TABLE OF CONTENTS
3
CHAPTER 1
4
CHAPTER 2
6
CHAPTER 3
7
CHAPTER 4
13
CHAPTER 5
15
Population Dynamics
Settlement
Plate Tectonics
Landforms and Landscape Processes
Weather, Climate & Natural Vegetation
CHAPTER 6
Inter-relationships between natural environment and
human activities
15
CHAPTER 7
16
CHAPTER 8
17
CHAPTER 9
17
CHAPTER 10
Development
Agricultural Systems
Industrial Systems
Leisure Activities and Tourism
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
June 2014
18
19
Zubair Junjunia
CHAPTER 11
Energy and Water Resources
CHAPTER 12
Environmental Risks & Benefits:
Resource Conservation & Management
© Copyright 2015, 2014 by Z Notes
First edition © 2014, by Zubair Junjunia for the 2014 syllabus
Second edition © 2015, updated by Saif Asmi for the 2016 syllabus
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Page 2 of 19
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
June 2014
Zubair Junjunia
HIGH DEATH RATES IN LEDCS
POPULATION DYNAMICS
REASONS FOR POPULATION EXPLOSION
 Improved medical care – vaccinations, hospitals, doctors, new drugs
and scientific inventions
 Improved sanitation and water supply
 Improvements in food production (quality & quantity)
 Improved transport – moving food, doctors etc.
 Decrease in child mortality
MAIN COMPONENTS INFLUENCING POPULATION GROWTH
 Migration: movement of people (or animals) from one country or
region to another
 Birth rate: average number of live births in a year for every 1000
people
 Death rate: average number of deaths for every 1000 people
 Fertility rate: The average number of children a female is expected to
have in their lifetime.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POPULATION GROWTH AND
RESOURCES
 Population growth is related to the amount of resources available for
example water, wood and minerals
 Carrying Capacity: number of people the environment can support
without there being negative effects to the population.
 Optimum Population: amount of people that a region/country can
ecologically support, usually less than carrying capacity.
 Under-population: when country has declined too much that it can’t
support its economic system.
 Overpopulation: too much population of an area: overcrowding,
depletion of resources.
 Population Density: number of people living in a given area (km2)
 Population Distribution: how a population is spread out around a
country or an area
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Poor health care/few hospitals/doctors/nurses/clinics
Poor sanitation/poor hygiene/lack of toilets/dirty places
Poor access to safe/clean water/water borne diseases
Limited food supplies/malnutrition/starvation
HIV/AIDS
Natural disasters/drought/flood
Lack of vaccinations/medicines/cannot cure diseases
Lack of education about healthy lifestyles e.g. smoking/diet
Lack of provision for elderly e.g. pensions/old people’s homes

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Availability of contraception/family planning/abortions
Educated in contraception/family planning
Able to afford contraception/family planning/abortions
Traditionally small families
Expense of bringing up children
Many women have careers/women are educated;
Availability of pensions
Low infant mortality rate
Lack of religious beliefs/don’t object to contraception

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Overpopulation
Unemployment
Shortage of hospitals/schools
Shortage of housing
Congestion
Inflation (excess demand)
Shortage of water & electricity
Nosie, air & water pollution
LOW BIRTH RATES IN MEDCS
PROBLEMS OF
Underpopulation
 Shortage of workers
 Less paying taxes
 Schools, hospitals & transport
routes close; few customers
 Less innovation/development
 Hard to defend
 Have to attract migrants
DEMOGRAPHIC MODEL
HIV/AIDS
 Origins
o HIV-1 – arose in Central Africa
o HIV-2 – arose in West Africa
 HIV mostly occurs in women. When women give birth, they infect the
child as well resulting in low death rate for infants.
 Death rate of mothers results in a higher orphan generation. (Year
2000 – 600 000 orphans). Due to the countries being poor, there is a
lack in state welfare, resulting in poverty and lack of education.
POPULATION PYRAMID GENERAL FORMATS
 Population Pyramid: a type of graph that shows the age and sex
structure of the country.
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑁𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
× 100
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
FACTORS INFLUENCING DENSITY OF POPULATION
 Stage 1: high birth rate; high death rates; short life expectancy; less
dependency (since there are few old people and children have to
work anyway)
 Stage 2: high birth rate; fall in death rate; slightly longer life
expectancy; more dependency as there are more elderly
 Stage 3: declining birth rate; declining death rate; longer life
expectancy; more dependency
 Stage 4: low birth rate; low death rate; highest dependency ratio;
longest life expectancy
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Causes of Sparse Population
Mountainous area
Very hot or very cold area
A heavily forested area
Areas that flood a lot No jobs
Poor supply of electricity, gas
and water
Poor communications
Shortage of natural resources
No schools or hospitals
Regular natural disasters
Page 3 of 19
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Causes of Dense Population
Coastal areas
Flat relief; easy to build on
Close to a supply of water
Areas with natural resources
Fertile agricultural land
Developed transport links
Plenty of available jobs
Available electricity and water
Good communications
Good quality schools/hospitals
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
June 2014
MIGRATION
Zubair Junjunia
SITE AND SITUATION
 Migration: movement of people from one area to another
Causes of Voluntary Migration
Causes of Forced Migration
 Find a job, or a better paid job
 Avoid religious/political
persecution
 Pioneers developing new areas
 Avoid war
 Trade & economic expansion
 Slavery/prisoner of war
 Territorial expansion
 Racial discrimination
 Better climate
 Famine
 Social amenities
 Natural disasters
 Be with friends/family
 Overpopulation
 Internal migration is within a country e.g. rural/urban, regional
 External or international is between countries e.g. Negro slaves to
America (forced) or Mexicans into the US (voluntary)
 Emigrant: A person who leaves a country to migrate to another.
 Immigrant: A migrant arriving in a new country.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Losing Country
 Reduces pressure on
 Loss of people in working age
resources
 Loss of educated/skilled
 Decline in birth rate
people
 Migrants bring back new skills
 Division of families
 Money is sent back
 Left with elderly population
Gaining Country
 Overcomes labor shortage
 Pressure on jobs
 Dirty unskilled jobs done
 Low quality & overcrowded
housing
 Will work long hours for low
salary
 Racism
 Cultural advantages and links
 Language problems
 Less healthy
 Less religious amenities for
immigrants
REFUGEES AND IDPS
 Site: describes the physical nature of where a settlement is
located – the actual piece of land
 Situation: describes settlement in relation to other settlements
and physical features around it – this determines whether or not
the situation will grow into a large city or remain a small town or
village
PHYSICAL FACTORS

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Wet point sites: these have a good water supply
Dry point sites: these are away from the risk of flooding
Building materials: availability of things like stone, wood, clay etc.
Defensive sites: within a river meander or on a hill with steep
sided and commanding views
Fuel supply: for heating and cooking
Food supplies: land suitable for rearing animals and growing crops
Nodal points: where routes converge
Bridging point: may originally have been at a ford in the river or
where river was shallow enough to build a bridge
Aspect: settlements often found on sunny side of a deep valley
Shelter: from cold prevailing winds and rain.
FUNCTIONS
 Rural Areas: tend to have a lot less functions than urban areas.
The main purpose of settlements in rural areas is normally
agriculture and possibly tourism. This is because rural areas have
less people, poorer transport, poorer communication, less
technology and the land is better used for other purposes.
 Urban Areas: tend to have a lot more functions ranging from
shopping functions, to educational functions, to transport
functions, to administrative functions and residential functions.
The bigger the urban area, the more functions that it normally
has.
 Urban Sprawl: The spread or growth of an urban area into the
rural-urban fringe
 Refugees: A person who has been forced to leave their home and
their country. This might be because of a natural disaster, war,
religious or political persecution.
 Persecution: When someone is attacked for what they believe in
e.g. their religion or political belief.
 Internally displaced person (IDP): When someone has been
forced to leave their home but not their country.
 Asylum Seekers: Someone who is trying to get refuge (residency)
in a foreign country because their life is in danger in their home
country, usually because of their political or religious beliefs.
HIERARCHY
SETTLEMENT
PATTERNS OF RURAL SETTLEMENTS
An isolated, building
or a group of two or
three buildings,
separated from the
next by 2 or 3 km.
Buildings are strung
along a line of
communication, for
example a main
road, a river valley,
or canal
Buildings are
grouped together,
initially for defense,
or a common
resource.
 Determining order of importance:
o The population size
o The range and number of services
o The sphere of influence
 Sphere of Influence: The distance or area people travel from to
access a service.
 Services: Facilities that are offered to people e.g. supermarket.
Services have a threshold population, which helps explain why
bigger settlements have more services.
 Range: This usually refers to the number of different services e.g.
a school, a post office, etc.
Page 4 of 19
June 2014
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
 Threshold Population: The minimum amount of people required
for a service to be offered and remain open.
 High Order Goods (Comparison): Goods that people buy less
frequently. They tend to be more expensive and people will
normally compare quality and price before purchasing e.g. a car
 Low Order Goods (Convenience): Goods that people buy every
day. They don't usually cost much money and people would not
normally travel far to buy them e.g. bread and milk.
Zubair Junjunia
URBAN PATTERNS IN LEDCS
Model of a typical LEDC city:
CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT (CBD)
 The CBD:
o Centre point of the city and has highest land prices
o Most accessible point in the city
o High-rise buildings and skyscrapers
 Functions: retail, entertainment, financial services and other
professional services
 Land uses:
o Leisure and recreation - may include open land
o Residential - High/multi-storey buildings.
o Transport - road and rail networks, stations and airports
o Business and commerce - offices, shops and banks
o Industry - factories, warehouses and small production centers
 The CBD is located in the center because it is:
o A central location for road/railways to converge
o The most accessible location for workers
o Accessible to most people for shops and businesses
 Problems that CDB face: congestion, pollution and lack of space
 Both MEDC and LEDC cities have a CBD - often oldest part of city.
 In LEDCs, poorest housing is found on the edge of the city, in
contrast to MEDC cities
 Areas of poor quality housing found on the edge of cities in LEDCs
are called squatter settlements or shanty towns
 Favelas: illegal settlements created due to massive influx of people
migrating into urban areas
LAND USE MODELS
Burgess (concentric)
Hoyt (sector)
 Based on idea that land values
are highest in the center
 Because competition is high in
central parts of the settlement
 Limitations
o Model quite old &
developed before mass car
ownership.
o New working/housing trend
o Every city is different
 Based on circles in Burgess
model, but adds sectors of
similar land uses in parts of the
city.
 Some zones, e.g. industry zone,
radiate out from the CBD,
probably following the line of a
main road or a railway.
RESIDENTIAL AREAS
 Old inner city area (a.k.a. twilight zone):
o Typically found next to CBD
o Has mainly terraced houses in a grid like pattern.
o Originally built to house factory workers who worked in inner
city factories (now closed down).
 Suburbia:
o Urban sprawl and owning cars led to construction of wellplanned and spacious houses.
o Usually larger than inner city terraces and most have a garden.
o Typically, detached or semidetached
o Roads are arranged in cul-de-sacs (dead-end) and wide
avenues.
o Land prices cheaper than in CBD and inner city, although
demand can make some areas expensive.
 Outer city estate:
o Located on the fringes of cities with varied types of housing
o people relocated here when inner city was being redeveloped
 The rural urban fringe:
o This is found at the edge of a town or city
o Mixture of land uses e.g. housing, golf courses, allotments,
business parks and airports.
INDUSTRIAL AREAS
 Factories were built:
o As close as possible to the CBD but with enough space
o Next to canals and railways to transport materials,
o Next to rivers for cooling, power source or waste disposal
o Next to land where lots of workers could live.
PROBLEMS OF URBAN GROWTH
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For People
Overcrowded
Unable to obtain jobs/low pay
Pressure on schools/hospitals
Increased crime rates
Difficulties of waste/litter
Traffic congestion
Noise pollution
Lack of sanitation
Poor quality of life
Food shortage
FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES IN A VILLAGE
 Villages - low order services, services in towns will be higher order
 Mainly/entirely convenience goods, whilst towns will offer
specialist/comparison
 Examples of village services (e.g. post office, church/mosque)
 Services which require small threshold population;
 Services which have small sphere of influence
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For Environment
Loss of vegetation
Loss of habitats
Impacts on food chains
Pollution of rivers
Death of fish/other species
Pollution of ground water
Air/atmospheric pollution
Rivers dry up
URBAN RENEWAL
Reasons for it
 Older properties fallen into
disrepair/high cost of repair;
 Use land more intensively;
 demand for apartments
Page 5 of 19
Why people want keep old
houses and improve them
 Older houses retain culture
 Old houses often large/well
constructed;
 People can’t afford to move;
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
June 2014
 Building of houses with better
amenities/or examples;
 New road developments;
 New leisure/shopping centres;
Zubair Junjunia
 Community spirit;
 Cheaper option for authority;
 To restrict outward expansion
 Constructive: occur
when two plates
move away from
each other.
 Example: North
American and
Eurasian Plate
CONTROLLING URBAN GROWTH
 Greenbelts: area of land around urban areas that is protected from
development. Stops greenfield sites being built on and alternative
like brownfield sites being used.
 Urban Wedges: urban growth allowed to take place in wedges
ensuring some green areas protected throughout city
 Brownfield sited: increasing building on brownfield sites allows
less pressure to be put on rural areas
 Housing density: increasing housing density means less land will be
destroyed
 Conservative: occur
when two plates
slide past each other.
 Example: North
American Plate and
the Pacific Plate
 Destructive: occur
when oceanic plate is
subducted by a
continental plate.
 Example: Pacific
Plate and the
Eurasian Plate
GREENFIELD SITES
Advantages
 Land never used – not polluted
 Often near rural-urban fringe
so good transport links
 Less congestion
 Room to expand
Disadvantages
 Conflicts with other land users
 Many sites are now protected
by the government
 Public protests for building on
greenfield site
BROWNFIELD SITES
Advantages
 Often cheap to buy
 Near the CBD
 Closer to transport routes
Disadvantages
 Site polluted – expensive to
clean up
 No room to expand
 May not be in desirable shape
or location
PLATE TECTONICS
TECTONIC PLATES
 Oceanic crust: younger, heavier, can sink and is constantly being
destroyed and replaced
 Continental crust: older, lighter, cannot sink and is permanent
 Plate movement is caused by convection currents in the mantle
DISTRIBUTION
Plate boundary Volcanoes? Earthquakes? Fold mountains?
Constructive
Gentle
Gentle
No
Destructive
Violent
Violent
Yes
Collision
None
Violent
Yes
Conservative
None
Violent
No
 Earthquake:
o Encircle the whole of the Pacific Ocean
o Extend down entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean
o Stretch across southern Europe and Asia
 Volcanoes:
o Encircle the whole of the Pacific Ocean
o Extend down the entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean
o Some in southern Europe, the Caribbean and east Africa
FOLD MOUNTAINS
PLATE BOUNDARIES
Diagram
Description
 Collision: occur when
two continental
plates move towards
each other.
 Example: IndoAustralian and the
Eurasian Plate
 At a destructive plate margin, the oceanic plate is subducted whilst
the continental plate is crumpled upwards to form a mountain
range
 At collision margins, both plates forced upwards in a series of folds
 Two types of fold mountains
o Young: 10 to 15 million years of age e.g. Rockies and Himalayas
o Old: Over 200 million years of age e.g. Uralas and Appalachians
 Created by uplift and folding of tectonic plates as they move
towards each other and collide
 Movement of two plates forces sedimentary rocks upwards into a
series of folds
VOLCANOES
 A vent in the earth's surface where magma, gas or ash escapes
onto the earth's surface or into the atmosphere.
 Causes:
o At constructive margin: plates move away from each other;
magma rises to fill the gap;
o At destructive margin: oceanic crust melts from friction and
heat from mantle; newly formed magma is lighter so it rises to
surface
Page 6 of 19
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
June 2014
Zubair Junjunia
EARTHQUAKE
Shock waves
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Volcanic plug: lava shoots up, falls down into the vent and solidifies
Explosive eruptions can produce mud flows called lahars
Active Volcano: A volcano that has erupted recently.
Dormant Volcano: A volcano that has not erupted in recent history
but may erupt again in the future.
 Extinct Volcano: A volcano that is unlikely to ever erupt again,
because no magma is being produced under it.
Gentle slopes, slow
flowing lava
Steep slopes, violent
eruption
Advantages
 Tourist attraction: income and
employment
 Creates fertile soil: good
agricultural land to grow crops
 Geothermal heating:
o Natural renewable
resource
o Heating (hot water)
o Geyser and mud baths
Prediction
 Tremors within volcano
 Ground temperatures rises,
detect by heat-seeking
cameras
 Volcano swells and bulges
 Volcano emits gas and steam
 Animal behavior changes
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Mix of cone and
shield, eruption
varies in strength,
made of layers of ash
and lava (unstable)
Disadvantages
Destruction of land, property,
jobs, homes, transport
Rebuilding costs
Unemployment
Fires breakout
Diseases from poor sanitation
Gas from eruption suffocates
Pyroclastic flow
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Preparation
Set up warning system
Create evacuation plan
Train emergency services
Organize post-eruption plan
Emergency food supply

LAHARS
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Causes:
Melting snows
Heavy rainfall/water content
of magma
Mix with ash
Flow down steep
slopes/gravity
Triggered by earthquakes
Effect:
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Loss of life
Destroy buildings/homes
Destroy crops/livestock
Disrupt communications
Bring down power
lines/damage water pipes
 Occur without warning/at
great speed
 A series of vibrations or movements in the earth's crust
 Caused when two plates ‘stick’; pressure builds up; one plate jerks
forward sending shock waves to the surface
Features
Effects
 Focus: point of earthquake
 Large number of deaths
 Epicenter: point directly above
 Fires breaking out
the focus, on the ground
 Water pipes burst
 Seismic waves
 Water contamination,
 Shaking ground
diseases
 Subduction zone: occurs at
 Corpses: human & animal
destructive margin, one plate
 Accessibility difficult
goes under the other
 Building damaged/destroyed
 Tsunami can follow
 Reconstruction costs
Prediction
Preparation
 Measure earth tremors,
 Build earthquake-proof
pressure, and release of gas
buildings and roads
 Use maps and facts to find
 Train emergency services
pattern in time/location
 Set up warning system
 Unusual animal behavior
 Create evacuation plan
 Emergency food supply
 Practice drills
Earthquake-Proof Buildings
 Computer-controlled weights on roof to reduce movement
 Fire-resistant building material
 No bricks or reinforced concrete block
 Rubber shock-absorbers between foundations and superstructure
 Foundation sunk deep into bedrock avoiding clay
 Roads to provide quick access by ambulances and fire engines
 Open areas where people can assemble if evacuated
 Automatic shutters come down over the windows
 Interlocking steel frames which can sway during earth movements
LANDFORMS AND LANDSCAPE PROCESSES
WEATHERING
 Weathering is disintegration and decomposition of rocks in situ.
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
 Physical weathering: weathering where there is no change in the
chemical composition of the rock, due to physical processes.
 Freeze-thaw: occurs where there are cracked rocks and
temperatures fluctuate around freezing point, repeated freezing
and thawing causes cracks to widen.
 Exfoliation: occurs in very warm climates where there are
exposed, non-vegetated rocks. The outer layers heat up and cool
down faster than the inner layers causing stresses in the rock; the
outer layer peels off.
Page 7 of 19
June 2014
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
Zubair Junjunia
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
 Biological weathering: roots widen weaknesses in the rock until
part of the rock detaches
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
 Chemical weathering: occurs in warm, moist climates
 Carbonation: Carbon dioxide in air reacts with rainwater and
forms carbonic acid/acid rain. This reacts with calcium carbonate
or chalk forming calcium bicarbonate or calcium hydrogen
carbonate which is soluble in water. this widens/ deepen cracks
 Oxidation: If rock contains iron, it is oxidized in the presence of
water forming iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) or rust. This gives the rock a
reddish brown colour. The rock is weakened & eventually
crumbles away.
CHANGES DOWN THE RIVER
Long Profile:
WEATHERING IN HUMID TROPICAL AREAS
Tropical areas tend to experience more weathering because of:
 Large amounts of rainfall increasing chemical weathering
 Large amounts of vegetation increasing biological weathering
 They are nearer to the equator so there are high temperatures
and faster rates of chemical reaction
 Some areas (high areas and desert areas) have higher diurnal
temperature range.
Cross Profile:
Upper
Course
Upper
RIVER TERMINOLOGY
 Drainage basin: the area of land drained by a river.
 Watershed: the edge of highland surrounding a drainage basin. It
marks the boundary between two drainage basins.
 Source: the beginning or start of a river.
 Confluence: the point at which two rivers or streams join.
 Tributary: a stream/smaller river which joins a larger stream or
river.
 Mouth: point where river comes to end, usually when entering
sea
Middle
Lower
RIVER PROCESSES
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
 Drainage basins act as a system with:
o Inputs: precipitation
o Transfers: infiltration, percolation, surface runoff, throughflow
& groundwater flow
o Stores: interception, surface storage, soil moisture storage &
groundwater storage
o Outputs: evaporation & transpiration or evapotranspiration
Middle
Long Profile
Steeply sloping
towards the lower
sections of the river.
Shallow slopes
towards the mouth
of the river.
Almost at sea level,
very gently sloping
towards its mouth.
Lower
Cross Profile
Steep sided v-shaped valley.
Thin river channel, deep in
places.
V-shaped valley remains with a
wider valley floor and the river
begins to meander across it. The
river channel begins to widen
and become deeper.
Wide, shallow valley, with large
flood plains and meanders. The
river channel is wide, deep and
smooth sided.
Bed: the bottom of the river channel.
Bank: The sides of the river channel. A river has two banks.
Wetted perimeter: length of bed and banks in contact with river.
Channel: The route course (between bed and banks) that a river
flows. The flow of the river is often described as channel flow.
 Thalweg: The fastest part of the river, always near the middle of
the river channel, where there is least friction.
Page 8 of 19
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
June 2014
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Zubair Junjunia
TRANSPORTATION
LANDFORMS
Traction: rolling stones along the bed
Saltation: small particles bounce along bed in a leapfrog motion
Suspension: silt and clay-sized are carried within the water flow
Solution: minerals dissolve in the water
 V-shaped valley:
o Valley is narrow with a
narrow, shallow river
channel
o Valleys have steep sides
o Channel has a steep
gradient
o Water is mainly slow
flowing as most of the
rivers energy is used to
overcome the friction of
the river bed &
obstructions
o Load is mainly large,
angular and rough
 Interlocking spurs: In the upper valley a river is in the mountains.
Water takes the easiest path downhill so twists & turns around
the high land (spurs) forming interlocking spurs.
 Waterfalls:
o They occur because the river flows over hard rock which
erodes slowly.
o Beneath is softer rock which is eroded faster to form a “step”.
o The force of the water erodes the bottom of the waterfall to
form a plunge pool.
o The hard rock gets undercut as the soft rock erodes so that it
eventually collapses.
EROSION
 Attrition: large particles such as boulders collide and break into
smaller pieces (occurs at higher part of river)
 Hydraulic action: the sheer force of the river dislodges particles
from its banks and bed
 Abrasion: smaller particles rub against the river banks and bed like
sand-paper; occurs at low part of river (smaller particles)
 Solution: acids in river dissolve rocks (occurs at any part of river)
DEPOSITION
 When a river lacks the energy to carry its load; it begins with the
heaviest particles; happens when there is less water or where the
current slows down.
 Large boulders are deposited at the top, and very small particles
are deposited at the end, resulting in sorting.
BRADSHAW MODEL
 Rapids: They form also where the river passes over hard rock, but
either the band of rock is not very deep or there are a series of
shallow rock bands.
 Potholes: Can be found in the
upper & middle valley where a
river flows over solid rock.
 Meanders:
o Wide sweeping bends found in
the lower part of the river.
o They are formed by a
combination of lateral erosion
& deposition.
 Ox-bow Lakes:
o Form when the neck of the meander becomes very narrow.
o During high flow or floods the river cuts through the neck &
straightens its course.
o Deposition occurs on the bank of the river
o The cut-off meander is an ox-bow lake.
Page 9 of 19
June 2014
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
 Deltas:
o Deltas occur where a river that carries a large amount of
sediment meets a lake or the sea.
o This meeting causes the river to lose energy and drop the
sediment it is carrying.
o Deltas form where river mouths become choked with
sediment, causing the main river channel to split into hundreds
of smaller channels or distributaries.
 Levées: when a river floods, the coarsest material is deposited
first, on the edges of the river, forming a natural embankment
called a levée.
Zubair Junjunia
FLOOD MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
 Dams:
o Often built along the course of a river in order to control the
amount of discharge.
o Water is held back by the dam in a reservoir and released in a
controlled way which controls flooding.
o Building dams is expensive, can affect farmers and cause
erosion downstream
 River engineering:
o The river channel may be widened or deepened allowing it to
carry more water.
o A river channel may be straightened so that water can travel
faster along the course.
o The channel course of the river can also be altered, diverting
floodwaters away from settlements.
o Altering the river channel may lead to a greater risk of flooding
downstream, as the water is carried there faster.
 Afforestation:
o Trees planted near to the river meaning greater interception of
rainwater and lower river discharge.
o This is a relatively low cost option, which enhances the
environmental quality of the drainage basin.
 Managed flooding: The river is allowed to flood naturally in
places, to prevent flooding in other areas
 Planning:
o Local authorities and national government introduce policies
to control urban development close to or on floodplain
reducing chance of flooding and risk of damage to property.
o However, enforcing planning regulations and controls may be
harder in LEDCs
FLOOD HYDROGRAPH
 Flood plain:
o Area of alluvial deposits found beside the river in its lower
course.
o As meanders move slowly down the course of the river they
erode away the valley to create a wide valley floor, and they
deposit layers of alluvial material on the slip off slopes building
up into a large flood plain
 The greater the lag time, the less chance there is of a flood
 A rise in discharge on the graph is called the rising limb
 The falling limb shows a decrease in discharge.
TYPES OF WAVES
CAUSES OF RIVER FLOODING
 Steep-sided channel: a river channel surrounded by steep slopes
causes fast surface run-off.
 Lack of vegetation or woodland: surface run-off will be high as
trees and plants won’t intercept precipitation.
 Drainage basin, consisting of mainly impermeable rock: water
cannot percolate through rock layer, and will runoff surface
 Drainage basin in an urban area: these consist largely of
impermeable concrete, which encourages overland flow.
 Deforestation, overgrazing and overcultivation, and population
pressures cause soil erosion causes sediment to go into rivers
decreasing the cross-sectional area
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Constructive
Low wave height & usually
beach gradient is gentle.
Waves spill forward gently
creating a strong swash.
Water drains away through
beach material so backwash is
weak.
These waves deposit material
& build up beaches.
Page 10 of 19
Destructive
 High wave height & the beach
tends to be steep.
 Wave plunges forward onto
beach so swash is weak, but
rotation of water causes a
strong backwash.
 These waves tend to erode
beaches.
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
June 2014
Zubair Junjunia
Constructive:
Destrictive:
CAVES, ARCHES AND STACKS
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A band of weaker rock extends through a headland.
More erosion occurs producing caves on both sides of headland
Continued erosion produces an arch through the headland.
Eventually the roof is weakened & collapses forming a stack
COMPONENTS OF A WAVE
 Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach.
 Backwash: when the water drains away back into the oncoming
wave.
 The size of waves depends upon three factors:
o The strength of the wind.
o The length of time the wind has been blowing.
o The fetch or distance over which the wind can blow.
METHODS OF EROSIION
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Corrasion: large waves hurl beach material at the cliff
Corrosion: salts and acids slowly dissolve a cliff
Attrition: waves cause stones to collide and disintegrate
Hydraulic action: force of waves compresses air in the cliffs
BEACHES
 In bays the waves diverge outwards.
 The wave energy is dissipated creating a low energy environment
hence deposition to form beaches.
LONGSHORE DRIFT
 When waves approach the coast at an angle the swash moves up
the beach at an angle.
 The backwash, however, drains straight back down the beach.
 This will gradually move sand/stones along the beach in a zig-zag
motion.
BAYS AND HEADLANDS
 • Bays are formed due to softer rock
getting eroded easily.
 • Headlands are usually formed since
they are made of resistant rock and so is
eroded more difficultly.
SPITS AND SALT MARSHES
CLIFF AND WAVE-CUT PLATFORM
 Wave erosion is concentrated at the foot of the cliff so a wave-cut
notch is formed.
 The cliff is undercut & collapses.
 Repeated collapse causes retreat of the cliff producing a platform
of flat rock at the cliff foot extending out to sea.
 Spits:
o Spits form when the coastline changes direction. Longshore
drift continues to carry material in the same direction.
o Sand & shingle is built up to form the spit.
o End of spit curves due to wave refraction or secondary winds.
 Salt marsh:
o Mud is deposited by the tides. The beach builds up above sea
level forming mudflats.
o Plants start to grow in mud & trap more sediment, forming a
salt marsh.
 Bars: A spit that connects two headlands or runs across the face
of a small cove (bay)
Page 11 of 19
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
June 2014
Zubair Junjunia
 Diagram showing optimal conditions for their growth:
SAND DUNES
 Sand dunes form behind wide sandy beaches.
 Onshore winds pick up the dry sand from above the high-water
mark & carry it landward by saltation.
 If they encounter an obstacle the wind loses energy & deposits
sand in the lee of the obstacle.
 Eventually a dune is formed. Plants then grow on it which stabilize
it & trap more sand.
CORAL REEF
 Conditions required for growth of coral reef:
o Warm water/seas; temperatures above 20°C
o Shallow water; not more than 60 meters deep
o Water free from sediment/clear/availability of light
o Plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted
o Plentiful supply of plankton
o Lack of strong currents
Fringing reef
Barrier reef
Coral atoll
 Coral reefs grow in  Due to plate
 These form
the shallow water
tectonics island
around islands
of the coast in
starts to sink
that are sinking.
tropical areas
 Reef grows to
 Coral growth
keep up with the
keeps up with this
sinking, but a
& island keeps
lagoon develops
sinking
between reef &
 Eventually island
land
sinks below sea
level forming a
ring of coral with a
lagoon in the
centre.
Problems faced by mangrove swamps and their solutions:
Problem
Solution
 Emersion due to overflow of
 Plants adapt to water
water
environment
 Saline environment
 Plants have waxy covering
prevents entry of salt
 Lack of oxygen
 Long roots take in air through
pores when possibly
Benefits and drawbacks of mangrove swamps:
 Benefits:
o Provide habitat and protection many aquatic life
o Important area for fishing industry
o Slows water flow allowing for fertile deposits
o Protects coast from erosion – dissipates wave energy
o Advance outwards – leaves fertile land for settlements
o Mangrove wood collected for firewood
o Work like a natural water cleaning system
 Drawbacks:
o Noxious and impenetrable
o Full of disease
Interdependence between Coral Reefs and Mangrove Swamps:
COASTAL DEFENCES
MANGROVE SWAMPS
 Trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats
 Conditions for mangrove swamps to grow:
o Topical or subtropical environment
o Shore is soft and muddy – easy to take root
 Shoreline must be undisturbed for them to prosper
Hard Engineering
 Rip-rap: giant boulders placed at the foot of cliffs, designed to
absorb waves energy and protect cliffs behind. Can be effective,
but does look ugly, reduces access to beach and can be expensive
 Gabion: uses large boulders placed in cages which means can be
installed quickly and is fairly effective. However, it also looks ugly,
reduces access and can be expensive.
 Groynes: designed to stop longshore drift transporting away
beach material. Can be effective in maintaining a beach, but need
replacing regularly, look ugly and can cause problems down coast.
 Sea wall: made out of concrete and are aimed to absorb waves
energy. Sometimes curved to direct waves energy back out to sea.
Very effective, but are expensive, ugly and reduce access
Page 12 of 19
June 2014
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
 Breakwater: are built out into the sea and are a coats first line of
defence. Instead of breaking on coast, waves, break on
breakwater. Often found around the mouths of rivers and ports.
They are expensive and can disrupt shipping and animals.
 Revetments: similar to sea walls, but often built out of wood.
Found at the foot of cliffs and are designed at absorb the waves
energy. Need replacing regularly & don’t protect against storms
Soft Engineering
 Dune Stabalisation: planting vegetation on berm of beach or on
dunes, making them more stable (roots) and reducing the
moisture content (root uptake)
 Cliff Regrading: make cliffs less steep; reducing angle reduces
undercutting and risk of cliff collapsing
 Beach Nourishment: adding more sand to the beach. Beaches are
natural defences, so by making them bigger, you are creating a
natural defence.
 Beach Drainage: removing some of the excess water reduces
stress on the cliff.
 Managed Retreat: allowing sea to take back land. Low value land
is often chosen to be flooded by sea.
WEATHER, CLIMATE & NATURAL VEGETATION
WEATHER INSTRUMENTS
Rain Gauge: has a fixed diameter so that
they collect the same amount of water & so
comparisons can be made
 Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing:
o Funnel (A) to collect the water.
o Container to collect water which may
be graduated. It is emptied once every
24hrs at the same time.
o Rain is measured in millimeters.
o Sunk into ground, but not level so
splashes or surface water can’t get in
Max-min thermometer: record max. & min. temp. over 24hr period
 Max thermometer contains
mercury & min contains alcohol
 As temp. rises, mercury expands &
pushes up a metal index and when it
cools, mercury contracts and index is
left in place at highest temp.
 As temp. falls, alcohol contracts &
pulls metal index with it, but as
alcohol expands, it flows past
index, leaving it in place at
lowest temp.
• Both indexes read once every 24hrs
from bottom of index.
Sunshine Recorder (Heliograph):
records the amount of sunshine at a
given location
 Burns a timeline
 Traces sun shine not the hours of
daylight
 The glass ball focus the light
 This burns a line onto the card
Zubair Junjunia
Wet & dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer):
 Dry bulb is a normal mercury
thermometer and it measures actual air
temperature
 Wet bulb is same but bulb is covered with
a fine cloth which is connected to a
reservoir of water.
 Water evaporates from the cloth & cools
the temperature so it reads a few degrees
lower than air temp.
 Both wet & dry bulb temperatures read
Barometer: Measure air pressure
 An aneroid barometer has a corrugated
chamber containing a vacuum
 As air pressure rises & falls, the
chamber contracts & expands.
 Levers conduct this movement to a
spindle which moves the pointer on the
dial which records the air pressure in
mm of mercury.
Anemometer: Measures wind speed.
 Three light rotating cups (mounted on a
high pole) are blown around by the
wind the revolutions are counted &
converted into m/s, km/h or knots
Wind vane: Records wind direction
 The fletching is blown by the wind so that
the arrow head points into the wind.
 Mounted on a high pole.
Stevenson’s Screen: contains the thermometers
 Painted white to reflect the sun with a double lid for insulation.
 Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but slanted downwards to
prevent light getting in.
 Legs 1m long to prevent heating from ground.
 On short grass so it’s standardized i.e. same amount of
reflectivity.
Page 13 of 19
TYPES OF CLOUDS
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
June 2014
 Cirrus: found high in the atmosphere, common throughout the
world, thin and wispy in appearance and move fairly quickly
 Stratus: low level, usually grey in colour, move fast and can
produce light rain and snow.
 Cumulonimbus: large clouds up to 10km high and across, produce
rain, thunder and lightening, usually found in spring and summer
 Cumulus: fairly low clouds, look like lumps of cotton wool, can
produce light rain and each individual clouds has a short life cycle
WEATHER SYMBOLS
 Cloud cover: measured in eighths. Hold sheet directly above your
head & estimate the cloud cover directly above you.
 Warm and cold front symbols:
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Frontal Rain
 Warm airmass
meets colder air
mass
 Warm air mass
rises over colder
 Condensation
 Clouds form
 Rain
 E.g. All of UK in
Winter
CLIMATE
Tropical Rainforest
Around equator, between
Tropic of Cancer and
Tropic of Capricorn =
‘tropics’
Location
Mean temp.
of hottest
month
Mean temp.
of coldest
month
Annual temp.
range
Rainfall
amount
Rainfall
distribution
Wind
Cloud
Humidity
Pressure
Tropical Desert
Between 5° and 30°
north and south of
the equator
≈25°C
≈30°C
≈25°C
>18°C
<5°C
<5°C
>2000mm
<250mm
Same throughout year
Irregular
Low
Heavy
High
Low
Strong
Almost none
Low
High
FACTORS AFFFECTING TEMPERATURE
TYPES OF RAINFALL
Relief Rain
Warm moist air
from the sea
Forced to rise over
mountain/hill
Cools as it rises
Condensation
Clouds form
Rain
E.g. West of UK
Zubair Junjunia
Convectional Rain
 Sun heats ground
which heats air
 Warm air rises
 Cools as it rises
 Condensation
 Clouds form
 Rain
 E.g. South of UK
 Weather:
o The mix of events that occur in our atmosphere, including
changes in temperature, rainfall and humidity
o This can vary from day to day and from place to place
 Climate:
o This is the average conditions over a longer period of time,
usually a few years
 Latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature
 Distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters and cooler
summers
 Prevailing winds: seasonal difference in heating between land
and sea affects temperature of prevailing wind. Warm prevailing
wind = rise in temperature
 Ocean currents: warm currents raise winter temperatures in
coastal areas; cold currents cool them down in summer
 Altitude: higher altitude = lower temperature (1° per 100m)
Pressure Systems:
Depression
Anticyclone
Air movement
Upwards
Downwards
Air pressure
Low
High
Wind
Anticlockwise towards
Clockwise away from
direction
the centre
the cente
Isobars
Close together
Far apart
Short sunny spells;
Dry; usually sunny;
Associated
longer periods of wind
light winds; nights may
weather
cloud and rain
be cold
All year – mostly in
Frequency
Ocassionaly in winter
summer and winter
ECOSYSTEM: TROPICAL RAINFOREST
Vegetation grows in distinct layers.
 Emergent layer: tall trees up to 50m. Few lower branches. Grow
above others to get full sunlight.
 Main canopy: trees 30-40m forming a continuous canopy. Few
lower branches.
 Under canopy: trees 20m high (& young trees) – less dense can
survive in less sunlight.
 Shrub layer: low shrubs & saplings. Shade plants.
Forest floor: little grows except fungi – too little light.
 Since the trees grow tall, have large buttress roots for support
 Lianas use large trees as a support in order to reach the sunlight.
 Epiphytes grow on trees to get light & have hanging roots that
collect rainwater.
 Leaves shed water easily having drip tips & “channels” to direct
the water.
Page 14 of 19
June 2014
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
Zubair Junjunia
INTER-RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES
HAZARDS & OPPURTUNITIES
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DEFORESTATION OF TROPICAL RAINFORESTS
 Reasons for deforestation:
o Farming: demand for food increases with population - need to
clear more usable ground
o Hydro-Electric Power: land may need to be removed to build
damn or floodable area
o Mining: demand for resources increase – rainforests hold
plenty
o Road building: increased congestion requires new roads –
rainforest in the way
o Settlements: population increase causes cities to become
bigger requiring more land
o Timber: self-explanatory
 Problems due to deforestation:
o Flooding: less interception by vegetation thus more flash
floods
o Landslides: removal of vegetation causes soil to become
unstable
o Biodiversity Loss: deforestation kills off unknown species, since
they will have no home
o Less Photosynthesis: causes imbalance of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in atmosphere
o Silting: rivers, seas and oceans become more difficult to
navigate due to reduced depth
o Desertification: soil loses components vital to survival of plants
– become hard
o Indigenous: these people lose their homes, more importantly
impact their society
o Less Rainfall: Less interception = less transpiration = fewer
clouds = less rainfall
ECOSYSTEM: TROPICAL DESERT
Plants such as cacti:
 Have thick, waxy cuticles to reduce transpiration;
 Fleshy stems to store water;
 Leaves reduced to spines to reduce surface area for transpiration
& prevent animals eating them & sunken stomata.
Shrubs have:
 Small, waxy leaves & long tap roots to reach down to water table
and/or shallow roots to collect any moisture before it evaporates.
 Seeds can lie dormant for years. After rain they germinate quickly,
flower & produce seeds within 2-3 weeks.
Environmental Hazards
Volcanic eruptions
Earthquakes
Tropical storms
Flooding
Drought
Environmental Oppurtunities
 Renewavle energy sources:
o Droughts = solar power
o Volcanic land = geothermal
 Medical research and genetic
engineering of crops
 Flooding = alluvium = fertile
 Tourism = source of wealth
 Tropical rainforests = wood
DEVELOPMENT
 Affluence: general level of prosperity enjoyed by population
 Appropriate Aid: resources suited to basic conditions prevailing in
receiving country
 Development: progress in terms of economic growth, use of
technology and human welfare
 Development Gap: difference in standards of living between
richest and poorest countries
 Free Trade: trade between countries is not restricted by laws and
formalities
 Quality of Life: often used as an umbrella term taking into account
GDP and human welfare
MAIN INDICATORS
 Birth Rate: number of births in a year per 1000 of total population
 Death Rate: number of deaths in a year per 1000 of total
population
 Gross Domestic Product (GDP): total value of goods and services
produced annually
 GDP per Capita: GDP per head of population
 Human Welfare: condition of population i.e. diet, housing,
healthcare, education, etc.
 Infant Mortality: avg. number of deaths of infants under 1, per
1000 live births, per year
 Life expectancy: average number of years a person might be
expected to live
 Intermediate Technology: simple, easily learned technology used
in economic activities
 Human Development Index (HDI): measures and compares
international development
GLOBALIZATION
 Process in which the world is becoming increasingly
interconnected
 Causes of globalization:
o Improvements in transportation
o Freedom of trade
o Improvements of communications
o Labour availability and skills
Page 15 of 19
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
June 2014
IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION
FARMER’S DECISION
 Positive impacts of globalization:
o Economies of scale, cost per item reduced when operating on a
larger scale
o TNCs helps countries; provide new jobs & skills for local people
o TNCs bring money and foreign currency to local economies
o Allows for sharing of ideas, experiences and lifestyles of people
and cultures
o Increases awareness of events in far-away parts of the world
 Negative impacts of globalization:
o Globalisation operates mostly in interests of richest countries
o No guarantees that wealth from inward investment will benefit
local community
o Profits are sent back to the MEDC where the TNC is based
o TNCS, with massive economies of scale, may drive local
companies out of business
o If cheaper in another country, TNC might close down factory
making locals redundant
o Absence of laws may allow TNCs to operate in LEDCs in ways
not allowed in MEDCs
o Threat to the world's cultural diversity, such as the traditions
and languages
o Industry may begin to thrive in LEDCs at expense of jobs in
MEDCs
AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS
Human
Inputs
Things that
are built or
made by
humans and
added on to a
farm
 Labor/rent
 Machinery
 Building
 Animal feed
 Fertilizers
 Pesticide
 Market
demand
 Government
controls
 Seeds
Physical
Inputs
Natural things
that are found
on a farm or
added to a
farm
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Soil
Precipitation
Temp.
Length of
Season
Alluvium
Floods
Relief
Drainage
Process
The events
that take
place on a
farm to turn
inputs into
ouputs
 Rearing
 Shearing
 Ploughing
 Fertilizing
 Weeding
 Irrigating
 Cultivating
 Harvesting
 Slaughtering
 Planting
Zubair Junjunia
Outputs
Things that are
produced on a
famr that are
often sold
 Profits
 Meat
products
 Wool
 Milk
 Waste
 Crops
 Pollution
 Erosion
Successful Year
 Buying more land
 Buying better and newer
equipment e.g. new tractor
 Improving drainage/irrigation
 Buying new varieties of seed,
(GM crops)
 New buildings/more farms
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Bad Year
Sell some of your livestock
Sell some of your land
Diversify by opening a shop
Try and farm more intensively
by buying more fertilisers and
pesticides
FACTORS AFFECTING FARMING
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Temperature determines crops grown
Crops grow where there is an adequate growing season
There must be sufficient rainfall for crops to grow
Irrigation needed if insufficient rain
Cereal crops/vines need sunshine to ripen
Too much rainfall may flood crops/require drainage system
In areas with frost/long winter hardy animals may be kept
If it is windy wind breaks are needed etc.
Better/alluvial soil means arable farming otherwise pastoral
Flat relief means arable and hilly relief means pastoral
GREEN REVOLUTION
 The introduction of modern western style farming techniques in
LEDCs during the late 1960's and 1970's.
 High Yield Varieties:
o Developed to try and end food shortages by increasing yields.
o Were first developed by cross pollinating different varieties
o This is now being done through genetic modification.
Successes
Failures
 HYV did increase food
 Required fertilisers &
production and made
pesticides polluted water
countries more self-sufficient
 The HYV were more prone to
 Food prices began to fall
disease and drought
making; affordable for poor
 More water had to be diverted
 Shorter growing season, more
to growing crops
crops could be grown
 Many poorer farmers couldn’t
 The yields were more reliable
afford to buy expensive HYV
 Different crops were grown
 Mechanisation led to
adding variety to local diet
unemployment
 There were surpluses so crops  Many natural varieties lost
could be traded commercially
 Countries & farmers became
 Farmers became wealthier
dependent on foreigners
MONOCULTURE
CLASSIFICATION OF FARMING TYPES
1. Specialisation
Arable
Pastoral
Mixed
(crops)
(animals)
(both)
2. Economic Status
Commercial
Subsistence
(for profit)
(to survive)
3. Intensity of Land Use
Extensive
Intensive
 Normally a larger farm
 Normally a smaller farm
 Few inputs per hectare
 High inputs per hectare
 Few workers per hectare
 Lots of workers per hectare
 Low yields per hectare
 High yields per hectare
4. Land tenure
Shifting & Nomadic
Sedentary
(where farmers move from one
(farm location is permanent)
area to another)
 Growing of only one type of crop
 Cash crops: crops that are normally grown in large plantations for
the purpose of selling and making a profit
Advantages
Disadvantages
 Become more efficient
 If demand falls, no profit
 Profitable
 Less variety
 Can have high yields
 Bad season, no profit
 Easily controllable
 Labor becomes deskilled
 Low training required
 Only source of income
ORGANIC CROPS AND FARMING
 Farming that uses natural varieties and natural farming
techniques. There is only very limited use of fertlisers.
Advantages
Disadvantages
 Longer to ripen; better flavour  Crops are not uniform
 Low fertilizer use; less run-off
 May be susceptible to disease
 Less chemicals to consumers
 Take longer to grow
 Higher prices when sold
 May need more water
Page 16 of 19
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
June 2014
GM CROPS AND FARMING
 Genetically modified crops are crops that have their genes altered
to improve quality and/or quantity
Advantages
Disadvantages
 Uniform in shape – easy to
 Natural species may die
transport/ appeal consumers
 Tastse often not as good
 Growing season shorter
 Lead to development of super
 Drought resistant – less water
weeds – stronger than GM
 Higher yields
 No one knows long term effect
on humans
FAMINE
 When demand for food exceeds supply of food leading to
undernourishment. Prolonged undernourishment can damage
people's health and eventually lead to starvation.
Human Causes
Physical Causes
 Increasing population; supply
 Too hot or cool temperatures
cannot keep up with demand
can kill crops and animals.
 Overgrazing reduces integrity
 Shortage of rainfall kills most
of soil and can cause topsoil
crops or require irrigation
erosion and soil degradation.
 Too much rainfall can flood &
 Overcultivating causes soil
kill crops or wash away topsoil
degradation, using up and not
reducing soils fertility leading
giving nutrients recovery time
to low yield
 Deforestation of woodland,
 Natural disasters can destroy
damages integrity of soil as
large areas of agricultural land
well as its source of nutrients.
and kill or injure farmers.
 Farming and industrial
 If soil is infertile because the
pollution can both degrade
bedrock contains few minerals
land and reduce crop yields
it can be hard to cultivate land
and lead to low yields.
 Corruption of government
Effects:
 Hunger
 Susceptible to infectious diseases
 Impair physical and mental development
 Reduce labour productivity
INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS
SECTORS
 Primary industry: industry, such as farming, fishing, forestry and
mining that extracts raw materials directly from the land or sea.
 Secondary industry: an industry that processes or manufactures
primary raw materials, assembles parts made by other industries
or is part of the construction industry.
 Tertiary industry: an occupation, such as health, education,
transport and retailing, which provides a service to people
EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURES
An MEDC e.g. the UK
 Low proportion in primary sector:
o Mechanizations of jobs in primary
o Primary resources exhausted
o Resources are now imported.
 Numbers falling in secondary sector:
o Mechanization - as machines are
taking over jobs in factories.
 Tertiary sector is main growth area:
o Most work in hospitals, schools, offices & financial services
o Greater demand for leisure services as people have more free
time and become wealthier.
o More jobs become available in the tertiary sector.
Zubair Junjunia
An LEDC e.g. Ghana
 Majority in primary sector:
o Lack of machinery available in
farming, forestry and mining.
o Farming very important because
most eat what they grow.
 Few in secondary sector:
o Lack of factories because machinery is too expensive
o MNCS manufacture instead
 Tertiary may be larger than secondary:
o Most informal work is in the tertiary sector
o Growth of jobs in tourism
An NIC e.g. Brazil
 While Brazil’s economic base is
developing, there are still a large
number of people employed in
primary industries such as farming.
 There are a large proportion of people
employed in tertiary industries.
 One reason may be growth of Brazil as a tourist destination.
 Also, there have been significant improvements in the provision of
health care, education and transport.
THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM
 Input: resources which may be physical (natural) such as iron ore
or human (artificial) such as labour.
 Processes: turning raw materials into usable things such as
steelmaking and also turning usable things into other things for
example assembling cars.
 Outputs: profit or loss + waste materials
LOCATING AN INDUSTRY
Physical Factors
 Power/energy: the industry should be near the raw materials or a
port/station where the materials come from
 Natural routes: river valleys and flat land is good for transport
 Site and land: flat land & enough space might be needed, cheap
land
Human & Economic Factors
 Labour: quantity (industry might need many people) and/or
quality (very-skilled workers, close to a university)
 Capital: (money)
 Markets: size and location of market
 Transport: cost increases when items are bulky (steel), fragile
(glassware), heavy (steel) or perishable (fruit/veg.)
 Government policies
 Leisure facilities: countryside views / amenities
Hi-Tech Industries
 High-tech industries are footloose as they do not need to be near
raw materials so are located:
o In a pleasant working environment near to large markets and
major transport routes. OR
o Companies (especially foreign) may be tempted by the
government to locate in former industrial areas which often
had higher levels of unemployment
LEISURE ACTIVITIES AND TOURISM
 Tourism: the occupation of providing information,
accommodation, transportation and other services to tourists.
Page 17 of 19
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
June 2014
FACTORS THAT LEAD TO CHANGES IN TOURIST PATTERNS
 Transport and accessibility: access to various means of
transportation such as trains, cars, planes, ships etc.
 Scenery: the landscape and visual appearance of a place.
 Weather: depending on the type of vacation wanted, climate is
important e.g. for a ski trip, a cold destination is necessary.
 Accommodation: quality of hotels, camps, resorts, parks and their
affordability.
 Amenities: the various recreational, historical, leisure facilities
and sites that are offered and can be accessed.
REASONS FOR INCREASE IN TOURISM
 Greater affluence: higher salary + holiday with pay
 Greater mobility: increase in car ownership + more aircraft
 Improved accessibility and transport facilities:
o Better roads
o Larger airports, online reservation, package holidays
 More leisure time: longer vacations, shorter working hours,
people work from home, more elderly
 Changing lifestyles: changing fashions, earlier retirements
 Change in recreational activities
 Advertising of holiday destinations: TV and the Internet
 Green tourism
ADVANTAGES OF TOURISM
 Encouraging tourism will give country a chance to improve and
increase its GDP per capita rate (overall income is increased.)
 Brings in foreign money, culture, tradition; diversity
 Provides jobs for the unemployed
 Creates more business opportunities
 Positive compliments from tourists will increase the publicity
 To please the tourists, new infrastructure will have to be built
such as roads, bridges, buildings etc.
 Cultural festivals may become a tourist attraction
TYPES OF RESOURCES
 Non-renewable resources: These are finite. Fossil fuels were
initially produced by photosynthesis. In theory they are
renewable, but it takes millions of years for them to form. E.g.
coal, oil, gas, (uranium).
 Renewable resources: These are continuous e.g. solar, wind,
water, geothermal. They are therefore sustainable.
NON-RENEWABLE
 Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) used mainly by MEDCs
 Uranium for nuclear energy
 Fuel-wood is a non-commercial source of energy in MEDCs but
important in LEDCs; women walk long distances each day to
collect wood. They cook over open wood fires or wood stoves
Advantages
Disadvantages
Lasts 300yrs, now become
Cost of production high,
more efficient, needed to
produces lot of GH gases,
make coke
dangerous, open cast = visual
pollution, costly to transport,
acid rain
More efficient than coal,
Lasts only 50-70yrs, oil spills,
easier to transport, diversity
releases GH gases, prices
of uses, petro-chemicals
fluctuate, refineries use lot of
space, acid rain
Cleanest of fossil fuels,
Releases methane, explosive,
cheaper than oil, easy to
prices fluctuate, acid rain, GH
distribute
gases.
Coal
BUTLER’S PRODUCT CYCLE
 Exploration: newly discovered
tourist location that only
receives a very small amount
of tourists.
 Involvement: area becomes
better known; tourism is
supported by local population
and start to build basic tourist
infrastructure.
 Development: tourism
becomes an important sector
of economy. More investment
from foreign tour firms.
Infrastructure becomes developed.
ENERGY AND WATER RESOURCES
Oil
Increased congestion and pollution
Damage to physical landscape
Global brands may replace local businesses
Traditional culture lost
Inflation affecting locals
Seasonal unemployment
A shortage of services e.g. water supplies
Social/cultural problems
ECOTOURISM
 Ecotourism: Holidays that involve eco-related activities and are
sustainable e.g. hiking, bird-watching, horse riding, etc.
 Sustainable tourism: Tourist activities that are socially,
environmentally and economically sustainable.
How Ecotourist Resorts Can Be
Typical Ecotourism Activities
Eco-friendly
 Hiking
 Use renewable energy sources
 Kayaking
 Build using only local products
 Bird watching
 Serve only local food, using
locally sourced products
 Safari (animal watching)
 Employ only local staff
 Cycling
 Recycle all waste
 Beach cleaning
 Treat and clean all water
 Tree planting
 Educate guests about the
 Completing bird and animal
importance of protecting the
surveys
environment
 Promote local culture
Gas
DISADVANTAGES OF TOURISM








Zubair Junjunia
 Consolidation: Growth continues with resources diverted to
tourism sector. Areas may change to the exclusive use of tourists,
possibly alienating locals.
 Stagnation: Increased opposition to tourism, tourist facilities may
become tired and number of tourist arrival plateaus or declines.
 Rejuvenation: A tourist destination rebrands itself or improves
tourist facilities, offers promotions or improves transportation.
 Decline: No improvements are made to the tourist destination
and the number of tourists continues to declines.
Page 18 of 19
CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)
June 2014
RENEWABLE ENERGY SUPPLIES













PROBLEMS CAUSED BY WATER SHORTAGES
Types
Geothermal
Wind
Solar
Bio fuel
Hydroelectric
Tidal
Wave
Advantages
 Reduce dependence upon fossil fuels
 Alleviate the world’s energy crisis
 Offer opportunities for development of
alternative energy sources
 They do not pollute
 They do not add to Global Warming
 The source lasts forever
Disadvantages
Difficult to generate quantities of electricity required
Energy produced incomparable to fossil fuels
Unreliable supply of constant energy; wind doesn’t blow everyday
Some countries do not have the conditions for these sources
Cost of renewable energy technology very high
Cost of fossil fuel generation much less
NUCLEAR POWER






Benefits
Technology for nuclear power
exists
Abundance of radioactive
supply as fuel
Releases very low amounts of
greenhouse gases
Reduces dependency on fossil
fuel countries
Nuclear waste stored safely
underground
Electric supply altered easily
based on demand
Drawbacks
 Risk of nuclear accidents
(Chernobyl)
 Risk of nuclear plants as
terrorist targets
 Nuclear technology can be
used to make WMDs
 Risky to transport material
 Cost of power plants are high
 Risk of nuclear radiation
related to cancer
 Uranium mining dangerous
and polluting
 Remains radioactive for long
SITING OF THERMAL POWER STATION
 Needs geologically stable ground (away from plate margins and
earthquakes)
 Needs flat land which is easier to build on
 Needs to be near a large coal supply as coal is heavy to transport
and a lot is needed
 Needs impermeable rock
 Needs to be close to a railway to bring in large amounts of fuel
 Needs a water source
SITING OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATION




Zubair Junjunia
Needs high rainfall and low evaporation levels
Needs a steep sided valley
Needs impermeable rock
Needs to be away from large centers of population
SITING OF NUCLEAR POWER STATION
 Needs large amounts of water for cooling purposes so is often by
the coast / a river
 Needs geologically stable ground (away from plate margins and
earthquakes)
 Needs flat land which is easier to build on
 Needs impermeable rock
 Needs to be away from large centers of population
WATER USES
 Agriculture: to water the plants etc.
 Domestic: cooking, cleaning and drinking
 Industrial: heated to make steam in order to turn turbines, and for
cooling down reactors








Drought: below average supply of water over a prolonged period.
Famine: crops fail & livestock die due to water shortage
Groundwater supply deplete and aquifers begin to dry up
Conflict arise if there is a limited supply of water and water
resources are shared
People may be forced to relocate due to famine and drought
Stagnant dirty water = increased risk of waterborne diseases
Eutrophication due to run-off from farms containing fertilizer
Dirty water and eutrophication may cause loss of biodiversity
ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS & BENEFITS:
RESOURCE CONSERVATION & MANAGEMENT
PROBLEMS WITH DEVELOPMENT
Soil erosion
 Occurs in farms, where rainforest is cleared – soil is washed away
by rain because there are no tree roots to retain it.
 In the Amazon rainforest, eroded soil goes into rivers and pollutes
the drinking water.
Global warming
 Greenhouse effect is when infrared radiation passes through the
atmosphere, and some is absorbed and re-emitted in all
directions by greenhouse gas molecules.
 The effect of this is warming of surface and lower atmosphere
 Global warming happens as a result of too much greenhouse gas
 Effects:
o Melting ice-sheets = rising sea levels = increase in storms
o Change in the distribution of precipitation
o Plants and wildlife might not have the time to adjust
o Lower crop yields in Africa, parts of Asia and Latin America
o More people at risk from insect-borne & water-borne diseases
 Greenhouses gases are:
o CO2 from burning fossil fuels or wood
o Methane from decomposing organic matter and waste gases
o CFCs or chlorofluorocarbons from aerosols, air conditioners,
foam packaging and refrigerators (now banned)
o Oxides of Nitrogen from car exhausts, power stations and
agricultural fertilizer
Air pollution: cars and power stations
 Carbon monoxide: incomplete combustion of carbon-containing
substances causes oxygen starvation
 Sulfur dioxide: combustion of fossil fuels causes respiratory
problems and acid rain
 Nitrogen oxides: nitrogen and oxygen from air combine in a hot
environment (furnace or engine); same effect as sulfur dioxide
 Lead oxide: burning leaded petrol; damages nervous system
Water Pollution:
 Nitrates & phosphates from fertilizers cause eutrophication
 Oil spilling into the sea
 Acid rain:
o Makes lakes/ponds acidic and damage fishes gills, killing them
o Destroys top of trees and damages roots = dead tree
 Health hazards for humans
 Damages limestone buildings and sculptures
 Fewer crops can be grown on an acidic field
Visual pollution: all man-made things are ugly compared to the
unspoiled nature
Noise pollution:
 Vehicles (including planes) –
 Machinery in industries and farms
 Noisy humans
Page 19 of 19