Asian Journal of Applied Science and Technology (AJAST)
Volume 7, Issue 2, Pages 204-216, April-June 2023
Heavy Metals in Agricultural Soil and Their Impacts on Rice Production and
Human Health: A Review
Most. Serajam Monira & M.G. Mostafa*
Water Research Lab, Institute of Environmental Science, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi 6205, Bangladesh.
Corresponding Author Email: mgmostafa@ru.ac.bd*
DOI: https://doi.org/10.38177/ajast.2023.7222
Copyright: © 2023 Most. Serajam Monira & M.G. Mostafa. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Article Received: 23 April 2023
Article Accepted: 15 June 2023
Article Published: 25 June 2023
ABSTRACT
Rice is one of the most important sources of carbohydrates for humans. The non-degradable and carcinogenic characteristics of heavy metals are the
main concerns. Intensive use of farm inputs, industrialization and urbanization cause heavy metals accumulation in the soil, water, and rice grains.
This review aimed to assess heavy metals pollution in agricultural soil and their transformation into rice grains. It collected information from
different journals, websites, and published reports on heavy metals in soils, water, and accumulated rice grains in the last 13 years. The analysis
results illustrated that the amount of heavy metal in the soil and rice of different rice-producing countries was higher than the permissible limits of the
WHO, United Kingdom, Tianjin, and European Union standards. The accumulation of heavy metals in agricultural land has become a threat to
humans as well as the environment. Reports showed that the higher concentrations of heavy metals in rice grains may cause heart disease, diabetes,
possibly stroke, liver changes, hearing changes, changes in blood pressure, diarrhea, flushing of the face, etc. in humans. Regular monitoring and
strict regulations of industrial discharge and chemical fertilizer should be recommended for the safety of soil and public health in rice-producing
countries.
Keywords: Accumulation; Concentration; Heavy metals; Industrial discharge; Humans; Public health; Rice; Soil.
░ 1. Introduction
Rice is a staple food source for human consumption but grown in soil with contaminated irrigated water cause huge
threats to humans. The main sources of heavy metals in soils are wastewater irrigation, solid waste disposal, sludge
application, chemical fertilizers, and industrial activities (Tareque et al., 2023; Islam and Mostafa, 2023; Serder et
al., 2020; Park et al., 2011; Arao et al., 2010; Ata et al., 2013; Keshav et al.,2016; Bilos et al., 2001; Chandra et al.,
2011; Reddy et al., 2013; Chowdhury et al., 2015, 2013; Mukeeb et al., 2008; Fahmida et al., 2017; Domingo et al.,
1983). Most of the industries are viewed to discharge their wastage on land or into surface water after partial
treatment or without treatment (Monira et al., 2023; Shakil and Mostafa, 2021; Rahim and Mostafa, 2021; Islam and
Mostafa, 2022; Jolly et al., 2012; Chowdhury et al., 2016; Chary et al., 2008. Olgun et al., 2012). Rice (Oryza sativa
or Oryzaglaberima) serves as the main carbohydrate supplies more than half of the world’s population (IRRI 2001;
Pearl. S, 2015: Yoneyma et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2011).
In 2014, global rice production reached 497 million tons, and was consumed 83% as food (FAO, 2014). In Asia
alone, more than 2.3 billion people obtain 65 to 75 percent of their caloric intake from rice or rice products (FAO,
2002). Rice provides amino acids, vitamins, and minerals to consumers. In Asian areas, rice, the main alimentary
crop, is susceptible to heavy metal pernicious due to the recurrent usage of excess water and metal-enriched
agro-chemicals, which are responsible for the deposition of heavy metals inside the topsoil of the ponds (Fangmin
et al., 2006; Department of Petroleum Resources, 2002; Emumejaye, 2014). Several research studies found serious
metallic contamination of soil, water, and sediments (Islam and Mostafa, 2021a; Zakir et al., 2012, 2013, 2014,
2015; Kamal et al., 2016; Kumar and Seema, 2016; Bakali et al., 2014). Toxic metal levels hinder the metabolic
processes of rice plants (Cai et al., 2010), which reduces yield. Chemical fertilizers (Bian et al., 2015; Nessa et al.,
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2014; Ahmed et al., 2010, 2016; Yasmin et al., 2019; Li et al., 2013) and pesticides (Habib et al., 2012; Shomar,
2006) may increase heavy metal concentrations in soils and plants. Contaminated localities in all aspects of the
world are going to be a greater threat to crop plantations. Heavy metals influence almost all countries, but the extent
of their severity varies greatly. Heavy metal concentrations in soils and rice plants indicate the threat of toxicity to
the health of consumers (Kamani et al., 2018; Jhedioha et al., 2016; McDowell, 2003; Leo et al., 2005; Hu et al.,
2014). So, it is essential to determine the toxic levels of heavy metals in agricultural soil and irrigation water. This
review article aimed at assessing the heavy metal contamination of soil, their transformation into rice grains, and
their effects on humans.
░ 2. Materials and Methods
This study identified over 250 articles on rice production in contaminated soils published in different international
peer-reviewed journals, but finally considered the most relevant 35 articles, mainly from rice-producing countries
like Bangladesh, India, China, Macedonia and the Philippines. The papers were selected considering the rice
produced in heavily metal-contaminated agricultural lands. Most of the industries discharge their effluent without
or poorly treated into nearby lowland and or surface water bodies through a main drain. The agricultural lands
adjacent to the water body are being irrigated, and the contaminated water threatens food safety and human health.
Hence, the rice grains in these areas may be contaminated with heavy metals.
░ 3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Heavy metal standard in soil
The World Health Organization (WHO), United Kingdom, Tianjin, and European Union Standards fixed the
permissible limit of heavy metal concentration in soil (Table 1).
Table 1. Permissible limits of heavy metal concentration in soil fixed by WHO and other organizations
Heavy metals
(mg/kg) →
Country/
Organization
↓
Cd
Zn
Cu
Cr
Pb
Ni
As
Hg
References
Denneman and
Robberse 1991;
Ministry of
Housing,
Netherlands
1994
Ediene et al.,
2017
WHO
0.8
50
36
100
85
35
-
-
United Kingdom
1.4
-
63.0
6.4
70.0
-
-
-
Tianjin Standard,
China
(2nd grade)
0.159
115
43.71
107D
124P
32.83
-
16.64P*
14.64D*
0.258
Zuwei et al.,
2015
European union
standard
(EU2002)
3.0
300
140
150
300
-
-
-
Zuwei et al.,
2015
D: upland soil, P: paddy soil
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Table 1 shows that the heavy metals contamination levels fixed by the WHO is lower than that of other
organizations. The World Health Organization (WHO), the Tianjin standard, and the European standard fixed the
permissible limit for rice fields. The European Standard, which has a fixed Cd permissible limit of 3.0 mg/kg
(Zuwei et al., 2015), was the highest, and the Tianjin Standard, China (2nd grade), is fixed at 0.159 (Zuwei et al.,
2015), which was the lowest among the standards. The European Union standard (EU 2002) fixed the Cu
concentration at 140 mg/kg (Zuwei et al., 2015), which is approximately three times higher than permissible limit of
the WHO (36 mg/kg) (Denneman and Robberse, 1991; Ministry of Housing, the Netherlands, 1994). The European
Union standard (EU 2002) fixed the Pb limit at 300 mg/kg (Zuwei et al., 2015), which is approximately 9 times
higher than the lower limit of 32.83 mg/kg fixed by the Tianjin Standard, China (2nd grade) (Zuwei et al., 2015).
The Tianjin Standard, China (2nd grade), fixed the Hg limit at 0.258 mg/kg, but the other organizations have no
standard limit for this element. The organizations fixed the permissible limit of heavy metals in soils, which is
helpful for building sustainable soils and agricultural management.
3.2. Heavy metal concentration in soil
Heavy metals were determined in industrial areas (Savar, Gazipur, Ashulia) of Bangladesh, the Philippines (Solana,
Cagayan Valley, Sta. Cruz, Zambales, Central Luzon, Sta. Rosa City, Laguna), China (Hunan Province), India
(East Coast), and Macedonia (Kocani Field).
In Bangladesh, three major industrial areas are Savar, Gazipur, and Ashulia. Most of the industry discharges its
untreated effluent into the soil, which is then transferred to crops and accumulated in edible grains. The study shows
that the Fe concentration was found to be 976.12 mg/kg in the Ashulia area, which was higher than the Savar area
(873.61 mg/kg) and Gazipur (668.32 mg/kg). The concentration of Cu (31.54 mg/kg) in the Savar area was higher
than that in the Gazipur (19.76 mg/kg) and Ashulia (29.65 mg/kg) areas, while the Cd concentration (18.56 mg/kg)
was the highest among the other two areas. Concerning Cr (46.93 mg/kg) and Co (43.09 mg/kg) concentrations,
they were highest in the Savar and Ashulia areas, respectively, among the three areas of Bangladesh. The AS (3.76
mg/kg) in Ashulia was higher than the others (Table 2). All the concentrations of heavy metals exceeded the
standard limits of the WHO (Table 1).
In the Philippines, three important rice-producing areas are the Solana and Cagayan Valleys. Sta. Criz, Zambales,
Central Luzon Sta. Rosa City, B. Laguna The Cu content in soil was almost double in Sta. Rosa City, Laguna (115.9
mg/kg) due to the location near urban areas with urban waste than in Solana, Cagayan Valley (53.3 mg/kg), where
in Sta. Cruz, Zambales, Central Luzon (<25.0 mg/kg), the Cu content of Sta. Rosa City, Laguna (115.9 mg/kg),
Solana, Cagayan Valley (53.3 mg/kg) was higher than the permissible limits of the WHO (36mg/kg), the Tianjin
standard (43.71mg/kg) (Table 1). Cr content in Sta. Cruz, Zambales, Central Luzon (1126.5 mg/kg), which is
almost 31 times higher than Solana Cagayan Valley (36.6 mg/kg) and Sta. Rosa City (36.8 mg/kg), Cr content of
Sta. Cruz, Zambales, Central Luzon was more alarming than the limit of the WHO (100 mg/kg), the Tianjin
Standard (107D, 124P), and the European Union standard (150 mg/kg) (Table 1). Ni content is 2624.1 mg/kg in Sta.
Cruz, Zambales, and Central Luzon, is 52 times higher than in Solana, Cagayan Valley, and Sta. Rosa City (<50.0
mg/kg). The Ni content in Sta. Cruz, Zambales, Central Luzon were alarming compared to the WHO (35 mg/kg)
and the United Kingdom (100) (Table 1). In China, Cd concentration was 1.40 mg/kg, which was higher than the
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WHO (0.8 mg/kg) and the Tianjin standard (0.159 mg/kg), and Ni concentration was 33.9 mg/kg, which was higher
than the WHO (35 mg/kg) and the United Kingdom (100.0 mg/kg). The concentrations of Hg and Pb were 14.9 and
51.4 mg/kg, respectively, which were higher than the Tianjin standard (0.258 and 32.83 mg/kg) (Table 1).In India,
Zn concentration was 3.8–33.8 and Pb concentration was 5.3–19.8, which was lower than the permissible limits of
the WHO, the Tianjin standard, and the European Union (Table 1). In Macedonia, Cd concentration was 0.9 mg/kg,
which was higher than the WHO (0.8 mg/kg) and the Tianjin standard (0.159 mg/kg), Zn was 206 mg/kg, which
was higher than the WHO (50 mg/kg) and the Tianjin standard (115 mg/kg), and Pb was 128 mg/kg, which was
higher than the WHO (85 mg/kg) and the Tianjin standard (32.83 mg/kg) (Table 1).
The study observed that Cu (115.9 mg/kg) concentration was higher in Sta. Rosa City, Laguna, Philippines, than in
the other countries. Cd (18.56 mg/kg) was highest in the Ashulia area of Bangladesh, Cr (1126.5 mg/kg) was
highest in Sta. Cruz, Zambales, Central Luzon, the Philippines, and Hg (14.9 mg/kg) and Pb (51.4) levels were
found to be highest in Hunan Province, China. The results showed that the Cd concentrations in the soil of
Bangladesh, the Philippines, China, and Macedonia exceeded the standard permissible limits set by the WHO and
other organizations (Tables 1 and 2). The Cr concentration in the Philippines (Sta. Cruz, Zambales, and Central
Luzon) was the highest among the countries that exceeded the permissible limits. The study observed that heavy
metal concentrations in agricultural fields were found to be higher due to anthropogenic activities in different
countries.
Table 2. Average concentration of heavy metal in soil of rice producing Countries
Heavy
metal
(mg/kg)
Fe
Cu
Cd
Cr
Co
As
Hg
Ni
Zn
Pb
Area
873.61
31.54
14.98
46.93
28.65
3.32
-
-
78.65
38.07
Savar
Bangladesh 668.34 19.76 11.08
40.76
9.56
2.98
-
-
64.98
42.78
Gazipur
976.12
29.65
18.56
34.87
43.09
3.76
-
-
81.9
34.09
Ashulia
-
53.3
<10.9
<36.8
-
<9.0
<7.0
<50.0
44.3
>8.0
-
<25.0
<10.0
1126.5
-
<9.0
>8.0
2624.1
<15.0
>8.0
-
115.9
<10.0
<36.8
-
<9.0
<7.0
<50.0
81.2
16.2
China
-
-
1.40
27.2
-
-
14.9
33.9
-
India
-
-
0.02-0.6
1.3-7.8
-
-
-
-
Macedonia
-
33
0.9
-
-
-
-
-
References
Country
Philippines
Hasan et al.,
2022
Solana,
Cagayan
valley
Sta. Cruz,
Zambales,
Central
Luzon
Sta. Rosa
City,
Laguna
Sanchez et al.,
2015
51.4
Hunan
province
Zeng et al.,
2015
3.8-33.8
5.3-19.8
East coast
Satpathi et al.,
2014
206
128
Kocani field
Rogan et al.,
2009
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Table 3. Standard level of heavy metal concentration in rice grain
Heavy metal
(mg/kg)
As
Cd
Cu
Pb
Zn
0.5
0.2
10
0.2
50
References
Country
Chinese standardized
value
International
standardized value
Kong et al., 2018
0.2
0.4
-
0.2
-
*Permissible limit of heavy metal in rice grains in the National Food Safety Standard of the People’s Republic of
China (GB 2762-2017) and the Agricultural Industry Standards of the People’s Republic of China (NY 861-2004).
From the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) Standard Codex Stan 1993-1995 adopted in 1995; revised in
1997, 2006, 2008, and 2009; amended in 2010, 2012, 2013, and 2014.
3.3. Heavy metal concentration in rice grain of different countries
Table 4 shows the concentration of heavy metals in rice in different areas of Bangladesh, the Philippines, China,
India, and Macedonia. This study illustrated that in Bangladesh, the Cd concentration in rice was found to be
highest (1.61 mg/kg) in Ashulia among the three areas of Bangladesh, while the Cu concentration in rice was
highest in the Savar area (38.12 mg/kg). Concerning Cr (23.67 mg/kg) concentration, rice in the Ashulia area
showed the highest level among the three areas of Bangladesh. The study observed that heavy metals may be
transported to rice grains due to the industrial discharge of waste and wastewater onto the surface. The
concentrations of the above elements exceeded the standard permissible limits for rice grains, indicating human
health hazards (Table 3). However, As and Zn concentrations were lower than the permissible limit.
In the Philippines, Solana, Cagayan Valley, Sta. Cruz, Zambales, and Sta. Rosa City was selected for this study. In
these areas, Cu, Cr, As, Ni, and Pb content were the same, and Zn was higher (68.6 mg/kg) in Solana, Cagayan
Valley than in Sta. Cruz, Zambales, Central Luzon (17.0 mg/kg), and Sta. Rosa City, Laguna (55.7 mg/kg). All the
heavy metal content was higher than the standard level (Table 3). In China, Cd content was 0.312 mg/kg, Cr was
0.106 mg/kg, Ni was 0.59 mg/kg, Hg was 0.069 mg/kg, and Pb content was 0.023 mg/kg. In Macedonia, Cu content
was 3.0 mg/kg, Cd was 0.069 mg/kg, As was 27.86 mg/kg, and Pb was 0.196 mg/kg.
The Cu (38.12 mg/kg) concentration in rice at Savar, Bangladesh, was the highest among the countries (Table 4),
which was far above the permissible limit (Table 3). Cd (<10.0 mg/kg) and Pb (<8.0 mg/kg) concentrations in
Solana, Cagayan Valley, Sta. Cruz, Zambales, Central Luzon, and Sta. Rosa City, Philippines, was the highest
among the countries (Table 4) and the permissible limit (Table 3).
3.4. Effect of heavy metal on human health
Rice is considering as the most important grain for human nutrition and calorie intake. After consuming
contaminated rice grains, they form bio-toxic compounds that mutilate their structures and cause health hazards.
The study showed that several heavy metals were present in the rice grains on agricultural lands around industrial
areas in different countries, posing a threat to human health. A discussion on how heavy metals in rice may cause
harm to humans.
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3.4.1. Arsenic (As)
Arsenic is a tasteless and odorless metal. Arsenic present in higher-level at food can affect the pulmonary nervous
system and skin and can cause cancer of the respiratory tract, peripheral neuropathy, and perforation of the nasal
septum (Islam and Mostafa, 2021b; Mahurpawar, 2015; Zhou et al., 2008, 2016). Lower-level exposure can cause
severe hazards, including nausea and vomiting, production of blood cells and vessels, abnormalities in heart
rhythm, etc., and long-term low-level exposure can cause a darkening of the skin and the appearance of small corns
or warts on the palms, soles, and torso (Martin S. et al., 2015; WHO, 1989, 1993, 1996, 1997; Jolly et al., 2016).
3.4.2. Cadmium (Cd)
Cadmium is a very toxic metal. It affects Renal and Skeletal Pulmonary. It causes diseases like proteinuria, one of
the most important signs of kidney damage, Glucosuria occurs when the urine contains more glucose than it should,
Osteomalacia (characterized by the softening of the bones), Aminoaciduria, it occurs when the amount of amino
acids increases greatly, emphaysemia, it causes shortness of breath (Mahurpawar M. 2015; Garcia et al., 1998;
Engwa et al., 2019.).CD causes diarrhea and affects the lung (Martin S. et al., 2015; Deflora et al., 1997; Sobha et
al., 2007).
3.4.3. Chromium (Cr)
Chromium affects the lungs and causes ulcers, a discontinuity or break in a bodily membrane, and perforation of the
nasal septum, which occurs most commonly along the anterior cartilaginous septum (Mahurpawar M., 2015;
Zhuang et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2005).
Table 4. Average concentration of heavy metal of rice in different rice producing country
Heavy metal
(mg/kg)
Fe
Cu
Cd
Cr
Co
As
Hg
Ni
Zn
Pb
Area
14.89
38.12
1.43
19.78
12.08
0.075
-
-
121.76
1.21
Savar
9.49
25.34
0.98
11.54
8.54
0.031
-
0.18
107.43
-
Gazipur
11.87
19.74
1.61
23.67
18.11
0.048
-
-
97.34
1.32
Ashulia
-
<25.0
<10.0
<36.8
-
<9.0
-
<50.0
68.6
<8.0
-
<25.0
<10.0
<36.8
-
<9.0
-
<50.0
17.0
<8.0
-
<25.0
<10.0
<36.8
-
<9.0
-
<50.0
55.7
<8.0
China
-
-
0.312
0.106
-
-
0.069
0.591
-
0.023
India
-
-
0.02-0.05
0.1-0.6
-
-
-
-
3.2-7.2
0.01-1
East coast
Macedonia
-
3.0
0.069
-
-
-
-
-
27.86
0.196
Kocani field
References
Country
Bangladesh
Philippines
Solana,
Cagayan
Valley
Sta. Cruz,
Zambales,
Central
Luzon
Sta. Rosa
City, Laguna
Hunan
province
Hasan et al.,
2022
Sanchez et al.,
2015
Zeng et al., 2015
Satpathi et al.,
2014
Rogan et al.,
2009
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3.4.4. Manganese (Mn)
Manganese is a metal usually found in combination with iron in minerals. It attacks the nervous system and causes
central and peripheral neuropathies and muscle weakness in different parts of the body (Mahurpawar, 2015; Wang
et al., 2005; Jolly et al., 2016).
3.4.5. Lead (Pb)
Lead attacks the nervous system, hematopoietic and renal systems. Encephalopathy, it alters the function of brain
function or structure (Islam and Mostafa, 2021c; Mahurpawar M., 2015). Lead causes anemia and kidney damage
(Martin S. et al. 2015).
3.4.6. Nickel (Ni)
Nickel is a toxic heavy metal. The presence of nickel in food grains can attack the nervous and pulmonary systems,
causing visual defects, EEG changes, and pneumoconiosis, an interstitial lung disease (Mahurpawar, 2015; Wang et
al., 2005; Jolly et al., 2016).
3.4.7. Mercury (Hg)
Mercury attacks the nervous system and the renal system and causes proteinuria (Mahurpawar, 2015; Wang et al.,
2005; EPA 2018).
░ 4. Conclusion
This review observed that the Cu concentration (115.9 mg/kg) was higher in the soil of Sta. Rosa City, Laguna,
Philippines, is located near the urban waste dumping area. The Cd and Cr concentrations were found to be higher
(18.56 and 46.93 mg/kg, respectively) in the Ashulia and Savar industrial areas of Bangladesh, indicating industrial
discharge caused heavy metal pollution in soils. The review also observed that Hg concentrations (14.9 mg/kg) in
soil were higher in the Hunan Province of China as it was a mining area, and the Pb (128 mg/kg) concentration in
Kocani Field, a municipality in the eastern part of North Macedonia, indicated heavy metal pollution in soil was the
result of anthropogenic activities.
The highest concentrations of Cu (38.12 mg/kg) and Zn (121.76 mg/kg) were found in rice grains in the Savar
industrial area of Bangladesh. Concerning the concentrations of other heavy metals like Cd, Cr, As, Ni, and Pb in
rice at Solana, Cagayan Valley, Sta. Cruz, Zambales, Central Luzon, Sta. Rosa City, and Laguna, Philippines, were
found to be higher. This review observed that heavy metal toxicity concerns the world's agricultural sector, is
intensified by industrialization, intensive use of farm inputs, and urbanization, and poses a threat to human health.
The review showed that heavy metal concentrations in agricultural fields were found to be higher due to
anthropogenic activities. The accumulation of heavy metals in rice grains transported from the soil makes the rice
toxic for human consumption. People should be conscious of not cultivating rice near industrial waste discharge
areas. The industry should dispose of its waste while considering environmental safety and sustainability. The
government should take initiatives for awareness-building programs through the newspaper and television and
knowledge-based curriculums for primary and secondary education to reduce surface water pollution. Now it is
time to formulate the necessary rules and regulations for irrigation water.
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Declarations
Source of Funding
The study has not received any funds from any organization.
Competing Interests Statement
The authors have declared no competing interests.
Consent for Publication
The authors declare that they consented to the publication of this study. The work has been submitted for
publication with due consent of authorities of their institute.
Authors’ Contributions
All the authors equally participated in research and drafting of the manuscript.
Acknowledgement
Most. Serajam Monira would like to thank the Institute of Environmental Science, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi,
Bangladesh, for giving her a fellowship.
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