1. Wireless and Mobile Network:
Introduction:
● A wireless network is a communication network that uses radio waves to transmit and
receive data.
● Mobile networks are wireless networks designed for mobile devices such as
smartphones, tablets, and laptops.
Types of Wireless Networks:
● Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN): A personal network used for
communication between devices in proximity, usually within 10 meters. Examples
include Bluetooth and Zigbee.
● Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): A network that connects devices within a
limited area, such as a building or campus. Examples include Wi-Fi and Wimax.
● Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN): A network that connects devices
over a larger geographic area, such as a city. Examples include WiMAX and LTE.
● Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN): A network that connects devices over a
large geographic area, such as a country or continent. Examples include 2G, 3G, 4G,
and 5G.
Mobile Network Standards:
● 1G (First Generation) - Analog cellular networks that were introduced in the 1980s.
They allowed voice calls and had a low data transfer rate.
● 2G (Second Generation) - Digital cellular networks that were introduced in the 1990s.
They allowed voice calls and limited data transfer.
● 3G (Third Generation) - High-speed digital cellular networks that were introduced in
the 2000s. They provided better voice quality and higher data transfer rates.
● 4G (Fourth Generation) - All-IP based high-speed digital networks that were
introduced in the 2010s. They provided even higher data transfer rates and lower
latency.
● 5G (Fifth Generation) - Advanced digital networks with high data rates, low latency,
and massive connectivity. They were introduced in the 2020s.
Mobile Network Architecture:
● Radio Access Network (RAN): The part of the mobile network that connects mobile
devices to the core network. It includes base stations, antennas, and other equipment.
● Core Network (CN): The part of the mobile network that connects the RAN to the
Internet or other networks. It includes switches, routers, and other equipment.
● User Equipment (UE): The mobile device that connects to the mobile network.
Wireless Network Security:
● Encryption: The process of converting data into a code that can only be read by
authorized users.
● Authentication: The process of verifying the identity of a user or device.
● Access Control: The process of controlling who has access to a wireless network. ●
Firewall: A security system that controls incoming and outgoing network traffic. ●
Intrusion Detection and Prevention: The process of detecting and preventing
unauthorized access to a wireless network.
Advantages:
● Convenience: Wireless and mobile networks allow for more flexibility and
convenience compared to wired networks. Users can access the network from
anywhere within the coverage area.
● Mobility: Mobile networks allow users to stay connected while on the move, enabling
them to access information and communicate with others at any time and from any
location.
● Cost savings: Wireless networks can be more cost-effective than wired networks, as
they require less cabling and infrastructure.
● Scalability: Wireless networks can be easily scaled up or down depending on the
number of users and devices.
● Accessibility: Wireless networks can provide connectivity to remote areas where
wired networks are not available.
Disadvantages:
● Interference: Wireless networks can be affected by interference from other wireless
networks, electronic devices, or physical obstructions such as walls and buildings.
● Security: Wireless networks are more vulnerable to security threats, such as hacking
and eavesdropping, compared to wired networks.
● Limited range: Wireless networks have a limited range and coverage area, which can
be a disadvantage in large buildings or outdoor areas.
● Speed: Wireless networks can have slower data transfer rates compared to wired
networks, depending on the network technology and coverage.
● Reliability: Wireless networks can be less reliable than wired networks, as they can
experience downtime or interruptions due to interference, network congestion, or
other issues.
Applications of wireless and mobile networks:
1. Mobile Communications: Wireless and mobile networks enable users to communicate
and access information on the move. This includes voice and video calls, messaging,
email, and web browsing.
2. Internet of Things (IoT): Wireless and mobile networks are used to connect and
control smart devices, such as home automation systems, wearable technology, and
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
industrial sensors. IoT devices rely on wireless networks for connectivity and data
transfer.
Location-based Services: Wireless and mobile networks enable location-based
services, such as GPS navigation, geotagging, and location-based advertising. These
services rely on wireless networks to determine the location of a mobile device and
provide relevant information.
Entertainment: Wireless and mobile networks provide access to entertainment
services, such as streaming video and music, online gaming, and social media. These
services rely on wireless networks for high-speed data transfer and low latency.
Healthcare: Wireless and mobile networks are used in healthcare for remote patient
monitoring, telemedicine, and mobile health applications. These services rely on
wireless networks for real-time data transfer and connectivity.
Education: Wireless and mobile networks are used in education for e-learning, virtual
classrooms, and online collaboration. These services rely on wireless networks for
connectivity and data transfer.
Transportation: Wireless and mobile networks are used in transportation for vehicleto-vehicle communication, vehicle-to-infrastructure communication, and intelligent
transportation systems. These services rely on wireless networks for real-time data
transfer and connectivity.
2. Web Technology
Web technologies refer to the tools, languages, and protocols used to develop and deliver
web applications and services. The World Wide Web (WWW) is the primary platform for
web technologies, which includes websites, web applications, and web services. The
following are some key components of web technologies:
1. HTML: Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the standard markup language used
to create web pages. It defines the structure and content of a web page using tags and
attributes.
2. CSS: Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a stylesheet language used to define the
presentation of a web page, including the layout, colours, fonts, and other visual
elements.
3. JavaScript: JavaScript is a scripting language used to add interactivity and dynamic
functionality to web pages. It can be used to create animations, validate forms, and
manipulate the Document Object Model (DOM) of a web page.
4. Web servers: Web servers are software programs that run on a server computer and
respond to client requests for web pages or web services. Examples of web servers
include Apache, Nginx, and Microsoft IIS.
5. HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the protocol used to transfer data over
the web. It defines how client and server applications communicate with each other to
request and deliver web content.
6. Web frameworks: Web frameworks are software libraries that provide a set of prebuilt components and tools to facilitate web development. Examples of web
frameworks include React, Angular, and Django.
7. Web services: Web services are applications that provide data and functionality over
the web, using standards such as SOAP, REST, and XML-RPC. Examples of web
services include APIs, RSS feeds, and webhooks.
Web technologies have revolutionized the way we access and consume information,
communicate with others, and conduct business. They have enabled the creation of dynamic,
interactive web applications and services that are accessible from any device with an internet
connection.
Advantages of Web Technologies:
1. Platform independence: Web technologies are based on open standards that are
accessible from any platform, device or operating system.
2. Wide reach: Web technologies have a global reach and can be accessed from
anywhere with an internet connection.
3. Low cost: Web technologies are often more cost-effective than traditional software
development because they can be developed once and deployed across multiple
platforms.
4. Easy maintenance: Web technologies can be updated and maintained centrally,
reducing the need for software installations and updates on individual devices.
5. Scalability: Web technologies can scale to accommodate large numbers of users and
provide high availability.
Disadvantages of Web Technologies:
1. Security risks: Web technologies are vulnerable to security risks, such as hacking,
phishing, and malware attacks.
2. Limited functionality: Web technologies may not have the same level of functionality
as native applications that are developed for specific platforms.
3. Performance issues: Web technologies may suffer from performance issues, such as
slow loading times or limited processing power.
4. Browser compatibility issues: Web technologies may not be compatible with all web
browsers, which can affect the user experience.
5. Dependence on the internet: Web technologies require an internet connection, which
can limit their use in areas with poor connectivity.
Applications of Web Technologies:
1. E-commerce: Web technologies are widely used in e-commerce for online shopping,
payment processing, and inventory management.
2. Social media: Web technologies are used in social media platforms, such as Facebook
and Twitter, for user engagement, content sharing, and advertising.
3. Online gaming: Web technologies are used in online gaming for multiplayer games
and social features.
4. Education: Web technologies are used in online education for e-learning platforms,
virtual classrooms, and online assessments.
5. Healthcare: Web technologies are used in healthcare for telemedicine, online
consultations, and remote patient monitoring.
6. Publishing: Web technologies are used in digital publishing for online magazines, ebooks, and digital newspapers.
7. Business operations: Web technologies are used in business operations for project
management, CRM, and other business applications.
3. Network system administration:
Network system administration involves managing and maintaining computer networks and
their components, including servers, routers, switches, and other network devices. A network
administrator is responsible for ensuring that the network is secure, reliable, and efficient.
The following are some key components of network system administration:
1. Network design: Network design involves planning and implementing the
architecture of a computer network. It includes selecting hardware and software
components, configuring network protocols, and setting up security measures.
2. Network monitoring: Network monitoring involves tracking the performance and
activity of a computer network. It includes monitoring network traffic, identifying
bottlenecks and failures, and analysing network data to improve network
performance.
3. Network security: Network security involves protecting a computer network from
unauthorized access, attacks, and other security threats. It includes implementing
security protocols, configuring firewalls and intrusion detection systems, and
monitoring network activity for potential security breaches.
4. Network maintenance: Network maintenance involves keeping a computer network
running smoothly and efficiently. It includes routine tasks such as updating software,
backing up data, and troubleshooting network issues.
5. Network documentation: Network documentation involves creating and maintaining
records of network configurations, hardware and software components, and other
network information. It includes network diagrams, system logs, and other
documentation that can be used to troubleshoot network issues and improve network
performance. 6.
Network system administration is essential for businesses and organizations that rely on
computer networks for their daily operations. A well-managed network can improve
productivity, reduce downtime, and enhance security. Network administrators are responsible
for ensuring that the network is reliable and secure, and they must stay up-to-date with the
latest technologies and best practices for network management.
6. User management: User management involves managing user accounts and
permissions on the network. This includes creating and deleting user accounts,
assigning permissions and access levels, and managing user passwords.
7. Network performance tuning: Network performance tuning involves optimizing the
network for maximum performance and efficiency. This includes configuring network
settings and parameters to improve network speed, reduce latency, and minimize
network congestion.
8. Disaster recovery and business continuity: Network system administrators are
responsible for planning and implementing disaster recovery and business continuity
strategies. This includes backing up data, creating disaster recovery plans, and testing
these plans regularly to ensure that they are effective.
9. Virtualization: Network system administrators are often responsible for managing
virtualized environments, which involve running multiple virtual machines on a
single physical server. This includes configuring virtual networks, managing virtual
machine resources, and troubleshooting virtualization issues.
10. Cloud computing: Network system administrators are also responsible for managing
cloud computing environments, which involve running applications and services on
remote servers over the internet. This includes configuring and maintaining cloud
infrastructure, monitoring cloud performance, and ensuring cloud security. 11.
Overall, network system administration requires a combination of technical knowledge,
problem-solving skills, and attention to detail. Network administrators must be able to
troubleshoot network issues quickly and efficiently, and they must be able to communicate
effectively with other IT professionals and end-users. The field of network system
administration is constantly evolving, and network administrators must stay up-to-date with
the latest technologies and best practices to ensure that their networks are secure, reliable,
and efficient.
Characteristics:
● Network system administration involves managing and maintaining computer
networks and their components.
● A network administrator is responsible for ensuring that the network is secure,
reliable, and efficient.
● Network administrators must stay up-to-date with the latest technologies and best
practices to ensure that their networks are secure, reliable, and efficient.
● Network system administration requires a combination of technical knowledge,
problem-solving skills, and attention to detail.
Advantages:
● Well-managed networks can improve productivity, reduce downtime, and enhance
security.
● Network system administration can help to optimize network performance and
efficiency.
● Disaster recovery and business continuity strategies can help to minimize data loss
and downtime in the event of a disaster.
● Virtualization and cloud computing can provide greater flexibility and scalability.
Disadvantages:
● Network system administration can be complex and time-consuming.
● Managing network security can be challenging, particularly in the face of evolving
security threats.
● Implementing disaster recovery and business continuity strategies can be expensive
and time-consuming.
● Virtualization and cloud computing can introduce new security risks and require
specialized technical knowledge.
Overall, network system administration plays a critical role in ensuring that computer
networks are secure, reliable, and efficient. However, it can be a complex and challenging
field, requiring a combination of technical knowledge, problem-solving skills, and attention
to detail. Network administrators must stay up-to-date with the latest technologies and best
practices to ensure that their networks are secure, reliable, and efficient.
4. Distributed systems:
1. Definition: A distributed system is a collection of independent computers that work
together as a single system. The computers in a distributed system communicate with
each other through a network, and each computer has its own memory and processing
power.
2. Characteristics: Distributed systems are characterized by several key features,
including:
● Decentralization: There is no central control or hierarchy in a distributed system.
● Autonomy: Each computer in a distributed system is independent and can make its
own decisions.
● Concurrency: Multiple computers in a distributed system can execute tasks
simultaneously.
● Scalability: Distributed systems can be scaled up or down to handle different
workloads.
● Fault tolerance: Distributed systems can continue to operate even if one or more
computers fail.
3. Types of distributed systems: There are several types of distributed systems,
including:
● Client-server architecture: This architecture involves a central server that provides
services to multiple clients.
● Peer-to-peer architecture: This architecture involves multiple computers that work
together as peers, without a central server.
● Distributed database systems: These systems involve multiple databases that are
distributed across a network.
● Distributed file systems: These systems involve multiple computers that store and
access files in a distributed manner.
4. Challenges of distributed systems: Distributed systems present several challenges,
including:
● Network latency: The time it takes for computers to communicate with each other
over a network can be significant.
● Network partitioning: Network partitions can occur when communication between
computers in a distributed system is disrupted.
● Consistency: Ensuring consistency of data across a distributed system can be
challenging.
● Security: Distributed systems are vulnerable to security threats such as unauthorized
access and data breaches.
5. Applications of distributed systems: Distributed systems are used in a wide range of
applications, including:
● Web applications: Many popular web applications, such as social media platforms,
use distributed systems to handle high traffic loads.
● Cloud computing: Cloud computing involves the use of distributed systems to provide
on-demand access to computing resources.
● Internet of Things (IoT): IoT devices often use distributed systems to communicate
with each other and process data.
● High-performance computing: Distributed systems can be used to combine the
processing power of multiple computers to perform complex calculations.
Advantages:
1. Scalability: Distributed systems can be easily scaled up or down to handle changing
workloads.
2. Fault tolerance: Distributed systems are designed to continue operating even if one or
more components fail.
3. Performance: By combining the processing power of multiple computers, distributed
systems can often perform tasks more quickly than centralized systems.
4. Geographic flexibility: Distributed systems can be geographically distributed, which
can be advantageous in situations where the physical location of data or processing
power is important.
5. Cost-effective: Using distributed systems can often be more cost-effective than using
centralized systems, as it may not require the purchase of expensive hardware or
software.
Disadvantages:
1. Complexity: Distributed systems can be complex to design, implement, and maintain.
2. Security: Distributed systems are vulnerable to security threats, such as unauthorized
access and data breaches.
3. Network latency: Communication between computers in a distributed system can be
slower than communication within a single computer.
4. Consistency: Ensuring consistency of data across a distributed system can be
challenging.
5. Resource overhead: Distributing processing power and data across multiple
computers can result in additional resource overhead, such as increased network
traffic and management complexity.
Overall, distributed systems are a critical component of many modern technologies,
including web applications, cloud computing, IoT, and high-performance computing.
However, they present several challenges, including network latency, network partitioning,
consistency, and security. To overcome these challenges, developers must carefully design
distributed systems and use specialized tools and techniques to ensure that they are secure,
reliable, and efficient.
5. E-commerce:
1. Definition: E-commerce, short for electronic commerce, refers to buying and selling
goods or services online, typically through a website or mobile app.
2. Types of e-commerce:
● Business-to-consumer (B2C): This type of e-commerce involves selling products or
services directly to consumers.
● Business-to-business (B2B): This type of e-commerce involves selling products or
services to other businesses.
● Consumer-to-consumer (C2C): This type of e-commerce involves consumers selling
products or services to other consumers through online marketplaces.
● Consumer-to-business (C2B): This type of e-commerce involves consumers selling
products or services to businesses.
3. E-commerce technologies: E-commerce relies on several technologies to enable
online transactions, including:
● Online payment systems: These systems allow consumers to make secure payments
for goods or services online.
● Electronic data interchange (EDI): This technology enables the exchange of business
documents between different companies.
● Customer relationship management (CRM) software: This software helps businesses
manage interactions with customers and improve customer satisfaction.
4. Benefits of e-commerce:
● Convenience: Consumers can shop online from anywhere, at any time.
● Access to a larger market: E-commerce enables businesses to reach a wider audience
than traditional brick-and-mortar stores.
● Lower costs: E-commerce can be more cost-effective than traditional retail, as it may
not require the purchase or rental of physical storefronts.
● Personalization: E-commerce platforms can offer personalized recommendations and
shopping experiences based on customer data.
5. Challenges of e-commerce:
● Security: E-commerce is vulnerable to security threats, such as data breaches and
payment fraud.
● Competition: The ease of setting up an online store has led to increased competition
in the e-commerce space.
● Logistics: E-commerce requires effective logistics management to ensure that
products are delivered to customers in a timely and cost-effective manner.
6. Examples of e-commerce platforms:
● Amazon: One of the world's largest e-commerce platforms, offering a wide range of
products to consumers.
● Alibaba: A Chinese e-commerce platform that specializes in business-to-business
transactions.
● Shopify: An e-commerce platform that allows businesses to set up online stores and
manage transactions.
Overall, e-commerce has become a critical component of modern business, enabling
consumers to shop online from anywhere, at any time, and providing businesses with access
to a global market. While e-commerce offers many benefits, it also presents several
challenges, including security, competition, and logistics. To succeed in the e-commerce
space, businesses must carefully design their platforms and employ effective marketing and
logistics strategies.
6. Socket programming:
1. Definition: Socket programming is a way of communicating between two computers
over a network using sockets. Sockets are endpoints of a two-way communication
link between two programs running on a network.
2. How it works: In socket programming, one program acts as a server and the other
program acts as a client. The server program listens for incoming requests from
clients, while the client program sends requests to the server. Once a connection is
established, the two programs can exchange data over the network.
3. Types of sockets: There are two types of sockets in socket programming:
● Stream sockets: These sockets use TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) to provide a
reliable, connection-oriented communication channel between two programs.
● Datagram sockets: These sockets use UDP (User Datagram Protocol) to provide an
unreliable, connectionless communication channel between two programs.
4. Common socket functions: Socket programming relies on a set of functions that allow
programmers to create, configure, and manage sockets. Some common socket
functions include:
● socket(): Creates a new socket and returns a socket descriptor.
● bind(): Binds a socket to a specific address and port.
● listen(): Puts a socket in listening mode, waiting for incoming connections from
clients.
● accept(): Accepts a new client connection request and returns a new socket descriptor.
● connect(): Connects a client socket to a server socket.
● send() and recv(): Send and receive data over a socket.
5. Applications of socket programming:
● Web servers: Web servers use sockets to communicate with clients and deliver web
content over the internet.
● Online gaming: Online games use sockets to provide real-time communication
between players.
● File sharing: File sharing applications use sockets to enable users to share files over a
network.
● Instant messaging: Instant messaging applications use sockets to provide real-time
chat communication between users.
Advantages:
1. Flexibility: Socket programming is a flexible way of communicating between two
computers over a network. It allows programmers to create customized
communication protocols for their applications.
2. Efficiency: Socket programming is efficient because it uses low-level system calls to
communicate directly with the network. This reduces overhead and latency, which is
important for real-time applications.
3. Platform independence: Socket programming is platform-independent, meaning that it
can be used on any operating system or platform that supports networking.
4. Scalability: Socket programming is highly scalable, which means that it can be used
to create applications that can handle large numbers of clients.
Disadvantages:
1. Complexity: Socket programming can be complex, especially for beginners. It
requires knowledge of low-level networking protocols and system calls, which can be
difficult to learn.
2. Security: Socket programming can be vulnerable to security threats such as buffer
overflow attacks and denial-of-service attacks. Programmers need to be careful to
implement security measures to protect their applications.
3. Reliability: Socket programming relies on the underlying network infrastructure,
which can be unreliable at times. This can lead to dropped connections and lost data,
which can be problematic for some applications.
4. Performance: Socket programming can be affected by network latency and bandwidth
limitations, which can impact performance. For example, real-time applications such
as online games need to be designed carefully to minimize latency and maximize
performance.
7. Internet of Things (IoT):
1. Definition: The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of physical devices, vehicles,
buildings, and other objects that are embedded with sensors, software, and network
connectivity. This enables these devices to collect and exchange data with other
devices and systems over the internet.
2. Key components of IoT: There are several key components of IoT that make it
possible:
● Sensors and actuators: These are devices that can detect changes in the environment,
such as temperature, humidity, and motion. Actuators can also take actions based on
this data, such as adjusting the temperature or turning on a light.
● Connectivity: IoT devices need to be connected to the internet or other networks in
order to exchange data.
● Data processing and storage: IoT devices generate large amounts of data, which need
to be processed and stored in order to be useful.
● Applications and services: IoT data can be used to create a wide range of applications
and services, from smart homes and cities to industrial automation and healthcare.
3. Examples of IoT applications:
● Smart homes: IoT devices such as smart thermostats, security systems, and voice
assistants can make homes more convenient and energy-efficient.
● Industrial automation: IoT devices can be used to monitor and control manufacturing
processes, logistics, and supply chains, improving efficiency and reducing costs.
● Healthcare: IoT devices can be used to monitor patients' health remotely, track
medication use, and provide real-time alerts to healthcare providers.
● Smart cities: IoT devices can be used to monitor and optimize traffic flow, manage
waste disposal, and improve public safety.
4. Advantages of IoT:
● Efficiency: IoT can help automate processes and reduce waste, improving efficiency
and reducing costs.
● Convenience: IoT devices can make our lives more convenient by automating tasks
and providing real-time data.
● Safety and security: IoT devices can improve safety and security by monitoring our
environment and detecting potential threats.
● Innovation: IoT is driving innovation in a wide range of industries, creating new
opportunities for businesses and individuals alike.
5. Challenges of IoT:
● Security: IoT devices can be vulnerable to security threats such as hacking and
malware, and it can be difficult to keep them up-to-date with the latest security
patches.
● Privacy: IoT devices collect large amounts of personal data, which can be a privacy
concern if not handled properly.
● Interoperability: IoT devices from different manufacturers may not be compatible
with each other, making it difficult to create integrated systems.
● Complexity: IoT systems can be complex, requiring specialized knowledge in areas
such as networking, data processing, and cybersecurity.
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND
NATURAL SCIENCES SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY END OF SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATIONS
(2018/2019) INF 308 - NETWORKING COMPUTING 11
TIME: 2 HOURS
MAY, 2019
ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS FROM THIS SECTION AND ONLY TWO
FROM SECTION B
State whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE
A) TRUE
B) FALSE
l. Acknowledgement frame completes entries in switching tables (F)
2. A set of rules that governs data communication is called Protocol
(T)
3. Communication channel is shared by all the machines on the network in broadcast
network (T)
4. Virtual-Circuit Networks and datagram networks are sub categories of packet
switched networks(T)
5. Network congestion occurs in case of traffic overloading (T)
6. Enterprise private networks extend a private network across public networks T
When collection of various computers seems a single coherent system to its client,
then it is called distributed system. (T)
7. Two devices are in network if a process is running on both devices.
8. Prime network is built on the top of another network?
9. In computer network nodes are the computer that originates the data 1 10. 10. The TCP and UDP is found on the session layer of the OSI Model. (F)
13. Most packet switches use this principle of store and forward (T)
14. Both Packet switching and Circuit switching move data through a network of
links and switches (T)
15. The resources needed for communication between end systems are reserved for
the duration of the session between end systems in message switching. (F)
16. In packet switching resources are allocated on demand.(T)
17. Performance, reliability and security are criteria of Efficient network (F)
18. NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average signal rate of N/8 (F)
19. With Unipolar scheme, all signal levels are on one side of time axis (T)
20. In Return to Zero (RZ), signal changes not between bits but before the
bit (F)
Determine the right answer from the options given after each question (21-3 0)
21. National Internet Service Provider (ISP) networks are connected to one another
by private switching stations called
a) Network Access Points
b) Peering Points
c) National ISP
d) Regional ISP
22, Virtual-Circuit Networks and datagram networks are sub categories
of
a) message-switched networks
b) Packet-switched networks
e) Circuit-Switched Networks
d) None of them
23. Three methods of switching are
a) circuit switching, packet switching, and protocol switching
circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching
b) Loop switching, packet switching, and message switching
d) Node switching, packet switching, and message switching
24. switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called
a) endpoints
b) packets
e) switches
d) links
25, Protocol which assigns IP address to client connected in internet is
a) DHCP
c) RPC
d) HTML
26. Which of following is a governing body to approve computer network standards?
a)
b)
c)
d)
IEEE
EIA
ANSI
all of these
27. Element of a computer protocol which specifies signal level to be used and format
data which is to be send is
a) syntax
b) semantic
c) 'timing
d) format
28. Which protocol is used to resolve IP to MAC addresses?'
a.
b.
c.
d.
DNS
DHCP
ARP
WEP
29. Which protocol is used to provide secure connections across the Internet?
ARP
b.IITTPs
c. NTP
d. POP3
30. Which is a link layer protocol?
a.
ARP
b.
TCP
UDP
d. HTTP
SECTION B
ANSWER OUESTION ONE AND ONE OTHER QUESTION FROM THIS
SECTION
I. Define the following terms:
A. Attenuation
B. Dispersion
C, Delay Distortion
D. Noise
Cross Talk
Multiplexing
A. Attenuation: Attenuation is the reduction in the strength of a signal as it travels through a
medium. It is a natural consequence of signal transmission over distance and can be
caused by factors such as resistance, impedance, and absorption in the medium.
B. Dispersion: Dispersion is the phenomenon where the different components of a signal
travel at different speeds, causing the signal to spread out and become distorted over time.
There are two main types of dispersion: chromatic dispersion and modal dispersion.
C. Delay distortion: Delay distortion is a type of signal distortion that occurs when different
frequency components of a signal travel at different speeds through a medium. This
causes the signal to become distorted in time, resulting in a loss of signal quality and
clarity.
D. Noise: Noise is any unwanted signal or interference that disrupts the transmission of a
desired signal. It can be caused by factors such as electromagnetic interference, thermal
noise, and intermodulation distortion.
E. Crosstalk: Crosstalk is a type of interference that occurs when a signal transmitted on one
circuit or channel causes an unwanted signal to be induced on an adjacent circuit or
channel. It can result in degraded signal quality and data errors.
F. Multiplexing: Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals or data streams
into a single transmission channel. This allows multiple signals to be transmitted over the
same physical medium, increasing the efficiency of the transmission and reducing costs.
There are several types of multiplexing techniques, including time-division multiplexing
(TDM), frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), and wavelength-division multiplexing
(WDM)
B) Convert 10.1011100 into the following signals;
G. Unipolar NRZ
H. Manchester Encoding
I. NRZ — Inverted
J. Differential Manchester Encoding
C) Using the ROT 1.3 Encryption algorithm, encrypt the statement below which is
passed over the internet: the quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog,
D) What are the disadvantages of circuit switching?
Circuit switching has several disadvantages, including:
Inefficient use of resources: Circuit switching dedicates resources for the entire duration of a
call, even if no data is being transmitted during that time. This can lead to inefficient use of
network resources.
Limited scalability: Circuit switching is not scalable, as it requires a dedicated circuit for each
communication session. This can limit the number of users that can be supported by the
network.
Vulnerable to failures: Circuit switching is vulnerable to failures in the network, such as a line
or switch failure, which can cause a call to be dropped.
High cost: Circuit switching requires the establishment of a dedicated circuit for the duration
of a call, which can be costly, especially for long-distance calls.
Slow call setup time: Circuit switching requires the establishment of a dedicated circuit
before data can be transmitted, which can result in slow call setup times.
E) State the default numbers of the following protocols: HTTPS, TELNET,
SSEI, NAT and Internet Relay Protocol
HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): 443
TELNET (Terminal Network): 23
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): 25
NAT (Network Address Translation): Not applicable, as it is not a protocol
that operates on a specific port number
IRC (Internet Relay Chat): 6667 (or 6697 for SSL-encrypted connections)
F) State with examples the broad types of network protocols.
There are several types of network protocols that serve different functions in data
communication. Some of the broad types of network protocols include:
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP): This is the standard protocol used
for data transmission over the internet. It is a suite of protocols that includes the TCP for
reliable data transmission and IP for addressing and routing.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP): This is a connectionless protocol that is used for applications
that require fast and efficient data transmission, such as real-time streaming and gaming.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): This protocol is used for transferring files between computers
on a network. It is commonly used by web developers for uploading and downloading files
to web servers.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): This protocol is used for sending and receiving email
messages over the internet. It is commonly used by email clients and servers.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): This is the protocol used for accessing and transferring
data on the World Wide Web. It is used by web browsers to request and retrieve web pages
from web servers.
Domain Name System (DNS): This protocol is used for translating domain names into IP
addresses. It is used by web browsers and other applications to locate resources on the
internet.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): This protocol is used for automatically
assigning IP addresses to devices on a network. It is commonly used in home and office
networks to simplify network configuration.
These are just a few examples of the many network protocols that exist. Each protocol
serves a specific function and operates at a different layer of the network protocol stack.
2.
a. Define Line Coding
Line coding is a process of converting digital data into a
waveform that can be transmitted over a communication
channel.
b. State and explain the three types of line coding schemes
Unipolar: In unipolar line coding, only one voltage level is
used to represent the binary digits, usually a positive voltage,
while the other binary digit is represented by a zero voltage.
This scheme is simple and easy to implement, but it suffers
from the disadvantage of DC offset, where the signal has a
non-zero average voltage, which can cause distortion in the
transmission and reception of the signal.
Polar: In polar line coding, two voltage levels are used to
represent the binary digits, usually a positive voltage for one
binary digit and a negative voltage for the other binary digit,
while the zero voltage represents the absence of a binary
digit. Polar line coding reduces the DC offset problem of
unipolar coding, but it still suffers from the problem of signal
distortion due to the attenuation and noise in the transmission
medium.
Bipolar: In bipolar line coding, three voltage levels are used
to represent the binary digits, including a positive voltage for
one binary digit, a negative voltage for the other binary digit,
and a zero voltage for the absence of a binary digit. Bipolar
line coding reduces the problems of DC offset and signal
distortion of unipolar and polar coding, respectively, by
using alternate polarities for successive 1s in the binary data,
resulting in a zero average voltage for the signal. However,
bipolar coding requires more complex encoding and
decoding circuits than unipolar and polar coding.
Each line coding scheme has its advantages and
disadvantages, and the choice of a specific line coding
scheme depends on the characteristics of the communication
channel, the required data rate, and the noise and interference
in the system.
c. Differentiate between NRZ —L and NRZ — I in Polar
encoding d, Show how the sequence 101 10111 is encoded
using differential
Manchester encoding and Manchester encoding.
NRZ-L (Non-Return-to-Zero Level) and NRZ-I (Non-Returnto-Zero Inverted) are two types of polar line coding schemes.
The main difference between them is the way they encode
consecutive zeros in the binary data.
In NRZ-L, a binary one is represented by one voltage level,
usually a positive voltage, and a binary zero is represented by
the opposite voltage level, usually a negative voltage. This
means that the signal does not change polarity during a
sequence of zeros.
In NRZ-I, the polarity of the signal is inverted for each
consecutive zero in the binary data. A binary one is represented
by one voltage level, usually a positive voltage, and a binary
zero is represented by the opposite voltage level, usually a
negative voltage or a zero voltage. This means that the signal
changes polarity during a sequence of zeros, and it helps to
reduce the DC offset and provide synchronization for the
receiver.
To encode the sequence 101 10111 using differential
Manchester encoding, we can follow these steps:
Divide the binary sequence into individual bits: 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
For each bit, create a Manchester encoded symbol by flipping
the polarity of the signal at the middle of the bit period for a
binary one and not flipping it for a binary zero. This will result
in the following symbols:
For the first bit 1: the signal transitions from high to low in the
middle of the bit period.
For the second bit 0: the signal remains low in the middle of
the bit period.
For the third bit 1: the signal transitions from low to high in the
middle of the bit period.
For the fourth bit 1: the signal transitions from high to low in
the middle of the bit period.
For the fifth bit 0: the signal remains low in the middle of the
bit period.
For the sixth bit 1: the signal transitions from low to high in the
middle of the bit period.
For the seventh bit 1: the signal transitions from high to low in
the middle of the bit period.
For the eighth bit 1: the signal transitions from low to high in
the middle of the bit period.
The resulting Manchester encoded sequence is:
10 01 10 11 01 01 11 10
To encode the sequence 101 10111 using standard Manchester
encoding, we can follow these steps:
Divide the binary sequence into individual bits: 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
For each bit, create a Manchester encoded symbol by
transitioning the signal from high to low in the middle of the bit
period for a binary one and transitioning it from low to high for
a binary zero. This will result in the following symbols:
For the first bit 1: the signal transitions from high to low in the
middle of the bit period.
For the second bit 0: the signal transitions from low to high in
the middle of the bit period.
For the third bit 1: the signal transitions from high to low in the
middle of the bit period.
For the fourth bit 1: the signal transitions from high to low in
the middle of the bit period.
For the fifth bit 0: the signal transitions from low to high in the
middle of the bit period.
For the sixth bit 1: the signal transitions from high to low in the
middle of the bit period.
For the seventh bit 1: the signal transitions from high to low in
the middle of the bit period.
For the eighth bit 1: the signal transitions from high to low in
the middle of the bit period
e, What is an advantage of Manchester encoding over polar encoding schemes?
One advantage of Manchester encoding over polar encoding schemes, such as NRZ-L and
NRZ-I, is that it provides better clock recovery at the receiver. In Manchester encoding, the
signal transitions at the middle of each bit period, which provides a clock signal that can be
extracted by the receiver. This means that the receiver can recover the clock signal from the
data signal itself, which simplifies the circuit design and reduces the need for a separate
clock signal. In contrast, in polar encoding schemes, the signal level remains constant during
a sequence of zeros, which can make clock recovery more difficult and may require
additional circuitry to recover the clock signal. Additionally, Manchester encoding has a
guaranteed transition in the middle of each bit period, which helps to minimize the error
rate and improve the reliability of the communication system.
State and explain the four means of implementing Protocols.
Hardware Implementation: This involves designing and building custom hardware circuits
that implement the protocol functions directly. This approach is typically used for highspeed and high-throughput applications, where hardware circuits can provide faster and
more efficient processing than software implementations. Hardware implementations can
also be more reliable and secure than software implementations, as they are less
susceptible to software bugs and malware attacks.
Software Implementation: This involves writing software code that implements the protocol
functions on a general-purpose computer or microcontroller. This approach is typically
used for lower-speed and lower-throughput applications, where the processing
requirements are not as demanding. Software implementations can be more flexible and
easier to modify than hardware implementations, as they do not require physical changes
to the hardware.
Firmware Implementation: This involves writing software code that is stored in non-volatile
memory, such as flash memory, and executed by a microcontroller or other embedded
system. Firmware implementations are typically used for applications that require a
combination of hardware and software functions, such as embedded systems and IoT
devices. Firmware implementations can provide the flexibility and ease of modification
of software implementations, while also providing the reliability and security of hardware
implementations.
Middleware Implementation: This involves using pre-existing software libraries or
frameworks that provide a standardized set of protocol functions. Middleware
implementations are typically used for applications that require interoperability with other
systems or devices, as they can provide a standardized interface that simplifies
communication between different systems. Middleware implementations can also provide
additional features, such as security and error checking, that can improve the reliability
and security of the communication system.
3.
a)
With the aid of diagrams, illustrate the difference between the
Asymmetric and the Symmetric Encryption algorithms giving examples
for each.
Asymmetric and symmetric encryption are two different approaches to
cryptography that serve different purposes. The main difference
between them is that symmetric encryption uses the same key for both
encryption and decryption, while asymmetric encryption uses two
different keys - one for encryption and one for decryption. Here are
diagrams illustrating the difference between the two:
Symmetric Encryption:
In symmetric encryption, the same secret key is used for both
encryption and decryption. This means that both the sender and the
receiver must have the same key. The following diagram illustrates how
symmetric encryption works:
Symmetric Encryption Diagram
Example of symmetric encryption algorithms include AES (Advanced
Encryption Standard), DES (Data Encryption Standard), and 3DES
(Triple Data Encryption Standard).
Asymmetric Encryption:
In asymmetric encryption, two different keys are used - a public key for
encryption and a private key for decryption. The sender encrypts the
message using the recipient's public key, and the recipient decrypts the
message using their private key. The following diagram illustrates how
asymmetric encryption works:
Asymmetric Encryption Diagram
Example of asymmetric encryption algorithms include RSA (RivestShamir-Adleman), Diffie-Hellman, and Elliptic Curve Cryptography.
In summary, symmetric encryption is faster and more efficient than
asymmetric encryption, but it requires secure key distribution.
Asymmetric encryption, on the other hand, is slower but more secure
and eliminates the need for secure key distribution. Both types of
encryption have their own strengths and weaknesses and are used in
different scenarios depending on the security requirements and
performance needs.
b)
Why does the internet use packet switching?
The internet uses packet switching because it is a more efficient
and flexible way of transmitting data compared to traditional
circuit-switched networks. In a packet-switched network, data is
divided into smaller packets, each with its own header containing
information about the source and destination addresses, and the
packet's position in the overall message. These packets are then
transmitted over the network independently and reassembled at the
destination.
There are several advantages to using packet switching:
Efficient use of network resources: Packet switching allows
multiple packets to share the same network resources, such as
bandwidth and processing capacity, by interleaving packets from
different sources. This makes better use of the available resources
and can reduce network congestion.
Robustness and fault tolerance: Packet-switched networks are
designed to be fault-tolerant and resilient to network failures. If a
packet is lost or delayed due to congestion or network failure, the
remaining packets can continue to be transmitted and the lost or
delayed packet can be retransmitted.
Flexibility: Packet switching is a flexible and adaptable way of
transmitting data, as it can handle a wide range of data types, such
as voice, video, and data. This makes it suitable for a variety of
applications, from web browsing to video streaming.
Scalability: Packet switching networks can easily scale to
accommodate more users and higher data volumes by adding more
network resources or optimizing the existing ones.
Overall, packet switching has become the dominant method for
transmitting data over the internet due to its efficiency, robustness,
flexibility, and scalability.
c)
With the aid of diagrams, illustrate how web server displays a
webpage and state the protocols involved
When a user requests a web page, the web server responds by sending
the HTML, CSS, and other assets that make up the web page back to the
user's browser. Here is a diagram illustrating the process:
Web Server Diagram
The user enters a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) into their web
browser, which sends an HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) request to
the web server.
The web server receives the HTTP request and retrieves the web page
content, which may include HTML files, CSS files, images, and other
assets.
The web server sends the web page content back to the user's browser in
the form of an HTTP response.
The user's browser receives the HTTP response and starts rendering the
web page content, using the HTML and CSS files to create the visual
layout and display the images and other media.
The user can interact with the web page by clicking links, submitting
forms, and performing other actions, which generate additional HTTP
requests and responses.
The main protocols involved in this process are HTTP, which is used
for sending requests and responses between the user's browser and the
web server, and TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol), which provides the underlying transport mechanism for
transmitting the data packets over the internet. HTTPS (HTTP Secure)
may also be used instead of HTTP to provide secure, encrypted
communication between the user's browser and the web server.
d) What is data encapsulation and data de-encapsulation?
Data encapsulation is the process of wrapping data and its associated control information into
a single unit or packet for transmission over a network. In this process, the data is
encapsulated within a protocol header that includes information about the source and
destination addresses, data length, and other control information. The encapsulated data is
then passed to the next layer in the protocol stack for further processing.
Data de-encapsulation is the process of removing the protocol headers from the encapsulated
data at the receiving end of the network. This process involves checking the protocol
headers to ensure that the data has been correctly addressed and delivered, and then
stripping off the headers to extract the original data. The de-encapsulated data is then
passed up the protocol stack for further processing.
In summary, data encapsulation is the process of adding protocol headers to data to prepare it
for transmission, while data de-encapsulation is the process of removing those headers at
the receiving end to extract the original data. This process allows data to be transmitted
over a network in an efficient and standardized manner, regardless of the underlying
physical network technology.
e) What actions does DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server take when there
is an IP Address conflict as shown below?
When a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server detects an IP address
conflict, which occurs when two devices have been assigned the same IP address, it takes
the following actions:
The DHCP server sends an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) request to the conflicting
IP address to determine if the address is still in use.
If the ARP request receives a response from the conflicting device, indicating that the IP
address is still in use, the DHCP server marks the address as "bad" in its pool of available
IP addresses.
The DHCP server then sends a NACK (Negative Acknowledgment) message to the
device that requested the IP address, indicating that the address is not available.
The device that received the NACK message must then request a new IP address from the
DHCP server.
The DHCP server may also send a log message to the network administrator indicating
that an IP address conflict has occurred.
Overall, the DHCP server is responsible for managing IP addresses on a network and
ensuring that each device is assigned a unique address. When an IP address conflict
occurs, the DHCP server takes steps to resolve the conflict and prevent it from happening
in the future.
CBC q
.
Review questions
Explain the following Terms
I.
IP: P stands for Internet Protocol, which is a protocol used for communication
between devices over a network. It provides a unique address to each device
connected to the network, called an IP address. IP is responsible for routing packets
II.
III.
of data between devices on the network, ensuring that they reach their intended
destination.
MPlS: MPLS stands for Multiprotocol Label Switching, which is a protocol used in
high-performance telecommunications networks. MPLS works by adding a label to
each packet of data as it enters the network, which is used to route the packet through
the network. MPLS is often used by Internet service providers (ISPs) to provide
virtual private network (VPN) services, as it can help to improve the speed and
efficiency of network traffic.
Load Balancing: Load balancing is a technique used to distribute network traffic
across multiple servers or devices to optimize performance, improve availability,
and prevent overload.
Are there ways in which traffic can be black holed (dropped without any indication) in
the hardware forwarding systems that are addressed in different vendors
implementations
Ans: yes. There are ways and some are:
1. Misconfigured routing tables
2. Hardware failures
3. Congestions
4. Access control list
5. Firewall rules
What is software defined architecture?
Ans: Software-defined architecture is an approach to building computer networks and other
systems that separates the control plane (which governs how the system operates) from
the data plane (which handles the actual processing of data).
Outline two benefits of the control layer
Ans: 1. Centralized Management
2. dynamic configuration and automation
How does the application layer works?
The application layer is the topmost layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model,
and it's responsible for providing communication services to user applications. It interacts
with the application or process that is generating the data and provides services that are
relevant to that particular application
What are SDN Controllers?
SDN (Software-Defined Networking) controllers are software applications that are
responsible for managing and controlling the behaviour of the network devices in an SDN
architecture.
1. The SDN controller receives information about the network topology from the
network devices, such as switches and routers.
2. The SDN controller analyses this information and makes decisions about how the
network should operate based on network policies and business requirements.
3. The SDN controller then configures the network devices using OpenFlow or other
protocols to implement the desired network behaviour.
State some of the popular SDN controllers that can be used with Mininet.
1. OpenDaylight
2. Ryu
3. Floodlight
How does network virtualization differ from traditional networking?
Network virtualization differs from traditional networking in that it allows for the creation of
virtual network segments that are isolated from one another on a physical network
infrastructure.
Types of network virtualization
1. VLAN
2. VXLAN
3. VPN
4. VRF: Virtual routing and forwarding
Explain the following terms in network security;
I.
Defense In Depth: Defense in Depth is a security strategy that involves deploying
multiple layers of security controls to protect against different types of threats. The
idea behind this strategy is that if one layer of security fails or is breached, there are
other layers of protection in place to prevent or mitigate the damage caused by the
breach.
II.
II. Cyber killer chain: The Cyber Killer Chain is a model used to describe the
different stages of a cyberattack. Each stage in the Cyber Killer Chain represents a
different phase of the attack, from the initial reconnaissance to the final objective of
the attacker.
What is caching?
CDN caching refers to the process of storing and serving static content such as images,
videos, and files from servers distributed around the world. This can help to improve the
performance of websites by reducing the load on the origin server and reducing the
latency for users accessing the content.
What is caching server?
Caching servers refer to servers that store frequently accessed data in memory so that it can
be served quickly without having to be retrieved from the original source every time. This
can help to improve the performance of websites and other applications by reducing the
time it takes to access and retrieve data.
What is the difference between caching content and compression?
Caching content refers to the process of storing frequently accessed data in memory so that it
can be served more quickly to users. Compression, on the other hand, refers to the
process of reducing the size of files or data so that they can be transmitted more quickly
over the internet. While both caching and compression can help to improve the
performance of websites, they are two distinct processes that serve different purposes.
What is Pop in relation to Content Delivery Networks?
PoP (Point of Presence) is a location in a CDN network where the CDN provider has
deployed caching servers or edge servers. Each PoP is designed to reduce the distance
between the end-user and the website content, which helps to improve website
performance by reducing latency and increasing download speeds.
How does Pop work?
CDN providers typically have multiple PoPs located in various geographic regions around the
world. Each PoP contains a cache of website content, which is delivered to end-users
when they request website content. When a user requests a piece of content, the CDN
server will first check to see if it has a cached copy of the content at the nearest PoP. If
the content is cached at that PoP, it will be delivered to the user from that PoP. If the
content is not cached at that PoP, the CDN server will fetch it from the origin server and
cache it at the nearest PoP for future requests.
What are some examples of CDN providers
Amazon CloudFront
Akamai
Cloudflare
Fastly
Define distributed systems
A distributed system is a network of computers that work together to achieve a common goal.
In a distributed system, each computer, also called a node. Distributed systems are used
in many applications, such as cloud computing, distributed databases, and online gaming.
Types of distributed systems
1. Client – server systems
2. P2p systems
3. Cloud computing systems
4. Distributed databases
Socket operations
What is the most appropriate network infrastructure for modern times?
1. Ethernet: Ethernet is a widely used technology for local area networks (LANs)
and is based on wired connections using Ethernet cables.
2. Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that allows devices to
connect to a local area network (LAN) without the need for physical cables.
3. Cloud-based networks: Cloud-based networks are becoming increasingly
popular for their flexibility, scalability, and ease of management.
What are some protocols employed in managing data transfer in a network?
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that
ensures reliable and ordered delivery of data packets in a network.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a connectionless protocol that provides
fast and lightweight data transmission without the overhead of connection setup
and error recovery.
3. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): SNMP is a protocol used for
managing and monitoring network devices, such as routers, switches, and servers.
It allows network administrators to retrieve and modify configuration settings,
monitor network performance, and manage network devices remotely.
What is Ransomware?
Ransomware is a type of malware that is designed to encrypt the files on a victim's
computer or network, rendering them inaccessible. The attacker then demands a
ransom payment in exchange for providing the victim with the key to decrypt their
files.
List 3 importance of Network Security?
1. Confidentiality: Network security measures are designed to protect the
confidentiality of sensitive information by preventing unauthorized access to data.
2. Integrity: Network security measures ensure that data remains accurate and
uncorrupted during transmission and storage.
3. Availability: Network security measures help ensure that network resources are
available to authorized users when they need them.
What is Virtual Private Network?
A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a secure network connection that allows users to
access a private network, such as a corporate network, over the public Internet. VPNs
use encryption and authentication mechanisms to secure the connection between the
user's device and the private network, preventing unauthorized access and ensuring
the privacy and integrity of data transmitted over the connection.
What are Network administration tools?
Network administration tools are software applications that help network
administrators manage and maintain their networks
Types of network administration tools?
1. Monitoring tools
2. Performance analysis tools
3. Security tools
4. Configuration tools
Examples of network monitoring tools?
1. Wireshark
2. Nagios
3. SolrWinds network performance monitor
4. PRTG network monitor
State the types of network visualization.
1. Server virtualization
2. Storage virtualization
3. Network virtualization
What is network storage?
Network storage refers to the storage of data on networked devices, such as file
servers or network-attached storage (NAS) devices, rather than on local storage
devices like hard drives or USB flash drives. This allows multiple users to access and
share the same data over a network, rather than having to transfer files back and forth
between individual devices.
State the three types of network storage?
1. Direct-attached storage (DAS)
2. Network-attached storage (NAS)
3. Storage area network (SAN)
What are some
Advantages of overlay networks?
1. Increased network scalability and flexibility
2. Improved network security
3. Enhanced network services
disadvantages of overlay networks?
1. Increased network complexity
2. Higher network latency and overhead
3. Potential for network conflicts
What are Virtual Network Functions?
Virtual Network Functions (VNFs) are software-based network functions that can be
deployed on virtualized infrastructure, like cloud servers or virtual machines.
What are the benefits of VNFs?
1. Scalability
2. Cost-effectiveness
3. Flexibility
4. Faster Time-to-Market
5. Reduced Complexity