TOPICS IN GRAMMAR
X-bar Theory
REVIEW OF GENERATIVE GRAMMAR
Transformational-generative grammar models competence
One way of doing this is by devising rules, eg PS (phrase structure)
rules that generate phrases and sentences.
The goal is to make these rules more and more powerful and
economical (ie to generate all and only the infinite number of
sentences in English with the smallest number of rules)
ISSUES IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF
PHRASAL CONSTITUENTS
What are the constituents of:
a pot of gold
ISSUES IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF
PHRASAL CONSTITUENTS
What are the constituents of:
a pot of gold
Compare:
It was a pot of gold and box of delights.
- Was it a pot of gold?
- No, of silver.
ISSUES IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF
PHRASAL CONSTITUENTS
a
IC analysis
pot
of
gold
ISSUES IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF
PHRASAL CONSTITUENTS
NP
det
?
N
PP
pr
a
From IC analysis to PS rules
pot
N
of gold
ISSUES IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF
PHRASAL CONSTITUENTS
NP
det
NP?
N
PP
pr
a
Labelling pot of gold
pot
N
of gold
PROBLEM OF
RECURSION..RECURSION…RECURSION…
NP
Det + NP
NP
Det + (Det + (Det + (Det + … NP)
PROBLEM OF
RECURSION..RECURSION…RECURSION…
NP
Det + NP
NP
Det + (Det + (Det + (Det + … NP)
a a a a a a a a a a a a a …pot of gold
Recursion is generally not allowed in English grammar because it
generates an infinite number of repeated constituents. (But there are
exceptions, as we shall see…)
SOLVING THE PROBLEM OF RECURSION
NP
det
N’
N
PP
pr
a
pot
Labelling pot of gold as N’ (= N-bar)
N
of gold
REWRITING THE PS RULES TO INCLUDE THE N’
NP
Det + N’
N’
N + PP
PP
P+N
Det
a
N
pot, gold
P
of
INSIGHTS ABOUT THE NP…
Are these two NPs similar in structure?
a writer of novels
a writer with ambition
INSIGHTS ABOUT THE NP…
Are these two NPs similar in structure?
a writer of novels
a writer with ambition
Compare the following two paraphrases:
(she) writes novels
*(she) writes ambition
HOW ABOUT A COMBINED PHRASE?
N’’
Det
N’
N’
N
PP
P
a writer
PP
N
of novels
P
N
with ambition
THINK ABOUT IT…
Begin to think about the PHRASE as an expansion or ‘projection’ of the
WORD:
writer is projected into writer of novels (N’)
writer of novels is projected into writer of novels with ambition (also N’)
The maximum projection (N’’ or NP) is here arrived at by adding a
determiner: a writer of novels with ambition
THINK ABOUT THE PS RULES
N’’
Det
N’
N’
N
PP
P
a writer
PP
N
of novels
P
N
with ambition
THINK ABOUT THE HEAD + COMPLEMENT
N’’
Det
N’
N
PP
P
a writer
N
of novels
THINK ABOUT THE HEAD + ADJUNCT
N’’
Det
N’
N’
N
PP
P
a writer
PP
N
of novels
P
N
with ambition
COMPARING COMPLEMENT PS RULES TO
ADJUNCT PS RULES…
N”
Det + N’
N’
N + PP (complement rule)
N”
Det + N’
N’
N’ + PP (adjunct rule)
complement = of novels
adjunct = with ambition
But….
COMPARING COMPLEMENT PS RULES TO
ADJUNCT PS RULES…
N”
Det + N’
N’
N + PP (complement rule)
N”
Det + N’
N’
N’ + PP (adjunct rule)
complement = of novels
adjunct = with ambition
But….what about recursion??
COMPARING COMPLEMENTS AND
ADJUNCTS
Complements can’t be expanded infinitely:
*a writer of novels of poems of plays…
Adjuncts can:
a writer with ambition, with energy, with zeal…
The adjunct rule allows recursion.
CAN THE STRUCTURE BE GENERALISED?
Phrase
Specifier
Word-bar
Word
a writer
Complement
of novels
ADJECTIVE PHRASES?
X’’
Specifier
X’
Word
completely free
Complement
of
charge
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES?
X’’
Specifier
X’
Word
Complement
totally into heavy metal
VERB PHRASES?
X’’
Specifier
X’
Word
has written
Complement
a letter
A CROSS-CATEGORICAL PS RULE!!
X”
Spec + X’
X’
X + Complement
This rule is powerful and economical, since it covers all word
types…and it might say something quite fundamental about how our
brains structure phrases in general…
MATCH UP THE PS RULES WITH THE STRUCTURES THEY GENERATE
a) N" > (Det) + N
b) N’ > N' + PP
c) N’ > N + (PP)
d) N’ >(NP) + N
i)
What we need is a parliament with teeth.
ii)
She's a language student.
iii)
A house by a river is all I want.
iv)
The cook arrived late.
v)
I'm a singer of ballads .
vi)
Don't do that, children.
vii)
He'll never be a leader of men.
viii)
Tax rebates are seldom given.
MATCH UP THE PS RULES WITH THE STRUCTURES THEY GENERATE
a) N" > (Det) + N
b) N’ > N' + PP
c) N’ > N + (PP)
d) N’ >(NP) + N
i)
What we need is a parliament with teeth. (b) N’ > N' + PP (adjunct rule)
ii)
She's a language student. (d) N’ >(NP) + N
iii)
A house by a river is all I want. (b) N’ > N' + PP (adjunct rule)
iv)
The cook arrived late. (a) N" > (Det) + N
v)
I'm a singer of ballads . (c) N’ > N + (PP) (complement rule)
vi)
Don't do that, children. (a) N" > (Det) + N
vii)
He'll never be a leader of men. (c) N’ > N + (PP) (complement rule)
viii)
Tax rebates are seldom given. (d) N’ >(NP) + N
NEXT UP…
With X-bar theory we might be gaining insight into how our brains
encode the linguistic structure of English.
There is an assumption that we are born with knowledge of linguistic
structure.
But we are not born with knowledge of the structure of English, or
Portuguese, or Japanese, or Chinese… We acquire it.
Can we model the knowledge we are born with, before we acquire the
structures of our mother tongue?