1. TENSES
Tenses denote the time of action. They show when the work is done. They are:
• Present Tense
• Past Tense S
• Future Tense
PRESENT TENSE
Simple PresentIt is used to denote scientific facts, universal truths and work done on daily basis.
1. We use the present simple when something is generally or always true.
o People need food.
o It snows in winter here.
o Two and two make four.
2. Similarly, we need to use this tense for a situation that we think is more or less
permanent.
o Where do you live?
o She works in a bank.
o I don't like mushrooms.
3. The next use is for habits or things that we do regularly. We often use adverbs of
frequency (such as ‘often’, ‘always’ and ‘sometimes’) in this case, as well as expressions
like ‘every Sunday’ or ‘twice a month’. (See the present continuous for new, temporary
or annoying habits).
o Do you dance?
o I play tennis every Tuesday.
o I don't travel very often.
4. We use the present simple to talk about the future when we are discussing a timetable
or a fixed plan. Usually, the timetable is fixed by an organisation, not by us.
o School begins at nine tomorrow.
o What time does the film start?
o The plane doesn't arrive at seven, it arrives at seven thirty.
5. We also use the present simple to talk about the future after words like ' 'when', 'until',
'after', 'before' and 'as soon as'. These are sometimes called subordinate clauses of
time.
o I will call you when I have time. (Not 'will have'.)
o I won't go out until it stops raining.
o I'm going to make dinner after I watch the news.
Assertive Rule --- sub + v1 + s/es + object.
▪ Example – She writes a letter.
Negative Rule --- sub + does not + v1 + object.
▪ Example – She does not write a letter.
Interrogative Rule --- Does + sub + v1 + object +?
▪ Example – Does she write a letter?
Interrogative Negative Assertive --- Does + sub + not + v1 + object +?
▪ Example – Does she not write a letter?
Present Continuous
1. First, we use the present continuous for things that are happening at the moment of
speaking. These things usually last for quite a short time and they are not finished
when we are talking about them.
o I'm working at the moment.
o Please call back as we are eating dinner now.
Julie is sleeping.
o
2. We can also use this tense for other kinds of temporary situations, even if the action
isn’t happening at this moment.
o John's working in a bar until he finds a job in his field. (He might not be working now.
o I'm reading a really great book.
o She’s staying with her friend for a week.
3. Compare this with the present simple, which is used for permanent situations that we
feel will continue for a long time.
o I work in a school. (I think this is a permanent situation.)
o I’m working in a school. (I think this is a temporary situation.)
4. We can use the present continuous for temporary or new habits (for normal habits that
continue for a long time, we use the present simple). We often use this with expressions
like ‘these days’ or ‘at the moment’.
o He's eating a lot these days.
o She's swimming every morning (she didn't use to do this).
You're smoking too much.
o
5. Another present continuous use is for habits that are not regular, but that happen very
often. In this case we usually use an adverb like 'always', 'forever' or 'constantly'. Often,
we use the present continuous in this way to talk about an annoying habit.
o You're forever losing your keys!
o She's constantly missing the train.
o Lucy’s always smiling!
6. The next use is for definite future arrangements (with a future time word). In this case
we have already made a plan and we are pretty sure that the event will happen in the
future.
o I'm meeting my father tomorrow.
o We're going to the beach at the weekend.
o I'm leaving at three
Assertive Rule --- sub + is/am/are + v1 + ing + object.
▪ Example – she is writing a letter.
Negative Rule --- sub + is/am/are + not + v1 + ing + object.
▪ Example – She is not writing a letter.
Interrogative Rule --- is/am/are + sub + v1 + ing + object +?
▪ Example – Is she writing a letter?
Interrogative Negative Rule --- is/am/are + sub +not+ v1 + ing + object+?
▪ Example – Is she not writing a letter?
Present Perfect
Unfinished Actions
1. We use this tense when we want to talk about unfinished actions or states or habits
that started in the past and continue to the present. Usually we use it to say 'how long'
and we need 'since' or 'for'. We often use stative verbs.
o I've known Karen since 1994.
o She's lived in London for three years.
o I’ve worked here for six months.
2. 'Since' and 'For'
We use 'since' with a fixed time in the past (2004, April 23rd, last year, two hours ago).
The fixed time can be another action, which is in the past simple (since I was at school,
since I arrived).
o I've known Sam since 1992.
o I've liked chocolate since I was a child.
o She's been here since 2pm.
We use 'for' with a period of time (2 hours, three years, six months).
o I've known Julie for ten years.
o I've been hungry for hours.
o She's had a cold for a week.
Finished Actions
3. These are actions or events that happened sometime during a person’s life. We don't
say when the experience happened, and the person needs to be alive now. We often use
the words ‘ever’ and ‘never’ here.
o I have been to Tokyo.
o They have visited Paris three times.
o We have never seen that film.
4. With an unfinished time word (this month, this week, today). The period of time is still
continuing.
o I haven't seen her this month.
o She's drunk three cups of coffee today.
o I’ve already moved house twice this year!
5. A finished action with a result in the present (focus on result). We often use the present
perfect to talk about something that happened in the recent past, but that is still true
or important now. Sometimes we can use the past simple here, especially in US English.
o I've lost my keys (so I can't get into my house).
o She's hurt her leg (so she can't play tennis today).
o They've missed the bus (so they will be late).
6. We can also use the present perfect to talk about something that happened recently,
even if there isn’t a clear result in the present. This is common when we want to
introduce news and we often use the words ‘just / yet / already / recently’. However,
the past simple is also correct in these cases, especially in US English.
o The Queen has given a speech.
o I’ve just seen Lucy.
o The Mayor has announced a new plan for the railways.
7. Been and Gone
In this tense, we use both 'been' and 'gone' as the past participle of 'go', but in slightly
different circumstances. We use 'been' (often when we talk about life experience) to
mean that the person we’re talking about visited the place and came back.
o I've been to Paris (in my life, but now I'm in London, where I live).
o She has been to school today (but now she's back at home).
o They have never been to California.
We use 'gone' (often when we are talking about an action with a result in the present)
to mean that the person went to the place and is at the place now.
o 'Where's John?' 'He's gone to the shops' (he's at the shops now).
o Julie has gone to Mexico (now she's in Mexico).
o They've gone to Japan for three weeks (now they're in Japan).
Assertive Rule --- sub + has/have + v3 + object
▪ Example- She has written a letter.
Negative Rule --- sub + has/have + not + v3 + object
▪ Example – She has not written a letter.
Interrogative Rule --- has/have + sub + v3 + object + ?
▪ Example- Has she written a letter?
Interrogative Negative Rule ---has/have + sub + not + v3 + object +?
▪ Example– Has she not written a letter?
Present Perfect ContinuousUnfinished actions
1. To tell the unfinished actions that started in the past and continued to the present. We
often use this with ‘for’ and ‘since’.
o I've been living in London for two years.
o She's been working here since 2004.
o We've been waiting for the bus for hours.
This use is very similar to how we use the present perfect simple, and often it’s
possible to use either tense. Of course, with stative verbs, we can’t use the present
perfect continuous.
o I’ve been here for hours.
o NOT: I’ve been being here for hours.
2. For temporary habits or situations. The action started in the past and continues to the
present in the same way as with use number 1, but we don’t answer the questions
about ‘how long’ so clearly. Instead, we use a word like ‘recently’.
o I’ve been going to the gym a lot recently.
o They’ve been living with his mother while they look for a house.
o I’ve been reading a lot recently.
This is very similar to the use of the present continuous for temporary habits and often
either tense is possible.
Finished actions
3. Actions which have recently stopped (though the whole action can be unfinished) and
have a result, which we can often see, hear, or feel, in the present. We don’t use a time
word here.
o I'm so tired, I've been studying.
o I've been running, so I'm really hot.
o It's been raining so the pavement is wet.
Assertive Rule - sub + has/have + been + v1 + ing + object + since/for the last
▪ Example – She has been writing a letter for the last two hours.
Negative Rule --- sub + has/have + not been + v1 + ing + object + since/for the last
▪ Example– She has not been writing a letter for the last two hours.
Interrogative Rule ---has/have + sub + been + v1 + ing + object + since/for the last+?
▪ Example – Has she been writing a letter for the last two hours?
Interrogative Negative Rule ---has/have + sub + not + been + v1 + ing + object + since/for the
last+?
▪ Example – Has she not been writing a letter for the last two hours?
PAST TENSE
Tense symbolizes the ever moving, non-stop wheel of time which is forever busy gathering moments
of future and throwing them into the dustbin of past
Simple Past
Finished actions, states or habits in the past
1. We use it with finished actions, states or habits in the past when we have a finished
time word (yesterday, last week, at 2 o'clock, in 2003).
o I went to the cinema yesterday.
o We spent a lot of time Japan in 2007.
2. We use it with finished actions, states or habits in the past when we know from general
knowledge that the time period has finished. This includes when the person we are
talking about is dead.
o Leonardo painted the Mona Lisa.
o The Vikings invaded Britain.
3. We use it with finished actions, states or habits in the past that we have introduced
with the present perfect or another tense. This is sometimes called ‘details of news’.
o I've hurt my leg. I fell off a ladder when I was painting my bedroom.
o I've been on holiday. I went to Spain and Portugal.
4. For stories or lists of events, we often use the past simple for the actions in the story
and the past continuous for the background.
o He went to a café. People were chatting and music was playing. He sat down and
ordered a coffee.
Unreal or imaginary things in the present or future
5. We use the past simple to talk about things that are not real in the present or future.
So we use it with the second conditional and after words like ‘wish’.
o If I won the lottery, I would buy a house.
o I wish I had more time!
Assertive Sentences -Subject + V2 + Object + (.)
▪ She wrote a letter.
Negative Sentences- Subject + didn’t + V1 + Object + (.)
▪ She didn’t write a letter.
Interrogative Sentences- Did + Subject + V1 + Object + (?)
▪ Did she write a letter?
Interrogative Negative Sentences- Did + Subject + not + V1 + Object + (?)
▪ Did she not write a letter?
Past Continuous Tense
1. An action in the past which overlaps another action or a time. The action in the past
continuous starts before and often continues after the other shorter action or time.
o I was walking to the station when I met John. (I started walking before I met John, and
maybe I continued afterwards.)
At three o'clock, I was working. (I started before three o’clock and finished after three
o’clock.)
In the same way, we can use the present continuous for the background of a
story. (We often use the past simple for the actions.) This is really a specific example
of Use 1.
o The birds were singing, the sun was shining and in the cafés people were laughing
and chatting. Amy sat down and took out her phone.
2. Temporary habits or habits that happen more often than we expect in the past. We
often use ‘always, constantly’ or ‘forever’ here. This is the same as the way we use the
present continuous for habits, but the habit started and finished in the past. This thing
doesn’t happen now.
o He was always leaving the tap running.
o She was constantly singing.
3. To emphasise that something lasted for a while. This use is often optional and we
usually use it with time expressions like ‘all day’ or ‘all evening’ or ‘for hours’.
o I was working in the garden all day.
o He was reading all evening.
Assertive Sentences – Subject + was/were +V1+ ing + Object + (.)
▪ She was writing a letter.
Negative Sentences- Subject + was/were + not + ing + Object + (.)
▪ She was not writing a letter.
Interrogative Sentences- Was/were + Subject + ing+ Object + (?)
▪ Was she writing a letter?
Interrogative Negative Sentences- Was/were + Subject + not + ing+ Object + (?)
▪ Was she not writing a letter?
o
Past Perfect Tense
1. A finished action before a second point in the past.
o When we arrived, the film had started (= first the film started, then we arrived).
We usually use the past perfect to make it clear which action happened first. Maybe
we are already talking about something in the past and we want to mention
something else that is further back in time. This is often used to explain or give a
reason for something in the past.
o I'd eaten dinner so I wasn't hungry.
o It had snowed in the night, so the bus didn't arrive.
If it’s clear which action happened first (if we use the words ‘before’ or ‘after’, for
example), the past perfect is optional.
o The film started before we arrived / the film had started before we arrived.
2. Something that started in the past and continued up to another action or time in the
past. The past perfect tells us 'how long', just like the present perfect, but this time the
action continues up to a point in the past rather than the present. Usually we use ‘for +
time’. We can also use the past perfect continuous here, so we most often use the past
perfect simple with stative verbs.
o When he graduated, he had been in London for six years. (= He arrived in London six
years before he graduated and lived there until he graduated, or even longer.)
o On the 20th of July, I’d worked here for three months.
3. To talk about unreal or imaginary things in the past. In the same way that we use the
past simple to talk about unreal or imaginary things in the present, we use the past
perfect (one step back in time) to talk about unreal things in the past. This is common
in the third conditional and after ‘wish’.
o If I had known you were ill, I would have visited you.
o She would have passed the exam if she had studied harder.
o I wish I hadn’t gone to bed so late!
Assertive Sentences – Subject + had + V3 + Object + (.)
▪ She had written a letter when I called her.
Negative Sentences- Subject + had + not + Object + (.)
▪ She had not written a letter when I called her.
Interrogative Sentences- Had + Subject + V3 + Object + (?)
▪ Had she written a letter when I called her?
Interrogative Negative Sentences- Had + Subject + not + V3 + Object + (?)
▪ Had she not written a letter when I called her?
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
1. To tell something that started in the past and continued up to another action or time
in the past. The past perfect continuous tells us 'how long', just like the present perfect
continuous, but this time the action continues up to a point in the past rather than the
present. Usually we use ‘for + time’. (We can also use the past perfect simple here, often
with stative verbs.)
o She had been working at that company for an year when she met James.
o I’d been walking for hours when I finally found the house.
o We’d been living in Berlin for three months when we had to leave.
2. To tell something that finished just before another event in the past. This is usually
used to show a result at a time in the past. It’s very similar to the present perfect
continuous, but the action finishes before another time in the past, rather than
finishing before the present.
o The pavement was wet, it had been raining. (The rain had finished before the time I'm
describing in the past. We could see the result of the rain.)
o The children had been playing and so the room was a mess!
o I’d been working before I saw you and that’s why I was really tired.
Assertive Sentences – Subject + had been +V1 + ing + Object + since/for the last + (.)
▪ She had been writing a letter for half an hour when I called her.
Negative Sentences- Subject + had + not been + V1+ ing + Object + since/for the last + (.)
▪ She had not been writing a letter for half an hour when I called her.
Interrogative Sentences- Had + Subject+ been+ V1 + ing + Object + since/for the last + (?)
▪ Had she been writing a letter for half an hour when I called her?
Interrogative Negative Sentences- Had + Subject +not + been + V1 + ing + Object + since/for
the last + (?)
▪ Had she not been writing a letter for half an hour when I called her?
FUTURE TENSE
Simple future
1. We use the future simple with ‘will’ to predict the future. It is the basic way we talk
about the future in English, and we often use it if there is no reason to use another
future tense. We can use it for future facts and for things that are less certain.
o The sun will rise at 7am.
o I think the Conservatives will win the next election.
2. Promises / requests / refusals / offers. This is sometimes called ‘volitional’ will. It’s
about wanting to do something or not wanting to do something in the future.
o I'll help you with your homework.
o Will you give me a hand?
o I won’t go!
3. In a similar way, we often use ‘will’ when we’re talking about a decision at the moment
of speaking. We are usually making an offer or promise or talking about something
that we want to do.
o A: I'm cold.
B: I'll close the window.
4. We use the simple future with ‘will’ in the first conditional, and in other sentences that
have a conditional feeling.
o If it doesn’t rain, we’ll go to the park.
o Let’s arrive early. That will give us time to relax.
5. 'Shall' is used mainly in the forms 'shall I?' and 'shall we?' in British English. These
forms are used when you want to get someone's opinion, especially for offers and
suggestions.
o Shall I open the window? (= Do you want me to open the window?)
o Where shall we go tonight? (= What's your opinion?)
6. Be going to
We often use ‘be going to’ to talk about our future intentions and plans. We have
usually made our plans before the moment of speaking.
o A: We've run out of milk.
B: I know, I'm going to buy some.
We can also use ‘be going to’ to make a prediction about the future. Often it’s possible
to use both ‘be going to’ and ‘will’ but it’s more common to use ‘be going to’ if we can
see evidence in the present.
o Look at those boys playing football! They're going to break the window.
o The sky is getting darker and darker. It’s going to rain.
Positive / Affirmative Sentences – Subject + Will/Shall + V1 + Object + (.)
▪ She will write a letter.
Negative Sentences- Subject + Will/Shall + Not + V1 + Object + (.)
▪ She will not write a letter.
Interrogative Sentences- Will/Shall + Subject + V1 + Object + (?)
▪ Will she write a letter?
Interrogative Negative Sentences- Will/Shall + Subject + Not + V1 + Object + (?)
▪ Will she not write a letter?
Future Continuous Tense
1. We use the future continuous to talk about an action in the future that overlaps another,
shorter action or a time. The action in the future continuous usually starts before and might
continue after the second action or time. This is very similar to how we use the past
continuous in the past. The verb after ‘when’ is usually in the present simple.
o I'll be waiting when you arrive.
o At eight o'clock, I'll be eating dinner.
2. We can use the future continuous to talk about something that will happen if everything
happens as we expect. This is sometimes called ‘future as a matter of course’. It’s usually
possible to choose the future simple as well, but we often choose the future continuous
because then it’s clear that we are not making a request or offer.
o The Government will be making a statement later.
o When will you be leaving? (This is more polite than ‘when will you leave?’ because it’s
definitely not a request for you to leave.)
Positive / Affirmative Sentences – Subject + Will/Shall + Be + V1 + Ing + Object + (.)
▪ She will be writing a letter.
Negative Sentences- Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Be + V1 + Ing + Object + (.)
▪ She will not be writing a letter.
Interrogative Sentences- Will/Shall + Subject + Be + V1 + Ing + Object + (?)
▪ Will she be writing a letter?
Interrogative Negative Sentences- Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Be + V1 + Ing + Object + (?)
▪ Will she not be writing a letter?
Future Perfect Tense
1. We use the future perfect to say ‘how long’ for an action that starts before and
continues up to another action or time in the future. Usually we need ‘for’. We can also
use the future perfect continuous here so we often use the future perfect simple with
stative verbs. If we use ‘when’, we usually need the present simple.
o When we get married, I’ll have known Robert for four years.
o At 4 o’clock, I’ll have been in this office for 24 hours.
Sometimes we could also use the present perfect in the same situation. But we
like to use the future perfect to make the time an easy number.
o I’ve lived here for 11 months and three weeks. (This is correct, but the time is not an
easy number.)
o On Tuesday, I will have lived here for one year. (A much easier number.)
2. We use the future perfect with a future time word, (and often with 'by') to talk about
an action that will finish before a certain time in the future, but we don't know exactly
when.
o By 10 o'clock, I will have finished my homework. (= I will finish my homework some
time before 10, but we don't know exactly when.)
By the time I'm sixty, I will have retired. (= I will retire sometime before I'm sixty;
when I’m fifty-nine or when I’m fifty-two.)
Positive / Affirmative Sentences – Subject + Will/Shall + Have + V3 + Object + (.)
▪ She will have written a letter.
Negative Sentences- Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have + V3 + Object + (.)
▪ She will not have written a letter.
Interrogative Sentences- Will/Shall + Subject + Have + V3 + Object + (?)
▪ Will she have written a letter?
Interrogative Negative Sentences- Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have + V3 + Object + (?)
▪ Will she not have written a letter?
o
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
1. Just like with the other perfect continuous tenses, we can use the future perfect
continuous to say ‘how long’ for an action that continues up to another point in the
future. The second point can be a time or another action. Generally, we need ‘for +
length of time’ and if we use ‘when’ or ‘by the time’, we usually use the present simple.
o In April, she will have been teaching for twelve years.
o By the time you arrive, I’ll have been cooking for hours!
In the same way as with the future perfect simple, we often use the future
perfect continuous because we like easy numbers. It’s also possible to use the present
perfect continuous, but then we get a more complicated number.
o I’ve been working here for 11 months and three weeks. (This is correct, but the time
is not an easy number.)
o On Tuesday, I will have been working here for one year. (A much easier number.)
Positive / Affirmative Sentences – Subject + Will/Shall + Have been + V1 + Ing + Object +
since/for the last + (.)
▪ Next summers, she will have been writing a letter every day for the last two years.
Negative Sentences- Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have been + V1 + Ing + Object+ since/for the
last + (.)
▪ Next summers, she will not have been writing a letter every day for the last two years.
Interrogative Sentences- Will/Shall + Subject + Have been + V1 + Ing + Object + since/for the
last + (?)
▪ Next summers, will she have been writing a letter every day for the last two years?
Interrogative Negative - Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have been + V1 + Ing + Object + since/for
the last + (?)
▪ Next summers, will she not have been writing a letter every day for the last two years?
MODALS: A modal is an auxiliary verb that combines with other verb to express ability, possibility,
uncertainty, permission, threat, command, etc.
MODAL
USE
To express ability that may
be physical, mental or
circumstantial.
To express ‘know how to’
CAN
‘have/haven’t the right to’
General possibility/
opinion of a group or
panel or jury etc
EXAMPLE
I can do this work
I can speak English.
He can face any situation.
He can solve this problem within an hour.
He can operate the computer.
I can guide the students.
You cannot enter the examination hall.
We can change the programme schedule.
This news can be true.
You can easily get lost in this town. (people often get
lost in this time)
Man can make mistakes.
He can be suitable for this post.
Elephants can be very dangerous.
Permission (informal)
Offer/ Request
Nature
Purpose
Past ability
Future ability
Could
More polite request
(informal) (little formal
than can)
Possibility in the past
Possibility
Condition
To express possibility
Permission (formal)
Uncertainty
May
Wish / prayer
Request
Offer
To express the sense of
‘there is good reason for’
To express imagination in
the past.
Possibility (less than may)
Polite request/Permission
Might
Must
Express purpose in the
Past
Unfulfilled Possibility in
past.
Necessity/ Compulsion
Necessity/Compulsion in
Future.
Permanent Ruling or
Prohibition.
Emphatic Advice /
Determination
Sense of Duty
You can stay here.
Can I use your pen? (asking permission)
You can go now.
Can I bring you a chair to sit in? (offer)
Can I carry your bag? (request)
A pickpocket can spare none.
A fraudster can deceive anyone.
I read this book so that I can learn English correctly.
We work hard so that our children can become good
citizens.
When I was young, I could eat twenty loaves of bread.
I could dance better than now.
He could get a job but he didn’t apply.
I wish I could spend some time with my grandparents
the next Sunday.
Could I come in?
Could you post these letters?
Could you show me that dress?
You could have done the work alone. (but you didn’t )
I could have answered the question. (but I didn’t)
I could come to the party if free.(hardly any chances)
John could go to jail for stealing but he is very clever.
Extreme rain could cause the river to flood the city.
If I had more time, I could travel around the world.
It may rain today.
She may come tomorrow.
May I come in?
You may go now.
Who may be knocking at the door?
Who may be there?
May you live long!
May God punish the culprits!
May I expect your support?
May I help you?
The Principal may as well cancel the admission.
I may as well help him.
She may have worked hard.
You may not have studied properly.
He might qualify the test.
Might I use your pen?
You might speak in the meeting.
He ran so fast that he might catch the train.
He might have done the work.
The problem might have been solved.
He must consult a doctor for this is a serious disease.
I must go by the end of this week.
You must vacate the room by tomorrow.
We must follow the traffic rules.
We must not move in the wrong side of the road.
You must give up smoking.
We must crush the terrorists.
We must respect our elders.
We must serve our country.
Strong possibility
Will
Shall
Intention/Determination/
Promise / Warning
Order / Promise /
Determination / Warning
Advice and Suggestion
Moral Obligation
Purpose (should….lest)
Requirement
Should
To express probability
Condition
Polite Wish
Moral duty/ Obligation in
past.
Past habits
Determination
Polite request
Would
Wish
Preference
Unreal condition
Probability
Strong Desire
Natural or habitual action
Unfulfilled Action
Need
Dare
Ought to
instead of
Should
Absence of Necessity
Challenge
When an external force
monitor the action
There must be something wrong.
You must have heard about Gandhiji.
I will buy a new car.
We will do or die.
I will support you.
We will teach you a lesson.
You shall do it now.
You shall enjoy my company.
Shivam says that he shall be a cricketer.
You shall not enter my property.
We should work hard.
One should speak truth.
You should take exercise daily.
We should help the needy.
We should be obedient to our parents.
Students should respect their teachers.
Work hard lest you should fail.
There should be a library in every village.
There should be a guard to look after this house.
The file should be in almirahs.
The butter should be in the fridge.
Should it rain, I shall not go out.
Should he not come, what shall we do?
I should like to resign the post.
I should like you to support me in this matter.
We should have done the work earlier.
You should not have committed such mistakes.
When I was a child, my grandfather would tell stories
every day.
Gandhiji would spin every day.
I would stand by you in every situation.
I would never surrender before a criminal.
Would you help me?
I would like to ask you a question.
I would like to say something.
I would rather die than beg.
If I were a bird, I would fly very high.
If you had worked hard, you would have passed.
He would be his father.
He would be coming back.
Would that I were child again!
When I was in Delhi, he would come to meet me every
evening.
If you had invited me, I would have attended the
function.
You need not stay here.
You need not have resigned that job.
He dare not say so.
How dare you fight him?
I ought to respect my silly neighbour because my
mother wants so.
He likes to break every rule but he has to put on seat
belt when he sees a traffic jeep.
Has/Have to
instead of
Must
I am able to perform well when my mother stands by
me.
Able to instead
of Can
3. SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT
Basic Rule: A singular subject takes a singular verb, whereas a plural subject takes a plural verb.
Example:
▪ The list of items is on the desk.
▪ The lists of items are on the desk.
▪ Mother takes care of her baby.
▪ Mothers take care of their babies.
Rule 1: A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. (In case both the subjects in the
phrase are nouns)
▪ A bouquet of yellow roses lends colour and fragrance to the room.
▪ The lady of the house is outside.
Rule 2: Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb.
The verb in an ‘or, either/or, or neither/nor’ sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun closest to it.
Examples:
▪ My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
▪ Neither Seema nor Rohan is available.
▪ Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.
▪ Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
▪ Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.
▪ She or her parents have done this.
Rule 3: As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected
by and.
Example:
▪ A car and a bike are my means of transportation.
▪ The basketball player and the manager decide to launch a new plan.
Exceptions:
▪ Breaking and entering is against the law.
▪ The bed and breakfast was charming.
In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns.
▪ The singer and the painter have arrived. (two persons)
▪ The singer and painter has arrived. (one person)
▪ Each boy and girl is rewarded.
Rule 4a: Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well as,
besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use a
singular verb when the subject is singular.
Examples:
▪ The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
▪ The pineapple, besides apples, has been bought.
▪ The students, as well as the teacher, have arrived.
▪ The girl, not her parents, decides this.
Rule 4b: Parentheses are not part of the subject.
▪ Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
Rule 5: In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.
Examples:
▪ There are four hurdles to jump.
▪ There is a high hurdle to jump.
▪ Here are the keys.
Rule 6: Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as
a unit.
Examples:
▪ Three miles is too far to walk.
▪ Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
▪ Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., coins or bills) were scattered on the floor.
Do it:
There _______ (is/are) only two dollars in my wallet.
Ten hours ____ (is/are) how much time we require for this project.
Ten hours _______ (was/were) spent on this project.
Five hundred square feet _____ (is/are) a very small space to live in.
Five hundred square feet _______(has/have) been added to the house.
Millions of dollars ______(is/are) a very big amount.
Millions of dollars _________(was/were) spent to renovate this house.
Rule 7: With words that indicate portions—e.g., a lot, a majority, some, all—Rule 1 given earlier in
this section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the noun after of is singular, use a
singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples:
▪ A lot of the pie has disappeared.
▪ A lot of the pies have disappeared.
▪ A third of the city is unemployed.
▪ A third of the people are unemployed.
▪ All of the pie is gone.
▪ All of the pies are gone.
▪ Some of the pie is missing.
▪ Some of the pies are missing.
Rule 8: The plural verb replaces the singular one in sentences that express a wish, a demand or are
contrary to fact:
Example:
▪ If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.
▪ Aditya requested that she raise her glass.
▪ God bless you.
▪ God save the child.
▪ Saddam Hussein violated every UN resolution that demanded he disarm and destroy his
chemical weapon.
▪ It is essential that she break a record.
▪ It is essential he be there.
▪ I demand she have chance.
▪ I propose he work full time.
▪ I recommend that they not enter the competition.
▪ I wish that they be here.
The sentence demonstrates the subjunctive mood, which is used to express things that are
hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory.
Rule 9:Name of a subject, a disease, a game, etc are plural in form but singular in meaning
thus use singular verbs.
Examples:
▪ Mathematics is very difficult for some people.
▪ The news is very saddening.
▪ Measles is a dangerous disease.
▪ Billiards is an interesting game.
Rule 10: Titles of single entities (books, organizations, united countries, etc.) are
always singular.
Examples:
▪ The Footprints without Feet is a very nice book.
▪ The United States of America is visited by most of the people round the world.
▪ The Arabian Nights is my favourite book.
▪ The Pirates of Grills is a good movie.
Rule 11:The words and phrases "each," "each one," "either," "neither," "everyone," "everybody,"
"anyone," "anybody," "nobody," "somebody," "someone," and "no one" are singular and require a
singular verb.
▪ Nether decision was appropriate.
▪ Each of the participants has a drum.
Rule 12:Some countable nouns in English such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings, proceeds,
contents, and valuables only have a plural form and take a plural verb.
▪ Locally produced goods are not expensive.
▪ Dhoni’s innings were recorded every time.
▪ Our surroundings have pollution free environment.
Rule 13: Words like luggage, furniture, advice, information, food, work, knowledge,
equipment, fruit, apparatus, behaviour, traffic, dust, music, progress, weather, nonsense, etc
always use singular verb.
▪ Knowledge is power.
▪ All my furniture has been stolen.
Rule 14: COLLECTIVE NOUNS: If the collective noun refers to the group as a unit, then it takes a
singular verb. If it refers to the individuals in the group or the parts that make up the group, then the
verb should be plural. In the following sentences, decide whether the collective noun requires the
singular or plural verb.
▪ This organization
on a barbecue every summer. (puts/put)
▪ The flute ensemble
tuning
instruments. (is; its/are; their)
▪ The flute ensemble
playing at the Kiwanis Music Festival. (is/are)
▪ Martin's family
to vacation in Delhi this summer. (plans/plan)
▪ A huge swarm of locusts
destroyed the crops.(has/have)
▪ The pack of dogs
running off in different directions. (was/were)
▪ Every fall, the English class
book reports on
summer reading. (writes;
its/write; their)
▪ An average family __________ of four people. (consists/consist)
▪ The team ______heading for practice this afternoon. (is/are)
▪ The team _______eating with their families tonight. (is/are)
▪ Our staff ________hard to meet their goals and deadlines. (works/work)
▪ Our staff ________on Tuesday mornings to discuss customer complaints. (meets/meet)
▪ The team _______headed to the nationals since winning the state finals. (is/are)
▪ The chamber orchestra often ________ at the Art Centre. (plays/play)
▪ The orchestra _________ tuning ________instruments. (is, its/are, their)
▪ The cast __________ celebrating the success of the play with a party after the performance.(
(is/are)
▪ The cast _______ been practising their lines. (has/have)
▪ The fleet _________ anchored in the channel. (was/were)
▪ The fleet _________moving towards their targets. (was/were)
▪ A wolf pack _________ as a group. (hunts/hunt)
4. REPORTED SPEECH
(Direct-Indirect Narrations)
USE
Reported speech is used to retell or report what other person has actually said. It is a very usual
function in everyday language.
STRUCTURE:
Direct Speech: Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech or quoted speech. What
a person says appears within quotation marks ('…..’ or “…..”) and should be word by word.
She said, “Today’s lesson is on presentations.”
Indirect Speech: Indirect speech or reported speech does not use quotation marks to enclose what
the person said and need not be word by word.
RULES FOR CHANGING DIRECT SPEECH INTO INDIRECT SPEECH:
To understand we divide the rules of changing direct Speech into indirect speech in two parts:
• General rules: applicable to all kinds of sentences.
• Specific rules: applicable to specific kind of sentences.
GENERAL RULES:
1 First of all ascertain the tense of the 'Reporting verb'.
➢ If the reporting verb is in present or future tense, the tense of the reported speech remains
unchanged.
➢ If the reporting verb is in past, the tense of the reported speech changes.
The reporting verb changes as following:
o say – say
o says – says
o say to – tell
o says to – tells
o will say – will say
o will say to – will tell
o said- said
o said to –told/asked
There are other verbs that also add the speaker’s intention or the way, or intonation used
while speaking:
o In statements: admit, agree, answer, apologize, boast, claim, complain, declare, deny,
explain, inform, insist, offer, promise, refuse, remind, etc
o In questions: enquire, request, want to know, wonder, etc.
o In orders: demand, order, shout, threaten, warn, etc.
o In insistent requests: beg.
o In other functions: advise, invite, suggest, recommend, etc.
If the reporting verb is in past, the tense changes as following:
o Present Indefinite – Past Indefinite
o Present Continuous – Past Continuous
o Present Perfect – Past Perfect
o Present Perfect Continuous – Past Perfect Continuous
o Past Indefinite – Past Perfect
o Past Continuous – Past Perfect Continuous
o Past Perfect – No change
o Past Perfect Continuous – No change
Change in Future Sentences (Reported Speech)
o Will/Shall – Would/ Should
o Can – Could
o May – Might
o Could/Should/Would/Might – No change
Change in Time Expressions and Place.
o This- That
o These – Those
o Here – There
o Hence – Thence
o Now – Then
o Ago – Before
o Thus – So
o Today – That day
o Tomorrow – The following day/ the next day
o Yesterday – The previous day/ the day before
o Last week/month/year –The previous week/month/year
o The day before yesterday – The day before the previous day.
2. If the Reported Speech contains universal truth, proverb, mathematical fact, historical
fact, habitual act, an expression of morality or an unchanged fact, the tense of the
reported speech remains unchanged.
o The teacher said, “A stitch in time saves nine”. (Direct)
The teacher said that a stitch in time saves nine. (Indirect)
o He said, “London is the capital of UK”. (Direct)
He said that London is the capital of UK. (Indirect)
SPECIFIC RULES:
1. Interrogative sentences: They can be classified into two types.
o Sentences that have questions that can be answered in 'Yes' or 'No'.
o 'Wh' questions that begin with words such as what, Where, When, How, Who, etc.
Rules for Yes or No questions:
• Use conjunction 'if' or 'whether' in place of 'that'. Whether is used when the question
expresses an alternative.
o She asked me, “Do you like coffee or tea?”
She asked me whether I liked coffee or tea.
• Remove the question mark (?) and the interrogative sentence in changed to assertive
sentence.
• Reporting verb: ask, asks, asked- is used in indirect narrations. We can also use inquire
or enquire of. Enquire of is used when an object follows it. For example: He enquired of
me.
• Other rules in respect to the change of pronoun and change of tense are also to be
followed.
o She said to Shyam, “Have you an extra copy?”
She asked Shyam if he had an extra copy.
Questions beginning with 'Wh' words:
• In questions beginning with 'Wh' words, no conjunction (that, if, whether) is used,
instead the Wh- word itself functions as conjunction.
• The interrogative sentence is changed into assertive (Subject+Verb+……)
o He said to her, “What do you want?”
He asked her what she wanted.
2. Imperative Sentences: Sentences expressing command, order, advice, request, etc. are called as
imperative sentences.
Rules for Changing Imperative sentences into indirect speech:
• Use conjunction 'to' instead of 'that'.
• Negative commands, requests, etc. are reported by not+ infinitive.
• In indirect speech expressions of command, request, advice are usually expressed by
a verb of command/request/advice + object + infinitive. Verbs: advise, ask, beg,
command, encourage, forbid, order, recommend, request, urge, warn, etc. are
normally used to express the notions of command/ order/ request/ advice. (We do not
use say or said in such sentences).
• If a sentence contains words like please, kindly etc. these are not mentioned in the
indirect speech, as the noun is well expressed by the reporting verb request in such
case.
o She said to Ramu, “Please bring my book.”
She requested Ramu to bring her book.
o I said to Hari, “Don’t pluck the flowers.”
I ordered Hari not to pluck the flowers.
• Imperatives with 'Let'
o The Principal said to the peon, “Let the students come in.”
The Principal ordered the peon to allow the students come in.
o He said, “Ley them go to their advocate.”
He said that thru should go to their advocate.
3. Exclamatory Sentences: Sentences containing sudden expressions of joy, sorrow, anger,
applause, surprise and contempt are called as exclamatory sentences.
Rules
• Reporting verb: exclaimed with joy, sorrow, surprise, applause, anger, contempt, etc. is used
according to the tenor of the sentence.
• Conjunction 'that' is used as usual.
• Words such as Alas, Oh, Wow, Bravo, etc. used in direct speech are left out in indirect
narration.
• Exclamatory sentences are transformed into assertive.
• For any wish like: If I were a bird, If I were the PM, etc. reporting verb 'wish' is used.
Examples
o She said, “If I were a bird!”
She wished if she would be a bird.
We said, “What a nice plate it is!”
We exclaimed with surprise that it was a nice plate.
o They said to us, “Welcome!”
They welcomed us.
5. DETERMINERS
Definition: ‘Determiner’ is a word used before a noun to indicate which things or people or places
we are talking about. The words ‘a’, ‘the‘, ‘my’, ‘this’, ‘some’, ‘many’, all of, the second, etc. are called
determiners.
Examples:
He is a good boy.
The boy you met is my friend.
This novel is very interesting.
I have some information about the accident.
There were many people at the station.
She was the first girl to enter her class.
I saw a witch.
o
TYPES OF DETERMINERS
1. Pre-determiners: Pre-determiners are the words which occur before a determiner to limit
the meaning of a noun:
▪ All the boys joined the race.
▪ You will get all the information.
▪ He drank half of the milk.
▪ She stayed there all of the time.
▪ Both the boys were present.
2. Articles:The article system in English consists of the definite article ‘the’ and the indefinite
article ‘a’ or ‘an’. We can think of nouns in a specific or general way. When we refer to
particular people or things or something that has already been mentioned or can be
understood, we use the definite article ‘the’. When we refer to singular nouns for the first time,
or refer to things in a general way, we use the indefinite article ‘a’ or ‘an’.
The Definite Article ‘The’:
1. We can use the definite article before any common noun:
▪ He threw the ball into the river.
▪ The boys were not in the class.
2. We use the definite article to refer to specific persons or things:
▪ I want to meet the principal in the school.
▪ The tourists crossed the river in a boat.
3. The definite article is used to refer to the things that are only one in the world:
▪ The moon and the stars were shining in the sky.
▪ The sun sets in the west.
▪ The earth revolves round the sun.
4. We use the definite article with the words such as school, university, prison, when we are
referring to a particular building:
▪ They will visit the school on Monday.
▪ I met him in the university.
5. The definite article may be used with the countable nouns that are used in the singular to
refer to things more general:
▪ If you break the law, you will be punished.
▪ He played the violin for half an hour.
6. The definite article is used to refer to the parts of the body:
▪ Smoking is harmful for the lungs.
▪ He caught him by the neck.
▪ There was an injury in the right eye.
7. The definite article is used with time expressions:
▪ I met her in the evening.
▪ She came here in the morning.
8. We use the definite article before something that has already been mentioned.
▪ I met a man at the station. The man belonged to Tamil Nadu.
9. The definite article is used before a noun that is followed by a relative clause or a
prepositional phrase:
▪ The man I met at the station belonged to Haryana.
▪ He put the sweater on the table.
10. The definite article is used to refer to familiar things we use regularly:
▪ She looked at the ceiling.
▪ Suddenly the lights went out.
11. The definite article is used before dates or periods of time:
▪ We met on the 15th of October.
▪ It is a popular music of the 1940s.
12. The definite article is generally used before a noun which is followed by ‘of ‘:
▪ This led to the destruction of the whole village.
▪ The burning of houses rendered people homeless.
13. The definite article is used before the names of seas, rivers, deserts, mountains,
▪ The ship crossed the Pacific Ocean.
▪ Delhi stands on the banks of the Yamuna.
▪ The Sahara is a famous desert.
▪ They came across the Himalayas.
14. The definite article is used before the names of large public buildings:
▪ They visited the Taj Mahal.
▪ They went to the Town Hall.
15. The definite article is used before the superlative adjectives:
▪ He is the best boy in the class.
▪ She is the most beautiful girl in the school.
16. The definite article is used before adjectives such as rich, poor, deaf, dumb, blind, to use
them as nouns:
▪ The rich and the poor went to the fair.
▪ We should help the blind.
17. We use the definite article before the nationals of a country or continent:
▪ The Indians are very religious.
▪ Some of the Europeans live here.
18. We use the definite article before the names of trains and ships:
▪ The Rajdhani Express is a very fast train.
▪ The Queen Elizabeth is a famous ship.
The Indefinite Articles- ‘a’, ‘an ’:
The indefinite articles (‘a’, ‘an’) are used when we talk about people in a general or indefinite
way.
1. The article ‘a’ is used before the words which begin with consonant sounds and ‘an’ is used
before the words beginning with vowel sounds. However, some words start with a vowel letter
but begin with a consonant sound. So we use the article ‘a’ before these words:
▪ He is a European.
▪ This is a unique idea.
▪ Theirs is a one-parent family.
▪ He is teaching at a university.
2. We use ‘an’ before words which begin with a vowel sound:
▪ The girl bought an orange.
▪ He is an Indian.
▪ He had an umbrella in his hand.
3. Some words begin with a silent So we use an before them:
▪ He is an honest man.
▪ He is an heir to the throne.
▪ I met him an hour ago.
4. We use ‘a’ or ‘an’ before singular countable nouns:
▪ Kolkata is a big city.
▪ The dog is an animal.
5. We use ‘a’ or ‘an’ before the names of occupations and professions:
▪ His father is an engineer.
▪ He is a pilot.
6. When we use ‘a’ before ‘little’ and ‘few’, there is a change in the meaning of these words. ‘A
few’ is used with plural countable nouns, and ‘a little’ with uncountable nouns. ‘Few’ means
not many, while ‘a few’ means a small number. ‘Little’ means not much, while ‘a little’ means
some:
▪ Few people visit this temple now.
▪ I know a few students of this school.
▪ There is little water in the bucket.
▪ There is a little milk in the bottle.
7. We use ‘a’, ‘an’ before an adjective in a noun phrase:
▪ She is a good girl.
▪ She told me an interesting story.
8. We use ‘an’ with abbreviations beginning with the following letters: A, E, F, H, I, L, M, N, O, R,
S, X (They should have vowel sounds).
▪ For example:
▪ His father is an M.P.
▪ He is an N.R.I.
▪ She got an X-Ray done.
9. We use the indefinite article before certain nouns considered as a single unit:
▪ She bought a knife and fork.
▪ The old lady had a cup and saucer in her hand.
3. Demonstratives: This, These, That, Those: The demonstrative determiners are used to talk
about persons or things that have already been mentioned.This and These refer to the things
that are near and can be seen. ‘That’ and ‘Those’ are used to refer to the things that are at a
distance but can be seen.
▪ We lived in this house for four years.
▪ She bought these books.
▪ Those boys are very mischievous.
▪ I like this school.
▪ I met her this week.
This’ and ‘that’ are used for singular nouns and ‘these’ and ‘those’ for plural nouns.
▪ Can you lift that box?
▪ Would you like to buy those books?
▪ These boys have done their work.
▪ I have already met that man.
4. Possessives: My, our, your, his, her, its and their: The possessives are used to show
possession.
▪ He is my uncle.
▪ Our neighbour is a rich man.
▪ Your daughter is beautiful.
▪ What is her age?
▪ What is his name?
▪ Do you know its value?
▪ Their house is very big.
5. Ordinals: first, second, next, last, etc: The ordinals show what position something has in a
series:
▪ He is the first boy who has joined this school.
▪ I shall meet him the next week.
▪ He is the last man to help you.
6. Cardinals: one, two, three, hundred, etc: Cardinals are ordinary numbers like one, two,
three, etc. They show how exact number of something there are:
▪ There were only ten boys in the class.
▪ She lived for eighty years.
▪ He has two daughters.
▪ I met three young men at the station.
▪ He balanced himself on one foot.
7. Quantifiers: much, some, several, a lot of, both, all, etc: The quantifiers refer to the quantity
of things or amount of something.
▪ There were some people at the airport.
▪ They had enough guests already.
▪ Plenty of people would like to have your job.
▪ All children enjoyed the show.
▪ They didn’t make much progress.
▪ There was little water in the jug.
▪ There is no milk in the bottle.
▪ It has not made any difference to me.
▪ There is enough powder in the can.
▪ He drank a lot of water.
▪ I have forgotten some details.
8. Distributives: each, every, either, neither, etc: Distributive determiners refer to each single
member of a group.
1. Each is used when we talk about the members of a group individually and every when we
make a general statement. Both are followed by a singular countable noun:
▪ He met each guest.
▪ The minister visited every flood-affected area.
▪ I agree with every word he says.
▪ Each request will be considered.
3. Either can also mean
▪ People stood in either side (both sides) of the road.
2. Neither is the negative of either:
▪ Neither member came to attend the meeting.
▪ Neither boy said anything.
▪ Neither answer is correct.
9. Interrogatives: what, which, whose, etc: The interrogative determiners are used for asking
questions:
▪ What subjects are you studying?
▪ Whichcolours do you like the most?
▪ Whose house is this?