THE DIFFERENT MEDIEVAL MOVEMENTS
IN EDUCATION
The medieval period is also known as the middle age or the dark age
which refers to the span of time from the downfall of the Roman
empire in the year A.D 476 to the beginning of the Renaissance
period about 1333.
The different educational movements during this epoch in history are
discussed hereunder:
Monasticism – education was a religious discipline. Education
was strict, rigid and punishment was severe.
Education was based on Monastic vows of poverty, chastity
and obedience. During reign of Charlemagne (722-804), he
supported the Monastic schools and even established court schools to
educate his constituents.
Scholasticism – education was an intellectual discipline. The
purpose of this movement was to bring reason to faith and support
theology by using logic.
Saint Thomas of Aquinas (1225-1274) was one of foremost
proponents of Scholastic movement. He wrote the Summa Theologize
which became the basis of the majority of the doctrines of the
Catholic Church.
The Medieval University – the Medieval Universities started as
“universitas magistrorum et scholarium” or corporation of teachers
and students chartered by the pope or the kings.
The first organized university was the University of Bologna
chartered by the Emperor Frederick I in 1158.
Composition of the medieval university:
Studium generale – the student body
Nation – a group of students who had the same place of origin
Councilors – leaders of a nation
Facultas – teachers of the same subject Dead – head of the facultas
Rector – head of the medieval university
Chivalry – education as a social discipline. This kind of movement
flourished in the Christian countries in Europe as a response to the
increasing educational needs of the sons of the nobility. Under this
system, a boy of noble birth has to pass through the following stages
before he is fully accepted as a member of his social class:
Page – an attendant to the noble courts at the age of 7 years
Squire – an attendant to a knight at the age of 14 years
Knight – a full-pledged warrior who has vowed to:
-
protect the women and the poor
-
defend the church and the state
-
attack the wicked and
-
shed blood for the sake of his country and his compatriots
The Guild System- education for the middle class. Towards the end
of the medieval period, a new class of people arose between the
nobles and the peasants- the bourgeoisie (burgher) or the middle
class.
These people were not really rich like the landed gentry, nor poor like
vassals, but rather, they acquired their fortune from the profits in
commercial and industrial endeavors brought about by the
“Crusaders”. In order to protect their interests, they set up
organizations known as guild.
There were two types of guilds:
Crafts guild- organization of skilled craftsmen
Merchant guild – organization of business
Before a person is accepted as a member of any of the guild, he
must pass through the following stages:
Apprentice – a trainee assigned to a master
Journeyman – a trainee who travels from place to place under
different masters and is paid for his labor
Master craftsman – a full pledged member of a guild
As the number of the middle class increased the need for more
schools to meet the education needs of their children also increased
which paved the way for the establishment of the new type of schools,
viz:
Chantry schools – schools established through the foundations
under the clergy
Guild Schools – served as vocational schools who catered to the
children of the members of the craft guild
Burgher schools – established to educate the children of the
members of the merchant guild
ISLAMIC INFLUENCES ON EDUCATION
Islam which means submission to God, a religion that was
established by the prophet Muhammad (570-632) is a monotheistic
religion whose followers worship only one God –Allah.
The teachings of this religion is based on the Qur’an, their sacred
scripture. At the peak of the glory of the Islamic civilization they have
contributed the following to the world and to education:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Established the most complete curricula from elementary
to university.
Hindu-Arabic numerals
Advanced learning in Pharmacy, surgery and medicine for
the preservation of life
Taught geography using globes
Invented the pendulum clock, discovered the nitric acid
and sulfuric acid
6.
Used compass, gunpowder
7.
Cultivated rice, silkworm, sugar and cotton
8.
Determined the height of the atmosphere, weight of the air
and specific gravity of bodies
EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTION OF
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
TEACHING PROFESSION
EDUCATION
Education is derived from the Latin word “educare” or “educere”
which means to lead forth. It is defined as the process of acquiring
knowledge, habits, attitudes, interest, skills and abilities and other
intangible human qualities through training instructions and selfactivity, and transmitting these vital elements of human civilization
to posterity.
TYPES OF EDUCATION
1. Formal Education – refers to the hierarchically structured
chronological graded learning organized and provided by the formal
school system and for which certification is required in order for the
learner to progress through the grades or move to higher levels.
This corresponds to the following levels:
A. elementary education
B. secondary education
C. tertiary education
2. Non-formal education – refers to any school based
educational activities undertaken by the DECS and other agencies
aimed at attaining specific learning objectives for a particular
clientele, especially the illiterates and the out- of -school youths and
adults, distinct from the outside the regular offerings of the formal
school system.
(B. P 232 Art. III Chapter 1 and 2 Sections 19 and 24)
3. Informal Education- a type of education which can be
acquired anytime and anywhere. It is otherwise known as the
education for all seasons.
ORIGIN OF EDUCATION
There are two theories concerning the exact origin of Education:
1.The Theory of Divine Creation advocates that when God, in the
beginning of time, created man according to His image and likeness
and commissioned him to multiply and replenish the earth and
subdue it and have dominion over all other creations
(Genesis Chapter 1). He equipped man with intellect and free will.
But because man chose to ignore God and disobey his will, the first
couple was banished from the “Garden of Eden” and severed the
former relation between the Creator and man.
Henceforth, the first couple multiplied, passing the knowledge
acquired from God to their offspring, until the time when their
children inhabited the earth possessing the intelligence they inherited
from their parents.
These include the ability to communicate, read and write, knowledge
in science and arts, as well as other skills like hunting, farming,
fishing, etc.
Finally, due to man’s superior intelligence and God given talents,
scientific advancements became part of man’s existence.
2. The Theory of Evolution, on the other hand, believes that
education started when the very primitive man, basically savage,
brutish and animalistic, for he had just evolved from the lower
primates, began his quest to find ways and means to feed clothe,
shelter and protect himself and compete with other animals for
survival (i.e. survival of the fittest).
Education at this point, says this theory was on its simplest form
characterized by the absence of reading, writing or comprehensive
language.
The education was informal and learning was through observation
and imitation or apprenticeship for there were existing schools yet.
EDUCATIONAL
CONTRIBUTION
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
JEWISH – religious educations
1.
Synagogues – temple schools
2.
Bible and the Talmud
3.
Rabbis – teacher/priests
CHINESE – career oriented education
1.
Analects of Confucius
2.
Civil Service Examination (Han Dynasty 206 B.C)
OF
a.
Flowering talent – whole day exam
b.
Promoted man – 3 days exam
c.
Entered scholar/fit for office – 13 days exam, and
those who passed became the ministers of the emperor
Every examination that an individual passed had a corresponding
decoration in his dress, in his household and certain privileges.
EGYPTIAN – practical and empirical education
1.
Hieroglyphics – ancient picture-writing system
2.
Papyrus – ancient paper
3.
Mathematics – value of pi = 3.16
4.
5.
6.
Engineering/Architecture -Pyramids,
palaces
dams,
dikes,
Geometry - land surveying and measuring
Astronomy – positions of stars and other heavenly
bodies to determine tides, seasons, floods.
Calendars composed of 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, months of
30 days with 365 days a year.
7.
Medicine – explored human anatomy
-Mummification of the dead
GREEKS – liberal and democratic education
1. Olympic Games
2. Mythology
3. Democracy
4. Philosophy
The Greek City States Sparta
-
Authoritarian government
-
Military city-state
-
Communal life
-
Military academy
- at birth, the child is taken care by the mother, but at the age of
seven he is turned over to the paidonomus or a military drill master
who will teach him the art of warfare.
Athens
-
Liberal education
-
Freedom of thought, expression and religion
-
Education was a family responsibility
-
Every male child is given a paedagogus or a tutor who will
train
Him to be a good and responsible citizen
Ancient Athenian Schools
1. Palaestra – gymnastic school
Paedotribe – teacher of gymnastics
2. Music school
Kitharist – music teacher
3. Grammar school
Grammatist – teacher of letters
The Sophist were the wandering scholars who went to Athens, taught
Athenian boys but collected fees from them.
Protagoras was the most famous sophist who said that man is the
measure if all things.
The Greek Thinkers flourished in order to counteract the influences
of the Sophists who were not Athenians.
Among them were:
Socrates (469-399 B.C)
-
He advanced the idea of Gnothi Seauton or know
thyself
-
He believed that knowledge is virtue and all virtuous
actions are based on knowledge
-
He introduced Socratic dialect method of teaching which
is composed of:
1. Ironic (destructive) element
2. Maieutic (constructive) element
Plato (427-347 B.C.)
-
He proposed that the society should be divided into
classes of people based on their talents and intelligence.
a.
b.
c.
-
Philosophical class – guardians or rulers of the
society
Warrior Class – protectors of the society
Artisan or industrial class- workers of the
society
He believed that education should be determined by the
social class where the person belongs
He established a school called Academy
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
-
He was the paedagogus of Alexander the Great
-
He established a school called Lyceum
-
He believed that virtue is brought by doing not by
knowing
-
He advanced the idea that man is a social animal and
must use his reason to attain his ultimate end which is the
summum bonum or highest/supreme Good.
-
He postulated that man is composed of two distinct but
united entities:
Body and soul the soul is composed of:
1. Irrational element – appetites, desire, passions
2. Rational element – intellect
THE GREEK UNIVERSITIES
University of Athens – world’s first comprehensive university
University of Alexandria – founded by alexander the Great in
Egypt.
•
It had the most advanced library facilities.
The Septuagint which is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bibles
ws translated by 70 scholars in this university.
•
It had excellent products like:
1. Euclid – in the field of Geometry
2. Archimedes – in the field of Physics
3. Eratosthenes – in the field of Geography and Astronomy
ROMANS – pragmatic and progressive education
1. Latin Language
2. The Laws of the Twelve Tables
3. The Roman Senate
THE ROMAN SCHOOLS
1. Elementary – school of the literature or Ludi Magister
2. Secondary – school of the Grammaticus or Literati’s
3. Higher education – rhetorical schools
Imperial Contributions to
Education
1.
Vespasian (A.D. 69-79) –
University and Roman Library
founded
the
Roman
2.
Trajan (A.D.98-117) – gave scholarships to poor but
deserving students
3.
Hadrian (117-138) – gave pensions for retired teachers
and gave more attention to Law and Medicine than to
Philosophy.
4.
Antonius Pius (138-161) – exempted all Roman
teachers from taxation and military service.
5.
Constantine (306-337) – continued all the privileges,
mentioned above and legalized Christianity by virtue of the
Edict of Milan an AD 313.
6.
Julian (361-363) – required that all teachers be licensed
and be given qualifying exams. He also eliminated Christian
teachers from Ronal Schools.
7.
Gratian (367-383) - subsidized all Roman schools, and
created a salary scale for teachers.
8.
Theodosius (383-395) – he nationalized all schools and
considered the establishment of private schools a grave
punishable by law.
EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES OF
JESUS CHRIST
Jesus was born ca. 4 B.C and was crucified 33 years after,
approximately AD 30.
In the short stay of Jesus Christ here on earth. He revolutionized
man’s concept of religiosity and theology.
His methods of teaching people were simple and direct and were
intended to touch man’s spirituality. However, his association with
the outcasts of the Jewish society and with the gentiles as well as His
frequent attacks against the established norms religious legalism of
the Jews drew the ire of the religious leaders of His time led to His
crucifixion when He was 33 years of age.
But after three days, He rose from the dead to fulfill his promise of
redemption and everlasting life for all mankind.
The Teaching Methods of Jesus Christ
Parable – a short story, a weighty similitude used to convey
instruction to ignorant prejudices and inattentive hearers.
Ex. Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11-33)
Conversational Method – an intimate, face to face direct natural
personal and informal method. It is a sort of questions and answer
method.
Ex. John 3:1-11 between Jesus and Nicodemus Mat. 22:15-17 about
paying taxes.
Proverbial or Gnomic Method – Jesus, in his teachings
frequently used gnomes or proverbs, some were quoted from the Old
Testament and others were His own.
Ex. “For many are called but a few are chosen” Mat 22:14
EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION
Upon the resurrection of Jesus Christ, He commissioned His
disciples to “go into the world and preach the Gospel (Mathew 28:19),
but they received a lot of persecutions from the unbelieving world.
However, when Emperor Constantine of the Roman Empire
proclaimed Christianity as the official religion of the Roman world
the Christians and their teachings became part of the mainstream
society, and the Emperor himself supported the church and
established schools.
By virtue of this support, the following Christians schools were
established:
1. Catechumenal – school for new converts
2. Catechetical – school for leadership training
3. Cathedral/Episcopalian- school for the clergy
ANTHROPOLOGICAL BASES OF
EDUCATION
ANTHROPOLOGY is derived from the Greek words Anthropos
which means man and logos meaning the study of. It is the study of
human difference, cultural and biological against the background of
the nature all humans share. Anthropologist study human social life
and culture including the origin of the human race.
CULTURE is defined by Edward B. Taylor as that complex
whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law , morals, customs
and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of a
society.
KINDS OF CULTURE
1. Non-Material culture (intangible) includes beliefs, moral,
laws, customs, traditions, folk ways and mores etc.
2. Material culture (tangible) includes man’s technologies, etc.
CHARATERISTICS OF CULTURE
1.
Culture is learned – man is not born with culture, but he
is born with the capacity to acquire and learn the culture of
his group.
2.
All people have varied culture – every society has its
cultural values that are entirely different from the others.
3.
Culture is a group product – man cannot develop a
culture of his own if he is alone.
4.
Culture is transmitted – the learned culture of the past
generation are transmitted to posterity through education.
What we are today is the product of what they were before.
IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE
1. Through the development of culture man can set aside
certain laws of nature to conform to his needs.
2. Through the development of culture man can overcome his
physical handicaps.
FOLKWAYS – customary ways of behaving which have become
habitual repetitive to an individual or group.
Ex. Caring for the elders and saying po and opo
MORES occurs when folkways become compulsive for the welfare of
the society and it has acquired moral significance.
Failure to observe or conform to this will result to ostracism or
condemnation.
CULTURE CHANGE may occur either by accident or direction. It
is brought about by the passage of time, migration and other factors.
SUB-CULTURE refers to the attitude of a certain group to deviate
from the habitual practices of the majority.
This is apparent in the new styles of dressing, language and other
practices of a group of people which are different from the majority.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM refers to the practices considered
immoral or taboo to a certain group of people, yet moral to other
societies.
Ex. Polygamy, pre-marital sex, etc.
CULTURE SHOCK is the term used to denote the feeling of
depression, often expressed as homesickness, cause by living in a
foreign environment.
Faced with an unknown or poorly understood foreign language and
confused by different codes of conduct, unfamiliar food and even
unfamiliar physical surrounding, the traveler or new resident may
look upon the people and the unaccustomed behavior with distaste
and sometimes with fear.
CULTURAL VALUES refer to the collective ethical, aesthetics and
religious values of the community including artistic inclination,
poetry, music , painting, literature and such other practices which the
entire society consider as bital elements of their existence.
Test of Robin Williams to determine which practices are
included in one’s culture
1.
Extensiveness – number of percentage of the population
practicing the value.
2.
Duration – time element. How long has the value been
practiced.
3.
Intensity – the total impact of the value upon the populace.
The severity or gravity of punishment or condemnation for
violation.
4.
Prestige of the value carrier- refers to the people
practicing such value.
FILIPINO CULTURAL VALUES
The Filipino people are known for their various cultural values.
Whether beneficial or not, these cultural values make the Filipinos
unique and distinct from other peoples of the world.
Some of the important Filipino cultural values are the following:
Non-rationalism is the tendency to perceive thoughts, objects,
events and persons as sacred. This includes:
Animism – the belief in supernatural spirits who are presumably
interfering with man’s daily affairs.
Fatalism – belief in luck, fortune telling,”Bahala Na” “suwerte” or
malas, horoscope etc.
Social Acceptance – the desire to be always accepted by the group
Pakikisama – yielding to the decisions of the majority
Euphenism – stating an unpleasant truth, opinion, or request as
pleasantly as possible.
Go-between – the use of a third party to be exact favor or request
from another person. This includes hiya and amor propio
Emotional closeness and security of the family means the
mutual dependence among relative. This could also mean granting
special favors or privileges among the immediate or even distant
relatives.
Authority refers to the emphasis on the power and importance of
authority
figure.
Economic and social improvement is the desire to improve the
standard of living of his family and his hometown.
Utang Na loob means sense of gratitude
Personalism emphasizes the importance of the person with whom
one has immediate face to face contact and contact and connection.
This includes pakiusap, lagay, areglo and palakasan
Indolence – laziness
Ningas kugon means great enthusiasm at the beginning of a task,
yet after a certain period of time the enthusiasm is fading gradually.
Mañana habit refers to procrastination or putting for tomorrow
what can be done
today.
Hospitality means cordially entertaining guests and visitors even to
the point of sacrificing their own welfare.
Fiesta syndrome refers to the lavish spending during fiestas and
other occasions.
SOCIOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION
SOCIOLOGY is the systematic study of the development, structure,
interaction and collective behavior of organized groups of human
beings.
SOCIETY is derived from the latin word“socios” or “socials”–
meaning fellow, companion or associate.
It is a group of individuals with well-defined limits which persists in
time, thus enabling them to develop a set of common ideas, attitudes,
interact and of techniques for living and fitting together.
The members think of themselves as a social unit. The society is
formed based on man’s gregariousness or the tendency or desire of
people to be with other people.
CONCEPT OF GROUPS
GROUP is a unit of interacting personalities with independence of
roles and status existing between them.
KINDS OF GROUPS
1. Primary group is characterized by intimate, face to face,
informal, personal relationship among members. It is also
characterized by the so called “we feeling.”
EX. family
2. Secondary group is characterized by impersonal, formal,
contractual business-like, and casual relationship. Large in size, of
short duration, the members are physically and spatially distant from
one another.
Ex. Religion, school
3. In group is the group where the individual identifies himself
and is given a sense of belongingness. It can be as small as the family
or as big as a nation.
This group is further characterized by ethnocentrism or the belief
that one’s group is superior over the other chauvinism – excessive
ethnocentrism.
4. Out-Group is a group in which one has a feeling of indifference,
avoidance, strangeness, dislike, antagonism and even hatred.
Ex. Religious groups
5. Peer group is the group where the members are of the same age
and socio- economic status.
Types of Peer Groups
Play-group is characterized by spontaneity, and informality and
with minimum or no adult supervision at all. It is common among
children.
Gang has a recognized leader, pass word, rules of behavior, definite
place and time of meeting and planed activities. It is also
characterized by deviant, anti-social behavior.
Clique is composed of persons with the same interest or line of
thinking.
6. Reference group – a group to which the individual refers and
with whom he identifies himself either consciously or unconsciously.
It is more of identification rather than actual membership.
7. Voluntary associations – members joined together due to
their common decisions or needs.
Personal interest group – caters to people with the same interest
Ex. Ball clubs
Social service groups – for community services Ex. NGO’s, Rotary,
Lions, etc.
Political action group – for the promotion of a political agenda or
candidacy of a political leader
Ex. Aksyon Demokratiko
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION is the system or process of assigning
men their respective ranks in a society based on income or wealth,
education, occupation and lifestyle.
SOCIAL MOBILITY is the process of moving from one social
stratum to another, may either be horizontal, vertical or lateral.
SOCIALIZATION is the process by which the individual acquires
the social and cultural heritage of his society. Through this, the
individual learns his social position in the society.
LEVELS OF SOCIALIZATION PROCESS
1.
Vegetative Level – the stage characterized by the
preoccupation with food.
The desire is primarily for survival.
2.
Sentient Level – geared towards the satisfaction of
sensual passions and desires.
3.
Rational Level – a person has already acquired morality
and a sense of justice.
LANGUAGE plays a vital role in the socialization of the individual
and without this, man would not be able to integrate the values of his
society. Language is also considered as the basic difference between
man and animals.
STATUS AND ROLE
STATUS is the position a person occupies in a society by virtue of his
age, birth, sex, marriage, occupation, achievement.
Types of Status
1. Ascribed – position assigned to an individual without reference
to his innate differences and abilities. This is assigned at birth.
Ex. sex, race, age, etc.
2. Achieved – it is not assigned to an individual from birth, but is
left open for competition and individual effort.
Ex. One’s profession
ROLE is the part that the individual is expected to play in his social
group. It is the sum of the culture patterns associated with a
particular status.
SOCIAL DEVIATIONS refer to the failure of the individual to play
the role expected from him by the society.
INTERNALIZATION is the process of making an attitude or a
practice a part of one’s automatic and unthinking responses.
SOCIAL ORDER is the way the individual is expected to behave in a
society where he belongs in order to preserve and maintain the
tranquility of his social milieu.
SOCIAL CONTROL is the means by which people are led to fill
their expected roles in the society even against their will just to
achieve social order.
THE BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
BASES OF EDUCATION
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION COMPONENT
Part 2 of the Licensure Examination for Teachers covers the
professional education which consists of Facilitating Learning and
Child and Adolescent Development, The Teaching Profession,
Curriculum Development, Social Dimensions of Education Principles,
Methods and Strategies of Teaching, Field Study, Educational
Technology and Assessment of Learning.
FACILITATING LEARNING, CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
This subject deals with the nature of the learner as the basis of the
teaching- learning process. It tackles the growth and development of
the child in a life spam approach.
COMPONENTS OF THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS
1. Learner
2. 2 Teacher (involved in the learning process)
3. School (the learning situation)
THE
BIOLOGICAL
AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF
EDUCATION
The Beginning of Life
Life begins at the moment of conception – the time when a
reproductive cell of the female (ovum, plural ova) is fertilized by a
male reproductive cell the spermatozoon (spermatozoa, plural).This
is approximately 280 days before birth.
Within each sex cell (sperm/egg) there are 23 chromosomes. They
are threadlike particles which contain between 40,000 and 60,000
genes. The genes contain the DNA and RNA which are considered as
blueprint of life and transmitters of hereditary characteristics traits
from the parents to the offspring’s.
Sex Determination
All the female gametes carry X chromosomes, while half of the
male gametes carry the X chromosomes and the other half carry the Y
chromosomes.
If the X bearing spermatozoon unites with the ovum, it will result
to XX combination and the sex of the child is female.
And if the Y bearing spermatozoon unites with the ovum, it will result
to XY combination and the sex of the child is male.
Multiple Birth/Twins
The term multiple birth refers to the birth of two or more babies
within a few hours or days. There are two types of twin births – the
identical and fraternal twins.
The identical or uniovular twins come from a single ovum fertilized
by a single sperm cell.
Some times, it happens that at the time of the first division of the cell
the new cell separates instead of remaining together. Why the
separation occurs, no one knows for certain, but there are evidence
that it is a result of hormonal disturbances.
Non-identical, biovular or fraternal twins on the other hand, are the
products of two ova fertilized simultaneously by two separate sperm
cells.
FACTORS
OF
DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH
AND
The factors affecting the growth and development of the individual
are:
Heredity – the process by which the new organism is endowed
with certain potentials (inherited from the parents) for his later
development. Maturation on the other hand is the process by which
heredity exerts influence long after birth.
Environmental
influence – interaction between
individual’s inherited traits his surroundings and his nurture.
an
PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
Phylogenetic principle – states that development follows an
orderly sequence which is predictable and is true to all members of
certain race.
Predictable trends of development
Cephalocaudal trend – development proceed from head to foot
direction
Proximodorsal trend – the parts of the body nearest the center
(i.e.) are the parts which develop earlier.
Ex. The baby can see first before he can walk.
Ontogenetic principle – the rate of development is unique to
every individual. It is brought about by one’s heredity as well as
environmental influences.
Ex. Though both children are of the same age, one might talk earlier
than the
other.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Hereunder are the stages of development that an individual
passes through in his lifetime:
1. Pre-natal Stage – from conception (when the ovum is fertilized
by the spermatozoon producing a zygote or fertilized egg) to the time
of birth.
2. Infancy/babyhood (birth to two years)
It is the foundation age when basic behavior patterns are
organized and many ontogenetic skills emerge.
3. Early Childhood (two to six years)
It is characterized as pre-gang, exploratory and questioning age.
Language and elementary reasoning are acquired and initial
socialization is experienced.
4. Late Childhood (six to twelve years)
Gang age, age of creativity, development of social, self help, play
and school skill.
5. Adolescence (thirteen to nineteen years)
Transition age from childhood to adulthood when sex maturation
and rapid physical development occurs resulting to changes in ways
of feeling, thinking and acting.
6. Early adulthood (nineteen to forty years)
Age of adjustment to new patterns of life and new roles such as
spouse, parent and bread winner.
7. Middle age (forty to retirement)
Transition age when adjustments to initial physical and mental
decline are experienced.
8. Old age (retirement to death)
Increasing rapid physical and mental decline. Psychological as
well as physical illnesses are experienced.
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
The following are the major theories of development:
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY (psycho-sexual
development)
This was advocated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), an Austrian
psychiatrist who believed that a person’s behavior can be motivated
by strong unconscious drive or urges toward self-satisfaction.
Stages of Development
Psychoanalytic Theory
Based
on
the
A. Oral stage (birth to two years)
-
Mouth is the center of pleasure
- Failure to satisfy this stage will result later to smoking and other
vices involving the mouth.
B. Anal stage (two to four years old)
-anal region is the center of pleasure
-gains pleasure in the elimination of bowel
-failure to satisfy this will result to:
1.
Frugality (stinginess)
2.
Greediness
3.
Obstinate/stubborn character
C. Phallic stage (four to six years old)
This is derived from the Greek work “PHALLUS” which means male
sex organ (symbol of strength and power) derives pleasure from the
manipulation of sex organs
Oedipus complex – rivalry between the son and the father to
get the mother’s attention
Electra complex – rivalry between the daughter and the
mother to get the father’s attention
D. Latency stage (six to twelve years old)
-
Calm stage
-
Conflicting feelings are confined in the sub-conscious
mind
Energies are diverted to school and peer activities
E. Genital Stage (twelve years old and above
-
Starts with the onset of puberty
-
The individual is now attracted to the opposite sex
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
This is based on Lev Vygotsky’s ideas. Vygotsky was born in
Russia in 1896 and is responsible for the social development theory of
learning.
He proposed that social interaction profoundly influences
cognitive development.
He believed that this life long process of development was dependent
on social interaction and that social learning actually leads to
cognitive development.
-
Cognitive development and language are shaped by a
person’s interaction with other.
-
Children’s knowledge, values and attitudes develop
through interaction with other.
-
Social interactions that assist in learning increase a child’s
level of thinking.
Students will learn best through activity.
Students should be encouraged
frequently with self and with teacher.
to
communicate
PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY
This theory was advocated by Erik Erikson, who identified eight
basic developmental stages that the individual has to pass through in
his life.
Each of these stage has a specific psychosocial crisis that affects the
development of the child.
A. Stage 1 (0-18 months)
-
Trust vs. mistrust
-
The child trust those who care for her and mistrust a stranger
B. Stage II (18 months to 3years old)
-
Learns to walk and use his hands
-
If encouraged, develops autonomy
-
If discouraged and punished harshly and excessively the
child develops dependence and shame, doubt, self pity
C. Stage III (3 to 6 years old)
-
-
begins to explore his social and physical world,
discovering what he can accomplish aware of various social
roles imitates adult’s behavior
When punished develops sense of guilt
The family is responsible for the child’s behavior and
action
D. Stage IV (6 to 12 years old)
-
Child’s world broadens – neighborhood/school
-
Technical skills are learned
-
Peer group influence
-
Identification and/or separation with sexes
-
Play age
-
E.
When the child cannot accomplish the expectations from
him, he develops a sense of inferiority
Stage V (12 to 18 years old)
-
Identity crisis –always asking who am I?
-
-Struggles with society’s demands and physical changes in
his body
-
-Peer group becomes an essential source of rules of
behavior
F. Stage VI (18-24 years old)
-
Age of intimacy
Develops warm intimate relation with another person and
failure to develop such a relationship results to isolation
G. Stage VII (24 to 54 years old)
-
The most productive years of adulthood
The individual’s worth is dependent on his contribution to
family and society
H. Stage VIII (54 to death)
-
The individual comes to the temporal limits of his life
-
The period of achievement and sense of integrity
-
Failure to achieve one’s goals results to regret and despair
-
Fear of the end of life
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
development)
THEORY
(intellectual
This theory was advocated by Jean Piaget, who believed that a
child enters the world lacking virtually all the basic cognitive
competencies of the adult, and gradually develops these
competencies by passing through a series of stages of development
discussed hereunder.
Cognitive Development Process
Assimilation – (Latin “ad” - to + “similes”– like) absorb as part of
itself.
The individual acquires information or knowledge by which
experiences are integrated into existing schemes
Accommodation – a process of creating a new scheme by
modifying an existing scheme after an individual’s interaction with
the environment.
Stages of Development Based on Pageant’s Theory
1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (birth to 2yeas) – learning is
based on sense perception
-
The child is unaware of his environment
This stage is also characterized by the following events that happen to
the child
A. Primary circular reaction – repeated actions centered on the
infant’s body.
Ex. thumb sucking
B. Intentional Behavior – the child repeats actions so as to
prolong interesting/pleasant events
Ex. Crying to attract attention
C. Object Permanence – knowledge of the existence of objects in
his environment, independent of the child’s actions emerges such
that the child start to search for missing objects like toy’s etc.
D. Representation – allows the child to seek necessary solution
through manipulating of internal symbols instead of physical objects.
Ex. trial and error to solve the problem, manipulation of toys
2. PRE-OPERATIONS STAGE (2 to 7 years)
-
Emergence of language skills
-
Interprets experiences
-
Words become symbols for objects
The child thinking is egocentric – centered on himself.
Ex. The child is fond of telling tall tales to get the attention of
everyone the child’s thinking is irreversible – inability to rethink
Ex. Coins are preferred than a 100 peso bill. The child is incapable of
logical thinking
3. CONCRETE OPERATIONS (7- 11 years old)
-
Elementary school years
-
The child begins to learn symbol and concepts, time, space,
shape, size etc.
-
The child’s thinking becomes more logical and systematic
Major Events
Conservation – is the ability of the child to conceptualize the
retention and preservation of the same quantity under various
transformations
Ex. Four .50 coins – Php2.00
1kg. nail = 1kg. Cotton
Reversibility- is the ability of the child to understand the
completion of certain operations in reverse order but ending up the
same.
Ex. Ability to understand that ice and water vapor are the different
states of water
4. FORMAL OPERATION (11 to 16 years old – high school
years)
-
develops logical reasoning skill
-
decreases egocentricity
THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
This theory was advocated by Laurence Kohlberg, who believed
that as Children grow they pass through several levels of moral
development consisting of different stages which serve as the bases of
their behavior as adults.
LEVEL ONE (Pre-Conventional Morality)
-
Children’s judgements are based on external criteria
Right and wrong are according to standards set by
authorities
-
Stage one
-
Behavior is based on reward and punishment
-
Wrong behavior results to punishment
-
Right behavior results to reward and praises
LEVEL TWO (Conventional Morality)
-
Children’s judgement is based on Groups expectations
-
Stage two
-
Actions are based on self-satisfaction
-
Helps those who help him
-
Stage three
-
Desirable behavior pleases others
-
Conform to rules of the group to remain accepted
-
Stage four
-
What is right is what is accepted
-
Conforms to the rules to avoid disapproval
LEVEL THREE (Post-Conventional Morality)
-
The individual recognizes arbitrariness (absoluteness)
of social and legal conventions
-
The individual develops concept of moral values
-
Stage five
-
Laws are obligatory (dura lex sed lex)
-
The concept of right and wrong is governed by reasons
-
Stage six
-
Morality is based on mutual respect
-
The individual conforms to the rules to avoid self
condemnation
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Refers to the idea that no two individuals are exactly the same or
alike, as such, the teacher should make it a point tutelage.
Factors Affecting Individual Differences
Although it is said that all men are created equal, yet individuals
do vary and differ from one another in terms of:
1.
Age differences and personal adjustments
An infant cannot perform the tasks of elementary school pupils
though the child is intelligent.
2. Sex differences
-
Boys are given roles in the society different from the girls
- Boys are characterized by fearlessness, aggressiveness
and
are expected to perform burdensome activities
- Girls
neatness,
on
the
other
hand
are
characterized
simplicity and for being affectionate
by
3. Family and community back ground
4. Physical
conditions Physical
the learning process
ailment/defects
5. Emotional response and attitudes (E.Q.)
6. Mental abilities and specific aptitudes (I.Q.)
Mental Age (determined by a test)
affect
I.Q. =-----------------------------------x 10
Chronological age (actual age)
Lewis Terman of England is considered as the father of Modern IQ
Test.
I.Q.
Descriptions
Persons
140+
Genius
.25% more males than
females
130-139
Very Superior
.75%
120-129
Superior
6.00%
110 – 119
A bove Average
13.00%
90-109
Average (Normal)
60.00%
80-89
Below Average
13.00%
70-79
Dull (borderline)
6.00%
50-69
Moron
.75%
49 below
Imbecile/Idiot
.25% more males than
females (
(Feeble minded)
Moron – capable of caring for his own needs
- has mentality of a 12 year old child
Idiot – has a mental capacity of a 4 years old child
-has a short life span
Imbecile – can be taught concerning his personal needs
-
has a mental capacity of an eight year old child
THE LEARNING PROCESS
Learning is a mental activity wherein knowledge, skills, habits,
attitudes and ideals are acquired, retained and utilized, resulting in
the progressive adaptation and modification of conduct and behavior
(Bugelskie, 1956).
In so far as the behaviorists are concerned, learning is any change in
the behavior of the organism.
TYPES OF LEARNING
Learning is classified into:
Sensory-motor – understanding of the external world through
sense perception.
Development of movements as a reaction to stimuli.
1. Cognitive – rational/mental/intellectual development
Association learning – acquisition and retention of facts and
information Establishing relationships among ideas and experiences
Problem-solving – overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere
with the attainment of a goal.
2. Affective (Appreciative) involves acquisition of attitudes and
interest as well as experiences that will lift the individual above the
tangible values associated with everyday life.
Aesthetic appreciative experiences – obtained in the field of
music, art and literature
Intellectual appreciative experiences – based on the premise
that all learning has emotional correlates
THEORIES OF LEARNING
The following are the major theories of learning (Morris L. Bigge,
1964):
1. STIMULUS-RESPONSE
(S-R)
OR
ASSOCIATION
THEORY – states that for every stimulus there is a corresponding
response.
Connectionism is the theory under S-R, formulated by Edward
Lee Thorndike in 1900.
It assumes that human activities are based on the association or
connection between stimulus and response.
It is the belief that all mental processes consist of the functioning of
native and acquired connections between the situations and response.
It includes the three fundamental laws of learning:
a.
Law of Readiness – when an individual is prepared to
respond or act, allowing him to do so is satisfying, whereas
preventing him would be annoying.
b.
Law Exercise – constant repetition of a response
strengthens its connection with the stimulus, while disuse of
a response weakens it.
c.
Law of Effect – learning is strengthened if it results in
satisfaction, but it weakened if it leads to vexation or
annoyance.
2. THEORY OF CONDITIONING states that the process of
learning consists of the acquisition of new ways of reacting to stimuli
developed through attaching new stimuli to established modes of
behavior.
There are two types of conditioning theory:
Classical Conditioning is based on the experiment on the reaction of
the dog conducted by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, who
postulated that conditioning consist of eliciting a response by means
of a previously neutral or inadequate stimulus.
Principles under Classical Conditioning
a.
Adhesive principle – a response is attached to every
stimulus. For every stimulus, there is always a
corresponding response.
b.
Excitation – also known as the law of acquisition. It
occurs when a preciously neutral stimulus gain the ability of
eliciting the response.
c.
Extinction – also known as unlearning and occurs when
the conditioned response is no longer elicited by the
conditioned stimulus because the conditioned stimulus is
frequently presented without the paired stimulus.
d.
Stimulus generalization – happens when the
conditional response is also elicited by other stimuli similar
to the conditioned stimulus.
e.
Spontaneous recovery – happens when a conditioned
response which does not appear for some time but re-occurs
without need of further conditioning.
Operant Conditioning is a theory based on the experiment conducted
by Burrhus Frederick Skinner on a hungry rat.
He believed that since an organism tends in the future to do what it
was doing at the time of reinforcement, one can train that organism
either by presenting him a reward or punishment as a consequence of
his action.
Feedback Principle – states that an organism’s responses maybe
reinforced by presentation or removal. In other words, rewards and
punishments.
3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY is based on the studies of
Richard Wallace and Albert Bandura concerning a group of
children who were exposed to three models in films.
The first model was rewarded, the second was punished while
nothing was done to the third model.
Children were then asked to choose among these models.
The children chose the first model, then the no consequence/model
and the last choice was the model who was punished.
Based on this experiment, it was viewed that children’s learning
process involves observation and imitation.
4. COGNITIVE FIELD THEORY – otherwise known as Field
Theory describes how a person gain understanding of himself and his
world in a situation where his self and his environment compose a
totality of mutually interdependent, coexisting events. This theory
defines learning as a relativistic process by which a learner develops
new insights and changes the old ones.
Types of Cognitive Field Theory
a. Insight Leaning – a basic sense of, or feeling for
relationships. It is used to denote the meaning of a matter, idea or
point.
The Insights of a person are not equated with his consciousness or
awareness of his ability to describe them verbally; their essence is a
sense of, or feeling for pattern in a life situation.
This theory is based on the experiment conducted by Wolfgang
Kohler on the chimpanzee.
Kohler postulated that the more intelligent the organism and the
more experiences he has the more capable he is of gaining higher
insight.
B .Vector and Topological Theory. Basically, this is derived from
the terms vector which means a quantity that has magnitude and
direction and topology which is concerned with properties of
geometric configuration which are unaltered by elastic deformation.
As a learning theory, it was advance by Kurt Lewin and states that
individuals exist on a field of forces within his environment that move,
change and give him a degree of stability and substance or define his
behavior.
The behavior of an individual is a result of forces operating
simultaneously within his environment and life space.
C .Gestalt Learning. The word gestalt is a German term which
means a structure, configuration or pattern of physical, biological, or
psychological phenomena so integrated as to constitute a functional
unit with properties not derivable by summation of its parts.
It claims that the whole is more that the sum of its parts and the
whole gets its meaning from its parts. Gestalt view learning as a
change in knowledge, skills, attitudes, values or beliefs and may or
may not have anything to do with the change in overt behavior.
It further claims that one does not learn by doing; for learning to
occur, doing must be accompanied by realization of consequences.
Thus, learning occurs as a result of or through experiences.
Learning, therefore, involves the catching, and generalization of
insights which often are acquired first on a nonverbal level or the
level of feeling and may be verbalized later or may not be verbalized
at all.
D .Instrumental Conceptualism is the term applied to the theory
of learning as advocated by Jerome Bruner, who believed that the
acquisition of whatever form of knowledge is always a dynamic and
interactive process because the learner purposively participates in the
process of knowledge acquisition who selects, structures, retains and
transform information.
Bruner argued that learning is thinking and thinking is the process
whereby one makes sense out of the various and somehow unrelated
facts through a process called conceptualization or categorization.
(Bigge, 1980)
Subsumption Theory
This theory is based on the works of David Paul Ausubel (19182008), an American psychologist born in New York and an ardent
follower of Jean Piaget
Ausubel’s theory is concerned with how individuals learn large
amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in
a school setting.
According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of
superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that
occur during the reception of information.
He considered that a primary process in learning is subsumption
in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing
cognitive structure on a substantive non-verbatim basis.
Cognitive structure represent the residue of all learning experiences;
forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their
individuality identity.
A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use
of advance organizers; “These organizers are introduced in advance
of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of
abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive
content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the
basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating and interrelating the
material they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the
substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing the
organization strength of cognitive structure.
Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from
overviews and summaries which simply emphasizer key ideas and are
presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of
the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new
learning material and existing related ideas.
Ausubel emphasizes that subsumption involves reorganization of
existing cognitive structure not the development of new structures as
constructivist theories suggest. Ausubel was apparently influenced by
the work of Piaget on cognitive development.
Conditions of Leaning
This theory stipulates that there are several different types or
levels of learning.
The significance of these classifications is that each different type
requires different types of instruction.
This theory of learnings is based on the work of Robert Mills Gagñe
(1916 – 2002), an American educational psychologist best known for
his “Condition of Learning “Gagñe pioneered the science of
instruction during WWII for the air force with pilot training.
Later he went on to develop a series of studies and works that helped
codify what is now considered to be good instruction. He also was
involved in applying concepts of instructional theory to the design of
computer based training and multimedia based learning.
Gagñe work is sometimes summarized as the Gagñe Assumption.
The assumption is that different types of learning exist, and that
different instructional conditions are most likely to bring about these
different types of learning
Gagñe identifies five major categories of learning: verbal
information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and
attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for
each type of learning.
For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a
chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn
attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or
persuasive arguments.
Gagñe suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be
organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus
recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of
terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application,
and problem solving.
The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites
that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level.
Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a
learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the
sequencing of instruction.
In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and
corresponding cognitive processes:
1.
Gaining attention (reception) – Example – show variety of
geometric shapes generated triangles
2.
Informing learners of the objective (expectancy) –
Example – pose question: “What is a rectangle?”
3.
Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) - Example –
review definitions of rectangle
4.
Presenting the stimulus (selective perception) – Example –
give definition of rectangle
5.
Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) –
example – show example of how to create a rectangle
6.
Eliciting performance (responding) – Example – ask
students to create 5 different examples
7.
Providing feedback (reinforcement) - check all examples as
correct/incorrect
8.
Assessing performance (retrieval) – Example – check all
examples as correct/incorrect
9.
Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization) – show
pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals.
TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Transfer of learning occurs when a person’s learning in one
situation influences his learning and performance in other situations
THEORIES
LEARNING
ABOUT
TRANSFER
OF
The following are the major theories concerning transfer of learning:
Mental disciple discipline. This theory asserts that education is
largely a matter of training or discipline the mind with vigorous
mental exercises in the classics, grammar, logic mathematics, and
science on the assumption that such training makes a person equally
effective in all areas where a given faculty is employed.
Apperception is a process of relating new ideas or mental states to
a store of old ones. Memories stored in the subconscious and brought
into the conscious enable one to interpret a given experience.
New ideas are learned through their being related to what is already
in the appreciative mass. Apperception, therefore, consists of
becoming consciously aware of an idea and assimilating it with other
ideas which are already acquired.
In so far as this theory is concerned, transfer of learning is completely
a matter of mechanistic storage of ideas in aninert mind.
Identical elements is the theory of transfer of learning that is
advocated by connectionism. It states that transfer of learning is
facilitated in a second situation to the extent that it contains identical
elements or factors which occurred in an earlier learning situation.
Among these identical elements of practical importance are
associations including ideas about aims and methods of general
principles and associations involving basic factual experiences which
involve length, color and number which are repeated in different
combination (Thorndike, 1913.)
Identical elements may take the form of content, procedures, facts,
actions, attitudes, techniques or principles. This theory implies that a
school should list the aspects of situations that are important to the
child even out of the school or in later courses and teach the pupils to
cope with different identical experiences or situations in real life.
Generalization. This theory was advocated by Charles Judd who
said that there are two levels or kinds of knowledge – wrote learning
or memorization without any meaning and generalized knowledge
with many intellectual associations.
He believed that it should always be in the form which makes
generalizations possible. Basically, generalization is a statement or
understanding of relationships, a principle, a rule or a law.
Generalization is another name for relating experiences in such a
manner that what is gained at one point will redound to the
advantage of the individual in many spheres of thoughts and actions
(Judd, 1939).
Furthermore, for this theory, transfer of learning is the sensed
relationship between the elements of the situations and it is
automatic. Generalization is expected to spring into action whenever
the environment sets the stage for its occurrence.
Gestalt theory of transfer. The Gestaltist advanced the idea of
transposition or the belief that when transfer of learning occurs it is
in the form of generalizations, concepts, or insights which are
developed in one learning situation and employed in other situations.
For them, transfer of learning is best achieved when a person is in the
best frame of mind and he is aware of the meaning of the situations
and experiences as well as their practical application to his daily life
activities.
MOTIVATION
Motivation is derived from the Latin word “movere” which means to
move. It is the stimulation of action toward a particular objective
where previously there was little or no attraction toward that goal. It
is the process of arousing, maintaining and controlling interest. This
could explain why the individual always takes what he perceives to be
the shortest route to his goals.
TYPES OF MOTIVATION
Motivation is either intrinsic or extrinsic.
Intrinsic motivation refers to the inherent or internal stimulus of
the individual to learn. It is based on the natural desire of the
individual to satisfy his drives and motives without the need for
reward and punishment.
Extrinsic motivation is based on incentives which are artificial
devices which are employed to evoke attitude conductive to learning.
Rewards and praises like medals, good grades, prizes, scholarships
and the like as well as punishments are good examples of this form of
motivation