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Style Guide
Department of Homeland Security
July 2011
Office of Intelligence and Analysis
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Foreword
Communicating effectively to diverse customers at multiple
classification levels on a wide range of topics is a continuous
challenge to Homeland Security intelligence professionals. Day after
day, our customers look to us for timely and accurate intelligence to
help them inform decisionmakers at the federal, state, local, and tribal
levels. It is our responsibility to communicate that information as
clearly as possible. Positioned at the nexus of intelligence and law
enforcement, we play a key role in accessing, assessing, and sharing
information, from and with our partners, at both the national and local
levels.
This guide is designed to ensure that our writing practices and style
align with the Department’s vision. It provides a solid foundation
reference for correct grammar, punctuation, spelling, and word usage. It is intended to serve
as a standard for application throughout the Office of Intelligence and Analysis, empowering
our analysts to improve their individual editorial expertise and overall professionalism.
I strongly encourage each of you to apply it in your work.
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I
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Preface
The I&A Production Management Division follows the 16th edition of The Chicago Manual of
Style and the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary.
The I&A Style Guide provides I&A editors and writers a set of guidelines for I&A analytic
products, including common rules for formatting, grammar, and syntax; style preference of I&A
leadership; standards used elsewhere in the Intelligence Community; and commonly confused
words and spellings.
Submit suggestions for changes or additions to IA.Feedback@hq.dhs.gov.
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II
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Contents at a Glance
CHAPTER 1: ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2: CAPITALIZATION .................................................................................................15
CHAPTER 3: NUMBERS ............................................................................................................27
CHAPTER 4: PUNCTUATION ....................................................................................................41
CHAPTER 5: SOURCING AND CLASSIFICATION ...................................................................59
CHAPTER 6: COMPOUND WORDS AND SPELLING...............................................................65
CHAPTER 7: A WORD WATCHER’S GUIDE ............................................................................79
INDEX ............................................................................................................................................i
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III
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Table of Contents
FOREWORD.................................................................................................................................. I
PREFACE .....................................................................................................................................II
CONTENTS AT A GLANCE ....................................................................................................... III
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................. IV
CHAPTER 1: ABBREVIATIONS
1.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 WHEN TO SPELL OUT ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2.1 First Reference............................................................................................................. 1
1.2.2 Subsequent References............................................................................................... 2
1.2.3 Well-Known Abbreviations ........................................................................................... 2
1.2.4 Foreign Terms .............................................................................................................. 2
1.2.5 Explanation Following .................................................................................................. 2
1.2.6 Incomplete or Possessive References ......................................................................... 2
1.2.7 Plural Forms ................................................................................................................. 3
1.2.8 Abbreviations for Military Ranks ................................................................................... 3
1.3 COUNTRY NAMES NOT ABBREVIATED .................................................................................... 5
1.4 COUNTRY NAMES ABBREVIATED ........................................................................................... 6
1.4.1 Long Names ................................................................................................................. 6
1.4.2 US ................................................................................................................................ 6
1.4.3 UK ................................................................................................................................ 6
1.4.4 China and Taiwan ........................................................................................................ 6
1.4.5 The Two Germanys...................................................................................................... 6
1.4.6 The Two Koreas ........................................................................................................... 7
1.5 TITLES OF PERSONS ............................................................................................................. 7
1.5.1 Civil or Military .............................................................................................................. 7
1.5.2 Complimentary ............................................................................................................. 7
1.6 LATIN ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................... 7
1.7 OTHER ABBREVIATIONS REQUIRING CAREFUL USE ................................................................ 8
1.7.1 Political Subdivisions.................................................................................................... 8
1.7.2 Months and Days ......................................................................................................... 8
1.7.3 Percentages ................................................................................................................. 8
1.7.4 Units of Measure .......................................................................................................... 8
1.7.5 Metric Prefixes ........................................................................................................... 10
1.8 ABBREVIATION LIST ............................................................................................................ 11
CHAPTER 2: CAPITALIZATION
2.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................................... 15
2.2 COMMON NOUNS IN PROPER NAMES .................................................................................. 15
2.3 DERIVATIVES OF PROPER NAMES........................................................................................ 15
2.4 ARTICLES IN PROPER NAMES .............................................................................................. 16
2.5 NAMES OF ORGANIZED BODIES ........................................................................................... 16
2.5.1 Government Bodies ................................................................................................... 17
2.5.2 Military Forces ............................................................................................................ 17
2.5.3 International Organizations ........................................................................................ 17
2.5.4 Diplomatic and Consular Units ................................................................................... 18
2.5.5 Political Parties and Other Groups ............................................................................. 18
2.6 RELIGIOUS TERMS .............................................................................................................. 18
2.7 POLITICAL PHILOSOPHIES ................................................................................................... 19
2.7.1 Communism ............................................................................................................... 19
2.7.2 Non-Communist Philosophies .................................................................................... 19
2.8 GEOGRAPHIC TERMS .......................................................................................................... 20
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2.9 NATIONALITIES, TRIBES, AND OTHER GROUPS OF PEOPLE ................................................... 20
2.10 COINED NAMES ................................................................................................................ 21
2.11 TRADE NAMES .................................................................................................................. 21
2.12 TITLES OF PERSONS ......................................................................................................... 21
2.12.1 Before the Name ...................................................................................................... 21
2.12.2 After or in Place of the Name ................................................................................... 22
2.13 PUBLICATIONS .................................................................................................................. 23
2.13.1 Titles......................................................................................................................... 23
2.13.2 Historic Documents .................................................................................................. 23
2.13.3 Foreign Titles ........................................................................................................... 23
2.13.4 Shortened Titles ....................................................................................................... 24
2.13.5 Footnotes ................................................................................................................. 24
2.13.6 Titles of Graphics, Tables, and Chapters ................................................................. 24
2.13.7 Indented Bullet or Dash Paragraphs ........................................................................ 24
2.13.8 Cross-References .................................................................................................... 24
2.13.9 Sentence Fragments ................................................................................................ 24
2.13.10 Glossaries .............................................................................................................. 25
2.14 MISCELLANY..................................................................................................................... 25
2.14.1 Seasons ................................................................................................................... 25
2.14.2 Hurricanes, Typhoons, Cyclones, Tornadoes, and Other Storms ............................ 25
2.14.3 Treaties and Laws .................................................................................................... 25
2.14.4 Word-Equivalents of Acronyms ................................................................................ 26
2.14.5 Emphasis ................................................................................................................. 26
2.14.6 Military Exercises and Operations ............................................................................ 26
2.14.7 Wars ......................................................................................................................... 26
2.14.8 Holidays, Feasts, and Historic Events ...................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 3: NUMBERS
3.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................................... 27
3.2 BASIC RULES ..................................................................................................................... 27
3.2.1 Numbers of 10 or More .............................................................................................. 27
3.2.2 Numbers Under 10 ..................................................................................................... 27
3.2.3 Mixes of Numbers Above and Below 10 .................................................................... 27
3.2.4 Numbers at Beginning of Sentences .......................................................................... 28
3.3 ORDINAL NUMBERS ............................................................................................................ 28
3.4 ROMAN NUMERALS ............................................................................................................. 28
3.5 SPECIAL RULES .................................................................................................................. 28
3.5.1 Indefinite Numbers ..................................................................................................... 28
3.5.2 Millions and Billions .................................................................................................... 29
3.5.3 Figures of 1,000 or More ............................................................................................ 29
3.5.4 Numerical Unit Modifiers ............................................................................................ 29
3.5.5 Possessive Case........................................................................................................ 29
3.5.6 Ranges ....................................................................................................................... 29
3.5.7 Numbers in Tables and Graphics and for Pages, Paragraphs, and Footnotes .......... 30
3.5.8 References to Numbers as Numbers ......................................................................... 30
3.5.9 References to Numbers in a Non-literal Sense .......................................................... 30
3.5.10 Decimals .................................................................................................................. 30
3.5.11 Fractions .................................................................................................................. 30
3.5.12 Mixed Numbers ........................................................................................................ 31
3.5.13 Numerical Compounds............................................................................................. 31
3.5.14 Telephone numbers ................................................................................................. 31
3.6 EXPRESSIONS OF VALUES .................................................................................................. 31
3.6.1 US Dollars .................................................................................................................. 31
3.6.2 Foreign Money ........................................................................................................... 32
3.7 PERCENTAGES AND TIMES PHRASES................................................................................... 32
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3.7.1 Relationships.............................................................................................................. 32
3.7.2 Percentages ............................................................................................................... 32
3.7.3 Times Phrases ........................................................................................................... 32
3.8 EXPRESSIONS OF TIME ....................................................................................................... 33
3.8.1 Ages of Persons ......................................................................................................... 33
3.8.2 Ages of Inanimate Things .......................................................................................... 33
3.8.3 Dates .......................................................................................................................... 33
3.8.4 Years .......................................................................................................................... 33
3.8.5 Decades ..................................................................................................................... 34
3.8.6 Centuries .................................................................................................................... 34
3.8.7 Clock Time ................................................................................................................. 34
3.8.8 Other Time Expressions............................................................................................. 34
3.9 UNITS OF MEASURE ............................................................................................................ 34
3.9.1 Metric System ............................................................................................................ 35
3.9.2 Units of Measure Exceptions ..................................................................................... 36
3.9.3 Figures with Units of Measure.................................................................................... 36
3.10 ORDER OF DIMENSIONS .................................................................................................... 37
3.11 OTHER NUMBER RULES .................................................................................................... 37
3.11.1 Numbers Next to Numbers....................................................................................... 37
3.11.2 Ratios, Odds, Scores, and Returns.......................................................................... 37
3.11.3 Indefinite Expressions Using Figures ....................................................................... 37
3.11.4 Scientific Notation .................................................................................................... 38
3.11.5 Factors for Converting Units of Measure ................................................................. 38
CHAPTER 4: PUNCTUATION
4.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................................... 41
4.2 APOSTROPHE ..................................................................................................................... 41
4.2.1 Possessives ............................................................................................................... 41
4.2.2 Plurals ........................................................................................................................ 43
4.3 BRACKETS ......................................................................................................................... 43
4.4 BULLETS ............................................................................................................................ 44
4.5 COLON ............................................................................................................................... 45
4.6 COMMA .............................................................................................................................. 46
4.6.1 Comma Splice ............................................................................................................ 48
4.7 DASHES ............................................................................................................................. 48
4.7.1 Em Dash .................................................................................................................... 49
4.7.2 En Dash ..................................................................................................................... 49
4.8 ELLIPSIS............................................................................................................................. 50
4.9 EXCLAMATION POINT .......................................................................................................... 50
4.10 HYPHEN ........................................................................................................................... 50
4.11 PARENTHESES ................................................................................................................. 51
4.12 PERIOD ............................................................................................................................ 52
4.13 QUESTION MARK .............................................................................................................. 52
4.14 QUOTATION MARKS .......................................................................................................... 52
4.14.1 Double Quotation Marks .......................................................................................... 53
4.14.2 Single Quotation Marks ............................................................................................ 53
4.14.3 Punctuation with Quotation Marks ........................................................................... 53
4.14.4 Terms Precluding the Need for Quotation Marks ..................................................... 54
4.14.5 Unit Modifiers ........................................................................................................... 54
4.14.6 Block Quotations ...................................................................................................... 54
4.15 SEMICOLON ...................................................................................................................... 54
4.16 SLASH .............................................................................................................................. 55
4.17 ITALICS ............................................................................................................................ 56
4.17.1 Titles......................................................................................................................... 56
4.17.2 Latin Names of Bacterial Species ............................................................................ 56
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4.18 FOREIGN WORDS ............................................................................................................. 56
4.18.1 Anglicized Words ..................................................................................................... 57
4.18.2 Familiar Foreign Words ............................................................................................ 57
4.18.3 Other Foreign Words................................................................................................ 57
4.18.4 Titles of Publications ................................................................................................ 57
4.18.5 Names of Organizations........................................................................................... 57
4.18.6 Imeni in Russian Names .......................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER 5: SOURCING AND CLASSIFICATION
5.1 SOURCING AND CLASSIFICATION ......................................................................................... 59
5.1.1 General Rules for Sourcing ........................................................................................ 59
5.1.2 Source Reference Citation (Endnote) and Footnote Markers .................................... 59
5.1.3 Source Reference Citation (Endnote) Format ............................................................ 59
5.1.4 Graphics ..................................................................................................................... 61
5.2. GENERAL RULES FOR CLASSIFICATION............................................................................... 61
5.2.1 Classification Markings .............................................................................................. 61
5.2.2 Derivative Statement .................................................................................................. 62
5.2.3 Headers and Footers ................................................................................................. 62
5.2.4 Portion Markings ........................................................................................................ 62
CHAPTER 6: COMPOUND WORDS AND SPELLINGS
6.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................................... 65
6.2 BASIC RULES ..................................................................................................................... 65
6.2.1 Separate Words ......................................................................................................... 65
6.2.2 Joined or Hyphenated ................................................................................................ 65
6.2.3 Derivatives ................................................................................................................. 65
6.2.4 Plurals of Compound Terms ...................................................................................... 65
6.3 FOREIGN NAMES ................................................................................................................ 65
6.3.1 Arabic Names and Naming Practices ........................................................................ 65
6.3.2 Latin American Surnames .......................................................................................... 69
6.3.3 Chinese Personal Names .......................................................................................... 69
6.4 SOLID COMPOUNDS ............................................................................................................ 69
6.5 UNIT MODIFIERS ................................................................................................................. 71
6.5.1 Hyphenated ................................................................................................................ 71
6.5.2 Joined......................................................................................................................... 72
6.5.3 Unhyphenated ............................................................................................................ 72
6.5.4 Predicate Adjectives................................................................................................... 72
6.5.5 Comparatives and Superlatives ................................................................................. 72
6.5.6 Adverbs Ending in -ly ................................................................................................. 73
6.5.7 Three-Word Modifiers ................................................................................................ 73
6.5.8 Foreign Phrases ......................................................................................................... 73
6.5.9 Proper Nouns ............................................................................................................. 73
6.5.10 En Dash in Proper Noun Compounds ...................................................................... 74
6.5.11 Quotation Marks ....................................................................................................... 74
6.5.12 Chemical Terms ....................................................................................................... 74
6.5.13 Letter or Number Elements ...................................................................................... 74
6.5.14 Common Basic Elements ......................................................................................... 74
6.6 PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES .................................................................................................... 75
6.6.1 Unhyphenated ............................................................................................................ 75
6.6.2 Hyphenated ................................................................................................................ 75
6.7 NUMERICAL COMPOUNDS ................................................................................................... 76
6.8 OTHER COMPOUND WORDS ............................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER 7: A WORD-WATCHER’S GUIDE ............................................................................ 79
INDEX ............................................................................................................................................ i
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VII
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Chapter 1
Abbreviations
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Use abbreviations sparingly and only when their meaning is clear. Too many abbreviations in
the text make reading and comprehension difficult. When abbreviations are necessary, use
standard forms such as those in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary or other forms that
have gained acceptance. In DHS usage, periods are usually omitted in all but a few categories
of abbreviations, such as academic degrees (Ph.D. for Doctor of Philosophy, B.A. for Bachelor
of Arts), country names (US, UK), export and import terms (f.o.b., c.i.f.), and ranks or titles
(Prof., Dr.).
Abbreviations
1.1 General
Acronyms included in this chapter should be explained as any other abbreviation. Be aware
that acronyms do not always seem to follow convention about capitalization or other matters
(Aramco, NATO, agitprop). Usually, when an acronym is made up solely from the first letter of
the major words in the expanded form, render the acronym in all capitals (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization, or NATO).
The definition (expanded form) of an abbreviation is lowercase unless the term abbreviated is a
proper name or program name:
local area network (LAN)
United States Postal Service (USPS)
port of entry (POE)
but:
Nogales Port of Entry (POE)
In tables and graphics, where space is a consideration, avoid abbreviations unless the full terms
cannot be made to fit. Changes in layout or type point size may preclude using abbreviations.
Abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms are not to be used in titles or headings—unless
commonly used within DHS.
Note: Just because something can be abbreviated does not mean it must be abbreviated.
Abbreviations can distract the reader; do not sacrifice clarity and readability for saving a few
words with an abbreviation.
1.2 When to Spell Out
1.2.1 First Reference. An organization, group, international agreement, unit of measure,
weapon system, or similar item that is referred to throughout a report is abbreviated after it is
spelled out in the first reference, usually (but not always) with its abbreviation following it in
parentheses.
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
miles per hour (mph)
improvised explosive devices (IEDs)
If the first use of the abbreviation appears in the same sentence as the spelled-out name or
term and the connection between the two is clear, the parenthetical insertion should be omitted.
As a representative of a less developed country, the delegate purported to speak
for all LDCs.
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Abbreviations
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Abbreviations in text boxes follow the main text “first use” practice. If it has been identified in
the main text, it need not be repeated in the text box; nor should it be repeated in the main text if
the abbreviation is explained previously in a text box.
1.2.2 Subsequent References. The name of an organization, group, international agreement,
unit of measure, program, weapon system, or similar term used several times throughout a
report can be abbreviated as a convenience to the reader. Spell out abbreviations at first
mention, and put the abbreviation in parentheses after the spelled-out term.
1.2.3 Well-Known Abbreviations. Some abbreviations (and acronyms) are widely recognized
and, unless used out of context, need no explanation:
4X4
DOB
NSA
UN
ATF
DoD
SUV
USCG
CIA
FBI
TIDE
VIP
DEA
FEMA
UK
DIA
NATO
US
DHS Components (CBP, I&A, ICE, TSA, USCG, USCIS, USSS) are spelled out at first
reference and do not need to be prefaced with DHS.
Customs and Border Protection (CBP) reported the statistics. The CBP
information was accurate.
The Office of Intelligence and Analysis (I&A) reported the statistics. The I&A
information was accurate.
1.2.4 Foreign Terms. The name of a foreign institution is spelled out in English if possible, but
the commonly used abbreviation may be used even if it is drawn from the foreign wording.
Polish United Workers’ Party (PZPR)
Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC)
1.2.5 Explanation Following. When an abbreviation is better known than its long form, or
when a name is very long or otherwise unwieldy, it is appropriate to give an abbreviation first,
with the full title or other identification in parentheses, or set off by commas, immediately
afterward.
WHO (World Health Organization)
YPF, the Argentine petroleum monopoly,
1.2.6 Incomplete or Possessive References. To form the singular possessive of an
abbreviation, add an apostrophe plus s; to form the plural possessive, add an s plus an
apostrophe. If the abbreviation ends in s and no extra s-sound is created when you pronounce
the term, add only an apostrophe:
Customs and Border Protection’s (CBP’s) enforcement efforts
DHS’ policy
but: Department of Homeland Security’s policy
Avoid wording that would put an abbreviation immediately after an incomplete or possessive
form of the name abbreviated.
not: the Liberal Democratic (LDP) platform
but: the platform of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP)
or: the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) platform
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1.2.7 Plural Forms. If the logical place to spell out an abbreviation comes when the term is
plural, the abbreviation must also be in the plural form, even though the singular is used
thereafter. To form the plural, add a lowercase s.
improvised explosive devices (IEDs)
1.2.8 Abbreviations for Military Ranks. These abbreviations for the most commonly used
terms for military ranks—some only in non-US services—reflect the usage of the US DoD. The
abbreviations, preferably with periods as indicated, are used only when they precede proper
names, preferably full names. In general usage, the ranks are spelled out in lowercase. As with
other abbreviations, spell out and capitalize the rank of an individual on first use (General David
Petraeus on first use, GEN Petraeus or the general on subsequent uses).
US Army Officers
general
lieutenant general
major general
brigadier general
colonel
lieutenant colonel
major
captain
first lieutenant
second lieutenant
chief warrant officer, W-4
chief warrant officer, W-3
chief warrant officer, W-2
warrant officer, W-l
Abbreviations
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GEN
LTG
MG
BG
COL
LTC
MAJ
CPT
1LT
2LT
CW4
CW3
CW2
WO1
US Navy and Coast Guard Officers
admiral
ADM
vice admiral
VADM
rear admiral (upper half)
RADM
rear admiral (lower half)
RDML
captain
CAPT
commander
CDR
lieutenant commander
LCDR
lieutenant
LT
lieutenant (junior grade)
LTJG
ensign
ENS
chief warrant officer
CWO
warrant officer
WO
US Air Force Officers
general
lieutenant general
major general
brigadier general
colonel
lieutenant colonel
major
captain
first lieutenant
second lieutenant
Gen
Lt Gen
Maj Gen
Brig Gen
Col
Lt Col
Maj
Capt
1st Lt
2d Lt
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Abbreviations
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US Marine Corps Officers
general
lieutenant general
major general
brigadier general
colonel
lieutenant colonel
major
captain
first lieutenant
second lieutenant
chief warrant officer
warrant officer
Gen
LtGen
MajGen
BGen
Col
LtCol
Maj
Capt
1stLt
2ndLt
CWO
WO
US Army Enlisted Personnel
sergeant major of the Army
command sergeant major
sergeant major
first sergeant
master sergeant
sergeant first class
staff sergeant
sergeant
corporal
specialist
private first class
private
private
SMA
CSM
SGM
1SG
MSG
SFC
SSG
SGT
CPL
SPC
PFC
PV2
PVT
US Navy Enlisted Personnel
US Navy enlisted personnel are identified by rate and rating; rate is the pay grade and
rating is the specialty. Ratings are too numerous to list. See the US Navy’s Manual of
Qualifications for Advancement in Rating for abbreviations.
US Air Force Enlisted Personnel
chief master sergeant
of the Air Force
chief master sergeant
senior master sergeant
master sergeant
technical sergeant
staff sergeant
sergeant
senior airman
airman first class
airman
basic airman
CMSAF
CMSgt
SMSgt
MSgt
TSgt
SSgt
Sgt
SrA
A1C
Amn
AB
US Marine Corps Enlisted Personnel
sergeant major of the
Sgt-MajMC
Marine Corps
sergeant major
SgtMaj
master gunnery sergeant
MGySgt
first sergeant
1stSgt
master sergeant
MSgt
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gunnery sergeant
staff sergeant
sergeant
corporal
lance corporal
private first class
private
GySgt
SSgt
Sgt
Cpl
LCpl
PFC
Pvt
Abbreviations
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Foreign Military Officers
For foreign military officers, regardless of branch of service, use the following
abbreviations for ranks:
admiral
Adm
brigadier
Brig
brigadier general
Brig Gen
captain
Capt
captain first rank
Capt 1st Rank
captain second rank
Capt 2nd Rank
chief warrant officer
CWO
colonel
Col
colonel general
Col Gen
commander
Cdr
commodore
Como
ensign
Ens
first lieutenant
1st Lt
fleet admiral
Flt Adm
general
Gen
lieutenant
Lt
lieutenant colonel
Lt Col
lieutenant commander
LCdr
lieutenant general
Lt Gen
lieutenant junior grade
Ltjg
major
Maj
major general
Maj Gen
marshal
Mar
rear admiral
RAdm
second lieutenant
2nd Lt
vice admiral
VAdm
warrant officer
WO
1.3 Country Names Not Abbreviated
Most country names should be spelled out. Exceptions are the United States, the United
Kingdom, and the former Soviet Union.
Spell out United States, United Kingdom, and United Nations when you use them as nouns, but
use the abbreviations as adjectives.
The United States sold . . .
US arms sales . . .
. . . contracts involving the United Kingdom.
. . . UK contracts.
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Abbreviations
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Because of the length of the full term, the abbreviation USSR is acceptable as either a noun or
adjective, although Soviet is the preferred adjective.
The former USSR sold . . .
USSR arms sales . . .
Soviet arms sales . . .
1.4 Country Names Abbreviated
1.4.1 Long Names. There will inevitably be situations in which repeated references to countries
with long names call for abbreviation. In such instances, spell out the name at the first
reference and use the abbreviation, as a noun or an adjective.
the United Arab Emirates is; the UAE is; a UAE delegate arrived.
Note that some country names, such as the UAE (and, of course, that of our own country), are
plural in construction but take singular verbs. Some countries have long official names that
custom long ago shortened to forms now preferred by the US Board on Geographic Names.
The best examples are in the ensuing paragraphs. Other examples include Australia
(Commonwealth of Australia), Mexico (United Mexican States), and South Africa (Republic of
South Africa; the full name would be preferred in some contexts to avoid confusion—for
instance, a text on the situation in southern Africa as a whole).
1.4.2 US The preferred style is to use the abbreviation for our own country only in the adjective
form (a US initiative, but favored by the United States). This style is not a rigid rule, but the
“sparing use” policy on abbreviations benefits the analyst to observe the preference for spelling
out United States as appropriate. The full name United States of America and the abbreviation
USA are not generally used.
1.4.3 UK DHS style with respect to references to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland is flexible to the same degree that it is for the United States. Britain or Great
Britain often are used as shortened forms of the country name, but the United Kingdom (note
the lowercase t in the) is preferred. UK is acceptable as an adjective or, preceded by the
definite article, as a noun, except in cases where “sparing use” obliges us to avoid it. British is
also an acceptable adjective—and according to some authorities, the preferred one.
1.4.4 China and Taiwan. The full name of the People’s Republic of China usually is shortened
to China. PRC may be used but is not recommended. Chinese is the preferred adjective and
refers only to the mainland. For what used to be called, Nationalist China or the Republic of
China, use only Taiwan, both as noun and adjective. For variation, Taipei may be used in either
noun or adjective form (for example, the officials in Taipei, or the Taipei authorities), but avoid
Taiwanese as an adjective referring to the island’s administration or its officials (and eschew the
word government). The terms Communist China (and Chinese Communist) and Nationalist
China (and Chinese Nationalist) or Republic of China should be used only in historical contexts.
1.4.5 The Two Germanys. These former countries might be referred to in historical references
as East Germany (German Democratic Republic, GDR, or the East German Government) and
West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany, FRG, or Bonn).
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1.4.6 The Two Koreas. When referencing these two countries, use South Korea (or Seoul) or
North Korea (or Pyongyang).
1.5 Titles of Persons
Do not abbreviate president, senator, representative, commodore, or commandant. Capitalize
only when used with a person’s name, and use only on first reference.
Abbreviations
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1.5.1 Civil or Military. With the exception of senator, representative, commodore, or
commandant, which are never abbreviated, civil or military titles preceding a name are
abbreviated if followed by a given name or initial as well as a surname. Doctor is always
abbreviated as a title.
Prof. Mary Jones; Professor Jones
Gen J. F. Smith (note space between initials); General Smith
Representative Henry Brown; Representative Brown
Dr. Robert Young; Dr. Young
US Army; there was an army of people outside the gates
1.5.2 Complimentary. Complimentary titles (Mr., Mrs., Ms., MM., Messrs., Mlle., Mme.) are
also abbreviated at all times but are rarely necessary in intelligence writing. Except in
biographic reports, the only title we should use is an official one at the first mention of a person’s
name. After that, refer to the person by last name or by title, treating males and females alike.
Foreign Minister Cameron is expected to take part in the conference only long
enough to deliver his government’s opening position statement. After his
departure, the principal negotiator will be Ambassador Seitz, a protege of the
Foreign Minister. She is, in fact, a strong candidate to succeed Cameron when he
retires.
In a biographic report mentioning the spouse or other relatives of a person who is the subject of
the report, a complimentary title might be needed to ensure clarity.
President Smith’s family will accompany him on the visit. His wife, Elizabeth, is
an author. Mrs. Smith, while politically active, has never run for office.
or:
President Smith’s family will accompany her on the visit. Her husband, Greg, is
an artist. Mr. Smith, while politically active, has never run for office.
1.6 Latin Abbreviations
The utility of certain Latin abbreviations (such as op. cit., et al., and ibid.) for citing source
documents is established and generally acceptable, except in footnotes and bibliographies.
Other Latin abbreviations should be carefully used, if not avoided. Particularly troublesome are
e.g. and i.e.—their meanings are often misunderstood and therefore misrepresented. Instead,
use for example or for instance (instead of e.g.) and that is (instead of i.e.)—all three phrases
followed by a comma. The same problem arises with viz.—try namely or that is (followed by a
comma) instead. Another Latin abbreviation to be watched is etc., because it too is frequently
misused, particularly at the end of a series of items following for example. If these abbreviations
are used, they retain the periods and are not italicized. Nor is versus italicized, either spelled out
(preferred in a title or heading) or abbreviated (vs.).
UNCLASSIFIED
7
UNCLASSIFIED
Abbreviations
1.7 Other Abbreviations Requiring Careful Use
1.7.1 Political Subdivisions. As a general rule, do not abbreviate the names of political
subdivisions such as provinces, departments, or states (US or foreign). Abbreviation of US
states or provinces of Canada are acceptable if the names are used repeatedly to distinguish
cities of the same names in different jurisdictions. Most of the time there is no need to use
abbreviations of political subdivisions for well-known cities such as Toronto, Vancouver,
New York, and Washington (the D.C. is almost never necessary in intelligence contexts).
Distinguish Saint John, New Brunswick from Saint John’s, Newfoundland and London, Ontario
from London, England. But do not abbreviate unless these cities are mentioned repeatedly. It
is not necessary to put the name of the country after that of any well-known city (Ciudad Juarez,
Islamabad, Canberra, or Brasilia), even if it is not the capital. The names of some lesser known
cities, including capitals, may require accompanying country names, especially if used out of
context: Niamey, Niger; Georgetown, Guyana; Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; Valletta, Malta. A
comma is not required after the state when following the name of a city, unless it is
grammatically necessary.
Lake Bluff, Illinois was incorporated in 1895.
When visiting San Antonio, Texas, be sure to see the Alamo.
1.7.2 Months and Days. Do not abbreviate the names of months and days except to save
space in tables and graphics. However, even in these do not abbreviate unless the full terms
cannot be made to fit.
Use the following abbreviations if they are required:
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sun
Mon
Tue
Wed
Thu
Fri
Sat
1.7.3 Percentages. Do not abbreviate percent except to save space in tables or graphics,
where the symbol (%) may be used.
1.7.4 Units of Measure. Do not abbreviate a unit of measure used in a general or approximate
(dataless) sense.
Ranges are in kilometers.
The opening was several meters wide.
As a general rule, do not abbreviate units of measure in the text of a publication unless the
measurement occurs frequently. Units of measure are not followed by periods and are not
changed to plural form. Unit modifiers involving units of measure do require hyphens.
a road segment 50-km long
a 500-nm range
a 3-cm-diameter pipe
UNCLASSIFIED
8
Because of the risk of ambiguity, avoid single-letter abbreviations (g, h, m, L, t, V, W) unless
they are part of a hyphenated unit modifier.
Change: a segment of 300 m on route A
to: a 300-m segment on route A
or: a 300-meter segment on route A
or: a segment of 300 meters
Abbreviations
UNCLASSIFIED
Use the following abbreviations for units of measurement, if they are required:
A
a
ac
AF
Ah
A/m
AM
avdp
b
bbl
bbl/d
Bd
Btu
bu
C
c
cL
cm
c/m
cu
cu ft
cu m
cwt
dag
daL
dam
dB
dBu
dc
dg
dL
dm
dol
dwt
EHF
emu
erg
F
F
FM
ft
G
g
g
ampere
acre
alternating current
audio frequency
ampere-hour
ampere per meter
amplitude modulation
avoirdupois
bit
barrel
barrels per day
baud
British thermal unit
bushel
Celsius (degrees)
cycle (radio)
centiliter
centimeter
cycles per minute
cubic
cubic foot
cubic meter
hundredweight
dekagram
dekaliter
dekameter
decibel
decibel unit
direct current
decigram
deciliter
decimeter
dollar
deadweight ton
extremely high frequency
electromagnetic unit
erg (not abbreviated)
Fahrenheit (degree)
farad
frequency modulation
foot
giga (prefix, 1 billion)
gram
acceleration of gravity
gal
gal/min
gal/s
GHz
H
h
ha
HF
hg
hL
hm
hp
hph
Hz
in
J
J/K
K
k
kc
kg
kHz
kL
km
km/h
kn
kt
kV
kVA
kW
kWh
L
lb
lb,
LF
L/s
M
m
μ
mA
μA
mbar
gallon
gallons per minute
gallons per second
gigahertz (gigacycles per
second)
henry
hour
hectare
high frequency
hectogram
hectoliter
hectometer
horsepower
horsepower-hour
hertz (cycles per second)
inch
joule
joule per kelvin
kelvin (degree not used)
thousand (7k = 7,000)
kilocycle
kilogram
kilohertz (kilocycles per
second)
kiloliter
kilometer
kilometer per hour
knot (speed)
kiloton
kilovolt
kilovoltampere
kilowatt
kilowatthour
liter
pound
avdp avoirdupois pound
low frequency
liters per second
million (3M = 3 million)
meter
micro (prefix, one-millionth)
milliampere
microampere
millibar
UNCLASSIFIED
9
Abbreviations
UNCLASSIFIED
μbar
Mc
mc
mF
μF
mg
μg
Mgal/d
MHz
mHz
min
mL
mm
μm
mo
mpg
mph
μs
Mt
μV
MW
mW
MWH
μW
n
nA
nF
nm
nm
ns
oz
p
microbar
megacycle
millicycle
millifarad
microfarad
milligram
microgram
million gallons per day
megahertz
millihertz
minute
milliliter
millimeter
micrometer
month
miles per gallon
miles per hour
microsecond
megaton
microvolt
megawatt(s)
milliwatt
megawatt hours
microwatt
nano (prefix, one-billionth)
nanoampere
nanofarad
nanometer
nautical mile
nanosecond
ounce (avoirdupois)
pico (prefix, one-trillionth)
pA
pF
pH
pk
p/m
ps
pt
pW
qt
quad
rad
rms
rpm
rps
s
shp
sq nm
T
thm
ton
UHF
V
VA
VHF
V/m
W
Wh
x
yd
yr
picoampere
picofarad
hydrogen-ion concentration
peck
parts per million
picosecond
pint
picowatt
quart
quadrillion
radian
root mean square
revolutions per minute
revolutions per second
second
shaft horsepower
square nautical mile
tera (prefix, 1 trillion)
therm
US ton, short or long (not
abbreviated)
ultrahigh frequency
volt
voltampere
very high frequency
volt per meter
watt
watthour
unknown quantity
yard
year
Note: The abbreviation nm serves for both nautical mile and nanometer. Those terms should
be written out in the first reference before the abbreviation is used. If both terms are used in the
same report, cable, or other product, the abbreviation should not be used.
1.7.5 Metric Prefixes.
Metric Prefix
centi
deci
deka
hecto
kilo
mega
milli
Abbreviation
c
d
da
h
k
M
m
UNCLASSIFIED
10
Value or Meaning
1/100
1/10
10
100
1,000
1,000,000
1/1,000
UNCLASSIFIED
The list that follows contains abbreviations that are commonly used in DHS products. This list is
included for standardization of preferred usage and to show uppercase and lowercase forms.
For a complete list of DHS abbreviations, please see the DHS Lexicon Version 4, dated 14
September 2010.
Abdallah Azzam Brigades
Air Force Office of Special Investigation
alien-smuggling organizations
al-Qa‘ida in the Arabian Peninsula
AAB
AFOSI
ASOs
AQAP
America OnlineUSPER
Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
Beltran Leyva Organization
biosafety level
Bioterrorism Risk Assessment
Bomb-making Materials Awareness Program
Brazilian Department of Federal Police
British Secret Intelligence Service
Canadian Integrated Threat Analysis Centre
Canadian Security Intelligence Service
Center for Investigation and National Security
chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear
Chilean Investigative Police
Chinese Academy of Sciences
commercial off-the-shelf
counterintelligence
Customs and Border Protection
Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism
Danish Security Intelligence Service
Department of Defense
Department of Justice
Department of Public Safety
DHS National Operations Center
Director of National Intelligence
Domain Name Service
Drug Enforcement Administration
drug-trafficking organization
Dutch General Intelligence and Security Service
Dutch Ministry of Interior and Kingdom Relations
Electronic System for Travel Authorization
emergency travel documents
European Union
FBI Intelligence Analysis Section
Federal Preventive Police
UNCLASSIFIED
AOLUSPER
AMS
BLO
BSL
BTRA
BMAP
DPF
BSIS
ITAC
CSIS
CISEN
CBRN
PDI
CAS
COTS
CI
CBP
C–TPAT
PET
DoD
DOJ
DPS
NOC
DNI
DNS
DEA
DTO
AIVD
BZK
ESTA
ETDs
EU
FBI/IAS
PFP
Abbreviations
1.8 Abbreviation List
11
Abbreviations
UNCLASSIFIED
German Interior Ministry
German State Office for the Protection of the
Constitution
Haqqani network
Homeland Security Council
Homeland Security Information Network
Homeland Security Reference Aid
human intelligence
Immigration Advisory Program
Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Improvised Explosive Device
Institutional Revolutionary Party
Intelligence Community
International Labor Organization
Internet Protocol
Jamaat Islamiyya
last name unknown
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
Los Angeles International Airport
Mara Salvatrucha
megabytes
Mexican Army and Air Force
Mexican Attorney General’s Office
Mexican Secretariat of National Defense
Mexican Secretariat of Public Security
Mexican Secretariat of the Navy
Mexico’s Center for Investigations and National
Security
Mujahedin-e Khalq Organization
National Action Party
National Air and Space Intelligence Center
National Center for Medical Intelligence
National Coordinator for Counterterrorism
National Drug Intelligence Center
National Gang Intelligence Center
National Infrastructure Coordinating Center
North American Council of Somali ImamsUSPER
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Office of Intelligence and Analysis
other than Mexicans
Pakistan’s Federally Administered Tribal Areas
Party of Democratic Revolution
phenyl-2-propanone
UNCLASSIFIED
12
BMI
LfV
HQN
HSC
HSIN
HSRA
HUMINT
IAP
ICE
IED
PRI
IC
ILO
IP
JI
LNU
LLNL
LTTE
LAX
MS–13
MB
FAM
PGR
SEDENA
SSP
SEMAR
CISEN
MEK
PAN
NASIC
NCMI
NCTb
NDIC
NGIC
NICC
NACSIUSPER
NRC
I&A
OTMs
FATA
PRD
P2P
ports of entry
public key infrastructure
radiological and nuclear
radiological dispersal devices
Regional Threat Analysis
Remote Controlled IEDs
Royal Constabulary
Secure Socket Layer
signals intelligence
silicon-controlled rectifier
Special Events Working Group
special interest aliens
Special Investigations into Organized Crime
State and Major Urban Area Fusion Center
POEs
PKI
RN
RDDs
RTA
RCIED
KMAR
SSL
SIGINT
SCR
SEWG
SIAs
SIEDO
SMUAFC
Strategic Forecasting, Inc.USPER
Suspicious Activity Reports
Swedish Security Service
Transmission Control Protocol
transnational criminal organizations
Transportation Security Administration
Tri-Border Area
US Air Force
US Citizenship and Immigration Services
US Computer Emergency Readiness Team
United Nations General Assembly
United States Coast Guard
United States Department of Agriculture
United States Refugee Assistance Program
vehicle-borne IED
Visa Waiver Program
STRATFORUSPER
SARs
SAPO
TCP
TCOs
TSA
TBA
USAF
USCIS
US–CERT
UNGA
USCG
USDA
USRAP
VBIED
VWP
Abbreviations
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
13
Abbreviations
UNCLASSIFIED
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14
UNCLASSIFIED
Chapter 2
Capitalization
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UNCLASSIFIED
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UNCLASSIFIED
2.1 General
The standard rules of capitalization apply to DHS’ intelligence products, such as capitalizing
proper nouns and, of course, the first letter of a sentence. In general, follow the old maxim: if in
doubt, don’t capitalize. Do not, for example, capitalize the first letters of the words explaining an
uppercase abbreviation unless the term abbreviated is a proper name.
Capitalization
local area network (LAN)
but:
United States Postal Service (USPS)
2.2 Common Nouns in Proper Names
Capitalize common nouns as parts of proper names but not when the common noun is
separated from the rest of the name by a word or phrase, or when the common noun stands for
the name of the place or thing.
the Rio Grande River; the river
the Iraqi Special Operations Forces; the special forces
the English Channel; the channel
Capitalize the plural form of a common noun when it follows the proper adjective portion of two
or more proper names.
Baltic and Black Seas
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
Helsinki and Turku Naval Bases
Capitalize treaty when it is part of the proper noun title or shortened title of a signed treaty;
however, use lowercase for the word treaty when it is part of the name of an agreement that is
not yet signed. Use lowercase for treaty when it stands alone for an agreement.
the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty; the CFE Treaty; the treaty
A Conventional Forces in Latin America treaty has never been developed.
2.3 Derivatives of Proper Names
Capitalize the proper name portion of names that retain an association with their origin.
Bailey bridge
degrees Celsius
Doppler effect
Islamization
Marxism
neo-Stalinism
Use lowercase for derivatives of proper names when they have acquired independent
meanings.
anglicize
arabic
italicize
mecca
roman numerals
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15
UNCLASSIFIED
2.4 Articles in Proper Names
Capitalization
Capitalize the definite article, or its equivalent in a foreign language, when it is part of an official
name. When such a name is used as an adjective, a lowercase the might be used and, despite
the redundancy, would precede a capitalized non-English equivalent.
The Hague, but the Second Hague Conference
The Bahamas, but the Bahamas Tourist Office
The Gambia, but the Gambia mapping project
For some country names, the definite article is used but is not capitalized because it is not part
of the official name (for example, the United Kingdom, the United States, the Vatican), or
because the convention has been to use a lowercase t, as in:
the Philippines (the proper adjective is Philippine; the people are called Filipinos)
Do not omit the article before a country name in a series if the article is used when the name
stands alone.
the United States and the United Kingdom (not the United States and
United Kingdom)
There is no the in Congo, Ivory Coast, Seychelles, Sudan, Ukraine, or Western Sahara
(the Sahara refers to the desert).
In certain personal names, particles such as d’, de, den, du, van, and von are usually not
capitalized unless they begin a sentence.
. . . achieved independence while de Gaulle was President. De Gaulle, however,
did . . .
. . . opposed by the den Uyl government. Den Uyl’s policy differs from that of van
Agt in . . .
In other names, particles are often dropped when the family name alone is used.
Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq, but the late General Zia
Anglicized versions of foreign names vary in the matter of retaining or dropping particles
and in the use of capital letters. In any case, the preference of the person named, if
known, should be followed.
2.5 Names of Organized Bodies
Whenever possible, use the English translation—rather than the original language—in referring
to the name of a foreign organization, institute, government body, political party, educational
institution, corporation, or the like.
Often, however, there are compelling reasons—including convention, wide recognition, and
untranslatability—for giving such a name in the original language. In such cases, do not italicize
the name. If a translation is possible, relevant, or unobvious, supply one in parentheses
following the foreign-language name. If appropriate, give instead or in addition an explanation
of the name or description of the organization.
UNCLASSIFIED
16
UNCLASSIFIED
graduate of the Sorbonne
vote of confidence in the Knesset (parliament)
perpetrated by the Abu Nidal organization
the British Parliament; the parliament; the British legislature
the US Government; the Texas Government; the government
the Bush Administration; the administration
For the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth of Independent States, capitalize
Commonwealth as part of the proper name and standing alone as a substitute for the full name.
Capitalization
2.5.1 Government Bodies. Capitalize the proper name of a national governmental body as
well as the shortened form of the proper name. However, use lowercase for generic equivalents
of the proper names.
the Commonwealth of Independent States; the Commonwealth; Commonwealth
military issues
For subnational governmental bodies, capitalize only the full proper name and avoid shortened
forms that might be confused with shortened forms of national equivalents.
the Commonwealth of Virginia; the commonwealth
the Maryland House of Delegates; the state legislature
the Quebec Parliament; the provincial parliament
2.5.2 Military Forces. Capitalize the full proper name (or reasonable translations and
approximations of the proper name) of a military force or service. However, use lowercase for
generic names.
the People's Liberation Army; the PLA; Chinese ground forces
the Royal Air Force; the air force; the RAF; an air force pilot
Israel Defense Forces (IDF); army, air force, or navy in reference to that of Israel
This rule does not apply to individual units in the matter of capitalizing the shortened form of the
name.
the 28th Division; the division
the 1028th Brigade; the brigade
Nor does it apply to a reference, other than a proper name, to military services as a group, to a
general reference to one kind of service in the plural form, or to any general reference.
the infantry, the artillery, the submarine forces
US naval forces
but:
the German and Slovak Air Forces, the Greek and Turkish Navies
2.5.3 International Organizations. Capitalize the full proper name (and the shortened form) of
an international organization and its subordinate elements.
the UN General Assembly; the Assembly
the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development; the Bank; the IBRD
UNCLASSIFIED
17
UNCLASSIFIED
2.5.4 Diplomatic and Consular Units. Capitalize the full or shortened name of a specific
embassy, mission, or consulate but not those words when used generally.
Capitalization
the British Embassy; the Embassy; the British Embassies in Paris and Rome
but:
members of diplomatic missions
US embassy guards in European countries
2.5.5 Political Parties and Other Groups. Capitalize the full or shortened name of a political
party, but do not capitalize the word party standing alone.
the Chinese Communist Party; the party
the Palestine Liberation Organization; the PLO
Capitalize congressional in any reference to the US Congress, but otherwise use lowercase for
this and other adjectival forms of words referring to government bodies unless they are part of
an official name or title. Note also that Senator or Representative (uppercased) is used when
referring to a member of the US Congress.
parliamentary elections
Congressional (Departmental, Ministerial) Liaison Office(r)
but:
congressional (referring to a foreign legislature) action
Capitalize presidential in any reference to a past or present US President (Presidential vetoes,
decisions, proclamations) but not a reference to a future one (the 2012 presidential election) or
to the office generally (presidential powers under the US Constitution). Outside the US context,
use lowercase presidential and other adjectives referring generally to government offices unless
they are part of an official name or title: Presidential (Ministerial, Vice-Presidential) Liaison
Office(r), the woman designated Premier, the man elected Vice President; but presidential
(referring to a non-US presidency) action, ambassadorial courtesies,
prime-ministerial caliber.
2.6 Religious Terms
Capitalize the names of religions, religious bodies, and the terms for their adherents and
writings.
Christianity
Methodist Church
(but: the church)
an Episcopalian
Catholicism
a Protestant
a Jew
Judaism
Allah
Prophet (Muhammad)
Buddha
Semite, Semitism
the Bible
Biblical text
the Talmud
Talmudic scholar
the Koran
a Muslim
Koranic law
Islam
God
Russian Orthodoxy
Sabbath
Dalai Lama
UNCLASSIFIED
18
UNCLASSIFIED
Do not capitalize such terms when they are used in a nonreligious sense.
This style manual should be the editorial bible for all DHS analysts and editors.
The terms for and titles of religious leaders are capitalized preceding a name and occasionally
are capitalized following the name or when used alone.
In a political context, simply use the name for subsequent reference.
meetings between Orozco and the authorities.
Pope Benedict XVI . . . the Pope
Capitalization
Archbishop Orozco. . . the Archbishop; but appointment of an archbishop
but:
election of a pope
future popes
2.7 Political Philosophies
Capitalize words referring to members of organized parties, but use lowercase for words
referring to political philosophies and their adherents.
a Socialist; a Communist; a Liberal; a Labourite; a Conservative; a Tory;
a Christian Socialist (all party members)
but:
Christian Democrat, Christian Democracy, and Christian Democratic (the D is
capitalized as well as the C to prevent confusing adherents of Christian Democracy with
Christians who adhere to democracy)
2.7.1 Communism. Capitalize the words communist and communism when referring to any
part, adherent, or aspect of the Communist movement, whether referring to a form of
government, a non-ruling party, or even a Communist party that does not have one of these
words in its name. Most derivatives, including the opposites, of these words also have a
capital c.
ruling Communist party or parties
but:
Eurocommunism
2.7.2 Non-Communist Philosophies. Capitalize in accordance with the parties’ own names
the words referring to members of organized parties, but do not capitalize words referring to
non-Communist political philosophies and their adherents.
a Socialist; a Liberal; a Laborite; a Conservative; a Tory; a Social Christian;
a Christian Socialist (party members)
The liberal parties of the European Community do not all have the word liberal in
their names.
UNCLASSIFIED
19
UNCLASSIFIED
2.8 Geographic Terms
Capitalization
Use lowercase for terms denoting direction or position on the earth.
north
west
southwest
eastward
northerly
north-northwest
east coast
southern Arizona
northern Washington
central Europe
the polar region
polar icecap
Geographic terms for definite regions, geographic features, or political groupings are proper
names and are capitalized.
the North Atlantic
the Midwestern states
the Western Hemisphere
the West
the East
Western countries
For individual studies, particular attention may be focused on a locality and a name may be
coined to distinguish that locality; in such a case, capitalize the coined name. This does not
apply to general references to localities.
the cocaine industry in Peru’s Upper Huallaga Valley (designating a particular
locality for focused attention)
but:
fanning along the lower Orinoco (general reference to a locality)
Capitalize geographic terms used to divide the world into groups of countries for intelligence
writing.
Middle East; Middle Eastern
West Africa
East Africa
East Asia
Latin America
Central America
Capitalize celestial bodies only in extraterrestrial contexts.
Earth orbit; orbit the Earth; position on the earth; the earth’s crust
Moon landing; moonlight
Use lowercase for descriptive geographic terms.
tropical temperature
arctic conditions; arctic nights
polar exploration
2.9 Nationalities, Tribes, and Other Groups of People
Capitalize the names of racial, linguistic, and tribal groupings.
Arab
Indian
Native American
Cherokee
UNCLASSIFIED
20
UNCLASSIFIED
Do not capitalize the following terms based on racial origin, size, locale, or other usage.
black
bushman (general sense)
pygmy (general sense)
white
2.10 Coined Names
Capitalize full proper forms of coined names for military, economic, political, or other groupings.
Use lowercase for the shortened forms of the names and for generic references.
the Arab World
the Intelligence Community; the community
Capitalization
Terms with offensive connotations should never be used.
Capitalize holidays, religious feasts, and names coined to designate historic events.
New Year’s Day
the Holocaust
For recent wars, capitalize the two world wars and coined names designating wars, but use
lowercase for most other wars, especially those never officially declared.
World War I
World War II
post-World War II
the Korean war
the Vietnam war
the Iran-Iraq war
2.11 Trade Names
Trade names should be capitalized or replaced with a generic term if inappropriate.
air-cushion vehicle (ACV) or hover craft (unless it is a real Hovercraft)
tracked vehicles (unless they have genuine Caterpillar treads)
2.12 Titles of Persons
2.12.1 Before the Name. Capitalize any valid title (or short form of it) immediately preceding a
person’s name. The plural form of the title preceding more than one name is also capitalized,
as is the word acting if it is a valid part of a capitalized title. In front of a title, the prefix ex(followed by a hyphen) and the adjectives former and then (neither followed by a hyphen) are
not capitalized. Do not confuse a mere description with a title by capitalizing it.
President Lagos; Acting President Massey; Foreign Minister Shevardnadze;
First Deputy Premier Smith
vice-presidential candidate Gonzalez; pianist Magda Kibordskaya; Russian
delegate Ivanov
but:
First Lady Michelle Obama
President-elect
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Avoid preceding a name with more than one title. Use the more important one first, and then
the other later in the text if necessary, or if desired for variation.
Minister of Defense Yazov . . . Marshal Yazov
Capitalization
President Pinochet . . . General Pinochet
2.12.2 After or in Place of the Name. Generally, a title standing alone is lowercased unless it
refers to the incumbent—present or past (but not future). To indicate preeminence or distinction
in certain instances, capitalize a common-noun title or shortened title when it follows the name
of a person or is used alone in reference to the person to whom the title belongs or belonged.
The plural form of such a title is also capitalized as appropriate. Do not capitalize such a title
when it refers to the office rather than the individual or when it is used generally. Do not
capitalize in a personal title the suffixes designate and elect, the prefix ex, or the adjectives
former and then. The exception would be when such a personal title is part of the title of a
publication or the like.
Head or assistant head of state or government or a royal heir apparent:
the President
the former Vice President; an ex-President; an ex-Minister of State
the Queen of England; the Prince of Wales; the Crown Prince
but:
aspire to be president
a younger head of state
note also:
the First Lady; the First Family (but the royal family)
Head or assistant head of a national government unit in the executive branch and principal
members of the legislative and judicial branches:
the President of the Senate, the President
the Speaker of the House, the Speaker
the Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security
the fourth Director of National Intelligence
but:
the member of Parliament (never parliamentarian)
the Senator; the Representative; the Congressman; the assemblyman;
the people’s deputy
Principal officers of party organizations in Communist-ruled countries:
the General Secretary; the party General Secretary
but:
the party secretary responsible for agriculture
Highest official of a first-order administrative division under a national government or his or her
deputy:
the Governor of Arizona; the Acting Governor of Maryland
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but:
several state governors
the mayor of Albuquerque
Highest officer in a military service or his or her deputy:
but:
chief, G-2 (Intelligence Branch), Army Headquarters
the general (military title standing alone not capitalized)
Principal official of an international organization:
Capitalization
Chief of Staff, Canadian Air Force
the Secretary General
the present Secretaries General of the United Nations and the
Organization of American States
but:
periodic selection of NATO secretaries general
Principal members of the diplomatic corps:
the Ambassador; the British Ambassador
the Minister; the Charge; the Consul General; but the consul
but:
the Defense Attache
the first secretary
2.13 Publications
2.13.1 Titles. For titles of publications, sections, chapters, and so forth; headings; figures;
tables; and headings within tables, follow these guidelines:
— Capitalize the first word and the first word following an em dash or colon; nouns,
pronouns, verbs (including the to of an infinitive), adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and
conjunctions longer than three letters; and parts of compounds that would be capitalized
standing alone.
— Use lowercase—except for the first word or the first article after a colon or em dash—for
the articles a, an, and the; prepositions shorter than four letters (by, for, of, on, to, and so
on); the conjunctions as, but, if, or, and nor; and the second element of a compound
numeral.
2.13.2 Historic Documents. This rule for titles also applies to historic documents—for
example, to the Balfour Declaration (but not to a British white paper)—as well as to works of art.
2.13.3 Foreign Titles. The rule does not apply to titles that must be given in a language other
than English; capitalization in these titles should conform to the practice in that language.
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2.13.4 Shortened Titles. The above rule from 2.13.1 is sometimes modified to apply to
accepted shortened titles of some publications and historic documents. The following examples
show full and shortened titles.
Capitalization
article in The Washington Post (full title)
quoted in the Post article (shortened title)
but:
The 1962 Constitution was a vast improvement over earlier constitutions.
Writers of constitutions (general use) and compilers of style guides are kindred
souls.
2.13.5 Footnotes. Footnotes come under the same rule as sentences: capitalize the first letter
in each footnote. In general, footnotes should not begin with a number expressed as a numeral.
Footnotes are used sparingly in I&A products. Use a footnote when pertinent information
cannot be easily incorporated in the main text, but needs to be presented on the same page
with the item requiring further explanation.
Footnotes are annotated with symbols rather than numbers. To create a footnote with symbols,
click Insert/Reference/Footnote and Endnote, check Footnotes, and in the Format/Number
format drop-down list, select the symbols. Unless more than one footnote is on a page (which
should be rare), just use the asterisk throughout; no need to use sequential symbols.
If the text is bold, make the callout symbol bold. The callout symbol should follow the terminal
punctuation.
More than 15 parties are in the vetting chain.* (Example of text)
The vetting chain consists of…. (Example of footnote)
*
2.13.6 Titles of Graphics, Tables, and Chapters. The rule stated in 2.13.1 concerning
capitalization of titles of publications and the like applies to titles of graphics, tables, chapter and
part headings, headlines, and the equivalent, but not to annotations (such as arrowed captions
or callouts) on a photograph, map, or other graphic—for which only the first letter of the initial
word is capitalized. If a number given as a figure begins such an annotation, the word following
it is not capitalized.
200-mile limit (not 200-Mile limit or 200-mile Limit)
2.13.7 Indented Bullet or Dash Paragraphs. Capitalize the first letter of each block in a series
of blocks of text indented for emphasis and introduced by a bullet or an em dash.
2.13.8 Cross-References. The common nouns used in numeral or letter designations of
chapters, parts, graphics, and tables are not usually parts of titles and are not capitalized in
cross-references.
refer to Appendix B
(see figure 13)
2.13.9 Sentence Fragments. Sentence fragments listed in a column or as bullets should begin
with capital letters.
Advance preparations
Intergroup coordination
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Phrases listed within a sentence are not individually capitalized.
or:
Use the following phrases:
1. Advance preparations
2. Intergroup coordination
3. Vertical concurrence
2.13.10 Glossaries. Any glossary of terms that uses sentence-type definitions is capitalized as
follows: the term should begin with an initial capital on the first word, with the remaining words
lowercased unless the term is a proper name; sentence capitalization should be used for the
definition.
Capitalization
. . . advance preparations, intergroup coordination, vertical concurrence. . .
Military depots. Depots having some . . .
In lists of abbreviations and acronyms, both the short form and the definition should be rendered
as they would be in midsentence.
DDG
MPA
guided-missile destroyer
Mongolian People’s Army (proper name)
2.14 Miscellany
2.14.1 Seasons. Do not capitalize spring, summer, fall (autumn), or winter. As a general rule,
use the definite article in referring to a season and use of before the year.
in the fall of 1999
but:
her fall 1999 election triumph
A word of caution: avoid seasonal references in any writing about the Southern Hemisphere.
2.14.2 Hurricanes, Typhoons, Cyclones, Tornadoes, and Other Storms. Capitalize
hurricane as part of a US National Weather Service name for such a storm, as in Hurricane Ike.
The term changes to typhoon over the Pacific Ocean and, again, is capitalized when part of a
personalized name, such as Typhoon Doris. Both terms designate types of cyclones, as does
tornado, but cyclones and tornadoes seem to remain unchristened, as does a waterspout. In
view of the confusion of nomenclature, be sure of what you are writing about.
2.14.3 Treaties and Laws. The names of ratified treaties and of acts that have become law are
capitalized when rendered in full. For treaties that have not been ratified, the t in treaty should
always be lowercased.
Bill of Rights
START . . . the treaty (or the talks)
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2.14.4 Word-Equivalents of Acronyms. The capitals used for an acronym do not necessitate
capitals for their word equivalents. If the acronym is for a proper name, use capitals for the
words; otherwise, use lowercase.
Capitalization
the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty
the treaty applying to all intermediate-range nuclear forces (INF)
2.14.5 Emphasis. Avoid using capitals for emphasis. Boldfaced type, italics, underlining, and
placement (centering) are more effective, less distracting means to provide emphasis.
2.14.6 Military Exercises and Operations. Use all uppercase for names assigned to military
exercises and operations.
Exercise TEAM SPIRIT–85
Operation GLAD TIDINGS OF BENEVOLENCE
2.14.7 Wars. Capitalize the w in October War or Six-Day War because either term as a whole
is a distinguishing coined name, but 1973 Middle East war or 1967 Arab-Israeli war is
distinguishing enough without the capital W. Avoid Yom Kippur war. Do not uppercase the w in
Korean war, which was "undeclared"; the same logic applies to Vietnam war and Falklands war,
and a similar convention to Iran-Iraq war and Gulf war.
2.14.8 Holidays, Feasts, and Historic Events. Names of holidays and religious feasts and the
names used to designate historic or otherwise significant events are capitalized. Many of the
uppercased examples in this paragraph can be said to need capitalization to give them the
emphasis or prominence essential to understanding their meaning, especially when they are
used out of context.
New Year’s Day
D-Day
Independence Day
Labor Day
World War II
Ramadan
the Cold War
Veterans Day
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Chapter 3
Numbers
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3.1 General
Numerals are figures, words, or groups of words that express a number. Confusion sometimes
exists about which forms—figures or words—are appropriate for particular situations. This
chapter provides a set of basic rules that cover most circumstances and a variety of other rules
for special situations or factors related to the use of numbers.
Although a reader comprehends numerals (figures) more readily than numerical word
expressions (numbers spelled out), particularly in technical, scientific, or statistical matters,
typographic appearance and other special reasons often call for spelling out numbers rather
than using figures.
3.2.1 Numbers of 10 or More. Except at the beginning of a sentence, write numbers 10 or
greater in figures. If a number is the first word of a sentence, spell it out.
Numbers
3.2 Basic Rules
Her temporary assignment covered 11 countries in 16 days.
Forty-three construction workers built the bridge.
3.2.2 Numbers Under 10. Spell out (do not use figures for) most numbers less than 10. Use
figures for (do not spell out) numbers under 10 if they are decimal numbers, ages of persons,
percentages, specific amounts of money, or numbers used with units of measure other than
time.
For five years, the county has provided free preschool classes for 5-year-olds.
She spent 8 percent of her time in Europe.
ninth century (but 20th century)
Supply a zero before a decimal point except in the case of calibers or ammunition:
0.24 centimeters
.30 caliber
3.2.3 Mixes of Numbers Above and Below 10. When numbers 10 or greater are mixed with
numbers less than 10, follow 1 of the 2 rules below for all numbers within a sentence. The rule
that applies depends on whether units of measurement, time, or value are involved.
When a sentence contains numbers greater than and less than 10, use figures for all the
numbers.
The attack involved 60 soldiers, 5 tanks, and 2 helicopters.
The attack involved five tanks and two helicopters.
In the first example, 5 and 2 are figures because of the 60 in the same sentence. In the second
example, five and two are words because the sentence does not contain a number 10 or
greater.
Consistency is also maintained in multiple contexts.
The architect designed two buildings of 15 stories and three buildings of 7 stories.
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Units of measurement, time, and value—which are written as figures—have no effect on the
other numbers in a sentence and are not affected by them. Those other numbers continue to
follow the preceding rule.
In the past 11 years, there have been only two attacks and only seven casualties.
In the past 11 years, there have been 2 attacks and more than 120 casualties.
In the past 3 years, there have been 2 attacks and more than 120 casualties.
Numbers
The 11 years, a measure of time, does not affect the other numbers in either of the first two
sample sentences. In the third sample, the 120 does not affect the 3 years, the figure 3 is
appropriate simply because it gives a measure of time. In the first sample, two and seven are
words because each of them is less than 10 (again, 11 years has no bearing on this
determination). In the second and third samples, both 2 and 120 are figures because of the 120
in the sentence.
3.2.4 Numbers at Beginning of Sentences. If you cannot avoid beginning a sentence with a
number, spell it out. That spelled out number, however, will have no effect on the other
numerals in the same sentence; they will continue to follow the basic rules as if the opening
numeral did not exist. To avoid awkwardness, the sentence should be recast if possible.
Sixty-three percent of Americans were in favor of the bill.
Fifty kilometers away, spread over 7 kilometers, were three guerrilla bases.
3.3 Ordinal Numbers
The rules governing cardinal numbers generally apply to ordinal numbers, except that military
units are always designated by figures (again, unless the figure unavoidably comes at the
beginning of a sentence), and fractions are usually written out.
First Congress; 82nd Congress
ninth century; 20th century
but:
XII Corps (Army usage)
3.4 Roman Numerals
Roman numerals are rarely used in intelligence reports. Some countries use roman numerals
to identify large military units, such as an army or a corps. If quoted material includes roman
numerals, the style in the original material should be followed.
3.5 Special Rules
3.5.1 Indefinite Numbers. Except with words such as about, nearly, more than, and
approximately, references to quantities in an indefinite sense are not usually written with figures.
The project will cost the government tens of millions.
He addressed several thousand people.
but:
He spent about 30 hours on his trip report and had to wait nearly 15 days to be
reimbursed for expenses.
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3.5.2 Millions and Billions. Numbers over 999,999 are rounded unless an exact amount must
be stated. Spell out million or billion preceded by a figure rounded usually to no more than two
decimal places. This form of rounding is never applied to thousands.
The US population is about 300 million.
More than 16.35 million Americans served in World War II—more than three times
the 4.74 million in World War I.
but:
The cost is estimated at $10-20 million.
There were 1,078,162 casualties by 1945.
A force of 20,000 (never 20 thousand) law enforcement officials was needed.
Numbers
3.5.3 Figures of 1,000 or More. Numbers with more than three digits are written with commas,
except for years, radio frequencies, military unit designators, clock time, most serial numbers,
and the fractional portions of decimal numbers.
3.5.4 Numerical Unit Modifiers. Numerical unit modifiers are written with hyphens.
third-level decision
five-year plan
20-kilometer (or 20-km) march
3.5.5 Possessive Case. Numerical expressions in the possessive case require an apostrophe
but not a hyphen.
After five years’ planning, the project got under way.
She put 16 days’ work into the project.
3.5.6 Ranges. Take particular care in hyphenating ranges (other than years and page
references) so readers are not confused by the figures shown. Hyphens are acceptable (though
not required) in ranges in the millions and multimillions—but note particularly the placement
within money figures in the second sample below. Use the word to, not the en dash, if the word
from precedes the first element. Similarly, use the word and, not the en dash, if between
precedes the first element.
He worked here from 2002 to 2007.
She studied forensics between 1998 and 2002.
Redskins beat the Dallas Cowboys 24–20.
Don't combine from and between with numbers joined by a hyphen (use to, through, or and
instead of the hyphen).
Estimates range from 10 to 30 (not from 10-30)
Bids fell between $10 million and $14 million (not between $10-14 million)
For ranges in temperature, show the degree sign and the type of temperature scale only once if
the parts of the range appear together, but repeat those if the parts of the range are separated
by other text.
average in the high 20° Celsius (80° Fahrenheit)
around 5° C (low 40° F)
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For ranges of inclusive page numbers, show all numbers up to 100 (3-4; 4-12; 54-55).
Thereafter, reduce the second number of a set to two digits (253-54; 2614-15) unless the
hundred or thousand changes (499-501; 2998-3002). If the next-to-last digit is a cipher, show
only one numeral after the hyphen (601-9; 1901-2).
3.5.7 Numbers in Tables and Graphics and for Pages, Paragraphs, and Footnotes. Such
numbers—and sometimes those that immediately follow each bullet or “tick” in a series set off to
highlight quantities—are not subject to the general rules for numerals, nor are numeral
designators for tables, graphics, volumes, chapters, and other parts of publications. However,
the text portions of footnotes and, unless space constraints dictate otherwise, of tables and
graphics are governed by the same rules for numerals that are applicable to the text proper.
Numbers
When numbers are in a chart, table, or similar list format, always align right justified:
14,000
5,300
700
3.5.8 References to Numbers as Numbers. Any number referred to as a number is given as a
figure unless beginning a sentence when such a reference is unavoidable.
The estimate could be off by a factor of 2 or 3.
His lucky number is 7.
but:
Seven is his lucky number.
3.5.9 References to Numbers in a Non-literal Sense. Numbers used in a metaphorical or
figurative sense are spelled out without regard for the basic rules covering numbers above and
below 10.
The director is famous for eleventh-hour decisions.
Because he is a shrewd politician, he remains number two in the regime instead of
number twenty.
3.5.10 Decimals. Numbers with a decimal point are expressed in figures. Except for
designations of gun bore or ammunition size, a zero should be placed before the decimal point
of decimal numbers of less than one. Zeros are omitted at the end of a decimal number unless
exact measurement is indicated.
The range of that border sensor is 6.5 kilometers.
The concrete in that bunker is 0.65 meters thick.
but:
.22-caliber cartridge
3.5.11 Fractions. Fractions referring to reasonably specific quantities are written out, with a
hyphen in both noun and adjective forms. Spell out a fraction when it stands alone, begins a
sentence, or is followed by of a, of an, or of the.
Her estimate of the unit’s strength was one-half his.
Two-thirds of the vehicles were inoperable.
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Use numerals when the fraction is a modifier, when fractions are mixed with whole numbers, or
when spelling out the fraction would be awkward.
The endurance test included a 1/2-mile run.
We need a 2-1/2-ton truck to haul this.
3.5.12 Mixed Numbers. Avoid a combination of a whole number and a fraction by converting
the fraction to a decimal quantity if possible.
5.5 percent (not 5 1/2 percent)
two and a half (not one-half) years ago
two-and-a-half-year trial period (better in some contexts: 30-month trial period)
3.5.13 Numerical Compounds. Use a hyphen between the elements of compound numbers
from 21 to 99 when they must be spelled out.
Numbers
In non-statistical contexts, written-out phrases are preferred.
ninety-nine
one thousand three hundred twenty-one
Use a hyphen in adjective compounds with a numerical first element.
18-year-old student
24-hour period (but 24 hours a day)
Always use a hyphen between the elements of a fraction.
a two-thirds majority
two-thirds of the legislature
3.5.14 Telephone numbers. Use dashes, not parentheses.
202-555-5555
3.6 Expressions of Values
3.6.1 US Dollars. Values expressed in US money are given in figures preceded by a dollar
sign. Ordinarily, there is no need for the initials US to precede the dollar sign unless the context
could allow the reader to assume that dollars other than US dollars were meant. If this is the
case and the dollar amounts appear throughout the text, consider adding a footnote such as,
“Monetary values in this paper are in US dollars unless otherwise indicated.” The word dollars
is used in an indefinite expression with no figure given or if some definition of the word is
needed—such as the year to which the dollar value applies. The word cents is used for
amounts less than a dollar.
DHS spent nearly $50 million to develop the system.
Each unit now costs several hundred dollars.
Use the word cents for amounts less than a dollar.
He paid about 42 cents in taxes for every dollar he earned.
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3.6.2 Foreign Money. Rarely is it necessary to express values in foreign money. It is perfectly
acceptable to use US dollars. Most other currencies are handled the same way as US
currency; a decimal point is used between the main unit and subunits: EUR 10.75, EUR 40,
725 yen. A space separates the letters from the numeral. In contexts where the symbol ($)
may refer to non-US currencies, these currencies should be clearly identified and retained
throughout the document:
Prime Minister Tony Blair says the United Kingdom’s part in the counterterrorism
operation will cost 55 million euros.
If it is essential to state values in foreign money, use figures except for indefinite amounts.
Numbers
The fare is only 1 deutsche mark.
3.7 Percentages and Times Phrases
3.7.1 Relationships. Numbers showing the relationship of a smaller to a larger quantity are
frequently expressed in percentages, which are always given in figures (75 percent, 6.2 percent,
1 percent, 0.5 percent). Numbers showing the relationship of a larger quantity to a smaller one
are often accompanied by the word times and, unless decimals are used, are governed by the
basic rules for numbers on either side of 10.
five times as large
10 times greater
2.5 times more powerful
3.7.2 Percentages. The word percent is preferred in ordinary text. The percent sign (%) is
acceptable in tables and graphics. Unless space is tight, the text portions of tables and
graphics should include the word and not the sign to express percentage. Figures are always
used for percentage except at the beginning of a sentence that cannot be reworded. Both noun
and adjective forms are always open (no hyphen).
Ninety percent of analysts agreed the Style Manual enhanced their papers.
The current five-year plan projects a 20 percent increase by 2010.
Voter turnout dropped 5.7 percent in the second round.
Be careful to distinguish between percent and percentage point.
The inflation rate, which rose only half a percentage point last year, is expected to
go up a full 2 or 3 points to 12 or 13 percent in 2007.
3.7.3 Times Phrases. Various ways of expressing (or not expressing) proportion with the word
times are shown below. Note that careful wording is needed to avoid confusion. Sometimes
the message is clearer if expressed in percentage. One can also use the suffix fold, but this is
somewhat archaic and awkward when decimal factors are involved.
The number of tanks increased to five times the pre-war level. (This is a
400 percent, or fourfold, increase. However, it is 500 percent of the beginning
number.)
The number of tanks is five times greater than before the war. (This is a
500 percent, or fivefold, increase.)
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If the suffix fold is attached to a whole number that is written out and unhyphenated, spell the
resulting word solid without a hyphen (fourfold, tenfold, twentyfold, hundredfold). Otherwise use
a figure and a hyphen (21-fold, 5.75-fold).
The principal advantage of fold is that it sometimes permits a more precise translation of data
reported in a foreign language. A 5.75-fold increase, however, can just as easily be expressed
as a 575 percent increase, an increase of 5.75 times the previous level, or an increase to
6.75 times the previous level.
Never use meaningless expressions such as four times smaller, which sometimes is written by
an author who means to say one-fourth as large.
3.8.1 Ages of Persons. These are expressed in numerals except at the beginning of a
sentence and in approximations by decades.
The general is almost 60 (or 60 years old, not 60 years of age).
The general must be in his sixties.
Numbers
3.8 Expressions of Time
3.8.2 Ages of Inanimate Things. These are given according to the basic rules for numbers
above and below 10.
The analyst program is two years old.
Those 20-year-old border patrol vehicles are being scrapped.
3.8.3 Dates. Use figures for days and years and give dates in day-month-year order. Only the
day and month are necessary if the year is obvious. Ordinal numbers may be used after the
month is clearly established. Do not abbreviate the month or year in publications, single digit
days are not preceded by a zero, and use forced space (Shift+Enter) between day and month if
day ends a line of text.
The United States declared its independence on 4 July 1776.
but:
We will never forget September 11, 2001.
Mexico’s Independence Day is celebrated on 16 September.
3.8.4 Years. Figures designating a continuous period of two or more years are separated by a
hyphen meaning “up to and including.” For two years, and may be used.
She worked here during the period 1965-98.
but:
She worked here in 1980 and 1981.
Do not combine from or between with a hyphen instead of to, through, or and. Such
combinations (from 1971-97, between 1965-98) are almost always incorrect or too obscure.
Instead, write from 1971 to (or through) 1997 or between 1965 and 1998.
Do not use a hyphen to specify the dates of related but separate events occurring in two
consecutive years.
The first two submarines were launched in 1990 and 1991 (not 1990-91).
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A hyphen may be used, however, to date events that straddle consecutive years representing a
continuous period.
Crewmember training took place during the period 1994-95.
. . . during the winter of 1994-95.
Use a slash (also called diagonal, oblique, and virgule) sparingly and never in place of a hyphen
or dash. The slash can be used to indicate a 12-month period occurring in two calendar years,
such as a fiscal year or an academic year. State the type of year and, if necessary, the period
covered.
Numbers
The farm made a profit in the 1996/97 crop year (1 July–30 June) but not in
1998/99.
Registrations for the academic year 2005/06 are still being accepted.
3.8.5 Decades. Decades are usually expressed with the figure for the initial year followed by
an s but not an apostrophe.
All the submarines were constructed in the 1990s (not 90s or ‘90s).
Our estimates are intended to cover the early and middle 1990s. Your figures deal
with the middle and late 1980s.
3.8.6 Centuries. In certain contexts, a century may be referred to in a manner similar to that
used for decades (the 1800s, the eighteen hundreds), but in most intelligence writing, ordinal
numbers (the 19th century, 20th century progress) are more appropriate.
3.8.7 Clock Time. Use internal punctuation and indicate the time zone if other than Eastern.
5 a.m. (colon and zeros are not needed for on-the-hour time)
5:20 a.m. PST (if not Eastern)
3.8.8 Other Time Expressions. References to time follow the basic rules for numbers above
and below 10.
The protest lasted for eight days.
Some countries structure their economic activities according to five-year plans.
3.9 Units of Measure
Use figures (not words) with any unit of measure unless you are stating an indefinite quantity.
As a general rule, do not abbreviate units of measure in the text of a publication unless the
measurement occurs frequently. However, abbreviations may be necessary in tables because
of space constraints. Never abbreviate the units with an indefinite quantity. Avoid abbreviating
units when the result is a single letter abbreviation (2-meter stream rather than 2-m stream).
The missile exploded 500 kilometers downrange.
Law enforcement advanced several hundred kilometers (not several 100
kilometers and not several hundred km).
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3.9.1 Metric System. DHS uses metric units for measurements. Preferences exist for which
units are to be used with which quantities. In addition, some non-metric units still are
authorized.
Cubic meters and kilograms are preferred for volume and mass, but liters and metric tons are
preferred for fuel capacity and bulk mass (wheat, coal, and others). Bushels, barrels, and
barrels/day may be used.
Use kilotons and megatons for nuclear weapon yields.
Use degrees (rather than radians) for azimuth, beamwidth, inclination, reentry angle, and other
angles for which degrees customarily have been used.
— Nautical miles and knots or mach continue to be used for naval and aircraft-related
parameters and for radius, range, or distance associated with aircraft and ship
operations. Metric units don't have to be shown in addition, although they sometimes
may be appropriate. If altitudes are associated with distances in nautical miles, then
those altitudes should be in feet.
Numbers
Preferred units for radius, range, speed, and altitude vary depending on the applications:
— Use nautical miles for ranges of territorial waters and economic zones at sea.
— Use meters for wave heights (showing feet in parentheses also may be appropriate).
— Metric units (kilometers and kilometers per hour) should be used where more
appropriate, such as when discussing flight activity originally reported in kilometers,
when describing radar scopes and other items calibrated in kilometers, when citing data
from foreign documents with distances in kilometers, and when reporting estimates
originally calculated in metric units. Showing values in nautical miles in addition to
values in kilometers isn't necessary; however, key characteristics—maximum range,
maximum speed, and others—should be stated in nautical miles and knots as well as in
metric units. Altitude capability should be expressed in meters (rather than kilometers).
— Use kilometers for ballistic missiles and space-related parameters such as range,
apogee, and perigee.
— Use meters for circular error probable.
— Use meters per second for velocity and g for acceleration.
— Use kilometers and kilometers per hour where statute miles and miles per hour
customarily would have been used, such as for highway and rail travel, landline
distances, and road map distances between sites. Use meters for altitude of landrelated locations.
Other non-metric units still in wide use—such as standard atmosphere, millibar, and roentgen—
should be used in contexts where departure from traditional units would impair communication.
Take particular care within a document not to mix metric and non-metric units unnecessarily so
that readers are left with confusing data. For example, in discussions of air-land operations,
don't mix nautical mile data for aircraft and kilometers for units on the ground. In such cases,
convert all measurements to metric data or provide both metric and non-metric measurements
for the data customarily expressed in non-metric units.
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3.9.2 Units of Measure Exceptions. The IC makes certain exceptions for which metric units
are not used. Among the excepted units of measure are the kiloton (kt), nautical mile (nm) for
sea distances, pounds per square inch (psi), and the knot (kn). These units (or Mach units, if
appropriate) continue to be used for certain weapon system parameters. See Chapter 1.7.4 for
a full list of measurement abbreviations.
Numbers
The kiloton (kt) is a unit of weight representing the amount of TNT required to produce an
equivalent release of energy (1 kt = l,000 metric tons of TNT). It is used to express the yield
from both nuclear and high-explosives detonations. The yield may also be expressed in metric
tons (1 = 1,000 kilograms) and megatons (1 = 1,000,000 metric tons) of TNT. The joule is
another unit measuring energy that is occasionally seen in scientific documents in the nuclear
energy field.
The knot is a measurement of speed, not distance. By definition, it includes the sense of “per
hour”—1 knot means 1 nautical mile per hour.
maximum speed of 10 knots
or:
maximum speed of 10 nautical miles per hour
The knot is used to express not only nautical speeds but also the airspeed of subsonic aircraft
and missiles.
The Mach number measures supersonic speeds in terms of the ratio of the speed of an object
to the speed of sound in the surrounding medium (that is, twice the speed of sound would be
Mach 2). Mach speeds are always referenced as numerals, never spell out the number.
lengthened to accommodate supersonic aircraft of Mach 1.5 capability
Although not part of the metric system, the nautical mile is also an internationally established
measure, derived from the length of 1 minute of arc of a great circle of the earth or 1 minute of
longitude at the equator (1,852 meters or 6,076.1 feet). The nautical mile is a measurement of
distance “as the crow flies” and is used in the following cases: in surface and underwater
navigation and in describing the range of ships in which the speed is given in knots.
The best approach for metric tons is to establish early in the text that tons thereafter means
metric tons and then just use the four-letter word. MMT is used to abbreviate million metric tons
if frequent repetition warrants.
Other non-metric units of measure still in use include barrels (and barrels per day) in reporting
on the petroleum industry; the US bushel in reporting on grain production and trade; cubic feet
in reporting on natural gas reserves or output; and short tons (not metric tons) in reporting on
nuclear weapons (rather than the metric unit joule).
3.9.3 Figures with Units of Measure. Figures (not words) are used with any unit of measure
(excluding units of time but including bit or byte as a measure of units of electronic data) unless
an indefinite quantity is stated, in which case the unit is never abbreviated. As a general rule,
do not abbreviate units of measure unless they occur frequently in a report.
The project involved the use of pipe 48 inches (about 120 centimeters) in diameter
(not 48-inch, or about 120-centimeter, pipe).
They advanced several hundred kilometers (never several hundred km).
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3.10 Order of Dimensions
Convention dictates that the sequence for expressing size is always length, width, and height.
The length is the greater of the two horizontal dimensions. Any dimension expressing diameter
or depth should be specified.
a garage measuring 30 by 18 by 12 meters (or 30 by 18 meters by 12 meters high)
a 6- by 3-meter trailer
a canister 15 meters long and 1.2 meters in diameter
Note that a vertical measurement is always height or high, not tall.
3.11.1 Numbers Next to Numbers. When a cardinal number ordinarily given as a figure
precedes a numerical unit modifier normally using a figure, consider rewording the sentence.
Attempt to change one of the figures, preferably the smaller number to a spelled-out word, to
avoid confusion.
Numbers
3.11 Other Number Rules
15 six-meter trees (or 15 trees 6 meters high)
twelve 50-mm guns
3.11.2 Ratios, Odds, Scores, and Returns. Use numbers for each of these numerical
situations.
Women were outnumbered 17 to 1.
The editor-to-analyst ratio was 1:49.
If elements in a scale represent equal units of measure, the scale is expressed as a ratio.
1:45 or 1 part represents 45 parts (text style)
However, if two different units of measure are involved, the style is as follows:
1 nm = 1.852 km
or:
1 nautical mile equals 1.852 kilometers
3.11.3 Indefinite Expressions Using Figures. Illustrated in the following examples are
numerical expressions that may be required in certain contexts (such as in a direct quotation)
but are not recommended. Note that alternative wording is usually available.
100-odd (better: more than 100) species of insects
reserves of 50-plus (better: more than 50) vehicles
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3.11.4 Scientific Notation. A scientific and technical paper may require exponential expression
of quantities in the multimillions.
The Earth’s mass is about 5.9736 x 1024 kg.
Numbers
3.11.5 Factors for Converting Units of Measure.
To Convert From
acres
acres
acres
barrels, POL
barrels, POL
bushels, US dry
centimeters
centimeters
centimeters, square
centimeters, square
degrees Celsius
degrees Fahrenheit
feet
feet
feet, cubic
feet, cubic
feet, square
gallons, US liquid
gallons, US liquid
gallons, US liquid
hectares
hectares
hectares
inches
inches, cubic
inches, square
kilograms
kilograms
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers, square
kilometers, square
liters
liters
liters
meters
meters
meters
meters
meters, cubic
meters, cubic
meters, cubic
meters, square
meters, square
To
hectares
kilometers, square
meters, square
gallons, US liquid
liters
meters, cubic
inches
meters
meters, square
inches, square
degrees Fahrenheit
degrees Celsius
centimeters
meters
liters
meters, cubic
meters, square
barrels, POL
liters
meters, cubic
acres
kilometers, square
meters, square
centimeters
liters
centimeters, square
pounds, avoirdupois
tons, metric
feet
miles, nautical
miles, statute
hectares
nautical miles square
barrels, POL
gallons, US liquid
meters, cubic
centimeters
feet
kilometers
yards
bushels, US dry
feet, cubic
liters
acres
feet, square
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Multiply By
0.4046856
0.004046856
4,046.856
42
158.9873
0.03524
0.3937
0.01
0.0001
0.1550
multiply by 9/5 and add 32
subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9
30.48
0.3048
28.316847
0.028316847
09290304
0.0238
3.785412
0.003785412
2.47105
0.01
10,000
2.54
0.016387064
6.4516
2.2046
0.001
3,280.84
0.53997
0.62137
100
0.29155
0.0063
0.2642
0.001
100
3.2808
0.001
1.0936
28.3776
35.31445
1,000
0.0002
10.7639
meters, square
miles, nautical
miles, nautical
miles, nautical
miles, nautical, square
miles, statute
miles, statute
miles, statute
miles, statute, square
miles, statute, square
ounces, avoirdupois
ounces, troy
pounds, avoirdupois
pounds, avoirdupois
pounds, avoirdupois
pounds, avoirdupois
pounds, troy
quarts, US dry
quarts, US liquid
quintals
quintals
tons, long (2,240 lb)
tons, long
tons, metric
tons, metric
tons, metric
tons, short (2,000 lb)
tons, short
yards
yards, cubic
yards, square
hectares
feet
kilometers
miles, statute
kilometers square
kilometers
meters
miles, nautical
hectares
kilometers, square
grams
grams
kilograms
ounces, avoirdupois
quintals
tons, metric
ounces, troy
liters
liters
kilograms
tons, metric
kilograms
tons, metric
quintals
tons, long
tons, short
kilograms
tons, metric
meters
meters, cubic
meters, square
0.0001
6,076.1154
1.852
1.15076
3.4299
1.609344
1,609.344
0.86899
258.9998
2.589998
28.349523
31.10348
0.45359237
16
0.00453592
0.000453592
12
1.101221
0.946352946
100
0.1
1,016.047
1.016047
10
0.9842
1.1023
907.185
0.907185
0.9144
0.7645549
0.83612
Numbers
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Numbers
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Chapter 4
Punctuation
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4.1 General
Punctuation is intended to make writing clear and prevent misunderstanding. Punctuation is
based on meaning, grammar, syntax, and custom. The trend in formal writing is toward less
punctuation, not more. Less punctuation does, however, call for skillful phrasing to avoid
ambiguity and ensure exact interpretation.
The general principles governing the use of punctuation are:
— If it does not clarify the text it should be omitted.
— In the choice and placing of punctuation marks, the sole aim should be to bring out more
clearly the author’s thought. Punctuation should aid in reading and prevent misreading.
The US Government Printing Office Style Manual, the Merriam-Webster’s New Collegiate
Dictionary, and The Chicago Manual of Style each explain and illustrate rules of punctuation
that are applicable to intelligence writing.
The possessive form made up of an apostrophe and an s (the Director’s) is used for nouns
denoting persons, and the form combining the preposition of and a noun object is applied to
organizations or inanimate things (a decision of the Ministry). However, the s possessive is
commonly used for the inanimate in expressions that indicate time (moment’s notice, year’s
labor) and in other familiar phrases (heaven’s sake, heart’s content). Which possessive form to
use often depends on sound or rhythm. The s possessive is more terse than the of phrase
(morning’s beauty, beauty of the morning). In some of phrases, idiom calls for a sort of
possessive redundancy—always for a pronoun (friend of his), usually for a proper noun (friend
of John’s) but not necessarily (friend of John Jones), and optionally for a common noun (friend
of the author, friend of the author’s).
Punctuation
4.2 Apostrophe
Two functions of the apostrophe are to show possessive case and sometimes to create plural
forms. The apostrophe also is used to indicate contractions in words such as can’t and it’s that
are appropriate in spoken, but not usually in formal, written English.
Use the MS Word Smart Quotes feature to produce “curly” quotation marks and apostrophes
(“…”, ‘…’) instead of straight, vertical hash marks and apostrophes (″…″, ′…′).
4.2.1 Possessives. The possessive case of most nouns and indefinite pronouns is indicated by
some combination of the apostrophe and the letter s.
If a word (either singular or plural) does not end in s, add an apostrophe and an s to form the
possessive.
the woman’s book
that Thai’s passport
the women’s books
those Thai’s passports
If the singular of a word (or acronym or abbreviation) ends in a sibilant s sound, add an
apostrophe and an s unless the added sibilant is not present in the word’s normal pronunciation;
in such cases, add only the apostrophe.
Note also:
Juarez’s troops
the United States’ position
Dickens’s novels
the Philippines’ outer islands
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but:
Paris’s history
Congress’s resolution
the corps’ units
Illinois’ senator
To avoid a triple sibilant, exceptions are sometimes made for significant names that already end
in a double sibilant.
Jesus’
Moses’
If the plural of a word ends in s, add only the apostrophe.
the boys’ team
the two leaders’ rift
In compounds, make only the last word possessive.
Punctuation
secretary general’s speech
Shah of Iran’s overthrow
In a combination of two or more nouns for which joint possession is to be indicated, make only
the last noun possessive; if individual possession, make both or all nouns possessive.
Pat’s and Mike’s lunchtimes never seem to coincide.
Gable’s, Colbert’s, and McCarey’s Oscars were for the same film.
In geographic names, firm names, the names of organizations and institutions, and the titles of
publications, follow the authentic form.
Harpers Ferry
People’s Republic
Johns Hopkins University
St. Peter’s Church
Do not use an apostrophe after names of states or countries and other organized bodies ending
in s or after words more descriptive than possessive, except when the plural does not end in s.
Kansas law
teachers college
League of Nations mandate
officers club
but:
National Organization for Women’s headquarters
also:
master’s degree
masters’ degrees
The possessive case is often used even though ownership is not involved.
two hours’ work
for pity’s sake
a day’s pay
for old times’ sake
but:
several million dollars’ worth
$10 million worth
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The possessive case is used for a noun or pronoun preceding a gerund if this syntax is
unavoidable.
try to rephrase:
London announced it had no objection to Rome’s taking part.
better:
London announced it would not object if Rome took part.
try to rephrase:
Economy was one reason for George’s buying a small car.
better:
Economy was one reason George bought a small car.
Numerical expressions in the possessive case require an apostrophe but not a hyphen.
4.2.2 Plurals. The apostrophe is inserted before a lowercase s to form the plurals of single
letters, single digits, and abbreviations ending with a period. It is not inserted before the s in the
plurals of groups of letters or hyphenated letter-number combinations unless needed to
enhance comprehension—for example, if the combination ends with a lowercase letter
(SS-N-3a’s). It is omitted in the plurals of groups of digits designating decades or centuries.
dotted i’s, 7’s, and 8’s
the 1990s
The U.N.’s stance
Punctuation
After five years’ planning, the project got under way.
The regime bought several million dollars’ worth of arms (but: $20 million worth).
but: SS-7s and SS-8s
but: 1992’s election
To form plurals of spelled-out numbers, of most words referred to as words, and of words
already containing an apostrophe, add just s or es. But, add ’s to indicate the plural of words
referred to as words if the omission of an apostrophe would cause difficulty in reading.
He rolled two sevens
The embassies view shifted dramatically
4.3 Brackets
Use brackets to clarify or correct material written by others.
His note said, “I did not see her [Jane] before the meeting.”
Use brackets to enclose a parenthetical word or expression within a set of parentheses.
He is well educated (by tutors in Pittsburg [Kansas]).
Use brackets to set off editorial remarks within quoted material.
The minister stated, “The election [of 3 March] will be reexamined.”
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Use brackets to enclose numbers referring to sources listed at the end of a report. Such usage
is discouraged. If essential, such brackets should be explained in a prefatory note or footnote.
Adams's strong defense of that law [2] was subsequently challenged by his own
son in an essay [3] published after the father's death.
Use brackets as parentheses within parentheses. Brackets follow the same punctuation
principles as parentheses when used with other punctuation.
(For more information see Stewart’s thesis [2006] and Schaaf’s survey [2005].)
Sic is put in brackets and in italics to show that a quoted passage is precisely reproduced
(including mistakes).
“mindful of what has been done here by we [sic] as agents of principle”
Punctuation
4.4 Bullets
The bullets for formal writing are structural. There should be at least two bullets. Their purpose
is to organize the presentation of detail, often quite a large amount of detail. Bullets are parallel
so the reader is never far from the point being discussed as follows:
— Bullets are composed of em dashes.
–
Sub-bullets are composed of en dashes.
— Use bullets to introduce items in a vertical list.
— Introduce material with a colon at the end of an introductory sentence or phrase.
— Portion mark each bullet individually.
— Capitalize the first letter of each bullet entry.
— End each bullet with a period if the bullets are full sentences. End each bullet with a
comma if the bullets are un-punctuated phrases (put a period at the end of the final
bullet). End each bullet with a semicolon if the bullets are punctuated phrases, but not
sentences (put a period at the end of the final bullet). Bulleted lists consisting of only
one or two words, however, may look better without any punctuation. Be consistent
within a list.
— Insert one hard return space between bullets.
Example:
— Use an em dash as the bullet with two spaces between the portion marking and text.
Customizing bullet settings: Bullet Position—Indent at 0.25. Text Position—Tab Space
After 0.25; Indent at: 0.5 using Character Code 2014 from Unicode, Font Times New
Roman, 11-point, subset General Punctuation.
–
Use an en dash for each sub-bullet with two spaces between the portion marking
and text. Customizing bullet settings: Bullet Position—Indent at: 0.50. Text
Position—Tab Space After 0.50; Indent at 0.75 using Character 2013 from Unicode,
Font Times New Roman, 11-point, subset General Punctuation.
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4.5 Colon
A colon indicates an introduction. Use colons before a quotation, a list, an explanation, or a
complete thought. The conventional view is that the words preceding a colon should always
form a complete sentence.
The colon is used:
— Before a final clause or phrase that summarizes or expands preceding matter.
Food, clothing, fuel, and building materials: these are the critical items.
The delegation visited four American cities: Albuquerque, Fort Worth, Atlanta, and
Los Angeles.
— To separate two main clauses if the second amplifies or explains the first.
— To separate titles and subtitles.
The Tragic Dynasty: A History of the Romanovs
Editorial Consistency: An Agency Goal
Punctuation
Railroading is not a variety of outdoor sport: it is a service.
He is well qualified to serve as foreign minister: he has held posts in the ministry
since 1998 and has served abroad many times.
— To show ratios, for which figures (not spelled-out words) are always used. But use a
hyphen if the ratio is used adjectivally.
20:1
but:
a 20-to-1 chance
— To introduce lengthy material set off from the rest of the text by indentation. If the
material set off is a quotation, the indentation precludes the need for quotation marks.
Do not use a colon between a verb and its objects or between a preposition and its
objects, unless the colon sets off an indented list.
not:
Customs and Border Protection wants several US military systems, such as:
helicopters, unmanned aerial vehicles, and high-mobility multipurpose wheeled
vehicles.
but:
Customs and Border Protection wants several US military systems: helicopters,
unmanned aerial vehicles, and high-mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicles.
When a number following a colon begins an independent clause that you cannot recast, spell it
out.
The Dulles Airport requested: twenty TSA screeners, two K-9s, and seven SUVs.
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4.6 Comma
The comma is the most frequently used mark of punctuation and the most frequently misused.
There is a general tendency to use too many commas, but omitting commas is almost as
common as overusing them. One example is the comma splice, in which a comma is used
instead of a semicolon or period to denote cessation rather than pause.
The comma is used to separate two words or figures that might otherwise be misunderstood.
Of the total, production was the greatest single item.
Instead of thousands, hundreds were built.
The comma is used to separate the parts of a series of coordinate modifying words (if you can
substitute and for the comma, the words are coordinate).
short, swift streams
long, slender, brittle stems
Punctuation
The comma is not used if the modifying words are cumulative and not coordinate (and cannot
be separated by and)—that is, if one modifies another or a unit of which another is a part.
illegal drug traffic
short tributary streams
If the modifying words are neither coordinate nor cumulative, they probably constitute a unit
modifier.
The comma is used to set off nonrestrictive words, phrases, or clauses.
The manager, Bruce McAllister, spoke last.
The work was, in fact, completed.
The manager, who was dismissed in 1998, was reappointed in 2001.
Whether the element is nonrestrictive, or nonessential, is determined by the intent of the
sentence. Note that in the following sentences, each of the elements is necessary to the
meaning of the sentence in which it appears, is therefore restrictive, and is not set off by
commas.
The work must be completed in fact as well as in theory.
The manager who was dismissed in 1998 was rehired in 1999. (The who clause
identifies the particular manager being discussed.)
The comma is used to set off contrasting statements in a sentence.
The branch chief, not the analyst, made the decision.
The comma following the next-to-last element is sometimes called the “serial comma” or “Oxford
comma.” While some publications omit the serial comma to save space, its use is incorporated
into DHS writing. The comma is used after each element except the last—but including the next
to last—within a series of three or more words, phrases, clauses, letters, or figures used with
and or or (if none of the elements in the series is a phrase or clause with internal commas).
Copper, lead, zinc, and tin were mined.
The data were collected, estimates were made, and conclusions were drawn.
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If one or more of the elements in the series is a phrase or clause with internal commas, use
semicolons instead of commas between the elements, rearranging the sentence if necessary to
put the series at the end. No matter how short the elements, use the semicolon (“serial
semicolon”) before the and or or.
The chief exports were brass, which is an alloy; platinum, which is a precious
metal; and tin.
not:
Brass, which is an alloy; platinum, which is a precious metal; and tin were the
chief exports.
The comma is used before the coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence (a sentence
that contains at least two independent clauses).
In a simple sentence with a compound predicate, the comma is not used before the coordinating
conjunction unless needed for clarity.
He served in the Army until 2010 and has worked for DHS since then.
He went to Portugal to study but decided not to stay.
The comma is used to separate digits of most numbers in the thousands and unrounded
millions.
1,078,162
1,000
3,399.243046
5,752,194
if rounded:
5.7 million
6 million
Punctuation
He served in the Army until 2010, and then he went to work for DHS.
The country imports copper, iron, and lead, but domestic tin is available.
The comma is used to separate from a main clause an introductory clause or phrase that is long
or that might cause confusion without a comma.
Because the corporation derived much of its 2003 income from suburban outlets,
it established several new ones in 2004.
but:
After his defeat he retired from public life.
The comma is used to separate a beginning participle phrase modifying the subject or an
absolute phrase before the subject. Also, if it contributes to easier reading, place a comma
before an opening adverbial phrase stating a year.
To begin with, Smith worked as an engineer.
In 1986 the tragedy at Chernobyl occurred.
In 1987, Gorbachev formulated his policies of glasnost and perestroyka.
Note that no comma is needed after 1986 in the above example. However, in the ensuing one,
with the year followed by an uppercased word, inserting a comma aids quick comprehension,
but such a comma is optional.
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The comma is used to separate the title of a person and the name of an organization in the
absence of the words of or of the.
Director, Technology Division, Ministry of Mines
The comma is used to indicate omission of a word or words (usually a verb), unless the
construction is clear enough without commas.
In spring and fall there is hiking; in summer, sailing; in winter, skiing.
but:
The data were collected, estimates made, and conclusions drawn.
The comma is used to separate an introductory phrase from a short direct quotation.
She said, “Now or never.”
Punctuation
The comma is used to set off: a province, state, or country name from a city name; Jr. (but not
III or IV) following a personal name; and Inc., Ltd., or S.A. after a corporate name.
He was born in Arlington, Texas and now works in the Arlington, Virginia area.
She travels frequently to the Washington, D.C. area.
4.6.1 Comma Splice. A comma splice, which is a misuse of the comma, occurs when a writer
joins two independent clauses with only a comma.
not:
He worked for the company for 20 years, he took a leave of absence from 1952 to
1954.
This error most commonly occurs when a conjunctive adverb comes between the two clauses:
not:
He worked for the company for 20 years, however, he took a leave of absence
from 1952 to 1954.
A conjunctive adverb and commas cannot join two independent clauses in that fashion.
Changing the first comma to a semicolon is one way to correct the error.
He worked for the company for 20 years; however, he took a leave of absence
from 1952 to 1954.
Coordinate adjectives independently modify a noun. This is not the case with cumulative
adjectives. In "illegal drug trafficking," illegal modifies not trafficking, but drug trafficking. That
is, it modifies the adjective-noun phrase it precedes rather than the noun itself.
4.7 Dashes
Dashes come in two sizes: em dashes and en dashes.
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Use the word to, not a dash, if the word from precedes the first element. Similarly, use the word
and, not a dash, if between precedes the first element.
He worked here from 2002 to 2007.
She studied forensics between 1998 and 2002.
not:
from $12-14 million
4.7.1 Em Dash. Use the em dash to mark a sudden break in thought that causes an abrupt
change in sentence structure; to set off—for emphasis or clarity—an added explanation or
illustration by expanding a phrase occurring in the main clause; and to mark the end of an
introductory series. Do not use the em dash when other punctuation such as a comma, a colon,
or parentheses would suffice.
He was a key figure in the successes—as well as the problems, both domestic and
international—of Japan's trade policies.
Use the dash before a final clause that summarizes a series of ideas (in this function the dash is
often used interchangeably with the colon).
Punctuation
Use the em dash to set off parenthetical matter (in this function a pair of dashes can often be
replaced by parentheses and should be if there would otherwise be two pairs of dashes within a
sentence). If the dash is used to set off material at the end of a sentence, only one dash at the
beginning is needed. If the material is set off within the sentence, only another dash (not a
comma or a semicolon) can be used to end the set off phrase or clause.
Freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, freedom from
fear—these are the fundamentals of moral world order.
Microsoft Word Processing Note: To insert an em dash, hold down the Ctrl and Alt keys and
type the minus sign (-) from the number pad (upper right corner of key pad).
4.7.2 En Dash. The en dash (not to be confused with the dash, or em dash, explained above)
is, in effect, a superhyphen. It is used to “hyphenate” a compound modifier that includes one or
more compound elements. It is effective with capitalized compounds but less so with lowercase
compounds, for which the use of several hyphens is better, even though the lowercase
compound is one not normally hyphenated. The en dash can usually be avoided by rewording.
Saudi Arabia–United Arab Emirates border
or:
border between Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates
but:
ECHO-II-class submarine (Use two hyphens, not a hyphen and an en dash,
because this is a special category.)
and:
defense-industry-based engineers (not defense industry-based engineers, which is
confusing)
also:
a vice-president-elect, but the Vice President–elect; a prime-minister
designate, but the Prime Minister–designate
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En dashes are also used to join compound abbreviations when all elements are capital letters or
a combination of capital letters and figures (but not words).
A–LAN, ATS–P, C–SPAN, US–VISIT, US–CERT, MS–13
Microsoft Word Processing Note: To insert an en dash, hold down only the Ctrl key and type
the minus sign (-) from the number pad.
4.8 Ellipsis
An ellipsis is made with three spaced periods with one space before and after the periods to
indicate the omission of a word or words within a quoted passage.
If one or more words are omitted within a quoted sentence, use ellipsis.
Punctuation
The President began his address with the observation that in 1776 “our fathers
brought forth . . . a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the
proposition” of equality for everyone.
To preserve the original quote, the ellipsis may be preceded or followed with the appropriate
punctuation—by a comma, semicolon, period, question mark, or exclamation point.
Many people know that Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address begins with, “Four score
and seven years ago . . .” but how many people can recite the entire speech?
If one or more words are omitted at the end of a quoted sentence, use three spaced periods
followed by the necessary terminal punctuation for the sentence as a whole.
“Can anyone explain why . . . ?”
4.9 Exclamation Point
The exclamation point is an “emotional” mark of punctuation. Exclamation points generally do
not appear in DHS products.
4.10 Hyphen
Hyphens are used primarily to form compound words and phrases. Use a hyphen with words or
phrases that are combined to form a unit modifier immediately preceding the word to be
modified (except with an adverb ending in ly). Do not hyphenate these phrases if they follow the
noun.
An up-to-date report
A well-known author
this report is up to date
the author is well known
Use hyphens to express numbers 21 through 99 in words or in adjective compound words
where the number is the first element.
Fifty-one people boarded the plane.
There was a 20-minute delay before the take-off.
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Note: There is a growing trend to spell compound words as one word once it has been widely
accepted and used. The evolution is frequently from two words (policy maker) to a hyphenated
construction (policy-maker) to one word (policymaker).
The I&A standard is to use the unhyphenated word unless otherwise stated in the DHS Lexicon.
decision-maker
nonlethal
online
warfighter
Use a hyphen when spelling a word containing a prefix that would otherwise create a homonym
(spelled the same but with a different meaning).
re-cover (cover again)
re-sign (sign again)
recover (to regain)
resign (to quit)
anti-inflammatory
multi-industry
pre-World War II
semi-Americanized
Avoid hyphens for Arabic names that contain a hyphenated article (al-, el-, ul-).
4.11 Parentheses
Punctuation
Use a hyphen to avoid doubling a vowel when the last letter of the prefix anti, multi, or semi is
the same as the first letter of the word. Use a hyphen when the second element is a capitalized
word or number.
Parentheses are used to set off a word, phrase, clause, or sentence that is inserted by way of
comment or explanation within or after a sentence but that is structurally independent of it.
He graduated from Jefferson Teachers College (part of the state university
system).
Note: The placement of the periods above depends on whether the parenthetical insertion is
part of the sentence that occasioned it or is an independent, complete sentence. In the
following example, note that the comma follows the parentheses enclosing an insertion made in
the middle of a series separated by commas.
He visited Arlington (Virginia), Baltimore, and Philadelphia.
Parentheses are used to enclose cross-references.
Mexico's exports have risen steadily for the past 10 years (see figure 3).
Parentheses are used to enclose numbers or letters in a series within a sentence.
Customs and Border Protection want to acquire: (1) helicopters, (2) unmanned
aerial vehicles, and (3) high-mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicles.
Use parentheses to enclose translations or explanations—if necessary—of foreign words.
Pointing to the skyline as we neared the capital, he trumpeted the nation's new
anthem—even as we passed one of the favelas (shantytowns) outside the
city.
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Use parentheses to enclose the original language following the English version.
He was shocked by how many shantytowns (favelas) he passed before getting to
the embassy.
4.12 Period
The period brings a reader to a full stop at the end of a sentence. The period is used at the end
of a footnote, even if the note is not a structurally complete sentence.
The period is not used:
— In annotations or legends on graphics,
— With item numbers in tables,
— To separate phrases in tables,
Punctuation
— In table titles or text headings.
4.13 Question Mark
Apart from its principal function of terminating interrogative sentences, the question mark is
used to show the writer’s uncertainty (or ignorance), as when it is placed next to (or instead of) a
figure in a tabulation. Similar application can be made within the text, but this should be kept to
a minimum.
The deceased cartel member, Jose Valasquez (?–2011), was in charge of all illicit
activity between the Arizona and Mexican border.
Use a question mark at the end of a direct question.
Can the funds be raised?
Do not use a question mark with an indirect question.
He asked how the money could be raised.
Use a question mark at the end of an appropriate title.
Border for Sale: Can Private Companies Secure the Border?
A Credible Smuggling Deterrent?
4.14 Quotation Marks
Quotation marks come in two forms, double and single. The latter never appears in American
usage unless the former is present. Quotation marks, double or single, must always be used in
a pair. Be careful not to overuse or misuse quotation marks. Quotation marks identify written or
spoken statements. Utilize them to enclose words used in a special sense, but do not use
quotation marks to apologize for acceptable English words or in an attempt to redeem slang.
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Never allow readers to wonder why quotation marks were used.
“the Chinese took a ‘pragmatic’ approach” is obscure, probably meaning “the
Chinese took what they called a pragmatic approach”. Readers, however, may
assume that the quotation marks around pragmatic connote some special meaning and
may waste time looking for an explanation.
When quoting the contents of another document, please use the following format:
 General quotes in the text of a paragraph should be surrounded by quotation marks
(“…”) and cited using an endnote. Use the MS Word Smart Quotes feature.
 If words are omitted in the quote, use ellipsis marks with one space before and after the
periods (Ctrl+Alt+Period in MS Word) to note that a section was cut.
He mentioned that “...the product was way off target.” 1
“The President,” he said, “will veto the bill.”
The citation read: “For meritorious service beyond the call of duty.”
Use double quotation marks to set off titles of poems and songs and of articles, short stories,
and other parts of a longer work.
Punctuation
4.14.1 Double Quotation Marks. A pair of double quotation marks is used to enclose direct
quotations.
“Hallelujah” is the best known chorus from Handel’s Messiah.
“Punctuation” is one of the chapters in the GPO Style Manual.
Double quotation marks are used to set off words or phrases—but usually not letters, for which
italic type is better—used or cited in a special sense. (In this function, quotation marks are
sometimes used interchangeably with italic type.)
If this is a “working” vacation, why are you lying there doing nothing?
Do not italicize or use quotation marks for the T in the “inverted-T-shaped
building.”
4.14.2 Single Quotation Marks. A pair of single quotation marks is used to enclose a
quotation within a quotation. Exception: if a quotation is set off by indentation, rather than by
quotation marks, a quotation within it would be enclosed by double, not single, quotation marks.
He said, “I think you should read ‘Soldiers of Fortune: The Military Goes
Commercial.’”
4.14.3 Punctuation with Quotation Marks. Commas and periods always go inside quotation
marks (single or double). Semicolons and colons always go outside the final quotation mark.
Other punctuation marks are placed inside quotation marks at the end of a sentence only if they
are part of the matter quoted. Place periods and commas inside quotation marks.
“I think you should read ‘Soldiers of fortune: The Military Goes Commercial,’” he
said.
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Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks.
He said I should read “Soldiers of Fortune: The Military Goes Commercial”: it
would be good for me.
Place question marks and exclamation points inside quotation marks if the quotation is a
question or exclamation. However, put them outside quotation marks if the sentence is a
question or an exclamation but the quotation is not.
She asked, “Do you remember reading the article?”
Why should I read “Soldiers of Fortune: The Military Goes Commercial”?
4.14.4 Terms Precluding the Need for Quotation Marks. Quotation marks are usually not
necessary to enclose expressions following terms such as known as, called, or so-called.
Aluminum is known as aluminium in Canada.
If this is called profit and loss, when do we start profiting?
Punctuation
Quotation marks may be used even here, however, to give special emphasis to the quoted or
verbatim nature of the expression, especially if sarcasm or bad grammar is involved.
He criticized what he called the “looks funny” school of editing.
They are following the so-called “where it’s at” lifestyle.
Other terms—named, endorsed, and signed or their equivalent—call for either italicizing or
enclosing in quotation marks the word or words that follow them.
He was named “Analyst of the Year” by his coworkers.
The commendation was endorsed “from a grateful nation.”
Do not use quotation marks or italic type for the names of ships, aircraft, or spacecraft.
4.14.5 Unit Modifiers. Do not use a hyphen in a unit modifier enclosed in quotation marks
unless it is normally a hyphenated form, and do not use quotation marks in lieu of hyphens.
a “spare the rod” approach to parenthood
the “one-armed man” stole the show
4.14.6 Block Quotations. Long excerpts (more than eight lines) quoted from a source
document should be set off as a block quotation, with the entire quotation indented 0.5 inches
from the left margin, using italicized font. Quotation marks are not used.
This passage is an example of a block quotation. A quotation should be blocked off from
the rest of the paragraph if it is a hundred words or more—or at least eight lines—by
indenting the entire quotation from the left. No quotation marks are used...
4.15 Semicolon
The semicolon can be regarded to some extent as a supercomma because it supersedes the
comma in cases where a comma is not clear enough for the function intended.
Use semicolons to separate items in a series if any of the items already contain commas.
Semicolons tie together two closely related thoughts. In long or complex sentences, a
semicolon helps the reader’s comprehension by showing clear breaks in thought.
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After his visit, he toured Phoenix Airport, Southwestern College, and Papago Park
in Phoenix, Arizona; Ft. Huachuca, Cochise College, and the University of Arizona
campus in Sierra Vista, Arizona; Las Cruces, New Mexico; and El Vado Lake State
Park, near Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico.
The semicolon is used between coordinate elements containing commas. If such a series is in
midsentence, reword the sentence to put the series at the end.
The major inputs are iron ore, which comes from Poland; nitric acid, which is
imported from the Czech Republic; magnesium, which is supplied primarily by
Russia; and nickel, which is furnished in adequate quantities by domestic
producers.
The semicolon is used to separate the clauses of a compound sentence when a coordinating
conjunction (and, but, or, nor, so, yet) is not used.
A semicolon is used before an independent second clause introduced by one of the conjunctive
adverbs (accordingly, also, consequently, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, moreover,
nevertheless, otherwise, so, still, then, therefore, thus, yet).
Some analysts seek professional development; consequently, their analytical
skills are enhanced.
Punctuation
She received a B.A. degree from Florida State in 2002; later she attended the
University of Virginia.
4.16 Slash
The slash should be used sparingly and never in place of a hyphen or dash.
And/or should not be used in I&A products.
The slash is used to indicate a 12-month period occurring in two calendar years.
FY 2007/08
He flew three illegal flights in 1989/90.
The slash is used to represent per in abbreviations.
km/h (kilometers per hour)
p/m (parts per million)
The slash is used to separate alternatives.
Many factors need to be considered in program/budget decisions.
Note: In this application the slash is intended to mean and/or. Thus, the sample above refers to
program decisions or budget decisions or program and budget decisions.
The slash is used to indicate combination in certain instances when use of an en dash or
another hyphen is awkward.
Community support was pivotal for this Canadian/US-backed proposal.
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4.17 Italics
Use italic type sparingly to avoid the excessive use that defeats the primary purpose of
italicizing to give prominence or emphasis to particular words and phrases in a passage.
Selective use is often appropriate in publication design to give emphasis, for example, to a
subheading or to a line of figures in a table.
Do not use a colon between a verb and its objects or between a preposition and
its objects, unless the colon sets off an indented list.
Use italic type for block quotes, titles of books, movies, newspapers, and periodicals, and for
foreign words or phrases when they are not likely to be familiar to readers (use the italicized
form only on the first instance).
4.17.1 Titles. Use italic type for titles of books, periodicals, or works of art (including the
performing arts—such as plays, compositions, broadcasts, or films), but use quotation marks for
titles of articles or other parts within longer works.
Punctuation
Tom Hanks starred in Saving Private Ryan
Jim Carey starred in Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind.
4.17.2 Latin Names of Bacterial Species. Proper Latin names of bacterial species are to be
written per standard practice both within the IC and throughout the scientific community.
Italicize both the genus and species, capitalizing the genus but not the species.
Bacillus anthracis
Yersinia pestis
When the genus but not the specific species is identified, or when some but not all species
within a genus are described, sometimes the abbreviations .sp or .spp are used, which are not
italicized:
Burkholderia.spp
4.18 Foreign Words
I&A follows the IC preference not to use accents or other diacritical marks in most foreign
words. The need for italicizing or translating depends on whether the non-English word or
phrase has been naturalized into English, has not been anglicized but is reasonably familiar to
American readers, is the title of a publication or work of art, is the name of an organization, or is
otherwise governed by some special consideration.
attache, not attaché
Shia, not Shi’a
An exception is al-Qa‘ida
I&A follows the Chicago Manual of Style preference for italicizing foreign words or phrases only
when they are not likely to be familiar to readers and to use the italicized form only on the first
instance (exceptions exist with some scientific terms or terms of art that may be italicized
throughout). Foreign words or phrases familiar to most readers and listed in English dictionaries
are not italicized if used in an English context.
The terrorist training manual suggests growing the disease agent in vitro.
The passport document was identified as a mala fide document.
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4.18.1 Anglicized Words. Do not italicize or use diacritical marks in foreign words and phrases
that have been naturalized into English.
4.18.2 Familiar Foreign Words. Italicize foreign words and expressions that have not been
anglicized but are familiar to American readers or are easily understood by virtue of their
similarity to English (an English equivalent is preferred unless the foreign expression has a
special meaning).
The speaker was shouted down by crowds chanting, “Democracia, democracia!”
His experience as chef de cabinet was a factor in his nomination.
4.18.3 Other Foreign Words. When a non-English word is used in ordinary text, italicize it and
follow it with a translation in parentheses. This need not be a literal translation if a freer
interpretation or explanation, even an extensive one, would be more helpful to the reader. The
translation is not italicized unless it constitutes a title of a publication or work of art.
4.18.4 Titles of Publications. Any book or periodical title is italicized. A title in a foreign
language may or may not be translated, depending on the title and the context. If given, a
translation should be in parentheses and in italics.
No translation is needed for such familiar titles as Pravda, Trud, Der Spiegel, Le Monde,
Izvestiya, L‘Osservatore Romano, and Paris Match.
Punctuation
The achievement of enosis (union) with Greece is the all-consuming goal of one
segment of the Cypriot population.
He earned the coveted aggregation (secondary-level teaching credential) the
following year.
Some titles—People’s Daily, for example—have conventionally been cited only in translated
form. For this title sometimes and for other titles almost always, an explanation is more relevant
and useful than a translation.
People’s Daily, official organ of the Chinese Communist Party
Other titles can go either way. For example, Literaturnaya Rossiya (Literary Russia), the organ
of the former USSR Union of Writers, sometimes is cited in Russian followed by a translation,
but just as often the title is given only in translated form. Either way is acceptable as long as it
is used consistently in the way the publication is referenced. A word of caution: for a foreignlanguage title, always use the one given on the cover or first page of the publication.
4.18.5 Names of Organizations. When possible, use the English translation, rather than the
original language, in referring to the name of a foreign organization, institute, government body,
political party, educational institution, corporation, or the like.
Often, however, there are compelling reasons—including convention, wide recognition, and
untranslatability—for giving a name in the original language. In such cases, do not italicize the
name. If a translation is possible, relevant, or unobvious, supply one in parentheses following
the foreign language name. If appropriate, give instead (or in addition) an explanation of the
name or description of the organization.
perpetrated by the Abu Nidal organization
Hizballah, the Lebanese Shia group
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4.18.6 Imeni in Russian Names. The Russian word imeni (named after) is a special case.
The IC practice for many years has been to retain the Russian word untranslated and (usually)
italicized in the names of organizations otherwise given in English.
Punctuation
the Institute of Molecular Biology imeni V. A. Engelhardt
the Leningrad Naval Institute imeni A. K. Popov
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Chapter 5
Sourcing and Classification
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5.1 Sourcing and Classification
5.1.1 General Rules for Sourcing. According to the Office of the Director of National
Intelligence’s Intelligence Community Directive (ICD) 206, the analyst must provide citations for
“all significant, substantive reporting or other information upon which the product’s analytic
judgments, assessments, estimates, alternative hypotheses and views, or confidence levels
depend.” Analysts must use source reference citations (endnotes) to source all non-original
information, but do not need to source common knowledge.
Source your product to externally disseminated information, such as intelligence information
reports (IIRs) and open source documents. Always cite the source that first disseminated the
information. Using the primary source ensures you convey information accurately. A finished
intelligence product may not characterize source information accurately and is therefore a
secondary source.
Analysts are strongly encouraged to include source descriptors (see Plain English Analytic
Guidance #6 for additional guidance on developing source descriptors) within the body of
papers—in addition to but not in lieu of source reference citations (endnotes)—especially when
the information is particularly germane to judgments or confidence levels. This practice enables
readers to get a sense of where the information came from and to assess its credibility without
referring to endnotes. Source descriptors in the text do not need to be as detailed as those in
the endnote citations. Source descriptors must be taken from the originator and may not be
created by the analyst.
5.1.2 Source Reference Citation (Endnote) and Footnote Markers. Use endnotes to cite
sources and footnotes to comment on the text. Place endnote and footnote markers at the end
of a sentence. Use Arabic numerals for endnote markers. Symbols (asterisk) should be used
for footnote markers.
Sourcing and
Classification
Do not cite analytic assessments or other finished intelligence products as evidence for
assertions of fact or as the principal basis for your analytic judgments unless you cannot access
the original reporting. You may, however, cite a finished intelligence product as a source if you
are referring to a previous or established analytic judgment or are providing additional
background. In either case, you must state so in the body of the text with a phrase such as “in
May 2010, Office of Intelligence and Analysis judged” and include an endnote.
Markers (such as the example below, demonstrating the footnote marker) should follow all
punctuation marks except the dash.
The CIA increased intelligence staff by 50 percent.*
5.1.3 Source Reference Citation (Endnote) Format. Per ICD 206, each source must have its
own endnote. IC reporting and open sources have different endnote formats. Endnotes must
include each element from the following lists. Separate the elements with semicolons and list
them in order. When data is not available for an element, state N/A. The source’s title, subject,
or source descriptor classification drives the portion marking classification for the endnote.
Analysts should refer to the I&A ICD 206 Implementation Plan for additional information and
guidance on IC reporting endnotes.
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Endnote elements for IC reporting*
*
All Open Source Center reporting follows the IC reporting format.
— Overall classification of the endnote (based on the information in the endnote—the
classification of the “Title or Subject” or “Source Descriptor”)
— Originator
— Report Number
— Tracking Number (required from originating agency for downgraded or expanded
readership)
— Publication Date (Date Time Group or DD MONTH YYYY, depending on which the
source used)
— Date of Information (DOI) (Date Time Group or DD MONTH YYYY, depending on which
the source used)
— (CLASSIFICATION) Title or Subject
— Paragraph or page number (Paragraph or Page)
— Overall Source Classification or classification of tearline (Classification)
Sourcing and
Classification
— (CLASSIFICATION) Source Descriptor (as defined by the applicable source)
Endnote elements for referencing open sources (books, magazine articles, journals,
online publications, or Internet sites).
— Overall endnote classification
— Reference type (book or periodical, online publication, Internet site)
— Author
— Publication Name or Internet Site
— Title of Article (Title)
— Publication or Posting Date (DD MONTH YYYY)
— Paragraph or page number (Paragraph or Page)
— Web site address (URL) (when applicable)
— Date of Access (Access Date) (for internet sources only)
— Source Descriptor (as defined by the originating source)
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5.1.4 Graphics. All graphics, including photographs, must be attributed to their original
sources. Source graphics in a caption using the format described below. Graphics should
generally include a title.
tunnels.com
Graphic Sourcing
Graphic source/credit should be formatted as an
endnote in the title or caption of the graphic as shown.
Analysts should refer to the I&A ICD 206
Implementation Plan for additional information and
guidance on IC reporting endnotes.
Graphic Classification
Ensure all graphics contain a spelled-out classification
and caveats (all caps) placed in the lower left corner,
aligned left, in Arial/7-point/bold, in either black or white
text, depending on which is more readable.
(U) A tunnel near the border.1
5.2. General Rules for Classification
This section is provided as a ready reference, not as a replacement for the Controlled Access
Program Coordination Office (CAPCO) classification guidance. Check the CAPCO Web site
(capco.dssc.ic.gov on the C–LAN) for additional classification guidance and updates.
All DHS finished intelligence products must use appropriate classification markings. All
classified intelligence assessments must have a classification authority block on the front cover
(bottom half of the cover page). The overall classification must be included in the header and
footer, and paragraphs, bullets, and sub-bullets must be portion marked appropriately at the
beginning of the paragraph or bullet. To ensure proper classification, always check the CAPCO
guide.
Sourcing and
Classification
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Graphic Caption/Title
Ensure graphics (charts, maps, photographs, pictures,
tables) include a portion-marked caption or title. The
caption or title should be placed below the graphic
(except for tables, which should have the title at the
top), left justified, in Arial/9-point/bold/80 percent gray.
Ensure a period is at the end of the caption.
5.2.1 Classification Markings. The IC continues to strive for information sharing, and I&A
promotes this mission. As a general rule, all documents should be drafted and classified at the
lowest level possible. I&A follows the CAPCO guidance when applying classification markings
to documents.
Classified documents are marked in the header and footer with the highest classification
contained in the document. The term “For Official Use Only” is a handling caveat, not a
classification, and means that the information marked as such may be exempt from Freedom of
Information Act requirements. Mark this type of information using the following guidance:
— The header and footer are labeled UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY.
— Use the portion marking (U//FOUO) for portions of classified papers that are both
unclassified and for official use only.
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FISA, Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act: Place handling caveat in the page header and
footer and in the portion marking of the paragraph containing FISA information. Include a FISA
statement in the warning box on the first page.
5.2.2 Derivative Statement. A derivative statement is located on the lower right-hand cover or
first page on every classified product. If a product uses numerous sources the Derived from
field will contain Multiple Sources. If a single source is used, list that source. The Declassify on
field will contain either an exemption code (see Example 1) or a specific date (see Example 2).
The Declassify on field can contain more than one exemption code. The Date of Source field
will contain the date of the most recent source used. For additional information, refer to
Executive Order 13526.
Example
Classified by: PMD, Analyst
Derived from: IIR 4 201 1234 10
Declassify on: 25X1-human, 25X1–25X9
Classified by: FDR, Analyst
Derived from: Multiple Sources
Declassify on: 25X1
Note:
— Manual Review (MR) is not a valid option for the Declassify on field.
— If no DECLASS instructions provided, normally calculate 25 years from date on
document, or refer to the CAPCO manual.
Sourcing and
Classification
5.2.3 Headers and Footers. Classification//handling caveat labels should be spelled out and
centered. The example below is for Training Purposes Only:
UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Make sure to include the CLASSIFICATION//CAVEAT in the header and footer on all pages to
ensure the entire product is labeled properly.
5.2.4 Portion Markings. All bullets, sub-bullets, graphics, headings, paragraphs, tables, and
titles must be classified according to the content of the information they contain.
For ease of reading, use the same font for the portion marking as for the text to which it applies.
That is:
— If a stand-alone title or heading is bold, make its portion marking bold.
Example:
(U) Scope
— If a paragraph begins with a bold sentence, make its portion marking bold.
Example:
(U) If a paragraph begins with a bold sentence or is all in bold, make its
portion marking bold. The rest of the paragraph could be bold or regular font.
— If a paragraph begins with a bolded heading or a sentence in mixed bold and regular
font, use regular font for the portion marking.
Example:
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(U) Bolded headings: If a paragraph begins with a bolded heading such as this,
make the portion marking non-bold.
Example:
(U) If a paragraph begins with a sentence of mixed regular and bold font, make
the portion marking non-bold.
Two spaces follow portion markings.
REL TO formatting includes commas, but no and. List USA first; all others follow alphabetically
(such as, REL TO USA, GBR, NZL).
Foreign Government Information (FGI)
Each country’s FGI must be in a separate paragraph; none can be commingled with classified
US information.
Law Enforcement Sensitive (LES)
I&A analysts who are not deployed to fusion centers are not authorized to originate LES
information.
I&A Analysts working in State fusion Centers who derived their information from Law
enforcement information are allowed to use LES marking.
LES and FOUO cannot be commingled.
LES cannot be commingled with classified US information within the same paragraph or bullet,
unless in the overall classification marking banner at the top and bottom of each page.
Sourcing and
Classification
LES will be protected in the same manner as FOUO information. Intelligence information is not
eligible for the LES marking. Only law enforcement-originated sensitive data may carry the
marking. If you are using information from an FBI or Law Enforcement source, you should carry
forward the LES marking from that source.
All products containing LES information require standard warning language on the first page.
Please use CAPCO Marking guide for guidance when applying LES marking to IC related
products.
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Chapter 6
Compound Words and Spellings
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6.1 General
Compounding conveys an idea by combining two or more words to form a thought. The result
can be separate words in an unconnected sequence, words linked with a hyphen or hyphens, or
words joined as a solid, single word.
6.2 Basic Rules
6.2.1 Separate Words. One compounding form is to write words in sequence, without joining
them or linking them with a hyphen, if this form causes no ambiguity in sense or difficulty of
comprehension.
early warning
map maker
travel costs
naval blockade
6.2.2 Joined or Hyphenated. Often words are joined (written solid) or connected with a
hyphen to express ideas that would not be as clear if the words remained unconnected.
cross-reference
bookkeeping
need-to-know
newsprint
6.2.3 Derivatives. Derivatives of a compound usually retain the hyphenated or unhyphenated
form of the original.
footnote
cost-effective
footnoting
cost-effectiveness
significant word first: adjutants general, aides-de-camp, courts-martial, goings-on
significant word in middle: deputy chiefs of staff, assistant surgeons general
significant word last: major generals, provost marshals, trade unions
both words equally significant: gentlemen farmers, women writers
no word significant: also-rans, go-betweens, pick-me-ups
6.3 Foreign Names
6.3.1 Arabic Names and Naming Practices. Arab naming customs differ from the West and
vary throughout the Arab world. Arabs do not have “middle names” and many of them do not
have surnames.
Typical
Male
Name
Abu Yusef
(parental
title)
Father of
Yusef
Muhammad
Al-Tikriti
Al-Sayf
(first name)
(birthplace,
occupation)
From Tikrit
From the
Al-Sayf
Family
Compound Words
and Spellings
6.2.4 Plurals of Compound Terms. For plurals of compound terms, form the plural on the
significant word or words. If no word is significant, form the plural on the last word.
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Umm Yusef
Typical
Female
Name
(parental
title)
Mother of
Yusef
Yusef
Typical
Child
Name
(first name)
Rahil
(first name)
bint Hassan
ibn Ibrahim
(family
heritage)
Daughter of
Hassan, and
Hassan, son of
Ibrahim
ibn
Muhammad
(family
heritage)
Son of
Muhammad
Al-Saddaf
From the
Al-Saddaf
Family
Al-Sayf
From the AlSayf Family
Traditionally, a child is given a name at birth. His or her full name is that name followed by his
or her father’s names and maybe by the grandfather’s name, then often by the clan’s name and
the tribe’s name. The clan/tribe name may be replaced by a name derived from a geographical
area, from a profession (like Smith), or a characteristic or physical property of some ancestor
(like Crookshank). When the child grows up, he may be given an Abu- or Umm- name
(meaning father of and mother of) even if he or she has no children, and that’s what he or she
will be called almost exclusively by acquaintenances.
Compound Words
and Spellings
The “last name” the person uses is often construed to be the person’s surname, and may be
used that way. But the use of surnames vary by individual and according to local custom. The
final name in the string may just be a word to distinguish him from others with the same name.
For example, there may be an Ahmad al-Masri (the Egyptian) and an Ahmad al-Suri (the
Syrian), even though both of those names are used as actual surnames by many people.
Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn-Musa al-Tikriti. This man was given the name
Muhammad at birth. His father’s name was Musa. When he grew up, he was called
Abu Abdullah, probably because he had a son named Abdullah. He or his ancestors
came from Tikrit, in Iraq. He may think of al-Tikriti as his surname or maybe not; it
depends on the individual.
Truncated Names
Names can be truncated in various ways:
Usama Hasan Muhammad Farhan
or:
Usama Hasan
or:
Usama Hasan Muhammad
or:
Usama Farhan
Hani Abdullah bin-Abdul-Razzaq al-Tantawi
or:
Hani bin-Abdul-Razzaq
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or:
Hani al-Tantawi
or:
Hani Abdullah
Compound Names
Certain names in Arabic are compounds and the elements should never be separated.
Common elements in compounds are Abu-, Umm-, Abd-, -al-Din, -al-Islam.
Abdul-Rahman (this is actually written like Abd alRahman in Arabic)
Nasr-al-Din; Saif-al-Islam
Abu Names
A man is often given an Abu name after his firstborn son or daughter. But many Abu names are
stock nicknames for some actual name (like Bill is for William); for example, Abu Ali is a stock
nickname for anyone named Hasan, and Abu-Sadeq is a nickname for Ja’far. Many other Abu
names are jocular nicknames, referring to some personal characteristic (for example, Abu Kirsh
implies the person has a big belly).
Other points
Most male Arabic names can be used as surnames. This often makes it hard to tell whether the
final name in a string is the surname or not.
Arabic names are used throughout the Muslim world. So, for example, Muhammad Ahmad is
not necessarily an Arab. He may be a Turk, an Iranian, an Afghan, a Pakistani, or an
Indonesian; he may be from a different country entirely. Arab women generally do not change
their names upon marriage, but a woman will often acquire an Umm- (mother of) name when
she has a child, which she will be known by from then on.
There are six vowels in Arabic, the short and long versions of a, i, and u. In transliteration, do
not distinguish between short and long.
— Anytime you see o, oo, or ou change it to u.
Compound Words
and Spellings
The Arabic writing system lines up very poorly to the West. For example, Arabic has two
consonants that sound like “t” to English speakers, but which Arabic speakers perceive as
completely different from each other. Also, short vowels are not written and must be supplied
mentally by the reader. Also, consonant length is important in Arabic, but does not matter in
English. Because of all this, the same Arabic name appears in a different spellings in our
alphabet. Muhammad can appear as Muhamad, Muhammed, Muhamed, Mohammad,
Mohamad, Mohammed, Mohamed, and many other ways.
Mohammed should be Muhammad
— Anytime you see ee change it to i.
Emad or 'Emad should be 'Imad
— e alone usually goes to an a.
Ahmed should be Ahmad (Ahmet only refers to Turks)
— aa should be changed to just a.
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— Change y at the end of a names to i.
Hady should be Hadi
Titles and Honorifics
Common titles include:
— Sayyid: mister, also an honorific title given to males considered descendents of the
Phrophet Muhammad;
— Shaikh: title of respect, usually for an elder;
— Ustadh: teacher/professor, title of respect used for an educated person;
— Hajj/Hajji: used to refer to a man who has made the pilgrimage to Mecca;
— Imam: prayer leader;
— Muhandis: engineer (this title is widely used in Arabic for those with an engineering
background, just like Dr. is used in English, and may also occur as a surname);
— Basha: Arabic pronunciation of the Ottoman Turkish rank "Pasha,” now used as a title of
respect;
— Amm: paternal uncle (widely used both as a term of affection and just as a friendly form
of address from a younger person to an older one).
Compound Words
and Spellings
Titles often have adjectives after them, that are not part of the person’s name. Note that some
of these adjectives occassionally occur as names.
al-Shaikh al-fadhel Ahmad Zaki (the honorable Shaikh Ahmad Zaki...)
al-Sayyid al-karim Ahmad Zaki (the dear Mr...)
al-Hajj al-muhtaram Ahmad Zaki (the respected pilgrim...)
al-Ustadh al-habib Ahmad Zaki (the beloved professor...)
Preferred Spellings of Commonly Used Names
In the absence of prior DHS guidance, Arabic names will be spelled out in their entirety on first
reference and abbreviated by their “family” name, unless otherwise noted.
Initial Reference:
Usama bin Ladin
Anwar al-AulaqiUSPER
Subsequent References:
bin Ladin
Aulaqi
Preferred Spellings of Commonly Used Arabic Words
In the absence of prior DHS guidance, below is the preferred spelling of commonly used Arabic
words. See Chapter 7 for definitions.
fatwa
fundamentalism
hajj
HAMAS
hawalah
Hizb al-Tahrir
Hizballah
imam
intifada
Islamist
Islamization
Indian intelligence services (InIS)
Iranian intelligence services (IrIS)
Iraqi intelligence services (IqIS)
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jihad
kafir
Koran
madrasa
Muhammad
Mullah
Muslim(s)
Al-Qa‘ida
salafi
sayyid
shahid
sharia
shaykh
Shia
Sufi(sm)
Sunna
Sunni(s)
takfir
takfirism
umm
ummah
Wahhabi
Usama bin Ladin (UBL)
6.3.2 Latin American Surnames. Traditionally, Spanish names consist of a first name followed
by the father’s surname and then the mother’s surname, in that order.
Felipe Jimeniz Padilla
Felipe’s father was a Jimeniz and his mother was a Padilla. Felipe could be addressed as
either Senor Jimeniz or as Senor Jimeniz Padilla, but never as Senor Padilla.
Many Spanish-Americans shorten their names by reducing the maternal surname to an initial,
while others drop the maternal surname completely. Although many people initialize or delete
their maternal surname in daily use, it remains part of their legal name at all times.
Women’s names differ from men. Single women’s names follow the same pattern as men’s
(first name and then the two surnames, with the maternal name often reduced or eliminated). At
marriage most women will add de (of) and her husband’s paternal surname to her name.
Natalia Espinosa de Jimeniz
Consuela Aguilar Vda. de Apodaca
6.3.3 Chinese Personal Names. Modern Chinese names usually have a surname (family
name) or xìng and a given name or mìng in that order.
Yao Ming is Mr. Yao; not Mr. Ming
Some writers reverse the order and put the family name last to conform to English usage, which
may cause the reader some confusion if the surname and given name are not distinctive
enough to tell the difference. I&A writers will always write Modern Chinese surnames first,
except in cases where the name is widely understood otherwise.
Compound Words
and Spellings
Occasionally, widowed women’s names will include the abbreviation Vda. for viuda, or widow.
6.4 Solid Compounds
When two nouns form a compound that has only one primary accent, the compound is written
solid, especially when the prefixed noun has only one syllable or when one of the elements
loses its original accent.
but:
bathroom
bomb bay
bookseller
coal mine
pipeline
night shift
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A noun formed by combining a short verb and an adverb is usually written solid, but it is
hyphenated when the solid form risks misinterpretation. The verb (v) forms of such
combinations usually remain two words.
buildup (v, build up)
giveaway (v, give away)
setup (v, set up)
cut-in (v, cut in)
run-in (v, run in)
tie-in (v, tie in)
Compounds beginning with the following nouns are usually solid.
book (bookstore)
eye (eyeglasses)
house (housekeeping)
school (schoolteacher)
shop (shopworn)
work (workday)
Compound Words
and Spellings
Compounds ending in the following are usually solid when the first word consists of one
syllable but not as often when the first word has several syllables (spaceborne, but
satellite-borne, helicopter-borne)
board (cardboard)
boat (rowboat)
book (textbook)
borne (spaceborne)
bound (landbound)
box (gearbox)
craft (aircraft)
field (airfield)
fish (crawfish)
fly (gadfly)
grower (applegrower)
headed (clearheaded)
hearted (halfhearted)
holder (shareholder)
house (boathouse)
land (farmland)
like (boxlike)
line (pipeline)
load (boatload)
maker (policymaker)
man (airman)
over (crossover)
owner (homeowner)
person (salesperson)
plane (airplane)
power (airpower)
proof (blastproof)
tight (airtight)
time (halftime)
ward (homeward)
way (seaway)
wide (worldwide)
worker (pieceworker)
working (woodworking)
worthy (seaworthy)
writer (speechwriter)
writing (checkwriting)
yard (shipyard)
Write solid (unhyphenated) a combination of any, every, no, or some and body, thing, or where.
When one is the second element, write as two words if the meaning is a particular person or
thing. To avoid mispronunciation, write no one as two words at all other times.
anybody
nowhere
everything
someone
but:
Some one choice must be made, and anyone of you can make it.
Will no one volunteer?
The pronouns ending in self and selves are always solid compounds.
herself
itself
oneself
yourself
ourselves
themselves
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Write as one word a compass direction consisting of two points, but use a hyphen after the first
point when three points are combined.
northeast
north-northeast
6.5 Unit Modifiers
Authors frequently encounter problems with compound modifiers that immediately precede the
words they modify. When the words require each other to make sense, the compound is a unit
modifier, and usually is written with a hyphen.
— In short, swift streams, both short and swift modify streams independently (they are
coordinate adjectives), and no hyphen is used to join the modifiers.
— In short tributary streams, tributary modifies streams, and short modifies tributary
streams; the adjectives are cumulative, and no special mark is used to join them. Note,
however, that each adjective logically could modify the noun separately. That is, short
streams and tributary streams both make sense, even if these are not what the writer
means.
— In 40-horsepower engine, neither 40 nor horsepower logically can modify engine by
itself; the modifiers make sense only as a unit, hence the term unit modifier.
Part of the confusion for many authors is that a compound modifier receives different treatment
when it follows the word it modifies:
I bought an engine that is rated at 40 horsepower.
I bought a 40-horsepower engine.
Thus, the special treatment for a unit modifier is situational. Users of the word list in this chapter
must bear this in mind; a compound modifier marked um in the list and linked with a hyphen
retains the hyphen only when it precedes the word it modifies.
6.5.1 Hyphenated. Unit modifiers immediately preceding the word or words modified are
usually hyphenated but sometimes are written as one word.
English-speaking nation
high-level post
still-lingering doubt
Compound Words
and Spellings
As a result of the conference, we now have standards that are agreed upon.
As a result of the conference, we now have agreed-upon standards.
value-added tax
most-favored-nation clause
yet-undetermined outcome
As a general rule, the omission of hyphens is not recommended in a compound containing an
ordinal number used in its literal sense, no matter how familiar and frequent the expression.
first-quarter report
second-class treatment
third-party statement
fourth-grade class
but:
Third World country
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Similarly, in a unit modifier containing a prepositional phrase, comprehension is enhanced if
hyphens are used for even the best known expressions.
cost-of-living
right-to-work law
balance-of-payments problem
under-the-counter sales
6.5.2 Joined. Some unit modifiers are written solid rather than being hyphenated.
aboveground shelter
breakaway republics
blackout curtains
onboard computer
6.5.3 Unhyphenated. When the meaning is clear and readability is not aided, hyphens may be
omitted from a compound that precedes the word modified, especially if the compound is an
established or familiar phrase. But refrain from an accumulation of modifiers that defies
comprehension and impedes readability.
broad gauge railroad
early warning radar
civil defense plan
missile support unit
nuclear delivery system
life insurance company
not: no hyphen rule (ambiguous)
but: no-hyphen rule (readability aided)
No hyphen is required if the compound preceding the word or words modified is already tied
together with a conjunction.
cold but sunny day
middle or late 1990s
command and control echelons
medium and high altitude
However, improvised compounds that contain conjunctions do use hyphens.
Compound Words
and Spellings
bread-and-butter issues
hard-and-fast rule
6.5.4 Predicate Adjectives. As indicated in the introduction to unit modifiers, compound
predicate adjectives usually do not have hyphens.
unit modifier:
The attack took place on
US-owned property.
We are to get a 4-percent raise.
predicate adjective:
The property where the attack
took place was US owned.
The raise is to be 4 percent.
Some compound adjectives retain their hyphens when they are predicate adjectives.
The study used all-source
intelligence.
The intelligence in the study was
all-source.
We watched a combined-arms
exercise.
The exercise we watched was
combined-arms.
6.5.5 Comparatives and Superlatives. Hyphens usually are omitted from two-word modifiers
when the first word is a comparative or superlative.
little-developed country
less developed country
least developed country
low-priced model
lower priced model
lowest priced model
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Note: Lower is the comparative of low, with lowest the corresponding superlative. However,
lower is also the opposite of upper, which is not a comparative and has no superlative (uppest).
In its sense opposing upper, lower is joined (solid) or linked (with a hyphen) to the other words
in a modifier.
uppercase letters
upper-class neighborhood
upper-middle-class housing
lowercase letters
lower-class neighborhood
lower-middle-class housing
Hyphens also are retained in many three-word modifiers that include a comparative or
superlative.
higher-than-market price
lighter-than-air craft
most-favored-nation clause
most-sought-after assignment
6.5.6 Adverbs Ending in -ly. Do not use a hyphen in a two-word unit modifier in which the first
word is an adverb ending in ly. Compounds formed by an adverb ending in -ly plus an adjective
or participle (such as largely irrelevant or smartly dressed) are not hyphenated either before or
after a noun, since ambiguity is virtually impossible.
not:
only-child complex
lonely-hearts club
but:
recently designed logo
wholly owned subsidiary
6.5.7 Three-Word Modifiers. Do not use hyphens in a three-word unit modifier in which the
first word is an adverb modifying the second word.
exceptions:
very-high-frequency broadcasts
very-low-frequency transmissions
But, if the first word of a three-word unit modifier modifies the other two, the hyphen is used
between those two.
a nearly right-angle bend
a formerly well-known person
Compound Words
and Spellings
unusually well preserved specimen
very well defined line
6.5.8 Foreign Phrases. Do not use a hyphen in a unit modifier consisting of a phrase of foreign
origin.
carte blanche policy
per diem allowance
bona fide transaction
prima donna behavior
6.5.9 Proper Nouns. Do not use a hyphen in a compound proper noun or in a capitalized
coined name used as a unit modifier, in either its basic or derived form.
Latin American states
Cold War tensions
Third World countries
Intelligence Community staff
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But the hyphen is used if the proper noun is normally a combined form.
Spanish-American heritage
French-English descent
This rule does not apply to numerical compounds in an expression such as Fifth Five-Year Plan,
nor would it apply entirely in an expression incorporating an already-hyphenated coined name
(Six-Day War).
6.5.10 En Dash in Proper Noun Compounds. In a unit modifier made up of proper adjectives
or proper nouns of which one or more is a compound, the en dash is used between the parts.
North American–South American sphere
En dashes (–) are longer than hyphens (-) and shorter than em dashes (—). The en dash is
about as long as the letter n is wide. Its main use is in ranges of dates and page numbers to
indicate to or through. En dashes often appear in tables, but not usually in text.
6.5.11 Quotation Marks. Do not use a hyphen in a unit modifier enclosed in quotation marks
unless it is normally a hyphenated form, and do not use quotation marks in lieu of hyphens.
a “spare the rod” approach to parenthood
the “one-man woman” plots of many operas
a “damn it all” attitude toward writing style
but:
a right-to-work law
6.5.12 Chemical Terms. The hyphen is not used in a unit modifier composed of chemical
terms.
Compound Words
and Spellings
carbon monoxide poisoning
methyl bromide solution
6.5.13 Letter or Number Elements. Do not use a hyphen in a unit modifier containing a letter
or numeral as its second element.
grade A milk
Mod 3 missile
annex B maps
Article III provisions
This rule, however, does not apply to certain terms established by long usage for military aircraft
and naval ships.
MiG-19
Su-7
Yak-40
An-22
6.5.14 Common Basic Elements. When two or more hyphenated compounds have a common
basic element and this element is omitted in all but the last or first term, the hyphens are
retained.
two- or three-year period
first-, second-, and third-year analysts
US-owned and -operated companies
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but:
twofold or threefold; not two or threefold
oil and gas fields, or oilfields and gasfields; not oil and gasfields
mid- and late 1990s or mid-to-late 1990s
6.6 Prefixes and Suffixes
6.6.1 Unhyphenated. Prefixes other than ex, self, quasi, and vice and suffixes other than free,
designate, and elect usually form a solid compound with a noncapitalized word.
afterhours
antiaircraft
biweekly
counterintelligence
counterterrorism
multicolor
nonferrous
northward
semiofficial
subcommittee
6.6.2 Hyphenated. A hyphen is used in compounds formed with the prefixes and suffixes.
ex-serviceman
self-control
rent-free
councilor-elect
President-elect Bruce
minister-designate
anti-inflation
semi-independent
shell-like
brass-smith
but:
cooperation
reestablishment
nonnuclear
overreact
A hyphen is used to join duplicated prefixes.
counter-countermeasures
sub-subcommittee
A hyphen (unless an en dash is called for) is used to join a prefix or a suffix in a compound with
a capitalized word.
neo-Nazi
non-Communist
pro-British
un-American
Truman-like
Africa-wide
exceptions:
unMIRVed
nonMIRVed
en dash called for:
Latin America–wide
pre–World War II
Compound Words
and Spellings
Except after the short prefixes co, de, pre, and re, which generally are written solid, a hyphen is
used to avoid doubling a vowel when adding a prefix or tripling a consonant when adding a
suffix.
A prefix (except un) normally forming a solid compound is often followed by a hyphen when
joined with a two-word or hyphenated compound to form a unit modifier.
anti-guided-missile
non-missile-equipped
post-target-tracking
pre-martial-law
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but:
antiballistic missile
antiradiation-homing
uncalled-for
unself-conscious
For many of the terms used above to illustrate the rule in this paragraph, rephrasing the
sentence might be a better solution than inserting an extra hyphen.
Guide to Compounding
defense against guided missiles; not anti-guided-missile defense
aircraft not equipped with missiles; not non-missile-equipped aircraft
6.7 Numerical Compounds
Use a hyphen between the elements of compound numbers from 21 to 99 when they must be
spelled out. Bear in mind that figures, rather than spelled-out words, are generally used for
numbers of two or more digits.
twenty-one
one hundred twenty-one
one thousand three hundred twenty-one
Use a hyphen in adjective compounds with a numerical first element.
two-sided question
8-kilogram (or 8-kg) turkey
Use a hyphen between the elements of a fraction whether it is a noun or an adjective.
Compound Words
and Spellings
a two-thirds majority
two-thirds of the legislature
6.8 Other Compound Words
Do not use a hyphen in a compound title denoting a single civil or military office, but use a
hyphen in a double title.
ambassador at large
commander in chief
secretary-treasurer
manager-director
under secretary
vice president
but:
under-secretaryship
vice-presidency
Apart from titles, hyphens are used in some—but not all—noun compounds containing a
prepositional phrase.
government-in-exile
man-of-war
but:
next of kin
prisoner of war
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Use hyphens in improvised compounds.
need-to-know
first-come-first-served basis
classroom full of know-it-alls
Hyphenate the verb forms of nouns written as two words.
to cold-shoulder an idea (turn a cold shoulder)
to blue-pencil galleys (proof with blue pencils)
Use a hyphen to join a single capital letter to a noun or participle following it.
H-bomb
I-beam
T-shaped
V-necked
Use hyphens (not en dashes) in the compounds designating Russian submarine classes when
the compounds are used as adjectives. If the meaning is clear, refer to these submarines by
the class designator alone.
Compound Words
and Spellings
submarines of the YANKEE class (no hyphen)
a DELTA-class unit; a DELTA-II-class unit
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Compound Words
and Spellings
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Chapter 7
A Word-Watcher’s Guide
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A
a, an before h
The choice before a word beginning with h is straightforward: use an
when the h is silent, use a when the h is pronounced.
Examples:
an herb
a historic occasion
aboard, on board
Aboard can be an adjective, an adverb, or a preposition. The
prepositional phrase on board can be used adjectivally or adverbially,
but not prepositionally—avoid they went on board the ship.
Examples:
The crew is aboard.
They went aboard.
absent
See present.
absolutes
Some adjectives can have no comparative or superlative modifiers.
Eternal, fatal, incessant, maximum, minimum, perfect, unique, and
universal fall within this group. A most unique event, for example, is a
misusage.
accelerate
See escalate.
accomplish,
accomplishment
These words convey a sense of personal achievement, of success by
means of talent or skill. Do not use in reference to inanimate objects
or to routine programs or activities that are well within the capabilities
of the responsible group. Do not use to mean complete and
completion: not construction was accomplished, but construction was
completed.
accordingly
Use so.
acquiesce
Takes the preposition in, not to. To is used with agree.
active versus
passive voice
Active voice is preferable in formal writing. If an active verb can
carry your meaning, use it. Active verbs express meaning more
emphatically and vigorously than their weaker counterparts—forms of
the verb be or verbs in the passive voice. Forms of the verb be (be,
am, is, are, was, were, being, been) lack vigor because they convey
no action. Verbs in the passive voice lack strength because their
subjects receive the action instead of doing it.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
accidental, fortuitous, Related adjectives, these have varied shades of meaning. Accidental
contingent, incidental, carries the idea of chance. Fortuitous strengthens the sense of
opportune
chance; it can suggest luck or good fortune, but it does not lose the
associated sense that the good fortune was totally unplanned.
Contingent, in its sense of accidental, suggests something that may
happen but that is uncertain because causal factors, including
chance, are unknown. Incidental suggests an association that may or
may not be accidental. Opportune suggests an element of chance
mixed with timeliness: being in the right place at the right time.
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activity
Often an empty word, should not be used without the sense of action
or evidence of it. For example, a status or an observation, such as
the presence or absence of aircraft, is not an activity; testing or
deploying aircraft is. Also, avoid the redundant construction activity,
building activity, and the like; activity usually should be deleted from
such phrases. See condition.
adapt
To adjust oneself or something to a new or changed situation.
additionally
Use in addition.
adjacent, contiguous,
collocated
Adjacent means close to or lying near. Contiguous means touching or
sharing an edge or boundary. Collocated means placed together or
side by side.
adopt
To accept or choose a new course of action.
adverse, averse
The two words sound nearly alike and both express opposition, but
adverse applies to something working against a person or program;
averse applies to a person who is against something.
Examples:
adverse weather conditions
He is averse to traveling abroad.
affect, effect
Affect, as a verb, means to influence, to produce an effect upon.
Effect, as a verb, means to bring about; as a noun, effect means
result.
affinity
Describes a reciprocal relationship. The preposition used after affinity
is between, of, or with, not for or to. Affinity is sometimes mistakenly
used to mean talent.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
affinity between (or of) two persons or two things
affinity with one person or one thing
afterward, afterwards
Use afterward. See toward.
agent/officer
Lower case, as in CBP officer.
agree
With a person, to a proposal, on a plan.
al-
Use lowercase a with hyphen; use capital A when used in titles or the
beginning of a sentence.
all, all of
Except when a personal pronoun is involved (she interviewed all of
them), of is redundant. She met all the candidates.
all ready, already
Not interchangeable. All ready means totally prepared.
Already means before a specified or implied time.
See together with.
along with
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alongside,
alongside of
Alongside is adequate without of.
al-Qa‘ida
Literally “the base,” a terrorist organization founded by Usama bin
Ladin. Also rendered Qa‘idat al-Jihad. Not al-Qaida, al-Qaeda, or
AQ. Note the direction of the apostrophe.
Capitalize the a when used at the beginning of a sentence or in a
title; lowercase when used within a sentence.
al-Qa‘ida in Iraq
Capitalize al when used at the beginning of a sentence or in a title;
lowercase when used within a sentence. Can be abbreviated AQI
after spelling out on first reference.
also
See fill-ins.
also known as
aka (without periods between letters).
alternate
Involves the notion of following by turns, rotating (verb, adjective, or
noun; the adverbial form is alternately).
alternative
Involves the notion of a choice among mutually exclusive possibilities
(adjective or noun; the adverbial form is alternatively).
although, though,
while
Although and though are somewhat interchangeable. However,
although generally is used at the beginning of a sentence. Though
may appear anywhere in a sentence and commonly links words or
phrases; though is also the preferred term at the end of a sentence.
While has become a common substitute for although in informal
usage; however, in this sense while means at the same time that, and
in writing it should be reserved for sentences requiring a sense of
time.
altitude
Is used to describe something in the air. Elevation is applied to that
which extends from ground or sea level.
Examples:
flying at an altitude of 20,000 feet
The lookout is at an elevation of 4,500 meters.
altogether
Altogether means all told or completely. All together means in unison.
always
Means on every occasion or forever. Do not use always when you
mean habitually or usually.
ambiguous
Pointing out inconclusiveness or lack of clarity in a situation.
ambivalent
Applies to a state of mind, the simultaneous operation of two different
and usually conflicting desires.
amidst
Use amid.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
Al-Qa‘ida members met recently.
Members of al-Qa‘ida were present.
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among
Use when the relationship of three or more is vague or collective.
See between.
amongst
Use among.
amount, number
Is used with discussions of weight, bulk, or sums: the amount of fuel.
Number applies to quantities that can be counted: the number of fuel
barrels.
Examples:
the amount of fuel
the number of fuel barrels
amused
See bemused.
an
See a.
and, but, however
As connectives may be used at the beginning of a sentence when
emphasis is desired, but use sparingly.
and/or
Should not be used in formal writing.
anticipate, expect
When you anticipate an event, you generally make some preparation
for it; when you expect an event, you simply await developments
before acting. Anticipate is frequently used interchangeably with
expect. The meanings, however, are somewhat different.
Examples:
They anticipated a hostile crowd, so they mobilized the National
Guard.
Had they expected a hostile crowd, they would not have been
surprised, but the National Guard would not have been there.
anxious, eager
Both imply a strong interest or desire. Use eager unless you want to
add a dimension of worry or fear.
any
As a pronoun, can take either a singular or a plural verb.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Example:
Any (any one) of her options is suitable; are any (some) of them
practicable?
anybody, anyone
Each of these usually is written as one word, except in the sense of
any one of a group. Each takes singular verbs and singular pronoun
references.
apparently
See qualifiers.
appear, appearance
Both valid in their visual connotations for intelligence reporting.
Sentences should be worded to maintain the distinction between a
description of an outward aspect and a less-than confident analysis.
Examples:
When seen in March, the launch site appeared to be operational.
It would appear from the evidence that launches will begin soon.
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appendix
The preferred plural is appendixes.
appraise, apprise
Appraise means to assign a value to something. Apprise means to
tell, inform. See ornate words.
approximately
See around.
apt
See likely.
Arabic names
See Chapter 6.3.1.
arch-, arched
Components for a structure with an arched roof are arched-roof
segments.
Example:
The completed structure will be an arch-roofed bunker.
around
While acceptable in approximations of time, around is not always an
acceptable synonym for approximately.
Examples:
He died around 1982.
Approximately (or about, not around) 10,000 people participated in the
march.
as
In positive comparisons, is followed by another as. Watch out for
mismatches. As good as or better than, not as good or better than. In
negative comparisons, so may be substituted for the first as.
See compare, like, and so.
Examples:
She is as clever as her adversary.
She is not so clever as her adversary.
as far as
Confusion arises with the construction as far as . . . is concerned.
This is an indissoluble unit; as far as by itself is incorrect.
as many as
Is preferred to up to.
as noted
See fill-ins.
as well as
See together with.
as yet
As will suffice, on most occasions.
assesses
assessment
Avoid using DHS assesses, use DHS judges.
Requires a that clause.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Example:
As far as football teams are concerned, I like the Redskins.
Not: As far as football teams, I like the Redskins.
Example:
The assessment is that the site is operational.
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assure, ensure, insure Assure means to give confidence and requires a person as its object.
Use ensure to mean make certain. Save insure for what insurance
companies do.
at present
See fill-ins.
at the same time
See fill-ins.
attempt
To make an effort. Thus, a “successful attempt” is incorrect.
author
See changelings.
average, median, mean Under most circumstances there can be only one average. If a range
of quantities is presented, the average must be expressed separately.
Not an average of 10 to 15 vehicles, but from 10 to 20 vehicles are
usually seen, with an average count of 15. A median is the middle
figure in an arithmetically arranged list of figures. Mean is a more
precise term when you actually want to refer to a mathematical result,
but average is acceptable for general usage.
averse
See adverse.
awhile, a while
Use for with a while but not awhile.
Example:
He stayed awhile.
He stayed for a while.
B
back of, in back of
Use behind in place of the two phrases.
backwards
Use backward. See toward.
bad, badly
Bad (the adjective) is correct after linking verbs such as feel and look.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Example:
She said she feels bad.
ballistic, ballistics
The adjective means pertaining to the motion of projectiles, as in
ballistic missile. The noun used as an adjective means associated
with the science of ballistics, as in a facility for ballistics research.
based on, due to,
owing to
Based on, due to, and owing to often introduce dangling phrases,
which are almost always awkward. Try to produce something
smoother by reworking the sentence.
Example:
Due to (or owing to) illness, the meeting was postponed.
We had to postpone the meeting because almost everyone was sick.
basically
See fill-ins.
because
See reason.
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because of, due to
These word pairs are not interchangeable. Due to is an adjectival
prepositional phrase that modifies a noun; it is commonly preceded by
a form of the verb to be. Because of is an adverbial prepositional
phrase that modifies a verb. It usually answers the question, “Why?”
Example:
Tony Stewart lost because of a blown engine.
Tony Stewart’s loss was due to a blown engine.
beef up
Should not be used in intelligence writing.
before
See prior to.
behind
See back of.
bemused
Confused or bewildered, not synonymous with amused.
beside, besides
Use the preposition beside only to mean adjacent to or at the side of.
The adverb besides should be reserved for the meaning of moreover
or in addition. To avoid ambiguity, do not use beside and besides as
idioms to express comparison or exception; use compared with,
except for, or other than.
between, among
Between expresses the relationship of two things, among expresses
the relationship of three or more. Use between, however, if you are
considering more than two things in pairs as well as in a group.
biannual, semiannual
Biannual and semiannual mean occurring twice a year.
biennial
Once every two years.
bimonthly
Once every two months.
bits, bytes
Are considered units of measure and, accordingly, are quantified in
figures, not spelled-out words: a 7-bit byte, 5 bytes of 7 bits each (but
five 7-bit bytes).
biweekly
Once every two weeks.
blatant, flagrant
Both describe antisocial behavior. Blatant implies obviously offensive
or obtrusive behavior, while flagrant carries a stronger overtone of
malice, implying glaring evil.
boat
Nautically speaking, boats are usually small craft that can be carried
on a ship, which is a larger vessel suitable for travel on the high seas.
The exception is a submarine, which may be called either a boat or a
ship. All take the pronoun it, not she.
both
In careful usage, is restricted to two. The word is sometimes used
unnecessarily in an expression such as both agree or both share.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Example:
You have to read between the lines.
We see major differences among the countries A, B, and C.
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The words agree and share already include the idea that two persons
or things are in accord or are interacting. Write simply the two agree
or they share. With three, however, both might be used, as in both
London and Paris agree with Washington that the arrangement is
sound.
both . . . and
The material that follows must be in balance.
Example:
He was deaf to both argument and entreaty.
or: He was both deaf to argument and blind to evidence.
boycott, embargo
A refusal, usually by an organized group, to buy or use a particular
product or service. An embargo is a legal restriction on trade, which
can apply to either buying or selling.
breach
As a noun, is a violation, a gap, or a rift in a solid structure. Do not
confuse breach with breech, which is acceptable only in reference to
ordnance and to human anatomy.
breech
See breach.
build up, buildup
Two words as a verb, one word as a noun. Similarly, shake up and
shakeup and let up and letup.
burgeoning
Describes something that is newly emerging, not something that is
simply growing.
Example:
the burgeoning cities around the recently discovered oilfields
Not: the burgeoning population of Mexico City
but
See and.
bytes
See bits.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
C
cadre
Refers to a group or nucleus, often military, around which a larger
group or organization can be formed. A military cadre may eventually
become a larger group, a fully manned unit. Always add an s when
the word is plural.
can, may
Can denotes the ability to do something, and may is reserved for
permission. In intelligence writing, can often is used to indicate
capability while may is used to imply a probability. See could.
capital
Capital refers to a city or money. It also can be an adjective meaning
first or primary.
Examples:
capital letter, capital crime
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capital cities
In intelligence writing, are generally legitimate stand-ins for the names
of national governments. Moscow’s position is clear is fine, but be
sure not to use capital cities when you are referring to the nation as a
whole. Do not write, for instance, Moscow is reinforcing its borders.
capitol
A building, does not refer to a city or money.
cartel
Lowercase, even with specific name.
casualties
Include persons injured, captured, or missing in action as well as
those killed in battle. In formulating casualty statistics, be sure to
write killed or wounded, not killed and wounded. See injuries.
changelings
Language is continually changing. Some words that began as nouns
are now used as verbs. Changelings are words that have not quite
made the transition. Here are some verb forms that should be used
sparingly: author, critique, debut, distance, exit, host, impact,
pressure, and reference.
China, Taiwan
The full name of the People’s Republic of China usually is shortened
to China. For what was once called Nationalist China or the Republic
of China, use only Taiwan.
church
See party.
cite, sight, site
Cite, a verb, means to quote, mention, or comment. Sight, either a
verb or a noun, means the act or fact of seeing. Site, a noun, means
a place.
citizenry
See ornate words.
clearly
See qualifiers.
climactic, climatic
Climactic refers to a high point. Climatic refers to weather.
clout
Has attained some respectability for use in formal writing when
describing the special influence or power wielded by a person or
group in, say, a political or economic context.
cohort
Refers to a group of people. Emphasis is on the trait or traits common
to all members. Not to be used as a synonym for comrade or
comrades. Compare to cadre.
Example:
Mr. Cameron may belong to a cohort, but neither he nor his buddies
are cohorts.
collateral
The noun, means property used as security for a loan.
collocated
See adjacent.
colocated, collocated
Colocated means sharing the same facilities.
Collocated means set side by side.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
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Examples:
Analysts from DHS and the FBI are colocated in Building 3.
The 250 kV transmission line and the 100 kV transmission line are
collocated on the same right-of-way.
Columbia, Colombia
Columbia, District of Columbia; Columbia, South Carolina; Columbia
University. But Colombia, the country.
combined, joint
Referring to military exercises, mean different things: a combined
exercise involves the forces of more than one country and a joint
exercise involves two or more services of the same country. Note that
a combined-arms exercise involves different elements of ground
forces, such as armored and artillery units.
coming
See upcoming.
communications
As an adjective usually retains the s, as in communications
equipment, communications facilities, communications satellite. As a
noun, it sometimes drops the s, as in sea lines of communication.
community
See Intelligence Community.
comparatively
See relatively.
compare, contrast
Compare to points out likenesses; compare with points out both
likenesses and differences; contrast with points out only differences.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
He compared his cabinet with Kennedy’s. (He pointed out similarities
and differences.)
He compared his cabinet to Kennedy’s. (He showed how much alike
they were—and by implication, how praiseworthy his cabinet was.)
He contrasted his cabinet with Kennedy’s. (He emphasized the
differences.)
compel, impel,
propel
Compel means to drive or urge forcefully. Impel is to drive or urge by
moral pressures. Propel is to drive or urge by a force that imparts
motion.
complement,
compliment
An airplane’s crew is its complement; a compliment is a positive
comment.
compose
To constitute or make up.
Examples:
Four provinces compose South Africa.
South Africa is composed of four provinces.
comprise
To contain or consist of.
conceivably
See could.
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concept,
conception,
conceptualize
Concept is an abstract idea, a thought. Conception is a particular
mental picture or understanding of a concept: their conception of
Communism. A drawing derived from impressions (as opposed to
an exact copy) is either an artist’s conception or a conceptual
drawing. Conceptualize, see -ize words.
concern
Takes different prepositions for different senses of the word.
Examples:
He is concerned with computers. (He is occupied or employed.)
He is concerned about computers. (They are the source of his
worries.)
concerning
Use about.
concerted
In the sense of combined, requires a plural subject or object. Only
they can make a concerted effort. This, however, is another word that
has been devalued through overuse.
conclave
Refers to a secret meeting, not just any gathering.
concrete steps
Used figuratively, raises awkward connotations of literalness. Say
concrete measures or specific steps, or just omit the adjective.
condition, situation,
activity
Have a tendency to be placed into sentences for little to no reason.
Say famine, not famine conditions; deteriorating economy or
economic deterioration, not deteriorating economic situation;
exercises, not exercise activity.
conduct
An overused word and often can be eliminated.
Examples:
The insurgents raided the police station.
Not: The insurgents conducted a raid on the police station.
Takes three different prepositions: by is used with the means of
connection; to is used for connection between dissimilar things; and
with is used for connection between things of the same category or
function.
Examples:
Site A is connected with site B by a cable.
Both sites are connected to the headquarters building.
connote, denote
Means to imply or suggest; denote means to represent or stand for.
Examples:
His tone connotes stronger feelings than he admits.
Solid arrows denote operational sites.
consecutive,
successive
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
connect
Both have to do with events following one another in sequence.
Consecutive requires the sequence be uninterrupted. Successive
requires the order within the sequence not be interrupted although
elements of the sequence may be missing.
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Examples:
Consecutive months—January, February, and March.
Successive months—January and March.
consensus
Is a position held collectively, not just by a majority. If you have a
consensus, not everyone may be in full agreement but everyone is
willing to go along. A consensus emerges through discussion, not
through a formal vote. See also plurality. Note the spelling: one c,
three s’s.
consider, regard
Regard, in the sense of coming to a belief after careful deliberation,
is usually followed by as; consider, in the same sense, is not.
Examples:
He considered the vote a defeat.
He regarded the vote as a defeat.
contact
Is used correctly as a verb only in technical contexts. Its usage to
mean to get in touch with is discouraged. Contact as a noun,
however, is acceptable in intelligence writing. Incidentally, one
contracts (not contacts) a disease.
Examples:
The two wires contacted to make a spark.
Her contact in Iraq was a newspaper editor.
contiguous
See adjacent.
contingent
In its sense of “accidental,” suggests something that may happen but
that is uncertain because causal factors, including chance, are
unknown. See accidental.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
continual, continuous, Continual applies chiefly to something that occurs intermittently or is
continuing
repeated at intervals. Continuous refers to something uninterrupted in
time or space. Continuing can be used in either sense.
contract
See contact.
contractions
Are not acceptable in formal writing.
contrast
See compare.
convince, persuade
The two are not interchangeable. A person is convinced of a need
after he has been persuaded to recognize the need. If convince is
followed by to, it usually is incorrect.
Examples:
They persuaded him to participate.
They convinced him of the importance of his participation.
corps
Can be singular or plural. It should not be used to mean a group;
reserve it for its military sense.
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correspond
Use correspond to express a similarity in characteristics, function, or
appearance. Correspond with means to exchange letters.
could, may
Should be limited to statements dealing with capability. Use may
when you are making judgments or predictions. Neither could nor
may should be burdened by modifiers such as conceivably and
possibly.
council, counsel,
consul
Council (a noun) refers to a deliberate assembly. Counsel (may be
either a noun or verb) applies to advice and to the person proffering
the advice. Consul is the title of an officer in the Foreign Service.
counter
Most are one word: counterterrorism, counterintelligence.
credence, credibility,
credulity
Credence means belief or mental acceptance. Credibility is the
quality of being believable; something is credible when it is worthy of
belief and judged plausible. A person receives information that lends
credibility to a rumor, and he gives credence to the rumor when he is
convinced the information is valid. One who gives credence too easily
is likely to stray over into credulity, which is next to gullibility. See
incredible.
credible, creditable
Credible means believable. Creditable means deserving credit or
praise.
crisis
A situation involving significant actual or potential international
conflict; it may peak or reach a flashpoint or climax. Crisis should not
be used to describe minor national or international disruptions.
A governmental crisis refers to the period between the fall of a
parliamentary government and the election of new leadership.
criteria
See data.
criterion
A criterion is a standard on which a judgment can be based; the plural
form is criteria.
critique
See changelings.
culminate
Takes the preposition in and is used intransitively. The project
culminated in a comprehensive report, not a comprehensive report
culminated the project.
D
dangling participles
See given and participles.
data, criteria, media
date of birth (DOB)
These are plural; therefore use a plural verb.
DOB is a standard abbreviation that does not need to be spelled out
on first reference.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
The bombers could (are able to) bomb the city.
The bombers may (possibly will) bomb the city.
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Example:
DOB: 1 January 2008.
date, place of birth
DPOB is a standard abbreviation that does not need to be spelled out
on first reference.
Example:
DPOB: 1 January 2008, Iraq.
debut
See changelings.
decimate
Originally meant to select by lot and then to kill one of every 10 in a
group of enemies. The word has grown to encompass heavy losses
of many kinds. Still, decimated should be used with discretion.
Buildings and tanks are damaged or destroyed, not decimated.
definitely
See very.
defuse, diffuse
Defuse means to remove a fuse from a weapon.
Diffuse means to spread around, to scatter.
denote
See connote.
depart
Requires a preposition. Leave does not need the from.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
She will depart from Dulles today.
She will leave Dulles today.
Department of State
Not State Department.
deploy
Applies to military movement—in its narrowest definition, to military
movement in preparation for battle. Avoid employing it in the service
of nonmilitary activity.
deprecate, depreciate
Deprecate is more often used these days to belittle or express
disapproval of something. Depreciate, besides its application to
prices and values, can also mean to disparage something.
determined
People make determinations, inanimate objects do not. Not The
facility was determined to be an aircraft plant, but It has been
determined that the facility is . . . or better, the facility has been
identified as. . .
DHS
Does not need to be spelled out on first reference.
DHS’ (possessive form).
DHS and the FBI, when followed by another agency.
different from
Different from is correct; different than is not.
Example:
Her opinion is different from his. Better yet: differs from.
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diffuse
See defuse.
dilemma
Involves a choice between two equally unsatisfactory courses of
action. Dilemma is not the proper word to use when you mean a
predicament or a troublesome decision.
dirty bomb
Use quotation marks: “dirty bomb.”
disburse, disperse
Disburse refers to the release of funds. Disperse means to scatter.
disclose
See reveal.
discreet, discrete
Discreet means cautious, prudent. Discrete means separate, distinct.
discuss
Writers should avoid personification in phrases such as this report
discusses. Write instead, this report includes a discussion of. . .
disinformation,
misinformation
Disinformation refers to the deliberate planting of false reports.
Misinformation implies incorrect data but does not carry the same
devious connotation.
disinterested,
uninterested
Disinterested means impartial, not swayed by self-interest.
Uninterested means indifferent.
distance
See changelings.
divulge
See reveal.
domestic, indigenous
The two are synonymous in some senses but not all. Modifying
production, for example, they both define it as homegrown or related
to the country concerned. Modifying animal, however, the words
diverge in meaning, domestic meaning domesticated or tamed,
indigenous connoting native to or naturally occurring in the country or
region concerned.
downbeat
See upbeat.
downward
See toward.
drug trafficking,
drug-trafficking
Adjective is hyphenated.
Examples:
they were accused of drug trafficking.
It was a drug-trafficking organization.
due to
See because of, based on.
E
e.g.
Replace with for example or for instance.
each
As a subject, each takes a singular verb and singular related
pronouns. If, however, each follows a plural subject, the verb is
plural.
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Guide
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Example:
The President and the Vice President each have an interest in the
outcome.
eager
See anxious.
economic growth
The rate of economic growth may remain the same, increase, or slow.
When the growth rate is negative, the GNP—gross national product—
(not economic growth) is declining.
effect
See affect.
effectuate
See ornate words.
either
As a subject, takes a singular verb and pronoun. For either . . . or
constructions, see neither . . . nor.
election
Singular in most cases: usually there is only one election at a time.
Examples:
national election, general election, presidential election
But:
presidential and legislative elections
municipal elections in several parts of the country
electronic, electronics Use the noun electronics as an adjective to mean associated with
electronics. The adjective electronic conveys the meaning of having
the characteristics of electronics.
Examples:
an electronics installation
electronic communication
elevation
Elevation is applied to that which extends from ground or sea level.
See altitude.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
The lookout is at an elevation of 360 meters.
elicit, illicit
An interrogator elicits information. Illicit is an adjective meaning
illegal.
e-mail
With hyphen.
embargo
See boycott.
Embassy, Consulate,
Chancery
Capitalize only when referring to a specific site.
Examples:
US Embassy Rome (without a preceding “the”).
The embassy they targeted was in Rome.
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emigrate, immigrate,
migrate
Emigrate is to leave a place permanently, usually followed by from.
Immigrate is to come to a place permanently, usually followed by to.
Migrate embraces both.
eminent, imminent
An eminent person is well known. Imminent means about to happen.
employ
Use use.
enclosure
Enclosure is preferred over inclosure.
endorse
Endorse is preferred over indorse.
enormity
Enormity means monstrousness, moral outrageousness.
enormousness
Enormousness means abnormally great size.
ensure
See assure.
enthuse
A colloquialism to be avoided.
enunciate
See ornate words.
equal
See equivalent.
equally as
These two words should not be used together in the same sentence
when you are making comparisons. Drop equally when you are
comparing two persons or groups or two things. Drop as when you
name only one person or group or one thing in the sentence.
equivalent, equal
Equivalent applies to two or more things that have a qualitative
similarity. Equal emphasizes precise quantitative likeness.
eras
A.D. precedes the year; B.C. follows the year.
escalate, accelerate,
intensify
Escalate means to increase by successive stages. Do not use
escalate when you mean simply accelerate or intensify.
essentially
See fill-ins.
estimate
See feel.
et al
A Latin abbreviation meaning and others. Write and others.
etc.
Is rarely appropriate in professional writing. Enumerating the
additional instances will usually be more helpful.
eternal
See absolutes.
ethnic cleansing
Try using atrocity instead. If you have to use the term ethnic
cleansing, place the phrase within quotation marks.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
He is as ineffective as his predecessor.
They are equally ineffective.
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even
Even (as an adverb) is a notorious floating modifier. If it ends up in
the wrong place it can distort meaning, and proper placement in a
sentence requires care. See only.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
The Secretary was not even disturbed by the threats (in fact, she was
more or less unaffected).
eventuate
See ornate words.
evidence
A key word in intelligence analysis, should be defined as specifically
as possible. What is the source of the information? When was it
obtained? How reliable do you believe it is? Avoid phrases such as
available evidence indicates.
evidently
See qualifiers.
evince
See ornate words.
exacerbate
Try weaken, worsen, heighten, intensify, widen, or deepen rather than
exacerbate.
exile
Except for diplomatic exile, a person is exiled from a country, not to a
country.
exit
See changelings.
expand, expansion
Both refer to an increase in size, volume, quantity, or scope. Neither
word should be applied to a site or facility where buildings are being
added unless the area of the site itself is also being enlarged.
expatriate
Not expatriot or ex-patriot.
expect
See anticipate.
explosive, explosives
Use the adjective explosive to mean capable of exploding: an
explosive charge. To mean associated with explosives, use the plural
noun as an adjective: an explosives building. The word may be used
as a noun in both plural and singular forms: an explosive was tested
or explosives are stored.
expose
See reveal.
extra words
Extra words are burdensome to the reader. The key is compression,
not omission. Some samples of excessive words follow. See also
hackneyed phrases and redundancies.
abortive coup attempt (abortive coup)
absolutely essential (essential)
acute crisis (crisis)
a distance of 5 kilometers (5 kilometers)
advance planning (planning)
afford an opportunity (let, permit, allow)
after the conclusion of (after)
aggregate total (total)
a large proportion of (many)
all-time record (record)
along the lines of (like, such as)
am (are) of the opinion (believe)
appear to be (appear)
appointed to the post of (appointed)
armed hostilities (hostilities)
as a result of (because)
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as well as (because)
at an early date (soon)
at that point in time (then)
at the present time (now, currently, at
present, but not presently)
before long (soon)
built a new (built)
by means of (by, with)
by the time (when)
close confidant (confidant)
close scrutiny (scrutiny)
collaborate together (collaborate)
combine together (combine)
come in contact with (meet)
commented to the effect that
(commented)
completely unanimous (unanimous)
completely untrue (untrue)
complete monopoly (monopoly)
conduct operations (operate)
consensus of opinion (consensus)
cover over (cover)
dates back from (dates from)
despite the fact that (although)
divide up (divide)
due to the fact that (because, since,
hence)
during such time as (while)
each and every one (each)
eliminate altogether (eliminate)
end product (product)
end result (result)
entirely eliminate (eliminate)
established a new (established)
estimated at about (estimated)
experience difficulty (have trouble)
fabricate (build, make)
few in number (few)
filled to capacity (filled)
final outcome (outcome)
final settlement (settlement)
firm commitment (commitment)
follow after (follow)
foreign import (import)
for the amount of (for)
for the purpose of (for, to)
full complement of (complement of)
future prospect (prospect)
general public (public)
homebased (based)
hour of noon (noon)
hope for the future (hope)
important essentials (essentials)
in accordance with (by)
in an effort to determine (to determine)
in a number of cases (some, sometimes)
in addition to (besides, also)
inasmuch as (since)
include among them (include)
individual persons (individuals)
initiate an attack (attack)
in lieu of (instead)
in order that (so)
in regard to (regarding, on, about,
concerning)
in short supply (scarce)
insofar as (because, since, as)
in terms of (in, for, or omit)
in the city of (in)
in the event that (if)
in the interest of (for)
in the interim period between (in the
interim)
in the majority of instances (usually or in
most instances)
in a position to (can)
in the midst of (amid)
in the month of (in)
in the near future (soon, shortly)
in the process of fighting (fighting)
in the vicinity of (near, around)
in this day and age (today)
in two years’ time (in two years)
in view of the fact that (since, because,
although)
it is highly likely that (probably)
it is possible that (may)
join together (join)
just recently (recently)
large in size (large)
launch a new operation (launch an
operation)
link together (link)
located at (at)
major breakthrough (breakthrough)
majority of (most)
manner in which (how)
many in number (many)
may possibly suggest (may suggest)
merge together (merge)
more paramount (paramount)
more perfect (perfect)
most unique (unique)
necessary requisite (requisite)
never before in the past (never before)
new discovery (discovery)
new initiatives (initiatives)
new recruits (recruits)
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
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of great importance (important)
on a few occasions (occasionally)
on condition that (if)
one of the last remaining (one of the
remaining)
one of the purposes (one purpose)
on the occasion of (when, for)
pare down (pare)
passing phase (phase)
penetrate into (penetrate)
personal friend (friend)
pressing for the imposition of (pressing
for)
prior to (before)
prominent and leading (prominent)
provided that (if)
reason is because (reason is)
reason why (reason)
recalled back (recalled)
recur again (recur)
reduce down (reduce)
repeat again (repeat)
resume again (resume)
return back (return)
revert back (revert)
rise up (rise)
root cause (cause)
separate out (separate)
serious crisis (crisis)
skirt around (skirt)
small in size (small)
subsequent to (after, since)
succeeded in defeating (defeated)
sum total (sum or total)
sworn affidavit (affidavit)
take action on (act)
temporary reprieve (reprieve)
true facts (facts)
under active consideration (being
considered)
until such time as (until)
usual customs (customs)
valued at (worth)
vast majority (majority)
violent explosion (explosion)
was located near (was near)
when and if (if)
whether or not (whether)
with reference to (on, about, concerning)
with the exception of (except, except for)
with the result that (so)
with regard to (regarding, on, about,
concerning)
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
F
farther, further
Farther refers to physical or literal distance.
Further conveys the notion of additional degree, time, or quantity.
fatal
See absolutes.
fatwa
Formal legal opinion or decision made by an Islamic scholar. It often
takes the form of an answer to a question and is considered opinion
embodying an interpretation of sharia. A fatwa is typically requested
in cases not covered in the fiqh literature and is neither binding nor
enforceable. If the inquirer is not persuaded by the fatwa, he is free to
go to another scholar to obtain another opinion, but once he finds a
convincing opinion, he should obey it. Fatwas are often issued by
radical clerics and violent extremists to justify the use of violence, but
they are also used by nonradicals to pronounce on everyday matters,
ranging from family issues to financial matters to dealings with state
and society.
fear
A strong emotion and should not be used to express a vague concern,
an uneasy feeling, or an ill-defined skepticism.
federal
Lowercase federal, state, and local unless referring to a specific
named entity.
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feel
As a verb, can mean to be aware of something instinctively or
emotionally. He feels trouble brewing. As a linking verb, feel is
followed by an adjective when describing a personal condition—I feel
bad, not badly (to feel badly means to apply one’s sense of touch
ineptly). DHS analysts should evaluate, not feel.
fewer, less
Fewer applies to numbers or units considered individually—fewer
dollars, fewer minutes—generally things that you can count.
Less refers to general quantities—less sugar, less waste, less time—
not generally what you can count as individual units.
figures, tables
Figures are charts, illustrations, maps, or pictures; tables are data
arrayed in columns and rows.
fill-ins
Writers often strew their sentences with words that contribute nothing
to the meaning. In careful composition, words and phrases such as
also, as noted, at present, at the same time, basically, in connection
with, indeed, in this context, of course, on the other hand, essentially,
significantly, and with reference to should be reserved for those few
occasions when they are needed to ease the reader over a rough
spot. See extra words.
fiscal, monetary
Fiscal applies to a budget, monetary to currency.
fiscal year
FY is a standard abbreviation that does not need to be spelled out on
first reference. Use a space between FY and the full year: FY 2007.
flagrant
See blatant.
flammable,
inflammable
Flammable is the preferred word when you are describing a
combustible substance. However, a situation or a temperament is
inflammable.
flaunt, flout
Flaunt means to display ostentatiously. Flout means to disobey
openly, to treat the rules with contempt.
Flight
Capitalize when used with a flight number.
Example:
She was on American Airlines, Flight 6389.
floating modifiers
See even and only.
flounder, founder
As a verb, flounder means to stumble about clumsily. Founder as a
verb means to go lame (as with horses), to sink (as with boats), to
collapse, to fail utterly.
flout
See flaunt.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
The branch invited representatives from federal, state, local, and tribal
law enforcement.
Federal Reserve Bank, but federal government, federal lands.
Federal Judges Association, but the federal judiciary, federal courts.
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for
As a preposition indicating purpose or intent, introduces phrases that
are usually restrictive. As a conjunction indicating cause, for
introduces an independent clause and is preceded by a comma.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
The bus was at the door for the visitors attending the conference.
The bus was at the door, for the visitors were attending the
conference.
for the purpose of
Use to.
forceful, forcible
Forceful means vigorous, strong, effective. Forcible suggests the
exertion of force, often the use of physical violence.
forego, forgo
Forego, with the e, is to go before in time or place. Instead of using it
we would usually write go before or precede. If you are doing without
something, forgo the e.
foreword
Not forward, is the name for something written, usually by someone
other than the author, to appear at the beginning of an article or
book—whose author ordinarily writes the preface.
former
See latter.
forthcoming
Means about to take place or available when needed. It is informal
and can convey several different meanings. See upcoming.
fortuitous
Describes something that happens by chance or accident. Do not
confuse with fortunate. A fortuitous event can be either fortunate or
unfortunate. See accidental.
fortunately
See subjective words.
forum
The preferred plural is forums.
founder
See flounder.
from . . . to
An expression such as paid from 13 July to 7 August does not include
the final day (7 August in this instance). The use of through rather
than to, however, would include the final day.
front, back
These adjectives should not be applied to a structure or facility unless
the evidence for the distinction is clear. Use directional adjectives
(such as the north side or the west front) for precision.
fulsome
Means offensive to the senses or loathsome; it does not mean
complete or full.
fundamentalism
Originally characterized as a traditionalist and scripturally literalist
strain within American Protestantism, now often used to describe
Salafi and other rigid interpretations of Islam. Highly misleading when
applied to Islam, however, because mainstream Islam also
emphasizes fundamentals (for example, the five pillars) and because
there are sharply differring versions of Salafism.
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further
See farther.
fuse
The preferred spelling except for missile and other military
applications, for which fuze is correct. See defuse.
G
gender
The English language is steadily acquiring new terms to counter the
predominance of masculine forms.
Examples:
anchor, newscaster, flight attendant, business persons, layperson,
chairperson, mail carrier, Diet members, member of Congress,
firefighter, police officer
No satisfactory substitute yet exists for the pronouns he, his, and
him. Repeating he or she or his or hers or him or her can become
tiresome. The best solution is to use the plural.
Example:
All representatives must cast their ballots.
If this is impractical, stick with one or he or she. Avoid s/he.
gibe
A taunt or sneer. See jibe.
given
At the beginning of an ostensibly modifying phrase is prone to
dangling. If in doubt, try substituting in view of.
Government
Capitalize only when naming or referring to a specific sovereign entity.
See also party.
Examples:
US Government, Italian Government; government employee.
growth
The rate of growth may remain the same, increase, decline, or slow.
The rate cannot begin or end, but growth can.
hackneyed phrases
Phrases such as the following have been so overused they are
becoming cliches. See also extra words, ornate words, and
redundancies.
keep their options open
refurbish his tarnished image
generates further disagreement
hit the campaign trail
net effect of the decision
nonstarters
dire straits
considered judgment
a likely scenario
potential chokepoint
paradigm shift
assume the mantle of office
triggered new developments
hammer out a compromise
viable alternatives
broad outlines of the case
heightened tensions
far-reaching implications
widely held perception
geared up for action
bottom line
leveraging resources
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
H
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hajj, hajji
In a general reference to the pilgrimage to Mecca, considered as a
religious duty for Muslims, write hajj. The plural is hajjes. Do not
capitalize and do not italicize (italicized here for emphasis).
Merriam-Webster also lists hajji, meaning one who has made the
pilgrimage. The plural is hajjis. As above, do not capitalize or italicize
either word used generally. If hajji is used as a title before a person’s
name, capitalization would be appropriate.
HAMAS
Acronym in Arabic for the Islamic Resistance Movement (Harakat alMuqawamah al-Islamiyyah) in the Palestinian areas. In January
2006, HAMAS won a majority of seats in the legislative council of the
Palestinian Authority. As of 2009, officials of the movement held
power in Gaza.
hanged
Not hung, is the past tense of hang when referring to an execution;
hung is the proper past tense in all other meanings.
hardly
Has the force of a negative; be careful to avoid an inadvertent double
negative.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Example:
They had hardly any [not no] response.
hawalah
A system for transferring funds mainly used by migrant populations.
he/him/his
See gender.
headquarters
Can take either a singular or plural verb.
here, there
To avoid ambiguity and to preserve an objective tone, here should not
be used to refer to a location under discussion: it may be understood
to refer to the location of the writer. There may be used to refer to a
previously mentioned site, but the reference should be clear.
high
High not tall, is the adjective to use when measuring objects and
structures.
his or her
Rephrase the sentence to plural to avoid tiresome constructions
such as “his or her” and avoid artificial constructions such as “his/her.”
See also gender.
historic, historical
Historic means famous in history. Historical refers to general events
of the past.
Hizb al-Tahrir
Hizb al-Tahrir al-Islami (Islamic Liberation Party), also known as Hizb
ut-Tahrir (HT or HUT for short). A political movement active in Central
Asia, the Middle East, Western Europe, and Southeast Asia that
advocates restoration of the caliphate but claims not to support
violence. Its connection to terrorism is increasingly becoming a
subject of debate. Although a “party,” HT does not generally
participate in above-ground politics or elections; however, HT in
Indonesia is one of the movement’s largest and most visible chapters,
staging frequent demonstrations and publishing prolifically. Rendered
Hizb ut-Tahrir throughout much of Central Asia and Hizbut Tahrir in
Indonesia and Malaysia.
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Hizballah
“Party of God,” a Shia political and military organization in Lebanon.
Separate Hizballah organizations can also be found in Saudi Arabia,
Bahrain, and Kuwait.
homeland
Capitalize when used in the context of a noun, otherwise, keep
lowercased.
Example:
They were arrested for their attempted attacks on the Homeland.
The government furlough may significantly affect homeland security.
homeland nexus
Avoid using this phrase.
hopefully
Means with hope. That is the meaning in “he looked to the future
hopefully” which is grammatically sound but not very informative.
Instead write something such as “he campaigned hard in the hope of
(or in hopes of) capturing the undecided vote.” Avoid using hopefully
in the sense of it is to be hoped or let us hope.
host
See changelings.
however
See and.
hung
See hanged.
i.e.
Use that is.
identified
See determined.
illicit
See elicit.
imagery
Use the phrase on imagery carefully to avoid an incongruity. Not: “the
plant was operating on all the imagery,” but “operating every time it
was imaged” or “operating every time it was seen on imagery.”
imam
Lowercase unless used with a proper name. “One who stands in
front;” “leader,” as in prayer leader. In Shia Islam, imam refers to the
infallible successors of the Prophet Muhammad and descendents of
Ali, the last of whom is believed to have a messianic role.
immigrate
See emigrate.
imminent
See eminent.
impact
Resist using as a verb. Use affect or influence instead. See
changelings.
impel
See compel.
impending
See pending.
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Guide
I
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imply, infer
Implying occurs when the writer or the speaker states something
indirectly. Inferring occurs when the reader or the hearer draws a
conclusion on the basis of indirect evidence.
important
When you want to introduce a second and more worthy consideration,
use more important rather than more importantly. Similarly, use most
important rather than most importantly in a context requiring the
superlative. See fill-ins, relevant.
Example:
Retail sales were up last month; more important, interest rates fell for
the first time this year.
in
Indicates location or condition. Into implies movement, direction, or
change of condition.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Example:
The Marines were not in armored personnel carriers when they were
ambushed; they quickly moved into a protected position.
in addition to
See together with.
in connection with
See fill-ins.
in order to
Often begins an adverbial phrase in the middle of a sentence, but at
the beginning you can usually do without the first two words.
in regards to
Use in regard to or regarding.
in terms of
Can often be replaced by at, in, for, or by.
in this context
See fill-ins.
inboard, outboard
These words originally described location in relation to the centerline
of a ship and have since been accepted for similar use with aircraft,
missiles, and rockets. When no other term is precise, they may be
applied to land vehicles. However, they should not be used for any
fixed object, structure, or place; their locations can be expressed by
compass directions or structural points of reference.
incessant
See absolutes.
incidence
See incident.
incident
Applies to a minor occurrence or an event of only momentary
importance. Incident is not the proper word to use in cases of major
conflict or catastrophe. An invasion is not an incident; neither is an
earthquake. Be careful also to distinguish between incidents
(occurrences) of civil unrest and the incidence (frequency) of civil
unrest.
Example:
A border incident took place yesterday when a small patrol entered
the neutral zone.
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incidental
Suggests an association that may or may not be accidental.
See accidental.
incite
Means to cause something to happen; insight refers to
comprehension or understanding.
inclosure
Use enclosure.
include
Used when only some are mentioned, see comprise.
Example:
The South African provinces include Natal and the Transvaal.
incredible, incredulous Incredible means not believable; incredulous means skeptical.
indeed
See fill-ins.
indicate
Denotes a conclusion based on specific information. Not to be used
when you are looking for a break from say, reveal, and the like.
indigenous
See domestic.
individual
Is not always a desirable synonym for person, as in the police
arrested several individuals, which ends better with persons or people
(see people). Individual serves best to distinguish from group, as in
the police are searching for the group or individual responsible.
indorse
See endorse.
infer
See imply.
infighting
A boxing term, has become part of the vernacular of the political
arena. Use it if you must, but make it one word, not a hyphenated
pair.
infinitives
Make sure the flow or clarity of the sentence demands the split. If you
are not sure, do not split. If you use an infinitive in a title, be sure to
capitalize the to.
inflammable
See flammable.
injuries, casualties
Are suffered or sustained, not received or taken. See casualties.
inside of, outside of
The of is unnecessary when inside or outside is used as a preposition:
inside the garrison and outside the insurgents’ headquarters. The
same principle applies to all.
insight
See incite.
insure
See assure.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
His explanation was incredible.
She gave him an incredulous stare.
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Intelligence
Community
Capitalize unless you mean a non-US intelligence community.
intensify
See escalate.
inter
See intra.
interestingly
See hopefully.
interim (noun)
Use meantime.
international
Spell out; do not use intl or int’l.
interpretability,
resolution
Both of these terms, not quality, describes the usefulness of a piece of
imagery. A photograph of clouds may be of excellent quality from a
photographer’s or engineer’s point of view yet of no use.
Example:
Image resolution (not quality) precluded determining the status of the
site.
intifada
Uprising, as in Palestinian uprisings. The two Palestinian intifadas
began in December 1987 and September 2000.
into
See in.
intra
A prefix, means within; inter indicates between, among, or together.
Intramural competition means competition within an institution;
international competition means competition among nations.
involve
Involve in means to be a part of and applies to inanimate objects as
well as persons. Involve with has to do with human emotional or
intellectual association.
Examples:
The plant is involved in the development of the new missile.
He is involved with the politics of the movement.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
ironically
Involves a sharp contrast between the apparent and the expected.
Do not use ironically when referring to a trivial oddity.
Example:
Ironically, the senator, a professed atheist, goes to church every
Sunday.
Not: Ironically, the senator wears tennis shoes to church.
irregardless
Use regardless.
Islamist
Widely used in academic literature to refer to those who support the
pursuit of a political agenda with the ultimate aim of restructuring
political society in accordance with their vision of Islamic laws and
principles (sharia).
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Islamization
The process of Muslims becoming conscious of their
political/religious/social identity and modifying their
political/religious/social behavior accordingly. Used in the historical
sense, to describe how groups adopted Islam, or in the aspirational
sense, such as when Islamists in Europe speak of “Islamizing
Europe.” It also is used to describe the creeping imposition of Islamic
norms by state institutions through legislation and other official
measures.
issues
Issues are resolved, not solved.
it is
The use of it is to start a sentence usually is unnecessary and often
results in cumbersome construction.
Example:
Not: It is the decision of the Army to recall the reservists.
But: The Army’s decision is to recall the reservists, or
The Army decided to recall the reservists.
its
The possessive of it. It’s means it is.
-ize words
Should be avoided. Seek synonyms for conceptualize, finalize,
optimize, prioritize, and their ilk.
jargon
See technical terms.
jibe
A sailing term when used alone. Jibe with means to be in accord with.
See gibe.
jihad, jihadist, jihadi
Lowercase “j.” “Struggle,” both in the internal sense—to be a better
Muslim—and in the external sense, as defense of the faith, armed
struggle, and holy war. Used especially to mean holy war in the
modern era by those inspired by the Egyptian Abd al-Salam Faraj,
who in his text The Neglected Duty (1981) elevated jihad as the “sixth
pillar of Islam.” Also jihadist and jihadism.
joint
See combined.
judgment, judgement
Judgment is the preferred spelling.
K
kafir
In Arabic, unbeliever/infidel/atheist. Used colloquially to describe nonMuslims or impious Muslims as “unbelievers.” It means to deny God,
the Prophethood of Muhammad, and to attempt to “cover/conceal” the
truth of these things. The term became familiar in the West after a
hip-hop video made in 2003 in the United Kingdom extolling Usama
bin Ladin and al-Qa‘ida entitled Dirty Kuffar circulated widely on the
Internet.
Khalid Shaykh
Muhammad
Use this spelling; do not abbreviate.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
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kind
See type.
kudos
A Greek word meaning glory. In English it means praise or credit for
an outstanding achievement. In both Greek and English it is singular
and has no plural: kudo is not a word, nor is kudoses. Kudos goes to
someone, kudos never go to anyone.
Koran
Not spelled Quran or Qur’an; always capitalize. The Muslims’ Holy
Book. According to tradition, it is the word of God revealed to
Muhammad.
L
lack
As a transitive verb, is not followed by for.
Example:
The French do not lack a sense of their grandeur.
laid, lain
See lay.
last, latest
Last indicates finality, whereas latest can mean only the most recent.
Examples:
This report is the last he prepared before retiring.
This report is the latest on the subject.
latter, former
Refer to one of only two persons or things or collections of either. In a
series of three or more, repeat the subject referred to or, if repetition is
a problem, invoke last-named or first-named.
lay, lie
Lay means to put, place, or prepare. Lie means to recline or be
situated.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
Lay the books on the table.
Please lie down and rest.
lead
Pronunciation causes problems with lead when used as a verb. Both
the past tense and the past participle of the verb lead (rhymes with
reed) are led. Lead (rhymes with red) is the metal.
leave
See depart.
led
Is the past tense and past participle of lead (rhymes with reed) and
should not be spelled like the metal lead that rhymes with red.
lend
Is preferred as the verb; loan as a verb is colloquial.
less
See fewer.
let up
See build up.
liable
See likely.
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lie
See lay.
like, as, such as
Can properly be used in making comparisons. Like, a preposition,
governs nouns, pronouns, and incomplete clauses and introduces
comparisons. As, a conjunction, governs full clauses. Such as
introduces an example. See together with.
Examples:
He behaves like a child. He behaves as a child would behave.
She takes to politics like a fish to water. She takes to politics as a fish
takes to water.
There are many mountain ranges in southern Arizona, such as those
around Tucson.
likely
As an adverb, should be preceded by a qualifier such as quite, more,
or most. If supplying the qualifier is a problem, try changing likely to
probably (which is synonymous and requires no qualifier) or to the
adjective form. Likely as a predicate adjective does not need a
qualifier. Likely can also be used to express credibility (a likely story)
and probability (the likely outcome). Likely, as an adjective
expressing inclination or probability, is followed by an infinitive. Apt
and liable resemble likely in meaning but differ in emphasis. Apt
suggests a tendency, usually unfortunate. Liable connotes
vulnerability rather than probability.
likewise
An adverb, not a conjunction, and cannot properly be used as a
substitute for and.
links
See relations.
loan
See lend.
loath, loathe
Loath (an adjective) means reluctant. Loathe (a verb) means to
dislike intensely.
located
An overused term in intelligence writing and usually can be eliminated
as redundant in simple statements of place. Located is not needed.
Examples:
The plant is at the junction of two rail lines.
The installation is 60 kilometers west of Karachi.
logistic
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
She will quite likely win the election.
It is likely that data can be obtained.
A satisfactory outcome is likely.
He is likely to find this strange, not he will likely find this strange.
He is apt to lie at the drop of a hat.
He is liable to arrest.
In the sense of moving, quartering, and supplying troops, is the
adjective; logistics is the noun. Logistical is discouraged.
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lower
Is both the comparative degree of the positive adjective low
(superlative lowest) and the antonym of the positive adjective upper,
which, like the antonymous lower, has no comparative or superlative.
This consideration is significant only when deciding whether to put a
hyphen after lower (as always after upper) in a unit modifier.
M
madrasa
No “h” at end. Arabic word for any type of school, secular or religious,
but in the West has come to be identified with an Islamic religious or
Koranic school.
mainly
See only.
major
Major is not interchangeable with sizable or significant and should be
reserved for subjects substantially greater or more important than
others of the same category. Construction of a building is important,
but construction of a new urban transit system is a major program.
majority
A majority means more than 50 percent. Majority takes a singular
verb when the sense is oneness.
Example:
The majority of the Senate supports the measure.
When the individuality of the members is stressed, the verb is plural.
Example:
The majority of the Senators are from rural districts.
When no one has achieved a majority, someone still will have a
plurality (the group that, while falling short of a majority, is larger than
any other). Neither majority nor plurality can be modified by terms
such as “one-vote” or “one-seat.” See consensus, margin.
margin
Margin, not majority, is what you call the number of legislative seats
by which the majority exceeds the minority.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Example:
The Prime Minister’s party, with 220 seats, has a 20-seat margin (not
a 20-seat majority) over the opposition’s 200 seats.
masterful, masterly
A masterful person is overpowering, overbearing, or imperious; he or
she is capable of mastering others. A virtuoso performance is
masterly, the work of a master artist.
material, materiel
Any substance from which something is made; materiel refers to
equipment, especially military supplies.
maximum
See absolutes.
may, might
Both convey the idea of possibility or permission. Each is capable of
expressing present and future time. Some contend the two words
differ in intensity, with a stronger probability indicated by may than by
might, but this is a obscure distinction. See could and can.
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mean
See average.
meantime, meanwhile
Meantime serves mainly as a noun.
Example:
In the meantime he waited.
or: Meanwhile, he waited.
You can express the same idea in fewer words by using meanwhile:
media
See data.
median
See average.
memorandum
The preferred plural is memorandums.
mercifully
See hopefully.
metaphors
Figures of speech used to describe something in terms of something
else. Approach them with caution. Even experienced writers
sometimes make the mistake of mixing unrelated metaphors in a
single sentence.
methodology
Becomes an ornate word when misused. It means either the body of
practices and procedures applicable to a specific branch of knowledge
or the study of methods as a science.
mid-
Use a hyphen. I&A received the report in mid-May. Hyphens
are not used, however, with the prefixes early or late.
Middle East
Is preferred over Near East and Mideast and, as an adjective, is as
acceptable as Middle Eastern.
might
See could, may.
migrate
See emigrate.
military
As a noun, military can be singular or plural—be consistent within the
text.
minimum
See absolutes.
misinformation
See disinformation.
mitigate
Means to moderate or alleviate. He did what he could to mitigate his
branch chief’s wrath.
Mod
An abbreviation-derived jargon word (capitalized) acceptable in formal
writing about weapons to designate different versions (models) of a
weapon system.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Example:
This slap on the wrist came on the heels of the President’s trip.
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Example:
the SS-11 Mod 2
all Mods of the SS-11
Muhammad
Farsi rendering of Muhammad.
mullah
A local Islamic cleric.
momentarily
Applies to a fleeting instant; it does not mean at any moment.
monetary
See fiscal.
more important
See important.
more than, fewer than, Over and under describe location; use more than and fewer than
over, under
with numbers. For time, use during, from, or while.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
The system has improved during the past year.
Inflation is up 10 percent from a year ago.
More than one of the battalions was involved.
most, mostly, almost
Most is not a proper substitute for almost in formal writing. Almost
everyone, not most everyone. Most, not mostly, is the correct word
when you mean to the greatest degree. Those most affected, not
those mostly affected.
mujahidin, mojahedin
Use mujahidin in writing about an Arab country or Afghanistan and
mojahedin for Iran—either capitalized as appropriate (that is, as part
of a proper name). Use insurgents or fighters or rebels if possible.
multiple qualifiers
Avoid using more than one qualifier to describe a situation, such as
suggests . . . might, may possibly, could perhaps, probably indicates,
reportedly may. Such usage often results in illogical or, at best,
imprecise statements.
munition, munitions
Although either is acceptable as a modifier, the plural is more
common: munitions storage building, munitions loading area.
Muslims
Not Moslems, are adherents of Islam. They are followers of the
Prophet Muhammad, not Mohammed.
(a) myriad (of)
The phrase a myriad of has the same meaning as the simpler
adjective myriad. The one word form is preferable.
myself
Often erroneously used where I or me would be correct.
N
Native American
Not American Indian.
naturally
See subjective words.
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nearing, nearly
Nearing, in the sense of almost at the point of, is informal when
applied to something incapable of motion. Use the adverb nearly and
the appropriate adjective: nearly complete, not nearing completion.
negative trends,
impressions, actions
See subjective words.
negative verbs
See in order to.
neither . . . nor
When the elements in a neither . . . nor construction are singular, the
verb is singular; when they are plural, the verb is plural. When the
elements differ in number, the verb is determined by the number of
the nearer (or nearest) element.
Example:
Neither he nor his advisers understand these matters.
Be sure that the words affected by neither . . . nor are in proper
balance.
Examples:
She specified neither time nor place.
She neither specified the time nor designated the place.
never
Use caution when considering using absolute terms such as never or
unprecedented.
NFI
Not used in formal intelligence writing. If we have no further
information, just say so.
Example:
The suspect went to Buffalo for unspecified purposes.
Not: The suspect went to Buffalo (NFI).
No-Fly
With hyphen.
nonconventional,
unconventional
Nonconventional refers to high-tech weaponry short of nuclear
explosives. Unconventional means not bound by convention.
none
None is singular when used in the sense of no one or not one. If none
applies to more than one person or thing, use a plural verb. The
object of the phrase following none is usually the best indicator of
whether none is singular or plural.
Example:
None of those delegates was elected party chair.
None of those delegates were expected to be nominated.
None of the cake was eaten.
None of the cookies were eaten.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Example:
Fuel-air bombs constitute an effective form of nonconventional
weapons.
Isadora Duncan was an unconventional woman.
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nonetheless
Use even so, however, or yet.
not only . . . but also
See only.
number of
A phrase that is too imprecise in some contexts. Number of, when
preceded by the, usually takes a singular verb. When preceded by a,
number of generally takes a plural verb and means several.
Examples:
A number of troops were killed. (If you do not know how many,
say an unknown number.)
The number of mistakes is small.
A number of the mistakes are due to carelessness.
O
obsolete, obsolescent Obsolete means no longer in use; obsolescent means becoming
outdated or out of use.
obviously
See qualifiers.
occupied
Can take either of two prepositions. Use by for physical occupation
and with for intellectual occupation or in the sense of busy with.
of
Turns up as an unnecessary hanger-on in conjunction with words
such as outside and off. The latter are prepositions in their own right
and need no reinforcement. One gets off one’s high horse or off the
fence, not off of them. Out of, on the other hand, cannot do without
of.
of course
See fill-ins.
off
Should not be followed by of or from.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Example:
The secretary leaped off the plane, not off of (or off from) the plane.
offload
Use unload.
offput
Uses put off if you are offended.
often
Not oftentimes or ofttimes.
older, younger
Refer to only two persons or things or collections of either; oldest and
youngest are the proper adjectives when more than two are involved.
on board
See aboard.
on the other hand
See fill-ins.
one
Has a way of intruding into a sentence. The Congress was an
obstreperous one reads better as the Congress was obstreperous. In
constructions where one is the subject, use a singular verb: one in
every 10 Senators is uncommitted. But beware, he is one of those
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who were (not was) uncommitted; in this construction, those who, not
one, controls the verb.
one-half, one-third
Are used when the fractions are precise. When precision is lacking,
use a half, a third, and so forth.
only
A floating modifier that can be attached to almost any word in a
sentence. Anchor it carefully to ensure that you are conveying the
meaning you want to convey. Even, primarily, and mainly pose
similar challenges. In not only . . . but also constructions, be sure that
the parts of the sentence are parallel.
open source
No hyphen.
opine
See ornate words.
opportune
Suggests an element of chance mixed with timeliness, being in the
right place at the right time. See accidental.
opposition, opposed,
opponent
Opposition takes the preposition to, as does opposed; opponent is
followed by of.
optimize
See -ize words.
oral
See verbal.
ornate words
Pass by such words as apprise, citizenry, contradistinction, definitize,
effectuate, enunciate, eventuate, evince, and opine in favor of simpler
synonyms. Some words are not particularly ornate but could be
classed as overused words. See extra words and hackneyed
phrases.
outboard
See inboard.
outside of
See inside of.
over, under
Use these prepositions to refer to location; use more than and fewer
than to refer to quantity.
owing to
See based on.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
Only he attended the meeting. (The others did not show up).
He only attended the meeting. (He did not make a speech).
He attended only the meeting. (He skipped the Happy Hour).
He is aware not only of the political consequences but also of
the military dangers.
He not only is aware of the political consequences but also
recognizes the military dangers.
P
parallelism
To make the parallel clear, repeat a preposition, an article, the to of
the infinitive, or the introductory word of a phrase or clause.
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Example:
Technology to boost production and to exploit natural resources.
parameter, perimeter
Parameter is a legitimate word for mathematicians and scientists, but
it is easily misused, for example when dimension or characteristic
would be better. Save parameter for the times you really mean a
limiting factor, especially when the thing limited is abstract rather than
concrete. Do not confuse with perimeter. A perimeter is the outer
edge of a physical area; the emphasis is on shape and extent rather
than on the limits being set.
parliament
Use only if it is the actual name of the body. Otherwise, use
legislature or the precise name (National Assembly, Diet, Congress).
parliamentarian
Is not an abbreviated form for a member of parliament. Strictly
speaking, parliamentarians are experts on parliamentary rules and
procedures and could be legislators, assemblymen, or
Congresswomen.
participles
Must not be left dangling, where they often lead to ambiguity and
illogicality. General guide: participles are adjectives, so watch what
they modify and keep them close by. See given.
Example:
Turning the corner, he found the view much changed.
Not: Turning the corner, the view was much changed.
partly, partially
Partly stresses the part in contrast to the whole; it equates to in part
and is used most before phrases or clauses that provide an
explanation. Partially is preferred for the sense of to a degree.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
Partly to reassure the people, the government developed a defense
policy.
The truck was only partially camouflaged.
party
Should be applied to a person only in telephone and legal contexts.
When used to mean a political organization, the word is capitalized
only when the organization’s proper name is used: the Radical Party,
but the party. The same is true of church (the Evangelical Church, but
the church) and government (the Israeli Government or the
Government of Israel, but the government).
pending
Means yet to come or not yet settled; impending adds a hint of threat
or menace.
people, persons,
personnel
The word people usually applies to sizable groups imprecisely
enumerated and persons to smaller, usually explicit numbers.
Personnel is a collective noun (usually plural but sometimes singular)
referring to employees of an organization or to members of the armed
services as a group. Do not use personnel as a substitute for people
or persons and do not use a number with it.
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Examples:
Several thousand people showed up for the demonstration.
Twenty-seven persons were interviewed and nine persons were hired
Many people applied.
The company’s personnel is its greatest asset.
per
See via.
percent
Spell out and always render with a numeral (5 percent); use the %
symbol only in tables. Both noun and adjective forms are always
open (no hyphen).
perfect
See absolutes.
perimeter
See parameter.
persuade
See convince.
phenomena
Is a plural form and, therefore, requires a plural verb. See data,
media, criteria.
pleaded
Use pled.
plural forms
May become singular when abbreviated, as in the Strategic Rocket
Forces are but the SRF is.
plurality
The largest single group (of votes, opinions, and the like) when no
one has a majority. See majority, consensus.
plus-one data
Write out plus-one in text and in the Watch List Box.
polemical
Use controversial.
possessed
Use had.
possibly
See could.
posture
See ornate words.
practical, practicable
Practical connotes usefulness and should be differentiated from
practicable, which means capable of being carried out in action.
Examples:
It was practicable to build a highway through the mountains (it could
be done).
It was not practical (because the highway would receive little use).
precipitate,
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
The company registered a gain of 95 percent.
The company registered a 95 percent gain.
Precipitate and precipitately apply to rash or hasty human actions.
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precipitately,
with precipitant,
precipitous
Precipitant and its adverb are used in the same general sense, but
stress on rushing or falling headlong. Precipitous refers to physical
steepness.
preclude, prevent
Generally, prevent applies to persons as its object, preclude to
events.
Examples:
The bad weather prevents me from leaving today.
The bad weather precludes a departure today.
predominant,
predominate
Predominant is an adjective; means prevailing, being most frequent or
common. Predominate is a verb; to hold advantage in numbers or
quantity, to exert control over.
preface
See foreword.
present, absent
Overused in intelligence reporting and often are inappropriate in
describing fixed objects and structures. Both words may even be
redundant and often can be omitted from descriptions.
Examples:
The buildings were first observed. Not: present for the first time.
The trucks were at (not present at) the gate.
The trucks were not at (not absent from) their usual location.
presently
Means in a short time; do not confuse matters by using it to mean at
present, currently, or now. You can usually dispense with all
present-time designators by using the present tense.
president
Do not capitalize unless used with a proper name.
Exception: US President
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
former President William J. Clinton
The president gave a speech at the conference.
pressure
See changelings.
preventative
Use preventive.
primarily
See only.
principal, principle,
principled
Principal is an adjective meaning most important, or a noun referring
to a leader or to money. Principle is a noun only. It means basic
truth, rule of conduct, fundamental law. Principled is its related
adjective.
prior to, before
Prior to is appropriate when a notion of requirement is involved. In
most cases, before, is the better word.
Example:
The law must be passed prior to 1 July.
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pristine
Describes something that is in its original condition, or primitive.
Pristine should not be used as a synonym for new or clean.
probable, possible
Analysts are tempted to use probable or possible when what probably
is or what possibly is is the proper formulation.
Example:
The attache saw what probably is a missile.
Not: The attache saw a probable missile—could the officer have seen
an improbable [or impossible] missile?
probably
See likely.
profile
See ornate words.
propel
See compel.
Prophet Muhammad
Note the location of the u and last a, this is used when referencing the
prophet.
protagonist
The leading or principal character, not necessarily a champion of an
idea or course of action. Chief protagonist is redundant (see
redundancies).
provided
In the sense of if, is preferable to providing. Either word must be
followed by a that clause setting forth specific limitations or conditions.
Neither participle should be used when if can be substituted.
Example:
The government will agree to negotiate provided (or if, not providing)
that the opposition abandons its terrorist campaign.
purportedly
See qualifiers.
put off
See offput.
qualifiers
Do not weaken judgments supported by direct evidence by inserting
words such as apparently, evidently, seemingly, purportedly.
Conversely, you cannot strengthen judgments based on weak
evidence by words such as obviously, undoubtedly, clearly. These
adverbs are an instance of modifiers that do little or no work. Often
you will find adjectives that are open to the same criticism.
quarters
When referring to calendar quarters in text, spell out the ordinal
number rather than using a numeral and the suffix st, nd, rd, or th.
Example:
Arrests increased in the third quarter,
Not: Arrests increased in the 3rd quarter.
quote, quotation
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Q
Quote is a verb; quotation is a noun. Quote should not be used as a
noun to replace quotation in formal writing.
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R
range, vary
Range refers to changing or differing within limits. Vary refers to
changing in succession. See vary.
Examples:
Elevations range between 500 and 1,500 meters above sea level.
Temperatures vary from season to season.
reason, because
After an opening such as the reason for, the clause containing the
reason should begin with that, not because or why.
Example:
The reason for his failure was that he was ill.
Better still: He failed because he was ill.
rebut, refute
If you rebut a point of view, you argue to the contrary; if you refute a
point of view, you win the argument. New evidence can sometimes
refute an earlier report or a piece of intelligence analysis; otherwise,
rebut is generally the appropriate word in analytical writing.
recent
Be sure that any reference to “recent reporting” really is recent; that is,
within the past several weeks.
redound, rebound
Redound means to have an effect. Rebound means to bounce back.
Examples:
The plan redounds to his credit.
The economy rebounded last month.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
redundancies
Phrases that succumb to repetition. Some samples of redundant
phrases follow.
eyewitness at the scene
final vestiges
first began
first-ever
foreign imports
free gift
future potential
future prospects
future successor
good chance
historical monuments
historical past
holy shrine
in close proximity
interact together
joint coalition
lag behind
little booklet
live studio audience
long litany
major crisis
accidentally misfired
adequate enough
advance reservation
as has been
as was noted before
both agree
build a new house
bureaucratic redtape
chief mainstay
church seminarians
close confidant
close personal friend
combine together
completely surrounded
consensus of opinion
could possibly
current status
established tradition
exact same
exile abroad
exports beyond their border
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small cottage
small village
sound logic
still continues
still remains
still retains
sufficient enough
sum total
tandem couple
temporary respite
temporary suspension
thin veneer
top business magnate
true facts
trusted confidant
underlying premise
unexpected surprise
unite together
well-known reputation
young baby
major milestone
meet personally
mentioned previously
military troops
mutual cooperation
naval marines
old adage
own personal
particularly pronounced
past custom
personal autograph
personal charisma
piecemeal on a piece basis
professional career
rally together
real possibility
relocate elsewhere
separate out
separate isolation cells
share together
single greatest, single most
reference
See changelings.
refute
See rebut.
regard
See consider.
regards
Use in regard to, with regard to, about, or on.
regime
Has a disparaging connotation and should not be used when referring
to democratically elected governments or, generally, to governments
friendly to the United States. See subjective words.
regretfully
See hopefully.
relations, ties, links
Relations should be followed by the preposition with. Ties or (links)
should be followed by to.
relatively,
comparatively
Should be used only when the intended comparison can be easily
grasped. You usually can find a more informative choice of words.
The same stricture applies to comparatively. See compare, contrast.
Example:
He has a relatively heavy workload. (Relative to what? Last year?
Last week? His colleagues?)
relevant
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
This country is about to establish relations with that one.
That country has ties (links) to this one.
Refers to something that has a bearing on the matter at hand and
should be followed by to. Do not use relevant when you mean
important.
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Example:
His speech was relevant to the problem.
reluctant
See reticent.
represent
Means to depict or symbolize, not constitute.
Examples:
The red line on the map represents the boundary between France and
Germany.
Not: South African gold represents most of the world’s output.
resolution
See interpretability.
restrictive clauses
See that and which.
reticent
Means uncommunicative or reserved; reluctant means unwilling to
act.
reveal
Implies an unveiling of something not previously known; expose refers
to making public something reprehensible; disclose refers to making
public something that has been private; divulge refers to making
public something that has been secret.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
S
Salafi
A Muslim who follows the “pious ancestors” (al-salaf al-salih) and calls
for a return to the Koran and Sunna as the authentic basis for Muslim
life. Associated with Islamic fundamentalism and the prohibition of
innovations and adaptations of the original creed. Can be referred to
as Salafist. Also, the doctrine of Salafism.
sanction
As a noun, has meanings that are almost in opposition: from approval
and encouragement to penalty and coercion. It should therefore be
used only when the context makes its meaning clear. As a verb,
sanction picks up only the approval aspect of the noun.
sanguine
Means ruddy or optimistic and cheerful. Sanguinary means
accompanied by carnage or bloodthirsty.
sayyid
Honorific title given to males considered descendants of the Prophet
Muhammad. Also rendered seyyed.
seemingly
See qualifiers.
semiannual
See biannual.
September 11 attacks
Use September 11, 2001 not 9/11 when referring to the events of
2001 on this date.
Shahid
Martyr, one who suffers or loses his or her life in the process of
carrying out religious duty.
shake up
See build up.
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shall, will
In the first person, shall denotes simple futurity; in the second and
third persons, shall denotes promise, inevitability, command, or
compulsion. Will is the other way around.
shaped
Not -shape, is the correct form to use in a unit modifier. An H-shaped
structure, not an H-shape structure. If the associated modifier
includes the meaning of shaped like a, omit the -shaped. Rectangular
frame, not rectangular-shaped frame. Note that with irregular (not a
shape), it is not irregular-shaped but irregularly shaped.
sharia
Ideal Islamic law; “sharia law” is therefore redundant.
shaykh
Head of a tribe or Muslim order. Religious term applied to a tribal
leader or to a ruler. Sometimes just an honorific applied to a person
of some influence or status in the community.
she/hers/her
See gender.
Shia
Shi‘at Ali (the Partisans of Ali). Shia Islam is the second-largest
branch in Islam, accounting for about 15 percent of the entire Muslim
community. Today there are roughly 200 million Shia Muslims all over
the world. About three-quarters of those reside in Saudi Arabia, Iraq,
Iran, Bahrain, Kuwait, Pakistan, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, and India.
The Shia hold that Muhammad, on multiple occasions, specifically
designated his cousin Ali to be the head of the Muslim community
after his passing but his wish was ignored, leading to division among
Muslims.
ship
See boat.
should
Is not an acceptable substitute for will probably in presenting
intelligence judgments.
sight
See cite.
significant,
significantly
These words are overused in intelligence writing, especially when
applied to ordinary activities or momentary changes. The alternative
is to state the facts and let their significance speak for itself.
See fill-ins.
single
Single is not needed in expressions like single greatest.
See redundancies.
site
See cite.
situation
See condition.
sized
The form to use in a unit modifier: medium-sized or regiment-sized,
not regiment-size.
smart
Smart can be used as a comprehensive adjective for a device or
mechanism that imitates human intelligence, such as smart missiles.
Whenever possible, the type of mechanism should be specified.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
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so
See as.
sometime, sometimes
Use sometime.
sort
See type.
spear phishing
Adjective hyphenated
Examples:
a case of spear fishing
received a spear-phishing e-mail
standoff
One word as noun, adjective. Two words (no hyphen) as a verb
(stand off).
state
Capitalize when referring to a specific state entity. See also federal.
Examples:
Michigan State Police
Mexico’s Sinaloa State
State and Local
Fusion Centers
Use State and Major Urban Area Fusion Centers.
stealth
Referring to aircraft with low radar signatures and to the technology
thereof, is written in lowercase.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
the stealth bomber
stealth technology
strategy, tactics
Strategy is an overall plan of action, usually military action; tactics are
specific plans or maneuvers designed to advance strategic goals.
Nuclear weapons can be included in both strategic and tactical
planning.
subjective words
Words such as fortunately, unfortunately, and even naturally, leave
the impression the analyst is biased. Likewise, negative trends,
negative impressions, and negative actions can suggest a lack of
impartiality. Analysts should not assume that what they see as
fortunate or unfortunate or negative or positive is so viewed
universally. See hopefully and qualifiers.
submarine
See boat.
successive
See consecutive.
such as
See like and as.
Sufi(sm)
A mystical variant of Islam characterized by the desire for personal
spiritual growth and union with Allah through mystical ecstasy. The
name is generally believed to have derived from the Arabic word suf,
meaning wool, in reference to the garments of the early Muslim
ascetics.
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124
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Sunna
Arabic term meaning established custom, precedent, conduct of life,
and cumulative tradition. Frequently used to denote the normative
example of the Prophet.
Sunni(s)
Ahl al-sunnah wa al-jama‘ah (the People of the Sunna and
Community). The larger of the two main branches of Islam. Sunnis
are members of the branch of Islam that accepts the first four caliphs
as rightful successors to Muhammad. They represent the branch of
Islam that accepted the caliphate of Abu Bakr because he had been
chosen by the majority (via consultation, or shura).
surveil
See changelings.
tables
See figures.
takfir
Charge of unbelief, which leads to apostasy; akin to
excommunication.
takfirism
The ideology that designates fellow Muslims as outside the faith. It
has become a generic term for al-Qa‘ida–like groups that are willing to
kill other Muslims. (English rendering of Arabic term and therefore not
italicized.)
tall
See high.
tearline
A tearline is the place on an intelligence report at which the sanitized
version of a more highly classified or controlled report begins.
technical terms
For the most part, I&A analysts are writing for generalists. Generalists
may have deep expertise in specific areas, be it missile technology or
a country’s tribal politics; nonetheless, the analyst’s goal is to do away
with the specialist’s jargon, to put everything into layman’s language.
If your audience comprises just a few people who thoroughly
understand the subject (or who cannot be trusted to follow the
reasoning without jargon to guide them), by all means sprinkle your
piece with technical terms. Most of the time, however, write for the
broadest audience.
telcon
Not telecom, Telecon, or TELCON; this applies especially to
endnotes.
that, which
That introduces a restrictive clause—a phrase that is essential to the
meaning or structure of the sentence (used to narrow a category or
identify a particular item being talked about). Restrictive clauses are
not set off by commas. Which introduces a nonrestrictive clause—a
phrase that is not essential but adds information (not to narrow a class
or identify a particular item, but to add something about an item
already identified). Nonrestrictive clauses are preceded and followed
by commas.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
T
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125
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Examples:
The car that I washed is in the garage (identifies a specific car
among several).
The car, which I washed, is in the garage (describes the
car’s location; the fact that it is washed is not essential).
there
The use of there is or there are to start a sentence usually is
unnecessary and often results in cumbersome construction.
An artillery regiment is on the border reads better than There is an
artillery regiment on the border. See here.
this
Often used as a demonstrative pronoun, representing in a single word
a situation or a thought expressed earlier. Too often, the this finds
itself without a clear antecedent. The remedy is to bring the this into
sharper focus, either by reworking the sentence to make the
antecedent unmistakable (proximity is the best solution), or by adding
the appropriate word or words after this.
though
See although.
thus
Never use thusly.
TIDE
Terrorist Identities Datamart Environment–TIDE is more commonly
identifiable than the actual spelled out name. Do not use TIPOFF.
ties
See relations.
titles of persons
Lowercase unless used with full name (as with first reference).
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Example:
Prime Minister John Doe sought the information last week. Doe
used the information today during an address to the United Nations.
The prime minister is scheduled to arrive next Thursday.
Not: The Prime Minister is scheduled to arrive next Thursday.
to include
Use including.
together with
Often found immediately after the subject of a sentence. It does not
affect the verb. The same is true of along with, as well as, in addition
to, and like.
Example:
Lower productivity, together with higher interest rates, is hurting the
economy.
tortuous, torturous
Tortuous means twisting, devious, or highly complex.
Example:
Travel on the tortuous mountain road is dangerous.
A torturous experience is an extremely painful one.
total
Almost always redundant with number. It is best to reserve total for
instances where different numbers are combined.
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126
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Example:
The total of 16 vehicles included six vans, two trucks, and one jeep.
toward
Use the American form. We omit the s in all the common words
ending in ward, such as afterward, backward, downward, upward,
eastward, and northward.
traditions
Long-established practices or elements of culture passed down from
generation to generation. Look for another word when referring to
practices developed over the past few years.
transpire
Has special uses in science, particularly botany, but it is not an
acceptable synonym of happen or occur.
troops
Means a group of people (usually military) acting as a body; troops
should not be used when referring to people acting individually or
counted in precise numbers.
Examples:
The exercises involved 5,000 troops.
Fifteen soldiers (or people, not troops) were in the vicinity.
try
Followed by to, not and.
type
As a noun, type should be followed by of in constructions like that
type of plane or, in the plural, those types of planes. Never omit the
preposition. The same holds true for kind and sort.
US
See United States.
umm
Mother in Arabic. Also rendered Om or Um.
ummah
Muslim community; refers to the worldwide Islamic community,
commonly cited as umma.
unconventional
See nonconventional.
undoubtedly
See qualifiers.
unfortunately
See subjective words.
uninterested
See disinterested.
unique
See absolutes.
United Kingdom/UK
Encompasses Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Great Britain
encompasses England, Scotland, and Wales. Britain can properly be
used to refer to the United Kingdom, but England cannot. In most
cases, British serves as the adjective.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
U
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127
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United Nations/UN
The preferred noun, except where space is limited, and UN is the
adjective.
United States/US
Spell out when used as a noun. America is not a synonym for the
United States in I&A products. Avoid using USG. Abbreviate when
used as an adjective.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
The group entered the United States in July.
US interests, US Government, US-Mexican citizenship (but
US-Mexico border)
universal
See absolutes.
unprecedented
See never.
up to
In the sense of fewer than a certain number, is informal; use as many
as or fewer than.
upbeat
Like downbeat, is a musical term, and its extended meaning should
be used sparingly.
upcoming,
forthcoming,
coming
When you are looking for an adjective meaning to take place later, try
forthcoming or just coming instead of using upcoming. Or give a clue
as to when: next week, next month.
upon, on, up on
In almost all cases you can substitute on for upon as a preposition
(bearing on the case), but not as an adverb (he felt overworked and
put upon). Up on can be an adverb and preposition (living up on the
third floor).
upper
See lower.
upward
See toward.
usage
Does not equate to use. Usage means either a manner of use, as in
rough usage, or a habitual practice creating a standard, as in good
English usage.
Usama bin Ladin
The correct spelling of Usama bin Ladin’s proper name; Ladin is the
family name.
utilize
Somewhat ornate and often misused. In most senses, use is
preferred. Save utilize for the sense of making something useful that
previously was not, or for the meaning of employing something in a
new or different way.
Example:
After the blizzard, power lines were utilized as reference points.
V
variety of
Takes a plural verb when conveying the sense of several or various.
But when the emphasis is on the singular variety, rather than on the
plural object of of, the verb is singular.
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128
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Examples:
A variety of sources report high casualties.
A variety of meals is better than eating the same food all the
time.
vary
Vary is commonly misused in intelligence writing. Be careful to use
this verb only with subjects capable of varying. Not the size varied,
but the sizes varied or there are various sizes. The same stricture
applies to the verb range. In addition, range requires a statement of
extremes to portray extent or limits. See range.
verbal, oral
The two are not synonyms. A verbal message can be either spoken
or written. An oral message is always spoken.
very, definitely
Use very, definitely, and other ambiguous intensifiers very sparingly.
via, per
Though a preposition with fewer than four letters, is capitalized in
titles. So is per as part of a unit modifier, but not in a prepositional
phrase.
Examples:
Diminishing Per Capita Income
viable
Denotes the capacity of a newly created organism to maintain a
separate existence. It is often mistakenly used when durable, lasting,
workable, effective, or practical is the appropriate adjective.
vice
Use instead of, in place of, or rather than.
vicious circle
Is correct; vicious cycle is not.
Wahhabi
Follower of Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab’s interpretation of the
tawhidi doctrine of Islam. Intimately intertwined with the founding of
the modern Saudi state and the official religious ideology
underpinning the rule of the Al Saud dynasty. The term is rejected by
adherents, who prefer to be known as muwahhidin or “monotheists.”
ward (words ending in)
See toward.
watch list
Two words.
watchlisted,
watchlisting
One word.
way, ways
Use way.
weapon, weapons
Both singular and plural forms are acceptable as modifiers, although
the singular weapon is preferred in most instances, especially when
using weapons would duplicate the s sound in both the modifier and
the word modified.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
W
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129
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Examples:
nuclear weapon storage
not: nuclear weapons storage
chemical and biological weapon problems
not: chemical and biological weapons problems.
Web site
Two words.
Western, Eastern
Capitalize when using to identify interests or personnel or when
referring to a proper place; lowercase when used for direction or
location.
Examples:
Western countries; the Southwest; southwest Arizona; northern
California.
whether, if
Use whether only when it is a whether or not situation; if is used to
express a condition.
Examples:
Whether or not I give you the keys to the car depends on how you
behave.
If I give you the keys to the car, fill up the gas tank.
which
See that.
while
As a conjunction, usually has reference to time, see although.
who, whom
Most of the time the issue of whether to use who (nominative case) or
whom (objective case) is straightforward. The nominative case in the
objective slot, as in Who did the committee choose? or Who does she
work for? has become acceptable in casual English, spoken or
written. It is not acceptable in formal writing. The main difficulty
comes in subordinate clauses, when the syntax sometimes gives who
and whoever an objective cast even though structurally they are
nominative.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
Examples:
Subject: Who is his boss?
Object of a verb: Whom did the committee choose?
Object of a preposition: Whom does she work for?
The voters will pick the candidate who they think will do the best job.
(Who is the subject of will do in the subordinate clause. Do not be
thrown off by the interjection they think.)
The voters will turn against whoever they think is responsible for
their economic hardships.
The voters will turn against whomever they blame for their
economic hardships.
(In the first of these two sentences, it might seem that whoever is the
object of the preposition against and should be replaced with
whomever. The object of against, however, is not a single word but
the entire clause whoever . . . economic hardships. Thus whoever,
the subject of the verb in the subordinate clause, is correct. In the
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130
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second sentence, whomever, the direct object of blame in the
subordinate clause, is properly in the objective case.)
whose
Functions as the possessive of both who and which. Of which,
though grammatically correct, can sound stilted.
widows/orphans
A widow line is a single line at the top of a page—usually the last line
of a paragraph. An orphan line is a single line at the bottom of a
page—usually the first line of a paragraph. Avoid both.
will
See shall.
with
Do not use with in the conjunctive role of and. Sometimes this sort of
use has unintended consequences. Too often, with is used to attach
an additional thought that would be better treated as an independent
clause following an and or a semicolon.
Examples:
They are married and have three children.
Not: They are married, with three children.
He is married and has a child.
Not: He is married with one child.
with reference to
See fill-ins.
with regard to
Use about.
X
x-ray
Use hyphen.
Y
See older.
A Word Watcher’s
Guide
younger, youngest
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This page left blank intentionally.
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UNCLASSIFIED
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Index
Index
a while ...................................................................................................................................... 84
a, an before h ........................................................................................................................... 79
abbreviations.............................................................................................................................. 1
abbreviations in titles ................................................................................................................. 1
aboard ...................................................................................................................................... 79
absent ...................................................................................................................................... 79
absolutes.................................................................................................................................. 79
accelerate .......................................................................................................................... 79, 95
accidental ................................................................................................................................. 79
accomplish ............................................................................................................................... 79
accomplishment ....................................................................................................................... 79
accordingly ............................................................................................................................... 79
acquiesce ................................................................................................................................. 79
acronyms ................................................................................................................................... 1
active versus ............................................................................................................................ 79
activity ...................................................................................................................................... 80
adapt ........................................................................................................................................ 80
additionally ............................................................................................................................... 80
adjacent ................................................................................................................................... 80
adopt ........................................................................................................................................ 80
adverbs ending in -ly ................................................................................................................ 73
adverse .................................................................................................................................... 80
affect ........................................................................................................................................ 80
affinity....................................................................................................................................... 80
afterward .................................................................................................................................. 80
ages of inanimate things .......................................................................................................... 33
ages of persons ....................................................................................................................... 33
agree ........................................................................................................................................ 80
al- ............................................................................................................................................. 80
all ............................................................................................................................................. 80
all ready ................................................................................................................................... 80
almost .................................................................................................................................... 112
along with ................................................................................................................................. 80
alongside.................................................................................................................................. 81
al-Qa‘ida................................................................................................................................... 81
al-Qa‘ida in Iraq ........................................................................................................................ 81
already ..................................................................................................................................... 80
also known as .......................................................................................................................... 81
alternate ................................................................................................................................... 81
alternative ................................................................................................................................ 81
although ................................................................................................................................... 81
altitude ..................................................................................................................................... 81
altogether ................................................................................................................................. 81
always ...................................................................................................................................... 81
ambiguous ............................................................................................................................... 81
ambivalent................................................................................................................................ 81
amidst ...................................................................................................................................... 81
among ................................................................................................................................ 82, 85
amongst ................................................................................................................................... 82
amount ..................................................................................................................................... 82
amused .................................................................................................................................... 82
an ............................................................................................................................................. 82
i
Index
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ii
and, but, however .................................................................................................................... 82
and/or ....................................................................................................................................... 82
anglicized words ...................................................................................................................... 57
anticipate.................................................................................................................................. 82
anxious..................................................................................................................................... 82
any ........................................................................................................................................... 82
anybody ................................................................................................................................... 82
anyone ..................................................................................................................................... 82
apostrophe ............................................................................................................................... 41
apparently ................................................................................................................................ 82
appear ...................................................................................................................................... 82
appearance .............................................................................................................................. 82
appendix .................................................................................................................................. 83
appraise ................................................................................................................................... 83
apprise ..................................................................................................................................... 83
approximately ........................................................................................................................... 83
apt ............................................................................................................................................ 83
arabic names ........................................................................................................................... 51
arabic names and naming practices ........................................................................................ 65
arch- ......................................................................................................................................... 83
arched ...................................................................................................................................... 83
around ...................................................................................................................................... 83
articles in proper names ........................................................................................................... 16
as ............................................................................................................................................. 83
as far as ................................................................................................................................... 83
as many as............................................................................................................................... 83
as well as ................................................................................................................................. 83
as yet ....................................................................................................................................... 83
assesses .................................................................................................................................. 83
assessment .............................................................................................................................. 83
assure ...................................................................................................................................... 84
at present ................................................................................................................................. 84
at the same time ...................................................................................................................... 84
attempt ..................................................................................................................................... 84
author ....................................................................................................................................... 84
average .................................................................................................................................... 84
averse ................................................................................................................................ 80, 84
awhile ....................................................................................................................................... 84
back of ..................................................................................................................................... 84
backwards ................................................................................................................................ 84
bad ........................................................................................................................................... 84
ballistic ..................................................................................................................................... 84
based on .................................................................................................................................. 84
basically ................................................................................................................................... 84
because ................................................................................................................................... 84
because of ............................................................................................................................... 85
beef up ..................................................................................................................................... 85
before ....................................................................................................................................... 85
behind ...................................................................................................................................... 85
bemused .................................................................................................................................. 85
beside ...................................................................................................................................... 85
besides..................................................................................................................................... 85
between ................................................................................................................................... 85
UNCLASSIFIED
biannual ................................................................................................................................... 85
biennial..................................................................................................................................... 85
bimonthly.................................................................................................................................. 85
bits ........................................................................................................................................... 85
biweekly ................................................................................................................................... 85
blatant ...................................................................................................................................... 85
block quotations ....................................................................................................................... 54
boat .......................................................................................................................................... 85
both .......................................................................................................................................... 85
both . . . and ............................................................................................................................. 86
boycott ..................................................................................................................................... 86
brackets ................................................................................................................................... 43
breach ...................................................................................................................................... 86
breech ...................................................................................................................................... 86
build up .................................................................................................................................... 86
bullets....................................................................................................................................... 44
burgeoning ............................................................................................................................... 86
but ............................................................................................................................................ 86
bytes .................................................................................................................................. 85, 86
cadre ........................................................................................................................................ 86
can ........................................................................................................................................... 86
CAPCO .................................................................................................................................... 61
capital....................................................................................................................................... 86
capital cities ............................................................................................................................. 87
capitol....................................................................................................................................... 87
cartel ........................................................................................................................................ 87
casualties ......................................................................................................................... 87, 105
CBP............................................................................................................................................ 2
centuries .................................................................................................................................. 34
Chancery.................................................................................................................................. 94
changelings .............................................................................................................................. 87
chemical terms ......................................................................................................................... 74
China.......................................................................................................................................... 6
China, Taiwan .......................................................................................................................... 87
chinese personal names .......................................................................................................... 69
church ...................................................................................................................................... 87
CIS ............................................................................................................................................. 2
cite ........................................................................................................................................... 87
citing a finished intelligence product ........................................................................................ 59
citizenry .................................................................................................................................... 87
classification markings ............................................................................................................. 61
clearly....................................................................................................................................... 87
climactic ................................................................................................................................... 87
climatic ..................................................................................................................................... 87
clout ......................................................................................................................................... 87
cohort ....................................................................................................................................... 87
coined names........................................................................................................................... 21
collateral................................................................................................................................... 87
collocated ........................................................................................................................... 80, 87
Colombia .................................................................................................................................. 88
colon ........................................................................................................................................ 45
Columbia .................................................................................................................................. 88
combined ................................................................................................................................. 88
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Index
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iii
Index
UNCLASSIFIED
iv
coming ..................................................................................................................................... 88
comma ..................................................................................................................................... 46
comma splice ........................................................................................................................... 48
common basic elements .......................................................................................................... 74
common nouns in proper names ............................................................................................. 15
communications ....................................................................................................................... 88
communism.............................................................................................................................. 19
community................................................................................................................................ 88
comparatively ........................................................................................................................... 88
comparatives and superlatives ................................................................................................ 72
compare ................................................................................................................................... 88
compel ..................................................................................................................................... 88
complement ............................................................................................................................. 88
compose .................................................................................................................................. 88
comprise .................................................................................................................................. 88
conceivably .............................................................................................................................. 88
concept .................................................................................................................................... 89
conception................................................................................................................................ 89
conceptualize ........................................................................................................................... 89
concern .................................................................................................................................... 89
concerning ............................................................................................................................... 89
concerted ................................................................................................................................. 89
conclave ................................................................................................................................... 89
concrete steps.......................................................................................................................... 89
condition................................................................................................................................... 89
conduct .................................................................................................................................... 89
connect .................................................................................................................................... 89
connote .................................................................................................................................... 89
consecutive .............................................................................................................................. 89
consensus ................................................................................................................................ 90
consider ................................................................................................................................... 90
Consulate ................................................................................................................................. 94
contact ..................................................................................................................................... 90
contiguous.......................................................................................................................... 80, 90
contingent .......................................................................................................................... 79, 90
continual................................................................................................................................... 90
continuing................................................................................................................................. 90
continuous................................................................................................................................ 90
contract .................................................................................................................................... 90
contractions.............................................................................................................................. 90
contrast .............................................................................................................................. 88, 90
convince ................................................................................................................................... 90
corps ........................................................................................................................................ 90
correspond ............................................................................................................................... 91
could ........................................................................................................................................ 91
council ...................................................................................................................................... 91
counsel..................................................................................................................................... 91
counter ..................................................................................................................................... 91
credence .................................................................................................................................. 91
credibility .................................................................................................................................. 91
credible .................................................................................................................................... 91
creditable ................................................................................................................................. 91
credulity.................................................................................................................................... 91
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crisis ......................................................................................................................................... 91
criteria ...................................................................................................................................... 91
criterion .................................................................................................................................... 91
critique ..................................................................................................................................... 91
culminate.................................................................................................................................. 91
cyclones ................................................................................................................................... 25
dangling participles .................................................................................................................. 91
dashes ..................................................................................................................................... 48
data .......................................................................................................................................... 91
date of birth (DOB) ................................................................................................................... 91
date, place of birth ................................................................................................................... 92
dates ........................................................................................................................................ 33
debut ........................................................................................................................................ 92
decades ................................................................................................................................... 34
decimals ................................................................................................................................... 30
decimate .................................................................................................................................. 92
definitely ................................................................................................................................... 92
defuse ...................................................................................................................................... 92
denote ................................................................................................................................ 89, 92
depart ....................................................................................................................................... 92
Department of State ................................................................................................................. 92
deploy ...................................................................................................................................... 92
deprecate ................................................................................................................................. 92
depreciate ................................................................................................................................ 92
derivative statement ................................................................................................................. 62
derivatives ................................................................................................................................ 65
derivatives of proper names ..................................................................................................... 15
determined ............................................................................................................................... 92
DHS ......................................................................................................................................... 92
different from ............................................................................................................................ 92
diffuse ................................................................................................................................ 92, 93
dilemma ................................................................................................................................... 93
diplomatic and consular units ................................................................................................... 18
dirty bomb ................................................................................................................................ 93
disburse ................................................................................................................................... 93
disclose .................................................................................................................................... 93
discreet .................................................................................................................................... 93
discrete .................................................................................................................................... 93
discuss ..................................................................................................................................... 93
disinformation........................................................................................................................... 93
disinterested............................................................................................................................. 93
disperse ................................................................................................................................... 93
distance.................................................................................................................................... 93
divulge...................................................................................................................................... 93
domestic................................................................................................................................... 93
double quotation marks ............................................................................................................ 53
downbeat ................................................................................................................................. 93
downward................................................................................................................................. 93
drug trafficking ......................................................................................................................... 93
due to ........................................................................................................................... 84, 85, 93
e.g. ........................................................................................................................................... 93
each ......................................................................................................................................... 93
eager .................................................................................................................................. 82, 94
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Index
UNCLASSIFIED
v
Index
UNCLASSIFIED
vi
Eastern................................................................................................................................... 130
economic growth ...................................................................................................................... 94
effect .................................................................................................................................. 80, 94
effectuate ................................................................................................................................. 94
either ........................................................................................................................................ 94
election..................................................................................................................................... 94
electronic.................................................................................................................................. 94
elevation................................................................................................................................... 94
elicit .......................................................................................................................................... 94
ellipsis ...................................................................................................................................... 50
em dash ................................................................................................................................... 44
em dashes ............................................................................................................................... 48
e-mail ....................................................................................................................................... 94
embargo ................................................................................................................................... 94
Embassy .................................................................................................................................. 94
emigrate ................................................................................................................................... 95
eminent .................................................................................................................................... 95
emphasis.................................................................................................................................. 26
employ ..................................................................................................................................... 95
en dash .................................................................................................................................... 44
en dash in proper noun compounds ........................................................................................ 74
en dashes ................................................................................................................................ 48
enclosure ................................................................................................................................. 95
endnote .................................................................................................................................... 59
endnote format ......................................................................................................................... 59
endorse .................................................................................................................................... 95
enormity ................................................................................................................................... 95
enormousness ......................................................................................................................... 95
ensure ................................................................................................................................ 84, 95
enthuse .................................................................................................................................... 95
enunciate ................................................................................................................................. 95
equal ........................................................................................................................................ 95
equally...................................................................................................................................... 95
equivalent................................................................................................................................. 95
eras .......................................................................................................................................... 95
escalate.................................................................................................................................... 95
essentially ................................................................................................................................ 95
estimate ................................................................................................................................... 95
et al .......................................................................................................................................... 95
etc. ........................................................................................................................................... 95
eternal ...................................................................................................................................... 95
ethnic cleansing ....................................................................................................................... 95
even ......................................................................................................................................... 96
eventuate ................................................................................................................................. 96
evidence................................................................................................................................... 96
evidently ................................................................................................................................... 96
evince....................................................................................................................................... 96
exacerbate ............................................................................................................................... 96
exclamation point ..................................................................................................................... 50
exile.......................................................................................................................................... 96
exit ........................................................................................................................................... 96
expand ..................................................................................................................................... 96
expansion................................................................................................................................. 96
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expatriate ................................................................................................................................. 96
expect ................................................................................................................................ 82, 96
explosive .................................................................................................................................. 96
expose ..................................................................................................................................... 96
expressions of time .................................................................................................................. 33
expressions of values .............................................................................................................. 31
extra words .............................................................................................................................. 96
factors for converting units of measure .................................................................................... 38
farther....................................................................................................................................... 98
fatal .......................................................................................................................................... 98
fatwa ........................................................................................................................................ 98
fear ........................................................................................................................................... 98
feasts ....................................................................................................................................... 26
federal ...................................................................................................................................... 98
feel ........................................................................................................................................... 99
fewer ........................................................................................................................................ 99
fewer than .............................................................................................................................. 112
figures ...................................................................................................................................... 99
figures of 1,000 or more ........................................................................................................... 29
figures with units of measure ................................................................................................... 36
fill-ins ........................................................................................................................................ 99
FISA, Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act ............................................................................. 62
fiscal ......................................................................................................................................... 99
fiscal year ................................................................................................................................. 99
flagrant ............................................................................................................................... 85, 99
flammable ................................................................................................................................ 99
flaunt ........................................................................................................................................ 99
Flight ........................................................................................................................................ 99
floating modifiers ...................................................................................................................... 99
flounder .................................................................................................................................... 99
flout .......................................................................................................................................... 99
footnote .................................................................................................................................... 59
footnotes .................................................................................................................................. 24
for ........................................................................................................................................... 100
for the purpose of ................................................................................................................... 100
forceful ................................................................................................................................... 100
forcible ................................................................................................................................... 100
forego ..................................................................................................................................... 100
foreign money .......................................................................................................................... 32
foreign names .......................................................................................................................... 65
foreign phrases ........................................................................................................................ 73
foreign titles.............................................................................................................................. 23
foreign words ........................................................................................................................... 56
foreword ................................................................................................................................. 100
forgo ....................................................................................................................................... 100
former............................................................................................................................. 100, 108
forthcoming ............................................................................................................................ 100
fortuitous .......................................................................................................................... 79, 100
fortunately .............................................................................................................................. 100
forum ...................................................................................................................................... 100
founder ............................................................................................................................. 99, 100
fractions ................................................................................................................................... 30
from . . . to .............................................................................................................................. 100
UNCLASSIFIED
Index
UNCLASSIFIED
vii
Index
UNCLASSIFIED
viii
front, back .............................................................................................................................. 100
fulsome .................................................................................................................................. 100
fundamentalism ...................................................................................................................... 100
further............................................................................................................................... 98, 101
fuse ........................................................................................................................................ 101
gender .................................................................................................................................... 101
geographic terms ..................................................................................................................... 20
Germany .................................................................................................................................... 6
gibe ........................................................................................................................................ 101
given ...................................................................................................................................... 101
glossaries ................................................................................................................................. 25
Government ........................................................................................................................... 101
government bodies .................................................................................................................. 17
graphics ................................................................................................................................... 61
Graphics, Tables, and Chapters .............................................................................................. 24
growth .................................................................................................................................... 101
hackneyed phrases ................................................................................................................ 101
hajji......................................................................................................................................... 102
HAMAS .................................................................................................................................. 102
hanged ................................................................................................................................... 102
hardly ..................................................................................................................................... 102
hawalah.................................................................................................................................. 102
he/him/his............................................................................................................................... 102
headers and footers classification ............................................................................................ 62
headquarters .......................................................................................................................... 102
here, there.............................................................................................................................. 102
high ........................................................................................................................................ 102
his or her ................................................................................................................................ 102
historic.................................................................................................................................... 102
historic documents ................................................................................................................... 23
historic events .......................................................................................................................... 26
Hizb al-Tahrir ......................................................................................................................... 102
Hizballah ................................................................................................................................ 103
holidays .............................................................................................................................. 21, 26
homeland ............................................................................................................................... 103
homeland nexus..................................................................................................................... 103
hopefully................................................................................................................................. 103
host ........................................................................................................................................ 103
however ................................................................................................................................. 103
hung ....................................................................................................................................... 103
hurricanes ................................................................................................................................ 25
hyphen ..................................................................................................................................... 50
hyphenated ........................................................................................................................ 71, 75
I&A ............................................................................................................................................. 2
i.e. .......................................................................................................................................... 103
ICE ............................................................................................................................................. 2
identified................................................................................................................................. 103
illicit .................................................................................................................................. 94, 103
imagery .................................................................................................................................. 103
imam ...................................................................................................................................... 103
immigrate ......................................................................................................................... 95, 103
imminent .......................................................................................................................... 95, 103
impact .................................................................................................................................... 103
UNCLASSIFIED
impel ................................................................................................................................ 88, 103
impending .............................................................................................................................. 103
imply....................................................................................................................................... 104
important ................................................................................................................................ 104
improvised explosive devices .................................................................................................... 1
in ........................................................................................................................................... 104
in addition to........................................................................................................................... 104
in connection with .................................................................................................................. 104
in order to ............................................................................................................................... 104
in regards to ........................................................................................................................... 104
in terms of .............................................................................................................................. 104
in this context ......................................................................................................................... 104
inboard ................................................................................................................................... 104
incessant ................................................................................................................................ 104
incidence ................................................................................................................................ 104
incident................................................................................................................................... 104
incidental .......................................................................................................................... 79, 105
incite....................................................................................................................................... 105
inclosure................................................................................................................................. 105
include.................................................................................................................................... 105
incredible................................................................................................................................ 105
incredulous............................................................................................................................. 105
indeed .................................................................................................................................... 105
indefinite expressions using figures ......................................................................................... 37
indefinite numbers.................................................................................................................... 28
indented paragraphs ................................................................................................................ 24
indicate................................................................................................................................... 105
indigenous........................................................................................................................ 93, 105
individual ................................................................................................................................ 105
indorse ................................................................................................................................... 105
infer ................................................................................................................................ 104, 105
infighting................................................................................................................................. 105
infinitives ................................................................................................................................ 105
inflammable...................................................................................................................... 99, 105
injuries.................................................................................................................................... 105
inside of.................................................................................................................................. 105
insight..................................................................................................................................... 105
insure ............................................................................................................................... 84, 105
Intelligence Community .......................................................................................................... 106
Intelligence Community Directive (ICD) 206 ............................................................................ 59
intensify ............................................................................................................................ 95, 106
inter ........................................................................................................................................ 106
interestingly ............................................................................................................................ 106
interim .................................................................................................................................... 106
international ........................................................................................................................... 106
international organizations ....................................................................................................... 17
interpretability......................................................................................................................... 106
intifada ................................................................................................................................... 106
into ......................................................................................................................................... 106
intra ........................................................................................................................................ 106
involve .................................................................................................................................... 106
ironically ................................................................................................................................. 106
irregardless ............................................................................................................................ 106
UNCLASSIFIED
Index
UNCLASSIFIED
ix
Index
UNCLASSIFIED
x
Islamist ................................................................................................................................... 106
Islamization ............................................................................................................................ 107
issues ..................................................................................................................................... 107
it is.......................................................................................................................................... 107
italics ........................................................................................................................................ 56
its ........................................................................................................................................... 107
ize words ................................................................................................................................ 107
jargon ..................................................................................................................................... 107
jibe ......................................................................................................................................... 107
jihad ....................................................................................................................................... 107
joined ....................................................................................................................................... 72
joined or hyphenated words ..................................................................................................... 65
joint .................................................................................................................................. 88, 107
judgment ................................................................................................................................ 107
kafir ........................................................................................................................................ 107
kind ........................................................................................................................................ 108
Koran ..................................................................................................................................... 108
kudos ..................................................................................................................................... 108
lack......................................................................................................................................... 108
laid ......................................................................................................................................... 108
lain ......................................................................................................................................... 108
last ......................................................................................................................................... 108
latest ...................................................................................................................................... 108
latin abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... 7
latin american surnames .......................................................................................................... 69
latin names of bacterial species ............................................................................................... 56
latter ....................................................................................................................................... 108
laws .......................................................................................................................................... 25
lay .......................................................................................................................................... 108
lead ........................................................................................................................................ 108
leave ...................................................................................................................................... 108
led .......................................................................................................................................... 108
lend ........................................................................................................................................ 108
less................................................................................................................................... 99, 108
let up ...................................................................................................................................... 108
letter or number elements ........................................................................................................ 74
liable....................................................................................................................................... 108
lie ................................................................................................................................... 108, 109
like, as, such as ..................................................................................................................... 109
likely ....................................................................................................................................... 109
likewise .................................................................................................................................. 109
links ........................................................................................................................................ 109
loan ........................................................................................................................................ 109
loath ....................................................................................................................................... 109
loathe ..................................................................................................................................... 109
located ................................................................................................................................... 109
logistic .................................................................................................................................... 109
lower ...................................................................................................................................... 110
madrasa ................................................................................................................................. 110
mainly..................................................................................................................................... 110
major ...................................................................................................................................... 110
majority .................................................................................................................................. 110
margin .................................................................................................................................... 110
UNCLASSIFIED
masterful ................................................................................................................................ 110
masterly ................................................................................................................................. 110
material .................................................................................................................................. 110
maximum ............................................................................................................................... 110
may ............................................................................................................................ 86, 91, 110
mean ................................................................................................................................ 84, 111
meantime ............................................................................................................................... 111
media ............................................................................................................................... 91, 111
median ............................................................................................................................. 84, 111
memorandum ......................................................................................................................... 111
mercifully ................................................................................................................................ 111
metaphors .............................................................................................................................. 111
methodology .......................................................................................................................... 111
metric prefixes.......................................................................................................................... 10
metric system ........................................................................................................................... 35
mid- ........................................................................................................................................ 111
Middle East ............................................................................................................................ 111
might ...................................................................................................................................... 111
migrate ............................................................................................................................. 95, 111
military.................................................................................................................................... 111
military exercises ..................................................................................................................... 26
military forces ........................................................................................................................... 17
military operations .................................................................................................................... 26
military ranks .............................................................................................................................. 3
minimum ................................................................................................................................ 111
misinformation.................................................................................................................. 93, 111
mitigate .................................................................................................................................. 111
mixed numbers ........................................................................................................................ 31
Mod ........................................................................................................................................ 111
momentarily ........................................................................................................................... 112
monetary .................................................................................................................................. 99
months and days........................................................................................................................ 8
more important ....................................................................................................................... 112
more than ............................................................................................................................... 112
most ....................................................................................................................................... 112
mujahidin................................................................................................................................ 112
mullah .................................................................................................................................... 112
multiple qualifiers ................................................................................................................... 112
munition ................................................................................................................................. 112
Muslims .................................................................................................................................. 112
myself..................................................................................................................................... 112
names of organizations ............................................................................................................ 57
names of organized bodies ...................................................................................................... 16
nationalities, tribes, and other groups of people ...................................................................... 20
Native American..................................................................................................................... 112
naturally ................................................................................................................................. 112
nearing ................................................................................................................................... 113
negative trends ...................................................................................................................... 113
negative verbs........................................................................................................................ 113
neither . . . nor ........................................................................................................................ 113
never ...................................................................................................................................... 113
NFI ......................................................................................................................................... 113
No-Fly .................................................................................................................................... 113
UNCLASSIFIED
Index
UNCLASSIFIED
xi
Index
UNCLASSIFIED
xii
nonconventional ..................................................................................................................... 113
none ....................................................................................................................................... 113
nonetheless............................................................................................................................ 114
north ......................................................................................................................................... 20
North Korea................................................................................................................................ 7
not only . . . but also ............................................................................................................... 114
number ..................................................................................................................................... 82
number of ............................................................................................................................... 114
number ranges ......................................................................................................................... 29
numbers above and below 10 .................................................................................................. 27
numbers at beginning of sentences ......................................................................................... 28
numbers in graphics................................................................................................................. 30
numbers in tables..................................................................................................................... 30
numbers next to numbers ........................................................................................................ 37
numbers of 10 or more ............................................................................................................. 27
numbers over 999,999 ............................................................................................................. 29
numbers under 10 .................................................................................................................... 27
numerical compounds ........................................................................................................ 31, 76
numerical unit modifiers ........................................................................................................... 29
obsolete ................................................................................................................................. 114
obviously ................................................................................................................................ 114
occupied................................................................................................................................. 114
odds ......................................................................................................................................... 37
of ........................................................................................................................................... 114
of course ................................................................................................................................ 114
off ........................................................................................................................................... 114
offload .................................................................................................................................... 114
offput ...................................................................................................................................... 114
often ....................................................................................................................................... 114
older ....................................................................................................................................... 114
on board ................................................................................................................................... 79
one ......................................................................................................................................... 114
one-half .................................................................................................................................. 115
only ........................................................................................................................................ 115
open source ........................................................................................................................... 115
opine ...................................................................................................................................... 115
opportune ......................................................................................................................... 79, 115
opposition............................................................................................................................... 115
optimize.................................................................................................................................. 115
oral ......................................................................................................................................... 115
ordinal numbers ....................................................................................................................... 28
ornate words .......................................................................................................................... 115
outboard ......................................................................................................................... 104, 115
outside ................................................................................................................................... 115
outside of ............................................................................................................................... 105
over, under ............................................................................................................................. 115
owing to............................................................................................................................ 84, 115
Oxford comma ......................................................................................................................... 46
parallelism .............................................................................................................................. 115
parameter............................................................................................................................... 116
parentheses ............................................................................................................................. 51
parliament .............................................................................................................................. 116
parliamentarian ...................................................................................................................... 116
UNCLASSIFIED
partially................................................................................................................................... 116
participles ............................................................................................................................... 116
partly ...................................................................................................................................... 116
party ....................................................................................................................................... 116
passive voice ........................................................................................................................... 79
pending .................................................................................................................................. 116
people .................................................................................................................................... 116
per .......................................................................................................................................... 117
percent ............................................................................................................................... 8, 117
percentages ............................................................................................................................. 32
perfect .................................................................................................................................... 117
perimeter ........................................................................................................................ 116, 117
period ....................................................................................................................................... 52
personnel ............................................................................................................................... 116
persuade .......................................................................................................................... 90, 117
phenomena ............................................................................................................................ 117
pleaded .................................................................................................................................. 117
plural forms ............................................................................................................................ 117
plurality................................................................................................................................... 117
plurals ...................................................................................................................................... 43
plurals of compound terms ....................................................................................................... 65
plus-one data ......................................................................................................................... 117
polemical ................................................................................................................................ 117
political parties and other groups ............................................................................................. 18
political philosophies ................................................................................................................ 19
political subdivisions .................................................................................................................. 8
port of entry ................................................................................................................................ 1
portion markings ...................................................................................................................... 62
possessed .............................................................................................................................. 117
possessives ............................................................................................................................. 41
possibly .................................................................................................................................. 117
posture ................................................................................................................................... 117
practical.................................................................................................................................. 117
precipitate .............................................................................................................................. 117
preclude ................................................................................................................................. 118
predicate adjectives ................................................................................................................. 72
predominant ........................................................................................................................... 118
preface ................................................................................................................................... 118
prefixes and suffixes ................................................................................................................ 75
present, absent ...................................................................................................................... 118
presently ................................................................................................................................ 118
president ............................................................................................................................ 7, 118
pressure ................................................................................................................................. 118
preventative ........................................................................................................................... 118
primarily ................................................................................................................................. 118
principal.................................................................................................................................. 118
principle.................................................................................................................................. 118
prior to .................................................................................................................................... 118
pristine ................................................................................................................................... 119
probable ................................................................................................................................. 119
probably ................................................................................................................................. 119
profile ..................................................................................................................................... 119
propel ............................................................................................................................... 88, 119
UNCLASSIFIED
Index
UNCLASSIFIED
xiii
Index
UNCLASSIFIED
xiv
proper nouns ............................................................................................................................ 73
Prophet Muhammad .............................................................................................................. 119
protagonist ............................................................................................................................. 119
provided ................................................................................................................................. 119
publications .............................................................................................................................. 23
punctuation with quotation marks ............................................................................................ 53
purportedly ............................................................................................................................. 119
put off ..................................................................................................................................... 119
qualifiers................................................................................................................................. 119
quarters .................................................................................................................................. 119
question mark .......................................................................................................................... 52
quotation marks ................................................................................................................. 52, 74
quote ...................................................................................................................................... 119
range ...................................................................................................................................... 120
ratios ........................................................................................................................................ 37
reason .................................................................................................................................... 120
rebound .................................................................................................................................. 120
rebut ....................................................................................................................................... 120
recent ..................................................................................................................................... 120
redundancies ......................................................................................................................... 120
reference ................................................................................................................................ 121
references to numbers as numbers ......................................................................................... 30
references to numbers in a non-literal sense ........................................................................... 30
refute ...................................................................................................................................... 121
regard............................................................................................................................... 90, 121
regards ................................................................................................................................... 121
regime .................................................................................................................................... 121
regretfully ............................................................................................................................... 121
relations ................................................................................................................................. 121
relatively ................................................................................................................................. 121
relevant .................................................................................................................................. 121
religious terms.......................................................................................................................... 18
reluctant ................................................................................................................................. 122
represent ................................................................................................................................ 122
resolution ............................................................................................................................... 122
restrictive clauses .................................................................................................................. 122
reticent ................................................................................................................................... 122
reveal ..................................................................................................................................... 122
roman numerals ....................................................................................................................... 28
Russian names ........................................................................................................................ 58
Salafi ...................................................................................................................................... 122
sanction.................................................................................................................................. 122
sanguine ................................................................................................................................ 122
sayyid ..................................................................................................................................... 122
scientific notation ..................................................................................................................... 38
scores ...................................................................................................................................... 37
seasons.................................................................................................................................... 25
seemingly ............................................................................................................................... 122
semiannual............................................................................................................................... 85
semicolon ................................................................................................................................. 54
senator ....................................................................................................................................... 7
sentence fragments ................................................................................................................. 24
separate words ........................................................................................................................ 65
UNCLASSIFIED
September 11 attacks ............................................................................................................ 122
serial comma ............................................................................................................................ 46
Shahid .................................................................................................................................... 122
shake up ................................................................................................................................ 122
shall........................................................................................................................................ 123
shaped ................................................................................................................................... 123
sharia ..................................................................................................................................... 123
shaykh.................................................................................................................................... 123
she/hers/her ........................................................................................................................... 123
ship ........................................................................................................................................ 123
shortened titles......................................................................................................................... 24
should .................................................................................................................................... 123
sight ................................................................................................................................. 87, 123
significant ............................................................................................................................... 123
single...................................................................................................................................... 123
single quotation marks ............................................................................................................. 53
site ................................................................................................................................... 87, 123
situation............................................................................................................................ 89, 123
sized....................................................................................................................................... 123
slash......................................................................................................................................... 55
smart ...................................................................................................................................... 123
so ........................................................................................................................................... 124
solid compounds ...................................................................................................................... 69
sometime ............................................................................................................................... 124
sort ......................................................................................................................................... 124
sourcing and classification ....................................................................................................... 59
South Korea ............................................................................................................................... 7
southwest ................................................................................................................................. 20
spear phishing........................................................................................................................ 124
standoff .................................................................................................................................. 124
state ....................................................................................................................................... 124
State and Local Fusion Centers ............................................................................................. 124
strategy .................................................................................................................................. 124
subjective words .................................................................................................................... 124
submarine .............................................................................................................................. 124
subsequent abbreviation references .......................................................................................... 2
successive ....................................................................................................................... 89, 124
such as................................................................................................................................... 124
Sufi(sm).................................................................................................................................. 124
Sunna..................................................................................................................................... 125
Sunni(s).................................................................................................................................. 125
surveil..................................................................................................................................... 125
tables ............................................................................................................................... 99, 125
takfir ....................................................................................................................................... 125
takfirism.................................................................................................................................. 125
tall .......................................................................................................................................... 125
tearline ................................................................................................................................... 125
technical terms ....................................................................................................................... 125
telcon ..................................................................................................................................... 125
telephone numbers .................................................................................................................. 31
that ......................................................................................................................................... 125
there ....................................................................................................................................... 126
this ......................................................................................................................................... 126
UNCLASSIFIED
Index
UNCLASSIFIED
xv
Index
UNCLASSIFIED
xvi
though .............................................................................................................................. 81, 126
three-word modifiers ................................................................................................................ 73
thus ........................................................................................................................................ 126
TIDE ....................................................................................................................................... 126
ties ......................................................................................................................................... 126
times phrases........................................................................................................................... 32
titles.................................................................................................................................... 23, 56
titles of persons ................................................................................................................ 21, 126
titles of publications.................................................................................................................. 57
to include................................................................................................................................ 126
together with .......................................................................................................................... 126
tornadoes ................................................................................................................................. 25
tortuous .................................................................................................................................. 126
total ........................................................................................................................................ 126
toward .................................................................................................................................... 127
trade names ............................................................................................................................. 21
traditions ................................................................................................................................ 127
transpire ................................................................................................................................. 127
treaties ..................................................................................................................................... 25
treaty ........................................................................................................................................ 15
troops ..................................................................................................................................... 127
try ........................................................................................................................................... 127
TSA ............................................................................................................................................ 2
type ........................................................................................................................................ 127
typhoons .................................................................................................................................. 25
UK .............................................................................................................................................. 6
umm ....................................................................................................................................... 127
ummah ................................................................................................................................... 127
unconventional ............................................................................................................... 113, 127
undoubtedly ........................................................................................................................... 127
unfortunately .......................................................................................................................... 127
unhyphenated .................................................................................................................... 72, 75
uninterested ..................................................................................................................... 93, 127
unique .................................................................................................................................... 127
unit modifiers...................................................................................................................... 54, 71
United Kingdom ..................................................................................................................... 127
United Nations ....................................................................................................................... 128
United States ......................................................................................................................... 128
United States vs. US .................................................................................................................. 5
units of measure .................................................................................................................. 8, 34
units of measure exceptions .................................................................................................... 36
universal................................................................................................................................. 128
unprecedented ....................................................................................................................... 128
up to ....................................................................................................................................... 128
upbeat .................................................................................................................................... 128
upcoming ............................................................................................................................... 128
upper ...................................................................................................................................... 128
upward ................................................................................................................................... 128
US ...................................................................................................................................... 6, 127
US dollars ................................................................................................................................ 31
usage ..................................................................................................................................... 128
Usama bin Ladin .................................................................................................................... 128
USSS ......................................................................................................................................... 2
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
Index
utilize ...................................................................................................................................... 128
variety of ................................................................................................................................ 128
vary ........................................................................................................................................ 129
verbal ..................................................................................................................................... 129
very ........................................................................................................................................ 129
via .......................................................................................................................................... 129
viable...................................................................................................................................... 129
vice......................................................................................................................................... 129
vicious circle ........................................................................................................................... 129
Wahhabi ................................................................................................................................. 129
ward ....................................................................................................................................... 129
wars ................................................................................................................................... 21, 26
watch list ................................................................................................................................ 129
weapon .................................................................................................................................. 129
Web site ................................................................................................................................. 130
west.......................................................................................................................................... 20
Western.................................................................................................................................. 130
whether .................................................................................................................................. 130
while ................................................................................................................................. 81, 130
who ........................................................................................................................................ 130
whose..................................................................................................................................... 131
widows ................................................................................................................................... 131
will .......................................................................................................................................... 131
with......................................................................................................................................... 131
with reference to .................................................................................................................... 131
with regard to ......................................................................................................................... 131
x-ray ....................................................................................................................................... 131
years ........................................................................................................................................ 33
younger .......................................................................................................................... 114, 131
xvii
UNCLASSIFIED
U. S. Department of Homeland Security
Office of Intelligence and Analysis
UNCLASSIFIED