.5 trillion through 2075
 includes

Cost estimate = $27 billion through 2075
 impact

health and non-health effects
on air conditioning and refrigeration
Result: U.S. regulations to control ozone depleters
were announced in August 1988, less than one year
after the signing of the Montreal Protocol
By: SW Choon
49
Incentives and Disincentives
Market for CFC substitutes

Incentive


Profit advantage of producing substitutes when
prices were high may encourage production
Disincentive

Market power of the relatively small number of firms
holding allowances may have deterred development
of substitutes
power  high prices on CFCs  abnormal
profits  less incentive to find substitutes
 Market
 Corrected
in part by the excise tax, which
redistributed some of these profits
By: SW Choon
50
Global Warming
GHGs Contribution to Global Warming
Nitrous Oxide,
4.60%
Methane, 8.70%
HFCs, and other
gases , 2.10%
Other Carbon
Dioxide, 1.60%
Energy-Related
Carbon Dioxide ,
83.00%
Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Office of Integrated Analysis
and Forecasting (December 2004).
By: SW Choon
52
Separating Myth from Facts

Most agree that GHGs (CO2) are rising

Scientists agree that rising GHGs will
affect climate

Uncertainty is when this may happen and
extent of effect
By: SW Choon
53
Controlling Global
Warming
International Policy
International Response

U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
was an agreement reached at the 1992 Rio Summit that dealt
with global warming and other air quality issues


In 1997, a Conference of the Parties (COP) was held in Kyoto,
Japan


Called for nations to implement national strategies to limit GHG
emissions
Goal was to reach an agreement, or protocol, that would address the
issue of GHG emissions beyond 2000
In July 2001, 178 nations reached an agreement, known as
the Kyoto Protocol

Before the 2001 conference, President Bush had taken the United States
out of the agreement
By: SW Choon
55
Kyoto Protocol
Agreement reached in 2001

38 industrialized nations must cut GHG emissions to 5.2%
below 1990 levels by 2012; no requirements for developing
nations

Emissions targets would be achieved using several marketbased instruments, known as flexible mechanisms,
including…


GHG allowance trading system for participating developed nations.

Credits available for carbon-absorbing forestry practices and for
implementing emissions-reducing projects in other nations
Protocol entered into force in 2005 after being ratified by
developed nations representing at least 55% of carbon
emissions
By: SW Choon
56
U.S. Policy
Global Climate Change Policy Book (Feb 2002)


Objective is to reduce GHG intensity by 18 percent over
next 10 years

Equivalent to the average across Kyoto participants

GHG intensity is emissions/economic output
Initiatives include

Improving the registry program for voluntary GHG emissions
reductions for which transferable credits are provided

Providing funding for energy tax credits to encourage
technologies like hybrid cars

Developing and promoting research projects for fuel-efficient
vehicles and other climate change issues
By: SW Choon
57
Economic Analysis of
Climate Change Policy
Benefits of Controlling GHGs
Important to Policy Development

OECD estimates ($1990) of annual
damage
 $61.6
B (based on 2.5° C rise)
 $338.6 B (based on 10° C rise over
250-400 years)
 Mendelsohn and Neumann (1999) estimate
the net benefit to the U.S. would be 0.1
percent of GDP

Nordhaus and Boyer (2000) estimate the
comparable value at approximately –0.5
percent of GDP
59
By: SW Choon
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