Read
STUDY READER
Faculty
Human Sciences
Department
Tourism and Integrated
Communication
Course
Applied Communication Skills
Title
Applied Communication Skills [1.1]
Module Code
HKCOX1A/ HKACX1A
Compiled By
Applied Communication Skills
lecturers
Year
2023
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© 2023, Department of Tourism and Integrated Communication, Vaal University of
Technology.
Layout: Mrs Liesl Roos
The Reader was compiled by Applied Communication Skills lecturers and this
version was edited by Mrs Rachael Nyarai Tadokera
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit 1: A brief history of communication …………………………………...1
Unit 2: Communication theory ........................................ ………………. 9
Unit 3: Listening skills ........................................................ ……………18
Unit 4: Reading comprehension skills .................................................29
Unit 5: Creative, critical thinking skills .................................................35
Unit 6: Research skills & Concise Writing ............................................42
Unit 7: Good language use for writing ..................................................55
Addendum A
Addendum B
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INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION
I. Contact persons
Contact person
Dr L. Maleho
HOD
Administrator’s Office
Ms K. Letsoalo
Office
number
Office telephone
number
M005
016 950 9458
M106-3
016 950 9279
II. Learning material
This reader is the primary source of your learning material. Your lecturer may supplement
the learning material during the semester with their own examples and notes. Students can
access the 1.1 HKCOX1A/HKACX1A Reader for 2023ar for this module either on your class
WhatsApp platform or on the VUT institutional blackboard platform VUTela.
The content that will be covered in this module is as follows:
• A brief history of communication and forms of Communication
• Communication theory
• Listening skills
• Reading comprehension academic skills
• Creative, critical thinking skills
• Research skills & Concise Writing
• Good language use for writing
III. Assessment
Assessment will take place on a continuous basis and will determine your year mark. You
need a FINAL mark of 50% or more to pass the module.
IV. Assessment weights
1. Breakdown of assessments that will be done this during this period
(along with their weightings):
Assessment
Type
Weight
MARK 1
Assessment 1
Individual Online test
30%
MARK 2
Assessment 2
Group
20%
MARK 3
Assessment 3
Individual Online Test
20%
MARK 4
Assessment 4
Individual Online Test
30%
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2. Calculation of final mark
Final mark out of 100 will be entered on ITS in the order below:
MARK 1: Assessment 1: weighs 30% : mark on ITS x 30% = a
MARK 2: Assessment 2: weighs 20% : mark on ITS x 20% = b
MARK 3: Assessment 3: weighs 20% : mark on ITS x 20% = c
MARK 4: Assessment 4: weighs 30% : mark on ITS x 30% = d
TOTAL: a + b + c + d = x/100x = FINAL MARK
Example :
MARK 1: Assessment 1: weighs 30% : 45 x 30% = 13,5
MARK 2: Assessment 2: weighs 20%: 60 x 20% = 12
MARK 3: Assessment 3: weighs 20% : 43 x 20% = 8,6
MARK 4: Assessment 4: weighs 30% : 67 x 30% = 20,1
TOTAL: 13,5 + 12 + 8,6 + 20,1 = 54,2/100
This student’s FINAL MARK is 54%
Please remember that all assessments are compulsory.
V. Absence
Should you be absent from an assessment, you will receive 0% for that particular
assessment.
Exceptions will be considered upon receipt of a death or medical certificate, court summons
or letters from your employers or supervisors verifying your reason for not attending classes
or submitting assessments. Such documentation must be presented within seven (7) days of
your absence. Enquiries will be made to verify the legitimacy of the documents submitted
where after you may be subjected to an alternative assessment at the discretion of the
assessor. A date for the required assessment will be set at presentation of the required proof.
You are considered an adult learner and it is your responsibility to ensure that you attend your
online classes, meet all deadlines and write the tests for this module.
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VI. Keeping assessments
Keep all your marked assignments and tests together in a safe place – not just until the end
of this semester, but preferably until your graduation.
Always make sure that for all assessments that need to be emailed to your lecturer, provide
a cover page which contains the information on the assessment below.
EITHER
Individual Assessment
Surname and initials:
Student number:
Class /group number:
Title of assessment:
Name of lecturer:
Date of submission:
OR
Group Assessment
1. Surname and initials:
2. Surname and initials:
3. Surname and initials:
4. Surname and initials:
5. Surname and initials:
6. Surname and initials:
Class /group number:
Title of assessment:
Name of lecturer:
Date of submission:
Student number:
Student number:
Student number:
Student number:
Student number:
Student number:
Style guide:
During the semester you will be expected to submit some formal assessments to your
lecturer in a specific format. Here are the specifications for typed assessments:
❖ Font: Arial
❖ Size: 12 pt.
❖ Spacing: 1.5-line spacing
❖ Margins: 2.54 cm all around
❖ Number your pages on the bottom right of the page. Your cover page should not
have a number.
❖ For longer assignments you can also include a content page.
❖ Always include a list of references at the end of your assignment written in the
Harvard style.
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NB. You are submitting academic work. The placement of pictures on the cover page is not
recommended unless it serves a specific purpose that adds to the content of your
assignment. The use of coloured background is also not recommended.
Lecturers receive multiple assessments, and the possibility arises for your document
to be replaced by another, if you fail to follow this instruction. Lecturers will not be held
liable if your document gets “lost” because it was not named properly. Assessment
documents that are incorrectly named will be returned to students so that they make
the required corrections. Students will be penalised for late submissions.
THE BOTTOM LINE:
Your studies are YOUR responsibility. Do not blame your group members, your
lecturer, load-shedding, or anyone/anything else. You need to make sure that you do
all homework, complete all formal assessments, and attend all classes.
Image credit: www.pinterest.com
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UNIT 1:
A BRIEF HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION
Learning Outcomes
After completing this unit, the student should be able to:
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
discuss the origin and diversity of spoken language.
name and briefly explain the ages of human communication.
explain the concept of augmented reality (AR) and Artificial Intelligence (AI)
evaluate human communication today, taking into account factors like social
media.
name the five forms of communication.
distinguish the differences among the five forms of communication
Introduction
You might wonder why we study communication. Have you ever thought about what life would
be like if we were not able to communicate with one another? We would not be able to share
our thoughts about the day’s events, give opinions on certain subjects or exchange information
with one another.
Communication is a complex process using sound, gesture, facial expressions and symbols.
Communication is a social construct (we have, as a society or group, to agree on what words
mean and on how to arrange those words). A spoken word which no-one understands is just
a noise, a document written in a ‘lost’ language is incomprehensible.
Some scientists, such as Chomsky (1965), suggest that humans have an instinctive ability to
acquire language at a young age. He calls this the theory of Universal Grammar.
Before we dive into the history of communication, it is important that we have a shared
understanding of what we mean by the word communication. For our purposes in this Reader,
we define communication as the process of generating meaning by sending and
receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple
contexts. This definition builds on other definitions of communication that have been
rephrased and refined over many years. In fact, since the systematic study of communication
began in colleges and universities a little over one hundred years ago, there have been more
than 126 published definitions of communication. In order to get a context for how
communication has been conceptualized and studied, let’s look at a history of the field.
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1. Spoken language
1.1 The origin of spoken language
Humans have, along with other primates, a unique set of physical attributes which allows us
to produce a wide variety of sounds, and to manipulate that sound. The inhaling and exhaling
of breath into, or from the lungs, that air passing over the vocal chords (now referred to as
‘folds’) the shaping of the mouth cavity, the position of the tongue and the teeth and the lips
all are exploited in sound formation. The sound is really the vibrations we create in the air.
These dissipate with distance, which is why we can’t hear another person from a long distance
away. (there is no sound in space).
Producing the sounds is one part of vocal/oral communication, but we need to hear the sound.
For that we make use of our ears, which translate the vibrations into electrical impulses which
our brains then interpret as sound. Many animals have a far better hearing ability than we do
and rely on their acute hearing to locate the source of sounds.
1.2 Diversity of spoken languages
Historical linguistics is the branch of linguistics which studies the origins of languages, and
how they change over time. From their studies it is clear that languages diverged from a
common ancestor language (proto-language) and that that divergence continues to the
present time. Linguists recognise that some languages are related to each other (e.g. English,
German and Dutch or Xhosa, Zulu and Siswati).
2. The ages of human communication
Human communication is unique and has not always been as we know it now. Through the
ages, the ability to communicate has developed in order for human beings to co-operate with
one another.
2.1 The age of writing
❖ According to scientists, cave paintings were the humans’ earliest attempt to record
information. Paintings were in the form of pictures illustrating animals, people and
hunting scenes but only the artists knew exactly what they meant and what they were
communicating but people also felt the need to interpret the paintings so they started
thinking of alternative methods of record keeping.
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❖ People started to develop and standardise signs that everyone
could understand.
❖ The earliest form of writing were cuneiform (see picture), an
ancient Sumerian system of writing, with wedge-shaped characters
in clay tablets.
❖ Although people could now communicate through writing, it was
not ideal as the clay slab documents were very heavy and difficult
to transport.
❖ A more portable writing medium
was then initiated by the Egyptians who
Image credit: www.pinterest.com
wrote on Papyrus (paper made from the
papyrus plant – see picture) in the form of hieroglyphics in
about 2500 BC.
❖ Paper as we know it, was a Chinese invention.
Image credit: www.pinterest.com
❖ The importance of a light-weight medium of writing was
that it could easily be sent to people far away.
❖ It was no longer necessary to rely on human memory
only to retain information.
❖ However, it did take centuries for the skills of reading and writing to become available
to ordinary people. While books were handmade, they were scarce and valuable, and
reading and writing was reserved for the nobles and clergy. It was only after the
invention of printing in the 15th century that literacy started to spread (Steinberg &
Angelopulo, 2015).
2.2 The age of print
❖ In 1450, Johannes Gutenburg of Germany invented the first movable
metal printer (see pictured replica). This revolutionised book
production and by the beginning of the 16th century, thousands of
books were being produced.
❖ The importance of Gutenberg’s invention was that it allowed the
storage of large amounts of information.
❖ Although it never replaced the primary mode of communication,
spoken communication, it was said to have started off modern
communication as information could now be conveyed to masses of
people through, for example newspapers, books and postal systems.
❖ People now had access to information that had previously been
denied so their thinking was freed and knowledge was shared.
❖ New political and religious ideas began to circulate. People made
use of print to spread their ideas and views to the public.
❖ Print was the first true mass communication medium. (Steinberg &
Angelopulo, 2015)
Image credit: www.pinterest.com
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2.3 The age of electronic mass media
❖ Technological inventions such as electricity and the telegraph started in the 19th century,
and these laid the foundations that lead to mass electronic media.
❖ The discovery and commercial exploitation of electricity created the ‘wired world’ which
enabled people to send telegrams and speak to one another on telephones.
❖ For the first time, it became possible to separate communication and transportation
because up to the point of electronic mass media, any information had to be physically
transported and the information travelled only as fast as the messenger who carried it.
❖ This era of electronic mass media has brought people closer together, reducing the impact
of distance and time.
❖ This reduction of distance is still felt today and one’s privacy can no longer easily be
secured, especially due to digital media and the internet.
❖ (Steinberg & Angelopulo, 2015)
Telegraph: A system for transmitting messages
from a distance along a wire, creating signals by
making and breaking an electrical connection.
Image credit: survivingtheaftermath.com
Telegram: A message sent by telegraph and
then delivered in written or printed form.
Image credit: teachhistory.com
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Examples of the first telephones
Image credit: americanhistory.si.edu
Image credit: odt.co.nz
1.4 The age of digital media and the internet
❖ The printing press made it possible to share large amounts of information but the internet
has made this even more efficient.
❖ Computers were originally used in large organisations to perform complicated
mathematical calculations and aid in administration. Today they are used in industry,
medical research, the military and even the exploration of outer space. They are the basis
of the internet, the worldwide network that carries information and entertainment along what
has become known as the Information Highway.
❖ The internet has revolutionised the world of communication like nothing before.
❖ One can now easily send information from one person to another or one company to
another no matter where it is in the world.
❖ The idea of linking computers together began in the mid-sixties and by 1983, this network
of computers became known as the internet.
❖ Some networks are run by government agencies, others by universities, libraries,
businesses or even individuals.
❖ Once connected to the World Wide Web, one can send, receive or search for large amounts
of information anywhere in the world. (Steinberg & Angelopulo, 2015)
❖ Today, it is also possible to access the internet on your cell phone. Long gone are the days
when a cell phone was only used for making and receiving calls.
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Image credit: computerhope.com
Image credit: imgur.com
Image credit: easytechnow.com
Image credit: nytimes.com
1.5
Current communication trend: augmented reality (AR) and Artificial
Intelligence (AI)
Macmillan Dictionary (2016) defines augmented reality as “the technology of combining real
world images, video, etc. with computer-generated information and/or imagery”. Augmented
Reality is abbreviated as AR. According to Strange (2016), the power and potential of AR was
perhaps epitomized by the debut of Pokémon Go, a classic Japanese video game reimagined
as an AR experience on a smartphone screen. AR is not limited to smartphones and tablets –
there are even AR glasses.
Image credit: media.licdn.com
Image credit: augmentedrealitytrends.com
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2. The Fourth Industrial Revolution
Schwab (2018) explains that the Fourth Industrial Revolution heralds a series of social,
political, cultural, and economic upheavals that will unfold over the 21st century. Building on
the widespread availability of digital technologies that were the result of the Third Industrial,
or Digital, Revolution, the Fourth Industrial Revolution will be driven largely by the
convergence of digital, biological, and physical innovations.
Industrial Revolution Graph depicting four Industrial Revolutions, in progression from the
18th century to the 21st.
© Vectimus/Shutterstock.com
Like the First Industrial Revolution’s steam-powered factories, the Second Industrial
Revolution’s application of science to mass production and manufacturing, and the Third
Industrial Revolution’s start into digitization, the Fourth Industrial Revolution’s technologies,
such as artificial intelligence, genome editing, augmented reality, robotics, and 3-D printing,
are rapidly changing the way humans create, exchange, and distribute value. As occurred in
the previous revolutions, this will profoundly transform institutions, industries, and individuals.
More importantly, this revolution will be guided by the choices that people make today: the
world in 50 to 100 years from now will owe a lot of its character to how we think about, invest
in, and deploy these powerful new technologies.
It is important to appreciate that the Fourth Industrial Revolution involves a systemic change
across many sectors and aspects of human life: the crosscutting impacts of
emerging technologies are even more important than the exciting capabilities they represent.
Our ability to edit the building blocks of life has recently been massively expanded by low-cost
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gene sequencing and techniques such as CRISPR; artificial intelligence is augmenting
processes and skill in every industry; neurotechnology is making unprecedented strides in
how we can use and influence the brain as the last frontier of human biology; automation is
disrupting century-old transport and manufacturing paradigms; and technologies such as
blockchain and smart materials are redefining and blurring the boundary between the digital
and physical worlds.
The result of all this is societal transformation at a global scale. By affecting the incentives,
rules, and norms of economic life, it transforms how we communicate, learn, entertain
ourselves, and relate to one another and how we understand ourselves as human beings.
Furthermore, the sense that new technologies are being developed and implemented at an
increasingly rapid pace has an impact on human identities, communities, and political
structures. As a result, our responsibilities to one another, our opportunities for self-realization,
and our ability to positively impact the world are intricately tied to and shaped by how we
engage with the technologies of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. This revolution is not just
happening to us—we are not its victims—but rather we have the opportunity and even
responsibility to give it structure and purpose.
As economists Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee have pointed out, this revolution could
yield greater inequality, particularly in its potential to disrupt labour markets. As automation
substitutes for labour across the entire economy, the net displacement of workers by machines
might exacerbate the gap between returns to capital and returns to labour. On the other hand,
it is also possible that the displacement of workers by technology will, in aggregate, result in
a net increase in safe and rewarding jobs.
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UNIT 2:
COMMUNICATION THEORY
Learning Outcomes
After completing this unit, the student should be able to:
❖ identify, explain and apply Jakobson’s model of communication.
❖ identify, explain and apply the transactional model of communication.
❖ compare and contrast the Jakobson and the transactional models of
communication.
❖
1. Introduction
Communication studies as a distinct academic discipline with departments at universities
and colleges has only existed for a little over one hundred years (Keith, 2008). In this Unit,
the discussion on Communication theories in this module begins with the five major forms
of communication.
2. Forms of Communication
Forms of communication vary in terms of participants, channels used, and contexts. The five
main forms of communication, all of which will be explored in much more detail in this
Reader. There are five forms of communication: intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public,
and mass communication. Briefly,
• Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself and occurs only inside our
heads.
• Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually
influence one another and typically occurs in dyads, which means in pairs.
• Group communication occurs when three or more people communicate to achieve a
shared goal.
• Public communication is sender focused and typically occurs when one person
conveys in-formation to an audience.
• Mass communication occurs when messages are sent to large audiences using print
or electronic media.
In the following we will discuss the similarities and differences among each form of
communication, including its definition, level of intentionality, goals, and contexts.
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2.1 Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself using internal vocalization or
reflective thinking. Like other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication is
triggered by some internal or external stimulus. We may, for example, communicate with our
self about what we want to eat due to the internal stimulus of hunger, or we may react
intrapersonally to an event we witness. Unlike other forms of communication, intrapersonal
communication takes place only inside our heads. The other forms of communication must be
perceived by someone else to count as communication. So what is the point of intrapersonal
communication if no one else even sees it?
2.2 Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually
influence one another. Interpersonal communication builds, maintains, and ends our
relationships, and we spend more time engaged in interpersonal communication than the other
forms of communication. Interpersonal communication occurs in various contexts and is
addressed in subfields of study within communication studies such as intercultural
communication, organizational communication, health communication, and computermediated communication. After all, interpersonal relationships exist in all those contexts.
Interpersonal communication can be planned or unplanned, but since it is interactive, it is
usually more structured and influenced by social expectations than intrapersonal
communication. Interpersonal communication is also more goal oriented than intrapersonal
communication and fulfills instrumental and relational needs. In terms of instrumental needs,
the goal may be as minor as greeting someone to fulfill a morning ritual or as major as
conveying your desire to be in a committed relationship with someone. Interpersonal
communication meets relational needs by communicating the uniqueness of a specific
relationship. Since this form of communication deals so directly with our personal relationships
and is the most common form of communication, instances of miscommunication and
communication conflict most frequently occur here (Dance & Larson, 1972). Couples, bosses
and employees, and family members all have to engage in complex interpersonal
communication, and it doesn’t always go well. In order to be a competent interpersonal
communicator, you need conflict management skills and listening skills, among others, to
maintain positive relationships.
2.3 Group Communication
Group communication is communication among three or more people interacting to achieve a
shared goal. You have likely worked in groups in high school and college, and if you’re like
most students, you didn’t enjoy it. Even though it can be frustrating, group work in an academic
setting provides useful experience and preparation for group work in professional settings.
Organizations have been moving toward more team-based work models, and whether we like
it or not, groups are an integral part of people’s lives. Therefore the study of group
communication is valuable in many contexts. Group communication is more intentional and
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formal than interpersonal communication. Unlike interpersonal relationships, which are
voluntary, individuals in a group are often assigned to their position within a group.
Additionally, group communication is often task focused, meaning that members of the group
work together for an explicit purpose or goal that affects each member of the group. Goaloriented communication in interpersonal interactions usually relates to one person; for
example, I may ask my friend to help me move this weekend. Goal-oriented communication
at the group level usually focuses on a task assigned to the whole group; for example, a group
of people may be tasked to figure out a plan for moving a business from one office to another.
Important. You know from previous experience working in groups that having more
communicators usually leads to more complicated interactions. Some of the challenges of
group communication relate to task-oriented interactions, such as deciding who will complete
each part of a larger project. But many challenges stem from interpersonal conflict or
misunderstandings among group members. Since group members also communicate with and
relate to each other interpersonally and may have preexisting relationships or develop them
during the course of group interaction, elements of interpersonal communication occur within
group communication too.
2.4 Public Communication
Public communication is a sender-focused form of communication in which one person is
typically responsible for conveying information to an audience. Public speaking is something
that many people fear, or at least don’t enjoy. But, just like group communication, public
speaking is an important part of our academic, professional, and civic lives. When compared
to interpersonal and group communication, public communication is the most consistently
intentional, formal, and goal-oriented form of communication we have discussed so far.
Public communication, at least in Western societies, is also more sender focused than
interpersonal or group communication. It is precisely this formality and focus on the sender
that makes many new and experienced public speakers anxious at the thought of facing an
audience. One way to begin to manage anxiety toward public speaking is to begin to see
connections between public speaking and other forms of communication with which we are
more familiar and comfortable. Despite being formal, public speaking is very similar to the
conversations that we have in our daily interactions. For example, although public speakers
don’t necessarily develop individual relationships with audience members, they still have the
benefit of being face-to-face with them so they can receive verbal and nonverbal feedback.
Later in this course, you will learn some strategies for managing speaking anxiety, since
presentations are undoubtedly a requirement in this Communication course for which you are
doing in the text two years.
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2.5 Mass Communication
Public communication becomes mass communication when it is transmitted to many people
through print or electronic media. Print media such as newspapers and magazines continue
to be an important channel for mass communication, although they have suffered much in the
past decade due in part to the rise of electronic media. Television, websites, blogs, and social
media are mass communication channels that you probably engage with regularly. Radio,
podcasts, and books are other examples of mass media. The technology required to send
mass communication messages distinguishes it from the other forms of communication. A
certain amount of intentionality goes into transmitting a mass communication message since
it usually requires one or more extra steps to convey the message. This may involve pressing
“Enter” to send a Facebook message or involve an entire crew of camera people, sound
engineers, and production assistants to produce a television show. Even though the messages
must be intentionally transmitted through technology, the intentionality and goals of the person
actually creating the message, such as the writer, television host, or talk show guest, vary
greatly. The president’s State of the Nation address is a mass communication message that
is very formal, goal oriented, and intentional.
3. Communication as integrated in our lives
This Reader is meant to help people see the value of communication in the real world and in
our real lives. Communication is such a practical field of study, and there is no divide between
the classroom and the real world. Much of what goes on in a classroom is present in a
professional environment, and the classroom has long been seen as a place to prepare
students to become active and responsible citizens in their civic lives. The philosophy behind
this approach is called integrative learning, which encourages students to reflect on how the
content they are learning connects to other classes they have taken or are taking, their
professional goals, and their civic responsibilities in society.
At the end of this module you need to connect the content learnt in future classes. If you can
begin to see these connections now, you can build on the foundational communication skills
you learn in here to become a more competent communicator, which will undoubtedly also
benefit you as a student.
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Communication is a complex process, and it is difficult to determine where or with whom a
communication encounter starts and ends. Models of communication simplify the process by
providing a visual representation of the various aspects of a communication encounter. Some
models explain communication in more detail than others, but even the most complex model still
doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a communication encounter. Models
still serve a valuable purpose for students of communication because they allow us to see specific
concepts and steps within the process of communication, define communication, and apply
communication concepts. When you become aware of how communication functions, you can
think more deliberately through your communication encounters, which can help you better
prepare for future communication and learn from your previous communication.
Over the years, several communication models have been developed. There are many
similarities between these models, which mean that you should take care not to confuse the
models and their terminology. In this unit we will be focusing on the model developed by
Jakobson.
4. Roman Jakobson’s model of communication
Russian born Roman Osipovich Jakobson (1896 – 1982), was one of the most influential
linguists of the 20th century. Jakobson’s model of communication was influenced by
cybernetics and information theory (such as the work of Shannon and Weaver) as well as work
by the German psychologist Karl Bühler (Chandler, 2017:230).
This model is widely used across all fields of language and communication studies.
Jakobson’s model of communication
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4.1 The six elements of the Jakobson model
Addresser:
Message:
Addressee:
The person who initiates/sends a message. Also called a sender or encoder.
Communication containing information such as news, advice, or a request.
The person who gets/receives the message. Also called a receiver or
decoder.
Context: The set of circumstances or facts that surround a particular event or situation.
The situation within which something exists or happens, and that can help
explain it.
Code: A system of signals or symbols for communication (for example words or numbers).
Contact: A physical channel and psychological connection between the addresser
and addressee, enabling both of them to stay in communication.
(Chandler, 2017:230)
4.2 More information about “context”
One of the elements of Jakobson’s model of communication is context.
How do you determine what the context is? One way to do this is to ask yourself: what is the
relationship between the addresser and the addressee?
Examples:
❖ If the addresser is an employer and the addressee is an employee, the context can be
described as professional or employment.
❖ If the addresser is a shop and the addressee is a consumer, the context can be described as
retail.
❖ If the addresser and addressee are classmates at a university, the context can be described
as tertiary/education/university.
❖ If the addresser and addressee are in a romantic relationship or married to each other, the
context can be described as romantic or relating to marriage.
4.3 Examples of how to apply Jakobson’s model
Example 1
Ron is alone on a deserted island. He had been touring the island with a group of tourists, but
they accidentally left without him. Suddenly Ron sees a ship on the horizon. He decides to ask
the ship crew for help by sending smoke signals. They notice the smoke signals and decide to
go and help him.
Addresser: Ron
Message: Asking for help / to be saved
Addressee: Ship’s crew
Context: A man is stuck on an island and wants to be saved by a nearby ship.
Code: Smoke signals in the air
Contact: Smoke
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Example 2
Thabo and Natasha are doing a group assignment. Thabo sends Natasha a WhatsApp message
to arrange a date for them to meet in the library and complete the assignment as the due date is
approaching. Natasha only reads the message two days later and responds stating that she has
been busy studying. This frustrates Thabo as Natasha had known about the assignment well in
advance.
Addresser: Thabo
Message: To arrange a possible date for the completion of the assignment.
Addressee: Natasha
Context: The context describes the situation in which the communication takes place, which in
this case is a tertiary/university context.
Code: Typed text (and possibly emoji like
)
Contact: WhatsApp
Example 3
Image credit: http://bonangmatheba.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Bonang-SuperLustrous-Final-Final.jpg
Text on magazine advertisement:
New Revlon Super Lustrous Lipgloss. Moisturizing shine, non-sticky feel.
Addresser: Revlon / a celebrity / Bonang Matheba
Message: New Revlon Super Lustrous Lipgloss. Moisturizing shine, non-sticky feel.
Addressee: Readers of the magazine / consumers who like wearing lipgloss.
Context: Retail / beauty / makeup
Code: A photo of a celebrity, a photo of the product, the logo, and typed text.
Contact: A magazine.
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5. The Transactional model of communication
As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the
communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is used
to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages like computers, and
we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We
also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating because communication is more than
sending and receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the transmission and
interaction models in significant ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role
of sender and receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970).
The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which
communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this
model, which is shown in Figure below, we do not just communicate to exchange messages; we
communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and
engage with others in dialogue to create communities.
The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ significantly
from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a
communication encounter are referred to as communicators. Unlike the interactive model, which
suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the transaction model
suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. This is an important addition to the
model because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for
example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on the communication we are
simultaneously receiving from our communication partner.
The transaction model of communication
The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The interaction
model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance or impede
communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on message transmission and
reception. Since the transaction model of communication views communication as a force that
shapes our realities before and after specific interactions occur, it must account for contextual
influences outside of a single interaction. To do this, the transaction model considers how social,
relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters.
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Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. Norms are
social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial and error. We may
not even know we are breaking a social norm until we notice people looking at us strangely or
someone corrects or teases us. Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history
and type of relationship we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we
just met versus someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be
more highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we have an
established relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules more
easily. Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality,
ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. We all have multiple cultural identities that
influence our communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have been
historically marginalized, are regularly aware of how their cultural identities influence their
communication and influence how others communicate with them. Conversely, people with
identities that are dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their cultural
identities play in their communication. Cultural context is influenced by numerous aspects of our
identities and is not limited to race or ethnicity.
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UNIT 3:
LISTENING SKILLS
Outcomes
After completing this unit, the student should be able to:
❖ name and explain the stages of the listening process.
❖ explain the importance of developing good listening skills.
❖ explain the difference between hearing and listening.
❖ name or illustrate the stages in the listening process.
❖ explain active listening and empathic listening in detail, and should be able to explain the
difference between the two by means of examples.
❖ identify barriers to listening.
❖ explain the note-taking process.
1. Introduction
Nichols (2009:9-11) states the following:
“Few motives in human experience are as powerful as the yearning to be understood.
Being listened to means that we are taken seriously, that our ideas and feelings are
recognised, and, ultimately, that what we have to say matters. […] The art of listening is
critical to successful relationships. […] Listening is so basic that we take it for granted.
Unfortunately, most of us think of ourselves as better listeners than we really are.”
Of course, listening does not only apply to your personal life, but also your professional life.
Effective listening is possibly the most important
communication skill. Effective listening skills are important to
function well both socially and in the workplace. How well you
listen has a major effect on your job effectiveness and on the
quality of your relationships with colleagues and clients.
For many of us, listening is the communication skill we use the
most. Yet, many people listen poorly, and they rarely think
about improving this important skill. Poor listeners "hear" what
is being said, but rarely "listen" to the whole message. Poor
listeners get distracted by their own thoughts or by what is
Image credit: www.pinterest.com
happening around them. They formulate responses before the
person they are talking to has finished speaking and because of this, they miss important
information. However, we can all learn to be better listeners.
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The listening process (Steinberg, 2007:76-77)
Stage 1: Sensing and attending
The physical part of listening – in other words, hearing. Your brain identifies sounds and you
attend to these sounds.
Stage 2: Understanding and interpreting
Understanding implies that you are able to assign the intended meaning to the content or
verbal part of the message. Interpretation implies that you are able to establish the emotional
meaning the speaker attaches to the message by his/her use of nonverbal signs.
Stage 3: Remembering
The process of storing meanings that have been received so that they may be recalled later.
Studies show that we tend to forget a great deal of what we hear almost as soon as we hear it.
This is a good reason why you should take notes during a lecture or meeting.
Stage 4: Responding
You complete the process of listening by providing feedback to the speaker. Feedback is a
requirement for efficient listening. It consists of all the verbal and nonverbal messages that you
consciously or unconsciously send to the speaker in response to the message.
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2. Importance of developing good listening skills
2.1 The aim of developing good listening skills in general (Lutrin & Pincus, 2017:67b)
❖ Enjoy listening to a story and be able to give a short account of it.
❖ Listen to and understand a variety of texts such as discussions, news reports, telephone
conversations, announcements and lessons.
❖ Understand and react by identifying the main points, purpose and specific information of a
conversation.
❖ Listen to and understand instructions by identifying key words, instructions and directions.
❖ Summarise information by writing down the main points or by putting the information into
practice.
❖ Interpret the purpose, emotion, attitude and information given by understanding the tone,
intonation and posturing of the speaker.
❖ Identify the correct register of a text concerning attitudes between speakers, situations and
the different levels of language.
2.2 Listening skills in the workplace
2.2.1 Possible results of poor listening in the workplace (Battell, 2006)
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Wasted meeting time.
Inaccurate orders and shipments.
Lost sales.
Inadequately informed, misinformed, confused, or angry staff and customers.
Unmet deadlines.
Unsolved problems.
Wrong decisions.
Lawsuits.
Poor employee morale.
2.2.2 Results of good listening in the workplace (Battell, 2006)
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greater productivity
excellence
smoother relationships
collaboration
sharing
innovation
3. The hearing-listening distinction
3.1 Hearing
❖ Hearing is passive.
❖ Most people are born with hearing and it is only one part of the listening process.
❖ Hearing entails sound waves stimulating the sensory receptors of the ear.
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3.2 Listening
❖
❖
❖
❖
Listening is an active process.
Active listeners are engaged in what they are hearing.
Active listening requires a purposeful and systematic response to messages.
There are two main types of listening: active listening, and empathic listening.
4. Active listening
4.1 Introduction to active listening
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Active is also called deliberate listening.
Active listening requires energy.
As one listens actively, one tries to understand and analyse the information while listening.
Active listening skills will be employed when attending a lecture or a meeting, or when
receiving information.
4.2 Characteristics of active listeners
Active listeners:
❖ are alert, find reasons to listen and use their skills to increase their understanding;
❖ are productive workers who are valued by organisations;
❖ are better at problem solving and remembering;
❖ have good interpersonal skills;
❖ enjoy better relationships, because they fully understand what other people are saying; and
❖ have more productive team members, because they feel that they can discuss problems
easily, and talk through solutions.
4.3 Strategies to improve your active listening skills
To improve your active listening skills, you need to:
❖ be able to hear clearly;
❖ be wide awake; sit up, lean forward and concentrate;
❖ have a reason or purpose for listening;
❖ remain open-minded and objective;
❖ focus on what is being said, not only how it is being said; and
❖ take notes to help you recall.
5. Empathic listening
5.1 Introduction to empathic listening
Empathy is the ability to sense and understand other people’s feelings, to place yourself in
another person’s shoes or to see the world as that person sees it. Empathic listening is nonjudgmental and does not require an interpretation of the message.
5.2 Characteristics of empathic listeners (Battell, 2006)
Empathic listeners:
❖ do self-assessment to determine how they relate to other people;
❖ put themselves in others’ places to understand, but not necessarily agree with what is being
said and why;
❖ understand the situations that trigger another person’s experiences; and
❖ communicate that understanding to promote a feeling of acceptance and being understood in
the other person.
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5.3 Strategies to improve your empathic listening skills
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❖
❖
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❖
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Use nonverbal codes;
do not interrupt;
create a suitable atmosphere;
do not look at the person’s situation from your frame of reference;
do not give advice unless asked to do so; and
do not analyse or evaluate.
6. Barriers to listening
It is common, when listening to someone else speak, to be formulating a reply whilst the other
person is still talking. However, this means that we are not really listening to all that is being
said. We are listening to respond, not to understand.
Even good listeners are often guilty of critically evaluating what is being said before fully
understanding the message that the speaker is trying to communicate. The result is that
assumptions are made and conclusions reached about the speaker's meaning that might be
inaccurate. This and other types of ineffective listening lead to misunderstandings and a
breakdown in communication.
Even if we are not formulating a response whilst listening, we may still be thinking of other
things, albeit subconsciously. During a conversation, how often have thoughts such as "What
am I going to have for my dinner", "Will I have time to finish that report?" or "I hope I am not late
for the last taxi" crossed your mind? At such times, we are distracted and not giving our full
attention to what is being said. In other words, we are not actively listening to the speaker.
Although listening and hearing are two different processes, they are connected. We cannot listen
if we cannot hear. Barriers are conditions or situations that block our ability to hear and thus
listen effectively. These barriers can be psychological (internal) or physical (external).
6.1 External barrier
Noise or distractions external to the listener.
Examples:
❖ A stuffy lecture room, lawnmower outside, people speaking.
❖ Trying to listen to more than one conversation at a time, this includes having the television or
radio on while attempting to listen to somebody talk; being on the phone to one person and
talking to another person in the same room and being distracted by some dominant noise in
the immediate environment.
6.2 Internal barrier
Mental or emotional distractions
Examples:
❖ Anxiety, depression, stress etc.
❖ You find the communicator attractive/unattractive and you pay more attention to how you
feel about the communicator and their physical appearance than to what they are saying.
❖ You are not interested in the topic/issue being discussed and become bored.
❖ Not focusing and being easily distracted, fiddling with your hair, fingers, a pen etc. or gazing
out of the window or focusing on objects other than the speaker.
❖ Feeling unwell or tired, hungry, thirsty or needing to use the toilet.
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❖ You are prejudiced or biased by race, gender, age, religion, accent, and/or past
experiences.
6.3 Non-Verbal Signs of Ineffective Listening
Although with all non-verbal signals a certain amount of error has to be expected, generally
signs of inattention while listening include:
❖ Lack of eye contact with the speaker – listeners who are engaged with the speaker will make
eye contact. Lack of eye contact can, however, also be a sign of shyness.
❖ An inappropriate posture - slouched, leaning back or ‘swinging’ on a chair, leaning forward
onto a desk or table and/or a constantly shifting posture.
❖ Being distracted - fidgeting, doodling, looking at a watch, yawning.
❖ Inappropriate expressions and lack of head nods.
❖ Daydreaming: Daydreaming can occur when the listener hears something that sets off a
chain of unrelated thoughts in their head – they become distracted by their ‘own world’ and
adopt a ‘far-away’ look.
❖ Advising: Some people want to jump in early in a conversation and start to offer advice
before they fully understand the problem or concerns of the speaker.
Ineffective listening is very common. You can probably think of examples when you have
listened ineffectively or not been listened to over the last 24 hours. You can probably
recognise the frustration and irritation when you know the person you are talking to is not
listening to you. As listening is so fundamental to the communication processes it is important
to try to avoid ineffective listening.
6.4 Controlling the listening situation
It is not always possible to avoid the psychological or physiological barriers to listening, but we
can try to overcome these by finding a purpose to listen. Once we have a purpose we can try
to continue listening using active listening skills.
Active listeners do not give up control of the listening situation. They stop a long winded
speaker at an appropriate point and briefly summarise what he or she has said. Then to
encourage the speaker to move on to the next point ask a question such as “what happened
next?”
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7. Note-taking
Note-taking means writing a personal version of someone else’s ideas, whether it be a lecturer
or author, with a specific purpose in mind. Since it is impossible and not very interesting to
produce an exact replica of the original, the notes you take are a summary.
There are two main situations in which students at tertiary institutions take notes. These are
presented in the figure below.
Situation
Format
Basis
1
2
In lectures when you need a written In personal studies, when revising
record.
or reading for examinations, or
when involved in private research.
Main points, supporting points and Mind maps, diagrams, tables, flow
examples.
charts, summaries.
Based on lecturer’s research and Dependent on the individual
emphasis.
student and his / her purpose.
A set of notes can serve a range of functions
They might, for example:
❖ Serve as a record of the main points of a lecture for revision and examinations.
❖ Be added to other information.
❖ Serve as the basis for an essay.
❖ Be used to prepare a summary for another audience, such as your boss.
Strategies for note-taking in lectures
❖ Use headings – for the main title and subsections of the lecture.
❖ Underline key words and main points to indicate the lecturer’s emphasis.
❖ Use space. The organisation of your notes should show the relative importance of different
points.
a. Main points against the margin
b. Secondary points or subheadings indented
c. Supporting details indented further
❖ Abbreviate. Use commonly accepted abbreviations such as:
e.g.
= for example;
NB
= important;
Re
= with reference to
❖ Invent your own system and shorten words that are used regularly.
For example, with one-syllable words, use the first and last sound: take
- tk, great - grt, chair - Chr.
Image credit: www.pinterest.com
❖ With words of two or more syllables, try to use the first syllable, or as much as you need to
make the word recognisable:
Org
= organisation;
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Sec
Inf
Info
= secretary;
= inform;
= information
❖ Use the context for clues when you read your notes. For example, in a set of notes on meeting
procedures, the following would be easily understood:
Sec must prep agenda for mtg.
❖ Be attentive to lecturers’ emphases. If the lecturer says ‘This is important”, or ‘There are three
main points’, take note.
❖ Review notes as soon after the lecture as possible. Some detail still come back as you read.
Or you might want to draw arrows to indicate connections between ideas. The notes you have
made are a rough first copy and can be expanded.
8. Phone etiquette
Phone etiquette basically means applying good manners when using a phone – whether it’s a
shared work phone or your personal cell phone. Good listening skills play a big role in phone
etiquette.
8.1 Using a phone in the workplace
8.1.1 Answering calls from clients/customers
Office Skills (2015) gives the following advice:
“The customer who contacts your company is going to base his perception of your company,
products and services on the attention he gets from speaking with you. Your job is to be
courteous, cheerful, polite, able and willing to show empathy to callers. Never argue with
customers, rush them through a call or otherwise provide poor service.
You only get one chance to make a good impression so formulating your initial greeting when
answering the company telephone is critical. Remember, you are the first voice they hear when
they contact your company. If your greeting is friendly and professional, the caller will begin to
form a favourable and positive opinion of the company. If your greeting is unpolished and
unfriendly, callers will form a negative opinion of your company.
Callers will not only judge you on the tone of y our voice but also on what you say and how you
say it. Remember when talking over the phone, you're unable to rely on the nonverbal
expressions that are so important in face to face conversations. All the caller has to go by is
what they hear over the phone. Therefore, speaking clearly and in an upbeat, enthusiastic tone
is extremely important at all times.”
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8.1.2 Taking a message
Hyde (2008) explains how to take a message:
“When taking a phone message, be sure to get the following information to be helpful to both
the caller and the person receiving the message. Taking a message properly will also help you
to be perceived as professional, organised, and efficient in a business environment.
1. Write down the caller’s first and last name with the correct spelling. If the person has a job
title, include it as well.
2. Write down the name of the company the caller is representing.
3. Write down the caller’s phone number and a good time to return the call to avoid phone tag.
4. Describe the nature of the call.
5. Write down the time and date you took the message.
6. Make sure the person receiving the message knows who took the message by signing or
initialising the message so they can speak with you if there are any questions.
7. Deliver the message to the appropriate party as soon as possible.”
8.2 Cell phone etiquette
8.2.1 Being professional
You may consider your cell phone as a personal device which you can use as you like… but
that’s not the case. What if that person calling you now is a potential employer, not your best
friend that you were expecting a call from? You still need to sound professional, although it’s
not a business phone.
Prince (2014) suggests a few guidelines for using your cell phone:
❖ Answering
Only answer your phone with either a time of day greeting, or your name. Expect to use: “Good
Morning,” “Good Afternoon,” or “This is [your name].”
Don’t answer your phone if you are unable to talk or if you are in a loud, unprofessional setting.
Restrooms, casinos, and doctor’s appointments are all prime examples of times that you should
not answer a call, especially a work-related call.
If you pick up the call and are unable to speak, ask if you can return the call. Do not ask the
caller to call you back. More than likely, the caller will not call back and this will be a missed
opportunity.
❖ Voice Mail
Remember to record a professional outgoing message with your name and instructions on your
return call manner.
Avoid using music as voice mail.
Never use a presumptuous voice mail greeting that says “It’s Bill, you know what to do” or “yo
yo yo, you got Sheena on the hook, but I can’t take your call right now ’cause I’m hangin’ out
with my boo. Leave me a message and I’ll call you back when I feel like it!” It makes you seem
unprofessional.
❖ Returning Calls
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Always check your voice mail messages prior to returning a call! Usually there’s important
information and instructions for you in regards to returning the call. When you call back they
may ask if you got their message and they will know if you are lying and say “yes” when you
didn’t.
Be prepared when returning calls. Always have paper and a pen ready in case they give you
further instructions.
8.2.2 Social situations
If you are having a meal at home with your family, or with friends at a restaurant, you still need
to apply phone etiquette. Reiter (2004) explains how:
❖ Turn Your Ringer Off
Switch your phone to silent or vibrate for the duration of your meal. No one wants to hear the
clever ring you’ve programmed into your phone while they’re deciding between a salad and
fries. Better yet, of course, would be to switch off your phone altogether; an Israeli restaurateur
recently offered diners who did so a 50 percent discount. But there are instances (you may
need to leave on a dime to drive your pregnant sister to the hospital, say) when this may not be
possible.
❖ Apologise in Advance
If you are expecting that emergency call from your due any second sister and may need to take
it in the middle of your meal, let your dining companions know beforehand. That way, when the
call comes in and you cut them off midsentence and rush out, they’ll understand why.
❖ Keep Your Phone Off the Table
Putting your phone in the middle of the table to monitor your calls and texts impresses no one –
and distracts everyone. Keep your personal hunk of technology in your pocket or purse while
you’re eating.
❖ Don’t Obsess
Don’t keep reaching for your phone to see if the call came in. If you need to check it once or
twice during your meal, excuse yourself and do so, then return fully to the conversation. And if
you think no one can see you constantly checking and rechecking your texts under the table,
um, think again. Everyone totally knows what you’re doing.
❖ Step Away
If you get a voice call you absolutely must take (perhaps another expected dining companion is
lost and needs directions), step away from the table – or even out of the restaurant – to take it.
Then, when you return, explain and express your apology.
❖ Don’t Geek Out
Resist the urge to live tweet your meal – or to consult the Internet for advice before you order.
Do your research before you sit down to eat. And if you must photograph your meal (really,
must you?), do so swiftly (no carefully staged beauty shots) and return your phone to its
properly stowed position.
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❖ Look Up and Look Around
It may feel natural to reach for your phone when a dining companion reaches for his or hers –
or leaves the table for a moment – but you might instead leave your phone where it is and
focus on your surroundings in the here and now. Look around and take in the restaurant’s
decor, the ambiance and the other diners. You can probably go right ahead and stare – most of
them will probably be too absorbed in their own smartphones to notice.
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UNIT 4:
READINGN COMPREHENSION SKILLS
Learning Outcomes
After completing this unit, the student should be able to:
❖ distinguish between reading types/techniques;
❖ choose the appropriate reading technique for a given task;
❖ use skimming techniques in previewing and reviewing;
❖ retrieve information effectively by scanning;
❖ apply study-reading skills;
❖ read to comprehend content of text and questions based on text;
❖ read for information;
❖ read critically to understand and assess texts;
❖ understand action verbs and their application in different contexts;
❖ use action verbs to attain your objective/s;
❖ read, understand and follow instructions; and
❖ give accurate instructions.
1. Introduction
People who visited former US president Theodore Roosevelt were astonished at the range and
diversity of his knowledge. Whether his visitor was a cowboy or a politician, Roosevelt knew
what to say. How? Whenever Roosevelt expected a visitor, he sat up late the night before,
reading up on the subject in which he knew his guest was particularly interested. He knew that
the road to a person’s heart was to talk about the things he/she treasured most.
(Carnegie, 1998:89).
This example may seem a little extreme, but it makes a point: reading is important – and also,
understanding and remembering what you’ve read is important.
2. Describing the concept of reading
Reading is the process through which we make meaning of a written passage. This is done by
interpreting the words in the passage in combination.
Words in isolation have very limited meaning. Take for example the word “cat”. A cat is an
animal. If you put “the” in front of “cat”, you are now referring to a specific cat. If you now add
“in the hat” after “the cat”, you have “The cat in the hat”, which is a book title.
3. Reading purposes
People read for different purposes. We read to:
❖ Relax: reading a novel during the holiday for enjoyment. Speed-reading would be the
appropriate type of reading.
❖ Find information: looking for a specific word in a dictionary. Scanning would be the type of
reading used.
❖ Preview: trying to obtain an overview when deciding whether to read something in detail.
Skim-reading is the type of reading that will be used.
❖ Study: remember details for an examination. Study-reading would be the appropriate type of
reading.
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4. Types of reading
Scanning, skimming and study-reading are the three types of reading that need to be examined
in an academic situation.
4.1 Scanning
Scanning is the fastest type of reading. This technique is used to find specific information within
a text. It is done by letting your eye glance quickly over the text or using your finger as a guide
until you find the specific detail, always having a clear idea of the information needed. Note
numerical and alphabetical cues.
Scanning is used to look for a specific name, a key word, or a number or amount: for example
finding a name in a telephone directory or a word in a dictionary.
4.2 Skimming
Not every word is read which makes this a very fast type of reading. The purpose is to get an
overview of the text.
4.2.1 Skimming to preview
When you want to get an idea of the text in the shortest possible time, the following process
should be followed:
❖ Read the heading or title.
❖ Read the opening and closing paragraphs.
❖ Read the first sentence of each paragraph.
4.2.2 Skimming to survey
When you want to study material this method will be employed to obtain a mental outline.
Employ the following process:
❖ Study the title or heading of the text.
❖ Read the introduction.
❖ Read the summary or the conclusion.
❖ Read the main subheadings.
❖ Check any further subheadings.
❖ Pay attention to other techniques – words written in bold and italicised.
4.2.3 Skimming to review
This is done when you want to revise what you have read. It is mostly used just before an
examination.
Ask yourself the following questions:
❖ What are the main points?
❖ Do I remember them?
4.3 Study-reading (also referred to as critical or interactive reading)
This is intensive reading that is done slowly and carefully. It involves reading to understand, to
remember and to be critical. Effective study-reading requires that you interact with the text.
Strategies to employ:
❖ Read with a pencil in your hand and underline important words or phrases.
❖ Select key words and phrases in sentences and paragraphs – most important words.
❖ Find the topic (main) sentence of each paragraph.
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Find the main idea of longer passages.
Make notes as you read and when you have finished.
Identify linking words or connectors as these show development of ideas.
Ask questions as you read.
4.4 Speed Reading
Speed reading is a very useful skill. Many people can read an average of 250 words a minute.
It would take 1-2 minutes to read an average page. It is possible to double that speed by using
certain techniques.
This type of reading is effective for leisure reading or getting the overall idea of the text.
However, it is not always the most appropriate technique to use. When reading challenging or
important documents, rather read them slowly to ensure you have a proper comprehension of
each document.
4.4.1 How to speed up your reading
❖ Eliminate sub-vocalisation
When you pronounce each word you read in your head, you are sub-vocalising. You can
overcome this by telling yourself not to sub-vocalise. Break the habit by reading blocks of
words rather than concentrating on single words.
❖ Avoid reading word-for-word
When you concentrate on individual words you often miss exactly what is being said. Once
again, reading blocks of words will give you a better understanding of the text and increase
your reading speed.
❖ Improve inefficient eye movement
Concentrate on seeing blocks of words instead of focussing on each word individually.
Practice and, as you improve, your eyes will move faster and faster across each written line.
❖ Abstain from regression
Don’t allow yourself to skip back and re-read words or sentences unless you absolutely have
to. Focus on moving forward.
❖ Improve concentration
Get rid of distractions! Turn off the TV and block out “internal noise” such as reliving a recent
argument or wondering what to wear tomorrow. Do this by recognising that your attention is
wandering and tell yourself to concentrate. Reading is best done in an environment where
distractions, both internal and external, are kept to the minimum. (Speed reading, 2015)
If you wish to improve your reading speed you will find a number of courses online, many of
them free.
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5. Understanding the writer’s intention
As the reader reads for a specific purpose, so each text has been written for a purpose as well.
A text can be aimed at providing you with information, giving you instructions, entertaining you
or persuading you. The perceptive reader should always try to identify the purpose of the text
that they are reading.
Depending on the aim of the text, the language used by the writer can be:
❖ Objective – factual language such as the language found in an instruction manual; or
❖ Subjective – descriptive language such as the language used in advertisements, fiction,
poems and songs.
Objective language is language that is neutral and based on facts. If you read an article about
elephants that describes an elephant as a big, grey animal with a trunk, this would be objective
language because it is a fact that elephants are indeed big, grey animals with trunks.
Subjective language on the other hand is not neutral and is also not necessarily based on
fact. If an advertisement stated that a particular product was “the best in the west” that would
Image credit: ww.pinterest.com
not necessarily mean the product was indeed the best of its kind in the western hemisphere. It
would merely be the opinion of the product’s producer.
6. Understanding context
Apart from being aware of the writer’s intention with the text, the reader should also be aware of
the context in which the reading takes place. Context can refer to the words surrounding a
particular word. However, it can also refer to the grammar of the sentence and the meanings of
the words, a paragraph, an entire story or other texts. Context can include the reader’s
expectations and the purpose of reading, the location and situation in which the reader is
reading and even the person’s culture.
Context can be divided into:
❖ Context of the passage: This refers to the circumstances in which the
reading takes place. If you were reading a magazine article for leisure, you
would not think critically about every word you were reading. You would feel
relaxed. If however you were reading the very same article as a
comprehension test, you would be considering everything that you read
critically. You would not be relaxed but could instead rather feel pressured.
❖ Context of the reader: this refers to the personal characteristics that
each person brings to the text e.g. linguistic competence, knowledge of the
language, prior knowledge of the subject/topic, frame of reference,
motivation and life experiences.
Image credit: www.pinterest.com
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7. Comprehension skills
7.1 Introduction
We need to be able to understand what we hear and read. Without understanding, we would
not be able to complete tasks correctly or understand the test questions in any of our subjects.
In this module, your understanding is tested through comprehension tests. Similarly, you need
to know the rules for comprehension and follow instructions given in a comprehension test.
7.2 Guidelines for analysing online content in an academic context
As a learner transitioning into a predominantly online academic environment you will be the
recipient of information in hypertext format rather than traditional print. This basically means that
there are differences related to textual boundaries, linearity and navigation. There are challenges
you as a learner will encounter but having the knowledge to cope with these challenges will
enable you to analyse content taking into consideration the factors that differentiate your
experience as a hypertext reader in contrast to a traditional reader.
•
•
•
Textual boundaries - This means that you as a student may not be able to view a text in
its entirety in a restricted area (For example, your laptop or desktop). As a student you
will face more challenges in order to comprehend a hypertext in contrast to a traditional
text. Knowing that these challenges will arise allows you as a learner to ensure that it
won’t affect your ability to perform to the best of your ability in online tests and exams.
Linearity - The aspect of linearity means that as a traditional reader information flows
consecutively whereas as a hypertext reader you as a student will need to understand
that because content needn’t necessarily be read in a single order which can hamper
your ability to concentrate and engage with the content. Within a test or examination
context you will need to be disciplined in the evaluation of texts in order to answer
questions to the best of your ability.
Navigation - The aspect of navigation will require a heightened cognitive activity in
contrast to a traditional text. This means that you as the student will need to comprehend
how to get around this ‘online landscape.’ For example, after reading a comprehension
or passage questions will follow. You will as a learner need to know where to go next,
skip or explore the online content presented to you in order to answer questions to the
best of your ability.
Küçükoğlu (2013:710) asserts that when dealing with reading, we encounter two layers of reality:
one that we can see and one that we cannot see. Therefore, the purpose of reading is to make
the invisible layer, the underlying meaning, visible and clear. Teele (2004: 92) asserts that the
goal of all readers should be to understand what they read. Predicting, making connections,
visualising, inferring, questioning, and summarising are strategies shown by research to improve
reading comprehension.
1.1 Predicting
Predicting, helps the reader set a purpose for their reading. Research has shown that good
readers use their experiences and knowledge to make predictions and formulate ideas as they
read.
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1.2 Visualising
Visualization requires the reader to construct an image of what is read. Students to visualise
settings, characters, and actions in a story and ask them to make drawings or write about the
image.
1.3 Making Connections
Making Connections means the learners can activate their prior knowledge and connect the ideas
in the text to their own experiences beliefs, and the things happening in the outer world.
1.4 Questioning
The questioning process requires readers to ask questions of themselves to construct meaning,
enhance understanding, find answers, solve problems, find information, and discover new
information. Students practice to distinguish between questions that are factual prior knowledge.
1.5 Inferring
Inferring refers to reading between the lines. Students need to use their own knowledge along
with information from the text to draw their own conclusions.
1.6 Summarising
The process of summarization requires the reader to determine what is important when reading
and to condense the information in the readers own words. In summarising process, students
need to distinguish the main ideas from the supporting ideas.
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UNIT 5:
CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING
Learning Outcomes
After completing this unit, the student should be able to:
❖ define critical thinking.
❖ name, briefly explain, and apply the five steps to improve critical thinking.
❖ define creative thinking.
❖ briefly explain and apply the SCAMPER method to improve creative thinking.
❖ define brainstorming.
❖ name, briefly explain, and apply Six De Bonos Thinking Hats.
1. Introduction
The following illustration provides a brief explanation of the difference between critical thinking
and creative thinking:
Image credit: criticalandcreativethinking.com.au
Aim to improve both your critical and creative skills. One skill is not more important than the
other. The situation or context determines which skills to lean on more heavily. We need good
critical and creative skills for both our professional as well as our personal lives.
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2. Critical thinking
2.1 Definition of critical thinking
Disciplined thinking that is clear, rational, open-minded, and informed by evidence.
(Dictionary.com, 2016.)
In Unit 3 (specifically the section about dictionary skills), you learnt that a word can have more
than one definition – it depends on the context. Please note: the word “critical” is not used here
in the sense of something that is bad or wrong. Rather we refer to making careful, fair
judgments about the good and bad qualities of something or someone.
2.2 How to improve your critical thinking skills
2.2.1 Five steps to improve your critical thinking skills
This list was compiled using Goodman (2013) and LaBracio (2016).
❖ Identify your purpose. Every time you face a decision, there is a purpose attached to that
choice, or a goal that the decision will help you achieve. Once you identify your purpose, it
should inform every step of your decision process.
❖ Gather information. There’s lots of it out there, so having a clear idea of your question will
help you determine what’s relevant. Information gathering helps you weigh different options,
moving you closer to a decision that meets your goal.
❖ Apply the information. Facing a decision, ask yourself, ‘what concepts are at work?’ ‘What
assumptions exist?’ ‘Is my interpretation of the information logically sound?’
❖ Examine your biases. When you face a problem, it's common to view it from only your
perspective. Ask yourself, what do I believe about this situation? What is important to me?
Next, look for any assumptions you might be making about others' thoughts or behaviours.
❖ Consider the implications of your options. Every choice has consequences, and you can
improve your decision-making by anticipating what those might be. To do that, approach the
problem from many different viewpoints.
2.2.2 Application of five steps
EXAMPLE: You would like to buy a new cell phone, but you don’t know which one to choose.
Identify your purpose: Buy a new cell phone that is reliable, yet not more expensive than
R4000.
Gather information: Search online for cell phone reviews from reliable sources. Go to cell
phone dealers and ask them for advice, based on feedback they get from customers.
Apply the information: Based on the evidence, can you draw a logically sound conclusion
about which phone brand and model would be the best buy?
Examine your biases: Do you have any brand preferences? Are there any brands that you
have never considered buying before because you believe they are not good quality or they are
not “fashionable”?
Consider the implications of your options: If you buy an expensive phone of R10 000 just
because it is fashionable, you may encounter financial difficulties. If you buy a cheaper phone
of R500, its quality may not be very good and you may have to replace it sooner than you
would like to.
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3. Creative thinking
3.1 Definition of creative thinking
A way of looking at problems or situations from a fresh perspective. (BusinessDictionary.com,
2016.)
3.2 How to improve your creative thinking skills
3.2.1 SCAMPER
This section was compiled from Lau (2011:223-224).
A crucial step in the creativity cycle is to actively explore the connections between ideas. Let’s
call them creative thinking habits. All these habits are based on one fundamental principle: a
new idea is made up of old ideas combined in a new way.
SCAMPER is a mnemonic for a list of ways to get new ideas. (Mnemonic: a system such as a
pattern of letters, ideas, or associations which assists in remembering something.)
Letter
Method
Questions
S
Substitute something
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
C
Combine it with something else
❖ How about a blend, an alloy, an assortment, an
ensemble?
❖ Combine units?
❖ Combine purposes?
❖ Combine appeals?
❖ Combine ideas?
A
Adapt something to it
❖
❖
❖
❖
M
Modify or magnify it
❖ Change meaning, colour, motion, sound, odour,
form, shape?
❖ What to add?
❖ Duplicate? Multiply? Exaggerate?
P
Put it to some other use
❖ New ways to use as is?
❖ New twist?
E
Eliminate something
❖ Remove elements?
❖ Simplify?
❖ Reduce to core function?
Who else instead?
What else instead?
Other ingredient?
Other process?
Other place?
Other approach?
Other tone of voice?
Alter/change function?
What else is like this?
What other idea does this suggest?
What could I copy from the past?
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❖ Condense?
❖ Smaller, shorter, lighter?
❖ Understate?
R
Reverse or rearrange it
❖
❖
❖
❖
Other pattern, layout, or sequence?
How about opposites?
Turn it backward?
Turn it upside down?
3.2.2 Application of SCAMPER
QUESTION:
A pallet is a framework of wood used for carrying
things, especially cargo. Apply SCAMPER to
come up with new uses for a pallet.
Image credit: manufacturerspalletdisposal.com
Substitute: Other approach – don’t use in an industrial context for carrying cargo, but rather in
a personal context for a DIY project.
Combine: Attach steel buckets containing soil and plants to create a herb garden.
Adapt: Something else that is like this – cargo trucks. Create an artwork by building a cargo
truck out of wooden pallets.
Modify/magnify: Change colour by painting pallet a different colour, for example blue.
Put to other use: Use (as is) as a base for a small bed.
Eliminate: Remove parts to make it smaller and turn it into a wooden serving tray.
Reverse/rearrange: Turn upside down to use as a bookshelf.
3.3 Brainstorming
Brainstorming can be defined as a group problem-solving technique that involves the
spontaneous contribution of ideas from all members of the group. (Merriam-Webster, 2016.)
The term “brainstorming” was coined by advertising executive Alex Osborn in 1939 (Scannell &
Mulvihill, 2012:3).
3.3.1 Osborn’s four brainstorming principles (Scannell & Mulvihill, 2012:3-4)
❖ Focus on quantity instead of quality.
A focus on quantity gives a group an “abundance” mentality. Why should we withhold
information and compete? There is plenty for everyone.
❖ Allow no criticism.
If our tendency is to support, we will engage in dialogue to understand, instead of debating
to win. We will provide feedback in a way that is respectful and helpful. Because we look
for the good in our group members, we have no need to backstab or become passiveaggressive.
❖ Welcome far-fetched ideas.
This promotes creativity and diversity in a group. We associate ourselves with our ideas, so
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if we welcome far-fetched ideas, we welcome differences. Group members are supportive,
encouraging, and respectful of one another.
❖ Build upon each other’s ideas.
We become better listeners – we listen for rather than against the other group member. We
become more aware of group members and how we can bring out the best in each other.
We build a group with a high level of trust.
3.3.2 How to run a brainstorming session (Scannell & Mulvihill, 2012:11-12)
❖ Define your topic. Every group member should know exactly what they will be
brainstorming about. This will help keep the conversation on track and prevent group
members talking in circles without getting anywhere.
❖ Pick your group. A group that’s too small will not bring enough breadth of perspectives and
won’t provide enough opportunities to feed off each other’s ideas. A group that’s too large
will be difficult to manage, and ensuring that everyone is heard from will be too time
consuming.
❖ Decide on a group leader. This person facilitates the brainstorming session and helps to
make it successful.
❖ Give group members time to prepare. Encourage them to brainstorm by themselves first,
without discussing the topic with anyone else. Tell them to write down some ideas and bring
it to the brainstorming session.
❖ Create a suitable atmosphere. Stimulate people’s minds and engage their senses. Have
items like colourful sticky notes available.
3.4 Combining critical and creative thinking: Six Thinking Hats
Six Thinking Hats is a simple, effective parallel thinking process that helps people be more
productive, focused, and mindfully involved.
You and/or your group can learn how to separate thinking into six clear functions and roles.
Each thinking role is identified with a coloured symbolic "thinking hat." By mentally wearing and
switching "hats", you can easily focus or redirect thoughts or a conversation.
(De Bono Group, 2016.)
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Image credit: highlandliteracy.files.wordpress.com
Thinking for yourself and finding your own solutions can become a fashion statement (for your
brain) with the six De Bono thinking hats. The six thinking hats is a system designed by Edward
de Bono, which describes a tool for group discussions and individual thinking involving the
following six coloured hats.
Paul Foreman did research regarding the six thinking hats.
The red Feelings hat signifies feelings, hunches, gut feelings and intuition – the place where
emotions are placed without explanation or justification. This can be paired with a strategy
‘Making Thinking Visible’ (MTV). The learner has to think about two statements regarding a topic
when it is being discussed; I used to think (previous knowledge) and now I think (knowledge
learnt). Students are taught not to feel bad about their feelings. Feelings are part of everyday life
and everything is done using emotions.
The yellow Benefits hat symbolises brightness and optimism. You can explore the positives and
probe for value and benefit. ‘I think, I feel, I wonder’ is a strategy that can be used to explore the
benefits. Being positive is something that has to be learnt by some. The Benefits hat helps
students explore their positive side.
The green Creative hat focuses on creativity, possibilities, alternatives and new ideas. It is an
opportunity to express new concepts and new perceptions – lateral thinking could be used here.
Using the ‘Number Heads Together’ Kagan’s strategy can help a group of students to come up
with the most creative solution together. Not everyone is equally creative, but someone else’s
creativity might spark something new and adventurous.
The white Facts hat calls for information known or needed. Global Competency Skill – Reflective
thinking – can be included. Reflective thinking helps the student to think of past concepts and
information, and how it relates to the new discussion. Kagan’s ‘Round Robin’ strategy helps
students to discuss their opinions and to come to a conclusion. For the student who loves History,
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Geography and Science, the Fact hat will become a favourite. The student that has a more
humorous side will learn to pay attention to the facts and use it to their advantage.
The blue Process hat is used to manage the thinking process, organize thinking and the planning
for action. It ensures that the ‘Six Thinking Hats’ guidelines are observed. The ‘All Write Rally
Robin’, a Kagan’s strategy, will work well. All students write their ideas, they compare and devise
a plan of action. The unorganized student will learn to order their thoughts and ideas.
The black Caution hat signifies caution and critical thinking, why something may not work.
Students may be presented with a scenario. They need to discuss the positives and negatives
and give feedback on solutions on how to turn all the negatives into positives. Conflict resolution
is a perfect example. The self-conscious student will learn and benefit the most from this skill.
Conflict resolution will perhaps not feel like the punishment it used to be!
Being able to think for yourself, to analyse the problem, looking at the facts and solving the
problem, empowers students. By using the black Caution hat, students can learn to solve peer
pressure and conflict, which can lead to putting an end to bullying.
The students can apply the skills learnt from De Bono’s Thinking hats to everyday life. Some
benefits of using the De Bono’s thinking hats can include the following:
·students learn to make mature decisions by themselves
·students’ thinking is more focussed
·it improves the students’ creativity, innovation and collaborative thinking
·the ego is removed from all decisions
·it saves time
The De Bono’s Thinking Hats is not just a skill, it is a life skill.
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UNIT 6:
RESEARCH SKILLS and CONCISE WRITING
Outcomes
After completing this unit, the student should be able to:
❖ analyse a website and decide if it’s authentic and reliable, or not.
❖ find an online journal article by using databases that the university library has access to.
❖ name, explain and apply the 7 Cs of Communication for concise wriiting
1. Sources of information
Being able to research and use materials which back up your study or offer different
interpretations of your study area is an essential aspect of studying and learning at this level of
your higher education studies. Primarily you need to be aware of where to look for information,
how to access it and how to use it. You must also be able to scrutinise your sources to check
that they are relevant and of a suitable nature to be included within your area of study.
1.2 Websites
Bothma et al. (2011:160-161) states the following:
Every document on the internet has a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), for example
www.vut.ac.za. The URL reveals useful information about an electronic document,
such as the owner and the nature of the organisation. It is easy for anyone to publish
on the Web, so you must be able to analyse the URL of a website to get an idea of
what to expect from the website in terms of quality.
It is important to recognise when you are using a commercial website, and to keep in
mind that the information will be biased towards the product or company. (This does
not always mean that you can’t use the information – for some information needs it
could be essential.)
It is also important to be able to recognise websites which you would assume offer
accurate information, like the websites of professional organisations, digital libraries,
governments and academic institutions.
Examples of the most common generic codes in domain names
Generic code
Nature of website
Example
.gov
Government website
www.dhet.gov.za
.com or .co
Commercial website
www.vodacom.co.za
.edu or ac.
Education website
www.vut.ac.za
.net
Network website
www.safagoal.net
.org
Organisation website
www.animalrescue.org.za
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1.3 Library books
Step 1: Access the Goldfields Library’s website: http://www.vut.ac.za/index.php/library
Step 2: Click on “Library Catalogue” (below the heading “Quick links”).
Step 3: From the drop-down menu, choose if you would like to search for a keyword, title,
author, etc.
Step 4: In the search field, type the word/title/surname that you would like to search for. For
example: if you are looking for a book about job interviews, type “job interview” in the search
field.
Step 5: A list of results appear. When you see a book that you would like to use, note down its
call number (for example 650.144 ALL).
Step 6: Go to the library and use the call number to find the book you are looking for. If you
struggle to find it, ask a librarian for help.
1.4 Online journal articles
Step 1: Access the Goldfields Library’s website: http://www.vut.ac.za/index.php/library
Step 2: Click on “Electronic Databases” (below the heading “Quick links”).
Step 3: A list of databases appear. Click on the name of the database which you would like to
use, for example JStor.
Step 4: In the database’s search field, type the topic you want to look for. For example: if you
have to write an essay about the effect of background noise on people, type “background
noise”.
Step 5: Scroll through the list of results and click on the article that you would like to read, for
example “Is Noise Always Bad? Exploring the Effects of Ambient Noise on Creative Cognition”.
Step 6: Read the article abstract, or scan through the entire article, to determine if the article is
useful and relevant to your assignment’s topic.
Step 7: If you don’t find any relevant articles, try searching another database.
Very important: Always reference the source(s) you used. If you don’t reference, it’s
plagiarism.
Plagiarism: the practice of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's
own. Synonyms: copying, infringement of copyright, piracy, theft, stealing, poaching,
appropriation, informal cribbing.
2. Evaluating information and information sources
In a society marked by information overload, you must be able to identify quality and to be
selective in the information you use (Bothma et al., 2011:154). Finding good information
sources consists of much more than simply typing a topic into Google and picking the first
result.
Although there is a slight difference in criteria that apply to traditional information sources (for
example printed sources) and sources available via the Web (for example websites and online
journals), there is also substantial overlap between the two (Bothma et al., 2011:155). For that
reason, Bothma et al. (2011:157) was able to develop a “roadmap” for evaluating information
and information sources.
43
A guide to evaluating information and information sources (Bothma et al., 2011:157)
1
Use resources such as databases and platforms to identify information sources that may be
potentially useful, e.g. through a literature search.
2
Assess whether the information source is suitable for your information need:
• Will it give you the answer?
• Will it help you to solve the problem?
• Does it deal with the topic?
Consider: amount of information, depth of information, general overview vs. specific focus,
period covered, geographic area covered.
3
Do further evaluation:
• Is the information source suitable for you as a person? (Consider: audience, level of
presentation, language, reading level.)
• Does the information source meet with the standards/requirements for your situation?
(Consider: peer-reviewed publications, currency.)
• Can it be assumed that the information source will offer information that will be accurate,
reliable, trustworthy? (Consider: author’s reputation, publisher, extensiveness of reference
list, reliability of hyperlinks, URL.)
4
Get hold of the information source (e.g. book, web page, article):
• Are there any outside factors affecting you? (Consider: price, subscription cost, hardware
or software requirements, instability of internet connections.)
5
Read/study the information source and evaluate the information:
• Is the information accurate/correct?
• Is the information unbiased?
• Consider: obvious errors, objectivity, inaccurate factual information.
6
Use the information to make a decision, and write an assignment.
7
8
Evaluate the end product:
• Is your answer correct?
• Did you solve the problem?
• Did you get enough information?
• Does your assignment address the topic in sufficient detail?
Put the end product on the table:
• Submit your assignment and wait for the lecturer’s evaluation.
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3. Referencing your sources of information
3.1 The purpose of referencing
 Question: When am I going to use referencing?
 Answer: Any time you use information from an external source, for example if you have to
write an essay about a specific topic. Sources include books, websites, journals, dictionaries,
encyclopaedias, e-mails, interviews, online videos, social media, DVDs, etc. This applies to all
of your subjects. Referencing is used at all universities.
 Question: Why should I reference?
 Answer: If you don’t acknowledge sources, you’re basically pretending that you thought of
all the information yourself, while you actually didn’t. This is dishonest and unethical. The
term used to describe this is “plagiarism”. Also, you need to show that you did thorough
research about a topic, so if you have no references, it will create a bad impression. People
will take an article with ten sources much more seriously than an article with no sources.
 Question: What guides are available to help me reference?
 Answer: You can ask your lecturer to e-mail you VUT’s reference guide. There are also
several other universities, both local and international, who have reference guides on their
websites. Just make sure that it’s the Harvard style.
3.2 How to reference books
3.2.1 One author
Basic format (reference list)
Surname of author, initial of author. Year of publication. Title of book: subtitle of book. Edition
(if applicable). City/place of publication: Name of publishing company.
Example
Griffin, E. M. 2006. A first look at communication theory. 6th ed. New York: McGraw Hill.
In-text reference
According to Griffin (2006:34) the field of communication has been concerned with ethical
responsibility more than most academic disciplines.
3.2.2 Two authors
Basic format (reference list)
Surname of first author, initial of author & surname of second author, initial of author. Year of
publication. Title of book: subtitle of book. City/place of publication: Name of publishing
company.
Example
Hatim, B. & Munday, J. 2004. Translation: an advanced resource book. London and New
York: Routledge.
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In-text reference
Hatim and Munday (2004:62) explain that direct translations are more closely tied to the
original.
OR Direct translations are more closely tied to the original (Hatim & Munday, 2004:62).
(Note that the word “and” separates the authors’ surnames outside of the brackets, but an “&” is
used when the surnames are between brackets.)
3.2.3 Three or more authors
Mention all authors in the bibliography, but only one author followed by et al. for in-text
references.
Basic format (reference list)
Surname of first author, initial of author, surname of second author, initial of author, & surname
of third author, initial of author. Year of publication. Title of book: subtitle of book. City/place of
publication: Name of publishing company.
Example
Barnet, S., Burto, W., & Cain, W. E. 2004. An introduction to literature. 13th ed. New York:
Pearson Education.
In-text reference
“The law is the law and literature is literature, but they do have something in common other
than both beginning with the same letter” (Barnet et al., 2004:317).
3.2.4 Editor(s)
Use the abbreviation ed. for one editor, and eds. for two or more editors.
Basic format (reference list)
Surname of editor, initial of editor, ed. Year of publication. Title of book: subtitle of book.
City/place of publication: Name of publishing company.
Example
Burke, R. J., ed. 2017. Stress in policing: sources, consequences and interventions. London
and New York: Routledge.
3.2.5 Chapter in a collected work
Basic format (reference list)
Surname of chapter’s author, initial of author. Year of publication. Title of chapter. (In
surname and initial of editor/author. Title of book. City/place of publication: Name of publishing
company. Page numbers of chapter).
Example
Fouché, C.B. & De Vos, A.S. 2005. Selection of a researchable topic. (In De Vos, A.S.,
Strydom, H., Fouché, C.B., & Delport, C.S.L. Research at grass roots: for the social sciences
and human service professions. Pretoria: Van Schaik. p. 89-99).
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In-text reference
Fouché and De Vos (2005:98) suggest asking yourself if your research project will contribute to
career goals.
3.3 How to reference websites
Basic format (reference list)
Surname of author, initial of author OR name of website. Year article was published.
Title/heading of article. URL (hyperlink). Date of access: day + month (abbreviated) + year.
Example
Sky News. 2016. Japan's £139m computer will be fastest in world, making 130 quadrillion
calculations a second. http://news.sky.com/story/japans-163139m-computer-will-be-fastest-inworld-making-130-quadrillion-calculations-a-second-10671180.Date of access: 7 Dec. 2016.
In-text reference
“The computer should advance "deep learning" technology that works off algorithms which
mimic the human brain's neural pathways” (Sky News, 2016).
3.4 How to reference online journal articles
Basic format (reference list)
Surname of author, initial of author. Year of publication. Title of article. Name of journal,
number/volume:page numbers where article appears, season (if applicable). URL (hyperlink).
Date of access: day + month (abbreviated) + year.
Example
Schniederjans, D. G. 2017. Adoption of 3D-printing technologies in manufacturing: A survey
analysis. International Journal of Production Economics, 183:287-298.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925527316303310 Date of access:
6 Dec. 2016.
In-text reference
Schniederjans (2017:287) states that various countries have invested heavily in encouraging
the adoption and use of 3D-printing in manufacturing.
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3.5 How to reference study guides/readers
Basic format (reference list)
Surname and initial of author. Year. Module name. City/place of publication: name of
university and campus. (Study guide/reader’s module code).
Example
Applied Communication Skills lecturers. 2016. Applied Communication Skills 1.1.
Vanderbijlpark: VUT, Vanderbijlpark Campus. (Reader HKACX1A).
In-text reference
“Every choice has consequences, and you can improve your decision-making by anticipating
what those might be.” (Applied Communication Skills lecturers, 2016:34.)
3.6 How to reference personal correspondence (interviews, e-mails)
Basic format (reference list)
Surname and initials of interviewee. Date. Title/topic [form of communication]. Day, month,
place (place is only used for interviews, not for e-mails).
Example
Tsolo, M. 2017. The importance of critical thinking in the workplace [e-mail]. 2 Feb.
In-text reference
Knowledge of your field of study is not enough – you also need good critical thinking skills
(Tsolo, 2017).
3.7 General principles for writing a reference list
❖ Use the term “reference list” when referring to sources that were quoted in the text. A
bibliography refers to a more substantial list with extra sources that were not necessarily all
quoted in the text.
❖ The reference list should be started on a new page.
❖ All sources referred to in the text must be included in the reference list. In other words: for
each entry on your reference list, there must be at least one corresponding in-text
reference.
❖ The list must be in alphabetical order.
❖ If there is more than one entry from the same author, arrange these entries chronologically
from old to new. If the dates (years) are also the same, add an “a” after the date of the first
entry and a “b” after the date of the second entry, for example 2015a.
❖ Don’t use bullets or numbering.
❖ Leave two spaces between each element of a reference list entry.
❖ All entries must have a full stop at the end, except after a URL (when referencing a
website).
❖ It is vital to include complete bibliographical information for every source you used.
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4. The 7 Cs of Communication
The 7 Cs of Communication is a checklist to help you determine if you communicated your
message clearly or not. The following explanation of the 7 Cs was compiled from Mind Tools
(2016).
4.1 Clear
When writing or speaking to someone, be clear about your goal or message. What is your
purpose in communicating with this person? If you're not sure, then your audience won't be
sure either.
To be clear, try to minimize the number of ideas in each sentence. Make sure that it's easy for
your reader to understand your meaning. People shouldn't have to "read between the lines"
and make assumptions on their own to understand what you're trying to say.
Bad example
Hi John,
I wanted to write you a quick note about Daniel, who's working in your department. He's a great
asset, and I'd like to talk to you more about him when you have time.
Best,
Skip
What is this email about? Well, we're not sure. First, if there are multiple Daniels in John's
department, John won't know who Skip is talking about.
Next, what is Daniel doing, specifically, that's so great? We don't know that either. It's so vague
that John will definitely have to write back for more information.
Last, what is the purpose of this email? Does Skip simply want to have an idle chat about
Daniel, or is there some more specific goal here? There's no sense of purpose to this message,
so it's a bit confusing.
Good example
Hi John,
I wanted to write you a quick note about Daniel Kedar, who's working in your department. In
recent weeks, he's helped the IT department through several pressing deadlines on his own
time.
We've got a tough upgrade project due to run over the next three months, and his knowledge
and skills would prove invaluable. Could we please have his help with this work?
I'd appreciate speaking with you about this. When is it best to call you to discuss this further?
Best wishes,
Skip
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This second message is much clearer, because the reader has the information he needs to
take action.
4.2 Concise
When you're concise in your communication, you stick to the point and keep it brief. Your
audience doesn't want to read six sentences when you could communicate your message in
three.
❖ Are there any adjectives or "filler words" that you can delete? You can often eliminate words
like "for instance," "you see," "definitely," "kind of," "literally," "basically," or "I mean."
❖ Are there any unnecessary sentences?
❖ Have you repeated the point several times, in different ways?
Bad example
Hi Matt,
I wanted to touch base with you about the email marketing campaign we kind of sketched out
last Thursday. I really think that our target market is definitely going to want to see the
company's philanthropic efforts. I think that could make a big impact, and it would stay in their
minds longer than a sales pitch.
For instance, if we talk about the company's efforts to become sustainable, as well as the
charity work we're doing in local schools, then the people that we want to attract are going to
remember our message longer. The impact will just be greater.
What do you think?
Jessica
This email is too long! There's repetition, and there's plenty of "filler" taking up space.
Good example
Watch what happens when we're concise and take out the filler words:
Hi Matt,
I wanted to quickly discuss the email marketing campaign that we analysed last Thursday. Our
target market will want to know about the company's philanthropic efforts, especially our goals
to become sustainable and help local schools.
This would make a far greater impact, and it would stay in their minds longer than a traditional
sales pitch.
What do you think?
Jessica
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4.3 Concrete
When your message is concrete, then your audience has a clear picture of what you're telling
them. There are details (but not too many!) and vivid facts, and there's laser-like focus. Your
message is solid.
Bad example
Consider this advertising copy:
The Lunchbox Wizard will save you time every day.
A statement like this probably won't sell many of these products. There's no passion, no vivid
detail, nothing that creates emotion, and nothing that tells people in the audience why they
should care. This message isn't concrete enough to make a difference.
Good example
How much time do you spend every day packing your kids' lunches? No more! Just take a
complete Lunchbox Wizard from your refrigerator each day to give your kids a healthy lunch
and have more time to play or read with them!
This copy is better because there are vivid images. The audience can picture spending quality
time with their kids – and what parent could argue with that? And mentioning that the product is
stored in the refrigerator explains how the idea is practical. The message has come alive
through these details.
4.4 Correct
When your communication is correct, it fits your audience. And correct communication is also
error-free communication.
❖ Do the technical terms you use fit your audience's level of education or knowledge?
❖ Have you checked your writing for grammatical errors? Remember, spell checkers won't
catch everything.
❖ Are all names and titles spelled correctly?
Bad example
Hi Daniel,
Thanks so much for meeting me at lunch today! I enjoyed our conservation, and I'm looking
forward to moving ahead on our project. I'm sure that the two-weak deadline won't be an issue.
Thanks again, and I'll speak to you soon!
Best,
Jack Miller
If you read that example fast, then you might not have caught any errors. But on closer
inspection, you'll find two. Can you see them?
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The first error is that the writer accidentally typed conservation instead of conversation. This
common error can happen when you're typing too fast. The other error is using weak instead of
week.
Again, spell checkers won't catch word errors like this, which is why it's so important to
proofread everything!
4.5 Coherent
When your communication is coherent, it's logical. All points are connected and relevant to the
main topic, and the tone and flow of the text is consistent.
Bad example
Traci,
I wanted to write you a quick note about the report you finished last week. I gave it to Michelle
to proof, and she wanted to make sure you knew about the department meeting we're having
this Friday. We'll be creating an outline for the new employee handbook.
Thanks,
Michelle
As you can see, this email doesn't communicate its point very well. Where is Michelle's
feedback on Traci's report? She started to mention it, but then she changed the topic to
Friday's meeting.
Good example
Hi Traci,
I wanted to write you a quick note about the report you finished last week. I gave it to Michelle
to proof, and she let me know that there are a few changes that you'll need to make. She'll
email you her detailed comments later this afternoon.
Thanks,
Michelle
Notice that in the good example, Michelle does not mention Friday's meeting. This is because
the meeting reminder should be an entirely separate email. This way, Traci can delete the
report feedback email after she makes her changes, but save the email about the meeting as
her reminder to attend. Each email has only one main topic.
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4.6 Complete
In a complete message, the audience has everything they need to be informed and, if
applicable, take action.
❖ Does your message include a "call to action," so that your audience clearly knows what you
want them to do?
❖ Have you included all relevant information – contact names, dates, times, locations, and so
on?
Bad example
Hi everyone,
I just wanted to send you all a reminder about the meeting we're having tomorrow!
See you then,
Chris
This message is not complete, for obvious reasons. What meeting? When is it? Where? Chris
has left his team without the necessary information.
Good example
Hi everyone,
I just wanted to remind you about tomorrow's meeting on the new telecommuting policies. The
meeting will be at 10:00 a.m. in the second-level conference room. Please let me know if you
can't attend.
See you then,
Chris
4.7 Courteous
Courteous communication is friendly, open, and honest. There are no hidden insults or passiveaggressive tones. You keep your reader's viewpoint in mind, and you're empathetic to their
needs.
Bad example
Jeff,
I wanted to let you know that I don't appreciate how your team always monopolises the
discussion at our weekly meetings. I have a lot of projects, and I really need time to get my
team's progress discussed as well. So far, thanks to your department, I haven't been able to do
that. Can you make sure they make time for me and my team next week?
Thanks,
Phil
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Well, that's hardly courteous! Messages like this can potentially start office-wide fights. And this
email does nothing but create bad feelings, and lower productivity and morale. A little bit of
courtesy, even in difficult situations, can go a long way.
Good example
Hi Jeff,
I wanted to write you a quick note to ask a favor. During our weekly meetings, your team does
an excellent job of highlighting their progress. But this uses some of the time available for my
team to highlight theirs. I'd really appreciate it if you could give my team a little extra time each
week to fully cover their progress reports.
Thanks so much, and please let me know if there's anything I can do for you!
Best,
Phil
What a difference! This email is courteous and friendly, and it has little chance of spreading bad
feelings around the office.
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UNIT 7:
GOOD LANGUAGE USE FOR WRITING
Outcomes
After completing this unit, the student should be able to:
❖ Improve their writing by not only being aware of frequently misused English words, but also
using these words correctly.
❖ Use punctuation marks correctly.
❖ Use the 12 verb tenses correctly.
❖ Use capital letters when necessary.
❖ Avoid using a pronoun after a noun which is the subject of a sentence.
Introduction
Good writing style is important in business writing. Just as is the case with speaking you are
judged not only on what you write, but also on how you write it. In this section we look at what
to avoid in order to improve your business writing. The information given in this unit will enable
you to improve your own writing when editing your work.
1. Frequently misused words
This is a list of words that are frequently misused (Oxford Dictionaries, 2016a; Learn English
Network, 2016; English Grammar 101, 2016; English Stack Exchange, 2012; Writing
Academic, 2015). Study this list and make sure you know when to use which word.
1.1 your vs. you’re
❖ Your: belonging to you
For example: This is your pen.
❖ You’re: you are
For example: “John, you’re a very naughty boy!”
1.2 it’s vs. its
❖ It’s: it is
For example: It’s my birthday today.
❖ Its: belonging to a thing
For example: The dog wags its tail.
Image credit: www.pinterest.com
1.3 there vs. their vs. they’re
❖ There: indicates a place
For example: Put your assignments in the box over there.
❖ Their: belonging to them
For example: This is their test scripts.
❖ They’re: they are
For example: They’re engineering students.
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1.4 were vs. where vs. we’re
❖ Were: past tense of was
For example: We were at VUT last week.
❖ Where: Indicates a place
For example: Where did you last see your book?
❖ We’re: we are
For example: We’re going to Cape Town for the holidays.
1.5 affect vs. effect
❖ Affect: to have an influence on somebody
For example: Having a chronic disease can really affect your life.
❖ Effect: Result
For example: What is the effect of heat on metal?
1.6 then vs. than
❖ Then: refer to a specific time
For example: Things were very different back then.
❖ Than: introduce the second part of a comparison
For example: You should know better than to behave like that.
1.7 loose vs. lose
❖ Loose: Not firmly fixed
For example: I need to see the dentist, because I have a loose tooth.
❖ Lose: Not being able to win
For example: If I do not get 50% I will lose my bursary.
1.8 accept vs. except
❖ Accept: To willingly take something that was offered to you
For example: Do not accept sweets from strangers.
❖ Except: Used before you mention the only thing or person about which a statement
is not true
For example: Tumi does very well in all her subjects except in maths.
1.9 many vs. much
❖ Many: used only with countable nouns
For example: Peter has many friends.
❖ Much: only used with uncountable nouns
For example: I love you very much.
1.10 few vs. little
Image credit: www.pinterest.com
❖ Few: not many
For example: Susan only has a few family members
❖ Little: not big
For example: My baby brother is still very little.
1.11 less vs. fewer
❖ Less: A smaller amount of (used with uncountable nouns)
For example: You need to smoke less.
❖ Fewer: Not as many as
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For example: Fewer than 20 students passed the exam.
1.12 each vs. every
❖ Each: used in front of a singular noun and is followed by a singular verb
For example: Each answer is worth 20 marks.
❖ Every: always followed by a singular verb
For example: Steven goes to the library every day.
1.13 to vs. too vs. two
❖ To: Used to show the person or thing that receives something
For example: Please give this book to John.
❖ Too: Used before adjectives and adverbs
For example: Jenny did not buy the dress, because it was too tight.
❖ Two: Number after one
For example: Gugu has two sisters at home.
1.14 farther vs. further
❖ Farther: Distance
For example: How much farther is it?
❖ Further: Any more
For example: Are there any further questions?
1.15 lecture vs. lecturer
❖ Lecture: a talk that is given to a group of people to teach them about a particular subject.
For example: Last night I went to a lecture on construction materials.
❖ Lecturer: A person who gives a lecture
For example: Mr. Zuma is my Applied Communication lecturer.
1.16 once vs. one’s
❖ Once: on one occasion
For example: I have only been to Durban once.
❖ One’s: The possessive form of one
For example: One tries one’s best when writing exams.
1.17 agree to vs. agree with vs. agree on
❖ You agree to demands/queries, or you agree to do something.
For example: Lesego agreed to join Clement for a movie.
❖ When you agree with someone/something, it means you accept the point of view.
For example: Stacy does not agree with my opinion.
❖ You agree on some issue or point of debate.
For example: The politicians agreed on the issue of lowering the budget.
1.18 all ways vs. always
❖ All ways: every manner possible.
For example: She was in all ways the best friend I could ever hope for.
❖ Always: at all times.
For example: My brother always teases me about my red hair.
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1.19 beside vs. besides
❖ Beside: a preposition. It means ‘at the side of’ or ‘next to’.
For example: Please come and sit beside me.
❖ Besides: a preposition or a linking adverb. It means ‘in addition to’ or ‘also’.
For example: I don’t think going for a walk is a good idea. It’s quite cold, and, besides, it’s
getting late.
1.20 above vs. over
❖ Above: higher level.
For example: The top of the mountain is 1500 m above sea level.
❖ Over: when one thing touches or covers another; also used with numbers.
For example: Her mother put a blanket over her.
Over 50 houses were damaged in the storm.
1.21 between vs. among
❖ Between: refers to two things which are clearly separated, or used to connect times and
numbers.
For example: Their house is between the mountain and the sea.
He lived in Cape Town between 2005 and 2010.
❖ Among: refers to things which are not clearly separated because they are part of a group or
crowd or mass of objects.
For example: Among his belongings, the police found a stolen painting.
1.22 if vs. when
❖ If: used to introduce a possible or uncertain situation or condition.
For example: If Penny comes back to the office, can you tell her I’ve gone home?
❖ When: refers to the time of a future situation or condition that we are certain of.
For example: When I turn 18, I will be allowed to get a driver’s licence.
1.23 quiet vs. quite
❖ Quiet: an adjective meaning ‘making very little noise’ or ‘having little activity or excitement’.
For example: The children are very quiet and well-behaved.
❖ Quite: an adverb which usually means ‘a little or a lot, but not completely’.
For example: I’ve been quite busy this week.
1.24 content vs. contents
❖ Content: uncountable as a singular noun. It means the ideas that are contained in a piece of
writing or a film or a speech.
For example: The content of that horror film is not suitable for children.
❖ Contents: the list of chapters or articles or parts that are in a book, with the number of the
page they begin on.
For example: Look at the table of contents to find the chapter you need.
1.25 ill vs. sick
❖ Ill and sick are both adjectives that mean ‘not in good health’.
Sick is the less formal of the two words.
We can use sick before a noun but we don’t normally use ill before a noun.
Note that to be sick means ‘to vomit’ in British English. In American English it means more
generally ‘to be unwell’.
❖ For example: Thebo was ill for two months last year.
She’s been looking after a sick child this week.
58
1.26 a lot vs. allot
❖ A lot: very much or very often.
For example: I need a lot of time to study for the exam.
❖ Allot: a verb, which means to give (especially a share of something) for a particular purpose.
For example: We were allotted a desk each.
❖ Please note: the word “alot" does not exist in the English language!
1.27 good vs. well
❖ Good: an adjective used when we want to give more information about a noun.
For example: Richard tried to understand the song’s lyrics, but his Spanish isn’t very good.
❖ Well: usually used as an adverb when we want to give more information about a verb.
For example: He doesn’t understand Spanish very well.
1.28 message vs. massage
❖ Message: a piece of information that you give to a person.
For example: Please send me a text message when you are on your way here.
❖ Massage: to rub and press someone's body with regular repeated movements, to relax
them or to reduce stiffness or pain in their joints.
For example: Liza went to the beauty salon for a neck massage.
1.29 staff vs. stuff
❖ Staff: personnel, people.
For example: All staff are required to attend the training session.
❖ Stuff: things, objects.
For example: Put that stuff in the corner.
1.30 desert vs. dessert
❖ Desert: a waterless, empty area (noun); to abandon someone (verb).
For example: The desert is a harsh place.
Harry’s father deserted his family when Harry was only five years old.
❖ Dessert: the sweet course of a meal.
For example: We had a dessert of chocolate mousse.
1.31 stationary vs. stationery
❖ Stationary: standing still, immobile. (think of a broken-down car)
For example: there is a stationary truck in the centre lane of the highway.
❖ Stationery: supplies needed for an administrative office (think of a pen)
For example: The CNA store sells a wide variety of pens and other stationery.
1.32 wonder vs. wander
❖ Wonder: a feeling of amazement (noun), speculate or think about without knowing the
answer. (verb)
For example: The interior of the monument was so beautiful it filled me with wonder.
For example: I wonder why he is so late?
❖ Wander: to walk/ travel aimlessly.
For example: She wandered around the Mall for about two hours, and bought nothing.
1.33 borrow vs. lend
❖ Borrow: to ask to use something for a short time (think borrow from)
For example: I asked if I could borrow dad’s car. (I borrow the car from dad)
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❖ Lend: to give someone something which belongs to you, for a short while.
For example: I will lend you this pen so that you can write the examination. (I lent the pen to
her)
1.34 participate vs. partake
❖ Participate: involve oneself in, join in
For example: She participated in the intervarsity soccer tournament. (‘Participant’ is derived
from ‘participate’, so ‘participate’ can be used in any context where one can be a
‘participant’)
❖ Partake is an old-fashioned word used in formal settings to indicate involvement.
For example: He partook of the feast.
1.35 amoral vs. immoral
❖ Amoral- without morals, morally neutral, not concerned with ‘right’ and wrong’.
For example: A lawyer is amoral in that his concern is that his client gets a fair trial
irrespective of the client’s guilt or innocence
❖ Immoral: to act deliberately against the moral code.
For example: He confessed that he knew that stealing was wrong, and that he acted
immorally when he participated in the robbery.
1.36 uninterested vs. disinterested
❖ Uninterested – bored, is not interested, doesn’t care.
For example: He was completely uninterested in the story she was telling and actually fell
asleep before she finished.
❖ Disinterested – interested but impartial, neutral, is not involved. A mediator or judge should
be disinterested.
For example: In the dispute between the two mining companies a mediator from a university
was appointed, as he was considered by both sides to be a disinterested party.
1.37 complement vs. compliment
❖ Complement: - to complete or make something even better.
For example: The lacy top complements the flowing skirt.
The cruise-ship’s full complement is 753 crew members.
❖ Compliment - to give praise, express admiration or giving congratulations.
For example: she complimented him on his choice of outfit.
(a trick to remember which is which is to think of the sentence: ‘I like compliments’
1.38 historic vs. historical
❖ Historic – an important or significant event that is likely to be recorded in future history
books.
For example: The release of Nelson Mandela after 27 years in jail was an historic moment.
❖ Historical – something which happened in the past.
For example: It is a historical fact that Jan van Riebeeck landed in the Cape in 1652.
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1.39 ensure vs. insure
❖ to ensure that something will be done means to make it certain to happen
For example: Ensure that you arrive early for the examination.
❖ Insure means to protect against a risk, and ‘Insurance’ derives from this word.
For example: He insured his life for a million Rand.
1.40 defuse vs. diffuse
❖ Denotatively to remove the fuse from an explosive device so that it cannot explode.
Connotatively “defuse” means “to make less dangerous, tense, or embarrassing.
For example: The bomb squad defused the bomb after the area was evacuated.
She defused the argument by making everyone laugh at her silly suggestions.
❖ Diffuse is to dilute or make something less intense or spread something out.
For example: a cloth shade diffuses the light so that no-one has to squint into a sharp light.
1.41 rash vs. rush
(Errors in the use of these kinds of words come from poor pronunciation. Make sure to
enunciate the “a’ and ‘u’ sounds correctly.)
❖ Rash- a skin condition in which the skin discolours in spots, and often is itchy and hot.
For example: The hairy peach caused an allergic reaction and her skin was covered in an
itchy rash.
❖ Rush – to be in a hurry, often resulting in a task being poorly done.
For example – he was in such a rush that he forgot to write his name and student number
on his exam paper.
2. Punctuation
This section contains infographics which explain what punctuation marks you could expect to
use in your writing.
Image credit: pinterest.com
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Remember: if a sentence ends with an exclamation mark or question mark, do not add a full
stop.
✓ Correct: I was so surprised when I saw what happened!
 Wrong: I was so surprised when I saw what happened!.
✓ Correct: Are you sure the test is tomorrow?
 Wrong: Are you sure the test is tomorrow?.
Visit the following link for more helpful explanations and examples:
http://thevisualcommunicationguy.com/2014/08/25/bacon-punctuation-a-sentence-about-baconfor-every-use-of-punctuation/
3. Tenses
Here is a reminder of the 12 verb tenses. It would be helpful to memorise this table.
Image credit: easypacelearning.com
4. When to use capital letters
Always use a capital letter in the following situations (Oxford Dictionaries, 2016b):
❖ In the names of people, places, or related words.
For example: Africa; Shakespeare, African, Afro-centric, Shakespearean
❖ At the beginning of a sentence.
For example: The new mall has huge potential.
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❖ In the titles of books, films, organizations, etc.
For example: Macbeth; Central Intelligence
❖ In certain abbreviations. If you’re using the first letter of the abbreviated words, every letter
should be a capital.
For example: CNN; UK; ANC, EFF, SAFA
❖ When using the letter “I” to refer to yourself.
For example: When I finish my studies, I hope to get a job within a month.
5. If the subject in a sentence is a noun, it should not be followed by a
pronoun
Examples
 My mother she is going to town.
✓ My mother is going to town.
 His grandfather he went to hospital yesterday.
✓ His grandfather went to hospital yesterday.
 The people they are going to vote in the elections.
✓ The people are going to vote in the elections.
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Source list
Battell, C. 2006. Effective listening.
https://books.google.co.za/books?id=ME8qSCr3_G8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=listening+skills
&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=listening%20skills&f=false USA: ASTD Press. Date
of access: 12 Dec. 2016.
Bothma, T., Cosijn, E., Fourie, I. & Penzhorn, C. 2011. Navigating information literacy: Your
information society survival toolkit. 3rd ed. Cape Town: Pearson Education South Africa.
BusinessDictionary.com. 2016. What is creative thinking? Definition and meaning.
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/creative-thinking.html. Date of access: 11 Dec.
2016.
Carnegie, D. 1998. How To Win Friends and Influence People. New York: Simon and
Schuster. https://books.google.co.za/books?id=1rWQpIAs8UC&dq=importance+of+reading&source=gbs_navlinks_s. Date of access:
11 Dec. 2017.
Chandler, D. 2017. Semiotics: The Basics. Taylor & Francis.
https://books.google.co.za/books?id=KgQoDwAAQBAJ&dq=jakobson+communication+model&
source=gbs_navlinks_s. Date of access: 20 Nov. 2017.
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ADDENDUM A
How to answer Test Assessment on VUTela correctly
1. General.
❖ After you have finished writing the test, click the submit button.
❖ The test will automatically submit itself anyway whether or not you are done with the test and
if something goes wrong.
2. Types of questions
There are several types of questions, but especially take note of the following guidelines.
2.1 True/false
❖
❖
If a question instructs you to answer to choose your answer is “True” or “False”
Never leave any questions unanswered. The answer can only be true or false, so you
have a 50% chance at being correct.
2.2 Match Column A with Column B
❖ Never leave answers blank. Even if you are not sure exactly what the correct answers are,
take a guess anyway – the answer options are limited, so you have a chance at being
correct.
3. Following instructions
❖ Always read questions very carefully. Remember that if you do not follow instructions, you
will lose marks.
❖ Identify the action verb(s) (for example “quote”, “list”, “state”, “explain”) in a question, and
answer accordingly.
❖ If asked to quote a word, phrase, or sentence, remember to include quotation marks if you
are instructed to do so.
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ADDENDUM B*
How to work in a group effectively
Many people do not like group work, but it is essential to improve your ability to function as part
of a group. During your career you will be expected to work with your colleagues, not in
isolation. You also will not have the option of choosing your colleagues – it is vital that you are
able to work in a group with anybody.
1. Choosing a group
❖ Follow your lecturer’s instructions about forming a new group (choosing your own group
members, or being placed in a group by your lecturer).
❖ You must remain in the same group throughout the semester.
❖ Do not change groups without your lecturer’s permission.
❖ Do not leave a group and complete assignments individually. A group assignment tests your
ability to function as part of a group, so doing it individually defeats the purpose.
❖ Make the best of the situation and accept the group you are part of.
2. Choosing a group leader
❖ Characteristics of a good leader: committed, able to delegate tasks, honest, positive attitude.
❖ The group leader is there to lead, not to do all of the work.
3. Communication between group members
❖ Ensure that you have the phone numbers and e-mail addresses of all your group members.
❖ There should be clear communication between all group members to avoid
misunderstandings.
4. Respect
❖ Every group member must feel safe in the group. No bullying or unnecessary criticism.
❖ Even if you do not like a group member or if you disagree with their opinion, stay calm and
respectful.
5. Work distribution
❖ All group members should do an equal amount of work.
❖ Each group member must attend classes as well as group meetings and display dedication
to group work.
❖ If a group member did not contribute towards the assignment, his/her name should not be
included on the cover page. Be honest – don’t “cover” for someone who did not do their
part.
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6. Responsibility
❖ A group assignment is the entire group’s responsibility.
❖ Each group member must check the final assignment before it is submitted.
❖ When the group assignment is submitted, it means that each group member is satisfied with
the standard and correctness of its content.
❖ If any part of the assignment is plagiarised, the entire group will be penalised.
❖ Think about it: do you really want someone to submit an assignment with your name on the
cover page if you never checked the final copy?
❖ Take pride in your own work as well as the work of your group members. Your aim as a
group should not be to have one or two individuals working very hard, but for the whole
group to work equally hard and deliver good work.
❖ An assignment should be completed by the due date given to the class by the lecturer.
“Completed” means you have all the necessary parts of your document so make sure that
the final document should have a cover page with all the necessary information as outlined
at the beginning of the Reader.
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