WEEK 1
Pre-Writing Strategies
The Writing Process
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Learning to write is a sequential process.
Output is important but with the goal of it in
mind, effective writing is considered quality
writing. (Dagdag, et.al., 2010)
There are two main characteristics that must
be present in writing a text: the content and
the form. It is said that “writing without form
is like a human body without skeleton; writing
without content is like a skeleton with no
flesh.” (Mt. Edgecumbe 2)
According to Dagdag (2010), there are six steps in the
writing process. These are the following
1. Pre-writing – this is also called the invention
or brainstorming stage. It is not easy coming
up with something to write. In this stage, you
narrow your topic into the most important
and relevant. Ask yourself these things before
getting to writing: “Why should you write
about this?” and “why should anyone read
it?” You may come up with as many ideas as
possible within a given time frame. Some
examples to take note in pre-writing are
listing, fast writing, spidering and mapping.
2. Organizing – this stage is vital in incorporating
coherence in the transition of your writing.
After exhausting all possible ideas related to a
topic, you may now focus in arranging these
ideas and thoughts into a sensible order.
3. Writing – with a form in place and the content
that would go with it, this is the stage where
these ideas would be expressed in complete
sentences and paragraphs.
4. Revising – this is the stage where you polish
the order of your ideas and filter the
information needed to get your point across.
This is where you start to look for any
mechanical errors and correct them.
5. Editing – the stage where you go over your
written work and check it for basic errors such
as spelling, punctuation and grammar.
6. Writing the final draft – after your work has
gone through revisions, you would now have
to write your final draft, which you are
ultimately content with.
These steps comprise the basic writing process.
Following each step would ensure quality written
output, regardless of your topic and content
Pre-Writing Strategies
Pre-writing is defined by Tiongson (2016) as the first
stage of writing that “pertains to different techniques
that help you discover ideas before writing the first
draft of a paper.”
Writing a paper on a single topic widens our
knowledge about a generally unknown or unfamiliar
concept, thus opening new ways of thinking about it.
Pre-writing opens the writing process and will help
you form an effective plan in writing and researching
about a topic.
Tiongson (2016) suggests that during this stage, you
must keep an open mind. This stage is for discoveries
and free writing, without the hold of criticism.
Unleash all the possible ideas that could come from a
topic.
In writing your paper, you must first identify what
kind of paper you are tasked to write. What is it for?
Who will benefit from it? What are the instructions
given in writing this paper? Analyzing the instructions
carefully would help in figuring out what your writing
is supposed to be.
You must determine the purpose of writing your
paper. Narrow down your choices into specific topics.
The reason why you’re writing the paper must be
clear to you so that you can also properly identify your
target audience. According to Tiongson (2016), your
purpose in writing may be answered by the following
questions:
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What do you want to accomplish?
Why are you sending this message?
With a purpose, ask yourself how you plan to achieve
this purpose. Would you need to support your
argument with evidences? Would you need to defend
your stand’s weaknesses?
After setting your mind on a way to achieve your
purpose, you must determine your target audience or
your readers. Think of your reader’s needs. Present
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your ideas clearly or in the manner in which your
readers would find easiest to understand.
How can the issue or problem be
resolved?
The Journalists’ Questions
Using Pre-Writing Strategies
In journalism, the most important questions to
answer are the 5Ws and 1H: the who, what, when,
where, why, and how. These basic questions can start
the exploration of your topic.
It is hard to find a topic worth writing about. The
following pre-writing strategies would help you in
finding one. Tiongson (2016) added that in choosing a
topic, you must select one that interests you or one
that you are familiar with for you to have the
motivation to start and elaborate on it.
The KU Writing Center (2011) gave the following
generic questions to these six basic questions
1. Who?
 Who are the participants?
 Who is affected? Who are the primary
actors?
 Who are the secondary actors?
2. What?
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What is the topic?
What is the significance of the topic?
What is the basic problem?
What are the issues?
3. Where?
 Where does the activity take place?
 Where does the problem or issue
have its source?
 At what place is the cause or effect of
the problem most visible?
4. When?
 When is the issue most apparent?
(past? Present? Future?)
 When did the issue or problem
develop? What historical forces
helped shape the problem or issue
and what point in time will the
problem or issue culminate in a crisis?
 When is action needed to address the
issue or problem?
Brainstorming
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Clustering
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5. Why? –
 Why did the issue or problem arise?
 Why is it an issue or problem at all?
 Why did the issue or problem develop
in the way that it did?
6. How? –
 How is the issue or problem
significant?
 How can it be addressed?
 How does it affect the participants?
is also called listing. This is one of the most
common methods of discovering a topic.
All you would need is to list or jot down as
much ideas as you can within a given amount
of time. It is suggested to start from general
ideas and from there, write down all the
possibilities.
Tiongson (2016) explained that brainstorming
does not aim for a coherent line of thoughts
but a quantity of options to choose from as
your writing topic.
After listing all of them down, make sure to
pick the one that best suits your purpose or
reason for writing. It may also be the most
interesting out of the group or simply the one
you are most knowledgeable. The selection of
topics may be broad but you may also find
unlikely connections between each to create
another possible topic.
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is also called mind mapping or idea mapping.
This is a technique in finding a writing topic
wherein you find the relationships between
ideas.
To start this method, you must first put a
subject forth and enclose it in a circle or
underline it for emphasis.
With that subject, think of other ideas that
would link to the single subject and connect
them using lines. These new ideas would also
make you think of other related topics and
you must also do the same to link them.
These new ideas borne from a main idea are
called subtopics.
Clustering would show the relationship
between ideas and how a variety of ideas
could fit together.
Once you have expanded on a single subject,
forming a web of ideas, you would have
learned the development or dissection of
topics.
Freewriting
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the most unrestrained method in finding a
suitable topic. According to KU Writing
Center, this is the process of pouring out all
your thoughts nonstop in an exact order,
language and form as you think them.
You can only focus on a specific topic but you
cannot edit all of these ideas. In this method,
you have to force yourself to keep on writing
with a single focus as its purpose is to
generate as many ideas as you can without
minding about technical errors such as in
grammar and spelling.
After freewriting, you get to highlight the
most outstanding and interesting ideas.
Writing fast through freewriting will make you
come up with spontaneous ideas. Journal
writing may help in enhancing your skills in
freewriting.
WEEK 2
Selecting and Organizing
Information
Outlining
One basic skill to learn in writing compositions is
outlining. According to Dagdag (2010), “outlining is a
reading skill used in taking down notes from a reading
material.” It enhances your written work by arranging
your gathered information into a coherent order. A
smooth transition between your words, sentences
and paragraphs will contribute to an effective writing
output.
Moreover, outline also gives the basic overview of
your whole written work. This technique is used for
you to keep in track of what you’re writing. Through
outlining, you can make your actual writing activity
easier and bearable to achieve, as the structured
outline can guide you along
According to Tiongson (2016), some writers prefer to
write their outlines in the middle of their writing for
them to record what they have already done and
where these ideas could go from the present point. All
in all, the time in which you write your outline
depends on your style of writing. The most important
thing to note is how you could make use of your
outline during the course of your writing.
Tiongson (2016) gave the following suggestions in
creating your own outline:
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First, identify the purpose of your paper, your
target audience, your objectives, the
perspective in which you will write the paper
and the tone of delivery.
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Always remember to create a thesis
statement that will suggest what your paper
will contain.
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Filter your gathered information into what is
needed, what is not, what should be added
and what should be removed.
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Group similar ideas together. Name the
groups according to its significance and
contribution to the main topic. It’s also the
time to arrange them into general topics and
specific topics.
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The main topics must be labeled using Roman
Numerals. This will serve as the first level of
your outline. Take note of logical sequence in
arranging each.
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The second level comprises of the subtopics
within each main topic. Label them using
uppercase/capital letters.
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The third level, on the other hand, may vary in
content. These are the supporting ideas to
your subtopics. Ensure that they are indicated
right below the appropriate subtopic where it
belongs and labeled using Arabic numbers.
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Particular details that must be included as
evidence to the supporting ideas such as
secondary information, graphs, quotes and
others, must be classified under the
supporting ideas they belong with. This will be
the outline’s fourth level and labeled using
lowercase letters.
The following are the three kinds of outline (Dagdag,
2010):
Topic outline
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The topic outline lists topics in words, phrases
or fragments. It is important to take note of
the form of the heading as you need to ensure
that each are parallel with one another. For
example, if the primary topic is a noun, the
rest of the topics must be nouns.
Sentence outline
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The sentence outline, from the term itself, is a
type of outline wherein each topic and
subtopic are presented in complete
sentences.
Paragraph outline
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A type of sentence outline in which instead of
a specified main topic, each heading and
subtopic contains a brief summary of what
the content of that particular part will be.
Writing a Good Outline
Outlining is commonly done before any actual writing
is done. This is a way of sorting your ideas into what
are the general ones and the specific. This will let you
know what topics need further proof, further
explanation, and which could be expanded.
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Unreliable or unsupported evidence must be
removed from the outline. If there is another
solid evidence that may be proven credible, it
may be added, if necessary.
Review all of the main ideas, subtopics,
supporting ideas and how they contribute to
the formation of your paper and if would
fulfill the purpose of your paper. Check if the
levels are parallel with each other and
coherently or logically arranged.
Writing an outline may vary for each writer but the
following characteristics are vital for your outline to
be considered as good or viable for use (Dagdag,
2010):
Logical subordination
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The subtopic must be related to the main
topic but it should not exceed or be equal to
the main topic in terms of importance.
gathered would fall apart. After constructing an
outline and writing your first draft, it is time to get on
to paragraph writing.
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that leads
to a single topic or idea.
An effective paragraph is characterized by unity,
coherence and emphasis (Dagdag, 2010).
Unity
An effective paragraph shows the unity of the
sentences used in developing the main idea. A
paragraph is made up of the topic sentence which
contains the main idea, the supporting details and the
conclusion or the clinching sentence at the end.
Parts of a paragraph
Topic sentence
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Parallel structure
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Each level must be of the same grammatical
structure. For example, in topic outlines, if
the first main topic is in the noun phrase
form, the subsequent main topics must be
noun phrases, as well. For sentence outlines,
shifts in voice (from passive to active and vice
versa) or form (from statements to questions
and vice versa) must be avoided.
Supporting details
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Mechanics
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Always make sure that you use proper
capitalization and punctuations. Remember
that in constructing a topic outline, there is
no punctuation at the end of it.
I. First Level – Main idea 1
A. Second Level – Subtopic 1
B. Second Level – Subtopic 2
1. Third Level – Supporting idea
a. Fourth level – particular details
II. First Level – Main Idea 2
Developing effective paragraphs
One of the most important elements in writing is the
form or structure. It is worth noting that without a
solid structure in place, the content you have
gives the paragraph life as it elaborates on
the scope given by the topic sentence. The
paragraph development or the method in
writing the supporting details of your
paragraph will be further discussed in the
next few lessons.
Clinching sentence
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Sample Outline
reveals the main or central idea of the
paragraph. It does not necessarily have to be
placed at the beginning of the paragraph. It
may be found in the middle of the first and
the last sentence or at the end. If it is found
at the end of the paragraph, it may be used
as a clinching or concluding sentence.
closes your paragraph. According to Dagdag
(2010), this “may be a restatement of the
topic sentence, a summary, or a conclusion
based on the supporting details.” Connecting
the topic sentence and supporting details
alone will not make a united paragraph.
These parts must also coincide with the
closing sentence which will determine the
reader’s understanding of the paragraph.
Coherence
A well-written paragraph has continuity. The
transition of one word to another, and a sentence to
another must make sense for the reader to follow
your thoughts. The ideas must stick together.
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A sequential flow of ideas is needed to keep the
reader’s interest. Ideas mistakenly linked together will
lead to confusion.
Coherence may be achieved through two methods:
following a definite order of ideas or through the use
of structural devices. These are the following:
Orderly Movement
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Chronological Order – an orderly arrangement
of ideas which is according to what came first.
This may be from past to present, earliest to
latest, and so on. This type of order is often
used in narratives, process description and
historical accounts.
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Space Order – is where ideas are arranged from
the nearest to farthest, inside to outside, left to
right, and other orders relating to space.
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Logical Order – there are two types of logical
order in which a writer may use to expand his
ideas, without using neither chronology or
space.
a. Deduction order – arranges the
supporting details from the general idea
to the specific. (Topic sentence to
supporting details)
b. Induction order – on the other hand,
starts from the specific idea/s before
expanding to the general one.
(Supporting details to the topic sentence)
Repetition of key words
 Repetition emphasizes the importance of the
main idea. To achieve coherence, the writer
puts the idea and its synonyms several times
on his/her paragraphs. These words will
eventually form an interconnected web of
related ideas.
Use of transitional expressions or devices.
Considered as vital for essays and
compositions, transitional devices are used to
relate one sentence to another, forming a
logical organization of thoughts.
SmartWord.org gave the following guide in using
transitional words and phrases:
To express agreement, to add ideas and to express
similarity:
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Structural Devices
Continuity of paragraphs may be achieved through
the following strategies:
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Clear use of a pronoun referring to a key noun in the
first sentence
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The use of a pronoun must have a clear
antecedent. The pronouns used must clearly
represent or refer to a subject. Pronouns may
be classified into three: personal (I, me, you,
she, her, he, him), demonstrative (this, that,
these, those) and relative (who, whose,
whom, which, that). (Dagdag, 2010)
How does clear referencing of pronouns help
in ensuring continuity and coherence in the
paragraph? It lets the reader follow the
things, people, and events referred to in each
sentence.
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in the first place
not only ... but
also
as a matter of
fact
in like manner
in addition
coupled with
in the same
fashion / way
first, second,
third
in the light of
not to mention
to say nothing of
equally
important
by the same
token
again
to
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and
also
then
equally
identically
uniquely
like
as
too
moreover
as well as
together with
of course
likewise
comparatively
correspondingly
similarly
furthermore
additionally
To indicate opposition, limitation and contradiction
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although this
may be true
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(and) yet
while
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in contrast
different from
of course ..., but
on the other
hand
on the contrary
at the same
time
in spite of
even so /
though
be that as it may
then again
above all
in reality
after all
but
(and) still
unlike
or
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albeit
besides
as much as
even though
although
instead
whereas
despite
conversely
otherwise
however
rather
nevertheless
nonetheless
regardless
notwithstanding
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in the event that
granted (that)
as / so long as
on (the)
condition (that)
for the purpose
of
with this
intention
with this in mind
in the hope that
to the end that
for fear that
in order to
seeing / being
that
only / even if
so that
so as to
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in view of
If
... then
unless
when
whenever
while
because of
as
since
while
lest
in case
provided that
given that
owing to
inasmuch as
due to
words
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in this case
for this reason
to put it another
way
that is to say
with attention
to
by all means
important to
realize
another key
point
first thing to
remember
most compelling
evidence
must be
remembered
point often
overlooked
to point out
on the positive
side
on the negative
side
with this in mind
notably
including
like
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indeed
certainly
surely
markedly
such as
especially
explicitly
specifically
expressly
surprisingly
frequently
significantly
particularly
in fact
in general
in particular
in detail
for example
for instance
to demonstrate
to emphasize
to repeat
to clarify
to explain
to enumerate
To display the effect, consequence or result
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as a result
under those
circumstances
in that case
for this reason
in effect
for
thus
because the
then
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hence
consequently
therefore
thereupon
forthwith
accordingly
henceforth
To state the conclusion, summary, or restatement
To give examples, support, or emphasis in other
to put it
differently
for one thing
as an illustration
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To present or state cause, condition, or
purpose
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to be sure
namely
chiefly
truly
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as can be seen
generally
speaking
in the final
analysis
all things
considered
as shown above
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in summary
in conclusion
in short
in brief
in essence
to summarize
on balance
altogether
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in the long run
given these
points
as has been
noted
in a word
for the most
part
after all
in fact
all in all
Obviously
Ultimately
Definitely
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overall
ordinarily
usually
by and large
to sum up
on the whole
in any event
in either case
To express time, chronology, sequence
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at the present
time
from time to
time
sooner or later
at the same
time
up to the
present time
to begin with
in due time
as soon as
as long as
in the meantime
in a moment
without delay
in the first place
all of a sudden
at this instant
straightaway
by the time
whenever
until now
now that
instantly
presently
occasionally
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first, second
immediately
quickly
finally
after
later
last
until
till
since
then
before
hence
since
when
once
about
next
now
formerly
suddenly
shortly
henceforth
whenever
eventually
meanwhile
further
during
in time
prior to
forthwith
To indicate space, location and place
 in the middle
 over
 to the left/right
 near
 in front of
 above
 on this side
 below
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in the distance
here and there
in the
foreground
in the
background
in the center of
adjacent to
opposite to
here
there
next
where
from
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down
up
under
further
beyond
nearby
wherever
around
between
before
alongside
amid
among
beneath
beside
behind
across
WEEK 4
Paragraph Development:
Narration, Description and
Definition
Narration
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from the root word narrate, originated from
the Latin word narrare— which means related
or told. It gives a written account of an event
or story, or simply, storytelling. The sequence
of events is told in chronological order. It
usually contains the following: the who, what
and when. A narrative must have “vivid
description of details, a consistent point of
view and verb tense, and a well-defined point
or significance.” (Tiongson, 2016) At the end
of writing it, it must send a clear message to
its readers through the story.
This type of paragraph development requires the
following elements:
1. The character is vital in a story as they are the
ones primarily involved in it. The characters
may be divided into the protagonists (who
serve as the main character/s) and
antagonists (who initiates conflict for the
protagonists in a story).
2. The setting determines a clear picture of the
place where the story takes place. It may be a
significant part of the story or it may set the
mood.
3. The plot gives life to the characters and gives
sense to the setting. The events that will
happen in the story contribute to the plot.
4.
Point-of-view refers to the perspective in
which the narrative was written. There are
three main types of point-of-view:
a) First person POV– where the writer
tells the story from his/her own
perspective
b) Second person POV – the writer tells
the story in his own words from an
observer’s point of view.
c) Third person POV – the writer
objectively tells the story or events that
happened to another individual.
Narrative Devices
Figures of speech are often used as techniques in
building a narrative writer’s style. This often creates
variety and uniqueness in a composition. Some
notable figures of speech used in narratives are the
following:
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Personification
Metaphor or simile
Hyperbole
Flashback
 This is a narrative technique that “flashes
back” to an event in the not so distant past.
This contributes to the story as it adds
background, meaning and depth to the
current situation in the story.
Foreshadowing
 is the technique that the writer uses to
present hints to future events. Hints may be
inserted into dialogues and into the events
occurring in the story, suggesting the
possibilities and what is going to happen.
Backstory
 A story cannot be without a foundation.
Backstory gives the readers a view of the story
behind the story and how the characters and
the events came to be. This will give insight to
the characters’ personalities, upbringing, and
history, leading to a better understanding and
analysis of the story as a whole.
Dialogue
 The dialogue gives life to the characters. This
shows their spoken language and the manner
in which they speak it
One example of a narrative is the following
short story, Dead Stars by Paz Marquez Benitez:
Note: page 2- 16 (please read)
The terms commonly used in discussing
narratives are the following (Vaughn Gross
Center for Reading and Language):
1. Exposition – information about the setting,
character’s backstories, and other important
and related plot events.
2. Setting – where and when the story took
place
3. Characters – the individuals involved in the
story
4. Conflict – the problem that the characters are
facing
5. Internal conflict – a character’s struggle with
himself/herself
6. External conflict – a character’s struggle with
other character/s
7. Rising action – the sequence of events leading
up to the climax
8. Climax – the most interesting and the highest
point in the story where the conflict is
addressed.
9. Falling action – consequences or events
caused by the climax
10. Resolution – the outcome of the characters’
actions.
Description
Descriptive writing emphasizes a reader’s ability to
paint vivid pictures using words on a reader’s mind.
This relies on the writer’s ability to appeal to his/her
five senses: the sight, smell, touch, taste, and hear.
To rouse feelings, emotions and reactions from the
readers is what descriptive paragraphs aim for. Simple
adjectives will not simply cut it for readers desiring for
appropriate description of an event, thing, place or
person.
One example of a descriptive paragraph is below:
Snap Shot (Anfinson, 2005)
Back in 1999 this fearless athlete posed in this football
picture. In the far distance below the cloudless sky
stands an off-white stadium. Embedded in the center
is large, cracked, blue, painted, letters that spell out
BISON. Beneath the old stadium are rows of worn-out
bleachers which are completely empty. Up in front
stands the competitor down on one knee. As you
observe more, the sport player is wearing a blue Bison
jersey sporting the number 60. To the left above the
freshly trimmed green grass that engulfs this player’s
figure lays a football. In the center of the picture, you
see her pale white face and dark brown eyes. Around
these features you can not help but notice the bronzed
hair; which appears to be pulled back around this
slender face. Her stern look shows how proud she is;
nonetheless, all the confidence she carries on her
padded up shoulders. This unique woman is not only
elegant and brave; she is my sister, Margaret Eva
Hoyt.
Definition
A paragraph may seek to define but it does not
necessarily have to follow the dictionary definition of
a word. There are many ways and strategies used by
writers to define a term. These strategies are the
following
1. Denotation - the formal definition of a term,
usually from the dictionary or a source.
2. Connotation - on the other hand, does not
follow the dictionary definition of a word, but
instead, relies on the author’s perspective and
experiences in shedding light on the term.
According to Dagdag (2010), there are two types of
description: objective and subjective
3. Comparison – this strategy associates the
term at hand with indirectly related words
through analogy or figurative language.
Objective description is a factual description of the
topic at hand. This relies its information on physical
aspects and appeals to those who crave for facts.
4. Contrast – another technique in defining that
makes the reader understand the difference
between two similar/related terms.
Meanwhile, subjective description allows the writer to
explore ways to describe an emotion, an event, a
thing, a place or person, appealing to emotions.
Often, this is an artistic way of describing things,
mostly from the eye and perspective of the writer.
5. Etymology – shows the evolution of the word
and how it was formed. Dictionaries often
include this for the user’s context of a word.
6. Intensive definition – “includes the term to
be defined, the class to which the term
belongs, and the characteristic/s that make it
different from other members in the same
class or species.” (Dagdag, 2010)
7. Extensive definition – by its root word, this
extends the definition formed in the intensive
sentence into a paragraph using other
techniques in paragraph development such as
description, comparison and contrast, cause
and effect and others.
WEEK 5
Classification, Comparison and
Contrast, Cause and Effect
Exemplification/Classification
Classification paragraphs group items into categories,
to establish a clear distinction.
If the topic encompasses a large body of information,
one effective way of elaborating it is through
classifying things of distinct features into
groups/classes. This will help in better management of
information and a logical arrangement of the
subtopics related to the main one. Classification
groups items into categories to establish a clear
distinction between related or similar ideas. Similar
items are grouped into categories for the readers to
better understand and analyze the material at hand.
In developing classification paragraphs, the following
guidelines are worth noting:

 Finding the basis for classification.
Classifying things may not always be necessary in
developing paragraphs. Finding the basis for
putting items into categories must be made clear
before it is done. The divided items must
contribute to the overall idea of the paragraph.
 Making distinct categories.
The ideas you have gathered may be directly or
indirectly related as your piece constantly
revolves around one general main idea. However,
in classifying specific items into categories, there
must be variation, or a clear line separating each
group so the readers may know the importance of
grouping these items into such classes.

Making sure the classification has a useful
purpose.
Once you have created distinct categories for the
items in your paragraph, make sure that this
classification will serve an important purpose in
fulfilling your goal at the end of the written work.
The classification must contribute to the discovery
of the main idea. It must further exemplify the
writer’s topic of interest, simultaneously hooking
the readers into it, as well.
In developing classification paragraphs, Tiongson
(2016) noted of three main principles:
consistency, exclusiveness, and completeness.
1. Consistency – logical transition of one
sentence or paragraph to another is
significant in keeping the attention and
achieving understanding of your written work.
Writing classification paragraphs must possess
consistency wherein there are parallel
similarities among divisions made in the
paragraph. This will help the reader further
analyze why the divisions were made and
what purpose it serves in the exploration of
the main topic.
2. Exclusiveness – the intent of dividing items
into groups is to mark distinctions among
each. Exclusivity states that there must be no
overlapping or repetition of classes or groups
for the specific items identified in the
paragraph/s. They must belong to one class
only, in order to avoid confusion.
3.
Completeness – there are definitely times
when one must omit irrelevant details but
classification paragraphs require the writer to
include intrically related or connected classes
or groups to the paragraph, if only to
complete the image of the main idea.
Some of the most useful key words in identifying and
writing classification paragraphs are the following:
 is a kind of
 can be divided into
 is a type of
 falls under
 belongs to
 is a part of
 fits into
 is grouped with
 is related to
 is associated with
Dagdag (2010) also gave the following signal words to
use in writing classification paragraphs:







basis or bases
characteristics
criterion or criteria
classify or subclassify
divide into or subdivide
classes or subclasses
suborder







features
two of the…
a number of…
category or subcategory
categorize or subcategorize
groups or subgroups
main type
Read the following example of a classification
paragraph:
(page 3)
Comparison and Contrast
Comparison and contrast, from what it’s called,
elaborates on the similarities and differences between
two ideas. This is often done in an attempt to weigh
decisions between two ideas or subjects. It aims at
having the reader support a particular argument or
stand presented. According to Tiongson (2016),
thismay also be used for plain entertainment of the
reader: to let them discover the unlikely similarities
between two completely different things or to identify
the striking differences between two related or
almost similar subjects.
One technique in writing this type of paragraph
development is analogy.Analogy, according to Dagdag
(2010), “is a special kind of comparison because it
compares items that are usually considered quite
different in most aspects.” While comparison and
contrast paragraphs dwell on slightlyconnected topics,
analogy compares two subjects that are normally
considered unrelated.
Another technique in writing comparison and contrast
paragraphs is the use of figurative language.

Simile is defined as “a figure of speech involving
thecomparison of one thing with another thing
of a different kind and used to make a
description more empathic or vivid.”
This uses the signal words, like or as-as.
Example: Your smile is as bright as the sun.
He was just like his father, then.

Metaphor, on the other hand, is defined by
the dictionary as “a figure of speech in which
a word or phrase is applied to an object or
action which it is not entirely applicable.”
While metaphor gives a straightforward
comparison between two subjects, simile
does it indirectly.
Example: Time is gold.
Some of the signal words used in this type of
paragraph development are the following:













likewise
both ____ and
so
as – as
whereas
in contrast
on the contrary
on the other hand
instead
to differentiate
however
but
yet
Read the following sample comparison and contrast
paragraph for further analysis:
(page 5)
Cause and Effect

paragraphs are written for the following
purposes:
-
to discuss why a certain phenomenon
occurs
to discuss the results of a phenomenon,
event, feeling or action
to understand a situation
to solve a problem
to predict an outcome
to entertain
to persuade
This type of paragraph development technique
requires unity in its paragraphs. To achieve this
characteristic, the writer is urged to identify which
side to focus on: the cause or the effect. Having this
point, the writer will be able to create the succeeding
sentences and details with this in mind. The link
between the causes and effects will serve as the
controlling idea of the essay.
A coherent arrangement of ideas will also help in
establishing ease in comprehension of the readers.
There should be a limitation on the number of causes
and effects highlighted. Set logical boundaries to your
scope. You must also decide if causes/effects can or
has influence on each other or if there are individual
causes/effects.
Some of the signal words used in this type of
paragraph are the following:
- For
- Because
- Since
- Due to
- So
- But
- For this reason
- As a result
- Consequently
- Otherwise
- Therefore
- Thu
Read the following example of a cause and effect
paragraph
(PAGE 6)
WEEK 6
Problem-Solution and Persuasion
Problem-Solution
 paragraphs as the term implies, presents and
identifies a problem and proposes possible
solution/s. In composing this type of essay,
you must present an argument or stand and
support it with reliable evidence in order to
persuade the readers to make a particular
move or action (Kemper et.al, 2016).

According to Soles (2010), topics for problemsolution essays “are typically framed in the
form of questions.” Problem-solution essay
can provide answers to 5W and 1H (who,
what, when, where, why, and how) questions.
Soles (2010) added that this type of essay has
essentially two parts: “a full explanation of
the nature of the problem, followed by an
analysis of solutions and their likelihood of
success.”
Structure of paragraphs in a problem-solution essay
Nordquist (1995) suggested the following structure of
a problem-solution paper that may serve as a guide
on what to include in this type of essay:
1. Introduction. At the forefront of the essay,
the introduction must serve to capture the
reader’s attention. This may contain the thesis
statement wherein the problem or topic at
hand is presented. This is where the problem
is defined, and the reason why it is significant
to a specific group of people (or the target
audience).
2. Problem Paragraph. This paragraph/s will
dwell on the elaboration of the problem,
effectively conveying the importance of a
solution. You may present reliable sources
and evidence to support your stand.
Read the following example of a problem-solution
paragraph.
Silk
Legends record that about 2640 BC a Chinese
Empress, Si-Ling-Chi watched the little silk worms spin
cocoons in the mulberry trees. She unwound one of
the threads from a cocoon. It was one very long
strand of shiny thread. Silk has the longest strand of
any natural plant or animal fibre. The challenge was to
develop some kind of winding devise so that the silk
thread could be made into cloth. No one knows for
sure when the Chinese first developed silk winding
machines. However, there is mention of such devices
in Chinese dictionaries in the 2nd century AD. Actual
spinning wheels, however, came much later, perhaps
the 11th century AD. Even today, China is the world’s
leading producer of quality silk cloth.
Persuasion
 Much like problem-solution essays,
persuasion essays seek to urge readers to take
a particular action (Forlini, et.al, 1990). The
main goal of persuasive essays is to convince
the reader to agree to the writer’s opinion or
at the very least, take it into serious
consideration.

According to Forlini (1990), “the purpose of
persuasive writing is to obtain the reader’s
agreement on a matter of opinion.”

The statements given in persuasive essays are
heavy on opinion while based on facts. The
opinions of the writer must be (a)
controversial enough or something that would
inspire conversation and debate, (b)
significant and interesting, and (c) supported
by evidence. (Forlini, 1990)

Tone is crucial in writing persuasive essays.
Reasonable and fair language would win over
readers while strong and negative words may
cause the writer’s work to lose credibility.

Supporting details weigh the most in
persuasive essays as these will serve as
reasons for readers to support your stand or
argument. These supporting details are
founded by facts and thoroughly explained for
the readers’ benefit.

It is also vital that in order to prove your
stand, you must thoroughly research about
the issue you are about to discuss.
3. Solution Paragraph. Present and describe a
concrete solution to the problem. Explain how
this solution is better than other probable
solutions.
4. Conclusion. Conclude the essay with
connection between the problem and its
proposed solution.


Make a list of your strongest arguments
composed of facts and data.

Introduce a new reason or fact with every
paragraph.

Some of the transitional expressions used in
persuasive paragraphs are the following
(PBWorks):

Give reasons
 First (second, third, etc.)
 Another, next
 Last, finally
 Because, since, for
 Although

Answer the opposition
 Of course




Some may say
Nevertheless
On the other hand
Draw conclusion
 Therefore
 Thus
 Hence
 Consequently
Reasons Why Marijuana Should Be Legal
People of the United States should push for the
legalization of marijuana. The first reason being the
amount of money that our government spends every
year on the “war on drugs”. The government’s money
could be spent in so many other ways. The second
reason it should be legalized is to limit the amount of
people that get put in jails for marijuana, when there
are far worse people out there that need to be put in
jail. Marijuana arrests in the United States doubled
between 1991 and 1995. In 1995, more than one-halfmillion people were arrested for marijuana offenses.
Eighty-six percent of them were arrested for
marijuana possession. Tens of thousands of people
are now in prison or marijuana offenses. An even
greater number are punished with probation, fines,
and civil sanctions, including having their property
seized, their driver's license revoked, and their
employment terminated. Despite these civil and
criminal sanctions, marijuana continues to be readily
available and widely used. (Fact Sheet) A third reason
is that marijuana is not as harmful as alcohol, which
causes 50% of all traffic accidents a year. In 1972,
after reviewing the scientific evidence, the National
Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse concluded
that while marijuana was not entirely safe, its dangers
had been grossly overstated. Since then, researchers
have conducted thousands of studies of humans,
animals, and cell cultures. None reveal any findings
dramatically different from those described by the
National Commission in 1972. In 1995, based on thirty
years of scientific research editors of the British
medical journal Lancet concluded that "the smoking
of cannabis, even long term, is not harmful to health."
(Fact Sheet) And yet another reason why marijuana
should be legal is because is helps all sorts of people
with medical problems. Marijuana has been shown to
be effective in reducing the nausea induced by cancer
chemotherapy, stimulating appetite in AIDS patients,
and reducing intraocular pressure in people with
glaucoma. There is also appreciable evidence that
marijuana reduces muscle spasticity in patients with
neurological disorders. A synthetic capsule is available
by prescription, but it is not as effective as smoked
marijuana for many patients. Pure THC may also
produce more unpleasant psychoactive side effects
than smoked marijuana. Many people use marijuana
as a medicine today, despite its illegality. In doing so,
they risk arrest and imprisonment. (Fact Sheet) With
all of these great things that can be done with
marijuana, why keep it away from those who could
use it? (Johnson, 2005)
WEEK 7
Properties of a Well-Written Text
The topic sentence is placed at the beginning of the
paragraph that tells about the similarities and
differences that exist between oceans and lakes.
Oceans and lakes have much in common, but they
are also quite different.
Properties of a Well-Written Text

One of the most important elements in
writing is the form or structure. It is worth
noting that without a solid structure in place,
the content you have gathered would fall
apart. After constructing an outline and
writing your first draft, it is time to get on to
paragraph writing.

A paragraph is a group of related sentences
that leads to a single topic or idea.

An effective paragraph is characterized by
unity, coherence and emphasis (Dagdag,
2010).
Unity
 An effective paragraph shows the unity of the
sentences used in developing the main idea. A
paragraph is made up of the topic sentence
which contains the main idea, the supporting
details and the conclusion or the clinching
sentence at the end.
Parts of a paragraph
Topic sentence
 reveals the main or central idea of the
paragraph. It does not necessarily have to be
placed at the beginning of the paragraph. It
may be found in the middle of the first and
the last sentence or at the end. If it is found at
the end of the paragraph, it may be used as a
clinching or concluding sentence.
Take the paragraph below as an example
Oceans and lakes have much in common, but they are
also quite different. Both are bodies of water, but
oceans are very large bodies of salt water, while lakes
are much smaller bodies of fresh water. Lakes are
usually surrounded by land, while oceans are what
surround continents. Both have plants and animals
living in them. The ocean is home to the largest
animals on the planet, whereas lakes support much
smaller forms of life. When it is time for a vacation,
both will make a great place to visit and enjoy
This limits the idea that can be written in a paragraph.
Since the paragraph opens with the insinuation that
oceans and lakes have lots of similarities and
differences, the scope of the paragraph cannot go
beyond this. This scope gives you an idea when to
stop writing about a certain topic. In this case, you
cannot elaborate on other bodies of water such as
rivers and seas.
The controlling idea refers to the word/s that limit/s
the discussion of the subject. (Dagdag, 2010)
Supporting details
 gives the paragraph life as it elaborates on the
scope given by the topic sentence. The
paragraph development or the method in
writing the supporting details of your
paragraph will be further discussed in the next
few lessons.
Consider the sample paragraph below:
People often install a kitty door, only to discover that
they have a problem. The problem is their cat will not
use the kitty door. There are several common reasons
why cats won’t use kitty doors. First, they may not
understand how a kitty door works. They may not
understand that it is a little doorway just for them.
Second, many kitty doors are dark and cats cannot see
to the other side. As such, they can’t be sure of what
is on the other side of the door, so they won’t take
the risk. One last reason cats won’t use kitty doors is
because some cats don’t like the feeling of pushing
through and then having the door drag across their
back. But don’t worry—there are solutions to this
problem.
The first step in solving the problem is to prop the
door open with tape. This means your cat will now be
able to see through to the other side; your cat will
likely begin using the kitty door immediately. Once
your cat has gotten used to using the kitty door,
remove the tape. Sometimes cats will continue to use
the kitty door without any more prompting. If this
does not happen, you will want to use food to bribe
your cat. When it’s feeding time, sit on the opposite
side of the door from your cat and either click the top
of the can or crinkle the cat food bag. Open the door
to show your cat that it is both you and the food
waiting on the other side of the door. Repeat this a
couple times, and then feed your cat. After a couple
days of this, your kitty door problem will be gone.
The paragraph above tells the probable solutions to
make pet cats use a kitty door. The steps given by
the author supports the main idea which is the
problems related to kitty doors.
Clinching sentence
 closes your paragraph. According to Dagdag
(2010), this “may be a restatement of the
topic sentence, a summary, or a conclusion
based on the supporting details.” Connecting
the topic sentence and supporting details
alone will not make a united paragraph. These
parts must also coincide with the closing
sentence which will determine the reader’s
understanding of the paragraph.
type of order is often used in narratives,
process description and historical accounts.

Space Order – is where ideas are arranged
from the nearest to farthest, inside to outside,
left to right, and other orders relating to
space.

Logical Order – there are two types of logical
order in which a writer may use to expand his
ideas, without using neither chronology or
space.
a. Deduction order – arranges the
supporting details from the general idea
to the specific. (Topic sentence to
supporting details)
b. Induction order – on the other hand,
starts from the specific idea/s before
expanding to the general one.
(Supporting details to the topic sentence)
In the given paragraph below, try to spot the clinching
sentence:
Why are some parts of the world rich while other
parts are poor? It isn’t brains. No place is dumber than
Hollywood, yet its residents are wading in gravy.
Meanwhile in Russia, where chess is a spectator sport,
the people are boiling stone for a soup. Natural
resources aren’t the secret either. Impoverished
Africa has gold, uranium and oil. Affluent Holland has
none of those, and half of her place is even under
water. Actually, we know the answer—and if people
would just open their eyes to it, the whole world
could be rich. All this would be possible because of a
simple lesson in history: free markets work.
Structural Devices

Continuity of paragraphs may be achieved
through the following strategies

Clear use of a pronoun referring to a key noun
in the first sentence

The use of a pronoun must have a clear
antecedent. The pronouns used must clearly
represent or refer to a subject. Pronouns may
be classified into three: personal (I, me, you,
she, her, he, him), demonstrative (this, that,
these, those) and relative (who, whose,
whom, which, that). (Dagdag, 2010)

How does clear referencing of pronouns help
in ensuring continuity and coherence in the
paragraph? It lets the reader follow the
things, people, and events referred to in each
sentence.
The clinching sentence at the end of the paragraph
states: All this would be possible because of a simple
lesson in history: free markets work. In this
paragraph, the clinching sentence is used to conclude.
Coherence
A well-written paragraph has continuity. The
transition of one word to another, and a sentence to
another must make sense for the reader to follow
your thoughts. The ideas must stick together.
A sequential flow of ideas is needed to keep the
reader’s interest. Ideas mistakenly linked together will
lead to confusion.
Coherence may be achieved through two methods:
following a definite order of ideas or through the use
of structural devices. These are the following:
Orderly Movement
 Chronological Order – an orderly
arrangement of ideas which is according to
what came first. This may be from past to
present, earliest to latest, and so on. This
Repetition of key words

Repetition emphasizes the importance of the
main idea. To achieve coherence, the writer
puts the idea and its synonyms several times
on his/her paragraphs. These words will
eventually form an interconnected web of
related ideas.
Use of transitional expressions or devices.

Considered as vital for essays and
compositions, transitional devices are used to
relate one sentence to another, forming a
logical organization of thoughts.
SmartWord.org gave the following guide in using
transitional words and phrases:
To express agreement, to add ideas and to express
similarity:













in the first place
not only ... but
also
as a matter of
fact
in like manner
in addition
coupled with
in the same
fashion / way
first, second,
third
in the light of
not to mention
to say nothing
of
equally
important
by the same
token





















equally
identically
uniquely
like
as
too
moreover
as well as
together with
of course
likewise
comparatively
correspondingly
similarly
furthermore
additionally
again
to
and
also
then
To indicate opposition, limitation and contradiction
 although this
 even though
may be true
 although
 in contrast
 instead
 different from
 whereas
 despite
 of course ..., but
 conversely
 on the other
hand
 otherwise
 on the contrary
 however
 at the same
 rather
time
 nevertheless
 in spite of
 nonetheless
 even so /
 regardless
though
 notwithstanding
 be that as it may
 (and) still
 then again
 unlike
 above all
 or
 in reality
 (and) yet
 after all
 while
 but
 as much as


albeit
besides
To present or state cause, condition, or purpose
 in the event that
 as
 granted (that)
 since
 as / so long as
 while
 on (the)
 lest
condition (that)
 in case
 for the purpose
 provided that
of
 given that
 with this
 only / even if
intention
 so that
 with this in mind
 so as to
 in the hope that
 owing to
 to the end that
 inasmuch as
 for fear that
 due to
 in order to
 seeing / being
 If
that
 ... then
 in view of
 unless
 when
 whenever
 while
 because of
To give examples, support, or emphasis
 in other words
 including
 to put it
 like
differently
 to be sure
 for one thing
 namely
 as an illustration
 chiefly
 in this case
 truly
 for this reason
 indeed
 to put it another
 certainly
way
 surely
 that is to say
 markedly
 with attention
 such as
to
 especially
 by all means
 explicitly
 important to
 specifically
realize
 expressly
 another key
 surprisingly
point
 frequently
 first thing to
 significantly
remember
 particularly
 most compelling
 in fact
evidence
 in general
 must be
 in particular
remembered
 in detail
 point often
 for example
overlooked
 for instance
 to point out
 to demonstrate


on the positive
side
on the negative
side







to emphasize
with this in mind
notably
to repeat
to clarify
to explain
to enumerate
To display the effect, consequence or result
 as a result
 forthwith
 under those
 accordingly
circumstances
 henceforth
 in that case
 because the
 for this reason
 then
 in effect
 hence
 for
 consequently
 thus
 therefore
 thereupon
To state the conclusion, summary, or restatement
 as can be seen
 to summarize
 generally
 on balance
speaking
 altogether
 in the final
 overall
analysis
 ordinarily
 all things
 usually
considered
 by and large
 as shown above
 to sum up
 in the long run
 on the whole
 given these
 in any event
points
 in either case
 as has been
 all in all
noted
 Obviously
 in a word
 Ultimately
 for the most
 Definitely
part
 after all
 in fact
 in summary
 in conclusion
 in short
 in brief
 in essence
To express time, chronology, sequence
 at the present
 since
time
 then
 from time to
 before
time
 hence
 sooner or later
 since
 at the same
 when
time
 once
 about





















up to the
present time
to begin with
in due time
as soon as
as long as
in the meantime
in a moment
without delay
in the first place
all of a sudden
at this instant
first, second
immediately
quickly
finally
after
later
last
until
till
presently
occasionally




















next
now
formerly
suddenly
shortly
henceforth
whenever
eventually
meanwhile
further
during
in time
prior to
forthwith
straightaway
by the time
whenever
until now
now that
instantly
To indicate space, location and place
 in the middle
 below
 to the left/right
 down
 in front of
 up
 on this side
 under
 in the distance
 further
 here and there
 beyond
 in the
 nearby
foreground
 wherever
 in the
 around
background
 between
 in the center of
 before
 adjacent to
 alongside
 opposite to
 amid
 here
 among
 there
 beneath
 next
 beside
 where
 behind
 from
 across
 over
 near
 above