Teaching and Teacher Education 109 (2022) 103570
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Teaching and Teacher Education
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate
Research paper
Examining the relationship between internship experiences, teaching
enthusiasm, and teacher self-efficacy when using a mobile portfolio
app
Konstantinos Michos a, *, Andrea Cantieni a, Regina Schmid b, Laura Müller b,
Dominik Petko a
a
b
University of Zurich, Kantonsschulstrasse 3, 8001, Zurich, Switzerland
Schwyz University of Teacher Education, Zaystrasse 42, 6410, Goldau, Switzerland
h i g h l i g h t s
Student teachers used a mobile portfolio app in two experimental studies during teacher education internships.
Each study evaluated different uses of the mobile app in a four-week, teaching internship in schools.
Internships experiences affected the development of teaching enthusiasm and teacher self-efficacy.
The use of the app increased teaching enthusiasm only when student teachers worked on the app with mentors.
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 17 May 2021
Received in revised form
19 October 2021
Accepted 20 October 2021
Available online 1 November 2021
Teaching internships constitute a core part of teacher education. However, it is unclear how internship
experiences can be enhanced with digital technologies to foster teacher professional development. In
two experimental studies, we examined the relationship between internship experiences, the development of teaching enthusiasm and teacher self-efficacy when using a mobile portfolio app during
teaching internships. Results show a positive effect of internship experiences on teaching enthusiasm
and self-efficacy. However, the use of the mobile app increased teaching enthusiasm only when student
teachers worked with their mentors. These results contribute to the relationship between mobileenhanced internship experiences and teacher effectiveness factors.
© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Keywords:
Teacher education
Teacher self-efficacy
Teaching enthusiasm
Mobile learning
Digital portfolios
1. Introduction
Teaching internshipsdoften referred to as teaching practice or
teaching practicumsdconstitute a fundamental element of teacher
education programs and aim to involve student teachers in prolonged exposure to hands-on classroom experiences (Cohen et al.,
2013; Rupp & Becker, 2021). Typically, teaching internships
involve independent classroom teaching guided by teacher mentors. Teaching internships aim to provide a cycle of experiential
learning, including practical experimentation along with teachers’
* Corresponding author. University of Zurich, Institute of Education, Kantonsschulstrasse 3, 8001, Zurich, Switzerland.
E-mail address: konstantinos.michos@ife.uzh.ch (K. Michos).
reflection (McIntyre, 1993; Postholm, 2008) that should connect
theory with practice (Zeichner et al., 2015). During teaching internships, student teachers have the opportunity to develop not
only their teaching capacities but also their dispositions, such as
their motivation, self-efficacy, and professional teacher identity
(Hudson, 2005). These aspects have been shown to relate to
effective instruction and instructional quality (Keller et al., 2016;
Kunter et al., 2008, 2011). Thus, the interplay between important
motivational factors and related teacher beliefs that help student
teachers become effective teachers has gained increased attention
in teacher education (Lazarides et al., 2018; OECD, 2019).
To support professional development in teaching internships, a
variety of digital technologies have been used in teacher education.
For instance, digital portfolios enable student teachers to reflect
through journaling, inquire into their skills and knowledge, and
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103570
0742-051X/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
K. Michos, A. Cantieni, R. Schmid et al.
Teaching and Teacher Education 109 (2022) 103570
document their teaching experience (Abrami & Barrett, 2005; Chye
et al., 2019), even with the use of mobile technologies (Baran, 2014).
However, the integration of digital technologies into teacher education is a challenging endeavor, and previous research suggested
focusing on overarching issues. These issues include the alignment
of digital technologies with coursework and teacher education
curriculum (Beckers et al., 2016; Cakir, 2013), the required scaffolds
to enable teacher development to evolve (McGarr & Moody, 2010;
Petko et al., 2017) , and the lack of empirical evidence to understand
how student teachers develop their teaching capacities (Berrill &
Addison, 2010; Gurvitch & Metzler, 2009; Imhof & Picard, 2009).
In particular, only a few empirical studies have shown the outcomes
of using digital portfolios in teaching internships.
1.2. Teaching internships influence teacher self-efficacy and
teaching enthusiasm
During teaching internships, student teachers have the opportunity to practice important teaching skills and better understand
authentic educational contexts (e.g., school and classroom contexts) outside of the teacher education program. A literature review
(Cohen et al., 2013) shows that outcomes of teaching internships
relate to a) teachers' beliefs and sense of efficacy, such as selfconfidence in teaching and reflective abilities; b) teachers'
instructional skills; and c) students' academic achievements in
specific subjects. Previous studies found that teacher self-efficacy
increases during teaching internships (Fives et al., 2007; Klassen
& Durksen, 2014; Rupp & Becker, 2021), although there are other
cases of negative influences of self-efficacy on emotional exhaustion (Brouwers & Tomic, 2000). In general, students teachers increase their self-efficacy through teaching (Colson et al., 2017;
Wenner, 2001) but this also depends on the actual activity implemented during teaching internships. For example, self-efficacy may
depend on the level of support received by teacher mentors (Hoy &
Spero, 2005) or reflective activities and feedback during teaching
internships that can be further enhanced with digital tools like
videos and feedback environments (Prilop et al., 2019). Teaching
experiences with technology may also increase student teachers'
self-efficacy (Han et al., 2017). Further, student teachers’ openness
to educational theories taught during the teacher education curriculum seems to relate to the development of self-efficacy during
internships (Hascher & Hagenauer, 2016). Lastly, the role of mentors has been considered important, and high-quality mentoring
may result in increased self-efficacy (Richter et al., 2013).
Teaching enthusiasm is considered a more complex construct
(Keller et al., 2016). Hascher and Hagenauer (2016) reported that
student teachers expressed more positive emotions during teaching internships; for example, they were interested and enthusiastic
about teaching, but they also reported being nervous and anxious.
A recent study on teachers' virtual internships showed that their
enthusiasm for teaching increased after the internship (Theelen
et al., 2020). Although a number of studies have explored the
enthusiasm of in-service teachers (Keller et al., 2016; Kunter et al.,
2011; Lazarides et al., 2018; Stahnke et al., 2016), there is a lack of
empirical evidence focusing on understanding the development of
teacher enthusiasm during student teachers’ internships.
1.1. Teacher enthusiasm and self-efficacy
Various factors determine good teaching and effective teachers.
Previous studies have shown that teachers' motivational orientations, including their enthusiasm for teaching and their selfefficacy in teaching tasks during classroom experiences,
contribute to teacher effectiveness (Gurvitch & Metzler, 2009;
Klassen et al., 2009; Mahler et al., 2017). Teacher enthusiasm is
defined as the enjoyment, excitement, and pleasure that teachers
feel during teaching and distinguishes between enthusiasm for
teaching and enthusiasm for the teaching subject (Kunter et al.,
2011; Lazarides et al., 2018). It has been argued that teacher
enthusiasm includes two facets: positive affective experiences
during teaching, such as enjoyment, and the expressiveness of
teachers’ enthusiasm in the classroom with facial expressions and
gestures (Keller et al., 2016). Research has shown that teacher
enthusiasm is associated with student outcomes and effective instruction (Keller et al., 2016; Kunter et al., 2011). Increased teacher
enthusiasm relates to higher student motivation through masteryoriented activities (Stahnke et al., 2016), higher student interest
(Kim & Schallert, 2014), and learning outcomes (Keller et al., 2013).
Next to motivational factors such as teacher enthusiasm, selfefficacy beliefs have been considered a core component of teach€ meke,
ers' professional competence (Baumert & Kunter, 2013; Blo
2014). According to Bandura (1997), people develop self-efficacy
beliefs based on four sources: mastery experience, vicarious
experience, social persuasion, and physiological state. Mastery
experience is the most important source and refers to the
engagement of individuals in a certain activity that is interpreted
on the basis of their performance and leads to the development of
beliefs (Gurvitch & Metzler, 2009). Accordingly, teacher selfefficacy is the perceived ability to succeed in teaching tasks, such
as effectively managing a classroom, as well as motivating and
engaging students in a particular situation (Buri & Moe, 2020;
Dellinger et al., 2008). Studies show that teachers' self-efficacy is
not only associated with increased teacher motivation and enthusiasm but also with student performance (Gurvitch & Metzler,
2009; Klassen et al., 2009; Mahler et al., 2017). A meta-analysis
showed that teachers’ self-efficacy is strongly associated with
teaching performance and modestly associated with student
achievement (Klassen & Tze, 2014) and suggested the development
of self-efficacy beliefs through training and professional development. Student teachers might also develop self-efficacy through
assessment activities that include authentic tasks and feedback
(Dinther et al., 2015). However, the majority of the abovementioned studies included in-service teachers, and only a
limited number of studies have shown how student teachers
develop self-efficacy and enthusiasm during internships.
1.3. Digital and mobile portfolios for teacher reflection in
internships
The use of digital tools in teacher education has a long tradition,
especially in the context of reflective writing and video-based
s, 2015; Kay, 2006; Kori et al., 2014).
feedback (Gaudin & Chalie
More recently, additional technologies, such as social media
(Iredale et al., 2020) and mobile technologies (Baran, 2014), have
been explored to strengthen teacher education. Digital portfolios
can be seen as an overarching approach that includes the affordances of many other tools, such as video-based feedback, weblogs,
and even social media (Berrill & Addison, 2010) and aims to support
student teachers’ deep reflections during teacher education activities, such as teaching internships. In particular, digital portfolios
are a technology that enables the collection of digital artifacts
capturing evidence of the working or learning process (Lorenzo &
Ittelson, 2005; Stefani et al., 2007) and might support documentation, reflection, and collaboration (Zubizarreta, 2009) during
teacher education internships. Student teachers may document or
showcase their work with various artifacts, including their lesson
plans, images, videos, and classroom experiences (Bruneau & Bie,
2010). Digital portfolios incorporate diverse technologies, such as
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Teaching and Teacher Education 109 (2022) 103570
In the context of teacher education internships, student teachers
engage in reflection activities that seek to connect theories with
classroom practices. For this reason, student teachers are supposed
to reflect on action after teaching and capture classroom evidence
supporting their reflections. The literature appears to indicate that
the different multimedia features, as well as the collaborative
aspect of mobile apps, carry novel significance (Baran, 2014).
Nevertheless, the affordances of mobile apps for note-taking with
voice, text, and multimedia, as well as collaboration/discussion
have not been sufficiently considered in previous studies on teacher
reflection in internships.
weblogs, microblogs, and social network sites, to facilitate reflective writing, the exchange of feedback, and asynchronous interactions that allow communication without time-space
restrictions (Ahmed & Ward, 2016; Birello & Pujola Font, 2020;
Hanuscin et al., 2014; Tur & Urbina, 2014). Apart from desktop
applications, the use of reflection apps and mobile portfolios is
currently very promising due to their ubiquitous and seamless use
€ nings et al.,
in professional practices (Garrett & Jackson, 2006; Ko
2016; Renner et al., 2014, 2016) and teaching internships (Petko
et al, 2019). Digital portfolios have the potential to develop
teacher competencies (Kabilan & Khan, 2012). For instance,
teachers develop their creativity when they include audio, video,
and hyperlinks in their reflective documentations (Abrami &
Barrett, 2005). Teachers also have the opportunity to reflect on
action after teaching and to think thoroughly about how to perform
their tasks in a more efficient or effective way (Riedinger, 2006).
Student teachers might also self-evaluate their teaching and thus
develop dispositions and positive feelings toward their work due to
their self-directed and personal involvement in learning (Genesee
& Upshur, 1996).
An increasing number of qualitative and quantitative studies
have focused on digital portfolios for teacher education and internships; however, few studies have evaluated the outcomes of
digital portfolios with respect to student teachers' self-efficacy and
enthusiasm after performing their internships. Regarding teacher
self-efficacy, Imhof and Picard (2009) suggested that highly selfefficient teachers might benefit most from portfolios in their
teaching. Petko et al. (2017) found that weblogs increase student
teachers' self-efficacy when they focus on problem-solving activities, and student teachers receive peer feedback. Boulton (2014)
used e-portfolios to assess the transition between pre-service
teacher training and teacher employment and concluded that eportfolios may improve self-regulation and teacher self-efficacy.
Another study showed that e-portfolios facilitate student teachers' understanding of effective teaching methods, and including
collaboration with mentors and teachers may also enhance their
social responsibility and efficacy (Kabilan & Khan, 2012). Maharsi
(2019) used e-portfolios in teaching practicums with the aim of
facilitating reflection and enhancing teachers' classroom management capacities and their awareness for teaching. Similarly, Moran
et al. (2013) and Milman (2005) showed that digital teaching
portfolios cultivated pre-service teachers’ professional and technological skills.
Compared to digital desktop portfolios, mobile portfolio apps
offer further opportunities for reflection in teacher education. For
instance, mobile apps enable the collection and dissemination of
rich multimedia content in real time and provide opportunities for
discussion and synchronous or asynchronous interaction with
voice, text, and multimedia (Traxler, 2007). Trainee teachers can
capture practical evidence, create portfolios, and, through this
process, achieve personal goals (Miller & Neill, 2014). Çelik et al.
(2018) investigated the affordances of a mobile app for teacher
observation and peer feedback compared to a paper-pen format.
Their findings showed that mobile apps can provide more focused
feedback without time-based restrictions, and teachers were eager
to use such technologies for reflection. Although the use of mobile
apps for teacher reflection seems promising, there is a limited
number of studies on teacher education internships. In other disciplines, such as vocational and medical education, some studies
have explored mobile apps for reflection. Mauroux et al. (2014)
showed that apprentices are more enthusiastic about using mobiles for their workplace reflections when they receive feedback
from their supervisors. Renner et al. (2016) found reflective
behavior to be positively associated with job satisfaction when
healthcare professionals used the mobile app collaboratively.
1.4. Research questions and hypotheses
Based on the findings presented in the above sections, this study
aimed to investigate how the use of mobile portfolios in teaching
internships affects the influence of internship experiences on
teaching enthusiasm and teacher self-efficacy. In particular, we
focus on two affordances of digital portfolios that have been
highlighted in many conceptual papers but rarely investigated
empirically: the collection of multimedia digital artifacts as a basis
for reflection and collaboration with mentors during this process.
Therefore, in this paper, we addressed the following research
questions and investigated the indicated hypotheses:
RQ1. To what extent do student teachers’ internship experiences
relate to their teaching enthusiasm and self-efficacy during teacher
education internships?
Regarding the first research question, we investigated the
following hypothesis:
H1. Student teachers' internship experiences will positively affect
their teaching enthusiasm and self-efficacy.
RQ2. How do student teachers’ internship experiences relate to
their teaching enthusiasm and self-efficacy when using a mobile
portfolio app during teacher education internships?
Regarding the second research question, we investigated the
following hypotheses:
H2a. Student teachers' internship experiences will positively
affect their teaching enthusiasm when using a mobile portfolio app
with multimedia note-taking functionalities. This effect will be
significantly lower when students use the mobile app without
multimedia note-taking functionalities or when students do not
use the mobile app.
H2b. Student teachers' internship experiences will positively
affect their self-efficacy when using a mobile portfolio app with
multimedia note-taking functionalities. This effect will be significantly lower when students use the mobile app without multimedia note-taking functionalities or when students do not use the
mobile app.
H3a. Student teachers' internship experiences will positively
affect their teaching enthusiasm when using a mobile portfolio app
with their mentors. This effect will be significantly lower when
students use the mobile app alone.
H3b. Student teachers' internship experiences will positively
affect their self-efficacy when using a mobile portfolio app with
their mentors. This effect will be significantly lower when students
use the mobile app alone.
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Teaching and Teacher Education 109 (2022) 103570
a portfolio for further documentation (step 6).
During the four-week internship, participants used the mobile
app on a daily basis to collect noteworthy moments in the classroom by taking notes, pictures or by recording audios and videos.
They were also instructed to write at least two reflections per week
with the use of the mobile app.
2. Methods
2.1. The present study
To answer these research questions, we conducted two experimental studies in a teacher education program for pre-service
primary school teachers. For the purposes of these studies, two
student cohorts of two respective years used a mobile portfolio app
during a four-week internship in primary schools. The first study
took place between January and February 2019 and the second
study between January and February 2020. The ethical issues of the
present studies comply with the ethical standards of the German
Educational Research Association. Consequently, all data analyses
were conducted based on anonymous data.
2.3. Experimental design
To examine the relationship between internship experiences,
teaching enthusiasm, and teacher self-efficacy when using a mobile
portfolio app, we manipulated the functionalities offered in the app
and focused on the affordances of multimedia note-taking and
collaboration. The first of these points reflects the fact that mobiles
offer further opportunities compared to desktop applications, and
thus the real-time collection of evidence in classroom teaching
with multimedia note-taking and the retrospective reflection with
written comments is feasible to be implemented in teaching internships with the use of mobiles instead of desktop applications.
The collaboration between teacher mentors and student teachers is
a main reflection component of teacher education internships, and
previous experimental studies have examined groups of individual
students and groups of students collaborating with teacher mentors. Nevertheless, there is a lack of experimental studies regarding
the connection between mobile-enhanced teaching internship
experiences and the development of teaching enthusiasm and
teacher self-efficacy.
Therefore, we conducted two experimental studies to evaluate
our five hypotheses. In both studies, we investigated H1 to explore
the relationship between internship experiences, teaching enthusiasm and self-efficacy with variations in the use of the mobile app.
In addition to H1, the first study also examined H2a and H2b to
explore whether the use of the app affected this relationship based
on the multimedia note-taking functionalities. Students were
randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups with the
mobile app and a control group without the mobile app. The first
2.2. Mobile portfolio app
A specialized teacher education app was developed (Petko et al.,
2019) and used in the study. The core functionality includes the
collection of so-called “moments”, i.e. by adding notes, taking pictures or recording audio or video, and the formulation of written or
spoken reflections that are based on the recorded moments (see
Fig. 1). The app runs on all major mobile operating systems (https://
metapholio.ch). The workflow of using the app can be described in
six steps: After installing the app and creating an account (step 1),
users invite fellow pre-service teachers and teacher educators to
access their portfolio (step 2). Through a simple interface, users and
invited persons can collect noteworthy moments during lessons
(step 3). These moments can be selected to be the starting point for
written or spoken reflections (step 4). Reflections are categorized
along professional standards (e.g., CCSSO, 2013) and scaffolded by
short prompts (e.g., “Describe what you did”, “How did this work
out?“, “What can be improved?“, “What theories could be helpful in
this regard?“). All moments and reflections can serve as a starting
point for comments and discussions between participants (step 5).
Finally, all moments, reflections, and comments can be exported as
Fig. 1. Screenshots from the metapholio app, from left to right: (a) collecting a moment, (b) overview of collected moments, (c) selecting moments and composing a reflection
guided by prompts (d) viewing and commenting on reflections.
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Teaching and Teacher Education 109 (2022) 103570
experimental group received a full version of the app that supported all six steps of the reflection process while the other group
worked with a reduced version of the app where step 3 was
omitted. Fig. 2 shows examples of student teachers’ portfolios with
the full version of the app (Left) which enabled students teachers to
capture multimedia evidence and write reflections whereas the
reduced version of the app (Right) enabled only the reporting of
written notes or reflections without multimedia. The experimental
groups and the control group performed their internships in the
following way (see Fig. 3):
Experimental group 1 (Metapholio group): Internships with the
use of the mobile app, including multimedia note-taking functionalities and written reflections.
Experimental group 2 (Metapholio light group): Internships
with the use of the mobile app, excluding multimedia notetaking functionalities but with text-based notes and written
reflections.
Control group: Internships without the use of the mobile app
but with written reflective reports.
Fig. 3. Experimental design and study measures in Study 1.
The second study further examined H1 to explore the relationship between internship experiences, teacher self-efficacy and
teaching enthusiasm with different conditions and another student
cohort. In addition to H1, this study examined H3a and H3b. Thus, it
studied whether the collaborative use of the app with mentors
affects teaching enthusiasm and self-efficacy (see Fig. 4). Students
were randomly assigned to two experimental groups and both
worked with the full version of the app as follows:
Experimental group 1 (Metapholio mentored group): Internships with the mobile portfolio app and collaboration between
student teachers and mentors.
Experimental group 2 (Metapholio unmentored group): Internships with the mobile portfolio app without mentors.
Fig. 4. Experimental design and study measures in Study 2.
conducted two studies with two different student teacher cohorts.
In each study students were attending the same course related to
the teaching internship which is part of a six-semester teacher
education program in the German speaking part of Switzerland and
it is offered yearly in the third semester. In Switzerland, primary
2.4. Sample and procedure
The sample consisted of pre-service primary education teachers
enrolled in a teacher education program in a Swiss university of
teacher education. In order to evaluate our five hypotheses, we
Fig. 2. Examples of two student teachers' portfolios. Left: Example from the “Metapholio group”. Right: Example from the “Metapholio light group”.
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Teaching and Teacher Education 109 (2022) 103570
2.5.1. Teaching enthusiasm instrument
teacher education is concluded with a bachelor degree after three
years of study and repeated teaching internships are an important
part of teacher education. All student teachers had already participated in two teaching internships out of the five, mandatory internships and already taught isolated primary education subjects.
During the studies, student teachers conducted their third internship, took full responsibility of a classroom for four weeks and
taught all the subjects of the primary school curriculum, which are
10 different subjects in the German-speaking region of Switzerland.
Among the 10 teaching subjects, the most important for the
teaching internship were German, Mathematics and a subject that
is a combination of Geography, History, Physics and Biology. During
the teaching sessions, the regular teacher took the role of the coach
but each subject was entirely taught by student teachers. In addition, a university mentor visited the classroom to provide feedback
and support as part of the teacher education program.
All student teacher had their first, prolonged teaching experience during the four-week period of the study. All student teachers
had experience in using personal smartphones and common social
media platforms. In order to gain experience with the mobile app
before their internships, student teachers participated in a 2-h
training workshop that included a hands-on walkthrough of all
the functionalities of the mobile app. In the first study, N ¼ 83
student teachers (64 female and 19 male, with the large majority of
70 aged between 18 and 25 years) were randomly assigned to one
of the Metapholio group (n ¼ 28), the Metapholio light group
(n ¼ 29), and the control group (n ¼ 26). In the second study, N ¼ 81
student teachers (63 female, 17 male, and one omitting reports of
their gender, with 68 aged between 18 and 25 years) were
randomly assigned to either the Metapholio mentored group
(n ¼ 39) or the Metapholio unmentored group (n ¼ 42). A prior
power analysis indicated that the above sample sizes were able to
predict an effect size of f2 ¼ 0.15 with an assumed significance level
of p ¼ .05 and a statistical power of close to 1-b ¼ 0.90 in a linear
regression analysis model with two predictors (calculated with
G*Power 3.1.9.2; Faul et al., 2007).
Teaching enthusiasm was measured with the Teacher Enthusiasm Scale developed by Kunter et al. (2011), which has been
widely used in previous studies and across different countries
(Kasalak & Dagyar, 2020). Our instrument focused on student
teachers' enthusiasm for teaching without evaluating enthusiasm
for the teaching subject and included five items on a 4-point Likert
scale, ranging from 1 ¼ “Does not apply at all” to 4 ¼ “Fully applies”
(sample items: “I always enjoy teaching students new things”, “It is
a pleasure to teach”). The EFA analysis of teaching enthusiasm scale
with oblimin rotation and the number of factors determined by
eigenvalues being greater than 1 resulted in a single factor solution.
In both studies the instrument showed good reliability (First study:
pre-test, Cronbach's alpha ¼ .84 and post-test, Cronbach's
alpha ¼ .87, second study: pre-test, Cronbach's alpha ¼ .75 and
post-test, Cronbach's alpha ¼ .87).
2.5.2. Teacher self-efficacy instrument
In the first study, we measured teacher self-efficacy with two
sub-aspects: individual and collective self-efficacy. We adopted the
instruments developed by Schwarzer and Schmitz (1999) and
Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1999) that were previously used in
German-speaking countries and included 22 items on a 4-point
Likert scale, ranging from 1 ¼ “Not true” to 4 ¼ “Exactly true”
(sample items: “I know I can teach the materials even to the most
problematic students”, “We will certainly be able to do pedagogically valuable work because we are a competent group of teachers
and can grow from difficult tasks”). We were not able to replicate
the two-factor solution in an EFA analysis as intended by the
original authors. The two-factorial solution accounted for 32% of
the variance, with low reliability of the sub-scales. The single factor
solution accounted for 27.2% of the variance, but with good reliability of the overall scale. Thus, we chose to build an overall index
of the entire item set as the most viable solution. The instrument
showed good reliability in the pre-test (Cronbach's alpha ¼ .77) and
the post-test (Cronbach's alpha ¼ .88).
In the second study, we adopted another instrument to measure
teacher self-efficacy based on Teachers' Sense of Efficacy Scale
(Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). We decided to translate this instrument in German because it has frequently used in international
studies and we aimed at achieving better comparison between our
results with the mobile app and other studies who used the same
instrument. This scale measures teacher efficacy along three elements related to efficacy of instructional strategies (sample item:
“How well can you respond to difficult questions from your students?”), efficacy for classroom management (sample item: “How
well can you control disruptive behavior in the classroom?”), and
efficacy for student engagement (sample item: “How well can you
get through to the most difficult students?”). We used the short
version of the instrument that includes 12 items on a 9-point Likert
scale ranging from ranging from 1 ¼ “None at all” to 9 ¼ “A great
deal”. The EFA analysis resulted to a single factor solution. We found
a good reliability for the instrument in the pre-test (Cronbach's
alpha ¼ .76) and the post-test (Cronbach's alpha ¼ .79).
2.5. Study measures
In both studies, an online questionnaire was administrated to
the student teachers before their teaching internships (pre-test)
and a second questionnaire was administered during the last week
of their internships (post-test). The pre-test questionnaire included
two scales that measured teaching enthusiasm and teacher selfefficacy. The post-test questionnaire included the same measures
(teaching enthusiasm, teacher self-efficacy) and a scale that
assessed student teachers΄ internship experiences (see Figs. 3 and
4).
In the first study, student teachers who were assigned to the two
experimental groups answered the post-test questionnaire according to their internship experience with the mobile app, while
student teachers who were assigned to the control group answered
the questionnaire without using the app in their internships. In the
second study, both experimental groups used the mobile app and
thus answered the post-test questionnaire with the mobile app in
their internships. We conducted an exploratory factor analysis
(EFA) to analyze possible sub-scales for our measures (teaching
enthusiasm, teacher self-efficacy, and internship experiences) and
reliability analysis. The results revealed that the empirical factors
did not comply with the expected theoretical factor structure of our
constructs. Therefore, we chose to construct an overall scale for
each measure that showed good reliability. The results regarding
the reliability and validity of the instruments for each construct are
presented in the next sections.
2.5.3. Internship experiences instrument
The final study measure was that of internship experiences and
was evaluated after the teaching internship was completed. We
adopted an instrument developed by Moser and Hascher (2000)
that evaluates internship experiences with 44 items, including
the role of the teacher (sample item: “Explaining your own
educational ideas and goals”), general lesson planning (sample
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Teaching and Teacher Education 109 (2022) 103570
item: “Familiarizing yourself with a larger subject area”), lesson
preparation (sample item: “Structuring a lesson (rhythm and
schedule)”), teaching (sample item: “Activating and motivating
individual students or the whole class”), evaluation (sample item:
“Analyzing and judging your own teaching activities self-critically”), dealing with students (sample item: “Actively involving
students in the classroom”), and school (sample item: “Making
contact with other teachers in the teaching staff”). The student
teachers were asked to evaluate the extent of their professional
development regarding these internship experiences on a 5-point
Likert scale, ranging from 1 ¼ “Very low” to 5 ¼ “Very high”. EFA
analysis resulted to 5 factor solution which did not align with the
theoretical assumptions of the sub-scales. As it was not possible to
replicate a clear factorial structure with the regard to different aspects of the internship experience, we chose to build an overall
index. With this approach, the instrument showed a good overall
reliability in post-test in both studies (First study: Cronbach's
alpha ¼ .95, Second study: Cronbach's alpha ¼ .96).
Table 2
Multiple linear regression analysis of the predictors of teaching enthusiasm in Study
1.
Effect
Estimate
(Intercept)
teaching enthusiasm_pre
internship experience_post
groupEX1
groupEX2
internship experience_post:groupEX1
internship experience_post:groupEX2
2.5
0.098
0.238
0.598
0.526
0.13
0.112
SE
0.452
0.087
0.097
0.63
0.521
0.15
0.124
95% CI
p
LL
UL
1.6
0.074
0.045
0.658
0.511
0.429
0.359
3.4
0.271
0.431
1.853
1.564
0.168
0.135
0
0.259
0.016
0.346
0.316
0.387
0.369
taking functionalities, and the control group (d ¼ 0.15) of students who did not use the app.
To test whether this increase was significant and whether it was
affected by the internship experience, and the use of the app, we
used a multiple linear regression model with teaching enthusiasm
in the post-test as the dependent variable. The predictor variables
were the teaching enthusiasm in the pre-test, the internship
experience in the post-test and the three study groups. The control
group was used as the reference group (represented by the intercept) against which the slopes of Metapholio group (EX1) and the
Metapholio light group (EX2) were compared. Table 2 presents the
results of the multiple linear regression analysis on teaching
enthusiasm.
The results show that the overall R2 of the model was 0.163, F (6,
76) ¼ 2.475, p ¼ .030 which indicates that only a small portion of
the variance in the dependent variable is explained by the predictors in the model. The only variable that added statistical significance to the prediction was the internship experience, which
shows a main effect of internship experience on teaching enthusiasm. However, the interaction effect of the internship experiences
with the Metapholio group (EX1) or the Metapholio light group
(EX2) is not significant, which indicates that students working with
the app did not show differences with respect to teaching enthusiasm. The main effect of the internship experience on teaching
enthusiasm in each study group is shown graphically in Fig. 5.
Teacher self-efficacy also increased in all groups over the course
of the teaching internship (see Table 1). This increase was again
prominent in both student teacher groups working with the app
but appeared to be greatest in the Metapholio light group
(d ¼ 0.53), followed by the Metapholio group (d ¼ 0.42) and the
control group (d ¼ 0.14). To investigate whether this increase was
significant, we computed another multiple linear regression analysis with teacher self-efficacy in the post-test as the dependent
variable. Following the same approach, we included teacher selfefficacy in the pre-test, the internship experience, and the
different study groups as predictor variables (see Table 3).
The results showed that these predictor variables explained
more than 30% of the variance in teacher-self efficacy in the posttest, F (6, 76) ¼ 6.512, p ¼ .000, R2 ¼ 0.339. The variables that
significantly added to the prediction were the internship experience and the teacher self-efficacy in the pre-test. This indicates an
2.6. Data analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to report scale means and
standard deviation for each study measure in the pre- and posttest. To examine H1, H2a, H2b, H3a and H3b we computed multiple linear regressions with teaching enthusiasm or teacher selfefficacy in the post-test as dependent variables. The explanatory
variables were the internship experience, teaching enthusiasm, or
teacher self-efficacy at pre-test, and the categorical variables
(metapholio, metapholio light, control group, metapholio mentored, metapholio unmentored) were coded as dummy variables.
We then computed multiple regression analysis in each study to
calculate the effect of each explanatory variable on teaching
enthusiasm or teacher self-efficacy to investigate H1, as well as the
interaction effects of the internship experience and the study group
conditions to investigate H2a, H2b, H3a and H3b. For the analysis,
we used the open-source software R 3.6.0 to preprocess the data, to
compute multiple regression analysis, and ggplot2 3.3.3 (Wickham,
2016) to visualize the results.
3. Results
3.1. Results of study 1
We initially report descriptive statistics on teaching enthusiasm,
teacher self-efficacy, and internship experiences across the three
study groups (see Table 1). Descriptive results show apparent differences between the groups with regard to teaching enthusiasm
and teacher self-efficacy in the pre-test. Teaching enthusiasm
increased in all groups over the course of the internship. The increase in teaching enthusiasm was especially prominent in the
Metapholio group (d ¼ 0.63) when student teachers used the full
version of the app with multimedia note-taking functionalities.
This was followed by the Metapholio light group (d ¼ 0.32) in
which student teachers used the app without multimedia note-
Table 1
Descriptive statistics about internship experience, teaching enthusiasm, and teacher self-efficacy in Study 1.
Pre-test
Internship experience
Teaching enthusiasm
Teacher self-efficacy
Post-test
EX1
M (SD)
EX2
M (SD)
Control
M (SD)
EX1
M (SD)
EX2
M (SD)
Control
M (SD)
3.74 (0.35)
3.18 (0.22)
3.87 (0.23)
3.19 (0.24)
3.82 (0.30)
3.17 (0.23)
4.24 (0.38)
3.92 (0.20)
3.28 (0.25)
4.21 (0.53)
3.94 (0.21)
3.33 (0.28)
4.14 (0.48)
3.86 (0.29)
3.21 (0.32)
7
K. Michos, A. Cantieni, R. Schmid et al.
Teaching and Teacher Education 109 (2022) 103570
Fig. 5. Main effect of internship experience on teaching enthusiasm in Study 1.
increased over the course of the internship in the second study. This
increase was noteworthy in the Metapholio mentored group
(d ¼ 0.51) where student teachers worked with their mentors and
lower in the Metapholio unmentored group where student teachers worked alone (d ¼ 0.25).
We followed the same approach as in Study 1 to examine
whether this increase was significant and whether internship
experience and the collaborative support provided by mentors on
the app influenced teaching enthusiasm. Thus, we computed
multiple linear regression with teaching enthusiasm in the posttest as dependent variable. In this study, the predictor variables
were the two study groups (mentored/unmentored), the teaching
enthusiasm in the pre-test and the internship experience in the
post-test. The Metapholio unmentored group (control group) was
used as the reference group (represented by the intercept) against
which the slope of Metapholio mentored group (treatment group)
was compared.
The results showed that the multiple regression model
explained more than half of the variance in teaching enthusiasm in
the post-test, F (4, 76) ¼ 25.99, p ¼ .000, R2 ¼ 0.577. The variable
Metapholio mentored group and the interaction of internship
experience and Metapholio mentored group significantly predicted
teaching enthusiasm, which indicates that student teachers working together with their mentors on the app showed increased
teaching enthusiasm compared to students working alone. There
was also an effect on the internship experience on teaching
enthusiasm, but only when student teachers worked with their
mentors (see Table 5). The effect of the internship experience on
teaching enthusiasm in the Metapholio mentored group is shown
in Fig. 7.
In Study 2, we also examined teacher self-efficacy. Descriptive
statistics (see Table 4) showed an increase in teacher self-efficacy
over the course of the internship, with a great increase in the
Metapholio mentored group (d ¼ 0.67) compared to the Metapholio unmentored group (d ¼ 0.14). The results of the multiple
linear regression model to understand whether this increase was
significant and whether the internship experience and mentor
support affected teacher self-efficacy showed that the predictor
variables explained almost half of the variance of teacher selfefficacy in this case, F (4, 76) ¼ 25.99, p ¼ .000, R2 ¼ 0.485. The
variable of internship experience significantly predicted teacher
self-efficacy (see Table 6), but there were no differences between
the study groups when student teachers worked with mentors
(Metapholio mentored) or alone (Metapholio unmentored). The
main effect of internship experience on teacher self-efficacy in both
groups is shown in Fig. 8.
Table 3
Multiple linear regression analysis of the predictors of teacher self-efficacy in Study 1.
Effect
(Intercept)
teacher self-efficacy_pre
internship experience_post
groupEX1
groupEX2
internship experience_post:groupEX1
internship experience_post:groupEX2
Estimate
1.031
0.304
0.293
0.504
0.296
0.109
0.048
SE
0.505
0.129
0.105
0.667
0.552
0.158
0.131
95% CI
p
LL
UL
0.026
0.048
0.084
0.824
0.804
0.424
0.309
2.037
0.561
0.502
1.832
1.395
0.205
0.214
0.045
0.02
0.007
0.452
0.594
0.491
0.719
effect of the internship experience on teacher self-efficacy while
the effect of the pre-test measure of teacher self-efficacy to the
post-test measures is expected. However, the interaction effect of
internship experiences with the Metapholio or Metapholio light
groups was not significant, which indicates no significant differences in teacher self-efficacy between the study groups. Fig. 6 depicts the main effect of internship experiences on teacher selfefficacy in each study group.
These findings confirmed hypothesis H1 in Study 1. Thus,
internship experiences positively affect teaching enthusiasm and
teacher self-efficacy. However, hypothesis H2a was rejected
because internship experience affected teaching enthusiasm,
without any significant differences between the examined study
groups. We initially hypothesized a significantly higher effect on
teaching enthusiasm in the Metapholio group, where student
teachers used the app with multimedia note-taking functionalities
compared to the Metapholio light group and the control group. As
shown, the use of the app did not influence teaching enthusiasm in
this study. Similarly, hypothesis H2b was also rejected because the
internship experience affected teacher self-efficacy without any
significant differences between the study groups. Student teachers
who conducted their internships with the mobile app, including
multimedia note-taking functionalities or excluding those functionalities, did not show higher teacher self-efficacy compared to
student teachers in the control group who did not use the mobile
app.
3.2. Results of study 2
In the second study, we again investigated H1, but we also
examined the influence of the collaborative support provided by
teacher mentors on the app on teaching enthusiasm H3a and
teacher self-efficacy H3b. Descriptive statistics (see Table 4)
showed that teaching enthusiasm and teacher self-efficacy also
8
K. Michos, A. Cantieni, R. Schmid et al.
Teaching and Teacher Education 109 (2022) 103570
Table 4
Descriptive statistics about internship experience, teaching enthusiasm, and teacher self-efficacy in Study 2.
Pre-test
Internship experience
Teaching enthusiasm
Teacher self-efficacy
Post-test
Metapholio mentored
M (SD)
Metapholio unmentored
M (SD)
Metapholio mentored
M (SD)
Metapholio unmentored
M (SD)
3.63 (0.38)
3.84 (0.35)
3.81 (0.23)
4.07 (0.31)
4.16 (0.50)
3.73 (0.41)
4.07 (0.33)
4.36 (0.44)
3.92 (0.20)
4.12 (0.36)
Table 5
Multiple linear regression analysis of the predictors of teaching enthusiasm in Study 2.
Effect
Estimate
(Intercept)
teaching enthusiasm_pre
internship experience_post
metapholioMentored
internship experience_post:metapholioMentored
SE
1.91
0.423
0.091
1.388
0.311
0.457
0.091
0.08
0.478
0.111
(Intercept)
teacher self-efficacy_pre
internship experience_post
metapholioMentored
internship experience_post:
metapholioMentored
Estimate
0.917
0.458
0.309
0.25
0.034
SE
0.455
0.096
0.099
0.534
0.125
95% CI
p
LL
UL
0.01
0.266
0.111
0.814
0.283
1.824
0.65
0.506
1.315
0.215
p
LL
UL
0.999
0.241
0.069
2.339
0.091
2.821
0.605
0.251
0.436
0.531
0
0
0.26
0.005
0.006
relationship between the internship experience and the development of teacher enthusiasm and self-efficacy (RQ2). We conducted
two longitudinal experimental studies in which student teachers
used a mobile portfolio app in their internships in schools.
With respect to RQ1, both studies showed that student teachers'
enthusiasm and self-efficacy increased after their internships, and
this was affected by the internship experience. The internship
experience was evaluated based on student teachers’ professional
development after a four-week teaching internship and a relationship was found with their enthusiasm and self-efficacy in the
two consecutive, experimental studies that included the use of a
mobile portfolio app. Considering the literature on the development of teacher self-efficacy during teaching internships, this
finding is in line with previous research (Colson et al., 2017; Klassen
& Durksen, 2014; Rupp & Becker, 2021) and this study is able to
expand the finding to the use of mobile portfolio apps and the
investigation of teaching enthusiasm. Although the use of digital
tools and traditional digital portfolios seems to increase teacher
self-efficacy through reflection and feedback activities (Petko et al.,
2017; Prilop et al., 2019), there has been limited evidence when
using mobile apps (Baran, 2014; Çelik et al., 2018). In other professional domains such as medical education (Renner et al., 2016)
or vocational education (Mauroux et al., 2014), the use of reflection
apps that capture workplace and learning experiences showed
similar benefits such as increased job satisfaction or opportunities
for reflective learning. Mobile devices are technologies that support
the connection between situated learning experiences, spontaneous reflection and sharing of ideas (Sophonhiranrak, 2021). Thus,
there is a significant potential to use mobile portfolio apps (Martí &
Ferrer, 2012) in teacher education internships due to their affordances for real-time collection of classroom evidence and documentation of teaching. This enables teacher reflection processes
that are more visible, grounded, and useful for further discussion
with experts and fellow student teachers, especially when deciding
future changes of actions.
With respect to RQ2, we further examined the different conditions of mobile app use in teaching internships. Based on the results
of both studies, the main finding is that mobile app use shows more
benefits related to the development of teaching enthusiasm in internships when student teachers work on the app with their
mentors. The experimental conditions focused on a) the multimedia note-taking functionalities of the mobile app (Study 1)
because mobile devices offer these opportunities for reflection
Table 6
Multiple linear regression analysis of the predictors of teacher self-efficacy in Study 2.
Effect
95% CI
0.048
0
0.003
0.641
0.784
Based on these findings, hypothesis H1 was confirmed in the
second study because the internship experience had a positive
overall effect on teaching enthusiasm and teacher self-efficacy.
Thus, H1 can be confirmed based on the findings of both Studies
1 and 2. However, in the second study, the results showed that
teaching enthusiasm significantly increased when using the mobile
app under specific conditions as hypothesized in H3. Thus, hypothesis H3a was confirmed because internship experiences
significantly affected teaching enthusiasm when student teachers
worked together with their mentors on the mobile app. However,
this is not the case for teacher self-efficacy, and H3b should be
rejected because the internship experience affected teacher selfefficacy without any differences between student teachers working alone or with their mentors.
4. Discussion
Teaching internships are at the core of teacher education programs because they involve student teachers in a situated teaching
situation in the classroom and bridge the teacher education curriculum with the school context. During teaching internships, student teachers are scaffolded to reflect on their own teaching
experiences, and this process might develop their beliefs and
motivational orientations towards teaching. However, limited
empirical studies show how the use of digital technologies and, in
particular, mobile portfolio apps in teaching internships might
change student teachers’ beliefs and motivation. In this study, we
sought to understand whether internship experiences with a mobile portfolio app relate to teaching enthusiasm and teacher selfefficacy (RQ1). We also investigated conditions under which the
use of a mobile portfolio app in teaching internships showed this
9
K. Michos, A. Cantieni, R. Schmid et al.
Teaching and Teacher Education 109 (2022) 103570
Fig. 6. Main effect of internship experience on teacher self-efficacy in Study 1.
Fig. 7. Main effect of internship experience on teaching enthusiasm in the Metapholio mentored group in Study 2.
enthusiasm and self-efficacy. However, our findings showed that
when student teachers engaged in this reflection process without
multimedia but with text-based notes on the mobile app or even
without the use of the app but with written notes, their teaching
enthusiasm and self-efficacy also increased between the pre-test
and the post-test. The fact that we did not find differences between these experimental conditions could be explained by the fact
that student teachers used the mobile app without mentor support.
compared to the study of traditional portfolios with desktops or
laptops and b) the collaborative use of the app with mentors (Study
2) because mentors traditionally support teacher reflection processes in internships even without using digital tools. In the first
study, we hypothesized that a full version of the app that allows
student teachers to capture multimedia evidence (e.g., pictures,
audio, and video) in real time during teaching internships and later
their reflection on this evidence, would enhance their teaching
Fig. 8. Main effect of internship experience on teacher self-efficacy in Study 2.
10
K. Michos, A. Cantieni, R. Schmid et al.
Teaching and Teacher Education 109 (2022) 103570
to investigate and show these outcomes related to the use of mobile
portfolios apps in teaching internships.
During their internships, they coordinated their classrooms while
they used their mobile app for their observations. This affordance of
mobiles seems to require multiple roles taken by student teachers
in internships, for example, teacher, and observer, which might
need further reflection scaffolds (Çelik et al., 2018). In addition, the
noticing of moments could also be differentiated between good and
problematic examples of classroom incidents and reflections
(Prilop et al., 2019); thus, student teachers’ self-selection of classroom moments with mobile portfolios needs to be further investigated to conclude the impact of multimedia note-taking
affordances on teacher enthusiasm and self-efficacy.
However, the findings of the second study showed that when
student teachers received collaborative support on the mobile app
from their mentors, their teaching enthusiasm increased. Their
internship experience affected their teaching enthusiasm only
when working with mentors, whereas this was not evident when
working on the app on their own. The importance of mentorship in
forming student teachers' enthusiasm and motivation has been
underlined in previous research (Richter et al., 2013), and our study
extends this finding to the use of mobile apps in internships, which
can serve as hybrid spaces between student teachers and mentors
(Harun et al., 2021; Zeichner, 2010). This finding shows the impact
of digital portfolios in teacher education by suggesting the use of
mobile portfolio apps as a common space for reflection between
student teachers and mentors. Teacher education programs might
incorporate mobile portfolios in teaching internships with a special
focus on the role of mentors as collaborators who also capture
important classroom moments and provide feedback based on
their knowledge and experience. Although mentor support was
also expected to affect teacher self-efficacy, we did not find differences between the individual and collaborative use of the app. One
possible interpretation of the second study's results could be that
teaching enthusiasm is more related to affective teacher factors,
whereas self-efficacy involves cognitive factors (Baumert & Kunter,
€meke, 2014). In this study, mentor support on the mobile
2013; Blo
portfolio app positively influenced affective teacher characteristics
related to teaching enthusiasm. The use of mobile portfolios should
also align with the main goals of mentoring (Richter et al., 2013)
which are essentially the provision of feedback for a) instructional
approaching (e.g., classroom management, teaching strategies and
student support) and b) psychological elements (e.g., building
confidence for teaching). To support the development of teacher
self-efficacy with mentors, a better connection between the
collection of multimedia evidence in the classroom and the written
reflections is required. Future teacher education programs can
scaffold this process by showing examples of connected theory and
practice. In addition, research with regard to video-based teacher
education has shown that it is ultimately the quality of scaffolds
s, 2015). In
that guide the quality of reflection (Gaudin & Chalie
consequence, research on the use of mobile portfolios that include
video-based records might go into a similar direction. Furthermore,
professional development could also focus on student teachers'
self-regulation process (Butler et al., 2004) and address the cognitive, affective and socio-cultural factors (e.g., teacher self-efficacy,
enthusiasm, and mentor support) that affect the effective use of
mobile portfolios. In summary, previous studies have shown a
positive association between teaching enthusiasm and teacher selfefficacy for in-service teachers (Buri & Moe, 2020), or the development of student teachers' self-efficacy in internships (Rupp &
Becker, 2021) and the important role of mentors (Richter et al.,
2013). Our study showed that the use of the mobile app with
mentor support did not affect student teachers' self-efficacy beliefs
but their teaching enthusiasm and this suggests further investigation on the sources of self-efficacy and enthusiasm with digital
tools. Despite these unexpected results, our study is among the first
5. Limitations
The interpretation of our results needs to take different limitations into account. In the first study, we measured teacher selfefficacy based on individual and collective efficacy, but in the second study, we moved to another instrument that is frequently used
in international studies to measure teacher self-efficacy for
instructional strategies, classroom management, and student
engagement. Thus, our conclusions regarding teacher self-efficacy
from both studies should consider the difference in the measurement, although all our instruments showed validity and reliability.
Further, we only used self-reported data. An extension of this study
could employ mixed methods to evaluate teaching enthusiasm or
teacher self-efficacy. For example, an evaluation of teaching
enthusiasm could consider student teachers' expressiveness with
gestures and facial expressions, which can be analysed with videos
or observers in the classroom. In addition, the level of reflection
with the specific functions of the examined mobile app might have
an impact, and a qualitative analysis of student teachers' selfselected classroom incidents and written reflections could shed
more light on the association between mobile-based teachers’ reflections and teaching enthusiasm and self-efficacy. Due to the
experimental setting in real classrooms, we could not control for
other variables that might affect internship experiences, such as the
student-teacher interactions. Lastly, this longitudinal study could
be extended to consider an even longer period to examine the use
of the mobile app when student teachers already have some prior
teaching experience or teacher education in another context (e.g.,
secondary education). Nevertheless, a major strength of our study
is that we used two different student teacher cohorts and repeatedly evaluated our main research question and hypothesis
regarding the relationship between internship experiences, teaching enthusiasm, and teacher self-efficacy with different variants of
using a mobile portfolio app.
6. Conclusions
We investigated the effects of using a mobile porfolio app on
student teachers' internship experiences and their impact on
teaching enthusiasm and teacher self-efficacy. Notably, we found
that internship experiences impacted teaching enthusiasm and
self-efficacy beliefs, but the use of a mobile portfolio app increased
teaching enthusiasm only when student teachers worked on the
app with their mentors. These results have implications for teacher
education programs that involve digital technologies, especially
mobile portfolios. Mobiles apps can be used in teaching internships
to allow classroom walkthrough and observations with multimedia. Student teachers can reflect-in-action with mobiles, as they
subsequently reflect-on-action with peers or mentors. However,
this process should be scaffolded according to the needs of the
particular teacher education program by incorporating mentor
support to develop student teachers' motivational orientations.
Future studies might consider the level of reflection to further
examine the development of student teachers' self-efficacy beliefs
or an association between student teachers’ motivational and
knowledge outcomes when using mobile apps.
Acknowledgements
This research project was funded by the Swiss National Science
Foundation (Grant Number 100019_173049)
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Teaching and Teacher Education 109 (2022) 103570
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