강의 내용이나 강의자료를 강연자의 동의 없이 캡
쳐, 녹화, 저장, 타인에 공유, 전송 및 공개하는 행
위는 엄격히 금지되어 있고 위반시 법적 처벌
을 받게 됩니다.
Agency Theory
1960년대 미시경제학 분야
대리인
계약
본인
경영학에의 적용
CEO와 주주, 본사와 대리점, 회사와 영업사원, 회사와 모든 직원 …
대리인 비용 (Agency Cost)
정보비대칭 + 합리적 인간관
본인과 자신의 이해가 충돌하는 경우, 자신의 이해를 우선적으로 추구하는 의사결정
본인에게 비용을 발생시킴
다양한 방식으로 발생 : 부적절한 합병, 부적절한 선발, 부적절한 비용 발생 등
대리인 통제 (Agency Control)
대리인의 “가치, 의지” ------------ “행동” ------------- “결과”
The best 통제
2nd best 통제
정리
◎ 대리인 통제로서의 성과급제 : 본인과 대리인의 경제적 interest를 합일시키는 방식
◎ 대리인적 인간관 : strong & 동질적, 외재적 동기
◎ 비판적 시각 : 비윤리적 전제, 통제기반한 관리
◎ 종신고용방식이 사라져가고 단기 계약이 증가하는 한국 고용시장에서 갖는 풍부한 함의
강의 내용이나 강의자료를 강연자의 동의 없이 캡
쳐, 녹화, 저장, 타인에 공유, 전송 및 공개하는 행
위는 엄격히 금지되어 있고 위반시 법적 처벌
을 받게 됩니다.
Signaling Theory
• Developed in information economics (Spence, 1973)
… captures the informational aspects of markets
• Information asymmetry
① can be reduced when the party with more information signals information to those without it (Morris, 1987)
②those who send signals induce receivers to make rational decisions in a way that benefits the interests of the signalers.
• Signaling theory has been widely applied in studies of marketing (Boulding & Kirmani, 1993; Erdem & Swait, 1998),
strategy (Bergh & Gibbons, 2011; Reuer & Ragozzino, 2012), HRM (Chang & Chin, 2018) and e-commerce (Wells,
Valacich and Hess (2011.)
Not all information is a signal !
• Inferences
① overnight mail delivery case by Boulding and Kirmani (1993)
(가)기업 = a high-quality seller(99 % deliveries on time)
vs. (나)기업 = a low-quality seller(63% deliveries on time)
→ the high-quality seller has an incentive to offer guaranteed delivery
whereas the low-quality seller chooses not to provide this guarantee.
→ the two companies follow separate strategies (separating equilibrium in markets
→ customers can infer unobservable qualities from the strategies of each company.
② A great deal of advertising conveys no direct information about product qualities
because consumers infer unobservable qualities about products from observable
advertisements (Kihlstrom & Riordan, 1984)
③ 주로 선발시 : Signaling also contributes to developing a company’s reputation by enhancing
understanding of its management and philosophy (e.g., Allen, Mahto, & Otondo, 2007).
Chang & Chin (2018) : 회사 홈페이지에서의 signaling on HRM => 우수 지원자들의 증가
• Costs
Customers’ belief that signaling accompanies COSTS
(예) direct investment in signaling
costs if the signal is proven false
정
리
◎ pre-purchase information scarcity + Inferences + Belief on costs 로 인한 효과
◎ 구직자의 경우도 마찬가지 …
입사 전 회사에 대한 information scarcity + 회사가 제공하는 정보에 의거한 good impression
+ 거짓일 경우 회사가 손해 => 구직 결정
◎ 회사와 구성원과의 관계에서도 마찬가지로 적용
21세기 구성원 관리에 많은 시사점을 제공함
Leadership
The ability to influence people and bring about change
toward a desirable future for the organization...
1
특성
행동
성과
환경, 상황요소
Trait Approach
Behavioral Approach
Contingent Approach
NEW FOCUS
2
Trait Approach
The earliest definitions of leadership were based on the belief that leaders were
born with certain personality traits.
Traits – Distinguishing personal characteristics
Physical Characteristics
Activity
Energy
Intelligence and Ability
Judgment, decisiveness
Knowledge
Fluency of Speech
3
Behavioral Theories
• A group of theories that suggest it is the behavior of the
leader that determines leadership effectiveness.
• Types of leader’s behaviors
People
vs
Tasks
4
Michigan Studies
•
Two types of leadership behaviors:
Employee centered vs Job centered.
•
Employee–Centered Leader
A leader who focuses on the human needs of followers
in order to build effective work groups and help them
meet high performance goals.
Job-Centered Leader
A leader who focuses on the technical and task aspects of
the job and directs followers’ activities toward efficiency,
cost cutting, and scheduling.
•
√
job
employee
5
Ohio State Studies
• Two types of leadership behaviors:
Consideration
vs
Initiating structure
• Consideration
A type of leader behavior that describes the extent to which a leader is
sensitive to subordinates, respects their ideas and feelings, and
establishes mutual trust.
• Initiating Structure
A leader behavior that describes the extent to which a leader is task
oriented and directs subordinates’ work toward goal achievement.
Initiating Structure
High
Low
Low
√
High
Consideration
6
Leadership Grid
7
LeadershIp
Fiedler Model, Path-Goal Theory, H&B Theory
1
Contingency Approaches
Contingency Theories: Leadership Style Depends on the Situation
Contingency Approaches
Leadership models that describes the relationship
between leader styles and specific organizational
situations.
2
Fiedler Model
♦ 3 Steps
(i)
identify leader style
LPC scales : A questionnaire designed to measure relationshiporiented versus task-oriented leadership style
according to the leader’s choice of adjectives for
describing the “least preferred coworker
(ii) define situational factors with,
Leader-member relationships : Refers to group atmosphere and
members’ attitude toward and acceptance of the leader.
Task structure : Refers to the extent to which tasks performed
by the group are defined, involve specific procedures,
and have clear, explicit goals.
Position power : Refers to the extent to which the leader has
formal authority over subordinates.
3
Fiedler Model
Correlation between
LPC Score and
Performance
(iii) match leader style & situations
High
Person-oriented leaders
perform better
0
Task-oriented
leaders perform
better
Low
Leader-Member Relations
Good
Good
Structured
Leader Position Power
Task Structure
Strong
Weak
Good
Good
Unstructured
Strong
Weak
Poor
Poor
Structured
Strong
Weak
Poor
Poor
Unstructured
Strong
Weak
Source: Fred F. Fielder (1972). “The effects of leadership training and experience: A
contingency model interpretation.” Administrative Science Quarterly 17: 455. Reprinted by
permission of Administrative Science Quarterly.
4
“What type of leader am I ?”
5
Path-Goal Theory
• A contingency approach specifying that the leader’s
responsibility is to increase followers’ motivation to
attain organizational goals by clarifying the behaviors
necessary for task accomplishment and rewards.
• Fourfold classification of leader behaviors.
– Supportive : behavior that shows concern for
subordinates’ well-being and personal needs.
– Directive : leader tells subordinates exactly what they are
supposed to do.
– Participative : leader consults with his or her subordinates
about decisions.
– Achievement-Oriented : leader sets clear and challenging
goals for subordinates.
• Effectiveness = f (environment, subordinates)
(i) ambiguous tasks & sub with less experience, external locus
of control => Directive
(ii) structured tasks => Supportive
(iii) internal locus of control => Participative
• flexibility of leaders (vs. Fiedler)
6
Path-Goal Theory
7
Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
8
Leadership
New Focuses :
LMX, Transformational, Super Leaderships
1
Leader Member Exchange (LMX) 이론
2
Charismatic Leadership
A leader who has the ability to inspire and motivate followers to
transcend their expected performance.
• Charismatic leaders have the ability to inspire and motivate people to do
more than they would normally do, despite obstacles and personal
sacrifice.
: They appeal to people’s hearts as well as minds.
: Transforms the organization by providing visions, setting high expectations,
and making employees committed
3
Transformational VS. Transactional Leadership
•
Transformational Leader : A leader who motivates followers to bring
about change by focusing on a vision, shared values, and ideas.
•
Transactional Leader : A leader who clarifies role and task requirements
and indicates how subordinates’ needs will be satisfied in exchange
for the accomplishment of established goals.
4
Superleadership
A leader who lead others to lead themselves.
•
Superleaders empower followers by acting as a teacher and coach
rather than as a dictator and autocrat.
: “leading by showing” and “learning by watching”
•
in management : linked to self-management
vs.
5
Visionary hero vs Super leader
Charismatic leader
visible leader
telling a Vision
“leading by commanding”
Top of the hierarchy
Super leader
invisible leader
Showing a Vision
“leading by showing” + “learning by
watching”
lowered position
external control
self- control of followers
high dependence on leaders
self-management of the organization
6
토론 주제
리더십 이론들 통합
1. 리더십 특성 이론과 행동 이론의 근본적인 차이점은 ?
2. 리더십 행동이론과 상황이론의 공통점과 차이점은 ?
3. 리더십 상황이론, LMX, 변혁적 지도자론, Super리더십 이론 등을 고려할 때
요즘 한국 상황에서 리더들이 가장 고려해야 하는 이론은 어떤 것이라고
생각하는지 논하시오
7
강의 내용이나 강의자료를 강연자의 동의 없이 캡
쳐, 녹화, 저장, 타인에 공유, 전송 및 공개하는 행
위는 엄격히 금지되어 있고 위반시 법적 처벌
을 받게 됩니다.
LeadershIp
Leader as a …
Strong man
Transactor
Visionary hero
Super-Leader
order,
authority,
direction &
punishment
rewards
& punishment
Vision,
inspiration,
& persuasion
Leading others
To lead
themselves
Just follow
leaders
Follow in
calculation
Emotional
commitment
selfTransformation
2
Relationship-Oriented Behaviors
Servant leadership
• Service to others over service to oneself
• Servant leaders possess several
key characteristics:
Listening
Conceptualization
Empathy
Foresight
Healing
Stewardship
Awareness
Development of people
Persuasion
Community building
Ethical leadership
•
•
•
Focus is on being a moral role model
Positive relationship to job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behaviors,
motivation and performance
Lower levels of job stress, counterproductive work behaviors,
and turnover
Pygmalion leadership
High expectancy of a leader toward a subordinate changes the
subordinates behaviors and performance.
• Leader's expectancy ====> sub. performance
• HOW ?
via
leader's behaviors, sub self-efficacy
• vs. ‘Self-fulfilling prophecy”
James Sweeney taught industrial management and psychiatry at Tulane
University, and also was responsible for the operation of the Biomedical
Computer Center. Sweeney believed that he could teach even a poorly
educated man to be a capable computer operator. George Johnson,
who was a janitor at the center was chosen and trained by Sweeney·
In the I.Q. test, Johnsons I.Q. indicated that he would not be able
to learn to type, much less operate a computer… But Sweeney
was convinced.... Johnson is now in charge of the main computer
room and is responsible for training new employees to program
and operate the computer.
4
사례 1
... supervisors can create a positive impression with subordinates
when they engage in the following strategies:
1.
Assign clear goals so that they show that they know what
they are doing.
2.
Provide a rationale for the goal
3.
when needed, provide specific task information about how
to attain the goal
4.
Serve as a role model setting challenging goals for themselves
and attaining these goals.
5.
Be physically present during goal setting...
10. Present positive performance information before presenting
negative information
11. Give fair rewards that are perceived as equitable
사례 2
The teacher...does not bid you enter the house of his wisdom,
but rather leads you to the threshold of your own mind... so must
each one of you develop your own knowledge and ... your
own understanding
- from THE PROPHET by KAHLIL GIBRAN
5
사례 3
... Number-two and apparently destined to always be eating the dust of
a larger, stronger, and apparently more effective competitor, the company
is losing a billion dollars a year just a few years ago. The company is Ford
Motor Company....The company nowadays is placing a strategic
spotlight on employee involvement. Leadership is founded upon a set
of guiding principles that encourages people to operate with freedom
and autonomy within a common vision... Donald E. Petersen (chairman
and CEO) appears to be surprisingly content to maintain rather low
profiles. "We don'ts want stars", says Petersen. "Being a part of a team
is much more productive environment".... His low-key image reflects
an obvious willingness to de-emphasize his own importance..
사례 4
As CEO of Mattel, Jill Barad is described as a fierce competitor with
an unerring self-confidence. For instance, soon after completing
her first career assignment, she stormed into the CEO's office and
demanded "What...do I have to do to get a decent assignment
around here?" Barad is also considered an intelligent visionary whose
instinct for what kids like has mad Barbie dolls one of the most
successful toys over the past two decades. Barad has no-nonsense
style, but she is also known for her infectious enthusiasm...
6
사례 5
Southwest Airline has grown from 198 employees in 1971 to 13,000
employees and more and $2 billion in revenues.... A large part of
the success belongs to its chairman, CEO, president and founder,
Her Kelleher.... Kelleher has the three qualities that make a visionary
leader effective. First, as a strong communicator, he articulates his
vision of giving customers excellent service by expecting employees
to help whenever and wherever they're needed. Second, her reinforces
his vision by pitching in to help. And third, he's able to extend his vision
to all employees, whether they are a pilot, flight attendant, or ticket agent.
사례 6
Craig Weatherup, CEO of PepsiCo Inc., has a reputation for favoring this
type of style. He encourages executives to spend time with their
families. He has called spouses of executives kept away from home
on special projects to thank them for their support. And when Pepsi
Co laid off some people, Weatherup invited those who complained
to sit in meeting where he patiently explained why the cutbacks
were necessary
7
C. Manz & P. Sims, Jr. The New Super-Leadership
(번역본: 슈퍼리더십)
토론 주제
1. 주변에서, 변혁적 지도자와 수퍼 지도자의 예를 들어서 설명해봅시다.
2. 이 중에서 가장 중요한 리더십이 있다고 생각하는지? …
강의 내용이나 강의자료를 강연자의 동의 없이 캡
쳐, 녹화, 저장, 타인에 공유, 전송 및 공개하는 행
위는
엄격히 금지되어 있고 위반시 법적 처벌을 받게
됩니다.
DIVERSITY & CREATIVITY
Diversity
지식, 교육, 경험 등
가치, 신념, 종교 등
바꾸기 곤란한 측면
성별, 인종, 민족 등
•
여성, 장애인, 고령자, 외국인 등의 사회 진출이 활발 → 전략적 인적자원
•
2016년 OECD 회원국 여성경제활동참가율 한국은 19개국 중 15위, 2014년 대기업 여성 임원 비율 한국은 조사 36개국
중 최하위
=> …. 이후에도 일관적인 결과
•
2016년 한국 500인 이상 기업 및 공공기관: 여성 직원 37.8%, 관리자 20.1%, 임원 2.7%, 2019년 한국 5대 그룹
대기업: 여성 직원 21.0 % 임원 2.9% => … 이후에도 나아지지 않는 현상
다양성에 대한 재고
• Discrimination: when employment decisions about an individual are based on
reasons not associated with performance
• Affirmative action: an intervention aimed to correct injustice, mistake or discrimination
that occurred in the past
=> “적극적인 노력 및 문화 구축＂
Glass Ceiling : an invisible but absolute barrier that prevents women from advancing to higher-level positions
다양성 패러다임의 변화
토머스, 일라이 , “인적자원의 다양성을 관리하라” Harvard Business Review, 1996
I. 차별과 공정성 패러다임
- 다양성에 대한 규범적 접근, 차별은 잘못된 것이라는 인식에 기반
- 평등을 강조하는 수준
II. 접근과 정당성 패러다임
- 다양성 활용에 초점, 즉 차이를 장점으로 인정
- 시장에서의 다양한 소비자 층에 대한 대응으로 활용
(예) 미국의 경우 아프리카계 미국인 MBA들은 같은 도시의 흑인 빈민가에서 마케팅 활동을 하는 경우
- 한계: 소수 인력들이 회사내의 다른 기회들로부터 배제되고 소외되는 분위기
III. 학습과 효과성 패러다임
- 다양성이 직접적으로 성과에 영향을 주는 경쟁원천으로 인식됨
- 다양성으로부터 그 장점을 배우는 유익한 학습 과정: 다양성을 창조적인 아이디어와 연결하도록 독려하는 문화
Creativity
3가지 동기: 내재적, 외재적, 인지적
1. 내재적 동기
‘창의성 사고 기술’: 새로운 관점을 취하거나 새로운 인지
경로를 적용하고 문제를 조각 이 아닌 전체로 바라보는 기술
내재적 동기가 높으면 업무에 더 깊게 몰입하고
새로운 정보를 찾고 문제를 생각하는데 더 많은 시간과
에너지를 사용하여 창의적인 문제 해결.
내재적 동기가 낮으면 인지적 유연성이 떨어지고
예전 방식 을 반복적으로 활용하는 데에 그치는 경향
2. 외재적 동기
3. 인지적 동기
[Q] 인적자원의 다양성과 창의성 관리는
어떤 관계에 있을까?
Organizational Design
1
환 경 과 조 직
▪
▪
▪
▪
Unity of command
Division of labor
Spans of control
Line vs staffs
▪
Stable
Changes are small, slow, predictable
기계적 (mechanistic) 조직
높은 분화, 위계적 관계
높은 공식화
공식적 의사소통
높은 중심화 경향
Traditional Designs
Functional, Divisional, Matrix
Volatile
are intense, rapid, unpredictable
유기적 (organic) 조직
수평적 협동체계
낮은 공식화
비공식적 의사소통
낮은 중심화
2
Bureaucracy
◆ FOCUS => organization
◆ BASIS
➢ hierarchy
➢ impersonality
➢ line of command
◆ IDEAL TYPE OF ORGANIZATION
Administrative Theory
◆ FOCUS => role & functions of managers
◆ 4 functions & 14 principles of management
◆ “Follow the principles, and success will very likely come.”
3
Functional : Employees grouped according to the business functions they perform
• Based on “economies of scale”
• Saves money, easy to apply quality standards
• Works best in a stable environment, not applicable today
4
Divisional : Employees grouped based on similar products or services,
customers or clients, or geographic regions
CEO
Division 1
또는 사업본부1
인
사
구
매
생
산
영
업
Division 3
또는 사업본부3
Division 2
또는 사업본부2
인
사
구
매
생
산
영
업
인
사
구
매
생
산
영
업
• Increased focus on customers and products
• Flexibility in decision making
• Divisions’ tendency to focus on their own customer groups or products and exclude
rest of organization
Matrix : Combines a vertical structure with an equally strong horizontal overlay
•
•
•
•
Combines advantages of functional and divisional
Violates unity of command and decision making can be slow
Political behavior can occur
Requires extensive communication
6
시스템 이론
▪
Open system : interactions with the environment
1950년대 시스템 이론 발달
▪
Origin from biology
▪
개인과 조직 … “system”
▪
시스템의 특성과 의미
∙
goal-directed actions
∙
systems, sub-systems, interactions
7
시스템 이론
∙ 과정 : input - transformation - output
∙ synergy effects : Performance (total system) > ∑ Performance of
subsystems
∙ 구조의 재설계, 팀제
8
Cross functional teams/project team
9
(2011. 10. 1. 조선일보 Weekly Biz, 게임의 룰을 바꿔라)
IBM 사례





1993년 IBM 3년간 누적 적자는 160억달러.
죽어가는 IBM을 살리기 위해 루이스 거스너(Gerstner)가 구원투수로.
◼ CEO에 취임한 뒤 그는 황당한 광경을 목격.
◼ IBM의 각 사업 본부들이 자기 본부의 성과에만 관심이 있을 뿐, 회사 전체의 이
익에는 무관심했던 것.
◼ 심지어 자기 성과를 위해 다른 본부의 비즈니스를 갉아먹는 '제살깎기'식 경쟁.
거스너의 대응책
◼ 모든 본부장들을 회식 자리에 모아놓고 '서로 잘해 보자'며 폭탄주? 사장실에 불
러놓고 호통? 서로 협력하라고 훈시? NO!
◼ 제도만 살짝 바꿈 → 이전까지 IBM은 개인 성과를 근거로 인센티브를 지급.
 회사 전체 실적은 엉망이더라도 자기 본부만 잘 되면 본부장은 보너스.
 보상 체계부터 변경: 본부별 인센티브를 절반 이상 줄이고, 그룹 전체의 성과
에 따른 인센티브를 확대.
 직급이 높을수록 개인 성과보다는 조직 성과에 따라 보상.
 서로 관심 없고 반목하던 본부장들이 머리를 맞대고 고민하기 시작.
본부 간 시너지가 극대화/기업 문화 변화.
취임 2년 만에 IBM은 흑자 전환.
=> 부분시스템 최적화의 문제
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Institutionalism
 Institutional pressures & homogeneous Organizations
: once a field becomes well established, organizations that display
considerable diversity in approach and form in the initial state are
under considerable pressure to become homogenized.
 isomorphism
: a constraining process that forces one unit in a population to resemble
other units that face the same set of environmental conditions.
♦ 3 process of isomorphism
(1) coercive : managers compulsively conform to rules or regulations of
the society
(2) normative : may look for norms or acceptable solutions held in their field
(3) mimetic : may model their organizations after other organizations in the
industry
 “Institutionalism well explains adoption of HR practices.”
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◎ 조직의 효과성을 Financial perspective, Customer perspective,
Internal business process perspective에서 설명해보자
◎ 환경와 조직의 관계에 있어서 시스템이론과 제도이론이 취하는
차이점이라면 ?
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Global Management
1
Preparing for a foreign assignment
A Poor Track Record for American Expatriates
 Expatriate refers to anyone living or working in a foreign country.
Research has uncovered specific reasons for the failure of US
expatriate managers:
 Spouse cannot adjust to new surroundings.
 The manager cannot adapt to new surroundings.
 Family problems.
 The manager is emotionally immature.
 The manager cannot cope with foreign duties.
 The manager is not technically competent.
 The manager lacks the proper motivation for a foreign assignment.
2
Preparing for a foreign assignment
Becoming a Global Manager
 Broaden focus from one or two countries to a global business perspective.
 Become familiar with many cultures.
 Learn the dynamics of multicultural situations.
 Be able to live and work effectively in many different cultures.
 Engage in cross-cultural interaction every day.
 Work effectively in multicultural teams where everyone is equal.
 Move up the career ladder by going from one foreign country to another.
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Hofstede’ Study and Implications
Hofstede’ Study and Implications
 Individualism collectivism
(How loosely or closely is the person socially bonded?)
|-----------------------------------------------------------------|
individualism
collectivism
individual job assignment (e.g., job enrichment)
collective job assignment (e.g., Quality Circle)
 Power distance (How much inequality does someone expect in social situations?)
|-----------------------------------------------------------------|
low
high
participative leaders
less hierarchical
empowerment
authoritative leaders
very hierarchical
commands
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Masculinity-femininity
(Does the person embrace stereotypically competitive, performance oriented masculine traits or nurturing,
relationship-oriented feminine traits?)
|-----------------------------------------------------------|
Masculine
quantity of work life
pay-for-performance
Feminine
quality of work life
leisure time, interpersonal relationships
Uncertainty avoidance
(How strongly does the person desire highly-structured situations?)
|------------------------------------------------------------|
low
positive attitudes toward conflicts
short-term contract
performance-based incentives
individuality, creativity
many entrepreneurs
high
negative perceptions of conflicts
long-term contracts (e.g., lifetime employment)
seniority-based pay
many rules, policies, pressures from the org
not prefer risk situations
☞ 이러한 문화적 차원에서 각각 한 부분에 놓이는 미국 문화에 적합한 이론과 관리 방식이
보편적인 것으로 받아드릴 수 없다 => Divergent 시각의 기반이 됨
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