Word count: 9119
Department of History
School of Social Sciences
Ateneo De Manila University
Loyola Height, Quezon City
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment: The Public Education System of the Moro
Province, 1903-1913
by
Albert Rafael E. Umali III
IV-AB History
An Undergraduate Thesis submitted
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
The Degree of
Bachelor of Art in History
Quezon City
April 2023
Word count: 9119
Table of Contents
List of Maps
1
Acknowledgements
2
Introduction
3
I. Aim, Topic, & Research Question/s
3
Research Topic
3
Research Question/s
5
II. Historiographic Essay
5
Scholarly works on the history of Education in the Philippines
5
Works of Influential figures on the creation Public Education System of the Philippine
Islands
7
Scholarly works on the Moro Province
9
Scholarly Work on other forms of Education in the Moro Province
9
III. Significance and Contribution
10
IV. Method and Approach
10
V. Scope and Limitation
11
VI. Sources and Repositories
12
VII. Proposed Thesis Structure
13
VIII. Milestones and timeline of First and Second Semesters
14
CHAPTER 1
15
The Educational Landscape: Education in Mindanao prior to the Moro Province
15
The emergence of the “Pandita” / Madrasah education system
15
Spanish Era / the Jesuits missionaries
17
The arrival of The Americans – Education during the Military Occupation
18
CHAPTER 2
21
The “Designers of Knowledge”: The Educational Philosophies of the Governors of the Moro
Province
21
The “Designers” of Knowledge
22
General Leonard Wood: The First Governor of the Moro Province
22
Tasker H. Bliss: the Second Governor of the Moro Province
24
General. John J. Pershing: The Last Governor
25
CHAPTER 3
28
The Educational Diversity: Religious schools and the Emergence of Secular Public schools 28
The Pandita schools and the Emergence of a Secular public school
29
Parochial Schools and the Emergence of a Secular public school
31
CONCLUSION
32
Bibliography
34
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
1
List of Maps
Map
Map 1. The Moro Province 1903-1913
Map 2. Jesuit Missionary Stations in Mindanao 1900-1929
3
16
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2
Acknowledgements
The completion of this research would not have been possible, if not for the constant
encouragement and constructive criticisms of my dear colleagues, Bea Alejandro, Lia Castro,
Caitlin Enriquez, Charlie Soriano, Nicolo Del Rosario, Keith Macapagal, Kiko Tallada, Bea
Magbanua, and Raine Rivas. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude towards the
staff of the American Historical Collection of the Rizal Library, especially to Sir. Bhal Rabe,
who helped me in finding relevant primary sources that I was able to use in strengthening my
research. I would not have been able to survive my four years as a history major at the
Ateneo De Manila University without the aid and kindness of Ms. Kristine A. Sendin the
History Department Secretary, that has always been ready to provide assistance and guidance.
My sincerest appreciation extends as well to Dr. Patricia Dacudao, my thesis adviser
who inspired me to pursue my research topic through her Mindanao Studies subject that
opened my eyes to the rich and unexplored history of Mindanao and for her unyielding
support that allowed me to improve and polish my senior thesis. Lastly, my sincerest
gratitude and thanks to my family who have always believed in and encouraged me to not
only pursue my research topic but as well as my passion for history and so I dedicate to them
all of my hard work.
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3
Introduction
I.
Aim, Topic, & Research Question/s
Research Topic
During the early years of the American occupation of the Philippine Islands, the
American government along with the Philippine Commission formally initiated the
establishment of a public school system in the country in 1901. Subsequently, in 1902, the
United States Congress passed the “Philippine Bill” - that established and recognized the
necessity of establishing different forms of government for the Pagan, Christian, and Muslim
population of the Philippine Islands (P.I.)1. In line with this, The American colonial
government saw the need to establish a separate governing body for the Muslim Filipinos in
the southern part of the P.I. - The Moro Province (M.P.).
With the passing of the Philippine Commission of Act No. 787 - “An act Providing
for the Organization and Government of the Moro Province ” - The Moro Province was
formally inaugurated on July 15, 1903. The newly formed Moro Province consists of five
districts - Sulu, Cotabato, Davao, Lanao, and Zamboanga where the Capital city was located
(refer to Map 1). In line with Act No. 787 - the implementation of public education in the
Moro Province became separate from that of the Bureau of Education and will be directly
supervised by the Superintendent and the governor of the Moro Province. According to Gen.
Leonard Wood the first Governor of the province - “In constrast to previous policy, the
Moro Province sought to build its own school buildings and conduct its own school system
independent of municipal influence or control”2.
1
United States Congress, and Philippine Commission. An Act providing for the Organization and Government of the Moro
Province, 787 § (1903). https://elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph/thebookshelf/showdocs/28/37265.
2
Peter Gordon Gowing, Mandate in Moroland: The American Government of Muslim Filipinos 1899-1920.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
4
Aim of the Research
This study aims to trace the expansion and development of the public education
system implemented in the Moro Province through the actions and decisions of its leaders.
Through this examination, the study aims to uncover the factors that impeded and aided the
education of Muslim-Filipino and Christian-Filipino residents of the Moro Province. In line
with this, the study aims to study the educational philosophies and views of significant
figures in the Moro Province and how these affected the creation and implementation of
Public Education in the region. In addition, this study will also discuss how the presence of
other forms of educational institutions in the region affected the establishment of the public
school system.
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5
Research Question/s
What were the different educational policies that influenced and guided the expansion and
development of the public education system in the Moro Province, 1903-1913?
Sub-Question 1: Did the views on Education of the Educational
Superintendents, Directors, and Governors of the Moro Province influence the
development of the Educational system in the Province?
Sub-Question 2: What were the challenges in establishing a public education
system for the Moro population of the Moro Province?
Sub-Question 3: Did the presence of Pandita and Parochial schools in the
province, affect the establishment and development of the public education
system?
II.
Historiographic Essay
This section of the paper is intended to introduce each of the chosen pieces of
literature and provide general ideas and perspectives about them. In addition, this section is to
provide the relevance and connection of each of the works with the aim of the research.
Scholarly works on the history of Education in the Philippines
There have been many scholars who have tackled the educational history of the
country. Works such as The Philippine History: Political, social, Economic by Eurfronio M.
Alip (1958), In A Century of Education in the Philippines 1861-1961 by Dalmacio Martin
(1980), and The Philippines Past and Present by Dean C. Worcester (1914), provides an
overview of the Education of Filipinos under American Colonization. All three scholarly
works gave information on the different kinds of schools established during the American
period and the aims behind them ((i.e., Agricultural schools, Philippine Nautical Schools,
Normal schools, etc.). In spite of their similar subject matter, the scholarly works presented
have some differences, Dalmacio Martin’s work mentions the changes in curriculum over the
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
6
two-decade period3. In addition, both Alip and Martins’s work contained a separate section
dedicated to the education received by Non-Christian Filipinos such as the Muslims of
Mindanao.
Following these scholarly works is the journal article written by Prof. Renato
Constantino (1970), entitled The Miseducation of the Filipino, in this article he stated that,
“Education is a vital weapon of a people striving for economic emancipation, political
independence and cultural renaissance”4. Furthermore, he tackles briefly the beginnings and
goals of American education and how these affected the education of Filipinos5.
In 1901 the American Civil Government in the Philippines, passed the educational
Act of 1901, or Act no. 74 giving way for the establishment of the Department of Public
Instruction6. However, it must be noted that the Reports of the Department of Public
Instruction contain mostly educational data concerning Christian Filipinos, and only allotted a
section devoted to the education of Non-Christians especially the Muslims of Mindanao. This
is due to the fact that at the time the Educational reports of the Moro Province is separated
from that of the rest7.
Moreover, the annual report of the General Superintendent of Education in 1908,
contains information on the progress of public instruction in the Philippine Islands. In
addition to this, is a report on the difficulties or the problems American educators faced in
establishing public schools in the Moro Province. One example that was stated is, “The
presence in the Moro Province of different peoples antagonistic to one another in religion
and culture makes the school problem there very difficult”8. Furthermore, the report of 1907
also stated a notable difference between the instruction of Christian Filipinos and the Muslim
Filipinos, “...some differences have been developed, notably the teaching of reading and
writing of Moros in their native dialects, written, as these dialects regularly are, in the
Arabic character”9.
3
Martin, Dalmacio, ed. “Chapter IV: Philippine-American Educational Partnership, 1898-1935.” In A Century of Education
in the Philippines 1861-1961, 165–97. Manila: Philippine Historical Association, 1980.
4
Constantino, Renato. “The Miseducation of the Filipino.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 1, no. 1 (1970).
chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://nonlinearhistorynut.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/miseducatio
n-of-a-filipino.pdf.
5
Constantino, The Miseducation of the Filipino, 1.
6
Estioko, Leonardo R. History of Education: A Filipino Perspective, 187-197. LOGOS Publications, Inc., 1994.
7
Department of Public Instruction, Bureau of Education. “Annual Report of the General Superintendent of Education
[1904].” Annual, 1904. American Historical Collection. Ateneo De Manila - Rizal Library.
8
Department of Public Instruction, Bureau of Education. “Annual Report of the Director of Education [1908].” Annual, July
1, 1907. American Historical Collection. Ateneo De Manila - Rizal Library.
9
Department of Public Instruction, Bureau of Education, Annual Report of the Director of Education [1908]
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
7
The following are scholarly works describing the educational history mainly of the
Christian provinces but also dedicated a section on Non- Christian Filipinos (i.e., the Muslim
Filipinos in the Moro Province). Both, A History of the Education in the Philippines
1565-1930 by Encarnacion Alzona and History of Education: A Filipino Perspective by
Leonardo R. Estioko provided a survey of the education received by Christian Filipinos and
Non- Christian Filipinos like Muslim Filipinos. Wherein, both literature outlines the
organization of the public school system. Estioko’s book provided information on the
structure of the school system and a partial list of tertiary-level institutions established during
this era.10
Furthermore, Alzona's book dedicated a section on Non-Christian Filipinos,
describing the progress and problems faced in implementing the educational policies. One
such problem that was mentioned was attracting or convincing Muslim parents to send their
daughters to schools11.
Part Three of the Social Engineering in the Philippines: The Aims and Execution of
American Educational Policy, 1900-1913 by Glenn A. May, provides a detailed history of the
Educational system in the Philippines during the early years of the American Colonization
through following the administrations of three General Superintendent / Directors of the
Bureau of - Fred Atkinson, David Barrows, and Frank R. White and the Governor General of
the Philippine Islands - William Cameron Forbes. The book expounded on the different
reforms and educational policies enacted in each term12.
Works of Influential figures on the creation Public Education System of the Philippine
Islands
Dean C. Worcester (1914) a U.S. official who served as secretary of the Interior for
the U.S. Insular Government in the Philippines from 1901-1913, wrote a book entitled The
Philippines Past and Present - in this book Worcester traced Philippine History from the
Spanish era to the early years of the American colonization. His book, in addition, expanded
on the educational system being implemented in the Philippine Islands (P.I.) - he states how
“American teachers were quick to see these vagrant arts could be organized and
10
Estioko, Leonardo R. History of Education: A Filipino Perspective, 187-197. LOGOS Publications, Inc., 1994.
Alzona, Encarnacion. A History of the Education in the Philippines 1565-1930. 1st ed. Manila: University of the
Philippines, 1932.
12
May, Glenn Antony. Social Engineering in the Philippines: The Aims, Execution, and Impact of American Colonial
Policy, 1900-1913, 1980.
11
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8
commercialize.” - that resulted in courses such as pillow lace-making, Irish crochet, hat
weaving, and many more to be introduced in the primary and also intermediate schools
throughout the country13.
Following Worcester is a book by the first General Superintendent of the Public
Schools system in the Philippines - Fred W. Atkinson (1905). In this book entitled, The
Philippine Islands - Atkinson similarly to Worcester wrote about the history of the Philippine
Islands up to the arrival of the Americans. Included in his book is a section about education wherein, he detailed the story of the educational development in the country. In this section,
he detailed the history of Philippine education from the Spanish era to the early American
period. He stated the shortcomings of the Spanish in establishing an effective educational
system in the country - “The system lacked completeness and sufficiency, and although it is
true that at the time of the coming of the Americans, some 2150 public primary schools
were in operation, a knowledge of the character of the work carried on in them detracts
seriously from the importance with which such a statement as this might otherwise be
received”14. Furthermore, Atkinson stated that it is through the intervention of the American
government that led to the “...enlivened interest in educational matters”15.
Barrows (1914) expanded on the status of the development of Public education in the
P.I. - Barrows stated that through the continuing efforts of the American Insular government
in the Islands - Filipinos have recognized and sought further education - high schools. “The
high schools are the real intellectual and social centers for each province and have
commanded the fullest enthusiasm of the Filipinos, who have made sacrifices to gain
them”16. In addition to this, Barrows explained the main features of the public school system
- focus on industrial work and athletics. Industrial courses have been injected into every stage
of education from primary to high school.
The book of Dr. Najeeb M. Saleeby entitled the “Language of Education” - argues
and defends the idea that the use of the English Language as the sole medium of instruction
can impede the students learning. Dr. Saleeby states that “Elementary education should
improve the intelligence of the pupil and prepare him for a productive and progressive life”
13
Worcester, Dean C. The Philippines Past and Present. Vol. 2. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1914. American
Historical Collection. Ateneo De Manila - Rizal Library.
14
Atkinson, Fred Washington. The Philippine Islands, by Fred W. Atkinson., 2005.
http://name.umdl.umich.edu/abf2839.0001.001.
15
Atkinson, 381.
16
Barrows, David Prescott. A Decade of American Government in the Philippines, 1903-1913, by David P. Barrows ...,
2005. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/ahz9396.0001.001.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
9
and to accomplish that the language of instruction should remain to be his own native tongue.
Moreover, Dr. Saleeby expounds on the advantages of using the native tongue in effectively
forming and shaping the pupils’ habits and character17.
Scholarly works on the Moro Province
The materials presented below are government documents and scholarly works that
pertain to the establishment and various development of the Moro Province. Scholarly works
that depict the education of Muslim Filipinos. The Muslim Filipinos: Their History, Society,
and Contemporary Problems by Antonio Isidro, Chapter 3 - Civilizational Imperatives:
Building Colonial Classrooms.”, In the Civilizational Imperatives: Americans, Moros, and
The Colonial World by Oliver Charbonneau (2021) and Mandate in Moroland: The American
Government of Muslim Filipinos 1899-1920 by Peter Gowing (1983), provide extensive
information on the perception and reaction of Muslim Filipinos to the Colonial public
educational system. In addition, both books provide a glimpse of the development of public
education in the region.
All of the works depicted the American Educational campaign as a failed attempt to
pacify the Muslims of the south. Peter Gowing’s Mandate in Moroland - provides a detailed
description of the administration of the three governors of the Moro Province. In addition to
this, the Mandate in Moroland gives a detailed history of the Moro Province and how various
key players in the colonial government influenced the education of the Muslim Filipinos18.
Scholarly Work on other forms of Education in the Moro Province
There has been a cursory historical study on the educational landscape in Mindanao
before the arrival of both the Spanish and the Americans. In the Panditas of the Philippines,
17th - Early 20th Centuries by Jonathan Victor Baldoza (2022), he explores the history of the
Panditas as both an influential individual within the Muslim-Filipino community that
performs various rituals and also conducts classes on Islamic history and traditions19.
Following Baldoza is the View of Issues on Islamic Education in the Philippines by Marlon
Gulen, Razaleigh Kawangit, and Zulkefi Aini (2017), they tackled the current issue of Islamic
education in the Philippines and how Islamic education contributes greatly to the
17
Saleeby, Najeeb M. “Elementary Education Should Be Given in the Mother Tongue,” March 9, 1925.
Peter Gordon Gowing, Mandate in Moroland: The American Government of Muslim Filipinos 1899-1920.
19
Baldoza, Jonathan Victor. “The Panditas of the Philippines, 17th - Early 20th Centuries.” Archipel. Études
Interdisciplinaires Sur Le Monde Insulindien, no. 103 (August 30, 2022): 127–56. https://doi.org/10.4000/archipel.2969.
18
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10
development of the relationship between Muslims and Christian20. In order to investigate this,
the authors delve into the history of Islamic education in the country21.
III.
Significance and Contribution
This research aims to fill the historical gap within the present historical literature on
the public education system implemented and developed in the Moro land. After reading and
analyzing, the existing related literature, the researcher found that the majority of the
secondary sources on the history of Philippine education, have yet to fully tackle the nuances
of the public school system implemented during the American period for the education of
Muslim Filipinos in the southern region of the Philippines. There has been a cursory study on
this topic such as Peter Gowing’s Mandate in the Moroland, however, his book only touched
upon the various achievements of the three governors of the Moro Province.
In line with this, the researcher aims to contribute to the body of literature on
Philippine Education under the American era by tracing the development of the public school
system in the Moro Province through the perspective of the Governors and other
policymakers of the province. Through re-examining how the Public school system was
introduced in the Moro Province the researcher hopes to uncover the possible influences of
the educational philosophies of the key policymakers in the region on the development and
expansion of the public school system in the Moro Province. Furthermore, the researcher
hopes through tackling the challenges and successes of implementing the public school
system in the Moro province, may provide some perspective to aid in finding solutions to the
current problems facing public education such as the decreasing quality of education22.
IV.
Method and Approach
This research will utilize archival research methods in collecting and analyzing the
acquired primary data on the educational development within the Moro Province. Archival
research is defined as a historical research method that “employed historical materials to
20
Guleng, Marlon Pontino, Razaleigh Muhamat@Kawangit, and Zulkefli Aini. “Issues on Islamic Education in the
Philippines: Isu-Isu Pendidikan Islam Di Filipina.” Al-Irsyad: Journal of Islamic and Contemporary Issues 2, no. 1 (June 20,
2017): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.53840/alirsyad.v2i1.22.
21
Guleng
22
Childhope Philippines Foundation, Inc. “Education Issues in the Philippines: The Ongoing Struggle,” August 25, 2021.
https://childhope.org.ph/education-issues-in-the-philippines/.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
11
study the emergence of distinctive institutional arrangements”23. In line with this, the thesis
will employ two archival research goals, first is Studying Structural embeddedness - which
looks into certain individuals, organizations, and institutions that have been embedded within
“relational networks” that influence the development and ideas of a given geographical area
through the dominant ideology24. And lastly, is Studying Meaning Structures - wherein the
research goal is to examine the “shared understanding, professional ideologies, cognitive
frames or sets of collective meanings” that influence how relevant actors or institutions view
and interpret the world around them25.
In line with this, a Top-Down approach will be utilized in this research, to examine
and review the pertinent government documents that tackle the educational development of
the Moro Province. With this methodology, the researcher will trace the development of the
public school system in the Moro Province through the examination and analysis of the
annual reports and articles written by the various governors and Superintendents of Schools
in the province.
V.
Scope and Limitation
This study will focus on tracing the development of the educational system
implemented in the Moro Province. The time frame of the study will be from 1903-1913, the
ten-year period wherein Mindanao was under the jurisdiction of the Moro Province. In terms
of the scope of the educational factors, the research will take into account the educational
philosophies and views of the key policymakers in the Moro Province and the corresponding
memorandums, bulletins, and directives accessed through the reports of the Governor
General of the Moro Province, and the reports of the Superintendent of the regions. In
addition to this, the study will mainly focus on the Christian residents and the Muslims of the
Moro province. It will not tackle the development of public education in the other parts of the
Philippine Islands nor the other non-Christian tribes in the island of Mindanao or within the
Moro Province.
23
Mohr, John, and Marc Ventresca. “Archival Research Methods,” 805–28, 2002.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405164061.ch35.
24
Ibid
25
Ibid
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
12
VI.
Sources and Repositories
The primary sources used by the researcher in conducting this research were mainly
accessed and reviewed at the Ateneo De Manila University. All of the primary sources - e.g.,
the annual reports of the Bureau of Education - Department of Public Instruction, the annual
reports of the governor of the Moro Province, the report of the 1st Philippine Commission,
the survey report of the education of the Philippines by the Board of Educational Survey, and
the book of Dean C. Worcester entitled, “The Philippines Past and Present”, were all found
and accessed in the American Historical Collection. The American Historical Collection
(AHC) is a repository of historical materials such as books, photographs, and government
documents about the American period in the Philippines. In line with this, the researcher
would like to acknowledge the aid given by Sir. Bhal Rabe and the staff of the AHC in
finding the primary sources used in this research.
In regards to the secondary sources, the researcher was able to access them mainly
through the Ateneo De Manila University - Rizal Library. Sources such as A Century of
Education in the Philippines 1861-1961, The Muslim Filipinos: A Book of Readings, History
of Education in the Philippines, and History of Education: A Filipino Perspective, were all
found in the Filipiniana section. In addition, there were also secondary sources used by the
researcher from the American Historical Collection - e.g., A History of the Education in the
Philippines 1565-1930, The Muslim Filipinos: Their History, Society, and Contemporary
Problems, Philippine History: Political, Social, Economic, and The Muslim Filipinos: Their
History, Society, and Contemporary Problems.
In addition to this, the researcher was also able to acquire secondary and primary
sources in online repositories such as the University of Michigan Library’s Southeast Asian
Collection - e.g., The Philippines past and Present, The Philippine Islands, and A decade of
American government in the Philippines, 1903-1913.
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13
VII.
Proposed Thesis Structure
This thesis intends to be a cursory survey of the development of the establishment of
the public school system in the Moro Province, and the landscape of education in the
province during its 10-year period of semi-autonomous statehood. Our story begins, with
chapter 1, where the study will illustrate the educational landscape prior to the arrival of the
Americans and the establishment of the Moro Province. Chapter 1 will look into the various
educational systems or forms of it that have existed in the region, from the pre-colonial
pandita schools, The Spanish period’s parochial / Catholic missionary school run by Jesuit
missionary priests, and the early American period, with the embryonic public education
during its military occupation.
After which, Chapter 2 and Chapter 3, will look into the experiences and reports of
the Governors & Superintendent of schools of the Moro province in establishing a secular
public school in the Moro Province. Chapter 2 specifically will look into the perception of the
education of the governors of the Moro Province and how these educational philosophies
have shaped their actions and decisions in establishing the public school system in the M.P.
Chapter 3, the last chapter of this thesis, will discuss how the American governors of the
Moro Province, reconciled with the presence of non-secular schools in the region such as the
long-standing, Pandita schools of the Muslim-Filipinos and the Parochial Schools of the
Christian-Filipinos. And lastly, the conclusion will summarize the main points of the thesis
and provide future recommendations and the limitations of the study.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
14
VIII.
Milestones and timeline of First and Second Semesters
Proposed Schedule of Thesis Writing
Albert Rafael E. Umali III, 4 AB History
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment: The Public Educational System of the Moro
Province
Academic Requirements
Timeline
Research Proposal
Submission date: November 11, 2022,
Word count:
Oral Presentation
Submission date: November 17, 2022,
Full Senior Thesis Draft
Submission date: December 9, 2022,
Word count (max):
Proposed Thesis Chapters
Timeline
Chapter 1: The Educational Landscape:
Education in Mindanao prior to the Moro
Province
deadline: February 7, 2023,
Word count: 1663
Chapter 2: The “Designers of knowledge”:
The Educational Philosophies of the
Education Superintendents and directors.
deadline: February 28, 2023,
Word count: 2093
Chapter 3:The Educational Diversity:
Religious schools and the Emergence of
Secular Public schools
deadline: March 23, 2023,
Word count: 1,295
Introduction
deadline: March 31, 2023,
Word count: 3346
Conclusion
deadline: March 31, 2023,
Word count: 500
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
15
CHAPTER 1
The Educational Landscape: Education in Mindanao prior to the Moro Province
This Chapter will trace the educational landscape of Muslim Filipinos in the southern
Philippines prior to the creation of the Moro Province. Detailing the varied educational
systems encountered and experienced by the Muslim Filipinos from the Pandita Schools,
Catholic Missionary schools, and early American public schools and exploring the different
educational aims and perspectives on education of each system. In addition, the chapter
explores how educational systems can be utilized as a tool for preservation, conversion, or
suppression.
With this in mind, Chapter 1 will be answering the following research questions: (1) What
was the educational landscape of Mindanao prior to the formation of the Moro Province? (2)
What were the educational aims of the different educational systems in each era? And lastly,
(3) How did the Muslim Filipinos react to the different educational systems they
encountered?
The emergence of the “Pandita” / Madrasah education system
Prior to the arrival of western colonial powers such as Spain and the United States, the
inhabitants of Mindanao were already exposed to an Islamic education system brought by
Arab missionaries during the late 13th to early 14th century along with the Islamic faith26. This
Islamic education system was known as Madrasah/Madrassa system or prior to the colonial
era as “Pandita”27. The term pandita was derived from a Sanskrit word that means “Learned
teacher” and “Master”28. The Pandita or Madrasah system would resemble a tutorial system
wherein Panditas or “gurus” would conduct classes in mosques or at the homes of the
Panditas or influential individuals in the community such as the Datu29. As a result of this, the
Panditas were regarded in high esteem by the community, even described by a British
26
Lantong, Abdul M. “The Islamic Epistemology and Its Implications for Education of Muslims in the Philippines,” 67–71.
Atlantis Press, 2018. https://doi.org/10.2991/icigr-17.2018.16.
27
Samid, Amina H. “Islamic Education and the Development of Madrasah Schools in the Philippines.” International
Journal of Political Studies 8 (August 2022): 35–47. https://doi.org/10.25272/icps.1139650.
28
Baldoza, Jonathan Victor. “The Panditas of the Philippines, 17th - Early 20th Centuries.” Archipel. Études
Interdisciplinaires Sur Le Monde Insulindien, no. 103 (August 30, 2022): 127–56. https://doi.org/10.4000/archipel.2969.
29
Lantong, Abdul M. “The Islamic Epistemology and Its Implications for Education of Muslims in the Philippines,” 67–71.
Atlantis Press, 2018. https://doi.org/10.2991/icigr-17.2018.16.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
16
observer as “…almost the chief in his district – not in the warlike sense, like the Datto; but
his words has great influence.”30.
This system can be categorized as religious in nature, wherein the gurus would teach
students passages from the Qur’an, furthermore, the Panditas also taught them the Arabic
writing system and basic arithmetic31. Moreover, education during this period was limited to
“vocational training and fewer academics by their parents and in houses of tribal tutors”32.
The prevailing educational aims in both Muslim and non-Muslim communities are focused
on “survival, conformity, and enculturation”33. In line with this, the teaching methods utilized
by Islamic gurus, were “show-and-tell, observation, trial and error, and imitation”34.
In addition to this, the Panditas were described to be “travelling ‘teachers’” that
spread and preserve the Islamic faith35. The Madrasah education was credited to aid in the
preservation of the Islamic faith in the Southern Philippines despite the numerous attempts of
colonizers like Spain to dismantle the faith36. Though there are no substantial evidences that
could provide the scale the scope of this Pandita education system. Nevertheless, The pandita
school was able to achieve this by focusing on the integration of the Islamic faith and
traditions into the Filipino Muslim youth through education.
30
Foreman, John. The Philippine Islands: A Political, Geographical, Ethnogrpahical, Social and Commercial History of the
Philippine Archipelago. Third. Filipiniana Book Guild, 1906.
31
Ibid
32
Kulidtod, Zainal Dimaukom. “ISLAMIC EDUCATIONAL POLICIES IN THE PHILIPPINES: ITS EVOLUTION AND
CURRENT PROBLEMS.” International Research-Based Education Journal 1, no. 1 (May 29, 2017).
https://doi.org/10.17977/um043v1i1p%p.
33
Ibid
34
Ibid
35
Baldoza, Jonathan Victor. “The Panditas of the Philippines, 17th - Early 20th Centuries.” Archipel. Études
Interdisciplinaires Sur Le Monde Insulindien, no. 103 (August 30, 2022): 127–56. https://doi.org/10.4000/archipel.2969.
36
Solaiman, Saddam Mangodato. “Implementation of Arabic Language and Islamic Values Education (ALIVE) in Marawi
City, Philippines: Unveiling the Perceptions of ALIVE Teachers.” Education Journal 6, no. 1 (February 10, 2017): 38.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.edu.20170601.15.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
17
Spanish Era / the Jesuits missionaries
Along with the arrival of the Spaniards saw a new educational system in the form of
Catholic Missionary Schools37. The Spaniards were able to establish this new Christian
education throughout the Islands of Luzon and Visayas however failing to penetrate the heart
of Mindanao. Since the arrival of Spain one of its main objectives was not only to spread the
Catholic faith through its missionary Schools but also to subdue and convert the Muslims of
Mindanao. However, despite their numerous military campaigns it would take them several
decades to establish a military foothold in Mindanao. A few years after Spain and the Sulu
sultanate signed a peace treaty in 1851 a royal decree was issued to create a politico-military
government in the region. The establishment of Catholic missionary schools in the southern
Philippines received significant support from Spanish religious orders, in particular, the Jesuit
order played a key part in this endeavor. The Jesuits established stations through out
mindanao (refer to Map 2), the first mission was stationed in Tamontaka at the center of
“Muslim territory”38. In the compiled Jesuit letters, that was translated and annotated by Fr.
Jose S. Arcilla S.J., it was recorded how the Jesuits did not only seek to convert the natives
but as well as educate them.
37
Alzona, Encarnacion. 1932. A History of the Education in the Philippines 1565-1930. 1st ed. Manila: University of the
Philippines.
38
Arcilla, Jose S. 1978. “The Return of the Jesuits to Mindanao.” Philippine Studies 26 (1/2): 16–34.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
18
In a letter written by Fr. Jose Ignacio to the Mission Superior in 1875, he detailed the
regular activities of the libertos in the agricultural institute they have established.
“After the noon meal, recreation until 1:30 o’clock, and rest or free time until 2:00
o’clock. From 2:00 to 3:00, reading, writing, and catechetical instructions,
immediately followed by work. At sundown, rest or recreation, and around 6:30
o’clock, the Rosary, followed by a few hymns, catechism, practice of Spanish and
Moro until 7:45 o'clock. After supper, they recite the prayers, and go to bed”39.
This particular letter shows, that the Jesuit missionaries did not only teach the children
Spanish but as well as continuing to educate them in their native languages. In the latter part
of the letter Fr. Ignacio explains the logic behind this, “…to develop here a Moro-Spanish
population who speak some Spanish, are trustworthy…”40. In addition to teaching the
children that they have been ransomed out of slavery from Muslim communities, the Jesuits
would conduct classes in the tianggi or markets. These catechism classes would be composed
of Muslim Filipinos and other non-Christian Filipinos such as the Tirurays41.
However, in spite of this, the Spaniards were unable to fully establish and spread their
Catholic missionary schools in Mindanao. According to Spanish records, enrollment rates in
colonial schools in Mindanao such as in Cotabato and Zamboanga reached about 5 percent of
the Muslim youth42. The Jesuit missionaries continued to conduct missionaries and operate
missionary schools until the arrival of the Americans. The Jesuits played a key role in
supporting the Americans in conquering Mindanao.
The arrival of The Americans – Education during the Military Occupation
Following the defeat of Spain in the Battle of Manila and the signing of the Treaty of
Paris in 1899. Even though Mindanao was never fully colonized by the Spanish, Spain
transferred the authority of the entire Philippine Islands, including Mindanao, to the United
39
Guerrico, Jose Ignacio. Letter to Mission Superior. “Jesuit Missionary Letters from Mindanao: Jose Ignacio Guerrico to
the Mission Superior,” 1875. Rizal Library - Ateneo De Manila University.
40
Ibid
41
Ibid. P. 69
42
Milligan, Jeffrey Ayala. Islamic Identity, Postcoloniality, and Educational Policy: Schooling and Ethno-Religious Conflict
in the Southern Philippines. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
19
States. 43. In 1899 President McKinley express the basic policy of his administration towards
the annexation of the Philippine Islands in a message to the United States Congress:
“The Philippines are not ours to exploit, but to develop, to civilize, to educate, to train
in the science of self-government. This is the part we must follow or be recreant to a might
trust committed to us”44.
When the Americans first interacted with Muslim Filipinos in 1899, they relied
heavily on the guidance of Jesuit Missionaries on how to negotiate and interact with the
Muslim Filipinos. The works of the Jesuit missionaries that describe the “characteristics” of
the Muslim Filipinos also influenced the perception of American military officers on the
character of Muslim Filipinos. The works of Rev. Fr. Pio Pi. S.J. in particular was highly
regarded by the American Military government. In a report by Gen. George W. Davis, he
included an essay written by Fr. Pi that describes the Muslim Filipinos of Mindanao in the
most unflattering light with descriptions such as, “Among the Moros there scarcely exists one
who is not a ladron (robber)”45.
American Garrisons were sent to strategic locations throughout Mindanao such as
Zamboanga and Cotabato. In that same year, Brigadier-General John C. Bates was stationed
in Mindanao in order to negotiate with local Datus to establish friendly relations with the
Muslim Filipinos – this treaty would be known as the “Bates Treaty”46. However, despite the
establishment of the Bates Treaty, the American Military was unable to determine a concrete
policy or guide with regard to the treatment of the Muslim Filipinos and other Non-Christian
Filipinos in Mindanao47. In April of 1900, President McKinley in a speech provided
instruction on the treatment of the Muslim Filipinos and other non-Christians that the
American military should adopt a similar policy when treating the North American Indians48.
The Mindanao Island, along with the Sulu Archipelago and Palawan was placed under
the jurisdiction and supervision of the Military District of Mindanao Jolo in 1899. After a few
43
Gowing, Peter G. Mandate in Moroloand: The American Government of Muslim Filipinos 1899-1920. New Day
Publishers, 1983.
44
Harrison, Francis Burton. The Corner-Stone of Philippine Independence: A Narrative of Seven Years. New York: The
Century Co., 1922.
45
Ibid, footnote 19
46
Forbes, W. Cameron. The Philippine Islands I. Vol. 1. 2 vols. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, The
Riverside Press Cambridge, 1928.
47
Ibid, footnote 19
48
Forbes, W. Cameron. The Philippine Islands I. Vol. 1. 2 vols. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, The
Riverside Press Cambridge, 1928.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
20
years on March 20, 1900, the District was changed into the Military Department of Mindanao
and Jolo. Under the Military Department of Mindanao and Jolo, a new educational system
was introduced to the inhabitants of Mindanao. A public education founded on a western and
secularized system of education49. The teachers that were recruited to teach were a mix of
civilians and military personnel, both Filipinos and Americans50. In a report of the War
Department, Captain Cloman stationed in Bongao stated that there is a great need for
blackboards and chalks for the education of Muslim Filipinos. Furthermore, the Americans
viewed the education system they encountered in Mindanao needed to be overhauled and
education would need to go back to the basics
51
. In establishing this new form of the
education system, the Americans faced challenges from both Christians and Muslims alike,
the Americans utilized the “Carrot-and-stick” to solve the dilemma52. Soon as the Philippine
Commission was formed and started to take over the governing of the country, the Military
officers slowly turned over their duties to the civilian teachers. In spite of this, the governing
of the Moroland in the coming years from 1903-1913 would remain in the hands of seasoned
American Military generals that have diverse and conflicting educational aims.
The Muslim Filipinos of Southern Philippines, have encountered different systems of
education. Educational systems have different aims and methods. The Madrasah/Pandita
System displayed how education can be an effective tool and weapon to preserve one’s
customs and traditions. The Spaniards however, unsuccessful in expanding their Catholic
Missionary Schools in Mindanao, showed how education can be a way to persuade and
convert an individual. The introduction of a secularized education in the form of public
education under the American military occupation would pose a challenge to the
long-standing pandita schools that have safeguarded the Islamic youth from conversion.
49
Gowing, Peter G. “Chapter 3: Shaping an American Moro Policy _ Health and Education.” In Mandate in Moroloand:
The American Government of Muslim Filipinos 1899-1920, 63–65. New Day Publishers, 1983.
50
Ibid
51
Ibid
52
Charbonneau, Oliver. “Chapter 3 - Civilizational Imperatives: Building Colonial Classrooms.” In Civilizational
Imperatives: Americans, Moros, and The Colonial World, 73–93. Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2021.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
21
CHAPTER 2
The “Designers of Knowledge”: The Educational Philosophies of the Governors of the
Moro Province
The creation of a military government for the Muslim Filipino population of the
Southern Philippines was strongly encouraged and supported by Major General George W.
Davis of the 7th brigade that was stationed in Mindanao. In a report in 1902, Gen. Davis
stated in his recommendations to Governor Taft, that a military government must be in place
to properly govern the Muslim Filipinos53. Additionally, Gen. Davis stated in his report to the
United States War Department that the American policy of non-interference as stated in the
Bates Agreement in 1899 towards the Muslim Filipinos allowed for the Sultan to have
excessive “sovereign power” and he hopes that through the creation of the Moro Province
(M.P.), the Sultan’s power can be regulated54.
The Moro Province was established on June 01, 1903, when the Philippine
Commission and the United States Congress passed Act No. 787, or An Act providing for
the organization and Government of the Moro Province55. Within this law, the boundaries and
purpose of the creation of the province were laid out. The Moro province was divided into
five districts, namely, Sulu, Lanao, Cottabato, Davao, and Zamboanga, with the last as its
capital56. The provincial government will be composed of “a governor, attorney, secretary,
treasurer, superintendent of schools and an engineer”57.
The public school system introduced by the Americans was divided into Primary,
Intermediate, secondary, and tertiary schools. Along with this, the American school system
also offered technical schools such as Normal, Industrial, Agricultural, and Farming
Schools58. On the other hand, due to the establishment of the Moro Province in the fall of
1903, the schools of Southern Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago have been administered
53
Davis, George. “Annual Report of Major General W. Davis 1903.” Annual. Manila: War Department, October 1, 1902.
American Historical Collection. Ateneo De Manila - Rizal Library.
54
Davis, George. “General Davis’s Report on Moro Affairs.” Manila: War Department, October 24, 1901. American
Historical Collection. Ateneo De Manila - Rizal Library.
55
United States Congress, and Philippine Commission. Act No. 787 - AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE ORGANIZATION
AND GOVERNMENT OF THE MORO PROVINCE. - Supreme Court E-Library, Pub. L. No. Act No. 787 (1903).
https://elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph/thebookshelf/showdocs/28/37265.
56
Ibid
57
58
Ibid
The Board of Educational Survey. “A Survey of the Educational System of the Philippine Islands (1925).” Survey, 1925.
American Historical Collection. Ateneo De Manila - Rizal Library.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
22
separately from the Bureau of Education59. In line with this, the Moro province aimed to
create its own educational system free from municipal oversight or influence under the direct
supervision of the governor of the Moro Province (M.P.) and the Superintendent of Schools60.
Despite this the Moro Province shared the same Primary School curriculum with the rest of
the country, focusing on the three Rs - mainly reading, writing, and arithmetic61.
The “Designers” of Knowledge
General Leonard Wood: The First Governor of the Moro Province
General Leonard Wood, was a trained physician graduating from Harvard Medical
School, he rose to prominence after multiple successful military campaigns, wherein he was
awarded the Medal of Honor and was credited for the modernization of the education,
sanitation, and other civil services of Cuba when he was appointed its Military Governor in
189962. After his governorship of Cuba, he met with President Theodore Roosevelt who at the
time was having difficulties assigning a governor for the newly formed Moro Province in the
Southern Philippines. Gen. Wood then volunteered to take the post of governor, which
President Roosevelt gladly accepted. President Roosevelt, gave Gen. Wood absolute control
of the province and said to him in the effect of - “Your authority is absolute, The Military
forces necessary to back up your decisions are under your direct orders. We want results. The
blame or credit for the results you obtain will all be yours”63.
As governor of the Moro Province, as prescribed by Act No. 787, which established
the Province, the role of the Governor of the Moro Province is to maintain peace and order in
the province and subsequently, see to the advancement of education, health, and
infrastructure for the interest of the public64. In line with his mandate, Gov. Wood gave
particular attention to the development of public instruction. When he assumed the
59
Education, Philippines Bureau of. Annual Report. [1904], 2005. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/acs9512.1904.001.
Gowing, Peter G. “Chapter Eight: John J. Pershing: The End of the Moro Province, 1909-1913.” In Mandate in
Moroloand: The American Government of Muslim Filipinos 1899-1920, 212–18. New Day Publishers, 1983.
61
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1905], 2005. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1905.001.
62
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Leonard Wood | United States General | Britannica.” Accessed February 28,
2023. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonard-Wood.
63
Wood, Eric Fisher. “Chapter XIII: Governor of the Moro Province.” In Leonard Wood: Conservator of Americanism,
216–36. New York: George H. Doran Company, 1920.
64
United States Congress, and Philippine Commission. Act No. 787 - AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE ORGANIZATION
AND GOVERNMENT OF THE MORO PROVINCE. - Supreme Court E-Library, Pub. L. No. Act No. 787 (1903).
https://elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph/thebookshelf/showdocs/28/37265.
60
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
23
governorship of the province, in 1903 the state of public education was still at its embryonic
stage, wherein except for the secondary school in Zamboanga, the rest of the schools in the
Moro Province were only primary schools65. However, through the course of his term with
the aid of the Superintendent of Schools - Dr. Najeeb Mitry Saleeby, public education saw
new developments with the opening of secondary schools, a trade school, and a normal
school66. When Gov. Wood first arrived in the Moro Province, both the Christian-Filipinos
and Muslim-Filipino students preferred to attend Parochial and Pandita schools
respectively67, however, after the establishment of new school buildings, slowly, the
enrollment rates of Christian-Filipinos and Muslim-Filipino students in public schools began
to increase with 570 Muslim-Filipino students and 79 Bagobos and Christian-Filipinos by
School year 1905-190668. Along with the increase in enrollment was the hiring of more
teachers to meet the needs of the growing student population. By July 1906, the M.P. hired
22 American Teachers and 67 native teachers wherein 56 are Christian Filipinos and 11 are
Muslim-Filipinos69. The majority of the Christian-Filipino teachers were from the Christian
regions of the country, while the Muslim-Filipino teachers were trained in the Normal School
in Zamboanga70.
Gov. Wood from his reports emphasized the importance of English as the language of
instruction and sought to enforce it. In addition, to this Gov. Wood also stated that the
preservation of the native languages would only prove to be a hindrance in establishing a
cohesive society, especially in conducting official business in the future71. Moreover, Gov.
Wood expressed the need for proper and strict discipline of students, stating that corporal
punishment can be and should be utilized to maintain order and compel obedience among
students to facilitate effective learning. Adding that teachers would not be punished if they
chose to employ such methods72.
Gov. Wood's governorship of the Moro Province also saw the passing of Act No. 167
which ordered the compulsory attendance of all children who are eligible to attend school73.
In the same report, he expressed that an education that is focused on developing the
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
Education, Philippines Bureau of. Annual Report. [1904], 2005. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/acs9512.1904.001.
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1905], 2005. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1905.001.
Education, Philippines Bureau of. Annual Report. [1904], 2005. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/acs9512.1904.001.
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1906], 2005. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1906.001.
Ibid
Ibid
Education, Philippines Bureau of. Annual Report. [1904], 2005. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/acs9512.1904.001.
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1906], 2005. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1906.001.
Ibid
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
24
agricultural and industrial skills of the students of the M.P. is of the utmost importance. He
also stressed the significance of prioritizing education that would strengthen and advance a
positive view of the government. Gov. Wood viewed education as means to civilize the
population of the M.P. through promulgating modern ideas to the youth, especially to the
Muslim-Filipinos and other non-Christian Filipinos that in his words “having no conception
of them [modern ideas] at all”74. He stated that these ideas are not solely that of Americans
but of any modern civilized society75. Furthermore, he stated that the Moro Province was
established and was governed separately from the rest of the country due to a “peculiar
condition” - which was the presence of the Muslim Filipinos, he then explained that the kind
of education and the system of instruction must be flexible in order for Muslim-Filipinos to
learn that “Civilization is physically stronger than barbarism”76.
Tasker H. Bliss: the Second Governor of the Moro Province
Gen. Tasker Howard Bliss was a U.S. military commander who was promoted to
Brigadier general after serving as chief of staff for General James H. Wilson in Puerto Rico77.
After the departure of General Leonard Wood, Gen. Bliss assumed the position of Governor
of the Moro Province. During his governorship, he continued the Educational policy of his
predecessor that focuses on the instruction of agricultural and industrial skills78. In his 1907,
report Gen. Bliss stated that there is a great need for the encouragement of Muslim-Filipino
students due to the low enrollment rates. According to the report of assistant superintendent
Charles R. Cameron, the enrollment for the school year 1906-1907 was as follows, “4,414
Christian Filipinos, 793 Moros, 165 Pagans, and 22 Americans”79.
However, in spite of this, 58 schools were active - with 55 primary schools, 2
industrial schools, and a provincial school located in Zamboanga80. Industrial education was
prioritized, at the primary level - the courses include, stick laying, slat-plaiting,
block-building, and mat weaving. These courses are designed to train students for their future
74
Ibid
Ibid
76
Ibid
77
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Tasker Howard Bliss | United States Military Leader | Britannica,” January 11,
2023. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tasker-Howard-Bliss.
78
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1907], 2005. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1907.001.
79
Ibid
80
Ibid
75
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
25
occupations. Gen. Bliss agreed with the recommendation of the superintendent of schools that
the education of the students must be aligned not with that of the American or European way
of life but rather with the realities of their native land which in his words are largely
“primitive conditions”81.
Gen. Bliss during his term recognizes that despite the low
enrollment rates of Muslim-Filipino students in the public school system, the majority of
these students are being educated in Pandita Schools - in which students are taught courses
that only tackle the Islamic faith. He recommended that in order to supplement their studies,
there is a need to procure books written in their native language that contains “ arithmetic,
geography, government, sanitation, and matter of general information…”82. By doing so,
these books can as well as bridge the learning gap of those students that cannot be reached by
the public school system.
In an article published in the Mindanao Herald in 1909, Gen. Bliss shared his view on
the education of children. He explained that despite the apprehension of Americans on the
use of despotism, a form of mild despotism is needed to properly educate students. He added,
that children are “Habits of order”, and that there is no need for any physical or mental
pressure for them to be obedient to their parents or teachers83.
General. John J. Pershing: The Last Governor
General John Joseph Pershing was a graduate of West Point the United States Military
Academy. Prior to being appointed as Governor of the Moro Province, in 1899, Gen.
Pershing was stationed in Mindanao to conduct several military campaigns against the
Muslim Filipinos. After serving in Japan during the Russo-Japanese war he was promoted to
Brigadier General and soon after he returned to the Philippines to replace Gen. Bliss as the
Governor of the M.P.84. During his term as governor, Gen. Pershing focused on utilizing
public schools as a way to promulgate knowledge concerning the matter of proper sanitation.
Along with this, he also focused on the incorporation of military drills to instill discipline
among students85.
81
Ibid
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1909], 2005. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1909.001.
83
Bliss, Tasker H. “The Government of the Moro Province and Its Problems.” The Mindanao Herald Publishing Company.
February 3, 1909. American Historical Collection. Ateneo De Manila - Rizal Library.
82
84
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. “John J. (Black Jack) Pershing | Biography, Facts, & Nickname |
Britannica,” January 22, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-J-Pershing.
85
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1910], 2005. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1910.001.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
26
However, despite this, Gen. Pershing still followed the views of his predecessors that
the focus of education should still be on the development of industrial and agricultural skills
as these will significantly contribute to the improvement of the province86. He further added
that “No greater blessing can come to native children than a knowledge of how to perform
some kind of profitable labor and do it to the best advantage”87. For the School year
1909-1910, the attendance rate for the M.P. was considerably lower compared to the previous
academic year due to the spread of cholera and military upheaval in the province such as the
mutiny in Davao and skirmishes with the Jikiri a band of outlaws88.
Gen. Pershing, following in the footsteps of his predecessor Gen. Bliss, continued to
support the operation of Pandita schools as a way to supplement the government’s public
school system. However, he stated in his report that the books that are being used in these
schools are regularly checked to ensure their accuracy89. In line with this, he reported that
seven new Pandita schools were opened near the shores of Lake Lanao. Gen. Pershing also
mentioned in his report that three schools were opened in the Sulu Archipelago, to which the
superintendent of School Charles R. Cameron shared his great excitement -“The three
schools opened among the Sulu Moros mark the era of peace which a strong government
imposed upon that sometime turbulent archipelago”90.
Gen. Pershing in his memoir, mentions that the emphasis on industrial and
agricultural education was rooted in their view that it is the most effective avenue for native
children to have employment opportunities. He further added that this kind of education is
more suitable than that of higher learning because it provided the most optimal way for
students in the future to better serve the community and improve one’s economic and social
status91.
The thread that connects the three governors of the Moro Province was their
experience in the Military. This unique factor, can be seen to influence their views and
policies on education. An example of this is their view that education is a way to instill
discipline and a means to solidify the relationship between the natives and government is
86
Ibid
Ibid
88
Ibid
89
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1911], 2005. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1911.001.
90
Ibid
91
Pershing, John J. My Life before the World War, 1860-1917: A Memoir General of the Armies John J. Pershing. Edited by
John T. Greenwood. University Press of Kentucky, 2013.
87
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
27
another view shared by all of the governors with Gen. Wood's support for the use of corporal
punishment, Gen. Bliss’ use of mild-despotism, and Gen. Pershing’s incorporation of military
drills in the public school. In addition, despite the initial mandate of the Moro Province to
establish an education system separate from that of the rest of the country, the educational
policies of these three governors mirrors that of the national educational policies of the
directors of the Bureau of Education which puts importance on the industrial and agricultural
education of the natives.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
28
CHAPTER 3
The Educational Diversity: Religious schools and the Emergence of Secular Public schools
The Pandita educational system, as discussed in Chapter 1, is an educational system
that has been part of the Muslim community in the Southern Philippines since its introduction
by Arab missionaries during the 13th or 14th-century 92. Moreover, the Pandita is first and
foremost an influential individual in the Filipino-Muslim Community, touted as the defender
of the faith93. During the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, Jesuit missionaries in
Mindanao regarded Panditas as hostile94. As the Philippine Islands changed hands from the
Spanish to the Americans, the new colonizers heavily relied on the Jesuit accounts to
understand the Panditas and the Filipino-Muslim community. The biased perception of the
Panditas as “barbaric and uncivilized” was widely accepted by many Americans95. However,
Dr. Najeeb Saleeby, an American scholar who studied the Filipino-Muslims of Mindanao and
Sulu and would become the 1st Superintendent of the School of the Moro Province, deviated
from this biased view of Panditas - describing them as “the scholar who can read and write
and perform the functions of a priest”96.
Prior to the arrival of the Americans in the late 19th century, the Pandita education
system was limited to the instruction of the Islamic faith, culture, and literature97.
Furthermore, unlike the public school system established by the Americans, the Pandita
system was not institutionalized rather, it was conducted only through a tutoring system,
without a permanent building or educational materials98. In the same manner, the parochial
schools, established by Jesuit missionaries in the region, were limited to the catechismal and
agricultural education99. In addition, these parochial schools are located in the coastal areas
of Mindanao due to their inability to penetrate the inner lands of Mindanao100.
92
Samid, Amina H. “Islamic Education and the Development of Madrasah Schools in the Philippines.” International
Journal of Political Studies 8 (August 2022): 35–47. https://doi.org/10.25272/icps.1139650.
93
Baldoza, Jonathan Victor. “The Panditas of the Philippines, 17th - Early 20th Centuries.” Archipel. Études
Interdisciplinaires Sur Le Monde Insulindien, no. 103 (August 30, 2022): 127–56. https://doi.org/10.4000/archipel.2969.
94
Ibid
95
Ibid
96
Saleeby, Najeeb M. “Studies in Moro History, Law and Religion (Full Text).” STUDIES IN MORO HISTORY, LAW AND
RELIGION (blog), September 12, 2015.
https://morohistorylawandreligion.wordpress.com/studies-in-moro-history-law-and-religion-full-text/.
97
Baldoza, Jonathan Victor. “The Panditas of the Philippines, 17th - Early 20th Centuries.” Archipel. Études
Interdisciplinaires Sur Le Monde Insulindien, no. 103 (August 30, 2022): 127–56. https://doi.org/10.4000/archipel.2969.
98
Ibid
99
Ibid
100
Moro Province. Governor. Annual Report. Zamboanga, 1908. http://archive.org/details/aaf7627.1908.001.umich.edu.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
29
The Pandita schools and the Emergence of a Secular public school
As previously mentioned, the Pandita educational system has been one of the earliest
educational system in Mindanao. It has been considered by some scholars as an important
tool against the spread of Christianity and Spain in the region. Even with the establishment of
a secularized public school by the American military government during the 10-year period
of the Moro Province, the Pandita Schools remained the primary educational institution in
Mindanao for Muslim Filipinos.
During the early years of the Moro Province, under the governorship of Gen. Wood,
he noted in his 1904 report that the Muslim population’s devotion to their faith and the
Pandita system posed great challenges in convincing them to enroll in public schools101.
Under the leadership of Gen. Bliss and with the aid of the Superintendent of Schools, the
Pandita system was institutionalized, with new Pandita schools being established102. The
Pandita schools, which were taught by panditas and Muslim educators, were still under the
jurisdiction of the Governor and the Superintendent of Schools for the province. Because the
traditional curriculum of Pandita schools was limited to the instruction of Arabic and Islamic
literature and culture, Governor Bliss insisted on creating and procuring necessary
educational supplies to supplement the education of young Muslim Filipinos. This included
materials such as paper, blackboards, and most importantly, textbooks, containing subjects
like arithmetic, geography, and sanitation, among others. In his 1909 report, Governor Bliss
stated that it was the duty of the provincial government to ensure the educational
development of students in the region, even if they were not enrolled in the public school
system103.
He further emphasized that supplying educational materials to these schools would
provide opportunities for Filipino-Muslim parents to provide adequate education to their
children104. He then requested that these educational materials, more importantly, the
textbooks be created as soon as possible, in order to not hamper the educational development
of the students. In addition to this, Governor Bliss stated that the aid given would only take a
meager cost to the provincial government, and would bolster a positive perception of the
Muslim Filipinos towards the government105. Gen. Bliss, however, lamented that these efforts
101
Education, Philippines Bureau of. Annual Report. [1904], 1904. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/acs9512.1904.001.
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1904], 1904. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1904.001.
103
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1909], 1909. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1909.001.
104
Ibid
105
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1909], 1909. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1909.001.
102
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
30
in improving the curriculum of the Pandita schools are not an attempt to make the Pandita
schools the staple educational institution in the region and neglect the establishment and
development of public schools, but rather an important entryway for Muslim Filipinos to
accept the establishment of regular schools106.
As the governorship of the Moro province changed hands from Gen. Bliss to Gen.
Pershing in 1909, the latter continued the policies of his predecessor concerning the Pandita
schools. General Pershing agreed with his predecessor that aiding these schools would be a
praiseworthy effort to improve relations between the government and the Muslim-Filipino
population107. During his term, he reported that in all of the districts within the province, there
were both public and pandita schools. However, he emphasized that the pandita schools,
though catering solely to the education of Muslim Filipinos, are still within the purview of Sir
Charles R. Cameron, the Superintendent of Schools. Furthermore, he stated that the
educational materials used in these pandita schools are regularly inspected to ensure that they
are in line with the province’s educational standards108.
In addition to this, the Supt. of schools Charles Cameron praised the Pandita schools
in his published article in the February 3, 1909 issue of the Mindanao Herald. He wrote that
“The Pandita schools, as they been dominated, are praiseworthy, not only for the really
valuable training which they give the otherwise abandoned children, but also for the good
will towards the government which they are instrumental in creating among the Moro
population”, further echoing the sentiments of the governors of the Moro Province109. He
further added that he supports the teaching of native languages in these schools. Also, note
the positive shift in the government’s attitude towards this practice. He added that he believes
that the study of native language should be supported so long as it would not hamper the
effectiveness of the public school system and would promote further education110.
106
Ibid
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1911], 1911. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1911.001.
108
Ibid
109
The Mindanao Herald. The Mindanao Herald. [Vol. 6, No. 11], 1909. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aqw1509.0006.011.
110
Ibid
107
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
31
Parochial Schools and the Emergence of a Secular public school
Prior to the arrival of the Americans, Jesuit missionaries have set up parochial schools
in the coastal areas of Mindanao, after the Americans arrived in the Island and the subsequent
departure of the Spanish Jesuit missionaries the development of Parochial schools became
stagnant111. However, as reported by Governor Wood in his 1904 report during the early years
of the Moro province, there was a resurgence of Parochial schools and he attributed this to
the return of the Jesuit missionaries in the Province112. Similarly to how the Muslim Filipinos
regarded their Pandita schools, Gov. Wood reported that the Christian population of the M.P.,
“...is devotedly attached to their own parochial schools”113.
During the term of Gov. Wood, when Act No. 167 was passed which provides for the
compulsory attendance of children in the province, a key exemption to this rule are students
who were already enrolled in the Parochial schools114. Under Gov. Bliss, he reported that due
to the compulsory school law, there was an increase in attendance at parochial schools115. In
line with this, in the following year school year 1907-1908, he reported that due to parents
transferring their children to parochial schools five public schools were closed down due to
low enrollment rates116. In spite of this, Gov. Bliss was secured that as long as the educational
standard in parochial schools was within the standards of the public schools, the educational
development of the Christian Filipinos would not be impeded117.
The reports of the Governor and the Superintendent of Schools of the Moro Province
show that, despite the presence of Pandita and Parochial schools in the province, the
American military government was determined to establish and develop a secularized public
educational system. It must be noted that the reports of the Governor nor that of the
Superintendent of Schools of the Moro Province was not able to convey the extent of the
growth of these two educational institutions, but nevertheless emphasized the influence they
hold in their respective communities. The actions and decisions of these three governors in
aiding not only the parochial schools but also the Pandita schools demonstrate that, despite
their initial perception of Panditas as uncivilized, they prioritized the educational
development of the children of the Moro Province.
111
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1904], 1904. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1904.001.
Ibid
113
Ibid
114
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1906], 1906. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1906.001.
115
Governor, Moro Province. Annual Report. [1907], 1907. http://name.umdl.umich.edu/aaf7627.1907.001.
116
Moro Province. Governor. Annual Report. Zamboanga, 1908. http://archive.org/details/aaf7627.1908.001.umich.edu.
117
Ibid
112
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
32
CONCLUSION
Mindanao's educational landscape underwent profound changes from the first
accounts of the Panditas in the 13th or 14th century to the continuing progress of the
secularized public school system by the end of the Moro Province in 1913. Throughout the
educational history of Mindanao, education has been utilized as a tool for the preservation of
culture and tradition, to convert and to subdue, to pacify, and to provide educational
development.
The Panditas or the “traveling teachers” have sought to preserve and defend the
Islamic faith through the education of their children of arab and Muslim pieces of literature
and traditions. This form of education had been the dominant source of knowledge for
Muslim-Filipino children for centuries. With the arrival of Spanish conquistadors in the 16th
and 17th centuries, the Pandita system played a significant role in defending their faith and
their territory from the incursions of both the Spanish crown and the Catholic church.
Through the Jesuit missionaries, the Spaniards were able to establish parochial / Christian
missionary schools in the coastal areas of Mindanao where the majority of the Christian
Filipinos and Spaniards set up residences. With the arrival of the Americans in the early 20th
century, and established military control over the region. It is during this period, that an
embryonic public school system was started with the aid of Military instructors.
With the establishment of the Moro Province, in June of 1903, the Public school
system was influenced by the various governors of the region. Under Gen. Wood’s term,
public instruction was focused on the industrial skills of its students and expediting the use of
English as the language of instruction. In contrast, Gen. Bliss, despite having a similar view
on the importance of industrial education for the future of both Muslim and Christian
Filipinos, Gen. Bliss also saw the potential of utilizing native languages as an effective
entryway to secularize education. During the term of the last governor of the Moro Province Gen. John Pershing, in addition to continuing the industrial-focused education of his
predecessors, Pershing also emphasized the significance of improving agricultural education.
All three governors of the Moro Province recognize the level of influence and prestige
that both Pandita schools for the Muslim Filipino Community and the Parochial Schools for
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
33
the Christian Filipino Community possess in their respective communities. In line with this,
most notably, Gen. Bliss stated that supporting and improving Pandita schools by providing
textbooks and other educational materials will not only benefit the Muslim-Filipino
community by providing quality education to their children but also serve to improve the
image of the provincial government. In addition, Gen. Bliss also stated that the provincial
government is amenable to the closure of public schools in favor of parochial schools so long
as they can provide a similar level of education.
The historical survey of the development of public education during the Moro
Province through the lens of the governors of the Moro Province illustrates how proper
education was viewed by these “designers of knowledge” and conveys their perception of
how education must be delivered and consumed. This study, concludes that the Governors of
the Moro Province saw education as means of achieving upward mobility in terms of one’s
socioeconomic status. This is in line with their focus on industrial and agricultural education
and their positive view on the improvement of both Pandita and Parochial Schools.
Much more remains to be tackled and researched, to completely understand the full
extent of the effects of the emergence of a secularized public school system in the Moro
Province and in the years that followed. Such as tackling the views of Muslim students, their
parents, and the community on the establishment of the public school system.
The Bumpy Road towards Enlightenment
34
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