THE ARCHIVES OF THE MAHDIA
Author(s): P. M. Holt
Source: Sudan Notes and Records , JUNE 1955, Vol. 36, No. 1 (JUNE 1955), pp. 71-80
Published by: University of Khartoum
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41716681
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THE ARCHIVES OF THE MAHDIA
by
P. M. Holt
Paper presented to the Philosophical Society at its meeting on 26 th October , 19
The archives of the Mahdia which are now in the possession of the M
of the Interior form a collection of thousands of documents, written almost
in Arabic, illustrating every aspect of the political and administrative histor
Sudan between 1885 and 1898. In this talk I propose to show briefly ho
collection was acquired, to describe the principal classes of documents w
contains and to give an example of the way in which they may be used in or
increase our knowledge of this critically important period of Sudanese history
The year 1885 saw the failure of the British attempt to relieve Gordon in Kh
and the withdrawal of Egyptian troops from Dongola. For the next eleve
Wadi Haifa was the southernmost town on the Nile under Anglo-Egyptian con
Throughout this period information about the Sudan was being assiduously co
by the Intelligence Department of the Egyptián Army under the direction of W
In 1889 the Mahdist army under 'Abd al-Rahman al-Nujumi made its il
advance into Upper Egypt, to meet defeat in the battle of Tushka at which Alhimself was killed. Among the materials captured by the victors were some o
official papers, including a letter-book of the correspondence received by him
the Mahdi and the Khalifa 'Abdallahi. This was carefully examined by the Mil
Intelligence Department and translations of some of the letters were given by
in his book, Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan , published in 1891. The o
letter-book as well as a number of separate letters from the Khalifa to Al-Nu
are now in the Sudan Government archives.
Shortly before Wingate's book was published, a much larger body of Mahdist
documents fell into his hands. These were the official papers of the provincial
administration of 'Uthman Diqnah in the Eastern Sudan, captured after the battle of
Tokar in 1891. Wingate prepared a confidential report entitled Dervish Rule in the
Eastern Sudany which is partly incorporated in his book, giving translations of some of
these papers and summaries of others. Much of this material is now in the Sudan
Government archives. Wingate's report does not indicate the extraordinarily large
number of. documents pertaining to the provincial treasury of Tokar and its subordinate
treasuries at Trinkitat and elsewhere which are included in this collection. They
form the most complete body of Mahdist fiscal documents extant and a great deal of
work remains to be done before they have been fully examined and catalogued.
In 1896 the Egyptian Army under Kitchener's command undertook the reconquest
of the province of Dongola. An action took place in June at Ferka in the north of the
province. The Ansar under Hammudah Idris were defeated and their headquarters
at Suwarda were captured. The advance continued and in September a second
engagement took place at Hafir, north of the provincial capital. The military governor,
Muhammad Bisharah, withdrew with his troops and by the end of the month
Kitchener's forces had reoccupied the whole of the province. As a result of these
two actions, a further considerable body of Mahdist papers came into the possession
of the Military Intelligence Department. Since April, 1892, this organization had
been issuing printed confidential reports, usually at monthly intervals. Translations
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72 Sudan Notes and Records
of specimens of the correspondence captured
to Reports Nos. 48 and 49. A selection of le
Bisharah was given in an appendix to Report
The reoccupation of Dongola was followed i
reconquest of the Sudan. The first of the two
paign entailed took place by the river Atbara
under Mahmud Ahmad, nephew of the Khalif
Intelligence Department must have obtained m
nothing is said of them in the Intelligence Re
battle of Karari took place. Omdurman was oc
and the records of the Khalifa's central admin
Military Intelligence Department. What ha
Syrian assistant, Naum Bey Shoucair, the hist
words : -
ť After the capture of Omdurman, the D.M.I, gave special attention to the
collection of Khalifa's correspondence. The morning after the battle, he went round
all the houses where the Dervish correspondence was stored. At first he went to the
houses of the Khalifa's Katebs . . . where a large store of correspondence was discovered and put them (i.e. the letters) under guard. He then visited Yakub's house
where also a guard was put over a large quantity of correspondence and other stores.
Then the Beit El Amana was visited and a guard was put over the correspondence.
The D.M.I, gave me orders (as I accompanied him to the above place) to look out for
other correspondence in the town and put them all in one place. I visited Beit El
Mai where a large store of Dervish official books and correspondence was found.
I also visited over 100 private houses of noted Emirs wheçe I found a large quantity
of important correspondence. I then collected all this correspondence . . . and put
it in one room in a house of Yakub's. . . . Then I packed up this correspondence in
parcels and brought it in a native gum-basket to Cairo.'
The documents were roughly sorted through by the Military Intelligence Depart-
ment to obtain information required by the new administration in the Sudan.
Translations and transcriptions were made of a small portion of them. Shoucair used
material derived from these archives in his Tarikh al- Sudan, where he quotes extensively from the documents which passed through his hands. Yet all the documents
that have been printed, in whole or in part, in the original Arabic or in English
translations, form only an insignificant proportion of the whole collection and virtually
nothing has been published on the financial and economic aspects òf the period.
After this examination at the end of the last century, the archives were again bundled
up in brown paper parcels, about eighty in number. They remained in the War
Office in Cairo until 1915, when they were brought to Khartoum. They remained
undisturbed in the Secretariat, apart from a cursory examination of one or two parcels
about twenty years ago, until I transferred them into boxes and started the long and
still unfinished business of examining and cataloguing them in 1951.
What proportion the collection made between 1889 and 1898 bears to the total
mass of official documents produced by the Mahdist administration is .difficult to say.
Naturally those dating from the time of the Mahdi himself are very much fewer than
those dating from the reign of the Khalifa, since his period of rule was so brief. Moreover, the Mahdist government did not establish a permanent capital at Omdurman
until a few weeks before the Mahdi's death and the elaboration of the organs of
administration was a gradual process during the thirteen years of the Khalifa ' Abdallahi's reign. The documents which date from the Mahdi's time are chiefly copies
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Archives of the Mahdia 73
of his letters and a few lithographed proclam
give a detailed picture of the administration
however, we have a number of letters from
the Mahdist general-governor of Darfar, and
Khalifa to him during the same period. Fr
administrative functions of the Mahdi and the Khalifa.
The documentation of the Khalifa's reign is very much richer, although there
are some obvious gaps in the records that have been preserved. There are over twelve
thousand letters which were exchanged between the Khalifa and his provincial
governors and other chief officers. The largest group of these letters from a single
individual emanates from Mahmud. Ahmad, first as governor of Kordofan and Darfiir
and then as commander of the northern expeditionary force against Kitchener in
1897. Mahmud Ahmad was singularly lacking in initiative and bombarded both the
Khalifa and Yacqub with correspondence on matters of every degree of importance.
Since in the event he usually refused to follow the advice, often very sound, sent from
Omdurman, an air of futility pervades these letters but historians may be grateful
for the detailed picture which they present of provincial and military administration
in the middle and later years of the reign. Other well-known governors who are well
represented in this collection of letters are Hamdan Abu 'Anjah, 'Uthman Adam
(Janu), Muhammad al-Zaki 'Uthman, Al-Zaki Tamal, 'Uthman Diqnah and Yunus
al-Dikaim. With the exception of Muhammad al-Zaki 'Uthman, the governor of
Berber, these were all governors of frontier provinces and were preoccupied with
problems of defence. Light is thrown upon the administration of another type of
province by the letters of Ahmad al-Sunni, who governed the Gezira and the eastern
bank of the Blue Nile from Wad Medani and who had as his principal duty the
provisioning of Omdurman.
Of the Khalifa's letters to these officials, a much smaller number survives but the
absence of the original documents is to a large extent compensated by the summaries
of the letters which precede .the replies. There is also a large collection of letters to
and from the Khalifa's brother, Yaťqub. Unfortunately these date almost entirely
from the last two years of the reign, so that they will probably give only a limited
amount of information about the development of Ya'qub's administrative functions.
It has been said that Yaťqub was 'Abdallahi's wazir. This was true in effect although
no such title was ever formally assumed by him in the way that 'Abdallahi deliberately
assumed the style Khalifat al-Mahdi after the Mahdi's death. In the early letters
Yaťqub is entitled £ Lieutenant of the Black Flag ' (Wakil al-Raiyah al-Zarqď ) but
this phrase ceased to be used. His later correspondents styled him merely ' My
Lord and Director ' ( Saiyidi wa-Murshidi), neither of which terms had any adminis-
trative significance.
Correspondence of the type I have described will, when it is thoroughly examined,
throw an immense amount of light on the political history of the Khalifa's reign and
on the course of events in the various provinces. There is enough material to employ
a team of research students for many years to come. Probably no single document of
revolutionary importance will be found but the cumulative effect of details acquired
from these thousands of records will certainly change considerably the emphasis in
any subsequent history of the Mahdia. My own work in a very small corner of the
field - the correspondence between Mahmud Ahmad and the Khalifa in the months
before the battle of the Atbara - has for example shown the inaccuracy of the account
in The River War of the relations between the two and has indicated with the greatest
clarity the conditions in the Mahdist army which contributed to its defeat.
F
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74 Sudan Notes and Records
I turn now to the second great class of docu
records. There are probably at least as many of
of them are as interesting individually and they
documents, such as orders upon the treasuries a
earlier, there is a very rich collection of papers
of Tokar and its associated sub-treasuries. An
from the provincial treasury of Dongola. Ther
at El Obeid, El Fasher, Berber and elsewhere. In
earlier, the records of the General Treasury at
is a mass of receipts, orders to the Commissione
ments dating from the commissionership of Ib
Khalifa's reign, and a certain amount of corres
little of the Treasury accounts is extant. There
monthly statements of revenue and expenditur
of Ibrahim Ramadan in 1897, and a series of ret
the storehouse of the General Treasury during
learn much about the functions of the General
we shall probably never be able to study in det
carried out by Ibrahim Muhammad ť Adían
missioner, Ahmad w. Sulaiman, in 1886.
Other papers of a statistical nature are lists, c
of troops, weapons and horses, inventories of th
officials, lists of goods sent to the Treasury as
Such documents are very numerous and mig
information on the composition and equipment
biographical material concerning the minor figu
The Mahdist archives for the most part cons
there are a few bourid manuscript volumes, reg
Mahdi up th the year 1306/1888-9, and daftars
uries. The Mahdist administration clearly re
paper which had belonged to its Egyptian pr
quality and so a large proportion of the docume
They would however deteriorate rapidly with h
hand for their microfilming and for the phot
interest, such as the letter-books of the Mahdi
of the documents is clear and legible. Some of
emanating from the Khalifa's clerks, who were c
istic of the official correspondence is its strict
open with the formula, " In the Name of Go
Praise be to%God, the Generous Guardian, an
people blessings and peace*" There is a certain
which follows, a characteristic letter from the
follows : ' From the slave of his Lord, the Kha
the Khalifa 'Abdallah! b. Muhammad, the K
and his assistant, the agent of the Mahdia, t
God guard him and watch over him.' Nearly all
although Shoucair has noted a discrepancy of o
in the Sudan and that in Egypt during the
appeared but it was certainly before the death
authenticated by the seal of the person by
importance of the seal is shown by a letter fro
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Archives of the Mahdia 75
thanking the Khalifa for a new seal and inf
defaced. When a seal was lost, the letter was
is an interesting contrast between the unform
and the smooth, practised script of their cl
during the lifetime of the Mahdi but they
clerk, usually Ahmadi Mahmud or Al-Mudat
some light on the question of the Khalifa's
All this indicates the existence of a well-org
and the provinces, with a definite tradition
extent recruited from the clerks and acc
administration in the Sudan. As far as the c
be shown in detail by a staff-list compiled b
immediately after the fall of Omdurman. A
printed in Intelligence Report No. 60 and th
archives. This shows, for example, that the
1898 had served over thirteen years before
in the Sudan. The same was true of the two clerks in the Arsenal and the two in the
Treasury of the War Department. Other departments had at least a nucleus of their
clerical staff from the old régime - the First Cleçk of the Treasury of the Bodyguard,
the Second Clerk of the Privy Treasury, two of Ya'qub's clerks, two of 'Uthman
Shaikh al-Din's clerks and so forth. Some of these men had risen high in the service
of the Khalifa. Yusuf Mikhayil, a Copt who had been a junior accountant at El
Obeid when the Mahdia began, became one of the Khalifa's clerks and commanded
the Coptic unit at Karari. Al-'Awad al-Mardi, head clerk of Taka Province under the
Egyptians, was twice Commissioner of the General Treasury under the Khalifa.
He had fallen from grace and was in prison when Kitchener entered Omdurman.
One of his predecessors in the same profitable but dangerous post, Al-Nur Ibrahim
al-Jiraifawi, had been a member of the local court of Khartoum in Egyptian times.
He was appointed to the General Treasury after several years of service as com-
missioner of the provincial treasury of Berber and, at the Reconquest, held the minor
commissionership of the Treasury of the War Department.
The importance of this clerical staff in the Khalifa's administration is shown by
the careful instructions which he gave to clerks on. their appointment to provincial
duties. Here is his commission to a certain Muhammad w. Hasan, who was sent as a
confidential clerk to the governor of Berber, 'Uthman al-Ďikaim, in 1305/1887-8.
' We inform you that, because of Our good opinion of you, We have sent you
to the Honourable 'Uthman al-Dikaim to undertake his service in the position of clerk,
inasmuch as you have long remained here in that position in Our retinue and have
understood its purpose. You must be of high zeal in the business to which you are
deputed and execute it with sincerity, trustworthiness and integrity as is required,
rejecting this world and not meddling in what does not concern you. Be to the
Honourable 'Uthman al-Dikaim like the corpse between the hands of the washer.
Be prompt to execute his commands. Personally read to him directly all correspondence from Us to Tiim. If he orders you to read anything to others of the Brethren,
as the good of the Faith requires, then read it. If he orders you to conceal anything,
then conceal it and disclose it to nobody. After you have submitted the letters to him
and he has informed you of the replies which he wishes, answer them keeping to the
orders given without any neglect. Do not inform anyone about them, even Wad
Hamadnallah or Al-Nur Ibrahim (the provincial commissioner of the treasury),
since it is not their concern, unless circumstances should necessitate their being in-
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76 Sudan Notes and Records
formed of some matter which may advantageou
order of the Honourable 'Uthman they may be
orders for 'Uthman, which are between you and
in them between you. Except the aforesaid 'Uth
anyone to meddle but are to be perpetually with
office to which you are deputed as We instruct
So far I have been dealing in general terms w
clerical organization that produced them. I shou
documents for more detailed description. The
Mahdist administration that has hitherto receive
system in the provinces. They are a number of l
1890 and 1892 by Sulaiman al-Hajjaz who as depu
( Wakil Mahkamat al- Islam) was the second h
Sulaiman was sent with three colleagues on a
Darfur, to report on and reorganize the admini
Sudan which had suffered severely from dis
Mahmud Ahmad, who had been appointed go
'Uthman Adam. Besides reporting on judicial
a good deal of general information, both about
described in the most flattering terms) and abou
The party set out in November, 1890, and Sul
sent from El Obeid where they arrived early in
arrival the inhabitants were in a disturbed state because of the lack of law and order.
Mahmud Ahmad adcjressed the people and read the Khalifa's proclamation against
oppression and lawlessness. He then confirmed the local judges in office, putting
them on oath to maintain justice. The itinerant judges then started to hear claims of
oppression. These were very numerous and, since they seemed likely to provoke a
disturbance, the judges decided to refer them to the Khalifa and suspend the hearing
of them until his instructions arrived. Sulaiman reported that tranquillity had returned
and prices had fallen.
What further action followed, if any, does not appear. The governor and itinerant
judges continued their journey and arrived at the beginning of January, 1891, at En
Nahud. Here the business was largely political, and granting of terms to those who
wished to make their peace with the new governor. One again Mahmud Ahmad put
the local judge on oath to maintain justice.
In the last week of January the governor and his retinue reached El Fasher and
ten days later Sulaiman al-Hajjaz wrote a long report to the Khalifa. He described
the parades and interviews with army officers which Mahmud Ahmad held during
his first four days at his provincial capital. The fifth day was a Friday and after the
parade ùsually held on that day Mahmud met the judges of El Fasher, headed by a
certain Muhammad al-Amin. They took the usual oath to maintain justice. On the
following day Sulaiman received Mahmud's permission to sit as an assessor with the
local judges, in accordance with the Khalifa's instructions. Meanwhile the district
judges of Darfur were arriving in El Fasher and they too were invitedto sit as assessors.
By this means their competence was tested and then, with the governor's concurrence,
they were reappointed to their districts. Sulaiman informed the Khalifa that unsuitable judges would be replaced, appointments would be made to districts where judges
were required and in due course a complete list of the judicial establishment of Darfur
would be submitted to the Khalifa with a copy to the Mahkamat al-Islam in Omdurman.
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Archives of the Mahdia 77
Sulaiman also reported on certain cases
described in detail his procedure in one which
in face of the lawlessness of the armed force
the jihadiyah - the regular troops of slave or
Sulaiman drew up an official statement of the
Mahkamat al-Islam for the Khalifa's opinion,
return of post. Clearly he felt that he had not
a case in which the military were involved. I
of the jihadiyah and instructed them to main
to keep the law. What the Khalifa decided in
subsequent correspondence but it is significa
that Mahmud Ahmad put all the troops at
oath, says Sulaiman, has been kept notably
been a good example to the jihadiyah. Sulai
write to congratulate the officers.
Complaints from Kordofan continued t
September, 1891, Sulaiman reported that he a
few weeks later) had gone to El Obeid where th
local judges. For several months longer Sul
1892, he wrote to inform the Khalifa of the
Fasher to succeed Muhammad al-Amin. After consultation with Mahmud Ahmad
he had appointed a judge from Bara. A statement in this letter confirms that district
judges were appointed by order of the governor after a period of probation during
which they acted as assessors with Sulaiman and that the new appointments were
notified to the Khalifa and the Qadi al-Islam . Sulaiman reached the White Nile on
his return journey in the middle of May, 1892, after a tour of nearly eighteen months.
The contents of these archives will of course be of interest primarily to the
Sudanese themselves and upon Sudanese students must fall the greatest share in
exploring and utilizing the wealth of information that they contain. Yet it would be a
great pity if the knowledge of these papers were restricted to those who live or work
in the Sudan. They hold much of interest to historians and Orientalists abroad. In
the past thefe has been perhaps a tendency to regard the Mahdia too narrowly, as an
episode in Sudanese history unique in its nature, to be explained in summary terms of
religious fanaticism or incipient nationalism. Such a view does credit neither to the
complexity of the movement itself nor to the links which, as Dr. Shibeika has indicated,
existed between the Sudanese Mahdia and other movements of revolt in Islam. The
pattern of the Mahdia had medieval prototypes and bears a strong superficial resemblance to the early history of the Almohads in North-west Africa under the
Mahdi Muhammad ibn Tumart. In its own day the Sudanese Mahdia was one form
of the reaction against the decay of Islam which earlier in the 18th and 19th centuries
had produced the Wahhabi and Sanusi movements. To set the Sudanese Mahdia
against this background is of interest to historians of the Near East but it cannot
effectively be done until they are able to see the Mahdia from within, to study in
detail its ideology and to investigate the sources of its policy. In making this research
possible, the archives in Khartoum can play a part of outstanding importance.
Record of Discussion
Dr. Shebeika opened the discussion by asking whether the conventional picture
of the Khalifa had been much changed by the study of the archives.
Mr. Holt, emphasizing that he had made but a partial study, said that the Khalifa
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78 Sudan Notes and Records
emerged as a man of remarkable, even outsta
over the Sudan at a critical time, shortly after
complex and efficient administration. His we
stances of the time and especially his fear of
his attempt to control personally all sides of t
initiative among his subordinates. There wa
Mahmud Ahmad before the Battle of Atbara,
well as major issues. The Khalifa had a flair f
threat of Muhammad Khalid's advance on Om
by astute Machiavellian counter-plotting - bu
consistently sacrificed long-term policy to sho
the Ta'aishah from the west to gain immediat
the riverain tribes.
Asked what light the financial papers threw on the Mahdist economy, the speaker
stressed that, while trivial individually, the total effect of the papers was great. The
urgent need was for microfilming so that the data could be studied as a whole.
Mr. Krotki wondered whether original manuscript reports might not have
greater accuracy than more comprehensive modern reports.
Mr. Holt was not sure of the integrity of those who compiled the Mahdist statements : indeed a monthly balance sheet which he had brought along showed an obvious
fraud, and the sad history of the Commissioners for the Treasury, for whom disgrace
and execution was the all too common fate, reflected as much upon their honesty as
upon the political conditions of the time. However, the general picture of the economy
was true.
Replying to Mr. Jolliffe , Mr. Holt said that it was not certain that we had
documents which were taken to Cairo from Omdurman in 1898. As to a filing
during the Mahdia, letters from individual governors were apparently kept t
and there was a system of copying letters which stopped in A.H. 1306 (1889) af
great famine which seriously weakened the Mahdist àdministration.
Dr. Adawi asked how far the Mahdist rising went beyond a local movemen
was linked to the Islamic movements elsewhere in the Middle East.
Mr. Holt replied that he did not know : if such links were to be formed they
would be traced in the letters of the Mahdi. The best evidence was in the Arabic
life of Shaikh Muhammad 'Abduh.
Dr. Adawi asked how far the early rise of the Mahdi followed that of other
prophets.
Mr. Holt said that there was an attempt to reproduce the conditions of early
Islam, as in the appointment of Khalifas. Both the Mahdi, in letters to the Hejaz
and Morocco, and the Khalifa, by writing to various sovereigns, had tried to establish
contacts abroad but these were different matters to natural links with similar move-
ments.
Replying to Yousif Eff. F adi Hassan , Mr. Holt said we had few pre- 1885 letter
from the Mahdi. They had been highly prized by the recipients and were carr
about until they perished. However, copies existed in the letter-books of vari
officials. These surviving letters were mostly exhortations on religious affa
invitations to join the Mahdist movement, or warnings to opponents or waverers.
★
*
*
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Archives of the Mahdia 79
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80 Sudan Notes and Records
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