Nkosiyenzile Dlamini 202102820 BSC.GISc GEP 311 Assignment 2 A value is a relatively enduring concept of the good, importance or worth of an object (Dunker,2008). Forest values are taken to mean the various ways in which forests are important to people (Duinker,2008). The common categories of forest values are; economic, environmental, ecological and social which represent the domains of forest values (Kappen at al., 2020). Forests regulate climate by absorbing carbon dioxide from the air and storing the resulting carbon in their biomass and release oxygen in the air (Kappen at al., 2020). Transpiration and evaporation of water stored in forests help regulate heat flows and aid in the formation of precipitation (Kappen at al., 2020). Forests provide an environmental value by offering a habitat that supports species and genetic variety of plants and animals. Forests also prevent or regulate natural disturbances providing protection from soil erosion, rock falls and high tides for example, in coastal areas, forests such as mangroves shelter local populations from tsunamis (Kappen at al., 2020). The economic value of forests stems from profits generated by their use in the production of wood products and fiber products such as pulp and paper (Kappen at al., 2020). Forests also provide non-wood products such as animal based products including mushrooms and honey. The social value of forests entails the idea that people reside in and live off forest resources by providing jobs and incomes to people who work in the forest industry (Kappen at al., 2020). Forests also provide intangible social value such as psychological and emotional benefits for example, peace and happiness (Dunker,2008). There is a substantial evidence that there is rapid and significant change in values held by forests. This change can be attributed to land use change (Kappen at al., 2020). Many governments provide financial incentives such as subsidies for converting forest land which encourages urbanization and agricultural colonization (Pearce,2001). Urbanization is leading to the destruction of significant amount of forests to pave way for new cities or the expansion of the existing ones (Kappen at al., 2020). The incentives arise because many ecological functions of forests are unmarkerted, generating the illusion that, because their price is zero, so is their economic value (Pearce,2001). As an example, there is absence of markets in carbon dioxide reduction and as a result, carbon dioxide stored in forests has a zero price hence conversion wins over conservation because conversion of the forest has a market such as urbanization. Responsible parties gain more money from converting land than leaving the area forested (Kappen at al., 2020). Another factor that influences changes in forest values is the rise of temperature. An increase in temperature and resulting decrease in precipitation leads to widespread deforestation in the tropics as forests in those areas die and essentially become desserts (Kappen at al., 2020). Rising temperatures may also have indirect effects on forest values such as reduction of water and air purification, and other environmental benefits without necessarily leading to complete deforestation. Higher temperatures may also induce other disturbances such as faster growth rate of pest populations putting more strain of forests (Kappen at al., 2020). Unsustainable logging is a result of the rise in demand for forest products which accounts for the decline in value provided by forests. Unsustainable logging involves the excessive harvesting of trees which leads to significant degradation (reduction in a forests’ ability to provides services such as air and water purification (Kappen at al., 2020). Logging negatively impacts biodiversity because when logging companies destroy trees, animal species lose shelter and food and with nowhere to go, they can become extinct (Murray, 2023). Abiotic disturbances are non- biological events such as extreme storms, cyclones, wild fires and landslides which damage forests accounting for forest value loss (Kappen at al., 2020). Each disturbance affects forests differently, some cause extensive tree mortality, whereas others affect community structure and organization with little mortality (Moore at al., 2011). They can reduce leaf function, tree structure and disrupt physical environment through soil erosion or nutrient loss (Moore at al., 2011). Sweden for example, recorded a forest area of 1.2 million hectares affected by abiotic factors including a major storm in January 2005 which caused severe wind throw affecting forest species such as middle aged and old spruce stands (Moore at al., 2011). Biotic Disturbances mainly insects, pathogens and wildlife herbivory can alter the forest structure and the capability of forests to deliver forest values such as absorbing carbon dioxide and storing it as carbon (Kautz at al., 2016). Outbreaks of herbivorous insects are considered the most destructive biotic disturbance affecting hectares of global forests for example, in the past two decades, reduced tree diversity and rising temperatures have fueled the expansion of pine and spruce outbreaks across Europe causing damage to the timber industry (Kappen at al., 2020). Depending on the severity of the attack, the physiological ability of a tree to function, maintain growth and respond to further stresses can be reduced substantially which may lead to tree mortality (Kautz at al., 2016). Duinker. P, (2008). Society’s Forest values [pdf] https://www.cbd.int/doc/external/academic/forest-es-2003-en.pdf Kappen. G, Kastner. E, Kurth. T, Puetz. J, Reinhardt. A, Soininen. J, (2020). The staggering value of forests – and how to save them. https://www.The%20Staggering%20Value%20of%20Forests%E2%80%94and%20How%20to% 20Save%20Them%20_%20BCG.html Meddens. A. J, Hall. R.J, Arneth. A, (2016). Biotic disturbances in Northern Hemisphere forests – a synthesis of recent data, uncertainties and implications for forest monitoring and modelling. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/geb.12558 Moore. B. A, Allard. G, (2011). Abiotic disturbances and their influence on forest health. [pdf] Murray. J. F, (2023). Forest logging- The good, bad, the ugly truth, and how to make a positive change.
