1. Biography
2. Fundamental Clarification
3. 1. Cosmological "constant";
its
variability
4. 2. Formula for the
cosmological "constant"
5. 3. Gravitational and quantum
waves
6. 4. Respective fields of action of
Quantum Mechanics and gravity
7. 5. Space as the fundamental
measure of the Universe
8. 6. Quantum Cosmological.
Existence of time
9. 7. Chronos, minimum unit of
time
10. 8.
Planck length as minimum
length and its inverse
11. 9. Modulus with minimum
limits and maximum limits
12. 10. Abstract space as the
original entity produced. Pre Big
Bang
13. 11. Parallel Universe of
antimatter
14. 12. Masses of particles; mass
of the Universe
15. 13. Particles and antiparticles
16. 14. Black holes
17. 15. Size of the center of black
holes
18. 16. Interchange of matterantimatter; duplication of matter
19. 17. Hawking radiation
20. 18.
Life of known proton.
Existence of fourth type of
neutrino
21. 19. Mass of electron neutrino.
Heavy partners. Massless photon
22. 20. Exact value of constants
since the Big Bang
23. 21. Mass as a fundamental
property of particles of matter
24. 22. Symmetry about spin in
particles. Code of string
Universes
25. 23. Process to obtain the
masses of particles
26. 24. Nature only needs one
family. Time as natural
logarithmic
27. 25.
Four forces united at the
first chronos
28. 26. Higgs bosons fields' mass
and lengths
29. 27. Two scales for particles of
force
30. 28. Minkowski-Einstein
space-time
31. 29. Division and formulas of
both scales
32. 30. Approximate values of the
Universes' limits
33. 31. Extradimensional
geometry. Spatial correction
factors
34. 32. String theory
35. 33. Exact values of our
Universe's limits
36. 34.
37. 35.
Time correction factor
Order of the cycle of the
Universes
38. 36. Evolution of the first
Universe due to time correction
factor
39. 37. Differences between space,
time, and dimension
40. 38. Frontier dimensional
Universes
41. 39. Minimum wedge of
dimensional modulus
42. 40. Differences between
logarithmical and arithmetical
values
43. 41. Reason to complete 8th
Universe with 9th Universe
44. 42.
10th Universe as a string
Universe
45. 43. Membranes in M-theory.
Odd and even numbered
Universes
46. 44. Development of the 12th
space-time Universe
47. 45. Formation of moduli. Big
crush. Alternating cycles. Speed
of light
48. 46. Hyperbolic function in the
Universe. Cozero and cofinity
49. 47. Origin and destiny of our
Universe
50. 48. Expansion of our
Universe. Cosmological variable
and dark energy
51. 49. Avoiding zero in Physics
52. 50.
Fractal dimension. Big
Crush
53. 51. Dimensional modulus with
maximum and minimum limits
54. 52. Time as the only
dimension in the first Universe
55. 53. Dipoles and monopoles.
Magnetic monopoles
56. 54. Positive and negative
monopoles in the first Universe
57. 55. First event and measures
58. 56. Entropy. Four laws for the
existence of oscillating Universe
59. 57. Big Bang and Big Crunch.
Entropy used to form spacial
dimensions
60. 58. Process in the 1st Universe
when the 2nd is reached
61. 59.
Process that forms
dimensional modulus
62. 60. Development of Universes
(graph)
63. 61. Measures in the spacetime Universes (1 to 8)
64. 62. Time of our Universe
65. 63. Increase in the mass of the
Universe. Zero net energy
increase
66. 64. Footing and foundation of
the Universe
67. 65. Pre Big Bang scenario.
Wormholes
68. 66. Hyperbolic functions of
the Universe. Inflection point
69. 67. Causes of the inflation of
our Universe
70. 68.
Curvature and inflation of
our Universe
71. 69. Mass and space.
Uncertainty principle in mass of
particles
72. 70. Cosmological "constant"
and density of vacuum
73. 71. Values of π minus and π
plus
74. 72. Known and unknown
scales; their division in 4π cycles
75. 73. Hook relation in k-12π
76. 74. Range of known particles
77. 75. Masses of unknown
particles
78. 76. Mass of the neutronio
79. 77. Supposed masses of the
heavier scale
80. 78.
Mathematical relation
between Higgs and cosmic scales
81. 79. Physical relation between
Higgs and cosmic scales
82. 80. First scale; formula and
results
83. 81. Second scale; formula and
results
84. 82. Minimum and maximum
mass for particles of matter and
Universe
85. 83. Similar procedure to get
masses in both scales
86. 84. Logarithmical way of
nature
87. 85. Normal Higgs fields and
spontaneous symmetry breaking
88. 86.
Higgs bosons and their
function
89. 87. Modified Higgs fields
90. 88. Standard Model's
propositions about Higgs boson
91. 89. Instability of Higgs bosons
92. 90. Higgs bosons act with π
plus
93. 91. Difference between Planck
and electroweak scales
94. 92. Level of electromagnetic
force
95. 93. Microcosmos range;
detailed graphs
96. 94. Order of appearance of
particles of matter; hook relation
97. 95. Backwards time travel.
Wormholes between Universes
98. 96.
Accelerators as time
machines. Arrows of time
99. 97. Axions doesn't exist.
Supposed mass equal to
neutrino's mass
100. 98. Theoretical proton decay
time
101. 99. Scale of heavier particles
102. 100. Four massed neutrinos.
Neutronio as dark matter
103. 101. Cosmological
"constant" decrease in time. Its
energy increases
104. 102. Four kinds of energy.
Mass increase but no net change
105. 103. Experimental value of Λ
and the age of the Universe
106. 104.
Importance of
microcosmos time
107. 105. Mass of the Universe
increases with time
108. 106. Relation of space and
time with Λ
109. 107. Restrictions of the
Universe
110. 108. Higgs fields equations
111. 109. Higgs field and its
relation with λp
112. 110. Value of Α, constant in
Higgs formulas
113. 111. Neutrinos interaction
with Higgs field. Particles and
gravity
114. 112. Higgs mechanism
symmetry. Superpartners and Z,
available room
115. 113. Energy of Higgs fields.
Ranges of Higgs length
116. 114. Values of Higgs fields.
Higgs mechanism and its relation
117. 115. Cosmological "constant"
and Ω
118. 116. Natural logarithms in
time calculations
119. 117. Variability of Hubble
constant
120. 118. Dark matter
121. 119. Oscillating Universes,
Quantum multiverse,
Gravitational Universe
122. 120. Age of the Universe
123. 121. Astronomical and
physical concepts that need to be
elucidated
124. 122. FTL cosmic space.
Einstein barrier
125. 123. Dimensions of the string
126. 124. Graphs of possible
representations of dimensional
modulus
127. 125. String theory and size 0
128. 126. Dark energy
129. 127. Primordial black holes
130. 128. Gravity, gravitational
waves, and multidimensional
Universe
131. 129. Mass concentration in
Big Bang and medium black
holes
132. 130. Penrose process.
Creation of virtual particles
133. 131.
Circular motion limit,
where particle-antiparticle pair
is divided
134. 132. Arithmetical calculation
on the increase of mass
135. 133. Gravity in black holes.
Constants and variables of
nature
136. 134. Four energies of the
Universe
137. 135. Temperature and mass
of a black hole
138. 136. Human and natural
colliders
139. 137. Quantum foam and sub
Planck distances
140. 138. Vibrational patterns and
extremely heavy particles
141. 139.
142. 140.
Fabric of space-time
Physical impossibilities
due to the nature of the
gravitational wave
143. 141. Parallel Universe and
interchange of matter-antimatter
144. 142. Antimatter; production
of antimatter
145. 143. Gravity and the parallel
Universe
146. 144.Gravitational relation
between extradimensional
Universes
147. 145. Dual nature of all
forces; gravity
148. 146. Fruitless search for
superpartners
149. 147.
Symmetry among forces
in the Standard Model and
String Theory
150. 148. Differences between
masses of known particles
151. 149. Reciprocal relation
between minimum and
maximum space
152. 150. Grand Unification scale
153. 151. Gravitational scale and
GUT theory; Higgs bosons
154. 152. Higgs weak boson
155. 153. Information is never lost
156. 154. Natural and artificial
wormholes
157. 155. Fundamental bit of
information
158. 156.
Big Bang, fundamental
bit of information. Prequarks
159. 157. Variety in the masses of
particles
160. 158. Masses of particles;
Uncertainty Principle
161. 159. Age of our Universe and
bits of information
162. 160. Prequarks forming
leptons and quarks
163. 161. Equations and
combinations of prequarks
164. 162. Prequarks and different
dimensions
165. 163. D'branes in String
Theory. Ekpyrotic model of the
Universe
166. 164. Nature's efficiency
167. 165.
168. 166.
Aether
Separation of Theory of
Relativity and Quantum
Mechanics
169. 167. Information in String
Theory that need to be rescued
170. 168. Compactified space in
String Theory
171. 169. Vacuum with limits and
without them. Limit of our
Universe
172. 170. Early Universe. Dark
matter
173. 171. Functions of black holes.
Laws of thermodynamics
174. 172. Dark energy and
cosmological "constant"
175. 173.
Minimum entropy at
Big Bang and Big Crunch
176. 174. Absurdities in Physics:
infinities and singularities
177. 175. Differential geometry
178. 176. Curvature of spheres
179. 177. Calabi-Yau, Euler
characteristics
180. 178. Calabi-Yau;
heavypartners
181. 179. πminus, πplus; lighter
and heavier scales; hook union
182. 180. M theory. Dimensional
manifolds. Standard model in 8
dimensions
183. 181. Black holes as dark
matter
184. 182.
Eigenstates of the
Universe. Kaluza-Klein graviton
185. 183. Sizes of dimensions.
Gravitational experiments
186. 184. Masses of particles and
in cosmic scale. Broglie
wavelength
187. 185. Influence from
extradimensional Universe
188. 186. Impossibility to see
more or fewer spatial dimensions
than 3
189. 187. Cosmic rays and heavy
scale
190. 188. Smooth phase
transition. Higgs bosons
191. 189. Hierarchy problem.
Particles in LHC range
192. 190.
Standard Model.
Neutrinos
193. 191. Standard Model and the
light and heavy scale
194. 192. Gravitational waves.
Hyperforce and prequarks
195. 193. Hypergravity's sphere of
influence. Heavy protons
196. 194. Fundamental
mathematical formulas:
Einstein's and Euler's
197. 195. Dimensional moduli in 8
dimensions. Valence of Universes
198. 196. Substructure of 3 virtual
strings. Hypergravity. Big Bang
199. 197. Gravitational and
electromagnetic waves moving at
c
200. 198.
Impossibilities in
macroscopical time travel and
messaging
201. 199. Traveling using
wormholes
202. 200. Curvature of the
Universe. Different kinds of
Universes
203. 201. End of the Universe
204. 202. Stability of proton.
Unstable heavy proton
205. 203. Gates to our parallel
Universe
206. 204. Prequarks and three
virtual strings. Gravity and
hypergravity
207. 205. Spherical "volume" and
spatial dimensions
208. 206.
Fraction of package of
the Universes
209. 207. Time symmetrical
dynamical determinism
210. 208. Discontinuity in energy
and matter
211. 209. Jumped and quantified
space. Sequence of Universes
212. 210. Table of dimensional
Universes
213. 211. Code of string Universes
214. 212. Coherent sequences of
Universes. Dimensional packages
215. 213. Known scale and
separation of particles
216. 214. Masses of known quarks
217. 215. Energy in Big Bang and
present day Universe
218. 216.
219. 217.
Hubble "constant"
Static limit.
Schwarzschild radius or event
horizon
220. 218. Supposed composition
of Higgs weak boson
221. 219. Symmetry breakdown
gives mass to particles
222. 220. Two scales of Higgs
fields (graphs)
223. 221. Quarks in k-11π and k12π
224. 222. Standard Model and
GUT's scales of particles; hook
union
225. 223. Opera neutrino anomaly
at CERN
226. 224.
Experimental neutrinos
in supernova 1987A
227. 225. Four solutions of the
mass and speed formula
228. 226. Restriction of light
speed limit on matter, not space
229. 227. Neutrinos in FTL
motion; particle-antiparticle
pairs
230. 228. Impossibility to propel
large objects at FTL speeds
231. 229. Quantum processes
232. 230. Wrong position to apply
Quantum Mechanics to
macrocosmos
233. 231. Quantum Mechanics,
time. Tachyons
234. 232.
Advanced and retarded
waves
235. 233. Both waves and their
relation
236. 234. Quantum connections
237. 235. Particle-antiparticle
pairs, advanced-retarded waves
238. 236. Velocity and mass
increase (table). Limits to
maximum velocity
239. 237. Range of maximum
velocity of muon neutrinos
240. 238. Neutrinos; reactions.
Two ways to our parallel
Universe
241. 239. FTL neutrinos;
impossiblity of time traveling
and signaling
242. 240.
Quantum connection.
FTL neutrinos
243. 241. Possibility to obtain
FTL leptons in accelerators
244. 242. Impossibility for
Quantum connection in
macroscopic objects
245. 243. Experiment with
electrons in SLAC
246. 244. Nobel prize in Physics
2011
247. Glossary
248. Contents of Sections
249. Bibliography
Someone said: “We have traveled a lot, and you are barely starting”.
The other replied: “Remember that in your long journey, you also started
with a first step”.
The first asked him again: “What if you are in the wrong path?
And the other answered: “My mistake wouldn’t be as relevant as yours. I
have traveled a lot less than you”.
Anonymous.
Clarifying Concepts in
Physics
Copyright © by Armando Bukele Kattán
All rights reserved according to International and
Panamerican Conventions.
Includes 244 sections, considering new concepts and
ideas in theoretical physics. Moreover, bibliographical
references, index of contents, and glossary of new
scientific terms and concepts used in this book.
First printed edition - June 2012
First e-book edition - January 2013
armandobukele@icloud.com
Biography
Dr. Armando Bukele Kattán.
Salvadoran
Born: December 16, 1944.
Armando Bukele Kattán obtained his undergraduate degree and his
doctorate in Industrial Chemistry from the University of El Salvador,
reaching an average of 98.9%, the highest score in the history of the
University since its foundation in 1841.
He has other University studies in philosophy, journalism, chemical
engineering, physics, pharmacology, and history. Of well and persistent
read, he is a permanent autodidact, reading about different topics, an
average between 1200~1500 pages daily for 50 years. President of
Synthesis of Central America, a research laboratory with chemistry patents
in several countries: Canada (1), India (1), China (1), Brazil (1), USA (4),
and El Salvador (8).
He is also a well-respected member of the Salvadoran community. He
receives requests for multiple interviews, and is a political analyst and
opinion leader. His program, Clarifying Concepts, is one of the most
commented TV programs in El Salvador, with over 580 public appearances.
“Imagination is more important than knowledge”
Albert Einstein
If somebody can’t explain a theory in simple and
nontechnical terms, then he doesn’t really understand
it.
Ernest Rutherford
The purpose of this book is not to detail old concepts; only new concepts, to
choose the answer of doubtful items, and to show a new possible way of
study. It not only contains answers, but also tips, probabilities, and
possibilities; and sometimes, only ideas that need deeper studies, or even,
some of them to be discarded.
(From section 214)
In the memory of my father and my mother, Humberto Bukele and Victoria
Kattán de Bukele, with permanent love. Both are living together in a more
evolved Universe, where the fourth spatial dimension is developed.
To my sons and daughters, whose moments I've spent talking with them,
about our ideas and projects, constitute an invaluable time.
Yamile Victoria.
Yamil Alejandro.
Dayana Marilyn.
Emerson Gerardo.
Nayib Armando.
Fátima Mariam.
Karim Alberto.
Yusef Alí.
Ibrajim Antonio.
Karime Victoria.
Fundamental Clarification
This is a textual copy of my manuscript, with no review by other scientists,
specialized in specific terms; nor it contains a proper review from experts in
the English language. This is not a complete theory, neither it has only
proven concepts.
It has new ideas, tips, possibilities, and probabilities. Besides having new
and clear concepts, with mathematical results; it has some ideas that need to
follow a deeper study, while it has others that will need to be changed, or
even discarded.
We considered that it was necessary to print this introductory book right
now, because it’s better to consider new ideas in physics, and to try to find
the solutions of the physical incongruences first, before developing
beautiful mathematical concepts, that are difficult to apply in the “real”
world. Right now, we prefer to write down new ideas, with some solutions.
Other solutions will come later. We hope to publish the second edition in
the near future; a new version, properly reviewed, corrected, and extended.
Our position at this moment is not to change the Physics; only, to try to
change the minds of some smart physicists so they can follow new paths.
There are too many scientists researching the same things, with no results.
The acknowledgments will be included in the next edition.
1. Cosmological "constant"; its variability
The cosmological constant is a real entity. It existed since the beginning
of our Universe, and will continue to exist until the final destiny of itself;
but with only one, crucial difference. It is not constant; it is variable. It
has been changing continuously since the beginning of time, decreasing
its force.
Although its force increases with the distance, that is only true in a
specific time. This is important to specify, because with more time,
means longer space, and so, we could make a wrong assumption: to
consider increasing the cosmological variable proportionally with time.
As we said before, the effect is the opposite.
The cosmological variable is not, never was, and never will be, zero. In
fact, the cosmological variable is the cause of the “dark energy” and can
be interpreted as kind of overall energy stored in the vacuum of space,
and hence its value could be theoretically and experimentally obtained.
But such calculations and measurements lead to an enormous difference.
Observations show that the cosmological variable, according to quantum
mechanical fluctuations in the vacuum of empty space, tend to generate a
nonzero cosmological constant whose value is some 120 orders of
magnitude larger than experiments show. The explanation about this
colossal difference is simple. Quantum mechanic gravity operates only in
the Big Bang (or in the center of black holes), and the experimental
measure is realized in present time. The cosmological variable decreases
with time, in inverse relation to the square of the corresponding cosmic
radius.
R2 Planck (Quantum Mechanic Gravity)
R2 Present time (Approximately 1.5 x 109 lightyears)
RPlanck
RPresent
≅ 1.616 x 10 cm
≅ 1.419 x 10 cm
-33
28
Difference: (1.419 x 1028/1.616 x 10-33)2
≅ 7.71 x 10
121
times
This explains the mismatch between theoretical and experimental results.
2.
Formula
"constant"
for
the
cosmological
The former calculation was correct, even if we didn’t use the complete
formula, because in a ratio, equal quantities are
eliminated. Nevertheless, the cosmological variable(the actual
cosmological constant of Physics ) spreads in six directions (3 spatial
dimension x 2 ways: left–right dimension, back– forth dimension, and
up-down dimension). Its formula is
very simple:
Λ=6/R2
And so, we can mathematically obtain the exact value of the
cosmological variable at any time, normally approximated (the formula is
exact, but the result is an approximate, since we don’t know the exact age
of the Universe).
≅
ΛPlanck Era 2.30 x1066 cm-2(Quantum Gravity)
Present time 1.5 x 10 10 years.
ΛPresent time 2.98 x10-56 cm-2
≅
≅
The experimental value of the Λ at the present time is 3 x 10-56 cm-2 > Λ,
which accords to our theoretical calculation.
Experimentally, it is impossible to determine if Λ is constant or variable,
because its change is imperceptible in a long period of our arithmetical
time. For example, in a million years from now, the cosmological
variable will diminish in approximately 4 x 10-60, changing only its 60th
decimal place.
However, the change in the cosmological variable was enormous in the
microcosmos era. The definition of Λ describes a force causing matter to
go apart from one another, with an acceleration proportional to their
separation in constant time and independent of their masses.
3. Gravitational and quantum waves
Any particle, or aggregated matter; specifically, all the matter of cosmic
space in any time, or the matter concerning any Higgs field, has two
waves: one quantum wave and one gravitational wave. The product of
both waves is always equivalent to the square of Planck length.
λp2=λQW . λGW
Because Planck is the minimum length that can exist in our Universe, the
only possible way in which both waves can exist together is if they are
equal, with λp length each.
This was only true in the Big Bang, when both waves were equivalent.
When a wave is longer, the other would have to be shorter than Planck
length and that it is physically impossible, even if both have a
mathematical existence. Both waves act totally different. We will explain
this later.
The First Difference:
Quantum waves work on extremely small scales, concerning the
microscopic properties of the Universe, basically, atomic and subatomic
scales. Gravitational waves work on a macroscopic level. Quantum
mechanics, as we all know, act only in the microscopic level.
Particles increase in energy and in mass, when their wavelength is
shorter. In cosmic space, it is the opposite. The energy and mass increase
when the length (radius) is longer. In that way, length is not the adequate
frontier measurement between them. Instead of length, we must use
mass.
Planck mass is the maximum for the quantum wave (particles), but it is
minimum in the cosmic scale.
Consider MPLANCK= ±√((h.c)/G)= ±2.17 x 10-5 g (The signs + and - will be
explained later on.) Right now, we can arrive at a conclusion: both waves
coincide only at Planck mass, and in that moment, the 4 forces are together.
In the other words, particles have only real quantum waves, and cosmic
space has only real gravitational waves.
4. Respective fields of action of Quantum
Mechanics and gravity
We know that on a microscopic level, the Universe operates in ways, so
obscure, that are completely different to familiar everyday scales.
The formulation of quantum mechanics, although quantitatively successful,
doesn’t apply to the true nature of macroscopic reality. The only thing we
know with certainty is that while quantum mechanics absolutely shows us
that a number of basic concepts essential to our understanding of the
microscopic world, they fail to have any meaning in the macroscopic world.
Although it is mathematically exact when our focus leads on the
microscopic realm.
The quantum mechanics framework applies the particles or fields with mass
less than Planck mass. (Approx. 2.17 x 10-5 g or 1.2 x 1019 GeV)
The gravitational framework applies to matter or fields with a mass equal or
heavier than Planck mass.
Both frameworks apply at the same time in the beginning of the Big Bang,
when the Universe had the minimum mass and the first Higgs field had the
maximum mass. It was the moment of equivalent waves.
They also apply in the co–singularity in the center of black holes.
Quantum effects act on the gravitational waves too, but in a different way
that we will explain later.
Particles, their fields, and the three GUT forces have real quantum waves.
Aggregated matter, cosmic space, and the gravitational force have real
gravitational waves and a virtual quantum wave. No particle has a real
gravitational wave, not even in the Big Bang, since Planck mass, when both
waves are real, is the mass of the field, not of the particles. The heaviest
particle is lighter, approximately 4.33 x 10-6 g or 2.4 x 1018 GeV (equivalent
to Planck mass ÷ √(8π)). However, some gravitational effects exist around
this point.
5. Space as the fundamental measure of
the Universe
The fundamental unity of measurements of the Universe is space. All the
other measures are derived from it. Space exists even if matter doesn’t exist.
The initial Big Bang, or better said, our pre-Big Bang scenario is simply
space; in three dimensions of the same size.
The other constants and variables, including time, came later. Space zero or
time zero is to be mistaken, at least, from a physical point of view. At the
“beginning”, the dimensions of space were Planck length, approximately
1.616 x 10-33 cm each.
Sub-Planck distances do not have a physical existence and they are
impossible to reach, even using the best technological equipment possible
in the future. Zero space is an absurd concept and it is the main cause why
ridiculous results, “singularities” or “infinities”, exist in mathematical
calculations. Besides that, it is on sub-Planck distance scales that we
encounter the fundamental incompatibility between General Relativity and
Quantum mechanics. The notion of a smooth spatial geometry, the central
principle of General Relativity, cannot be destroyed by the violent
fluctuations of the quantum world on ultramicroscopic scales, because subPlanck scales don’t exist. In brief, we can say: Planck distance is the
minimum length, and it is the only distance (and its corresponding mass)
when gravity has quantum mechanical effects.
After the first chronos, quantum mechanics and general relativity (quantum
and gravitational waves) took separate ways.
Zero space and zero time don’t exist physically. In first place, nature (or
physical reality) “lives” in a logarithmic space-time, where zero, and its
counterpart ∞, are outside of our physical reality, or even on any physical
existence. Log 0 and ln 0 produce error answers, but its existence is real in
100 or e0. In that way, the formula to get the initial space needs to use ex,
where x is a complex term, and needs to be derived. So, space zero doesn’t
exist, but what about time zero?
6. Quantum Cosmological. Existence of
time
The question about time, is not based in if the Universe had a beginning or
if it will exist forever. Of course, if time exists, there is a beginning, because
the eternal entity has no time. The assumption could be that time began
when the Universe began, but that is not correct. Before the first Big Bang
(we will explain later what we mean with 'first'), the Universe didn’t exist,
or in other terms, it was a vacuum without limits. It was absolute, zero or
infinite space–time. (The complement of zero whole is the infinite whole).
Or the complement of the universal whole is the vacuum whole. This is a
metaphysical or esoteric condition, outside of the physical existence. The
initial appearance of the Universe changed its condition of without limits, to
a condition of “vacuum with limits”. And in that moment, the Universe
began, because space began. The essence of that limit is movement; but at
the beginning, there was no movement, only a tendency to it. With no
movement, velocity didn’t exist and so, time didn’t exist.
What happened with the beginning of time?
When exactly was it?
Einstein said, in a correct way, that space and time are not two separate
entities, both of them are united (forming space-time). But they show
themselves as two different entities, but it was not so at the beginning. At
the beginning, as well as at the last moment of our Universe, space–time
was and will be a compact structure, in a way where both of them have a
similar appearance, and where they meld together. The Minkowski
principle (adapted by Einstein in his theories), is not only a
mathematical artifact, where time is negative space, but a reality, at the
beginning and at the end of the cycle of any Universe, it which we will
explain later, and use in our formulas, in order to see the real effect it has in
all of the cycles of the different dimensional Universes, including ours. In
other words, this is essential, at least at the beginning and at the final steps
of any Universe.
Vanished time is the essential effect of a different kind of “Quantum
Mechanics” applied to a gravitational wave, or macroscopic scale, that
some call “Quantum Cosmological”. We can say that, if in normal
quantum mechanics of the quantum wave, or atomic and subatomic scales,
the uncertainty principle is essential; in quantum cosmological,
macroscopic scale, vanished time is essential in the beginning and in the
final steps of any Universe. If this principle wouldn’t exist, our Universe
wouldn’t exist either. “Quantum Cosmology” vanished time at the extreme
limits of the Universe, or in other words, in those moments, time is simply
meaningless. We can say, with complete security, that in the beginning, in
the Big Bang and close to it, time did not exist. And at a similar condition,
it will not exist in the final steps of our Universe or close to it.
What happened with time in those extreme events? It was converted or (will
be converted) into space, or in other words; was (or will be) completely
amalgamated with space into a single entity. Quantitative effects of this
transformation (time to space), will be explained later.
7. Chronos, minimum unit of time
With this position, time zero didn’t exist, even if it had a beginning.
If the minimum length is Planck length (1.616 x 10-33 cm); the minimum
time, is λp/c, or chronos, and it's equivalent to 5.4 x 10-44 s, approximately.
Some can imagine a sequence, where time starts as space and gradually
acquired its own quality, and became time; or say that, what we know like
time, at the beginning and at the end, had properties we normally associate
with space; or use any other different words.
The essential is that there is no singular origin of time. Time zero doesn’t
exist.
The statement that time “emerges” gradually from space are not only
convenient words, but they are the essential to quantum cosmological
effects. This is completely needed, not only in how the Universe came into
existence, but moreover, without this effect, any Universe would not come
to existence. The mechanism of this effect is not difficult to explain, and we
will show this; in addition to that, it is essential to the existence of former,
present (ours), and future Universes.
The appearance of the Universe was the first event, but not a first
moment.
Since Planck length is the minimum length, a complete continuity of time is
impossible. Minimum time is exactly λp/c=5.39032875 x 10-44 s. If
experiments can´t prove the temporal discontinuity yet, is because
“chronos” of time are pretty brief. Theories involving “chronos” have been
proposed mainly by David Finkelstein, and his position is correct, because
time can not be continuous. Chronos would be like the “atoms of time.”
8. Planck length as minimum length and
its inverse
Planck length is the minimum length (minimum limit), and according to TSymmetry, it has an inverse, corresponding maximum, approximately 1/λp.
That way, when the minimum is shorter, the maximum is (or will be) longer.
According to this position, the only way for the destiny of the Universe to
be infinite is that if it was zero at the beginning.
Both of them, ∞ and 0, are physically wrong. We can call Planck length,
minimum or cozero; and maximum length, cofinity. Zero has a
mathematical existence but it has not a physical one. When a quantity
exists, even if it continuously decreases, it will never reach zero.
If in any physical concept, we change zero size to cozero size, and infinite
to cofinite, we can avoid the wrong results of the conventional theories.
The String theory, although it needs to be modified, correctly proclaims that
the Universe cannot be squeezed to a size shorter than Planck length in any
of its spatial dimensions.
However, even with the Big Bang having a minimum size (and for that
reason the Universe will never be totally flat), physicists still have doubt if
the Universe is flat, elliptical, parabolic, or hyperbolic; and in all of those
possibilities, they don’t know if it will expand forever, or if the expansion
will stop and reverse (Big Crunch). Despite the experimental
observations and mathematical calculations that show that the
Universe will expand forever, it will contract. This paradox has a
solution, that we will explain later.
Right now, we can put the two limits:
➢ Minimum length (Planck, minimum or cozero)
Exactly=1.615979906 x 10-33 cm
➢ Maximum Length (Maximum or cofinity)
Approximately 1/λp 6.1882 x1032 cm
T-symmetry is exactly (α.1)/λp in cm, where the units of α are in cm2, so the
maximum length is around 1032 cm, but we need to use a spatial correction
≅
factor. In the case of our Universe is e-0.75, or 1/e0.75. We need to multiply by
0.472366552, or divide by 2.117000017.
The origin of this factor will be explained later. The maximum length of
our Universe will be exactly, 2.923096699 x 1032 cm.
And so, the time our Universe will close, will be 9.750401051 x1021 s,
which we call "period".
After this time, our Universe (and our parallel Universe of antimatter),
including all the stables particles and the black holes, will be destroyed,
in an enormous and colossal Big Crush (not Big Crunch), that we will
explain later.
9. Modulus with minimum limits and
maximum limits
The former calculations are only true to our Universe of 3 spatial
dimensions + one time dimension. Besides, we need to explain 8 essential
concepts:
In any Universe with several spatial dimensions, all the dimensions
have exactly the same minimum length in the Pre-Big Bang scenario.
If there would be any difference among them, the Universe would be
destroyed, or collapse upon itself.
b) Any Universe with different number of spatial dimensions, has a
different Planck length, and consequently a different maximum length.
The formula is similar, but it uses "n", equivalent in each case to the
number of spatial dimensions.
c) Space is no matter, and in that way, the minimum length always exists,
even if the dimensions are developed. To subtract the number of
dimensions from the dimensional modulus is a mistake. If dimensions
of space are 10, the “Calabi-Yau” form must be 10 and not 6, even if 4
of them are developed. Space is a limit and limit exists, with or without
matter; with or without extended dimensions. In the same way, there
exists an abstract maximum modulus as a counterpart to the minimum
limit modulus, with the same number of dimensions that remain as
maximum limits, even if it doesn’t have any developed dimensions.
Matter will reach them eventually.
We know 4 dimensions are developed right now (3 spatial + 1 time);
but considering 10 to be the dimensions of space, the relation would
not be 6 curled and 4 extended, but 10 minimum, 4 extended and 10
maximum.
Just as in quantum mechanics, Special, and General theory of
Relativity; when we talk about space, and specially about “abstract
space”, we require dramatic changes in our form of thinking, and a
a)
drastic revision of our concepts. There are enormous differences
between matter and space.
A curled limit? A limit disappearing because it is extending? Heat
destroying abstract space?, etc. Definitively there is much knowledge,
but we need more imagination and a change to our normal reasoning.
d) It is supposed that space has 10 dimensions; but it has only 8 (7
spatial dimensions + 1 time dimension). Seven dimensions is not an
esoteric idea, it is a physical reality that we will explain further on.
In that way, the mathematical sequence would be:
8 maximum-4 extended-8 minimum and not 4 extended- 4 curled.
e) It is impossible to draw all the 8 dimensions of the minimum modulus
of space in an arithmetical form. They have different lengths and the
difference is around 1010 times a dimension to the next.
We need to use logarithmical scales, preferably natural logarithms (ln).
f) Using logarithmic scale, we can even draw the modulus of maximum
limits. Both moduli are inverse. In “Planck modulus”, fewer
dimensions means longer length. In the maximum modulus, more
dimensions means longer length.
g) It is a mistake to count the dimensions one by one, because the
dimensions are different among Universes. In our Universe, we have 3
spatial dimensions of the same length: one, two and three; but they are
different to the dimensions of one or two dimensional Universes. In
that way, the number of dimensions is not 7, but 28 spatial dimensions,
equivalent to 0+1+2+3+4+5+6+7=28.
The time dimension is also space (-1), because time is negative space.
That is a quantum cosmological effect. This is fundamental, especially
in the Universe with 1 space-time dimension (zero spatial dimension +
time). It was the first Big Bang.
h) The way to draw the moduli (Planck and Maximum) depends on the
system chosen. We will draw different forms later, and will explain the
concepts and the mathematical sense used in each.
10. Abstract space as the original entity
produced. Pre Big Bang
As we wrote before, the different concepts of space and matter, like
quantum mechanics, special, and general relativity, require us to open our
minds and to change dramatically our point of view.
Space is not matter. The material conditions, forces, mass, energy, and in
general, every constant and variable, is derived from it; and not, in the
inverse way. For example: gravity is not derived from entropy, both of them
are derived from space. Is the same thing, like: salted or salty. No one is
derived from the other one. Both of them are derived from salt.
In that way, abstract space is the original entity produced. It is only
limits.
For example, space exists with matter or without matter, but matter can not
exist without space. When we are talking about abstract space, we are
referring to the primordial space, existing alone, with no matter in existence
yet.
When matter appears, fundamental constants appear (G, c, ℏ). A
relationship exits between normal space (named simply space) and matter.
In short, not only can space stretch and shrink, it can be bent and distorted.
One of the best physicists in the history of Humanity, John Wheeler, many
times said, describing gravity. “Mass grips space by telling it how to curve;
space grips mass by telling it how to move.”
At the beginning of any Big Bang, primordial space appears, as minimum
limits are produced in each dimension. The minimum limit automatically
produces a maximum that exists in a abstract sense. Even if matter is not
developed, or the Universe has not arrived to it yet.
Any Universe is always expanding or contracting, except during the
inflection point, when it is stopped for a “while”, and changes its direction.
With primordial space, we can not say how much time this “stop” takes,
because time does exist at the beginning. With no velocity, there is no mass,
no gravity, nothing, only space. Without gravity, abstract space is flat,
having only a minimum length. We can't form a material object, because
any geometrical form, has different distances that are shorter or longer. For
example, a cube, with each edge equal Planck length, has a perimeter and
diagonal longer than it, or if we chose a fraction of its edge, shorter. The
sphere or circle are similar: If the radius is Planck length, it has a diameter,
circumference, etc. that are longer; or arcs, that are shorter.
At the beginning, space is the only entity, completely abstract, and
primordial, and it is only a limit. Planck length is like a hole, with no
material or geometrical design.
In our Big Bang, before the first chronos, we had a flat scenario with three
limits of the same size, Planck length, in each dimension, without forming a
cube, but rather a “cuboide”. After that(in local sense), the beginning of
hyperbolic space was formed, with Planck length, in its center, in two
directions, our Universe of matter, and our parallel Universe of antimatter in
the other. For this reason, the mathematical formulas used to obtain mass
and Planck length are squared, producing two roots: + and -.
11. Parallel Universe of antimatter
In the first chronos, in the Big Bang scenario, all the 4 forces, including
gravity were equal.
λ and R were both Planck length. In that way, we have an exact equality
in both formulas. And so:
ℏ/c.λ = R.c2/G where (Gℏ)/c3 = Rλ=(Planck Length)2=λp2
λ Planck= ±√((Gℏ)/c3)
≅ ±1.616 x 10
-33
cm and also
ℏ/(c.Mp)=(G.Mp)/c2
(ℏ.c)/G=Mp2
≅ ±2.17 x10
Mp= ±√((ℏc)/G)
-5
g
Then, to obtain Planck length, we used the formula λp2=(Gℏ)/c3 or
λp=±√((Gℏ)/c3). This result shows us a reality. That there is not only one
Planck, but two Plancks, one opposite to the other. The Planck mass
equation shows us the same result: Mp2=(ℏc)/G or Mp=±√((ℏc)/G).
These results indicates a parallel Universe of antimatter, opposite to
our Universe of matter, and confirms a hyperbolic Universe. The
constant distance between them is 2λp; λp at each side. We can derive
many concepts from this, which we will develop later.
12. Masses of particles; mass of the
Universe
Aside from this flat scenario in our pre-Big Bang, there is another situation,
where we can consider abstract space, when space is only a limit, in order to
produce mass, corresponding to the Higgs length.
Besides that, there are two different formulas to calculate mass, using
theoretical calculations:
1. Quantum Mechanics (Mass of the particles): ℏ/c.λ=m (where λ is the
collision distance or Higgs length)
2. Quantum Cosmological (cosmic mass): R.c2/G=m (where R is the
cosmic radius). This formula is exact at the Big Bang, and it is
approximately exact, when the Universe is developing, because of the
irregularities or ripples of space-time, the distortions of the spheric
form, the centrifugal force, and the hyperbolic expansion.
To obtain the mass of the particles we use the main principle of quantum
mechanics, the uncertainty principle: ℏ=mcλ (where ℏ is Planck
constant) .
The Higgs lengths are very important concepts, but they need to be
modified. The mass of particles have a correspondence with space
(length) in an inverse relation (more length means less mass). Relation:
k=mλ. The mass of all the particles can be obtained from the constant
relation k=mλ, where k is 3.5 x 10-38 g.cm or 1.9392 x 10-14 GeV.cm. We
will explain this concept later. The relation with space, is also
fundamental in a cosmic scale, according to principles of Quantum
Cosmological.
The mass of the Universe increases with time, or in other terms, in
direct relation with the increase of the cosmic radius.
We will explain this position later, in order to avoid confusion or
break fundamental Laws of Physics.
And so, in the Universe, another mass-space relation exists:
G=R.c2/M
where G is the Constant of Universal Gravitation.
Relation:
k1=R/M
where k1 is 7.4236 x10-29 cm/g or 1/k1 =1.347 x 1028 g/cm
With this relation, we can only obtain the cosmic mass, because the
macroscopic individual objects, use a very low velocity. Higgs field and
the Universe, as a whole, use a speed around the speed of light. The first
constants of the Nature: c, G, ℏ, are obtained by equating both formulas,
which are exact in the Big Bang.
13. Particles and antiparticles
About the formation of matter-antimatter, we need to indicate two things:
a) Particles and antiparticles are produced by the Universe or even in the
laboratory experiments, in equal quantities. Each particle is
accompanied by an antiparticle, with identical mass but opposite
charge, spin, and time. When in contact, matter and antimatter, can
annihilate each other to produce pure energy, with practically 100%
efficiency.
If particle and antiparticle production is identical, why is our Universe
composed practically entirely of matter?
The problem is to understand how matter came to existence without an
equivalent quantity of antimatter. Symmetry between particles and
antiparticles is deep-rooted in the laws of Physics. Also between
aggregated matter and aggregated antimatter, if we put into account the
parallel Universe opposite to ours.
A new theory says that besides some particles and antiparticles
colliding into each other, there are a lot of other antiparticles that go to
the anti-matter Universe; which realizes the inverse process, since their
antiparticles are our own particles. In this way, each Universe
increases its matter, interchanging its “waste” with the other Universe.
This process began at the Big Bang. According to the formula, there
were two Big Bangs, like “two connected black holes”, and for this
reason, the initial mass at the Big Bang is double the quantity of mass
in an equivalent black hole, with a gravitational radius the size of
Planck length.
The actual matter-antimatter theory consists in that there was an
infinitesimal excess of matter, compared to the quantity of antimatter
(breaking the matter-antimatter symmetry, traditionally one of the
inviolable rules of Physics) after almost all of the matter-antimatter
production was eliminated (more than 99.99999999 %, producing one
of the most inefficient processes). Nature is wise and always realizes a
minimum effort. (Doubling the quantity of matter, interchanging
“wastes”, is a super-efficient work). Besides, in order to produce
matter-antimatter asymmetry, a prediction of GUT is that protons are
unstable and decay in positrons, in the long term, in about 1033 (to
1044) years. An unreachable time, since our Universe will collapse
approximately at 1021 seconds, or 1014 years. The stability of proton,
and in consequence, the fate of matter, is another inviolable rule of
Physics. And what happens with the inviolability of the number of
baryons and leptons?
Finally, the uncertainty principle permits the existence of particles and
antiparticles in the same Universe, but like we explained before, this is
only true in quantum mechanics. In a gravitational process, matter and
antimatter needs to basically stay in separated Universes, black holes
being the bridges necessary to interchange matter. We will continue to
explain this later.
b) Obtaining λp by means of G, ℏ and c, we could consider space as a
derivate, when in reality, it is the original concept. Space can be
obtained by using pure mathematical terms, without any constant of
nature. As opposed to G, ℏ and c, which are derived from space.
14. Black holes
Black holes are the most important objects in the Universe, more important
than stars, planets, or even galaxies. Stephen Hawking’s works about black
holes are sufficient enough to give him the Nobel Prize. Black holes are not
only real; they are totally necessary for the existence of our Universe.
There are 3 classes of them:
a) Primordial black holes, existing at the microcosmos, when the
production of matter-antimatter was fluent. Quantitatively numerous in
that time, but with small mass and higher temperature.
b) Medium black holes, produced by the collapsing of stars.
c) Astrophysical giant black holes, in the center of galaxies.
Any black hole has a higher temperature when its mass is lighter. In them,
entropy increases proportionally with the mass and inversely proportional to
the temperature.
That means that in order to understand the properties of black holes, we
need to use the equations of General Relativity, and Quantum Mechanics is
totally irrelevant.
The only case when we need to use quantum mechanic gravity is in the
center of black holes, whose size is Planck length, and gravity and the other
three forces are together; or in the Big Bang, when the radius was Planck
length.
The Big Bang also acted, at the same time, like a center and like the event
horizon of a black hole, with a gravitational radius size equal to Planck
length, a naked co-singularity.
15. Size of the center of black holes
Like in the Big Bang, the center of any black hole is always Planck length,
the minimum size possible. It is never zero.
All the matter that crosses the event horizon inexorably goes to the center of
the black hole; which is connected, like a gateway, to the center of our
parallel Universe, which is attached to ours by black holes, or by the Big
Bang, in the beginning of the Universe. Using Einstein’s equations, we can
confirm this idea. In that situation, when time in our Universe comes to an
end, time in the attached Universe begins. (If the center of a black hole is
zero, we would have a space-time singularity and infinite curvature, two
undesired terms, and time itself will come to its end, and space would come
to a close). This is wrong.
The CPT symmetry confirm us the former idea. To maintain it, we need to
change: matter with antimatter; mirror symmetry, and the arrow of time
Because the other Universe realizes the inverse process, quantitatively
exact, there is no loss of information.
It is not necessary to research about space-time singularity at the center of
black holes, because singularities don’t exist. The process consists of an
interchanging of matter-antimatter between both Universes, utilizing a
gateway, with two gates, one in each Universe, with a dimension of Planck
length, where quantum mechanics and general relativity interweave.
Antimatter goes to the parallel Universe, and matter comes from it to ours.
Matter and antimatter are conventional terms and we can interchange them
too. The important thing is to separate both complementary particles, and
Stephen Hawking did it, using black holes.
The original and complementary concepts about that will be explained in
the next sections.
16.
Interchange
of
duplication of matter
matter-antimatter;
In the Big Bang, the process was simpler, because it was the only space that existed.
Our Universe, even if we extend it, always has – in any place- a Planck length, and it
is possible to reach it, if we have enough energy to obtain λp; and in the other side,
there exists a parallel Universe with a similar, but opposite process. The
interchanging of matter-antimatter between them is easy to visualize, especially in
the beginning. Moreover, in the center of any black hole, a cosingularity with λp
length exists. (Size 0 doesn’t exist). And so, this center is attached to its parallel
center, where another black hole exists. Both act together like a primordial Big Bang.
In black holes, the process is the same as in the Big Bang, but it requires a more
elaborated system, because there is a bigger space outside of black holes. Like
Hawking explained, the pair, particle-antiparticle, needs to separate outside, but near
of the event horizon; and also needs to increase this process to separate more matterantimatter pairs. The Universe needs to produce sufficient mass to annihilate little by
little the mass inside the black hole, and to send the “waste” mass to the other
Universe. If we add the inverse process, we obtain an efficient process, increasing
mass in both Universes.
If the matter inside the black hole is x, it is necessary to stimulate matter-antimatter
pairs; in order to maintain the symmetry, the same quantity of matter and antimatter
is necessary. Using a simple example: 1.5x matter and 1.5x antimatter, due to the
circular motion ratio of the black hole. This is a gradual process, but in summary,
1.5x matter is left in our Universe and 1.5x antimatter falls down inside the black
hole, and gives to the parallel Universe 0.5x of excess antimatter. The inverse
process is similar, producing in both Universes the adequate mass, duplicating it
(1.5x + 0.5x = 2x).
We can see this process as a Hawking radiation, decreasing the mass of the black
hole. This process is qualitatively convenient, because it explains the black hole
radiation; decreased mass; and can explain the duplication of mass in the formulas of
the Big Bang and black holes: Rc2/G=M and Rc2/2.G=M'
Moreover it explains why black holes exist, and why they need to exist, even in the
beginning of the Big Bang, when aggregated matter didn´t exist.
With this process, black holes would realize an efficient work, as nature likes to do.
In normal radiation, energy is almost useless; in this process, energy is used to
produce mass.
17. Hawking radiation
Although the process can be explained qualitatively, it maintains a problem
in quantitative terms. Hawking radiation needs heat, and sufficient heat only
existed in primordial black holes, in the microcosmos era.
In cosmic scale (right now) there are medium and giant black holes; even if
they have a non-zero temperature, it is minimum, and in that way, the
radiation is not sufficient. We could obtain a complementary aid from the
gravitation and the enormous pressure in the center of giant black holes. We
know that nature always work in an efficient manner. One way is that when
the quantum wave is smaller, the mass is larger, and this is useful in the
microscopic reality, where space is small. For that reason, Planck length is
minimum and so, the mass is maximum. Using the smallest space we can
interchange the biggest masses.
It is a principle of maximum efficiency. For example, the minimum known
mass of particles is the electron (5.14 x 10-4 GeV) (electron-neutrino is still
lighter, but physicists don´t know its mass, yet); and the maximum mass for
a particle is 2.39 x 1018 GeV; moreover, the relation of space is 1.506788419
x 10-11 and 1.615979906 x 10-33, considering their corresponding fields.
-λ Electron Higgs Field=1.506788419x10-11 cm
-Energy Electron Higgs Field=1.286975647x10-3 GeV
-λ Planck Higgs Field=1.615979906x10-33 cm
-Energy Planck Higgs Field=1.2x1019 GeV
The efficiency is:
(1.2x1019)/(1.286975647x10-3) x (1.506788419x10-11)/(1.615979906x10-33)
= 8.694152115x1043
If 106 is a million times more efficient, the actual relation is 1043 times
more. When the particles enter the black hole in transit to the center, the
enormous pressure (gravitation) would decrease their wavelength, until they
have the minimum length in order to pass through the gateway. This process
would be similar like time dilation and Lorentz contraction, important in
speeds close to the speed of light. Pressure, like heat, produces energy. For
example, the Sun produces energy by heat (fusion); but Jupiter, a cold
planet, also produces energy, liberated due to the gravitational collapse.
Jupiter’s satellites receive two times more energy from Jupiter than from the
Sun (a mechanism to liberate energy, using gravitation instead of heat).
What would happen in giant black holes, in the center of galaxies? In the
“Elegant Universe" by Brian Greene, a beautiful book that explains Physics
in easy words, we can read: “Hawking’s calculations also showed that the
less massive a black hole is, the higher its temperature and the greater the
radiation it emits. For instance, a black hole as light as a small asteroid
would emit about as much radiation as a million-megaton hydrogen bomb,
with radiation concentrated in the gamma-ray part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Astronomers have searched the night sky for such radiation, but
except for a few long-shot possibilities, they have come up empty-handed, a
likely indication that such low-mass black holes, if they exist, are very rare.
As Hawking often jokingly points out, this is too bad, for it, the black hole
radiation that his work, predicts were to be detected, he would undoubtedly
win a Nobel Prize!”
My position is that the radiation is produced inside black holes, but by
annihilating matter-antimatter inside the event horizon, the radiation
would be almost imperceptible. Besides that, not only radiation coming
from heat in small black holes, but also by the high gravitational force
in giant black holes, would produce sufficient energy to make particle–
antiparticle pairs and realize the interchange of mass, between both
Universes, inside of black holes.
This process is not a theory. It is only an idea, a different and a logical
concept, but it is necessary to develop the theory in order to complete it or
correct it.
18. Life of known proton. Existence of
fourth type of neutrino
To establish the life of the proton to be at least 1033 years, in order to be
unstable, is absurd. That time is much longer than the life of the Universe
itself. Before that period, all of the particles of the Universe will be
destroyed. So, taking a large lump of matter containing more than 1033
protons and to expect to see one, or two, disintegrating protons within this
mass, each year, is a correct mathematical concept, but it is a physical
incongruence.
In the whole life of our Universe (9.75x1021 s) every proton will be stable;
and so, all the experiments in any form, about its stability, will not have a
satisfying result. The proton does not decay, but its lifetime is not
infinite, and it will be destroyed with the Big Crush of the Universe.
For that reasons, despite a number of careful experiments, there was no
evidence of the disintegration of the proton. So, one of the most important
predictions of the Grand Unification Theory was not confirmed. However,
we will explain later the decay of other kind of proton (heavy proton),
existing in GUT energies, that is unstable.
According to the Standard Model, the neutrinos do not have mass, but this
is another mistake.
Considering two premises, the neutrinos have mass (insignificant but
measurable) and the protons are stable during the life of our Universe.
In that way we have 3 new realities:
1.
The proton is stable.
2.
The mass of the normal left-handed neutrino is no longer supposed to
be zero. (Real mass
1.13 x 10-14 GeV). The other known two
neutrinos, also have masses: 2 x 10-9 GeV and 1 x10-6 GeV,
respectively.
3.
The normal left-handed neutrino has a right-handed partner with an
enormous mass, both of them with their corresponding antimatter pair.
≅
The experiments provided evidence of the existence of a fourth type of
neutrino.
The decay rate of the Z0 shows only 3 light neutrinos, but there is no
contradiction in this new neutrino, because it does not enter in the decay of
Z0, due to the fact that this new neutrino is heavier than Z0. Neutronio
could be an adequate name. When the spontaneous symmetry breaking
occurs, the right-handed neutrino becomes extremely massive, more than
Z0. (And Z0, W+, and W- acquire masses).
Today´s accelerators have the sufficient capacity to find this new neutral
particle, even if physicists don’t believe in it. However, thousands of
experiments and billions and billions of dollars have been spent, trying to
find the superpartners, even if there is not the most remote evidence that
they exist, at least, in the supposed range of masses.
With the discovery of the top quark, only 2 different particles are left to be
discovered, with the capacity of the accelerators we have right now and in
the near future: The Higgs weak boson and this new neutrino with its
corresponding antimatter (mass around 132 GeV). Physicists should try to
find this new particle. It would be an important discovery and a change in
the actual theoretical study, and with a relatively small cost. It's necessary
to analyze the statistical fluctuations and the excess of events around
140 GeV. The last experiments of the LHC (Atlas and CMS), reported
in August 2011, could consider the existence of this possible heavier
neutral particle. (Neutronio mass around 132 GeV); or perhaps,
another particle with similar mass, although this last possibility would
be a long-shot.
19. Mass of electron neutrino. Heavy
partners. Massless photon
In 1930, experiments suggested that some nuclear decays did not conserve
energy; less energy was detected in the final state than in the initial one.
Wolfgang Pauli proposed that the energy was being carried off by an unseen
particle, the neutrino, with no electric charge and that it interacted via the
weak force. Some physicists consider that the neutrino has no mass, but this
is a contradiction. Others give it mass, with different values, but Steven
Weinberg, Nobel laureate, is the only physicist that gave it the approximate
real mass of the neutrino, in his book “Dreams of a Final Theory”,
Weinberg wrote: “We would expect neutrinos to have small masses, about a
hundredth to a thousandth of a volt (or in other words, about one billionth
the mass of an electron)”.
Similarly, in the heavy scale the new particle that we mentioned before, the
Neutronio could appear, heavy, neutral, mass approximately 132 GeV, and
acting only by weak interaction. The accelerators have reached this level
and it is not necessary to wait for an increase in their energy; we only need
to test carefully around that level. Certain predictions could be made with
the motion of the other particles that emerged in the decay, and those
predictions can verify the indirect evidence that this neutral heavy particle
in effect exists, before it could be directly detected. Besides that, there
exists a boson that it is sure to be detected, the Higgs weak boson, which is
completely unstable, and its mass is larger, between 382.4 GeV and 482.4
GeV.
According to the actual theory, and in order to make sense, the
superpartner’s masses must be similar to the mass of the known heaviest
particles of the Standard Model, like W, Z, or the top quark.
If the superpartners are not observed before the maximum level of is 482.4
GeV, this will show that Nature, in our real world with 3 spatial dimensions
and 1 time, is not supersymmetric. According to Supersymmetry, like the
Standard Model, there are no particles with masses heavier than the Higgs
boson, by destruction of the Higgs effect, because there is “too much heat”
According to the Dirac equation, the duality particle–antiparticle doubles
the number of particles.
Supersymmentry predicts another doubling of the number of particles with
different masses and spins; (subtracting 1/2), but there is another possibility.
According to T-duality, and most notably, R → α.1/R duality, it is possible
to double the number of particles, with only different masses, increasing the
number of families from 3 to 6; even if in reality there is only one family,
with different copies or clones from it. The new partners would be very
much heavier, and so, the superpartners would be real heavypartners.
Moreover, if normal particles need a large room, with completely different
masses, and all superpartners existing in a small room, with similar masses
between them, would produce an ugly anti-symmetry, comparing them with
the normal scale. For example, if sneutrino and selectron have not appeared
yet, it is improbable that they both appear in the small space available, close
to the stop quark.
In the Dirac equation, if a boson has no charge, it is its own
antiparticle. Using T duality, if a boson never has mass, it is its own
partner. As we will explain later, only the photon never acquires mass;
and for that reason, the photon is the only particle of force, completely
stable, that never changes.
Anti-Particle of force;
Lighter mass scale
Particle of Force
Lighter mass scale
Photon
Photon
Anti- Particle of Force
Heavy mass Scale
Particle of Force
Heavy mass scale
Photon
Photon
The photon will always be the same, and its rest
mass will always be zero.
20. Exact value of constants since the Big
Bang
As we explained before, the abstract space (primordial) is only limits. The
minimum limit has a corresponding maximum limit, according to Tsymmetry. In that way, the tendency to reach it produces movement.
Immediately after that, speed of (light) c and t (time), and after them, G and
ℏ, the constants of gravitation and electromagnetism are derived.
c, G, and ℏ are truly constant, and their values are fixed from the first
chronos to the last event of the Universe
Their present waves have no differences between past and future ones,
neither c, G, nor ℏ were smaller or bigger. Since the beginning of time, in
the first chronos, when the gravitation and quantum waves had the same
mass, same energy, and same length; G, ℏ, and c will remain inexorably
exact, until the last event, when our Universe ends, in a complete collapse
and colossal Big Crush.
Exact Values
➢
Length of Big
=1.615979906 x 10-33 cm
Bang
➢
Mass
Bang
➢
Energy of Big
=1.956414305 x 1016 erg
Bang
➢
Speed of light
=2.99792458 x 1010 cm/s.
(c)
of
Big
=2.176804486 x 10-5 g
(Exact and permanently constant)
G=(Rp c2)/Mp =6.6720292 x 10-8 cm3 s2 g-1
(Exact and permanently constant)
ℏ=mp λp c=1.054571628 x 10-27
g.cm2.s-1
(Exact and permanently constant)
The energy of the Big Bang is considered the maximum for a Higgs
field, but it is minimum for the Universe.
The Higgs fields pervades all the Universe and in that way, the maximum
energy of the Universe is not in the Big Bang, because the relation of
energy is:
E.Higgs x n
Where E.Higgs is the energy of one Higgs field; and n, the number of fields.
In the Big Bang, there was only one Higgs field, and for that reason, the
energy of the Universe was minimum and not maximum. In this way, the
Standard Model proposition, that in lengths much smaller than 10-17cm,
particles have no mass, is a completely wrong position, as we will later
explain with more details.
21. Mass as a fundamental property of particles of
matter
Nature never does any unnecessary work, and always uses the easiest way. Antimatter
is a reality and in that way, the particles are almost doubled by their antimatter partners.
However, some physicists propose new kinds of supposed particles: superpartners and
their antiparticles, including the particles of force. Even the photon, the most constant
force, has its photino, (?!) and moreover, even particles without masses, before the Higgs
boson appearance. The particles are multiplied not by 2, but by 26=64.
The question is why?
Particle with antiparticles are related by mirror symmetry (horizontal). Particles with
heavy partners are related by T-symmetry (vertical).
According to rotations, the number 6 would change like this.
Differently, symmetry about spins (superpartners) has different laws, and fermions would
have relation with scalar bosons.
The supposition that particles (and antiparticles) have no mass in the second scale, would
form a whole new kind of particles, because mass is a fundamental property of particles
of matter. One particle with no mass is not the same particle without mass; it is a
whole new particle.
We propose: particles-antiparticles, heavypartners-antiheavypartners, multiplying the
number of particles by 8, or 23; instead of 26=64. We can divide the microuniverse in four
sections:
22. Symmetry about spin in particles.
Code of string Universes
The symmetry of the superstring theory has a mathematical consistence but
only in 10 and 26 dimensions. It is a beautiful mathematical theory, but it is
not applicable in our physical world of 4 dimensions.
The mathematical theory is correct in 10 and 26 dimensions, and
perhaps in 50, 82, 122, 170, and 226 dimensions.
In order to do a dimensional package of 8 moduli; 2 dimensions (one space
+ one time) would be the origin of the string, and would complete the
symmetry about strings. The reason, why a two-dimensional world is not
taken into account, is because the position of Superstring theory is to
accommodate our world of 4 dimensions in it, and in that way, 2
dimensions have no room to accommodate our physical world of 4. But 2
dimensions are sufficient to accommodate a first string world.
The formula is: 4n2-4n+2, where n is the string sequence, from 1 until 8, or
(2n-1)2+1 or 8(n.(n-1))/2+2.
23. Process to obtain the masses of
particles
Another thing, particles without masses are against the uncertainty
principle, primordial in quantum mechanics. If particles of matter with no
mass existed, ℏ would be zero, or λ infinite. Both results are wrong.
And moreover, why finding other complicated theories, when the normal
way to obtain a particle's mass is only changing the space (wavelength), or
in other words, the collision distance, Higgs length, or Compton
wavelength. Any name would do.
The collision distance between matter–antimatter particles is the exact
distance where the particles can relate, while each one holding a private
identity. Any closer, they collide and destroy themselves. Any farther,
they go away. It establishes a field (Higgs field) where its energy (or
mass) is the total of the system, according to the relation: ℏ/cλ=m; or
k=mλ.
In the case of leptons, their mass is obtained by dividing the field by √(2π).
In case of quarks, the relation is not 2 particles, but 4, and the mass of the
field would be divided by 2√2π or √(8π) (in case of quarks having the same
mass). Because quarks normally have different masses, and they have
resonances, the division by √(2π) is, approximately, the sum of both.
This is a sketch on how to obtain the masses of Higgs fields and the masses
of particles, which we will later explain with more details.
Right now, the position that we desire to point out is that the only factor we
need, to obtain the masses of particles, is space, and this is the origin of the
different families.
24. Nature only needs one family. Time as
natural logarithmic
Basically, they are 4 particles for each family. Only one family is necessary
in our cosmic scale. The other particles are exact copies of them, according
to the moment of the Universe. The vast majority of things in our
Macrocosmos need only that one family, with those 4 particles: electrons,
up-quarks, down-quarks and electron-neutrinos (the latter, traveling alone in
our Universe, passing through stars, planets, our bodies, and any kind of
matter, with almost no contact. These 4 particles are the lightest and so,
stable; and practically, are the only ones nature needs right now.
But what happened in the Microcosmos era? (sometimes reproduced
artificially with the actual giant atom smashers, at a scale of around ln(λp/2)
or √(λp ): -37.75268327 (ln) or 4.019925255x10-17)
We think in arithmetical time, but nature thinks in logarithmic time,
especially in the Microcosmos era, starting from Planck length, when the
first Higgs field existed, finalizing, at 1cm, approximately, where the last
Higgs field appeared. The time it took was almost nothing for us, less than
3.33 x 10-11 s, but for the Universe, it was more “time” than the time
developed in our cosmological time (human measure) of millions of years.
Nature needs other “families” in order to produce corresponding particles at
any moment. “Nature abhors the vacuum”, but being economic and
efficient, it produces “copies” of the same family, clones of it. Higgs length
changes, at any moment, automatically, when abstract space (Higg space or
h=ct) is arriving, according to simple rules, which we will explain later.
Nature produces the “same” particles with identical properties, except for
their mass, which is lighter, as the length increases, according to the
relation: mass= ℏ/c.λ or m.λ=k.
Physicists have proven the structure of matter until the scale of around
√(λp) 4.02 x 10-17 cm, or close to it, which consists of some combination
of particles from 3 families and their antimatter partners.
The rest of that scale, between 4.02 x 10-17 cm ~1.616 x 10-33 cm, in which
the other 3 families will probably exist, if the prediction of the Standard
≅
Model, that the Higgs field is destroyed by heat, turns out to be false.
But in the true sense, there are not three or six families, only one. It is
the same family, but with different manifestations, according to the
length. The Higgs field in the Microcosmos era changes continuously, as
time increases, according to h=ct, and automatically, the Universe produces
the “same” particles, with different “sizes”, or in other words, different
“masses”. It is derived from the uncertainty principle.
Nature realizes the same work, using the same principle and the same law.
And that is efficiency: to have an automatic process, very diversified, but at
the same time, very simplified. Using the same pieces, and realizing the
same process, it produces different products, only using different sizes of
pieces, according to the market (in the case of Physics, according the
special moment of Universe and corresponding Higgs length).
Besides, three families with only a mass difference, means that all particles
of matter have mass, including the 3 known neutrinos. If mass is the only
difference, and they don’t have mass, why are there three?
And please, don’t forget the Uncertainly Principle.
25. Four forces united at the first chronos
The four forces: gravity, strong, electromagnetic, and weak, were together,
only at the beginning of the Big Bang. Gravity separated first, after the first
chronos.
The strong force did it second. The electromagnetic and weak force went
apart last. Four forces have 3 separations. For a simple example: four
fingers have three separations:
At the end, the electromagnetic and weak forces were separated, even
having different strength.
However, electromagnetic fixed its position and accompanied the weak
force, until the weak force separated, and the electromagnetic force returned
to its place. In any separation, symmetry is decreasing, “loosing a phase”.
There were 3 Higgs bosons in our Universe.
a) Gravitational Higgs boson at the beginning (gravity separates from the
other three forces, immediately after the first chronos).
b) Strong Higgs Boson. (The strong separates from the other two forces)
c) There is no electromagnetic boson. (Photon always is stable and zero
mass at rest)
d) Weak Higgs boson. (The photon accompanies the weak force to
separate from it. For that reason, W+, W- and Z0 acquire masses and the
photon continues with zero mass at rest.
There are 3 Higgs bosons, where the particles of forces acquire masses.
But this is not the procedure for the particles of matter, neither for the
photon.
26. Higgs bosons fields' mass and lengths
After the Last Event, when our Universe collapses, another Gravitational Higgs Boson will
appear. It will enter to form part of a transitional new Universe: the fractal 3-4 Universe (or
4-5 in space–time Universes), before the new five-dimensional (4+1) Universe appears. We
will explain this process later.
The mathematical sequence indicates that the dominant position of each force is n!,
beginning at the origin. And so, the formula for Higgs bosons is:
∅
We write origin, because 0! is 1 and origin is cozero (Planck station) that means , 1, 2, 6,
24.
When we analyze the formula of space, ex, x is basically 8πn. In that way 8πn means 24π
(8π.3 dimensions) and so, e+24π will approximately be the maximum space; and e-24π, the
minimum space (the exact formula will be detailed later). +24 and -24, mean 48 steps in
between, and adapting the sequence to 48, we need to double the terms. And so, the
formula for Higgs boson is:
k=-24π
➢ k=-22π
➢ k=-20π
➢ k=-12π
➢ k=+24π
The lengths of each field are:
➢ k=-24π=1.615979906 x 10-33 cm
➢ k=-22π=8.731046397 x 10-31 cm
➢ k=-20π=4.717334068 x 10-28 cm
➢ k=-12π=4.01992527 x 10-17 cm
➢ k=+24π=2.923096699 x 1032 cm
Using Ockham's razor, k+24π disappears. It's located outside this Universe.
The former lengths are the wavelength of each field. Using the formula:
➢
m=(1.9392x10-14)/λ mass in GeV
➢
➢
➢
Gravitational Higgs field: 1.2 x 1019 GeV
Strong Higgs field: 2.22 x 1016 GeV
Weak Higgs field: 4.824 x 102 GeV or 482.4 GeV
There are Higgs fields when Higgs bosons appear, but there are many Higgs fields
with no bosons. They will be explained later in a mathematical sequence. We call these
fields, modified Higgs fields.
27. Two scales for particles of force
By means of the Higgs weak boson, the weak particles of force acquire mass. It is easy to
elucidate that the other particles of force must acquire mass too, when its corresponding
Higgs boson appears. However in actual physics concepts, all the other particles of force
continue without mass. This is an unnatural process. The explanation would be, there are
two scales, where in the heavier scale, the particles of force (except the photon) acquire
mass, and in the lighter scale, with no Higgs boson, the particles of force have no mass,
like it normally must be.
Because the weak force is the last one that separates, and actual technology permits to do
experimental results with average masses; not too heavy, neither too light, we can prove
the heavier scale in weak force; and the lighter scale, in strong and gravity. Particle
accelerators are probing at around 10-18 cm, or 10-19 cm, with this power, it is only possible
to calculate the heavier scale in weak force, and the lighter scale in the other forces.
Like explained before, the photon will never have mass, and the photino doesn’t exist.
There is no technological development to prove the lighter scale in weak force. It has
relation with the production of known neutrinos. For the same reasons, the Standard Model
supposes neutrinos have no mass. Moreover, the weak heavier scale has a logical mass,
because it is using relatively heavy particles. In the weak lighter scale, used in the
formation of neutrinos, is illogical to need forces of around 90 GeV for particles that have
masses of 10-14 GeV, or even, for some physicists, zero mass.
In the lighter scale, the masses of force particles, like the gluon and the graviton,
disappear,
In summary we suppose:
Graviton had mass only at the Big Bang, when the 4 forces were united, and quantum
mechanics applied to it. At that moment, the graviton was equivalent to the more typical
fundamental string, whose mass is pointed out in the table. After Planck, quantum
mechanics don´t apply to gravity. And so, after that, the graviton (gravitational force
particle) had zero mass and it will maintain zero mass, until the collapse of our Universe,
or in other words, until the appearance of a new gravitational boson, in the beginning of
another dimension.
28. Minkowski-Einstein space-time
Like we mentioned before, Herman Minkowski explained, and Einstein used
and developed, that space and time formed a continuum union: Space-time.
Time was treated as a fourth dimension, almost like space. This union is
converted in a total unity at the beginning, or close to it, and at the last event
of the Universe, or close to it.
In that position, the formulas about the minimum limit (Planck length) and
maximum limit must incorporate time, as negative space. But, even if space
and time interweave into a single entity, space-time, space is still space, and
time is still time. But if we adopt the position that time intervals are imaginary
numbers, then space and time, become identical, and time becomes really a
fourth dimension of space; in other words, time intervals might be
indistinguishable form space intervals, hence “imaginary time”. This position
is fundamental when we use the mathematical formulas to obtain by means of
100% theoretical calculations, minimum and maximum space of any
Universe, and in this specific situation, will be applied to the Big Bang and to
the end of our Universe too.
We said before, zero space doesn’t exist; but zero space exists in exponential
form.
Using natural logarithms, the limit can be obtained with a formula, using ex
where e is the natural logarithmic and x is the equation to obtain the limits.
Calculating a maximum and a minimum, we have 2 potential formulas
minimum limit: e-x maximum limit: ex.
As time is completely integrated with space, we use imaginary time, and in
that way, i, must be integrated into both formulas: e-xi and e+xi
x represents the space covered.
One dimension has two directions. But it has, two ways to go over them, from
inside to outside and from outside to inside, in both ways. That means 4 ways
to do it.
If we have a circular dimension, we have 2π radians in each revolution, and
4x2π radians=8π radians in those 4 revolutions.
The space covered in one dimension would be: x=8πr; x1=-8πr.
And the formula for each dimension would be: e8πri and e-8πri
That would be in any dimension, and so, we need to include n (number of
spatial dimensions) in the formula.
The formula would be completed with the relation: e+8πrin and e-8πrin.
R represents radians in polar equations, equivalent to 360/2π=57.29577951°
and 2πr=360°. In our Universe, the formulas are: e+24πri and e-24πri
29. Division and formulas of both scales
In the order to put only real exponents we need to transform them, using the
most important formulas in Physics, because they are practical for any
Universe, even with different spatial dimensions. (E=mc2 is only true in a
Universe with 3 spatial dimension + 1 time).
eπi+1=0
eπi=-1
e2πi-1=0
e2πi=1
e(2πi)n=+1
eπri=isin πr+cos πr=-1
e2πri=isin 2πr+cos 2πr=+1
e24πri=isin 24πr+cos 24πr=+1
e-24πri=isin -24πr+cos -24πr=+1
We need to use angles, whose sine is zero, in order to eliminate i and to
have a real equation; and it is obtained by using the angle of 180°, or
multiples of it. Nevertheless, we need at least a complete revolution, 2πr
(360°).
The angle used in our dimension is 4320° or 12 (2πr), in each limit. And it
is real, when the imaginary part of the equation disappears because sine of
4320° is zero, and so:
e12(2πri)=isin 24πr+cos 24πr=+1
1= 0 + 1
e24πri=cos 24πr
=cos 4320°=1
and e-24πri = cos -24πr = cos -4320°=1
If 4320° and -4320° are symmetric, that means 12 revolutions in the
minimum scale and 12 revolutions in the maximum scale; we can divide
them in cycles of 4 revolutions each, a convenient form that we will use
later, when we talk about the families of particles.
30. Approximate values of the Universes'
limits
The value of 4320° determines e24πi = cos 4320° = 1, and e-24πi= cos -4320°
=1, and so, e24πi.e-24πi=1, but also, (e24π.e-24π)=e0=1.
We have a linear result too, and approximate values of maximum and
minimum. The linear result is obtained considering the factor πr, with its
numerical value. π is 3.1415926535… and r=1 (the radius).
Then, if we use numerical values, we have:
e+24π= e24(3.1415926535) =e75.39822369
(Maximum approximate):(5.559458495 x 1032 )cm
e-24π=e-24(3.1415926535) =e-75.39822369
(Minimum approximate):(1.798736335 x 10-33)cm
The differences with the correct values, depends on a correction factor that
we will detail in the next section.
31. Extradimensional geometry. Spatial
correction factors
Extradimensional geometry influences the size of the minimum and the
maximum limits, making both decrease. However, its influence is not so big
as the Superstring theory desires. The geometrical size and shape of the
extra dimensions have no important effect on the properties of our
Universe, only their number. The lengths are totally different between them,
with insignificant direct physical influence. For that reason, we can only
draw them in logarithmical space.
In the minimum limit, the correction factor is n/28, where n is the number
of spatial dimensions of any Universe; and 28, the sum of spatial
dimensions in a modulus with 7 spatial dimensions (+1 time).
In the maximum limit, the correction factor is n/28 x 2n=2n2/28, due to the
fact that each dimension is extended in 2n ways. In Planck length, it is n/28
x 1, because in Planck length, there is no expansion. Planck length is the
only measure, nothing longer, nothing shorter.
32. String theory
Definitively, many physicists have exerted a lot of effort into String theory,
and the more recent, M Theory, since 1968. They have spent time, money,
even their whole careers. Those theories are mathematically correct, but
they need their corresponding physical adjustment. Treating results of
worlds with 10 (or eleven) and 26 dimensions, and putting them in our
Universe of 4 dimensions (3+1) is not necessarily correct. Nevertheless,
there are a vast amount of results completely correct in String theory
that need to be rescued. In that way, works wouldn't have been realized
in vain, but physicists in String Theory need to open their minds and find
another way; in most planifications there’s always plan B. We acknowledge,
physicists are the smartest people in Earth, but it is necessary to leave
behind the “protocols” and to write new ideas. Remember, as Einstein said:
"Imagination is more important than knowledge." But physicists have both.
They need to put both of them in action. Notwithstanding, a physicist, Lee
Smolin, indicated, “String Theory now has such a dominant position in the
Academy, that is practically career suicide for young theoretical physicists
not to join the field”.
But progress begins with change. The superpartners, need to increase their
range of action; from -12kπ, in electroweak length, to -24kπ, in Planck
length; or to turn into heavy partners; The Calabi-Yau and other new
concepts that we will mention in next sections, also need to be revised; but
it’s necessary to find other correct results of the String theory and to write
them in a complete summary. This would be the form, for all the works
realized, to give their fruits. The correct results are: to eliminate sub-Planck
distances and distance 0, correct the Standard Model and the General
Theory of Relativity, that are fundamental; Planck length; Planck mass;
divide by √(8π) to obtain the gravitational mass; to fix the dimensions of
string in 10 and 26; to consider a multidimensional Universe, instead of our
4 known dimensions (3+1); to find the correct point of union of the 3 nongravitational forces; the elimination of point particles; the application of
mirror symmetry and T-symmetry; the existence of at least 3 Higgs bosons
instead of 1; the existence of quantum gravity, only exact in the beginning
of the Big Bang, when quantum mechanics act; the complete unification of
forces in determined moments of the evolution of the Universe; the
compactification of space, the mass scales: Planck mass; gravitational scale,
electroweak scale; the grand unification scale (mGUT=1016.1±0.3) GeV); S, T,
and U dualities; string tension, D branes; E8 x E8 symmetry; Lie and
superconformal algebras, CPT symmetry, moduli spaces; null state, pbranes, zero-point energy, and a lot of very important issues; to rescue them,
unaltered, or with some adaptations.
33. Exact values of our Universe's limits
We can obtain the exact values of the limits (Maximum and minimum) by
applying both factors, and so, we have the general formulas.
Maximum: e+8πn-(2n^2)⁄28=e24π-18⁄28=e+74.75536654 = 2.923096699 x 1032 cm
Minimum: =e-8πn-n⁄28=e-24π-3⁄28=e-75.50536654 = 1.615979906 x 10-33 cm
Because Planck length is used to name the minimum limit in our Universe
of 3 spatial dimensions, and each Universe has different minimum limits in
its corresponding dimension; we will use Planck length to name them, so
we would have: λp0, λp1, λp2 , λp3, λp4 , λp5, λp6, λp7. We can use the formulas for
other Universes with different dimensions, and find their fundamental
values. We will detail them in a further table.
34. Time correction factor
The former correction factor is a spatial factor, but there exists a time–
correction factor too. We know the number of spatial dimensions of a
modulus with 7 Universes, with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 dimensions. It is 28
(the sum of them); but it has an additional Universe, with zero spatial
dimensions + one time, in order to complete a modulus. It has an additional
correction factor, considering time is not zero space. It is -1 space.
According to that, the time correction factor is not zero, it is –(-1/28)= +
1/28 in the minimum limit; and in the maximum limit, it is: -2(-12)/28 =
-2/28. And so, the formulas with both factors included would be,
Co-minimum limit: e-8πn-n⁄28+1⁄28
Co-maximum limit: e+8πn-2n^2/28-2⁄28
In our Universe, it would be:
Co-minimum limit: e-75.46955226 = 1.674736453 x 10-33 cm
Co-maximum limit: e+74.68393797 = 2.721586538 x 1032 cm
35. Order of the cycle of the Universes
As we can observe, both results are not minimum neither maximum limits,
and for that reason, we didn’t use them when we obtained the real limits:
real minimum limit is smaller and real maximum limit is longer, as we
calculated before, without the use of the time correction factor.
Why do those correction factors (time factors) exist, if they are not
necessary?
The answer is simple: because they are fundamental in the existence of the
Universe. The reason, why our Universe has 4 extended dimensions (in
space-time), is because it was developed in order, 1, 2, and 3 dimensional
Universe. And later, it will be developed in 5, 6, 7, and 8. In any case, the
Universe with one dimension, in space-time, was the first Universe, and it
was the simplest. The Universe normally begins from a simpler to a
more complex entity. It's more logical to suppose that it began from 1,
2, 3, and 4 than to break 10 into 4 and 6. And in the first space-time
Universe, the correction factor is indispensable.
36. Evolution of the first Universe due to
time correction factor
One dimension, in space-time, means zero spatial dimensions + 1 time. If
we use the general formulas in the one dimensional Universe, zero space +
1 time, we obtain:
Miminum limit: e0=1
Maximum limit: e0=1
(Without the time correction factors)
With these results, there is no evolution, no movement, nothing; the
Universe would be a stopped space-time, a consigularity with no change.
The Universes, in their evolution, need to expand or contract. If not, there
would be almost nothing at all. Vanished time and space would be like a
speck, with no change and with no spatial measure either. The development
of the dimensions would be canceled, and so, the Universes would be too.
The Universe would remain the same “forever”.
However, if we include the time correction factor, we would have:
Planck length: e0+1/28=e1/28=1.036359701 cm
(normally minimum length, and now, first length)
and
Final length: e0-2/28= e-2/28=0.931062779 cm
This change produces a contraction of Universe 1, decreasing its length and
producing the necessary evolution; starting cycles of the Universes,
alternatively shrinking and stretching; which will be explained later.
In any case, the inclusion of the time correction factor, a quantum
cosmological principle, produces the evolution of the Universes and starts
the system, the way they use to keep evolving.
But which is the use of these time factors in the next dimensional
Universes?
As we showed, these factor are useless in order to fix real, maximum and
minimum limits in Universes, with space-time dimensions bigger that one,
but they are useful to fix the vanishing of time at the beginning and at the
end of any Universe.
In our Universe, from Planck length to 1.674736453 x 10-33 cm, and after
2.721586538 x 1032 cm to maximum length, time is converted into space. It
is the same general principle, when at Planck Length, or close to it (longer);
before the collapse of our Universe, or close to it (shorter); time is
converted into space, like we explained before.
37. Differences between space, time, and dimension
When we talk about the first Universe, with one dimension in space–time, (zero spatial
dimension + 1 time), we need to distinguish between space, time and dimension. As we
explained before, time zero and space zero don’t exist, but what happens with dimension zero?
Time dimension zero doesn’t exist because every entity, including Universes, always need one
time dimension (time and its flow). Spatial dimension zero is possible to exist, and this is the
case of the first Universe. Space zero doesn’t exist, but spatial dimension zero can exist when
space is not developed, and an independent axis, or direction of space, is not formed.
According to that, in all the development of that Universe (0 space +1 time), there is no length
longer that Planck length. The temporal axis is fixed, and according to the flow of time, time is
developed.
And so, one-dimensional Universe, in space-time, means: zero spatial dimension and a nonzero time dimension. Planck limit in this Universe is longer than any other measure, and in that
way, the Macrocosmos and Microcosmos are united just like a hook (hook union), and they are
not separated entities. We can explain that with a diagram.
This system is utilized by Nature in different opportunities; like in the scales of the masses of
particles of matter (we can demonstrate that, even with the known experimental masses of all
the heaviest particles of matter known today); the relation between the Higgs fields (that
produce mass) and the macrocosmos; the relation among Universes with different dimensions;
the union of the dimensional moduli, the union of the dimensional packages, etc.
38. Frontier dimensional Universes
All the different dimensional Universes have 2 frontier Universes; one
smaller and one larger. Our Universe with 4 dimensions (3 spatial + 1 time)
has a direct relation with 5 dimensions (4 spatial + 1 time) and 3 dimensions
(2 spatial + 1 time). With more dimensions, the speed of “light” is faster
and the gravity is lighter. With fewer dimensions, the speed of “light” is
slower and the gravity is stronger.
The speed of light is constant, only in the same dimensional Universe, and
it's the maximum limit for matter.
Our cosmic space is always faster than light. When matter is almost
reaching the speed of light, the particles acquire some properties of the next
Universe, and in that way, particles act as a duality, in our Universe, as
particles and as waves. The Universe with 5 dimensions (4+1) is a Universe
of “waves”. When gravity is increasing, we are reaching the Universe of 3
dimensions (2+1), a Universe of “shadows” (without shadows). The center
of black holes and the Big Bang have the maximum compression, or
maximum gravity density, and have Planck length in the 3 dimensions.
When the maximum speed of light or maximum gravitational field is
reached, time slows down. The Theory of Relativity becomes important
when the system is moving close to the speed of light or in an intense
gravitational field. In the case close to speed of light, quantum mechanics,
explain the duality of particles and waves. In the case of considerably
increasing a gravitational field, quantum cosmological will explain another
duality, of matter and “shadows”; but both have similar effects with time
dilation and Lorentz contraction. We need to relate our Universe with the
other two Universes. Dimensional analysis and dimensional synthesis are
very important, at least to accept its existence. We will develop this idea
further.
39. Minimum wedge of dimensional
modulus
The problem with this relation, between the frontier dimensional Universes,
acquires a difficulty, but at the same time, this helps to understand why 10
is the dimension of the string. We explained it before, from a mathematical
perspective, but now we will explain it from a physical standpoint.
The one-dimensional space-time (0+1) Universe can't have a frontier with
zero-dimensional (0+0) Universe, but it can have one with the other,
Universe 2(1+1).
Zero dimensional space-time doesn’t exist physically, because it is absolute
and infinite. Besides that, zero dimensional space-time can't have a frontier
because it's unlimited. For that reason, space-zero and time zero don’t exist,
at least physically.
The frontiers of the one-dimensional space-time Universe are 2 and 8,
forming the first dimensional modulus. In this case, the time correction
factor is very useful, not only in the one-dimensional Universe, but also in
the eight-dimensional Universe. Remember, vanished time acts in the
beginning and at the end (or close to them) of our Universe. In this case, the
effect is different, but it's the same concept. Nature uses the same rules,
but realizes different works, in order not to repeat exactly the same
thing, but maintaining the rhythm. Nature is very versatile, but at the
same time, efficient. The time correction factor is also more important in
the one and eight-dimensional Universes, the first and the last one. But even
being the same concept, there exists a minimal, but crucial difference.
The time correction factors: e+1/28 and e-2/28 are important factors especially
in the one dimensional Universe (0 space + 1 time); but also in the 8th
Universe by being the term that they need to be complete. In another words,
the one space-time Universe is also the necessary wedge to finish the 8th
Universe. A minimum wedge, different in each limit, whose value is:
Planck Length: e+1/28 = e+0.035714285 = 1.036359701cm
and final length: e-2/28 = e-0.071428571 = 0.931062779 cm
In logarithmic, exponential, or physical terms, it is the same thing: a
minimum term or minimum wedge. But in arithmetical terms, the difference
is notable and remarkably efficient. We will see it in the next section.
40. Differences between logarithmical and
arithmetical values
We can see the difference with the next simple calculations:
Nature is always efficient, and uses the same rules, obtaining many convenient, but
different results; using minimal differences. We will see another example in the next
sections.
41. Reason to complete 8th Universe with
9th Universe
The reason that we need to complete the 8th dimensional Universe with the
1st dimensional Universe (that it is, at the same time, the time correction
factor), is to avoid completing the 8th Universe by its own, and in that way,
continuing to the 9th dimension, without increasing the size and energy
unnecessarily, while continue increasing the dimensions of the Universe.
But as the 1st has its place in both moduli, remaining as space in the first
and in the second modulus, an so, a new one-dimensional Universe, of a
second modulus, acts as the necessary wedge, completing and using the
same system, to tie both modulus, like a hook. And so, the nine-dimensional
Universe of the second modulus completes the 8th Universe of first
modulus; ties them together, and acts like the 1st Universe of the second
modulus, repeating the same process, with different results and effects. And
so, the nine-dimensional Universe is also an (8)+1 Universe.
42. 10th Universe as a string Universe
In consequence, the following Universe, 10th, will be fundamentally a
string Universe. The 10th Universe would be only a (8)+2 Universe. We
know the Universe 2 (1+1), considering 1 spatial dimension plus one
temporal dimension. It is the first in the sequence of strings; the 10th would
be the second term in the sequence of string Universes. Superstring Theory,
with its entire mathematical framework, “teaches us that 10 and 26” are
dimensions of strings.
The 10th Universe (8)+2, with two moduli, needs a new symmetry, one that
introduces new spins, because the particles need to move in both moduli.
For example, the photon has spin 1, a complete revolution in one modulus.
With two moduli, it needs two revolutions, one in each modulus; and in that
moment, its spin would be 1/2. It's easy to show that by subtracting 1/2 to
the spin of particles or forces it can be demonstrated that superpartners are
absolutely necessary in a 10 dimensional Universe (8)+2. The third term of
the sequence is 26. Considering that nature follows the easiest path; going
to 26 is easier in a counterclockwise direction, and not in a clockwise one,
where the 10 dimensions “live”, as we can see in the figure.
In the 10th dimensional Universe (8)+2, strings are the fundamental
ingredients; but by having a complete modulus (8 dimensions) it also
contains other objects, with different dimensions but with a secondary
activity (vibrating two spatial dimensions membranes or “shadows”;
undulating three dimensional blobs (particles or three-branes); vibrating
four-branes (“waves”) (4+1) and a host of other numbers of branes; but in
10 dimensions, 8+2(1+1), strings are the most important, or fundamental,
ingredients. In that way, it is convenient to use the same terminology used
in superstring theory (or string theory for short). A one –brane is a string; a
two-brane is a membrane; a three-brane is a particle. In general, n-brane has
n-extended spatial dimensions. In any case, we need to add 1 time
dimension to determine the complete number of the space-time Universe.
Zero-brane can be called a monopole, or zero extended spatial dimensions,
or 1, if we include time (in this case, time would be the only extended
dimension).
43. Membranes in M-theory. Odd and
even numbered Universes
The Superstring Theory has 5 different types of itself; but from the second
superstring revolution emerged a new theory: M-theory, involving eleven
space-time dimensions, although in the beginning of its development and
with many doubts, yet.
Are membranes its fundamental ingredients?
The answer is definitively, yes.
According to the former sections, 11 dimensions mean 8+3(2+1), where 3 is
two spatial dimensions, or membranes, plus one temporal dimension.
In eleven dimensions, it is feasible to see all the different characteristics, or
differences, of a world of 10 dimensions. It is the same thing when we
immediately see every drawing in a flat sheet of paper, using the third
dimension (one extra dimension) or to identify five completely different
armies, in a field of battle, from a hilltop.
M-Theory using 11 dimensions can visualize the five string theories of 10,
as a part of a unified single framework. This is physically understandable
and mathematically possible.
M-Theory, having a complete modulus of 8, also contains strings, particles
and other p-branes, but fundamentally they are all membranes.
The sequence of M-theory would be: 3,11,27,51,83,123,171, and 227 (this
last term belonging to a second package); but even simplifying the five
types of String theory, it couldn’t develop the beautiful mathematical
consistence of strings. Universes with an even number of dimensions in
space-time (or odd, in spatial dimensions) are more coherent and their
evolutions form more developed Universes.
Our Universe of 4 dimensions (3+1) is an example of it.
The space-time Universes of 2, 4 (ours), 6, and 8, and consequently, 10, 12,
14, etc. dimensions are Universes in expansion.
The space-time Universes 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,11, 13, etc. dimensions are Universes
in contraction, a phenomenon that needs to be considered, because it is
profoundly sensitive in wave propagation. It is easily shown that in a
Universe with an odd number of space-time dimensions (or with an even
number of spatial dimensions) a wave doesn´t propagate cleanly, presenting
reverberation effects or disturbances; being impossible to transmit welldefined signals. Growth and development requires efficient transmission
and correctly processed information.
44. Development of the 12th space-time
Universe
We can develop the 12th Universe (8) + 4(3+1), which would be the second
term in the sequence of our Universe and its corresponding dimensional
worlds: 4, 12, 28, 52, 84, 124, 172, and 228 (the last term belonging to a
second dimensional package). All the packages are constituted by 224
dimensions (8x28).
However, mathematicians don´t try to research about this sequence; because
4th is our Universe, and 12th, dimensionally speaking, will be the second in
our sequence of Universes.
The problem is that some physicists always insist to consider that our
Universe is the only one. Calculations indicate that if all but four
dimensions are curled up, a system with more than 11 dimensions, will
necessarily give rise to massless particles with spin greater than 2, and
experimental and theoretical results don´t permit this to exist in our
Universe.
But we insist, our Universe has 4 dimensions (3+1). All the other Universes
of the same sequence are more complex Universes.
45. Formation of moduli. Big crush.
Alternating cycles. Speed of light
Any modulus has 8 dimensions (7 spatial + 1 time). Our modulus (the first)
contains 8 Universes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 (in space- time) or 0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, and 7 (in space, considering that it's necessary to add time as an
extra dimension in each of them). Time is not a separated entity, except in
Universe 1, where the temporal dimension is the only one that existed; and
in the last Universe, where we need the time dimension factor to act as a
wedge to complete Universe 8.
Because time acts as inverse space, we understood that the first Universe
begins to shrink, and after that, the alternating process, shrink-stretch,
follows, in the creation and collapse of Universes.
a) Any Universe needs movement, and it's always expanding or
contracting, except for a “while” where a complete new dimension
appears; producing an inflection point; when the movement ceases, and
changes direction.
b) Between the collapse of a Universe, until a new dimension appears,
there exists a time of fractal-dimension, where the new dimension
begins to develop. The process is continuous, and increases step by
step, until the new dimension completely appears, and the process is:
New Universe= Former Universe +1
c) During the development of a Universe, from the minimum limit to the
maximum limit, or the other way around, the components inside them
(in our case, matter and forces) have a speed limit, known as the speed
of light, permanently constant in each Universe, but different among
them. Space moves faster than light, but it is an abstract entity.
46. Hyperbolic function in the Universe.
Cozero and cofinity
When any Universe is developing, it maintains, from the beginning to the
last event, a hyperbolic function. That means, that normally, a Universe will
never stop, since hyperbolic means that even at “infinity”, movement will
continue; Or in other words, that the Universe will expand forever, being
“infinite” in extent; or in the case of contraction, it will contract forever,
until it reaches a point of zero space (and zero time), or “singularity”.
These absurdities, physically speaking, must be eliminated from
Physics. Infinities and singularities don’t concern Physics and must be
separated from all new Physics books. Old calculator machines tried to
reach infinities. When dividing by zero, they began to change the result,
increasing it continuously without stop. It was necessary to stop the
machine, turn it off, or wait until the machine breaks, burns up, or puts itself
out of order. Infinity is inaccessible!
Today, new calculators, smaller, cheaper, and lighter, simply and
immediately give the answer “E” (error).
Why are physicists, the smartest people in our planet, still using
infinities and singularities?
If nobody has the slightest idea on how to find the solution to these
irregularities, we could use other terms as substitutes: cofinity, cozero or
cosingularity (
, ø) where the line in the middle means limit; because
vacuum with limits is physically correct, but vacuum without limits (∞, 0)
is not. These last terms are indistinguishable and impossible to reach.
For example, we can say: “hyperbolic function expands longer than cofinity
or contracts shorter than cozero space-time, or cosingularity”. This is at
least digestible.
47. Origin and destiny of our Universe
In many Physics books, we read the cosmological principle: “It can be
shown that the Universe can only have one of three forms: it can be
'positively' curved like the surface of a ball and finite in extent, in that case,
the Universe ultimately returns to its starting point; it can be 'negatively'
curved like a saddle and infinite in extent, or it can be 'flat' and Infinite in
extent. In both infinities, Universes never return to its starting point."
First of all, we pointed out the former principle, for example how the
infinities are used in Physics as any other quantity.
But secondly, we need to talk about the origin and destiny of our Universe.
The Universe cannot be flat, due to gravitational effects of matter and its
corresponding distortion of space-time; it cannot be infinite, because space
zero doesn’t exist, and so the Big Bang cannot be zero. It had a minimum
limit and in consequence, it will have a maximum limit that will be its own
cofinity. Moreover in a mathematical sense, the only way for the projection
of a Universe to be completely flat, the Universe needs to begin at the
center of all extended dimensions. Even without gravitational effects, space
can never be flat if the origin was not zero.
The Universe is curved, even if it's now almost flat. The question then
arises if the rate of expansion of our Universe has been slowing down
(decelerating), due to the gravitational pull of matter in itself, causing the
Universe to ultimately collapse back onto itself (elliptical Universe); or if
the expansion of the Universe might, in fact, be speeding up (accelerating),
and in that way, the Universe will expand forever.
48. Expansion of our Universe. Cosmological
variable and dark energy
We affirmed before that the tendency of our Universe (4th in space-time) is to expand. The
existence of the cosmological variable (known as the cosmological constant), which never
will be zero, is a fundamental factor that constitutes the “dark energy” necessary to expand
the Universe. Moreover, we don’t know how gravity acts at enormous distances, and as we
stated before, Universes with an even number of space-time dimensions (or odd number of
spatial dimensions) always tend to expand. The question now would be: How does it
expand?
In a hyperbolic function, it will continuously expand, even after the maximum limit, or
cofinite space, is reached. But when will it stop? Or in parabolic function, it will
continuously expand until the maximum limit, or cofinite space, is reached.
The calculations prove that the expansion of our Universe is a hyperbolic function. The
fact that a parallel Universe exists, coherently situated and perfectly distanced from ours,
at 2λp length (a Planck in each side), both with CPT symmetry (matter-antimatter; spinopposite spin; and time-inverse time); impossible to contact it; completes the affirmation:
our Universe is hyperbolic.
We live in a Universe of 3 spatial-dimensions, and for that reason, it forms a hyperboloid
of two sheets, instead of a hyperboloid of one sheet, due to the fact that both Universes are
separated. In Mathematics, a hyperboloid is a quadric, a type of surface in three spatial
dimensions described by the equation (in case of hyperboloid of two sheets) x2/a2 +y2/b2 z2/c2 =-1.
Where, at the pre-Big Bang, a, b, c, have Planck length each. The apparent space is
(n.space-1) and so, we can visualize the hyperbola as the characteristic effect of the
hyperbolic function in a space of two spatial dimensions, like a flat sheet of paper. When a
hyperboloid is drawn, a key limitation is produced, due to the fact that we can only portray
the curvature of a 2 dimensional plane of an actual 3-dimensional space.
In mathematics, the hyperbola has the equation:
x2/a2 -y2/b2 =1
We will work with these formulas later.
49. Avoiding zero in Physics
Any hyperbolic function expands “forever”. In mathematics we can use any
value, invent scales, use zero, include zero at the origin of a scale of
temperature, or space, or time. But this is completely different in physical
terms. Humanity delayed its development, because they took a long time to
use zero in mathematics. But using zero in Physics is another kind of
backwardness. Zero in Physics produces singularities, and in consequence,
infinities.
Nature works with logarithmic scales, and log 0 and ln0 don’t exist. For that
reason, we need to explain “forever” in physical terms. In the case of a
parabolic Universe, the correction is easy: change infinity to cofinity. “The
expansion will stop at cofinity”. But in hyperbolic functions, this change is
not sufficient. It is the opportunity to change a wrong concept, for another
one that is a little better, while we find the solution.
“The expansion will not stop at cofinity; and it will keep expanding”.
The correct answer that in some manner we have mentioned before in a
superficial way is: “The expansion will not stop at cofinity. It will keep
expanding, but the slope and rate of expansion will be slowed down by
the appearance of a new spatial dimension in a fractal way, step by
step, forming a parabolic function, and it will stop at the new cofinity,
the maximum length of the 4th spatial dimension. In that moment, the
new Universe will stop expanding and start contracting in a hyperbolic
function. The 4th spatial dimension Universe, 5th in space-time (4+1),
will not stop when it arrives to its minimum limit. It will keep
contracting, starting another fractal dimension, also in a parabolic
function as the previous one, until it stops at the appearance of a
completely new dimensional Universe, at the minimum limit of this new
Universe. The new Universe, the 5th (6th in space-time) begins to
expand. This keeps going in an alternating cycle of expanding and
contracting phases, with new spatial dimensions appearing after the
collapse of a previous Universe.
50. Fractal dimension. Big Crush
We need to point out that every time a Universe “moves into a fractaldimension, there exists a contracting phase of the former dimension and an
expanding or contracting phase of the new dimension. In both cases, in
expanding and contracting Universes, apparently different, it is a similar
process, an accelerating contraction phase of the former dimension, and the
appearance of the new dimension.
The only difference is apparent, because in one case, space = R (in the
maximum limit) an in the other case, space = 1/R (in the minimum limit).
For us this is a big difference, but for Nature, both are very similar. The
concept is: While the minimum is shorter, the maximum is longer. We
notice, the Universe expands or contracts. It never ceases to move, even in
the beginning of the development of a new spatial dimension, in a fractal
basis, until the new dimension completely appears. When the former
Universe is contracting, a new spatial dimension also begins to develop
until a new Universe appears. Universes with an even number of spatial
dimensions (or odd number in space-time) begin to contract, initiating in a
Big Crunch, a reverse Big Bang. And in an inverse process, Universes with
an odd number in spatial dimensions (or even number in space-time
dimensions), like ours, begin to expand, initiating in a Big Bang.
In both, until the appearance of a new Universe, there exists a suddenly,
enormously accelerated phenomenon, destructive, almost instantaneous,
and continuously accelerating exponentially in a fractal dimension. We will
call it Big Crush. Our Universe had a Big Bang (3+1), but after that, a Big
Crunch will appear (4+1); but between both of them, a Big Crush (3~4+1),
will need to appear.
We will detail, with simple explanations and drawing some sketches, the
physical process about the formation of our first Universe modulus: 1, 2, 3,
4 (ours), 5, 6, 7, and 8 (space-time-dimensions), and after that, simple
mathematical calculations about them. Just like we talked about Higgs
bosons (4 forces generating 3 Higgs bosons), 8 dimensions mean 7 fractal
dimensions or Big Crushes.
51. Dimensional modulus with maximum
and minimum limits
The figure shows a way to represent a modulus. Taking into account
minimum limits, Universe 8 is the shortest and Universe 1 is the longest.
With maximum limits, Universe 8 is the longest and 1 is the shortest. Both
sequences are opposite.
As we see in the figure, the sequence of fractal dimensions ends with the
contraction 7~8. Since 8 is the last term, the time correction factor acts and
the dimension is not totally complete in its minimum length. 8th expands,
but it stops before it ends. In a symmetrical way, both length limits, (the last
lengths of the moduli) need a corresponding wedge to close them, just as we
mentioned before. The wedges are the 9th dimension (8+1). The first
modulus is completed, and we begin a second modulus, inserting the 1st
dimension of the second modulus (9th) like a hook.
52. Time as the only dimension in the first
Universe
Like we explained before, the Universes began with the appearance of
limited space; like a tiny cosmic “seed” in the form of quantum fluctuation
of nothing. When space is limited, time needs to appear, but not as a
separated unit. Space and time are always tied together in the development
of any Universe, as space-time; but at the beginning and at the end, time
vanishes into space, and both integrate a single unit. Time is converted into
space.
In that way, even in the first Universe, even if only time is developed, we
need to talk about space-time; zero-space and zero-time don´t exist in any
physical Universe. All odd-numbered space-time Universes begin with their
maximum limit, in a contraction phase or Big Crunch. The 1st space-time
Universe started that way, and so it could be named the first Big Crunch;
but due to the fact that it was the first dot ever produced, nothing existing
before it, it's better to name it the first Big Bang, or with an intermediate
term: The First Event.
The 1st Universe is completely different to the others. With no mass, no
velocity, and no particles. In that Universe, it is impossible to divide space
or time. Space-time exists, but with zero spatial dimension or zero-branes,
ordinary geometry doesn’t function, and conventional notions of space and
of distance between points melt away, producing a totally different
landscape.
The “points” are impossible to represent and are only abstract concepts.
Time is the only dimension developed and in that way, there only exists a
duality of time-inverse time, both like two parallel Universes.
The common geometry, need to be replaced for a non-commutative
geometry.
In brief, in the 1st Universe, space-time exists; spatial dimension is zero;
temporal dimension is one.
53. Dipoles and monopoles. Magnetic
monopoles
Unlike electricity, magnetic poles always seem to appear in pairs, north and
south. In any bar magnet, one end will act as a positive pole and the other as
a negative pole. If the bar is cut, new poles appear at the position of the cut,
producing two magnets, each with a positive and a negative pole. All the
objects in our Universe have 3 spatial dimensions. We could cut in any
dimension, and we would obtain the same result.
In our Universe, it's impossible to isolate a magnetic monopole.
Are isolated magnetic poles forbidden in nature?
The answer is: In our Universe, yes; but in the 1st space-time Universe, the
answer would be: no
Magnetic monopoles don´t possess a complex internal structure like GUM
predicted. They would be point particles, with no mass, impossible to
divide. The 1st space-time Universe has a parallel Universe, just like our
Universe; but instead of matter-antimatter, it would be: monopole (+) and
monopole (-); with time and inverse-time.
In that way, the 1st space-time Universe has a parallel Universe. There is
only a magnetic monopole in the whole Universe, with the opposite
monopole on the other side of the cosmos, its parallel Universe.
Remember, time is inverse space, and in that way, we have 2 Universes, one
side by side.
As Dirac investigated, with only one magnetic monopole in the whole
Universe, electric charge is forced into every electron to be what it is, and in
general terms, the charge of every particle is too.
The 1st Universe gives the basis fixing of the charges of our particles.
As we know, there exist quantum connections, as a new kind of non-local
relationships between elements that are distant from each other, even in a
faster than light connection, or sometimes between our twin dimensional
Universe.
54. Positive and negative monopoles in the
first Universe
The Standard Big Bang theory predicts that a superabundance of monopoles
would have been created at the beginning of the Universe. This could be
correct, if we consider an oscillating Universe. Monopoles were formed
just at the beginning of the Universe, the 1st Universe. Other bizarre
objects, known as “strings” and “sheets”, must also appear at the beginning.
The problem, of how to get the Universe rid of these undesirable entities,
has a simple answer using the multidimensional (gravitational) Universe.
Strings were formed in the 2nd (1+1) Universe; membranes, sheets, or
domain walls in the 3rd (2+1) Universe. Particles, our cosmic bricks,
were formed in our 4th (3+1) Universe. Inflation exists, but it doesn’t
solve the nonexistence of magnetic monopoles; or real strings; or real
membranes in our Universe, because even the enormous swelling of
space never dilutes a measurable quantity to zero density. The answer
is in the multidimensional Universe. All the matter of our Universe is
composed by particles, all with 3 spatial dimensions + 1 time. We live in 4dimensional Universe and in consequence, all the entities living in our
Universe are plenty adapted to it.
55. First event and measures
The First Event is the appearance of space-time, contracting into a
hyperbolic function at constant “speed of light”. Without any way to divide
space into real separated entities, there is no possibility to have velocity and
time.
Nevertheless we can divide h/c, or the maximum limit by the constant speed
of light in our Universe, in order to obtain the maximum time.
2.923096699 x 1032 cm / 2.99792458 x 1010 cm/s = 9.750401056 x 1021 s
And use it as a constant time for all Universes. We can call it: Period.
Just like we use the minimum limit, or Planck limit, dividing it by the
constant speed of light to obtain what the physicists call: chronos.
1.615979906 x 10-33 / 2.99792458 x 1010=5.39032875 x 10-44 s
In the First Event, the “speed” of light, would be:
0.931062779 cm / 9.750401056 x 1021 s =9.548969056 x 10-23 cm/s
And the “chronos” would be:
1.036359701 cm / 9.548969056 x 10-23 cm/s = 1.085310566 x 1022 s
We can observe that the Period in this Universe is smaller than its chronos,
and this is another affirmation to show that the 1st Universe has zero spatial
dimensions.
Notwithstanding, it is necessary to clarify that the only real measures are
the maximum and minimum limits; the other measures, even a “lot” of
monopoles, are derived from our normal concepts in the other ordinary
Universes.
56. Entropy. Four laws for the existence of
oscillating Universe
An oscillating Universe, without change in the number of dimensions,
cannot exist.
A fundamental problem would be that entropy always increases (and this is
a measure of the flow of time).
Entropy is the thermodynamic property that measures the amount of
disorder in the Universe.
Even if the Universe was to contract and shrink back into a consingularity,
entropy would continue to increase in the contracting phase of its cycles.
This has a least four serious consequences:
a) The steady build up of entropy always falls back toward the
cosingularity, harder than when it first emerged from it.
b) The next cycle of expansion starts out faster and stronger that in the
previous cycle.
c) Entropy will always rise, leading to successively hotter Big Bangs and
successively longer “life cycles”.
d) The entropy of any Universe is tremendously big. Moreover, the
colossal contribution of entropy of black holes, increasing their
numbers in the final stages of any Universe, and the entropy due to the
complete collapse of the former dimensions produce a maximum
quantity of entropy. How does it disappear?
57. Big Bang and Big Crunch. Entropy
used to form spacial dimensions
We know the expansion out of any Big Bang (and we can add, the
contraction out of any Big Crunch) at the beginning is very smooth and
regular, very low in entropy (At least with no discussion, our Big-Bang was,
according of calculations, very low in entropy).
What happened with the enormous quantity of entropy that was formed?
To solve the four apparent problems mentioned before, it is necessary to
establish the multidimensional modulus. The cycles are not in the same
dimension and so: shorter minimum limits, longer maximum limits; harder
and faster contractions, stronger and faster expansions; increase in entropy
in any Universe, and hotter Big Bangs in each new Universe etc., are
confirmed one by one by the change in spatial dimensions.
But what happened to the loss in entropy at the beginning of a new
Universe, after the colossal increase in entropy during the collapse of the
former Universe?
The answer is simple.
All the entropy was necessary to form the new spatial dimension. We
observe in the relation, E=mc2, where a small quantity of mass, produces an
enormous quantity of energy. The energy was within the mass, forming its
own microcosmos.
The entropy of a collapsing former Universe is not lost. It is necessary to
form the more energetic new Universe, or in another words, the new spatial
dimension.
Even with the considerable increase in entropy in the collapse of any
Universe and the appearance of a lot of black holes, increasing even much
more the entropy, they are all necessary in order to have available energy to
form a new dimension, and in consequence a new, bigger, and more
energetic Universe.
If we have a Universe existing in a flat sheet of paper, by increasing a new
spatial dimension (height in this case), we can add billions of billions of
Universes, one on top of the other.
Black holes provide a mechanism to increase the entropy considerably, and
it shows another fundamental key function of black holes for the evolution
of Universes, besides the function explained before (interchange of matterantimatter). The gravitational waves spread both outward into the
Universes, “irradiating” energy, but the ones that fall inward are blueshifted.
The inflow of blueshifted gravitational radiation that carries energy will
produce an extraordinary increase in mass inside the black hole. From
outside, however, this additional increase of mass is out of the account of
the original mass that collapsed to make the hole, because no information,
about this new huge mass, will be at disposal of outside observation. But
after collapse, in the Big Crush, all the matter, particles, even Black holes,
will be destroyed. The matter and energy will be converted into entropy.
The entropy will increase ludicrously and enormously after the collapse
(cofinite entropy), but it will be used to form a new spatial dimension and
the new dimensional Universe will begin with a smooth origin, with cozero
entropy.
58. Process in the 1st Universe when the
2nd is reached
The 1st Universe contracted, in a hyperbolic way, until its limit was
reached, at a constant “speed” of light, and it proceeded contracting, in a
parabolic way, in a fractal dimension. The first Big Crush appeared, and its
dimensional sequence was 1~2. When 2 is reached, a new dimensional
Universe appeared, the first in a sequence of String Universes, and after a
“while” stopping, it changed its way and began to expand, in a hyperbolic
way, at constant speed of light to its maximum limit. The 2nd Universe has
n=1 space dimension +1 time dimension, and its values are:
Minimum limit: e-8πn-n/28 = e-25.16845551 = 1.173487998 x10-11 cm
Speed of light: 7.851765431 x10-12 cm/s
Chronos: 1.173487998 x10-11 cm / 7.851765431 x 10-12 cm/s = 1.490755801
s
Maximum limit: e+8πn-(2n^2)/28 = 7.655786195 x 1010 cm
The sequence will follow an alternating cycle of expanding-expanding-stopcontracting-contracting-stop-expanding-expanding-stop-contractingcontracting-stop, etc.
In order to not repeat the same processes, we will draw a sketch for the
sequences and summary measures. Although our Universe is detailed as λp3
and M3 (Planck length 3 and Maximum length 3) and in 4th Universe (3+1);
and the normal explanations and calculations in our Universe, can suppose
an indirect demonstration of other dimensions; the calculation about other
Universes might seem for some, a pointless piece of esoteric or
metaphysical speculations. We will study our Universe with more detail and
in a deeper way.
59. Process that forms dimensional modulus
Table about process to form one dimensional modulus.
60. Development of Universes (graph)
61. Measures in the space-time Universes
(1 to 8)
Notes:
a) *In the 1st and 8th Universes, we use the space limits (maximum and
minimum) with the time correction factor included.
b) In the 1st Universe, maximum and minimum are inverse, different to
other dimensional universes.
c) Cosmic time or period, is left constant in all the Universes.
62. Time of our Universe
The concept that the Universe is infinite goes a long way back in the history
of Science; and inexplicably, infinities are still used in many opportunities,
even for the existence of “infinite” Universes, or that our Universe expands
“forever”. However, cosmologists today are more willing to consider the
idea that the Universe is infinite in space, but not in time. The Standard
Model puts a definite time in the past: the Big Bang, approximately 15
billion years ago. New calculations prefer to use 13.7 billion years, but not
more than 14 billion years.
In spatial terms, there is room in an infinite Universe, for every
possible thing to happen, including cofinite absurdities.
Recently, the term Multiverse is used, where our Universe is but one of an
enormous number of distinct Universes, completely separated among them.
Some scientists speak about a Multiverse of 10500 (106 is equivalent to one
million different Universes); but others consider that the Multiverse itself is
infinite in every direction, in space as well as in time.
In any way, the Multiverse is related to quantum mechanics, and in that
way, the range of possibilities are endless. The process to develop
Universes would be chaotic; the quantum waves are incoherent; the creation
and destruction of Universes would be colossal; and the uncertainty
principle and quantum fluctuations would be disastrous.
The answer to those questions is gravity.
Quantum Theory predicts the Multiverse, where our Universe is only one
of many Universes that appeared spontaneously out of nothing. The
Dimensional Universes, based on gravitational waves are totally
different: ordered, coherent, derived one from the other (the former
and the next), in beautiful, physical, and mathematical sequences.
The Universes, according to gravitational waves, are all coherent. Besides a
parallel Universe (mirror symmetry), there exists a dimensional process in
space-time that we explained before. The relation between Universes is the
gravitational wave. It is an ordered and coherent wave. All the Universes
are in an exact space-time, and it is impossible to change this. Gravity is
overwhelmingly important in the scale of stars, galaxies, and Universes. It
is the only force that has relation among Universes. Any Universe begins
with a gravity boson in its First event. In the Big Bang, in an even spacetime Universe, or in the Big Crunch, in an odd space-time Universe, all the
forces are together, having the same value; immediately after that, gravity is
separated from the others. However, at the beginning of any Big Crush, in
expanding or contracting phases, a new gravity boson appears, and its
appearance is not the effect, neither the cause, of the destruction of any
Universe. In the macroscopic scale, the Universe is destroyed by the
appearance of a new dimension of space, which is done gradually, in a
fractal way. The equivalent principle in the microcosmos is the gravitational
boson. As we know, a graviton alone is enough to cause the collapse of
quantum waves. For that reason, there is no measurable gravity in particles.
(Real gravitational waves in Higgs fields don’t exist, except in the first
Higgs field, during the Big Bang).
When the new dimension finally appears, a new dimensional Universe
appears. The sequences of the evolution of the Universes were previously
explained.
63. Increase in the mass of the Universe.
Zero net energy increase
The gravitational energy associated with a lump of matter is always
negative, or in other words, the gravitational field contains negative
entropy. The relation of gravitation, between a Universe and the next, is
from maximum to minimum, in any dimensional change. At the beginning
of any Universe, entropy is always at its minimum; and at its end, entropy is
at its maximum.
The negative energy associated with the gravitational field in the Universe:
negative mc2, would be equivalent and opposite to the rest mass energy of
matter itself, positive mc2. Both energies are practically equal, and together
they precisely cancel out.
If we add the positive kinetic energy of the Universe, equivalent to (1/2)mv2
or +mc2, and the negative energy associated to the cosmological “constant”,
equivalent to (1/6)Λmr2c2 or minus mc2, the Universe has approximately
zero energy overall.
In mathematical terms, we have.
ϕ=mc2+(1/2)mv2-(Rc4)/G-(1/6)Λmr2c2
We can derive four things from the last equation.
a) With the accelerated expansion of the Universe, its mass continuously
increases.
b) The speed of the kinetic energy of the Universe is always faster than
light.
c) Even if the cosmological “constant” decreases with time, the
mathematical value of its negative energy increases with time.
d) Every energy, two positives and two negatives that are in the Universe,
are equivalent to mc2 each. The total result is cozero, or almost zero,
energy.
64. Footing and foundation of the
Universe
Human constructions need a solid infrastructure, with resistant materials,
and an adequate study of the soil. The footing and foundations must be of
the proper size and in the proper location. They must be strong enough to
withstand the pressure and weight of the buildings, and to avoid bowing or
buckling. The footing is a concrete pad placed on the soil. The foundation
wall is built on the footing. The footing holds the weight of the entire
building and its contents, and resists from sinking into the soil. The size of
the footing depends upon the load and the type of soil. Piers and columns
rest on the footing. Structures must be strong enough to support loads
without bending or breaking. In summary, the footing and the foundations
need to be strong in order to have the necessary endurance to make up the
basement upon which the building is built, supporting its weight. If the
foundation of any building is not strong enough, it begins to weaken, and it
will eventually collapse. All human constructions require foundation and
footing, with strength proportional to the weight of the mass that needs to
support; but the Universe was built in a completely different way, a very
efficient one. The footing and foundation of any Universe is simply a
very tiny vacuum, in the minimum limit, with Planck length; with the
condition that it is impossible to shrink it. Besides that, the footing and
foundations of any Universe are smaller when the Universe is larger.
(According to the law: the minimum of any Universe is inverse to its
maximum). Instead of increasing the mass and the strength of the
“foundation”, the Universe is supported by a vacuum with wormhole limits,
with Planck length size (In our Universe, 1.615979906 x 10-33 cm). The
wormhole with our parallel Universe of antimatter existed in our Pre-Big
Bang scenario, when the Universe reached its inflection point; and stopped,
with no movement, forming a perfect cube, but since it has not defined
lines, we prefer to call it a “cuboide”. In our 4th Universe (space-time),
there are 8 “cuboides”, 4 in our Universe and 4 in our parallel Universe of
antimatter, (Forming a wormhole, with length of 2λp; λp on each Universe.
In the 3rd Universe (space-time) there were “4 squaroides”, with size
1.377074081 x 10-22 cm each). In the 4th Universe, with the up-down
direction, it has 4x2=8 “cuboides”.
65. Pre Big Bang scenario. Wormholes
This Pre-Big Bang scenario needs to be quiet, prefect, intact; impossible to
break or deform; impossible to shrink or stretch; a vacuum, impossible to
change. It's the perfect foundation and footing. A vacuum (almost nothing)
supporting the tremendous mass of the Universe, which is constantly
increasing. The principle is simple: impossible to change or deform, it
doesn’t need to have a big mass, only an unchangeable length. subPlanck distances don’t exist in our Universe, because if the size of
Planck length shrinks, it would be equivalent to weakening its structure
and the Universe would eventually collapse.
When movement began (speed) in the first chronos; mass, the constants of
nature, and the different energies, emerged. Mass formed irregularities in
the fabric of space-time; kinetic energy deformed the perfect sphere, wider
in the Equator, and shorter in North Pole-South Pole axis. The
Cosmological variable stretched space, and in that way, the Universe began
to develop, but since that moment it is not useful to sustain the Universe.
But wormholes with static shapes continued to exist in our Universe. The
Big Bang (including the Pre-Big Bang scenario), in the instant of the
development of the third dimension of space, stopped for a “while”. It did
not occur like a single point in space that expanded with an “explosion”. It
was not an expansion of matter into space; it's the expansion of space itself.
The Universe is expanding. It is better thought as the simultaneous
appearance of space everywhere in the Universe, and it continues to
expand. The static Pre-Big Bang scenario (vacuum with limits) continues
existing at any place, waiting for more powerful accelerators, strong enough
to reach them. When Planck length is reached, the Big Bang, and the
wormholes – the pathways to our parallel Universe and the foundation of
both Universes, the Pre-Big-Bang scenario, will be reached too.
66. Hyperbolic functions of the Universe.
Inflection point
Describing only our four-dimensional (space-time) Universe and the three-dimensional
(space-time) Universe we apparently see, although the relation is similar in other
dimensional Universes, they always develop as a hyperbolic function: a hyperbola in the
3rd Universe and a hyperboloid of two sheets in the 4th Universe, both in space-time.
Remember, before any Universe begins to move, there is an inflection point where the
Universe stops, before a new cycle begins. The essence of any Universe is movement, but
in the inflection point, there is no movement, only a tendency to it. The movement is
absolutely necessary to develop any Universe, but it tends to deform it, or in better words,
tends to form some “irregularities”, that instead of being defects, are essential in the
creation of future stars, galaxies, and constellations. Remember, nature is wise and
completely efficient. All is perfectly calculated. Any inefficient process is simply the
product of human imagination.
But the “foundation” of the Universe needs to be static with a perfect shape. Depending of
the number of spatial dimensions, the wormhole is formed by a “virtual” structure; vacuum
with limits, with straight lines equal in each dimension, in order to form a compact unity.
A sphere with no movement is a “perfect” structure, but it is impossible to fill a complex
space with spheres (except in the 1st Universe, where a “sphere” is a straight line). Besides
that, when the sphere begins to move, it starts to deform. The foundation needs to be
exactly the same in every place. A small difference means a fracture, and the beginning of
a collapse. Planck length, and its corresponding shape and size, according to the
dimensional Universe we are talking about, is impossible to shrink, but it also needs to be
impossible to stretch, not even by an infinitesimal increase. This is the case of the Pre-Big
Bang stage. The hyperbolic functions begin with the first movement. We have speed and
time, and in consequence, mass. It's the first “point” (dot) in the hyperbolic figure. If we
take the hyperbola for example, the corresponding hyperbolic function at our apparent
Universe (the Universe we can see), we find:
There is no regular form (this is not the “foundation” support of the Universe). That was
the Pre-Big Bang scenario. When the hyperbolic function begins, the Universe begins to
develop and to form elements and eventually, life.
In a hyperbola, we have two square terms, and in consequence, + and –. In that way, we
obtained 4 different directions:
+x+y :first quadrant
x+y :second quadrant
-x-y :third quadrant
+x-y :fourth quadrant
And this is the origin of the 4 “squaroides”, the “foundation” or support of the 3rd spacetime Universe. In our Universe (3+1), the 8 ”cuboides”, according to the directions, are:
x+y+z
x+y-z
-x+y+z
-x+y-z
-x-y+z
-x-y-z
+x-y+z
+x-y-z
They are obtained by adding +z and –z (the 2 directions of the new spatial dimension) to
each direction of the former Universe. This is equivalent to 4x2=8.
In the next section we will explain, with this figure, why the initial curvature of the
Universe goes away. The inflation can’t explain it, and its explanations are only apparent
from an incomplete perspective.
67. Causes of the inflation of our Universe
The inflation of the Universe is absolutely true, but the exact theory needs
to be adjusted. However inflation is produced by:
a) The permanent faster-than-light expansion of Universe.
b) The interchange phases during the appearance of three Higgs Bosons
in the microcosmos era, which increased the normal inflation to a
different moment of exponential inflation.
The objective of inflation is to create matter and antimatter, by means
of the residual heat produced by inflation. In the microcosmos, there
was a lot of matter creation, because the “bricks” of the Universe
(particles) were formed. The extra-energy produced by the normal
inflation was increased by the change of phases, producing a much
faster inflation. But until now, and until the last event, mass will
continuously be formed in the Universe, in a minor scale, in accordance
to our arithmetical time. The inflation is permanent, the hyperbolic
function will continue until the maximum space limit of our Universe is
reached: 2.923096699 x 1032 cm (9.750401056 x 1021 s). The reason of
inflation is to make energy, and in consequence, mass; this is evident, but
the other effects of inflation: the dilution of monopoles and the explanation
of why the Universe is almost flat right now is not convincing. We talked
before about monopoles; and now, we will refer to the curvature of our
Universe. Like we said before, the Universe will never be flat. The causes:
it began with a non-zero Planck size; and the mass of the Universe produces
gravity, and this force tends to bend the Universe (“Space tells matter how
to move; matter tells space how to bend”). But we know that in the
beginning, the Universe had a more pronounced curvature. The example
that inflation reduced the curvature is not necessarily true. When the
Universe increases in size, and an observer stays without any change, is
logical that the observed object is flatter, from the point of view of the
observer, even if it has the same curvature. For example: an astronaut would
see earth like a globe from outer space but, as the astronaut approaches
Earth, it would seem flatter, it would seem almost flat as he lands, and
standing on the ground, he would see straight lines on the horizon. It is only
a subject of relation of apparent size. The most flatness, the straight lines,
would be seen when the tangent (point of contact) is reached. However, the
curvature of the Earth continues to be the same.
68. Curvature and inflation of our Universe
Increasing the size of Universe by inflation does not necessarily changes its
curvature; and any scientific position is always independent from the criterion of
observers. The curvature of our Universe decreases with time. It is a natural process of
our Universe, due to the hyperbolic character of its space. At the beginning, space is curve
and it reduces its curvature while the Universe is expanding. It will never be completely
flat, but it will always be approaching the diagonals in an asymptotical way. The
mathematical explanation is easy. Space in our Universe will never be flat, because
according to the reality and the principles of the Superstring theory, the Big Bang had non
zero space. If Planck length (1.615979906x10-33 cm or
-75.50536654 (In)) is not zero, space can't be zero. The hyperbola formula confirms it. (In
hyperbolic formulas with more spatial dimensions, the procedure is similar, but
mathematically more complicated).
Notes:
* We put y as zero from a mathematical sense. In physical terms, while x exists, y can
never be zero, since x in our Universe, has always y (and z) size, even infinitesimally.
** The relation is easy to see. The difference between x2 and y2 is always λp2. The
influence of this difference is strong at the beginning, with small measures, and it is almost
negligible in bigger measures. The curvature at the beginning is very pronounced; and
decreases considerably with time. A flat Universe would be when y and x have identical
size. At the beginning, the curvature is at its maximum. Right now, the Universe is almost
flat, but it will never be completely flat. This mathematical relation doesn’t depend on the
point of view of the observers, neither on its subjective criterion. It is basically a condition
of the Universe.
69. Mass and space. Uncertainty principle
in mass of particles
The relation of mass is always a relation of space. Two different kinds of
mass are essential in the Universe: the masses of particles, depending of the
uncertainty principle (quantum waves) and the mass of the Universe,
(gravitational waves). The formula for particles is exact, and it is related to
the constants ℏ and c.
ℏ=mcλ, so ℏ/c= mλ
And this is accepted by all the scientific community, although inexplicably,
it is then discarded, with no intention, by accepting the wrong concept that
before the appearance of the Higgs weak boson, all the particles lacked
mass.
The other formula, for cosmic mass, is exact at the beginning of Universe,
when the Universe didn't have irregularities. The sphere was completely
exact in the first chronos and practically exact in the microcosmos era, with
exponential inflation and a sea of particles with no measurable gravity. In
the macrocosmos era, the formula is approximately exact, and we can show
that this relation is basically true in our Universe.
GM~Rc2
Where G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the Universe, and R
is its radius.
The formula is exact, but the result is only approximately exact, due to the
irregularities of the Universe; which are essential to form the structures to
support life. Scientists don’t completely accept this equation, and in the
past, they even tried to avoid its use; presenting a class of theories, termed
“scale-covariant”, where in some of these theories, G varies with time.
Experimental results found that some seconds after the Big Bang, G was
essentially what it is now. More easily, the constant value of G, ℏ, and c are
fixed at the first chronos, when all the 4 forces were united, equating both
formulas. G is totally constant from the first chronos to the last event,
just like c and ℏ.
In that position G/c2 =k'=R/M or c2/G=k''=M/R.
And like we explained before, we can obtain λp, Mp, R1u and, M1u. Since R
is variable, M needs to change in a direct relation. The mass of Universe
increases with time, as R is increasing in size. Also, it is obvious that the
age of the Universe divided by its mass is a constant.
70. Cosmological "constant" and density
of vacuum
The hyperbola, as the shape of the 3rd space-time Universe; and the
hyperboloid of 2 sheets, as the shape of the 4th Space-time Universe, are
correct representations of them, considering time in the evolution of the
Universe. In an instant of time (dt), we have approximately exact circles
and spheres, in each Universe.
In our Universe, it is easy to obtain the density of vacuum in a simplified
form in any instant of time.
ρvac (Λc2)/(8πG)
Considering that Λ is constant, it is possible to interpret it as a fixed mass
density. Λ is bounded empirically by Λ < 3 x 10-56 cm-2. So, the critical
density is obtained
ρc < 1.61 x 10-29 g/cm3
However, the Universe changes its density, from a larger value at the time
of the Big Bang, to a minimum value at the last event. The actual density of
the Universe, approximately similar to the critical density, is only a
coincidence. But since Λ is variable, ρvac varies with time. We can obtain an
approximate density of the Universe in any instant of time, considering the
approximate mass of Universe according to the relation Rc2/G=M; and
volume approximately equal to (4/3)πr3.
Example in the Big Bang:
≅
Mass = Rc2/G = λpc2/G = 2.176814012 x 10-5 g
Volume (4/3)πλp3 = 1.767650814 x 10-98 cm3
ρvac 1.231472865 x 1093 g/cm3
≅
If we use the formula
≅
≅
ρvac (Λc2)/(8πG)
We can obtain the same result, using the correct value of Λ at the time of
the Big Bang, approximately 10120 times bigger than the empirical result of
Λ obtained in the present time.
≅
ρvac (Λc2)/(8πG)
Λ(Planck time) =6/r2 =2.297626006 x 1066 cm-2
(approximately 7.66 x 10121 times bigger)
ρvac=(2.297626006 x1066 x (2.99792458 x1010)2)/(8 x 3.1415926535 x 6.672
x10-8)
ρvac=1.231472865 x1093 g/cm3
The minimum density will be in the last event. The Cosmological variable
will be in that moment, 7.02206565 x 10-65 cm-2, and the approximate
density of vacuum would be:
ρvac 3.76366009 x 10-38 g/cm3
(approximately the density of the Higgs field of the electron neutrino)
It is interesting to compare the density of the Universe and its
corresponding density with the Higgs fields of particles; a beautiful relation,
but it is a virtual relation of abstract space; not necessarily existing in
physical terms. We will show this later.
≅
71. Values of π minus and π plus
Our Universe has a minimum limit, or Planck length, equivalent to
1.615979906 x 10-33 cm or -75.50536654 in natural logarithm units. Since
the exponential factor is 24π, we can obtain a value that we can call π plus,
obtained by including the spatial correction factor, and this is equivalent to
-3.146056939. With the maximum limit, equivalent to 2.923096699 x 1032
cm or 74.75536654, we can obtain πminus or 3.114806939. Adapting this
last value to the microcosmos, we obtain an inverse value, -3.114806939.
All the particles of matter have their fields with λ, between λp and
0.687289278 cm obtaining their matter by means of Higgs fields, that it
is necessary to modify, in order to include all the masses of the
particles.
λ of particles that are still forming cannot be larger than the maximum
length of the microcosmos, approximately 1 cm, or exactly 0.687289278
cm. Their Higgs fields are the repetition of the last Higgs field of the
microcosmos. In other words, it is impossible to have longer Higgs fields in
the macrocosmos. We will explain this position in the next section.
We can put positive κ, with negative
π (plus or minus), or put negative κ with positive π (plus or minus). The
reason is to have the product of κ π always negative.
72. Known and unknown
scales; their division in 4π cycles
The shadowed area represents the microcosmos, where the Higgs fields
were forming. In that position, we must only use π plus. Nevertheless, the
special relation between Higgs fields and the cosmic field, at least in an
abstract sense (or inflation effects), move the half of the microcosmos, to
the area of influence of π minus. In that way, we have two chains of
families of particles, using π minus in one and π plus in the other. If we
divide the microcosmos into two areas, we would have them with 12π each.
12-12. Like we explained before, we have 3 cycles of 4π each. So:
With longer waves, the masses of particles are lighter, and with shorter
waves, the masses are heavier. The leptons, being only 6 in each chain (3
neutrinos and 3 electrons), use more than 2/3 of the space available to
obtain their masses, exactly 2/3 in exclusive character. Maintaining the
symmetry, we can divide each cycle by 1, 2, and 4, in that order. Divisions
by 1 and 2 represent exact 2π or n2π. However, dividing by 4 represents π
only, and in that way, the cycle is not completed, and in the remaining area,
there exist a large number of masses, as resonances.
73. Hook relation in k-12π
The second chain is not yet accepted, because most of the scientific community is still looking
for the superpartners, without success. However, we see a break in both chains, and in that point,
all the known particles use π minus except for the heaviest particles and forces now known: W+,
W-,Z0, top±2/3, bottom±1/3, and the (weak Higgs boson)0, where we will use π plus. Because of that
breakdown, these particles and forces are even heavier. Using π minus, the mass of top would be
of around 124, instead of approximately 177, and W and Z would be of around 60. Most of the
particles are in the area between k-8π and k-12π. Every quark is inside that area too.
π plus
3.146056939
π
3.1415926535
π minus
3.114806939
We will detail the study about this second scale later. In the next section, we will study the first
scale.
74. Range of known particles
κ∅π is the range of neutrino 1 (Electron Neutrino).
κ-4π is the range of neutrino 2 (Muon Neutrino).
κ-6π is the range of neutrino 3 (Tau Neutrino).
κ-8π is the range of electron
κ-9π is the range of quarks u and d.
κ-10π is the range of pions.
κ-11π is the range of quarks c, s.
κ-12π is the range of t±2/3, b±1/3, W±1, Z0, and (Higgs weak Boson)0.
Among -9π, -10π, -11π, and -12π we have most of the known particles,
including their corresponding combinations (hadrons, mesons, etc.)
according to the three quark families: u, d; c, s; t, b.
The value of π minus in κ0π, needs to be adjusted, since e0=1, it's only a
approximate value. We use the relation λ2=Rλp=e-0.75 where λ of the neutrino
Higgs field is 0.687289278 cm.
The modification of the Higgs field is done since it exists in several places
in the chain, and not only when a Higgs Boson is produced or induced by
spontaneous symmetry breaking. When Higgs Bosons are induced (κ-12π,
κ-22π, κ-24π), π plus is used.
Lengths of different modified Higgs fields use π minus=3.114806939; πplus
(only in κ-12π)=3.146056939.
κ- π=e-0.375 cm = 0.687289278 cm
κ-4π=e-12.45922776 cm = 3.881737264 x 10-6 cm
κ-6π=e-18.68884163 cm = 7.64784725 x 10-9 cm
κ-8π=e-24.91845551 cm = 1.506788419 x 10-11 cm
κ-9π=e-29.03326245 cm = 6.688193167 x 10-13 cm
κ-10π=e-31.14806939 cm = 2.968693366 x 10-14 cm
κ-11π=e-34.26287633 cm = 1.3117716173 x 10-15 cm
κ-12π=e-37.75268327 cm = 4.01992527 x 10-17 cm
∅
75. Masses of unknown particles
The mass of the modified Higgs field would be, using the basic formula of
quantum mechanics: ℏ=mcλ or ℏ/cλ=m. We obtain masses in grams. To
obtain them in GeV we use the constant value of 1.939175887 x 10-14 GeV,
approx.: 1.9392x10-14 GeV:
mλ=1.939175887x10-14 GeV.cm
m=1.939175887x10-14/λ GeV
Electron neutrino Higgs field mass = 2.821484267 x 10-14 GeV
Electron neutrino mass = Higgs fields/√(2π)=1.125609368 x 10-14 GeV
(or 2.035398786 x 10-38 g) approx: 1.13 x 10-14 GeV
Muon neutrino Higgs field mass: 4.995639208x10-9 GeV
Muon neutrino mass= Higgs field /√(2π)=1.992971697x10-9 GeV
approx. 2 x 10-9 GeV
Tau neutrino Higgs field mass: 2.535583967 x 10-6 GeV
Tau Neutrino mass: Higgs field/√(2π)=1.01155165 x 10-6 GeV
Approx. 1 x 10-6 GeV
Electron Higgs field mass: Approx. 1.286959644 x 10-3 GeV
Electron mass: Higgs field/√(2π) = 5.13422615 x 10-4 GeV
Approx. 5.13 x 10-4 GeV
Quark u and d Higgs field mass=0.028994017 GeV
u+d quark mass= Higgs field /√(2π) =0.011566939 GeV
Pions Higgs field mass = 0.653208549 GeV
Pions mass= Higgs field/2√(2π) or Higgs field/√(8π) =0.130296254 GeV
approx.
c, s, b, protons, and neutrons Higgs field mass κ -11π=14.71618795 GeV
√
Proton and neutron mass (approx.) =(Higgs field)/((√2π)3 )=0.934384279
GeV approx.
c,s, and their corresponding mesons and hadrons, can be obtained, and they
are contained in the range of the field, k-11π.
The special relation among them will be explained later.
Finally, κ-12π uses π plus in a break point of both chains, another hook of
Nature in order to connect different sections of the Universe. 12π plus
Higgs Field mass= 482.3910289 GeV. This is the Maximum mass that can
have a field in this known chain of 3 families; where our new accelerators
can probe. It is an enormous value, compared to the neutrino; but it is a
small value, compared to the second chain, especially to Planck mass, the
maximum value. In logarithmic scale, it is approximately half, but in
arithmetical scale, it's only its squared root. It’s λ is exactly √(λp) In that
way, the Higgs weak boson cannot be heavier than 482.39 GeV,
corresponding to the sum of the entire field.
76. Mass of the neutronio
In the first scale, we use π minus (except in k-12π where we use π plus). Using π minus, λ
of k-12π is equivalent to the square root of the inverse of the maximum length of Universe.
√(1/(2.923096699 x 1032))=5.848956733 x 10-17 cm. In order for it to have symmetry, it
could be the first term of the second chain. We will develop the second chain later, but
since the power of current accelerators is close to κ-12π minus, we will detail its value in
this section.
κ-12π minus: 12 x -3.114806939 = In (-37.37768327)
approx.= 5.848956755 x 10-17 cm
Higgs field mass:
(1.939175887 x 10-14 GeV.cm)/(5.848956755 x 10-17 cm)=331.5421823 GeV
This particle will appear in the LHC, before the Higgs weak boson does, which is heavier.
It is very important not to confuse them.
CERN has a big responsibility in trying to find the Higgs weak boson and a heavy neutral
particle beyond the Standard Model. Even if this neutral particle (that we have called
neutronio) is a fermion (spin 1⁄2), the collision distance of the neutronio-antineutronio pair
is only 5.848956755 x 10-17cm, and these particles are 141.5 heavier than the proton, and
so, this pair acts almost like if they were a single unit (practically together). Because each
particle has a spin of 1⁄2, with an opposite helicity; the pair is a single doublet with 0 spin
(+1⁄2, -1⁄2); just like the Higgs scalar boson, but with a small difference.
The neutronio-antineutronio pair has a modified Higgs field, and it decays especially in
two photons (cc). The Higgs weak boson is probably a quartet (or two doublets) and
decays in tt, bb, ww, and gg (gluon-gluon); photon and ZZ decays are minimal.
Even if the neutronio-antineutronio pair is unstable, it is possible to separate them before
they collide. This way, we could obtain a completely stable neutronio. This would be the
fundamental component of dark matter. The process to do this will be explained further
ahead.
77. Supposed masses of the heavier scale
78. Mathematical relation between Higgs
and cosmic scales
The relation between the Higgs scale and the cosmic scale is not only
mathematical, but also physical, as we will see in the following tables. Both
scales are different, and act with different principles (essentially, the Higgs
scale has relation with quantum waves and quantum mechanics; and the
cosmic scale has relation with gravitational waves and quantum
cosmological). There exists an internal relation that corresponds to the
average density of the Higgs field and its equivalent cosmic field densities.
The Higgs (modified) field acts from Planck length (1.615979906 x 10-33) to
the end of the microcosmos (almost one cm.). The cosmic scale acts from
Planck length (almost zero cm.) until the end of our Universe, this is, the
maximum length, 2.923096699 x 1032 cm or ln 74.75536654; in summary
κ+24π.
In mathematical terms, both scales act from κ-24π, and continue one
“space” in Higgs scale, and two “spaces” in Cosmic scale, in a
logarithmical base, in order to be mathematically consistent. And so, the
mathematical space will be:
First scale (with π minus: 3.114806939)
Higgs
Cosmic
κ-12π
κ
κ-11π
κ + 2π
κ-10π
κ + 4π
κ-9π
κ + 6π
κ-8π
κ + 8π
κ-6π
κ +
Ø
π
12
π
κ-4π
κ + 16
π
24
π
Second scale (with π plus: 3.146056939)
Higgs Scale
Cosmic Scale
κ-Øπ
κ +
κ-24π
κ-24π
κ-23π
κ-22π
κ-22π
κ-20π
κ-21π
κ-18π
κ-20π
κ-16π
κ-18π
κ-12π
κ-16π
κ-8π
κ-12π
κ-Øπ
79. Physical relation between Higgs and
cosmic scales
A physical relation appears in both scales, corresponding to the average
density. The principle is: In the same related step between the Higgs
scale and the cosmic scale, the average density of both is equivalent.
Or in other words: the average density of a Higgs field in a determined
step is equivalent to the average density of the Universe in its
corresponding step. The mathematical relations of average density are:
Cosmic: (Λc2)/(8πG)=(3c2)/(4πGR2)
Higgs: (ℏ.3)/(cλ.4πλ3 )=(3ℏ)/(4πcλ4 )
If we equate both terms we obtain another simpler relation:
(3c2)/(4πGR2 )=(3ℏ)/(4πcλ4)
λ4/R2 =(Gℏ)/c3 where (Gℏ)/c3 =λp2; and so
λ4=R2.λp2
λ2=R.λp
In the second scale, with π plus (that the Standard Model refuses), the
formula is exact, since its relation with Planck length is direct. In the first
scale, with π minus, that represents the particles of matter known today, we
need to use a correction factor, since Plank length is not directly related. Its
corresponding relation is with the Maximum. The relation is e0.75, or
2.117000017, whose origin we explained before.
The results are only approximately exact, even if the formulas are
mathematically correct, due to small fluctuations in quantum mechanics and
small irregularities in the development of the Universe that act like small
fluctuations in quantum cosmological.
80. First scale; formula and results
First scale. Formula: λ2=Rαλp (α=e0.75=2.117000017)
π minus=3.114806939
81. Second scale; formula and results
Second scale. Formula: λ2=Rλp
π plus=3.146056939
82. Minimum and maximum mass for
particles of matter and Universe
There are different ways to obtain the same results: using the normal
formulas; using the reduced formula λ2=Rαλp; or λ2=Rλp according to the
scale; or using a constant factor, multiplied by different spaces, by the
Higgs field (3ℏ)/(4πcλ4)=8.397860785x10-39/λ4 or by the Cosmic field:
(3c2)/(4πGR2)=3.215857224x1027/R2.
Depending on the formula used, there are additional approximations,
depending on the approximate values that we used in arithmetical
operations.
In the last term of this first scale, the formula needs to be moved, because it
is impossible to increase the Maximum, and in that way, the factor
α=2.117000017 is passed to the other size, dividing it, and so:
λ2=Rαλp λ2/α=Rλp or (λ/√α)2=Rλp.
In that way, instead of having the Maximum Higgs field=1cm and
Maximum Cosmic field =6.188195761 x 1032 cm, we have:
Maximum length in Higgs field (level κ α)
1/√2.117000017=0.687289278 cm
And Maximum length in Cosmic field = 2.923096699 x 1032 cm.
According to Physics, at the end of Universe, we have the minimum mass
in a field of particles of matter, and the maximum mass of the Universe,
with average density equivalent in both. The mass of neutrino1 is obtained
by dividing the corresponding Higgs field by √(2π)=2.506628275; and the
result is 1.125609369 x 10-14 GeV. This is the minimum mass of particles of
matter. Lighter particles are impossible to be sustained in our Universe. At
the same time, the mass of the Universe is at its maximum at its end,
approximately 3.94x1060 g. A heavier Universe would be impossible to
sustain, considering our four-dimensional Universe (3 spatial dimensions +
1time).
83. Similar procedure to get masses in
both scales
The fundamental mass of particles is obtained according to the Higgs fields.
Before, we obtained the corresponding masses of known particles. We will
detail later the supposed masses of particles of matter from the heavier scale
in a similar way. Nature is completely efficient, and doesn’t change
procedure. What needs to change is the procedure according to the human
mind. It is always easier to simplify the processes, and the best way to do it,
is unifying them. The Higgs fields have their development between almost
zero and close to 1 cm (limits 1 > H > 0) or according to our calculations:
0.687289278 cm ≥ λ ≥ 1.615979906x10-33 cm
84. Logarithmical way of nature
We need to remember that nature works in a logarithmic way, and that the
extremely small is similar to the extremely big. For nature, microcosmos
space is similar to macrocosmos space. The microcosmos time, when the
Universe developed all the Higgs fields step by step, was less than a tiny
fraction of a second. For human minds, microcosmos time is almost
nothing, but we need to completely change our way of thinking; because for
nature, this is a very important era, where a lot of different and important
events happened. We can do a simple exercise: The logarithmical value (ln)
of Macrocosmos space is approximately 74.755; the frontier is -0.375 and
the microscosmos space is -75.505 and so, they are logarithmically
symmetric. In effect:
74.755-(-0.375)=75.13
-75.505-(-0.375=-75.13
With the values of time: 50.632, -24.499
50.632-(-24.499)=75.13
-99.629-(-24.499)=-75.13
People that know these concepts need to apply them anywhere and anytime,
when considering the microcosmos. For example, it is said that inflation
began abruptly, not since the Big Bang, but after an infinitesimal fraction of
time. This is a very small down time according to the human mind, but it is
equivalent to millions of years according to nature and it is inconvenient to
discard it. Inflation of space started at the Big Bang and will end until
our Universe collapses. Space is always stretching faster than light.
Microcosmos and macrocosmos, space and time are, logarithmically
speaking, exactly inverses; and consequently, logarithmically symmetric. In
arithmetical values, space is almost symmetric but time is asymmetric and
we need to put the square of Macrocosmos time in order for it to be
approximately inverse with the Microcosmos time.
85. Normal Higgs fields and spontaneous
symmetry breaking
Normal Higgs fields have an intimal relation with Spontaneous symmetry
breaking, which is known as the Higgs mechanism. The fields are “scalars”,
which means that they do not point in any direction. Each Higgs field is
specified by giving its value, a single number, at each point in space. In that
way, there are only three normal Higgs fields in our Universe; and three
Higgs bosons related to them. The Higgs Weak boson will be detected in
the new LHC accelerator experiments, in no more than 4.82 x 102 GeV. The
other two: The Higgs Strong boson and the Higgs Gravitational boson, are
around 1016 and 1019 GeV, respectively; both of which cannot be observed
by any method available now or in the foreseeable future.
The Glashow-Weinberg–Salam theory is a correct theory. It predicted
particles of forces W+¸W- and Z0 with relatively big masses. The included
photon does not get a mass; and one particle, the Higgs weak boson, whose
role is producing mass for the particles of force W± and Z0, and is only one,
electrically neutral and spinless. All the suppositions have been proven true,
and in the very near future, the Higgs weak boson will appear. Its discovery
will finally clinch the theory. We are sure of that. Nevertheless, the Standard
Model, although very successful in its predictions, (except in the extremes)
considered that the Higgs weak boson is the cause why the particles of
matter also get mass. This is a wrong position, which in some way, we
explained before. Particles of matter always have mass. It is the essential
principle of quantum mechanics, according to the uncertainty
principle. In that way, we need to modify the Higgs mechanism for it to
apply not only in Spontaneous symmetry breaking, but also in all the
masses of particles of matter.
86. Higgs bosons and their function
The particles of matter always have mass, with the presence of the Higgs
boson or without it. Higgs bosons give mass to the particles of force but
they don’t have any participation in the mass of the particles of matter. To
think of particles of matter without mass, existing since the beginning of
our Universe, even when the size of the entire Universe (h=ct) was smaller
than the size of any known particle of matter, has no sense. Neither the
supposition that the appearance of the Higgs weak boson means that the
proposition of the Standard Model is correct. The Higgs weak boson is
fundamental for the electroweak theory. It is the result of the
Spontaneous symmetry breaking between electromagnetic and weak
forces. It gives mass to W± and Z0, and leaves the photon with no mass.
It also leads the level κ-12π with π plus (-12 x 3.145066939 =
-37.75268327 = 4.019925255 x 10-17) = √λp = 482.397029 GeV), and it has
a relation with top and bottom quarks, and their corresponding
antimatter; and nothing more. It is not the God particle, neither is its
role to give mass to the particles of matter.
87. Modified Higgs fields
As we explained before, all the particles of matter have their corresponding
mass, according to the relation ℏ/cλ=m. λ is obtained using a space relation
we described. In that way, we obtain the mass of the corresponding Higgs
field. Its relation with the particles of matter is obtained by dividing its
value by specific, but different factors. According to this, we named it
Modified Higgs field; and it exists in the obtaining of mass of any particle,
whether the Higgs boson appears or not.
Example: electron and positron (calculations with leptons are simpler).
Step: κ-8π minus= e-8π
Higgs length: -8 x 3.114806939= ln[-24.9184555]
λ= 1.506788419 x 10-11
Higgs field = 1.286959644 x 10-3 GeV.
Electron and positron mass (each): Higgs field/√(2π)
5.13422615 x 10-4
GeV
≅
88. Standard Model's propositions about
Higgs boson
For the Standard Model, the mass of the particles of matter appear when the
Higgs boson appears, at √λp=4.019925255 x 10-17 cm, (approximately 4.02 x
10-17 cm). And in consequence, the Higgs mechanism didn’t exist before it.
To confirm this unclear supposition, it uses a new supposition, which is
even more unclear, that the Higgs field is destroyed by heat, and so, all the
scales smaller than 10-17 have the same known particles of matter, but
without mass (?!). Heat can destroy matter, not “space”. Even more,
Higgs fields are “abstract” space. In any way, the Standard Model doesn’t
prove why heat destroys the Higgs field. Remember, the pressure of the true
vacuum is zero. The pressure of the false vacuum must be negative. We will
show, according to the calculations about Higgs fields that Higgs fields
existed from the beginning of the Big Bang until the end of the
microcosmos era. In other words, Higgs have existed from cozero distance
until little less than one centimeter. Planck length is the minimum length
existing in our Universe, and because of that, Higgs field cannot operate
having zero magnitude, neither 1 cm, or more than 1 cm. Higgs fields
bigger than 0.687289278 cm (the neutrino Higgs field) cannot act, and for
that reason a new Higgs field with λ outside of those limits, even in
macrocosmic scale will not exist until our Universe collapses. The limits
obtained from astronomical observations refer to a state with large, nonzero values for the Higgs fields. The only way to produce mass in our
present Universe is by using the last Higgs fields (and in consequence, the
longer Higgs lengths of the first family). The Higgs fields need a value of
minus zero, and have a direct relation with λ. The logarithmic values of
Higgs field and their corresponding length have been explained in former
sections. In order to actually explain the existence of heavy particles at (or
around) the beginning of the Big Bang, different suppositions are used, such
as: a new mechanism, the Higgs give mass but don't pervade the entire
Universe; a new supersymmetric mechanism, etc. Remember: nature prefers
the easiest (not complicated) and most super-efficient processes.
89. Instability of Higgs bosons
The Higgs bosons would be unstable. They would rapidly decay to
lighter particles, which would interact with one another and possibly
undergo subsequent decays. It is very important to consider that when
the last experiments to find the Higgs weak boson show the possible
results. In a modified Higgs field (with no spontaneous symmetry
breaking) there are no Higgs bosons. This is similar to phase changes in a
substance such as water. The heat energy is obtained by multiplying mass,
the specific heat coefficient, and the change in temperature; but in the
interchange of phases, an energy exists, which is at constant temperature
and it’s named latent heat of fusion (or liquefaction or vaporization). This
residual heat is equivalent to the Higgs boson, which exists only in a change
of phase or Spontaneous symmetry breaking. The Higgs boson needs to
decay, and it will be short lived.
Each Higgs boson will act according to its relation with its corresponding
force. And so, the Higgs weak boson will act according to the weak force.
90. Higgs bosons act with π plus
The top and bottom quarks; W, Z, and the Higgs weak boson field act with
π plus, even if t and b are the last of the 3 families normally corresponding
to π minus. This change is due to the hook relation between different scales.
Acting with weak force is another reason why the top quark is much heavier
than the other members of the family, because it doesn’t need to form
mesons, like it would need to do if the strong force would act, like in k-11π
and k-10π (minus).
We must remember that the total mass of the Higgs field corresponding
to the electroweak boson is 482.4 GeV. Combining t and b and their
antiparticles with strong force would be necessary to form mesons, and so,
it is obvious that the top quark (t) would need to be much lighter.
In all of the modified Higgs fields without spontaneous symmetry breaking,
a relation exists with the corresponding particles, two in leptons and four
in quarks. In the traditional Higgs, a Higgs boson exists with spontaneous
symmetry breaking besides the particles of force and matter (all of them
with mass, except the photon).
91. Difference between Planck and
electroweak scales
The difference between the Planck scale and the Electroweak scale seems to
be colossal, but this is due to the tendency of human civilization to use
arithmetical values. Nature uses logarithmical values, and in that way, the
difference is logical and acceptable.
Considering as an example one of the more fundamentally large numbers in
physics, the dimensionless ratio Mp/Mw
1017, where Mp is the so called
Planck-mass corresponding 1.2 x 1019 GeV. It represents the energy at
which quantum gravitational effects begin to be important. Mw represents
the energy where the electromagnetic and weak forces are separated and
both acquire their own identity.
Theorists would like to have the exact value of that ratio and to explain why
is the difference “so big”.
Supersymmetry tries to give two complicated answers, but the answer can
be much simpler.
1° The exact value is:
(Mplank)/(MWeak)= (1.200014922 x 1019)/(4.82397029 x 102)= 2.487608443 x
1016
= log(16.39578202)
=ln(37.75268327)
Or using the inverse of the square root of Planck length:
1/√(1.615979906 x 10-33) = 2.487608442 x 1016
≅
Besides that, the colossal difference disappears, using logarithmical scale.
(Planck Length)/(Electroweak length) = (1.615979906 x 1033)/(4.019925255 x10-17)
= ln(75.50536654)/ln(37.75268327)
Relation = 2 (In logarithmical system)
In arithmetical system, it is equivalent to obtain the square root of Planck
length or (electroweak length)2=λp.
92. Level of electromagnetic force
According to the union of these 4 forces, they produce 3 Higgs bosons
when they are separated. Like we explained before, the level of
electromagnetic force is K-20π, but this force accompanies the electroweak
force, until its level in K-12π.
The photon never obtains mass and will always have zero mass at rest. (It is
possible to produce a BEC (Bose-Einstein Condensate) of photons, but this
is different to obtaining a photon with mass at rest.)
In that way, the photino doesn’t exist.
In electroweak theory, there are four particles of forces integrating it: W+,
W-, Z0, and γ (photon), the last one with no mass at rest. It may be that Z0,
using only one place, is a mixture of two Z0, like the neutral pion π0
(uū+d¯d). We know that the simplest set of particles would be a triplet,
corresponding to the three dimensions in which three rotations act.
Mathematically, this would have been possible; but experimentally, the
leptons and quarks group themselves into doublets, not triplets, so far the
weak force is concerned. In the theory, there is only one Z0 as well as one
photon. For there to be “room” for the photon we need to put only one Z0 in
the equations, and so, the four particles of force are: photon (with zero mass
at rest), W+, W-, and Z0 (with known masses).
93. Microcosmos range; detailed graphs
The microcosmos exists between e∅ (e-0.375) and the minimum length (Planck
length)= e-75.50536654. In that way, in a normal relation (horizontal geometrical
relation) all the Higgs fields would have direct relation with Planck length, and
so with π plus or -3.146056939.
Notwithstanding, the geometrical relation has a slope: one step in Higgs is
equivalent to two steps in cosmic scale (in logarithmical measure). And so, after
κ-12π (at the half of the microcosmos), the second part of the microcosmos
forms a new scale; which is related to the macrocosmos, and in consequence,
has a direct relation with the Maximum, and so, with π minus. It is the origin of
the two scales, almost symmetrically related, with a small, but crucial
asymmetry, using π plus and π minus, at κ-12π and not at κ-0π. Higgs is the
place of division, but there is not only one frontier, there are two: one at κ-12π
plus and the other, κ-12π minus, at ln(-37.75268327) and ln(-37.37768327), or
4.019925255x10-17 and 5.848956734x10-17 cm. respectively.
94. Order of appearance of particles of matter;
hook relation
Each scale is composed by three families, in this order:
• neutrino1
• neutrino2
• neutrino3
• electron1
• quarks u, d
• quarks c, s
• quarks t, b
The other 2 electrons and the other composite particles are included along quarks. Another
scale would have similar particles, only much heavier, probably with spin 1/2 (with
angular momentum), but inverse helicity; that we call heavy partners but perhaps with
symmetry about spins, that actual physics call superpartners. In any way, their masses are
similar, and are detailed in former sections.
Due to the relation with inverse limits (Planck and Maximum), we must clarify once again
that there is a hook between the last term of the first scale (t,b) with the first term of the
second scale (Neutronio, Antineutronio), joining both scales. And so, the neutronio will
use π minus; and t and b will use π plus.
In the figures, it is the same line, but with a small difference in space, according to the
triangle (in 2 spatial dimensions, for simplicity), or cone (in 3 spatial dimension +
movement).
Neutrinos (1, 2, 3) are produced in stars like the Sun and even in supernovas. But in the
center of galaxies, which are surrounded by millions of stars moving at enormous speeds
around a supermassive black hole (with a mass of hundreds of millions and even billions
of the Sun’s mass), instead of neutrino-antineutrino pairs, neutronio- antineutronio pairs
are produced thanks to the colossal gravity there. By means of a Penrose-Hawking process,
the antineutronios go inside the black hole and the neutronios are left alone in the
Universe, forming halos of dark matter that join the galaxies.
The neutronios would be totally stable because they are the lightest heavy partner (there is
not a lighter particle of the heavier scale). Moreover, the neutronio is the only particle of
the second scale constituted in concordance with π minus (the Maximum’s sphere of
influence), and in consequence it can live almost forever in harmony in our
macrocosmos.In effect:
And so, a hook is formed, which was explained before, in both scales: Neutronio (above)
and t, b (below).
The search for the Neutronio at approximately 132 GeV (the first heavy-partner) and
the Higgs weak boson at around 482.4 GeV, (but no less than 384 GeV) is essential in
the LHC. If the experiments at LHC confirm the appearance of a Higgs boson at
around 132 GeV, instead of the LSP (or the LHP), it would be only a light Higgs
boson. It would be necessary to find a heavier Higgs boson, preferably between 384482.4 GeV. But at around 132 GeV, our first option is the neutronio.
95. Backwards time travel. Wormholes
between Universes
Quantum mechanics accepts backward time travel; but this is only true for
particles (with some restrictions), where the quantum waves act. In
aggregated matter, heavier than gravitational mass or Mp/
√(8π)=2.393659682 x1018 GeV or 4.342115729 x10-6 g, where the
gravitational waves act, backward time travel is physically impossible.
As we explained before, both waves are real and equal only at the Big
Bang; after that, only one of them is real, while the other one is virtual.
Nevertheless, it is possible to have an apparent solution by using black
holes. The Penrose diagram consists of a negative Universe and a positive
one, separated by a ring–cosingularity, through which, anything could travel
from one Universe to the other.
The original diagram was a ring- singularity, and in that way, we could have
a naked Kerr singularity. According to a former section, the ring
cosingularity exists at the Big-Bang and would be approximately similar in
the center of any Black hole, considering the singularity is a cosingularity
of Planck length size, as is accepted now in the Big Bang. For that reason,
the frontier is not a point, but a ring. However, the size of this “wormhole”
is only Planck size; and because of that, only particles (and the heaviest) of
antimatter, could pass to the negative Universe. We explained this before,
when we were talking about our parallel Universe and CPT symmetry.
Another way to do it is by using lighter particles with the quantum
tunneling effect; with an average wave as the speed of light, composed by a
retarded wave (particle), and an advanced wave (antiparticle), FTL. We will
explain this in the last sections of this book.
96. Accelerators as time machines.
Arrows of time
Right now, time-machines are a reality; and we are even using some
now. Their name: the particle accelerators (or Colliders). But, only particles
can travel backward in time. We know that particles came from heavier to
lighter, from the Big Bang until now. Now, only the First family exists in
present time, the lightest particles (and maybe the lightest particle of the
second scale). The natural process starts from κ-24π (or κ-12π, according to
the Standard Model) to κ- π. Accelerators act in inverse processes,
carrying the particles to the past. When they were formed, appearing like
relics of the past, they carry them to an even more remote past time,
depending on the power of the accelerators. Right now, they are trying to
find the Higgs weak boson. With more powerful accelerators, the Higgs
strong boson will appear at energies of orders of 1014~1016 GeV; and the
Higgs gravitational boson will appear at energies of 1018~1019 GeV, the
same as in the Big Bang. In the microcosmos, there are two arrows of time,
and in the macrocosmos there is only one.
Besides that, it is impossible to put in reverse the macrocospic arrow of
time. Time will always go to the future, with the entropy always increasing.
Using sophisticated and more powerful telescopes, it would be possible to
see the past in remotes stars or even planets, but it will only be possible
using waves, not aggregated matter. It is impossible to travel to the past
using our physical body.
∅
In cosmic scale, we can accelerate the future, and even arrive physically in
the future, but we cannot physically return backwards in time. In that way,
time paradoxes don’t exist; and we can't change the past. Einstein was
right, but the quantum physicists were also right. The difference is in
the paradox of measure. When does the incoherent quantum waves act
and when does the coherent gravitational waves act instead? We explained
these concepts before.
97. Axions doesn't exist. Supposed mass
equal to neutrino's mass
The hypothetical particle, which is expected to be like dark matter, the
invisible axion, doesn’t exist. However it is important to mention that its
supposed mass of 10-5 eV or 10-14 GeV is practically the mass of the
neutrino (the lightest particle existing in the Universe). With a length of its
corresponding Higgs field of 0.6872789278 cm, maintaining a Higgs field
mass of approx. 2.821519351 x10-14 GeV, and in consequence a neutrino1
(electron-neutrino) mass has 1.125623364 x10-14 GeV (dividing is Higgs
field by √(2π)).
98. Theoretical proton decay time
The most celebrated passive and non-accelerator experiment is protondecay. As explained before, its time of supposed decay is much longer than
the life of our Universe. The entire Universe will collapse and all will be
destroyed before that time is reached.
But analyzing the heavier scale, we note that heavier quarks exist, uh and dh,
and in consequence, the probability of the existence of heavier protons and
neutrons, in the remote past of our Universe, increases.
They are definitely very short lived, so we would not expect to observe
relics of them remaining from the past. However, with more powerful
accelerators in the future (a distant one) and according to both ways of the
arrow of time in quantum mechanics, we will eventually find them. This
heavy-proton corresponds with the proton-decay mentioned, with a much
shorter time, but with a logical and measurable decay.
After the LHC, we don´t recommend building more powerful accelerators
in the near future; the next appearance of new particles is too far out of our
reach at the moment; and it is necessary to change our points of view to
build new accelerators, changing the type of technology or finding new
natural sources of study of natural astronomical phenomena.
Using metals and solid materials is an “old” technology, like the traditional
method of action-reaction, burning oil or other fuels, used in transportation
machines. The new technologies need to be radically different, analyzing
the way nature works. We need to completely change our way of thinking.
99. Scale of heavier particles
According to the table of the heavier scale, and comparing this scale with the only one
accepted now, we can mark the scale of these particles, which are too far to reach in the
foreseeable future; but can be theoretically calculated.
K-21 Higgs field of heavier u and d.
In (-66.06719572)= 2.029464526x10-29 cm
Mass of the field: 9.555229842x1014 GeV
Mass of heavy u+d: 3.811985182x1014 GeV
Diagram (h means heavy)
As we can see, the quarks appear united, with no strong force. And the mass, of around
1014 GeV and its length, of around 10-29 cm, has a similar condition, with X force. The
supposed proton decay is close to this scale.
Strong Higgs Boson: 1.77 x1016 ~ 2.22 x1016 GeV
Heavy pion (πh+, πh-, πh0, πh01) Approximately 4.43x1015 GeV each.
k-23 ln(-72.3593096)=3.756220925 x10-32cm
Mass of the Higgs field approx. 5.16 x1017 GeV
Heavy proton: 5.16 x1017/√(2π)3 = 3.278 x1016 GeV
100. Four massed neutrinos. Neutronio as
dark matter
The formation of particles since the Big Bang, depends on the moment
when the corresponding Higgs field is formed. The particles produced at the
Big Bang, or in similarly remote eras, do not exist now, except for the
lightest ones in the scale. We also cannot affirm that the present particles
were formed at the former eras, when the size of the visible Universe was
even smaller than even one of these particle. In that way, to say that
neutrinos produced in the Big Bang permeated the Universe and contributed
to the total mass of the Universe is a wrong position, because all kinds of
neutrinos were produced after that.
Cosmologists have suggested that Cosmology may be consistent with three
or four massed neutrinos.
The existence of a fourth neutrino, that we have named neutronio, is the
lightest particle of the proposed heavier scale (which isn't accepted by the
Standard Model). Even though pair neutrino-antineutrino is unstable, it is
possible to separate them in big quantities using black holes; and the
neutronio alone, could exist in a stable form, as dark matter, around
galaxies, forming a cloud around them. Even if a particle alone has no
measurable gravitational effect, a cloud (similar to a big school of fishes,
which act in a different way than a single fish) could add a gravitational
effect because its united mass would be like the one of a single unit. The
neutrinos permeate the entire Universe and travel fluently almost at the
speed of light. Their masses (placed together like a single unit) contribute to
the total mass of the Universe. But its individual mass is almost negligible,
at around 1.125609369 x10-14 GeV equivalent to 2.0355 x10-38 g approx.
Its contribution, even if it is a big number, is insufficient.
Neutronio2 and Neutronio3 are unstable and disappear after a short-lived
term.
The Neutronio1's mass is around 132.2678389 GeV or 2.391823489x10-22 g,
which is 141 times heavier than the known proton.
In case it exists, it won’t travel as the neutrino1 (the cozero particle, the
lightest particle in the Universe).
The supposed neutronio would be the lightest particle of the heavier scale
and could be stable (remember it is not the 4th neutrino, it is the first of
another scale). Its big mass prevents it to travel around the Universe, and it
could be almost stopped around galaxies, and would participate in the
formation of dark matter.
The neutrino (massed) is practically a reality. The neutronio (with a big
mass) would only be a probability.
101. Cosmological "constant" decrease in
time. Its energy increases
Like we explained before, the cosmological constant never was, is, or will
be zero. In that position, the concept that zero is by far its most probable
value, is a mistake. Besides that, the cosmological “constant” is
permanently variable; it had its maximum value at the beginning of our
Universe and will have its minimum value at the last event of it, when the
maximum expansion of our Universe of 3 spatial dimensions will end.
Its formula is very simple: Λ = 6/R2.
However, even if its value diminishes with time, the energy due to the
cosmological “constant” increases with time.
The formula of the energy of the cosmological constant is: EΛ =
(1/6)ΛmR2c2
Λ decreases, but m and R2 increase even more.
102. Four kinds of energy. Mass increase
but no net change
The increase of this energy is in accordance to the Law of Conservation of
Energy of the Universe, because there are four energies in it: two positives
and two negatives. The four energies can change only if the final result
remains unchanged, as we can see in reality. The result would be practically
zero, or in better terms, almost zero (cozero). This minimum difference
consists in quantum uncertainty (or quantum fluctuation) in the Big Bang,
with mathematical expressions in the approximated values of the formulas.
The representations of the four formulas are:
Em=mc2 (Matter Energy): Positive.
➢ EG
(-Rc4)/G (-Gmm')/R (Gravitational Energy): Negative.
➢ Ec=(1/2)mv2 (Kinetic Energy): Positive.
➢ EΛ =(-1/6)Λmr2c2 (Cosmologic Constant Energy): Negative
➢ Etotal= mc2+(1/2)mv2-(Rc4)/G-(1/6)Λmr2c2=0 or almost 0.
It is easy to demonstrate that each of the formula of the four energies can be
transformed into Einstein's formula E=mc2.
➢
≅
≅
103. Experimental value of Λ and the age
of the Universe
The experimental value of the cosmological “constant” is, right now, Λ=<3
x10-56 cm-2. To obtain this value theoretically, as exactly as possible, is the
best way to know the age of the Universe.
According to the formula:
Λ=6/R2, and with the former experimental results, the calculations to obtain
the age of the Universe would be 6/R2 < 3x10-56 cm-2 or 2 x1056 cm2 < R2 and
so:
1.414213562 x1028 cm < R
4.717308673 x1017 s < t
1.494833919 x1010 years < t
So, if the experimental value of the actual Cosmological “constant” is
correct, the age of the Universe would approximately be 15 billion years,
instead of 13.7 to 14 billion, like the last cosmological calculations
determine. (If 13.7 billion years is correct, the cosmological “constant”
needs to be 3.57 x10-56 cm-2).
However, those new calculations use many experimental results; and
because of that, the margin of error increases.
The high – Z – team performed a calculation, and found that the Universe
has an age of 12.8 ~ 14.6 Gyr, with a maximum value close to 15.0 Gyr. We
will discuss these new calculations in a next section.
Notwithstanding, the differences between 13.7 or 14.6 or 15 Gyr are
minimal, taking into account the life of our Universe.
As explained before, the maximum space will be 2.923096699 x1032 cm and
the whole life of the universe, 9.750401056 x1021 s or 3.0839734259 x1014
years. A difference of 1 Gyr would only be a minimal fraction of the whole
life of the Universe. (0,00000324 or 0.000324%)
104. Importance of microcosmos time
Nevertheless, we must insist that the time of the Universe is logarithmical.
And so, the microcosmos era, which in arithmetical time is only a
infinitesimal fraction of a second, is even more important than the 14 or 15
billions of years that our human measure considers until now. Using time or
space, (we can obtain it multiplying c times t) we have the following values:
➢
➢
➢
➢
➢
ln Planck length (Big Bang) = -75.50536654
ln 1.5 Gyr length = +64.8224061
ln 1.4 Gyr length = +64.75341332
ln Maximum length (Big-Crush) = +74.75536654
ln Maximum space of Microcosmos = -0.375 ( )
(0.687289278 cm)
∅
Natural logarithmical difference between:
Maximum and minimum space: 150.2607331
Difference between 1.5 Gyr and 1.4 Gyr space =0.06899287
Macrocosmos era: 74.75536654-(-0.375)=75.13036654
Microcosmos Era: -0.375-(-75.50536654)=75.13036654
But the microcosmos and macrocosmos are totally symmetric,
logarithmically speaking, with the space until the last event, and not only
the space of the actual age of the Universe.
In our human arrogance, we use arithmetical time, and we like to think that
Humanity is an important part of the Universe (sometimes even the most
important), using a strong anthropic principle. But taking into account the
age of the Universe, we are almost nothing, and all the time of Humanity in
the Universe will eventually be insignificant.
105. Mass of the Universe increases with time
We can observe that, although the Conservation of Energy of the Universe remains
unchanged; the mass of the Universe increases with time. In that way, the mass-energy
of the Universe increases with time. This is like this, because the Big Bang, even
though it had maximum density and maximum heat, also had minimum energy, and so,
it had minimum mass.
In effect,
So, Planck energy is the maximum energy for a Higgs field forming particles, but it is
also the minimum energy of the Universe.
The maximum mass for a particle would be: Planck mass/√(8π) = 2.393653682 x1018
GeV, approx. 2.4 x1018 GeV or 4.34208778 x10-6 g
106. Relation of space and time with Λ
Theoretical physicists have been analyzing for years the reason of the
almost cancellation of the total cosmological constant, without finding a
convincing explanation.
First of all, the cosmological “constant” is not a constant but a variable.
Second, the actual concept is that the cosmic repulsion increases at longer
distances; and moreover, that at small distances the Λ is negligible and it is
overwhelmed by the gravitational attraction.
This affirmation can take us to a wrong conclusion: that the cosmic
repulsion, when the universe was considerably smaller, was practically
inexistent. Λ increases as distance increases, only while time remains
constant; and it decreases with time, even if the universe gets larger.
The gravitational attraction had a colossal influence in the Big Bang, with a
large energy density, and if the Λ is considered negligible in that moment, a
scientific paradox could be derived. It is not like this, it is just the opposite.
What is the cause of Big Bang and its tremendous expansion? The normal
idea of the Big Bang was that there was a strong explosion of colossal
force. There is no convincing explanation for this, but this is considered adhoc as a prefixed condition. For a theory to be a good one, it is necessary to
have little to no preconditions. The explanations need to appear naturally
during the development of any theory.
This explosion needs to be substituted by a silent (like most phenomena of
nature) Higgs expansion, with cozero space, cofinite density of energy, and
cozero entropy, at Planck length, in three spatial dimensions and one time.
The expansion of our universe is a natural condition of any odd spatial
dimension-Universe and it will continue to expand permanently in a
hyperbolic way, until it reaches its maximum space, that is equivalent to:
Rmax = α/R, where α = e-0.75 in our Universe, and it will begin to close, by
means of the appearance of a new spatial dimension, in a fractal way.
The complete procedure has been explained before. Since there are three
dimensions of space, the negative pressure of the inflationary vacuum
operates in six directions (three dimensions), making the repulsive
“gravitational” effect larger than the gravitational attraction (produced by
the energy density of vacuum). So, the inflationary vacuum state produces
an overall repulsion, which is constantly maintained until the end of the
Universe, at approximately 9.7504 x1021 s. Now, there is a residual vacuum
energy density and a small cosmological constant, the universe's expansion
continue to accelerate, even if Λ diminishes, but the gravitational attraction
also diminishes.
The critical density of the Universe is valid only under the usual assumption
that the cosmological constant is zero, but the cosmological “constant” will
always have a nonzero value.
107. Restrictions of the Universe
According to the limits of the Universe, (two cosmic restrictions exist in
each) we can draw a figure connected with the traditional “hook” between
two fundamental moduli (the first modulus, in minimum limits and in
maximum limits).
In logarithmical terms, minimum limits are positive only in onedimensional space-time Universe (0+1), the others have negative values. In
maximum limits, the limit is negative only in one-dimensional space-time
Universe (0+1). The other ones have positive values.
For example, our Universe (like any different dimensional Universe) has
two fundamental restrictions relative to space. (And all the different
measures are derived from space). No entity (not even space as a whole)
can have, travel, or decrease to a length smaller than Planck (1.615979906
x10-33 cm); nor larger than the maximum limit (2.923096699x1032cm). All
the other cosmic restrictions are derived from them (maximum and
minimum: in mass, energy, time, Λ, temperature, density, area, volume,
etc). With the cosmic restriction, it is impossible for a naked singularity to
exist in the Universe. This is because it is impossible for any distance
smaller than λp to exist. The basic constants of our universe are: G, ℏ, and c.
The photon is the only particle that is always massless at rest, and this never
changes. A photon is always a photon; in the macrocosmos, in the
microcosmos; in the light scale, in the heavier scale; and even in the
corresponding anti-matter Universe. But, photons will end with the end of
our universe. And it is the graviton, the particle that unites universes, by
decreasing or increasing its force (it depends on the number of dimensions).
Gravity is the entrance and the exit door for any Universe.
108. Higgs fields equations
According to Higgs field equations,
E=M2H2+AH4
E and M2 are negative, and so
M2H2>AH4
M2>AH2
The quanta of Higgs field is the basis of the mass of particles, and in that
way, M2 can be substituted by (ℏ/cλ)2 and so: ℏ2/(c2λ2H2)>A
Besides that, M2H2 is an energy term and so, it has a mathematical relation
with mc2:
M2H2=Mc2
H2=c2/M M=ℏ/cλ
H2=(c2cλ)/ℏ = (c3λ)/ℏ
Because c and ℏ are constants, H2 and H, are directly proportional to λ. In
that way, we can substitute H by λ in the graph. The result: The Higgs field
is negative (and in consequence active) from Planck (not zero) to the end of
the microcosmos (almost 1 cm). Moreover, we know that:
ℏ2/(c2λ2H2)>A
Substituting H2:
(ℏ2ℏ)/(c2λ2c3λ)>A
ℏ3/(c5λ3)>A
A is a positive constant and because of that, the equation is correct while λ
is smaller and non-zero. It would be wrong for λ to increase in size to one
larger than the maximum value. The equation shows us a simple result:
Higgs fields have a negative energy and because of that, they are active
when λ is smaller; consequently, if it acts in the lighter scale, when λ is
larger; it is logical to suppose that it also acts in the heavier scale, when λ is
smaller. In λ=0, it doesn’t act, but that's irrelevant, because λPlanck is the
minimum space that can exist; so, λ=0 doesn’t exist in our Universe.
109. Higgs field and its relation with λp
Besides that, the graph is clear in that there is a uniform space from the beginning,
1.615979906 x10-33 cm= λ = λp > 0, to a maximum value; and after that, E is always
positive. The position of the Standard Model is mostly correct, there is only one
difference. The Planck Higgs field is at the beginning of x, almost at the origin. We can
obtain a similar graph, using λ instead of H, because of the direct relation between them.
The Standard Model graph drawn above is correct; but if we consider the Standard Model
supposition that the heavier scale (half of the microcosmo's logarithmical space) is empty
(with no production of particles) the graph would be different, and of course, incorrect.
In effect, the graph would be:
110. Value of Α, constant in Higgs
formulas
If we suppose that approximately 1 cm (exactly 0.687289278 cm) is the
maximum value of λ for an active Higgs mechanism, we could obtain the
approximate value for the positive constant A. The position that A and M2
are not too different in size is totally incorrect. In the first place, A is a
constant and M2 is a variable. Moreover, they have different units. A is in
g3cm-2 s2, and M2 is in g2. And so:
ℏ3/(c5λ3)>A
This former formula would be practically correct from λp to maximum λ
(0.687289278 cm). At that moment, the equation would be approximately
equivalent.
In consequence:
A
≅ ℏ /(c λ ) ≅ ((1.054569454 x10 ) )/((2.99792458 x10
(0.687289278) ) ≅ 1.4918 x10 g .cm .s
3
5 3
10)5
-27 3
3
-133
3
-2 2
x
111. Neutrinos interaction with Higgs
field. Particles and gravity
The graph shows us a symmetric figure. But we only use one side. The
other side would show us the Higgs mechanism for our parallel world of
antimatter. In effect, we can see that in the simplified formula: M2>AH2, M
is the mass of the quanta of the Higgs field that is related with the masses of
the particles, and H is the one related with the Higgs field. Both are
represented in their square form. That means that there are two roots of ±M
and ±H, and in that way, we can have the complete graph in a symmetric
way, representing both parallel Universes.
According to the Standard Model, all particles can directly interact with the
Higgs field except for photons, neutrinos, and gluons. For us, neutrinos
have mass and in consequence they directly interact with Higgs fields and
also gluons, in the heavier scale. Only photons don't ever interact with
Higgs fields. The reason for this is because photons always have zero mass
at rest in the microcosmos, in the known lighter scale, in the unknown and
supposed heavier scale, in the macrocosmos, and even in both parallel
Universes: matter and antimatter. A heavy graviton with interaction with the
first Higgs Field existed only in the first chronos, when the gravitational
force was exactly equal to the other three forces. After that, it is not
included in the quantum wave, and in consequence it is outside of the Higgs
field action. In the rest of the time of the Universe, a graviton alone
collapses the quantum wave, and this affirmation reinforces our position:
that gravitational waves and quantum waves are incompatible, and only
coincide in the first chronos at the Big Bang.
112.
Higgs mechanism symmetry.
Superpartners and Z, available room
The supersymmetry explanation of the Higgs mechanism derives in a
different graph.
The figure shows the square of masses vertically; and energy, horizontally.
In that model, the Planck scale seems to correspond to a large energy. Our
position is different; Planck has the maximum energetic Higgs field, but to
obtain the total energy, we need to multiply the energy of the Higgs field by
the number of Higgs fields. Like we affirmed before, the minimum mass
and in consequence, the minimum energy of the Universe was at the Big
Bang. It even had the hottest state and the largest energy density ever.
Planck scale needs to be near the origin, when M2 is negative. Besides that,
it is also a wrong position to consider that quarks and leptons are massless
in the heavier scale (in Planck scale until around the electroweak boson).
We insist, to consider a particle of matter without mass is a wrong position,
because it is against the uncertainty principle, the basis of quantum
mechanics. Moreover, how can particles that have λ larger than the whole
size of the visible Universe, in the Planck era, exist?
Besides that, the essential characteristic of particles are: mass, charge and
spin. Quarks and leptons without mass would be other particles, with new
and different families.
The Superstring theory also needs that the masses of superpartners to be not
much larger than the Z boson mass, in order for its proposed whole
approach to be valid.
Like we pointed out before, there is not much room for the superpartners to
appear, and this small room would be ugly and totally asymmetric. The
“normal” particles have a big room and very different masses, and if the
superpartners would appear, they would need to pile up, in a very reduced
space. It is necessary to expand the room available for any case
(superpartners or heavy partners).
113. Energy of Higgs fields. Ranges of
Higgs length
How did the Higgs field in the Big Bang managed to have maximum
energy, while at the same time the Universe had its minimum energy?
The answer is simple. There was only one Higgs field in the Big Bang; and
the energy of the Universe is not only determined by the amount of energy
of the Higgs field, but also by the number of Higgs fields existing in that
specific moment: (E=nH).
We must also remember, Higgs fields pervade all space. So, the graphs
about the Higgs mechanism in the Standard Model and the Supersymmetry
explanation of the Higgs mechanism are wrong, because Planck scale is the
minimum cosmic energy and so, it needs to be almost at the origin of the
graph and not in a scale of large energy.
In that way, there is no reason why in the heaviest scale of the microcosmos
there are no new particles that are heavier; or even worse, that the “same”
particles have no mass. This asseveration is against the main principle of
quantum mechanics: the uncertainty principle.
In other words, Higgs fields form particles; they have done this since the
Big Bang (space
or Planck length), and continued to do it until the
maximum space of the microcosmos era (a little smaller than 1 cm, exactly
0.687289278 cm).
0 < H < 1 and 0 cm < λ < 1 cm or λp ≤ λ ≤ 0.687289278 cm
A λ larger than 0.687289278 cm cannot make a Higgs field.
∅
114. Values of Higgs fields. Higgs
mechanism and its relation
The position of the Standard Model that the Higgs mechanism is destroyed
by heat is only a supposition that has no physical or mathematical
explanations. For us, that position is totally wrong.
Besides that, according to the Standard Model, (correct in this way) the
Higgs fields (H) increase the energy density of the Universe by adding an
amount of energy, that we call EH, that we can add and form particles with
mass in inverse relation with its length, using the formula ℏ/cλ=m,
corresponding to the microcosmos, that acts according to quantum
mechanics. The Higgs Mechanism can make new matter even in the
macrocosmos, but λ cannot be larger than 0.687289278 cm.
The EH is assumed to be according to the equation:
EH=M2H2+AH4; where A is a positive constant. M2 is the square of the mass
of the quanta of the Higgs field. M2 is a negative quantity. EH needs to be
negative. In zero or positive EH, the Higgs mechanism doesn’t act.
According to the graph, the state of lowest energy does not occur in a zero
Higgs field, but rather from a value of H different from zero. When E is
negative, it makes particles and that is represented in the shadowed area. In
the graph we see a minimum point (at almost 0) until a maximum point.
According to the former formula, If H=0 E=0, the Higgs mechanism is
inactive. After the maximum point, E will be permanently positive and the
Higgs mechanism will be inactive again. We can obtain several important
results simply by manipulating how this relation behaves, even though
sometimes, only approximately.
115. Cosmological "constant" and Ω
The value of the energy density of vacuum is related to the cosmological
"constant":
Λ=8πGϕv
This is a different formula to the one previously stated: Λ=6/R2; however
they are similar, they only have a different set of units. In the formula
Λ=6/R2 it is easy to determine that the cosmological constant is in fact a
variable, since R is a variable that increases with time. The cosmological
constant decreases with time. But we can also confirm the variability of this
“constant” with the other formula, even with the same relation (decreasing
its value in time). In effect, the energy density of the vacuum is utterly
negligible compared with the energy density in the early Universe. In
simple arithmetical calculations, we see the equivalence of both formulas:
Λ=8πGϕv
where ϕv=m/((4/3)πR3) and m = (Rc2)/G.
And so:
Λ=(8πG.3.Rc2)/(4πR3G)
Simplifying:
Λ=6c2/R2
And so, we can use two formulas:
Λ=6/R2 [cm-2] or Λ=6/R2c2 [s-2) or Λ=8πGϕν
A cosmological constant corresponding to Ω≈1 is consistent with
observations, but at the Big Bang, it was Ω≈10120. The reason why the
cosmological constant has changed, making the extremely big effect at the
beginning to be a negligible value today, was explained in former sections.
116.
Natural
calculations
logarithms
in
time
The microcosmos era ended when light-space (h) reached approximately
one cm (exactly 0.687289278cm), in a very small fraction of one second
(2.293 x10-11 s). Most physical phenomena developed during this time. This
took place during an infinitesimal fraction of time, if we use the human
scale. But in logarithmic time, the Microcosmos era is practically half of all
the time of the Universe. The whole cycle is considered to be from the Big
Bang to the end of the three spatial dimensions, what we call Big Crush;
and what most scientists call Big Crunch). We insist: the time of the
Universe is logarithmical, not arithmetical.
In other words, microcosmos time and macrocosmos time are
logarithmically equivalent.
Ln in time
1.
First chronos (Big Bang) 5.39032875 x10-44 s
Natural Logarithm (ln) = -99.62913772
End of Microcosmos Era 2.292550264x 10-11 s
ln = -24.49877117
3. End of time (Big Crush) 9.750401056 x1021 s
ln = +50.63159537
2.
Logarithmical time between 2 and 1: 75.13036655
Logarithmical time between 3 and 2 : 75.13036654…
Both values are equivalent. The small difference between them is only
apparent because of arithmetical approximations.
Some scientists discuss about how old is the Universe using arithmetical
time. They don't take into account that, for the universe, the
microcosmos era (which for us occurred in less than a second) is half of
its total life.
Besides that, if cosmic space is always accelerating, it is permanently
making matter; according to the approximate relation: (Rc2)/G M. Where
c2 and G are constants (and always have been and will be) in our Universe;
by increasing R, M will increase in a directly proportional way (the
particles using Higgs mechanism are ruled by an inverse relation according
to the uncertainty principle: ℏ/cλ=m).
≅
117. Variability of Hubble constant
Like we pointed out before, there a lot of questions that need answers, more
than any reasonable doubt, before we can affirm how old is the Universe in
a sharp quantity? The main questions are:
a) First of all, is the Hubble constant? With different measurements, no
one has an exact quantity Ex.
Tully Fisher relation: H0=71±3±7 km s-1 Mpc-1 with the first quoted
statistical uncertainty and the second systematic.
Faber – Jackson method:
H0=78±5 (stat)±9(syst) km s-1Mpc-1
Harvard group
H0=73±4(stat)±5(syst) km s-1Mpc-1
The HST key H0 group:
H0=71±6 km s-1Mpc-1 etc.
b) Λ; what is its value and is it constant or is it variable? It has a direct
relation with vacuum energy, dark energy, and the quintessence. Our
position is that Λ (and its related effects) is not constant; its value right
now is small because the Universe is old (its radius is larger). Without
a complete security about Λ, it is impossible to calculate the exact age
of Universe.
c) The evolution of the Universe, it’s a kind of inflation. Is it permanently
accelerating or does it do it at different stages: deceleration, constant,
repulsion, etc.?
d) What is the relation among matter, dark matter, dark energy and
others? Without the security of experimental results it is impossible to
affirm how old is the Universe in a sharp quantity. The most plausible
thing to do is to estimate a range.
The formula indicated in Steven Weinberg's book, “Cosmology”, is really
useful.
t0=13.4 ((70/km/Mpc)/H0) Gyr
If H0 is 68.6 km/ s/ Mpc. The formula would be:
t0 13.4
And its range would be:
(1.020408163)Gyr
12.38 ~ 14.73 Gyr
The maximum value is more plausible, because of the age of some clusters
and stars that are bordering this age. It is impossible for any kind of matter
to be older than the known Universe.
However, like we explained before, it is easier to obtain the exact
experimental value of Λ in cm-2 right now and to then use it in the simple
formula
R=±√(6/Λ)
t0=±1/c √(6/Λ)
or
t0=±√(6/Λc2)
We obtained two roots: + root is the time of our Universe;
(-) is the time of our parallel Universe; both exactly equals, but opposite.
118. Dark matter
Black holes, and stars called brown dwarfs, are both types of dark matter.
Neutrinos are also a type of dark matter. They are very abundant, have a
minimal mass and they have reactions only through weak interaction. Dark
matter is electrically neutral. If they weren't neutral, they would interact
with light. In another way, they do not interact electromagnetically. They
don’t have reactions with the strong force, do not participate in any process
of nuclear fusion, and do not give off light.
The three families of neutrinos can be considered hot dark matter, and
because of their small mass, they almost travel at the speed of light. The
only completely stable of the three neutrinos, in our actual condition, is the
electron neutrino; it has the maximum λ but the lightest mass. Even though
they exist in abundance, their mass is infinitesimal (around 1.1256 x10-14)
GeV each) and so, they do not contribute much to the total mass of dark
matter. A hypothetical new dark matter particle acquires a practical need to
exist. The Weakly Interacting Massive Particle (WIMP), or something
different needs to exist in order to contribute to the large % of dark matter
in our Universe today.
Supersting theory, with its sneutrinos 1, 2, and 3, especially sneutrino1, as
LSP, (the lightest superpartner and in consequence, stable) is basically the
way most experiments designed to detect WIMPs use. But what happens if
superpartners don’t exist? Their equivalent, heavy-partners, would be a
convenient area of research.
This book considers the existence of heavy-partners, in which the lightest
heavy partner would be a new kind of neutrino – that we named neutronio,
with a mass of 132 GeV, with almost no movement; and because of that,
with a tendency to form groups of them (as halos) around galaxies. Only
one particle interacts with the weak force; but in big groups, forming a
compact cloud, the gravitational effect could become important.
In any case, the scientists that follow the Standard Model, which is totally
successful in the lightest scale, need to open their mind, and to wait for new
heavy particles in the other half of the logarithmic scale (heavier scale) and
to forget the assumed position that Higgs fields are destroyed by heat. The
connection of these heavy neutrinos with dark matter is similar as in
Supersymmetry theory, because the lightest heavy-partner particle couldn’t
decay into normal matter, similar like the lightest superpartner (or LSP).
However, a possible decay would be: ZZ, and/or energetic photons. It is
also electrically neutral and can only interact with the weak force. This
would be an ideal particle to form the bulk of dark matter.
119. Oscillating Universes, Quantum
multiverse, Gravitational Universe
The traditional Big Bang – Big Crunch cycles of Universes is called the
oscillating Universe. This is not a popular idea among physicists.
There are a lot of technical difficulties in order to name it as a successful
theory, such as:
a) According to the second law of thermodynamic, the entropy of the
Universe will increase with time, regardless if the Universe is
expanding or contracting. And in any new Big Bang, entropy is almost
zero. Where did the entropy go?
b) The entropy's growth causes the length of each cycle in a new Big
Bang Universe to be larger than the one before it.
c) The expansion of the Universe is not slowing down, but rather, the
Universe is accelerating.
d) In each new cycle, it is necessary for new conditions and values to be
developed.
All of the four main problems have a solution with the appearance of new
dimensions, one by one, like we explained in former sections.
Besides that, the position that a Multiverse, with 10500 or even more
Universes, exists; which is based in quantum mechanics and the incoherent
quantum waves (which only act in the Microcosmos) is totally inexact.
Linde and Vanchurin have calculated that the number of Universes in the
multiverse is at least 1010^10000000, which is an incredibly large quantity, but at
least it’s better than considering infinite universes.
However, a different parallel Universe does exist, where the gravitational
waves, coherent and ordered, act. Besides that, a parallel Universe, totally
symmetric with ours, exists in our Macrocosmos era and in the
Microcosmos era. The link between our Universe and our parallel and
symmetric Universe, is a wormhole of R=1.615979906 x10-33; this is,
Planck length, impossible to form with current human technology. But this
wormhole exists in the center of black holes. Each black hole in our
Universe has a center, with Planck length size, that communicates with
another black hole in the parallel Universe; each black hole in a Universe
acts like a corresponding white hole in the other Universe, with the same
length, λp. So, the distance between both parallel Universes is 2λp.
Besides that, Universes with bigger number of dimensions also exist; but
they have wormholes smaller than Plank length, and in consequence, they
are impossible to access materially from our Universe.
Mathematically and physically, the relation among the multidimensional
Universe is the force of gravity. For that reason, in the first chronos of any
Big Bang, gravity had the same strength as the other forces. We can do a
hypothetical description of Universes with different dimensions from ours,
but that would be farther away from any experimental proof. We explain
this only with a general description, but for our Universe, we detail it and
the particles of matter than live in it.
An enormous number of black holes exist; this doesn’t mean that each
black hole has a different parallel Universe. All black holes (1016~1018 or
more) in our Universe, communicate with different sections of our
parallel Universe (the same and only one) in a CPT connection.
120. Age of the Universe
Even today, most astronomers consider that the Universe is 13.7 billion of
years old because of a meticulous interpretation of all the experimental data.
Nobody can fully accept the 100% accuracy of these experimental
measures. Besides that, the laws of physics are not consistent in some cases;
in other cases there are many different opinions on these measures; and the
physical theory is still incomplete.
For example, for some, the value of the cosmological constant is inexistent
(value=0); while others consider that its value is a very small one.
Its experimental value is more recognized; it is bounded empirically by Λ <
3 x10-56 cm-2.
Moreover, comparing this experimental value with theoretical results in
quantum calculations gives us a difference of approximately 10120; the
biggest difference in the history of science.
In a former section of this book we explained this difference and we
proposed a simple formula: Λ=6/R2. Because the radius of the Universe is
always stretching, R increases with time and in that way, the cosmological
“constant” is permanently variable and its value decreases with time. We
know that in physics Λ describes a force that causes matters to fly apart
from one another; with an acceleration proportional to their separation, in a
specific time; independent of their masses and directly proportional to the
energy density of vacuum, and of course, inversely proportional to the time
of the Universe. If we consider the experimental value of Λ (Λ < 3 x10-56
cm-2), as we pointed out in a former section, the Universe would have 15.0
billions of years. Notwithstanding, this experimental value of Λ could have
a margin of error and because of that, with the data utilized by astronomers,
we prefer to put the age of the Universe between 13.5 ~ 15 Gyr, which is a
range instead of a sharp quantity. Astronomers can use 13.7 Gyr. I prefer to
continue using 15 Gyr.
Like we explained before, this is a big quantity in human terms, but in
Universal time (basically in logarithmical terms) it is only a small
difference.
Using 13.7 billions of years, Λ needs to be larger. In effect:
Λ = 6/R2
13.7 Billions of years = 1.296112268 x1028 cm
Λ=6/((1.296112268 x1028)2)=3.571626263 x10-56 cm-2
Another way to represent Λ=8πGϕv in s-2, where ϕv (is the average vacuum
density of the Universe, in a determined time.
Or Λ=8πGϕv/c2 in cm-2
121. Astronomical and physical concepts
that need to be elucidated
There are a lot of physics and astronomical concepts that need to be
elucidated before we can give an exact number to the age of the Universe
Such as:
• The exact experimental value of Λ, as of right now.
• If the expansion rate of the Universe has been constant over the history of
the Universe from the beginning (or at least from 380,000 years ago, at
CMB, Cosmic Microwave Background), why were photons released?
• The exact value of the Hubble constant, its change with time and the side
effect of the acceleration in all the history of the Universe.
• What is dark energy? And what percentage of the total dark matter is:
hot, cold, and exotic.
• The different varieties of black holes and their participation in the
evolution of the Universes.
• If axions exist.
• If superpartners exist.
• If WIMPs exist, are they a new class of heavier neutrinos?
• What kind of inflation was there in the primitive Universe?
• The type of expansion: was it always accelerating; or did it changed with
time: attraction dominates, loitering phases; and repulsion dominates.
• What happened with the kinetic energy?
• Is the Universe flat or is it only almost flat, at this moment?
• Do neutrinos have mass or not? If they do, how much?
• Forms to manipulate the dates obtained from the patterns in the map of
the CMB; review of the supposed distance between space (today) from
the moment the CMB was released.
• Review of all the quantities utilized to calculate the age of Universe from
CMB. Is Ω=1 or is it only 1; dark energy; dark matter; normal matter,
etc.
• The Hubble constant (variable that changes with time and with any new
calculations of the same or new teams). The length of space when the
≅
CMB photons were released until now, which is assumed to be 44 billion
light years.
• Etc.
It is necessary to continue refining the experimental dates and the answers
derived from the WMAP results. But, we need to have the ability to choose
the correct answers over the suppositions, in theoretical physics.
The easiest way to obtain the exact age of the universe is by obtaining
the exact experimental value of Λ.
122. FTL cosmic space. Einstein barrier
The Einstein maximum limit of the speed of light in vacuum (2.99792458 x1010
cm/s) is a limit only for matter. Cosmic space is definitely further away of that
limit, and in that way, cosmic space is always expanding faster than light. So, 44
billion light-years, the distance of the cosmic space, is physically and
mathematically possible; but it seems too high and we need to review it. Our
horizon of success (h), obtained by multiplying c.t is considerably smaller, and
this is the distance the photons have reached (distance: 13.5~ 15.0 billion lightyears).
Our observable Universe uses the light-radius h=ct, and additional cosmic space is
outside of our astrophysical observation. We need to use Ockham’s razor. But in a
theoretical sense, we know that cosmic space will always expand faster than light,
so, it will arrive to the maximum limit of the universe “before” it. But, like we
explained in former sections, in the beginning of the Big Bang, and close to it,
(minimum and maximum sizes), time is converted into space. So, R and h end
together, depending on the space difference between them and when time is
converted into space. Astronomers, using efficient analysis of the CMB maps,
reveal that the age of Universe is close to 13.7 billion years. This, at least, is an
approximate value. But at the same time, we consider that the 44 billion years for
cosmic expansion is too high in the same period. It is impossible for matter,
including photons to travel faster than light, even if space was stretched a longer
length.
If we consider the relation of Kinetic Energy Ec=(1/2)mv2 to be equal to mc2, we
obtain (1/2)mv2=mc2 and so, v=√2 c
We obtained in a mathematical relation, even if it’s too approximate, an average
relation for the expansion of cosmic space, equivalent to √2 c or 1.414213562c.
If 13.5~15 Gyr is the light space from CMB to now; the cosmic space in the same
period could be approximately 22 Gyr, which is half of the 44 Gyr obtained with
the actual calculations when the sound waves (acoustic oscillations) are encoded
in the WMAP map.
The trigonometric parallax to measure distances would be different for
macrocospical objects, instead of the radiation or microcospic waves.
Moreover, we know that the angular size of the fundamental mode of vibration in
the early Universe is equivalent to the parallax angle. But any calculations, farther
to the horizon, could be wrong. The quantity that is supposed for cosmic radius,
about 44 billions light–years, needs to be re-checked. Remember, luminosity
distance is different between matter and empty Universes. Besides that, the
difference is not between matter and radiation. After h, there is only an empty
vacuum, with no matter and no radiation.
123. Dimensions of the string
According to the String theory, at the beginning of the Universe, all nine
spatial dimensions (ten are the dimensions of the string: nine spatial + one
time) were in completely equal footing. They were completely symmetric,
all curled up into a multidimensional Planck-sized nugget. But this is not
the only predicted supposition; there are a lot of them, such as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
10 are the dimensions of the string.
For some reason, 10 dimensions formed an unstable complex.
For that reason, there was a breakdown in two smaller complexes: six and
four.
For another reason, six spatial dimensions retained their initial Planck
length, and three spatial dimensions + one time were singled out for
expansion, forming our actual Universe.
Only three spatial dimensions were expandable, and because the strings
that wrapped these dimensions were highly likely to collide, annihilations
were made that lessened the constriction, allowing the three spatial
dimensions to continue expanding.
We have a different position.
Time was an expanded dimension. What happened to the time of the six
curled up dimensions?
Eight are the dimensions of the first dimensional nugget (or dimensional
modulus). Seven spatial dimensions + one time dimension.
This modulus is completely stable.
There is no breakdown of the modulus (complex or nugget).
Each dimension (including time) has a different footing; and in
arithmetical comparison, it is impossible to draw all of them together, due
to the astronomical difference in space. We need to use a logarithmical
scale in order to draw them in a visible modulus.
The spatial dimensions began to evolve in order (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7),
developing a class of entities according to its own world. The only reason
why a three spatial Universe is developing now is because it's the time to
do it. The zero, first, and second spatial dimensional Universes were
developed before (in that order). The 4th spatial dimension will begin to
develop afterwards, then the 5th, and so on.
• Their formulas, considering the minimum size (Planck) and the
maximum size, are described in a former section.
• Even though three spatial dimensions + one time are now developing;
the minimum limit, forming the multidimensional nugget or dimensional
modulus, doesn’t go away. Like in an electronic orbital, when the
electron goes away, the orbital doesn't disappear, it will always be there,
either real or virtual. If eight (or ten) are the number of dimensions of the
dimensional nugget (including time), they will always be the same, with
some dimensions expanding or not. Space can stretch until its
maximum limit, but its minimum limit will always be there, because
it is a limit, abstract space.
• In the same way, there is a multidimensional nugget with maximum
limits, forming a virtual modulus too.
124. Graphs of possible representations of
dimensional modulus
There are a lot of possible representations of minimum and maximum limits in
dimensional modulus.
Such as:
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
125. String theory and size 0
The String theory is completely successful in avoiding size zero, and in
consequence infinite density. By fixing a minimum size (in the case of our
Universe: Planck length, 1.615979906 x10-33 cm, the infinities in the case of
density and temperature are avoided; colossal results are obtained, but they
are finite. If we use this Planck length in the center of a black hole, we can
obtain a gateway to our parallel Universe. Instead of having the end of time
and collapse of our Universe, we have an initial time of another Universe.
This is, when time in our Universe comes to an end, time in the parallel
Universe just begins. We need a CPT connection. In that way, our parallel
Universe would be: Antimatter-Inverse spin and inverse time.
The symmetry conditions affirm that constants G, ℏ, and c are equal in both
Universes. M and R are also equal but have an inverse sign. Nevertheless,
we need to reaffirm some rules.
•
•
•
Planck length in our Universe (approx. 1.616 x10-33 cm) is exactly equal
in each of three spatial dimensions, in our pre-Big Bang scenario.
The minimum Planck in a Universe, with different number of dimensions,
is equal for all the dimensions in that Universe, at least in the pre-Big
Bang scenario, but they are completely different among Universes with a
different number of dimensions. In other words, the Planck length of
approx. 1.616x 10-33 cm is only valid for a Universe with 3 spatial
dimensions, like ours.
There are no sub-Planck measures in our Universe. Planck is the
minimum length. Sub–Planck distances are outside of our Universe and
thus are impossible to detect. Similar conditions exist in other Universes
with different dimensions. They have a minimum length, and it is
impossible to diminish this minimum.
126. Dark energy
Scientists consider that our Universe recently entered into another
accelerated phase (this acceleration is independent of the inflationary
expansion in the microcosmos era, just as the Universe began). Accelerated
expansions of the Universe, even if recent experiments confirm them, seem
to be in conflict with the attractive nature of gravity. But, it is necessary to
also take into consideration the dark energy and the permanent action of the
cosmological “constant”. Perhaps this energy is not a new form of energy; it
could be the same kind of gravity acting at large distances. We need to
consider that a force that is only acting attractively is against the
thermodynamic principles. We know that: All action has a reaction, of the
same value but in an opposite way. Attraction needs a counterpart acting
with repulsion. Besides that, the details of the heavenly intensity
distribution of microwaves can only be explained if there is a special
contribution from the dark energy of the Universe. We cannot affirm that
new acceleration is a product of recent times. The history of expansion of
the Universe shows a permanent acceleration. Like we recognize the
permanent attraction force of gravity in relatively short distances; we need
to accept the permanent repulsion force of dark energy or “antigravity” in
large distances. In that way, gravity and its counterpart, would act inversely
as the strong force. If we accepted this way of action for the nuclear force,
why can't we think in a similar way for gravity? In effect, in an atomic
nuclei, the strong force changes its way depending on the distance: in small
distances it is repulsive; at the border of the nuclei it is completely
attractive; out of the border of the atomic nuclei its action is zero.
Considering the atomic nuclei to be like the Universe, gravity could act in
an inverse form: completely attractive in small distances; repulsive at
distances around the border of the Universe; and zero, out of the border of
the Universe. We talk more about this in the next sections. Permanent
expansion (in accelerated action) is a natural consequence of the normal
behavior of gravitation. The gravitational force is not purely attractive due
to the fact that it also has a repulsive action. Physicists need to at least
consider this.
127. Primordial black holes
According to Stephen Hawking, there were a big number of primordial
black holes existing in the microcosmos era. Most have evaporated before
the actual era, but some of them must continue to exist until now.
One particle alone can never transform itself into a black hole, even if it had
a corresponding Schwarzschild radius (also known as a gravitational
radius). Like we explained in former sections, particles are associated only
with a real quantum wave, even if they have a virtual gravitational wave,
smaller than the Planck length, and in consequence outside of our Universe.
But even if any particle has its own Schwarzschild radius (from a
theoretical point of view); then, if we could squeeze the appropriate mass
within the corresponding radius, we could create a black hole, according to
the relation Rc2/2G=M. However, it is impossible to form a black hole,
because the gravitational radius needs to be ≥ λp. Not one particle (known or
unknown), including the possibility of the existence of heavier mass
particles, can obtain a gravitational radius that is equal or bigger to Planck
length. For example, a known particle, like the proton, has its own
Schwarzschild radius, albeit only 2.5 x10-52 cm. This value is outside of the
minimum limit necessary.
128. Gravity, gravitational waves, and
multidimensional Universe
To research about the multidimensional Universe or to approach it (not to
reach it physically), we need to use gravity.
In physical experiments, we normally use electromagnetic phenomena. It is
necessary to use gravitation. Gravitational waves are predicted by general
relativity, but this has yet to be detected. Part of the difficulty is in their
weakness and another part is in its spin 2. Most gravitational waves are
cancelled by another in the opposite side. Small imperfections left the
gravitational waves possible for detection, especially in strong gravitational
fields.
Different quantum waves with spin 1.
A gravitational wave is practically an almost canceled wave, and the result
is a straight line with small imperfections.
The quantum wave with spin 1 is not cancelled, although it accepts
interferences, and maintains its duality: wave and particle.
This difference points out the incoherent character of the quantum wave; it
can either be a particle or a wave. The gravitational wave is coherent; it
practically acts like a reality, as a collapsing quantum wave.
The colliders, in their experiments, utilize the strong, weak and the
electromagnetic waves; the gravitational force, too weak in normal events,
is generally ignored. If we could experiment with sensitive gravitational
effects, a lot of new results could be obtained.
For example: by increasing the gravity, it is possible to increase the size of a
“curled up” dimension. We know that the order of Planck length is 10-33 cm
in our three-dimensional world; in a two dimensional world it is 10-22 cm.;
and 10-11 cm, in one spatial dimension. Those dimensions are larger than our
minimum length; and because of that, it is possible to reach them.
But to obtain more than three spatial dimensions it needs a measure smaller
than our Planck length, and that is impossible. Besides that, going from a
three spatial-dimensional space to a four-spatial-dimensional (noncompactified) one, changes the force equation of the gravitational field to
an inverse cube-law instead of a normal inverse square–law.
Notwithstanding, the distance among objects diminishes when the
dimension increases. Gravity is the form of communication with other
dimensional Universes. According to general relativity, gravity is an
essential part of space-time and must permeate all dimensions.
129. Mass concentration in Big Bang and
medium black holes
Similar to the former section, we can obtain similar answers by comparing
the mass of a black hole with the corresponding cosmic mass, considering
them to be of the same size: The space contains double the quantity of
mass. We can apparently point out that this affirmation is false; but it is
true. The problem is in our experience. We see the actual condition of the
Universe (ρvacuum, approximately 1.6 x10-29 g/cm3) and consider that black
holes have minimum volume, and in consequence large densities. If we take
into account the first stages of Universes, we could obtain a bigger
concentration of mass, or a larger density. In effect, a black hole of Planck
size has approximately 6.17 x1092 g/cm3. Our Universe had in that moment
approximately 1.234 x1093 g/cm3, practically double. The Planck size in the
center of any black hole (primordial; medium sized, formed from collapsing
stars; or astronomical size, in the center of galaxies) is a fundamental limit.
Zero, or even sub-Planck distances are totally forbidden. There is no
singularity in the center of black holes; there is only a co-singularity.
When a black hole is “completely” evaporated, its mass and space will
never become zero. The minimum would instead be Planck length and
Planck mass respectively (approx. 1.616 x10-33 cm and 2.17 x10-5 g). This is
basically the size and mass (and in consequence, energy) of the hole,
unbounded, like a pore of the Universe. The naked singularity is only a
mathematical error without a physical consequence. The cosmic space has
pores, size λp, just like the human being, and this is derived from its own
nature, independently if it comes from a dissipated black hole or not.
These holes have a connection with our parallel Universe.
130. Penrose process. Creation of virtual
particles
Roger Penrose explained and showed that between the static limit and the
event horizon of any black hole, the ergosphere exists, and that energy
could be extracted from it.
In the future, human civilization could utilize it, but the Universe has been
already using it since the beginning of time. In the Penrose process, when
an object falls into the ergosphere, it breaks into two separate pieces. One
piece heads across the Event horizon but travels in the opposite direction to
the rotation of the hole (It is possible to do it, heading into the hole). The
other piece heads out of the ergosphere, traveling in the direction of
rotation. The mass of the black hole decreases a tiny amount, converting it
into the energy of motion of the outgoing piece of the original object.
If we take into account the Hawking radiation, the creation of virtual
particles avoiding their annihilation next to the black hole, is a type of
Penrose process; since the energy necessary to make the particles could
come from the ergosphere. The antiparticle (opposite rotation) falls down
into the hole and the particle with more energy goes outside of the hole.
The Universe uses the combination of two holes; one in our Universe and
the other in our parallel Universe of three spatial dimensions in a CPT
connection that we explained at the beginning of this book, and that we will
follow in the next section.
131.
Circular motion limit, where
particle-antiparticle pair is divided
Besides that, like the Chandrasekhar limit in a collapsing star, two more
limits exist in any black hole: Planck length, in the center of the black hole;
and the circular motion limit, which is 1.5 times the size of the event
horizon.
The place where light rays are bent into a circle around the center of the
black hole is not in the event horizon. That happens at a distance 1.5 times
the event horizon radius. We can point out that this is the distance of
sharpest influence of the black hole, and in this place, any light ray can stay
in orbit around the black hole. This is the place where a pair of particleantiparticle can be divided; the antiparticle with inverse rotation plunges
into the black hole itself and the particle is bent around the hole and
emerges front its vicinity following an open curve out into space again. The
Big Bang acted like a black hole attached to another one (in our parallel
Universe), each with λp size. Each hole is at the same time, black and white.
By a procedure that needs more study, this double mechanism sends
antimatter (our waste) to the other Universe and receives matter (its waste)
in the same quantity. In that way, matter and energy, are increasing in both
Universes. In each Universe, the matter is gained and in consequence its
energy increases. This increasing energy is balanced by the negative energy
of the cosmological constant and the gravitational energy. Besides that,
comparing both Universes, both are inverses: It’s gaining (+) and (-), the
difference is also zero. Like we explained in former sections, the two black
holes give us the formula to calculate the mass of our Universe, double of
the mass corresponding to a black hole alone. Besides that, it's easy to
show; according to the relation M/R (which is constant), that mass increases
with the increase of cosmic space. The relation Rc2=GM, corresponding to
the cosmic space or Rc2/G=M. Its mass is double than that of a black hole's
Schwarzschild mass: Rc2/2G=M. It needs to have a λ double the size of the
Schwarzschild radius to obtain the same mass.
132. Arithmetical calculation on the
increase of mass
The process in which the Universe duplicates mass can be shown,
considering the length when the particles and antiparticles are divided in the
circular motion ratio: (1.5 of the Schwarzschild radius). In that moment,
pairs of particles-antiparticles x 1.5 are produced. For example: if a black
hole has ten mass units, the relation at 1.5 R would be fifteen units of (+)
matter, and fifteen units of (-) antimatter. The matter of the black hole is (+).
The 15 (+) units go outside of the Universe; ten of the fifteen (-) units are
eliminated with the 10 (+) units of the black hole; so, an excess of 5 units of
antimatter remains. With a connection with the other Universe, our
Universe sends these five (-) units as waste. The opposite black hole, in the
parallel Universe, performs the inverse process, interchanging five (+) units
of its waste (which is at the same time, our matter). The arithmetical
process is simple.
15 (+) units+5 (+) units=20 units of (+) matter in our Universe.
15 (-) units+5 (-)units=20 units of (-)antimatter in the other Universe.
The mass was doubled in both. This detail is a simplified process.
133. Gravity in black holes. Constants
and variables of nature
We need to add that:
1. All black holes need their event horizons to have a radius equal to or
greater than Planck (R ≥ λp), and in that position, they act with
gravitational waves. No particle alone can form a black hole. The mass
of any black hole needs to be at least Planck mass.
2. The quantum equations are correct in the center of black holes, where
the size is λp, or in the Big Bang. There, quantum gravity is correct.
But if we study bigger sizes, we need to use the general theory of
relativity, and not quantum mechanics. Black holes are heavier than
Planck mass; the use of quantum mechanics is totally appropriate
when the mass is Planck or less.
3. There are no charged black holes. All black holes are uncharged.
Remember that there is gravity even with only one graviton, and
gravity collapses the electromagnetic or the quantum wave.
4. The equations corresponding to both waves (gravitational and
quantum) determine that since the first chronos, the values of G,C,ℏ
are constant and so, they will go on until the end of the Universe.
Planck mass, Planck energy, and Planck length were established at the
first chronos. M and R vary with time, in two relations: MR=K, in
mass and λ of particles; and M/R=K in mass and light-radius of cosmic
space.
5. The formulas in both relations are equal only in the Big Bang, in that
way we can obtain every relation.
Rc2=GM and ℏ=mcλ
Rc2/G=M and ℏ/cλp =m Rc2/G=ℏ/cλp
λp2c3=Gℏ λp2=(Gℏ)/c3 and so, λp=±√(Gℏ/c3)
All the other values can be obtained by the same way.
134. Four energies of the Universe
Because gravitational forces are normally attractive, it is necessary for work
to be done in order to pull matter against its own gravity. That means that
the gravitational energy is negative. In this context, the appearance of more
energy and matter could be exactly compensated by the negative
gravitational energy of the newly created mass, and in that way, no net
energy has appeared and the principle of conservation of energy is
maintained without change.
In the same way, the Universe contains two other energies: the positive
kinetic energy and the negative energy produced by the cosmological
constant. When mass increases, both energies increase too; but one is
positive and the other is negative. By changing in the same quantity, the
principle of conservation of energy is also maintained. It is easy to
compensate the four energies (two positive and two negatives), and to
maintain intact the total net energy, if the change of each one has the same
value.
But according to the percentage of each of the energies; they have changed
in different proportion, and their percentages have varied with time. For
example, by comparing the percentage considered 380,000 years ago with
the one in the actual moment of the Universe, we note that there is a big
difference. These results need to be reviewed. Besides that, the four
energies have incorporated mass in their formulas; and in that way, it is not
an independent quantity, so, mass is included in all the energies. For
example, the four energies, in an exact or approximate relation, are
indicated by:
Em=mc2
Ec=(+1/2)mv2 if v √2 c, we have: Ec=+mc2
Egrav = -GMm/R and Rc2/G=M
(GMRc2)/GR=-mc2.
EΛ=(-1/6)ΛmR2c2=-(1/6)(6/R2)mR2c2=-mc2
≅
And so:
Et
≅ +mc +mc -mc -mc ≅ 0 = Ø
2
2
2
2
135. Temperature and mass of a black
hole
The temperature of any black hole is inversely proportional to its mass. The
emission of particles, according to this affirmation, is only enough in the
primordial black holes; created in the microcosmos era, with appreciable T0.
The medium black hole has a temperature of less than one microKelvin. In
big black holes, the ones in the center of galaxies, the temperature is even
lower, and in consequence their evaporation is negligible. (Black holes can
emit particles with a thermal spectrum, at a definite temperature, and this
emission is larger when its temperature is hotter, and its mass is smaller).
This is if we only consider temperature, but an analogous process involving
gravity could also occur naturally. Near the surface of medium and big
black holes gravity is so intense that the vacuum (or ergosphere space) can
intervene with a continual stream of newly created pairs of particlesantiparticles. In the classic Newtonian sense, gravitational force cannot
produce particles; but in quantum mechanics (or in quantum cosmological),
we could consider the spontaneous appearance of matter out of empty
space, forming particle-antiparticle pairs. This is accepted, and it is referred
as a creation out of nothing. If quantum mechanics allows, considering the
temperature, for particles to pop to existence out of nowhere, this could
also, using the quantum cosmological, apply to gravity, allowing space to
come into existence out of nothing. And if gravity is a warping of spacetime, we could say that gravity (and space-time) induce the creation of
matter. In that way, the primordial (mini) black holes can produce particle–
antiparticle pairs, separate them, and interchange them with the parallel
Universe of antimatter by means of heat (temperature); but the medium and
giant black holes could also do it by using gravity.
136. Human and natural colliders
Even the Standard Model doesn’t accept more than three families of
particles. In consequence, it only considers particles that are no heavier than
103 GeV. In astronomical experiments, cosmic rays have been detected on
the surface of earth with energies up to about 1011 GeV, containing very
heavy particles. The origin of those particles is unknown, and constitutes an
important puzzle.
For us, a heavier scale exists, where the corresponding heavier partners of
the normal particles are. Unlike the superpartners; the heavy partners have
spin 1/2, like all particles of matter, and they are localized in a similar
(logarithmical) scale, as the known particles. They also begin from Planck
mass /√(8π)=4.3285 x10-6 g or 2.393653682 x1018 GeV (approx. 2.4 x1018
GeV). According to this theory, the particles up and around 1011 GeV are
the heaviest neutronio (neutronio3) equivalent to 3 x1010 GeV. The cosmic
rays are neutral, just like this neutronio3. This particle is unstable and
decays rapidly into the LHP (lightest heavy partner), the neutronio1, with a
mass of 132 GeV. Testing that colossal mass, 3 x1010 GeV, using
accelerators, is too expensive and too far away in the development of our
current technology; but we could experiment using some of the natural
colliders available to us, such as cosmic rays. The table with heavy-partners
and their supposed masses were described in former sections.
137. Quantum foam and sub Planck
distances
The concept of a smooth spatial geometry, the fundamental principle of
general relativity, is destroyed by the violent fluctuations of the quantum
world on shorter distances scales, or Sub-Planck lengths. John Wheeler
used the term quantum foam to describe the disorder “revealed” by the
ultramicroscopic examination of space (and time), by using distances below
Planck length. In those distances, the traditional notions of right and left,
forth and back, up and down, and after and before, lose their meaning. If we
follow a decreasing distance, we will arrive at zero distance and quantum
mechanics or the general relativity yield the same ridiculous answers,
infinities. These violent fluctuations in the spatial fabric at distances shorter
the Planck length and infinities, using distance 0, are mathematical errors.
The space 0 or sub-Planck distances don’t exist in our physical world.
Notwithstanding, even considering a minimum Planck distance, like the one
the Superstring theory takes into account, the quantum wave and the
gravitational wave act separately; except in the first chronos, just at the
beginning of the Big Bang, where both waves, act unified and in real
existence. In summary:
• Space 0 doesn't exist.
• Sub-Planck lengths don't exist. (Planck length is the minimum size).
• At Planck length, both waves (gravitational and quantum) act together,
related to the same object.
• At distances longer than Planck length, both waves can act, but
separately.
• Quantum waves act from Planck length to 0.687289278 cm in
particles; with Planck length having the minimum value, and Planck
mass having the maximum value.
• Gravitational waves act from Planck length to the maximum length of
the Universe. It is attractive at short distances and repulsive at
astronomical distances. The minimum cosmic mass is Planck mass.
• The paradox of measure is not determined by its length. It is preferably
determined by its mass. Planck mass, and not Planck length, is the
frontier between both.
• Quantum gravity can act at distances exactly as Planck length, that is,
basically the size of the string in superstring theory.
138. Vibrational patterns and extremely
heavy particles
In String theory, some vibrational patterns exist that correspond to
extremely heavy particles, and the term "heavy" means many times heavier
than Planck mass. This is a wrong concept. The maximum mass for the
heaviest particle is Planck mass divided by √(8π). Planck mass is the
maximum mass for the first Higgs field, which contains a Higgs
gravitational boson with a quadrupole of heavy–quark particles, in which
the mass of each of them is approx. 2.4 x1018 GeV. This is according to a
basic String theory: “The more typical vibrating fundamental string
corresponds to a particle whose mass is around 1018 greater than a proton”.
“The length of the Higgs fields can increase until approximately one cm,
(exactly 0.687289278 cm) obtaining in this λ, the lightest particle, the
neutrino 1. The mass of particles follows the uncertainty principle and so,
when λ is longer, its mass is lighter. Particles act with quantum waves.
Matter with many times Planck mass, exists in the cosmic space that uses
the gravitational waves, and its relation with length (light-radius of the
Universe) is directly proportional. In that way, longer radii mean more
mass, according to the relation: Rc2/G M; but cosmic space is electrically
neutral and it is not composed by independent particles, but by aggregated
matter or complex structures.
≅
139. Fabric of space-time
Einstein’s General theory of relativity says that the fabric of space cannot
tear; and we can add: until the Universe begins to develop the fourth spatial
dimension, beginning from the maximum length of our Universe, using
fractal dimensions, until the arrival of the new dimension (Big Crush).
Besides that, our Universe has holes in all of its extension, with size λp
each, like “pores”. These holes are unbounded and for that reason, can’t be
divided in a length smaller than Planck length.
If we use quantum mechanics equations and its rules, we obtain a lot of
absurdities in our macrocosmos, which are much more than simple
paradoxes. But, like we insist in many sections of this book, quantum
mechanics can act gravitationally speaking, but just in the first chronos. In
that moment, the Big Bang, space doesn’t need to tear, puncture or separate.
It is completely separated. It is a simple hole, with size λp=1.615979906
x10-33 cm.
By stretching the space, irregularities could develop in its fabric, but space
can never tear or have contact with an additional spatial dimension; because
physically, the tearing would have to be necessarily smaller than Planck
length, and this is impossible in our Universe. If that could be possible, our
Universe would collapse, demolish, or tear down completely, like it will
happen in the Big Crush.
140. Physical impossibilities due to the
nature of the gravitational wave
From a mathematical standpoint, space can tear, and it is possible to
travel to the past. But physically, it is impossible, like Einstein insisted.
The manipulation of Calabi-Yau shapes, call for the mathematicians flop
transitions, they can do it because the Calabi-Yau is a multidimensional
nugget, and the String theory considers that all dimensions have the same
footing.
In the physical reality, a colossal difference exists in the length of
dimensions, and we can only draw them using logarithmical values. Ex.:
Planck, in the four spatial dimensional Universe is 1.896333025x10-44 cm
with a difference between the Planck of our Universe of 8.52x1010
(equivalent to 85.2 billion).
Any macrocosmos acts using the coherent gravitational waves; the
quantum waves are for particles. This is a fundamental principle in the
physical world.
If particles could use gravitational waves, an atom of hydrogen would need
to interact with a bigger orbit than the entire known universe. If the
macrocosmos could use quantum waves, it would immediately collapse.
141. Parallel Universe and interchange of
matter-antimatter
The parallel Universe of antimatter, which is based in the gravitational
wave, has the same fundamental constants ℏ, G, C, in value and sign, like
ours. All of them are positives. Two fundamental variables: R and M, have
the same value, but with an opposite sign. Derived from this, energy has the
same relation. Another variable, time, has also the same value, but with an
opposite sign. Both Universes began, and will end at the same time. The
difference of space between them is always 2λp (λp in each Universe).
In the creation of particle–antiparticle pairs, in each Universe, both have the
same production and the same proportion (50%-50%). The particle–
antiparticle pairs are destroyed immediately when they are joined. But to
increase the matter, they need to be separated; and this process appears to be
done by means of black holes. At least, this process is more logical than the
actual supposed process that states that: “Our Universe is a result of an error
of nature, which after a long process, exact and totally inefficient,
approximately 109 particle-antiparticle pairs were destroyed to obtain only
one particle."
This process is ugly and unnatural, and deserves to be discarded.
Dirac’s prediction that for every particle variety an antiparticle counterpart
exists is an essential truth of indescribable beauty and profound symmetry.
It is absolutely necessary to find a logical and beautiful complementary
process, to separate them, in order to form only matter (in our Universe).
The process of destroying all antiparticles unilaterally, or of forming
antimatter and sending it to the farther sections of our Universe is a failed
and inexistent process.
142.
Antimatter;
antimatter
production
of
The creation of particle-antiparticle pairs (50%-50%) is common in our
Universe. But the antiparticles that are far away from black holes are
destroyed almost immediately. Even mesons, which are formed by matter
and antimatter, have a short lifespan. When a quark and an antiquark are
confined to a miniature Universe (whose extent is 10-10 cm) they will meet
and will consequently be annihilated almost immediately. Any antiparticle
has its destruction in our world of matter. Antimatter (or antiparticles) is alldestructive in our universe. For antimatter to be useful, we must contain it
away from any piece of matter. The solution is more expensive than any
production of derived energy. We need to have a vacuum, even emptier than
outer space, with magnetic and electric fields that confine the antiparticles
(positrons or antiprotons for example) as circulating beams, like an energy
recipient without material walls. With modern apparatus, it's possible to
store a small quantity of charged antiparticles for a long time. But
antiatoms, antineutrons or any kind of neutral antiparticles can’t be hold by
electric and magnetic fields, and because of that it is more difficult to store
them. The neutral antiparticles are annihilated almost immediately after
coming into contact with normal matter or normal particles.
It is almost impossible to create antimatter in our Universe. Even the
simplest form of antimatter, the antihydrogen atom, formed artificially by
an antiproton with a positron, is extremely difficult to form. In 1996, CERN
produced only nine antiatoms and had an enormous propaganda around the
world. But they only lived for a small fraction of a second; it was
impossible to store them to be used for further studies and were destroyed
almost immediately by matter in their surroundings.
Later, in 2002, it was possible to produce a small quantity of antihydrogen
atoms, but all were obtained with difficult and artificial projects.
To obtain antimatter in more complex forms in our Universe is an almost
impossible task, and if it is reached, is by means of artificial and expensive
projects and it is only possible to obtain minimum quantities.
We know that the CPT theorem shows that matter and antimatter must be
symmetric when all CPT operations are applied. This needs a symmetric
and parallel Universe where antimatter lives.
But scientists still debate if matter and antimatter have to be symmetrical
under the influence of gravity.
143. Gravity and the parallel Universe
We accept the CPT theorem; and in that position, a parallel Universe, gravitationally
attached to ours, is necessary.
In two spatial dimensions, they are always increasingly separating. But we live in three
spatial dimensions, and so, both Universes are always separated by 2λp (λp each) at any
point in their fabrics.
G
, ℏ, c are positive constants in both Universes. Because of that, gravity is
symmetrical in both. Gravity is completely attractive at small distances. Both Universes
began with a similar Big Bang and they are continuously expanding in the same
proportion.
Antimatter falls down in an anti-earth’s gravitational field; and it experiments repulsion or
expansion at astronomical scales (like in our Universe). Antiparticles are nature's particle's
mirrors. And like we affirmed in this book, antiparticles and particles don’t fall down or
rise up under gravity. Its gravitational wave is always virtual, and has no reality in our
Universe since their sizes are always less than Planck length. Every particle and
antiparticle acts with a real quantum wave. And it is not only attraction and repulsion; it
also has influence in the kind of spin, especially in neutral particles. As an incoherent
wave, it behaves based on quantum mechanic rules; including its wave–particle duality,
and specially, the uncertainty principle.
Also, like we explained before, the aggregated matter (mass > 2.17 x10-5 g or > 1.2 x1019
GeV) acts with gravitational waves; and after the first chronos of the Big Bang, cosmic
space acts with it (quantum gravity is only adequate in the first chronos of the Big Bang,
where gravity and the other three forces were united). After that and until the end of our
Universe, we need to use Einstein’s theory of General relativity. This theory indirectly
indicates that antimatter will fall down to earth at the same rate as matter. But remember,
antimatter needs an anti-earth that exists in our parallel Universes. If antimatter would fall
down to our earth, it would be destroyed in a minimal fraction of one second (annihilated
with surrounding matter).
144.Gravitational
relation
extradimensional Universes
between
In this book, we have considered a parallel Universe to be gravitationally
coherent; and different worlds existing in dimensional moduli, according to
new involved dimensions. These new worlds are mathematically ordered
with our world in a coherent manner. For example, the distance between our
universe and our parallel Universe is 2λp (λp in each), and if an infinitesimal
part of Planck length is changed in any part of those Universes, both
Universes would collapse. The other dimensional Universes are ruled by
different Planck and maximum lengths, in moduli related among them in
multidimensional packages. All of them are mathematically related and
coherently united. For that reason, the following concept is fundamental:
The relation with our parallel Universe and the other extradimensional Universes is by means of the gravitational force. In any
creation of any Universe or in its destruction, in the beginning and in
the end, gravity has the same value as the other forces of that Universe.
These ordered Universes, product of gravitational waves (gravitational
Universes), don’t have any relation with the cofinite Universes (even
infinite for some) that act with quantum mechanic rules; and in
consequence with quantum and incoherent waves: Multiverse, Megaverse,
Metaverse, Multiples Universes, Quilted Universes, Bubble Universes,
Parallel Universes, Alternate Universes, Parallel words, etc.; which are
obtained by researchers trying to resolve puzzling aspects of quantum
mechanics. Putting cofinite Universes (10500) or even, infinite Universes, in
random conditions, would conduce to the permanent destruction of them
(including our Universe), similar to the annihilations of particle-antiparticle
pairs.
145. Dual nature of all forces; gravity
But if gravity is attractive at shorter distances and repulsive at cosmic
distances, what happened with gravity at the beginning of the Universe? At
the Big Bang, the Universe only had one size: Planck length, and it was
impossible to have a smaller size than Planck length. Definitely, in that
moment, only expansion existed, and we are not talking about the inflation,
which came into existence later, according to the valid theory.
Considering that gravity is always attractive, Alan Guth suggested that in
the Big Bang and for a very short period of time afterwards, gravity
effectively reversed. Instead of pulling things together, it pushed them apart
at immense speed. Guth didn’t explain why. But the explanation is logical.
With minimum size, it is impossible to shrink space; there is only one way
to go, and that is outward. If gravity were to be always attractive, then, in
the Big Bang (with maximum gravity density) an expansion of the universe
would be impossible. The Universe would remain as a compact mass, with
no possibility of shrinking or stretching.
The dual nature of all forces, the principle of attraction–repulsion, is
common in all of them, including gravity.
Besides that, Universes with odd spatial dimensions begin from a minimum
length (Big Bang) and expand continuously to a maximum length. The
Universes, with even spatial dimensions, begin from a maximum length
(Big Crunch) and shrink to a minimum length. Between them, an area of
fractal dimension exists, where the old Universe is destroyed while the new
dimension is developed (Big Crush). In both Big Crushes, from even to odd
and from odd to even spatial dimensions, we have, in the so-called Einstein
frame spatial dimensional Universe, an evolution that would be described as
an accelerating contraction phase, and an accelerating expansion phase,
respectively. Besides that, Einstein’s limit (speed of light) applies only to
matter. Space, as an abstract unit, can (and of course does) expands or
contracts faster than light.
146. Fruitless search for superpartners
The search for superpartners is still infructuous, and by trying to find an
unknown new possible symmetry, we lose other known symmetries. One of
them is the symmetric relation of masses. For example, the neutrino and the
Top quark have a relation between them of approx. 1.5 x1016. And the
sneutrino, the partner of the neutrino, still doesn’t appears. When will the stop, the partner of Top quark, appear?
In order to maintain the symmetry, the superpartners need to have a
symmetrical relation among them and there is not enough space to do it. In
their search, with new accelerators, the answer has been: they must be
heavier. This next argument is common among most particle physicists: “If
it turns out that the superpartners are slightly more massive than what can
be produced at this Collider (LHC), it would take higher energies to reveal
them, and a long wait for a new machine that will eventually replace it”.
Notice it said “slightly” more massive, because the space available is almost
canceled by the supposition of the Standard Model that Higgs field is
destroyed by heat in shorter scales; and so, the space available is even
smaller. It’s necessary to expand the range among these heavier masses,
as we used with the heavy partners. The neutronio, that we explained
before is the heavy partner of the neutrino that could be found at 132
GeV. This could be a good possibility to find a new and unexpected
particle that goes beyond the Standard Model. A Higgs weak boson will
appear, later and heavier.
147. Symmetry among forces in the Standard Model
and String Theory
The symmetry among the different forces meets up and merges into one (in the Standard Model,
they come close, but never become equal). In String theory, a common point doesn't only exists,
but it exists in three different opportunities: 1015K electromagnetic-weak force; 1028K strongweak- electromagnetic force; and just at the beginning of the Big Bang at 1032K unifying the four
forces (including gravity). Without string symmetry only three forces almost (but not exactly)
meet. Gravity is completely ignored. In fixed moments, temperature, and λ, when the forces
meet, a Higgs boson appears.
The first (Higgs weak boson) is next to appear. (it's the last if we begin from Planck length) But
other two exist, according to the String theory, where the forces meet.
The moments of meeting and appearance of the corresponding Higgs boson.
The electromagnetic boson is the photon, and its mass at rest is always 0. The Higgs
electromagnetic boson doesn't exist.
148. Differences between masses of
known particles
The difference among masses of the known particles is enormous and needs
an explanation. The actual theory indicates that Higgs weak boson gives
mass to the particles. But this answer has some obstacles. One of them is,
why do some particles get bogged down in Higgs field more than others?
The heaviest quark, the top, has a mass of approx. 174 GeV and the electron
has only 5.11x10-4 GeV, which means that the top is 340,500 times heavier
than the electron. If we consider the mass of the neutrino, the difference is
even bigger (around 1016 times heavier). Moreover, the Standard Model
recognizes only one Higgs boson and in that way, it could be called, the
“King of creation”. Others consider it the “God particle”, or practically “our
creator”. But Superstring theory considers at least one other Higgs boson,
including the strong force; and supposes another Higgs boson, including
gravity. If Higgs weak boson gives quarks and electrons a means to obtain
mass, why can't we consider the same miraculous task for the other two? In
that way, the gravitational Higgs boson that existed at the beginning of our
Universe, would be giving mass to the particles since the first chronos. And
so, the existence of two other supersymmetric Higgs bosons would destroy
the supposition of the Standard Model: that before the appearance of the
Higgs weak boson, the particles were without mass, and moreover, that
another heavier scale doesn’t exist. For us, the Higgs weak boson gives
mass only to the particles of force (W+, W-, Z0). But even if the Higgs
boson could give mass to the particles of matter; the existence of the
Higgs gravitational boson and the Higgs strong boson would allow it to
give mass to very heavy particles, where the top quark would be, a
relatively light particle. The Higgs weak boson is totally unstable, and it
decays into known particles, and needs to be heavier than all known
particles, including the top quark. It is very important to take this into
account when the results of the LHC experiments are considered. The
Higgs weak boson joins quarks by means of the weak force, which acts in
all particles (except gluons and photons). Without the strong force, mesons
are not formed. With the strong force, the top quark would be lighter.
149.
Reciprocal
relation
minimum and maximum space
between
We affirmed that a reciprocal relation between maximum and minimum
space in a determined dimensional Universe exists, but it has a small
asymmetry. For example, our Universe has a Planck length equivalent to
1.615979906 x10-33 cm and a maximum length equivalent to 2.923096699
x1032 cm. If we multiply both, we obtain a quantity equivalent to
0.472366552 or e-0.75, whose inverse is 1/2.117000017 or 1/e0.75. We can also
obtain this by means of a T- duality in String theory, usually in a toroidally
compactified theory. Most notable is the R→α'/R' duality, which relates a
string theory, compactified on large and small tori, by interchanging
winding (or vibrational) and wounded modes. If we put the values in the
string T-duality formula we have: RR'=α cm2
Where α is:
α=(2.923096699 x1032 cm) x (1.615979906 x10-33 cm) = 0.4723665522 cm2
or e-0.75 cm2
Considering two eigenstate positions, we can also relate the wounded and
winding mode.
To obtain the relation without a unit of measure, we need to use a constant:
k=1cm-2, and so kRR'= α.
α can also be obtained by considering the differences of the projection of
spatial dimensions. In vibration modes, it only has three ways, in our
Universe at Planck length, equivalent to n. In wounded mode, with a
movement over 2n ways, it has n.2n =2n2. A dimensional modulus of 8
spatial dimensions has 28 components, and so, the relation between both is
e-3/28∙e-18/28 = e-21/28 = e-0.75 = 0.472366552 or 1/2.117000017.
With String theory, we avoid the singularities or infinities obtained by
traditional point particles of the Standard Model. Besides that, the three
components of our world of three spatial dimensions have the same footing,
like string theory considers, but with a difference: each Universe has
components of the same footing among them, but a different one
between a Universe with a different number of spatial dimensions.
150. Grand Unification scale
The Grand Unification scale MGUT, which according to the String theory,
states that the SU(3) x SU(2) x U(1) are united into a simple group. The
agreement, between the supersymmetric prediction and the actual, means
that the three gauge coupling meet, with
MGUT= 1016.1±0.3 GeV αGUT-1≈25
But differently, the nonsupersymmetric case considers that the three
couplings do not meet at a single point, and that their contacts range from
1013 GeV to 1017 GeV. Our position is that String theory is correct in this
sense.
Like we explained before, the point of unification of strong +
electromagnetic + weak forces is at k-22π (in logarithmical scale) and this is
equivalent to:
ln-69.21325266=λ=8.731046397 x10-31 cm=2.221039623 x1016 GeV
Which is equivalent to log16.34655631, which is approximately exact
inside the range of supersymmetric MGUT.
This energy is for the entire field, and in that position, the corresponding
fractional value, would be 4.43033306 x1015 GeV, logarithmically
equivalent to 1015.64643638.
In this manner, the values would be 16.35 and 15.65. This range is,
according to our theory, 1016±0.35 GeV, very similar with the one obtained
with String theory.
151. Gravitational scale and GUT theory;
Higgs bosons
The Gravitational scale needs to be fairly close to the GUT theory. This is
necessary for the stability of matter. The String theory considers two mass
scales in this matter:
• The Planck mass: 1.2 x1019 GeV (1019.08) and
• The gravitational scale mgrav=k-1=2.4 x1018 GeV.
This scale is obtained dividing Planck mass/√(8π); and its logarithmical
(log10) value is 18.38 GeV.
And so, its range would be 1018.73±0.35 GeV.
It is easy to confirm, accepting λp as the specific point (and the only one)
where gravity meets with the other three forces. In that moment, with
λp=1.615979906 x10-33 cm, it would have a mass of 1.2 x1019 GeV; and
acting gravitationally, a quadrupole exists. Each pole has the same mass
equivalent to approximately 2.4 x1018 GeV each. With leptons, the mass of
their fields is divided by √(2π), where only one particle-antiparticle pair
exists. In quarks or quadrupole gravity, two pairs exists, 2(+) and 2(-), and
so its division is by 2√(2π) or √(8π).
In both meeting points (and immediate separation), other Higgs bosons
exist, which are additional to the Higgs weak boson (that is accessible to the
power of the LHC or Large Hadron Collider). The other two, the Higgs
strong boson and the Higgs gravitational boson, are at energies that will be
inaccessible for a long time, are in order to reach or access them, we would
need to find and use natural cosmic colliders.
152. Higgs weak boson
We don’t accept that the Higgs weak boson gives mass to the particles of
matter. For us, a big room for a heavier scale of particles exists; which have
a similar symmetry, according to the appearance of known particles. Each
heavy particle has a relation with its corresponding partner, similar among
them, whose range is around 1016, more or less 1/√(λp).
However the room for the superpartners is very small. If supersymmetry is
the solution to the hierarchy problem, the cancellations of the quantum
correction to the Higgs mass require that the separation between the
Standard Model particles and their superpartners to be not much larger than:
102 GeV ≤ msp ≤ 103 GeV.
To solve the Higgs naturalness problem, the masses of superpartners
must be of the order of 103 GeV or less. Heavy partners don’t have that
limit. Also, a renewed version of superpartners could use the same
values. The important issue is to accept that Higgs bosons are not
destroyed by heat.
153. Information is never lost
The black hole information paradox is a conflict between general relativity
and quantum mechanics. When black hole evaporates, according to
Hawking radiation, or when mass falls dawn to the “singularity” of the
black hole, the information that fell into a black hole is lost and doesn't
reappear. This is inconsistent with physical rules and with ordinary quantum
mechanical evolution.
Information is never lost. And in the interchange of matter with our
parallel Universe, the same information returns to our Universe (increasing
its mass). Besides that, even if this interchange doesn’t exist, the
fundamental bit of information, with size λp, is never destroyed. String
theory is clear: distance 0 or distances smaller than Planck length don’t
exist in our Universe.
Mass, energy, and information are not destroyed in a black hole. In first
place, the “singularity” at the center of black hole doesn’t exist. Like in the
Big Bang, a hole with length λp exists, which has contact with another hole
with the same length (λp) in the opposite parallel Universe. If a singularity
existed, lines pointing inward through the horizon represented bits of
information falling past the horizon into the singularity and there were no
lines coming back out. In this manner, those bits of information would be
totally lost. Moreover, the mass, and in consequence the energy, would
eventually evaporate and disappear through Hawking radiation, leaving no
trace of what has fallen in.
All this process, apparently true, is not correct, mainly because the
singularity in the center of black hole doesn’t exist. The String theory needs
to do for black holes what it did for the Big Bang: that there are no
distances equal to zero, and neither sub-Planck distances in space.
Second, even in existing transits to another Universe, the inward (bits and
mass) line has a corresponding line that is creating an exactly inverse
process, like we explained before.
Third, even in existing Hawking radiation, this heat acts in the ergosphere,
acting as catalyst to form particle-antiparticle pairs, separating them by the
action of black holes.
Although there is destruction among the antiparticles (that enter into a back
hole) and a decreasing mass for matter that enters a black hole, there is no
loss of mass or information because they (mass and information) are
recovered in an inverse process (the interchange with the parallel Universe).
Even if the interchange of matter-antimatter with our parallel Universe is
inexistent and a black hole eventually disappears, information will never be
lost, because size zero doesn’t exist, and the fundamental bit of information:
Planck area will always remain. This is a hole with λp length and it is
indestructible, until the last event of our Universe. Explanations about this
are in further sections in this book.
154. Natural and artificial wormholes
Albert Einstein and Nathan Rosen speculated that the interior of a black
hole might connect to a very distance place, which John Wheeler later
called a wormhole. This concept would need two black holes, which could
be joined at their horizon forming a shortcut across our Universe. If the
String theory would avoid the singularity by putting the center of any black
hole at Planck length, we would obtain, by joining two holes, a wormhole to
another Universe. This new Universe is gravitationally parallel to ours, and
its in connection by means of CPT symmetry.
Differently, to obtain a shortcut for traveling to a distant place of our
Universe, it would be necessary to tear the fabric of space, and this is only
possible in a fractal spatial dimension between 3 and 4, until we arrive to
the fourth spatial dimensional Universe. Our Universe will eventually arrive
at that moment, more specifically at 9.75 x1021 s after the Big Bang.
In the actual moment, it is impossible to tear the fabric of space.
Our technology is very rudimentary. Even in science fiction, the third law of
motion (action-reaction propulsion) is still being normally used; we could
possibly travel faster than light in our planet, return to the past; or travel
between dimensions (even to a Universe of ten dimensions, nine + one
time), where the superpartners would, of course, exist. In the real world,
this travel is possible, but not with our physical bodies, where matter has c
as its speed limit. We need to learn to travel using immaterial bodies, like
our mind (mental body) or our astral body, even if these terms seem esoteric
and far from scientific. Since String theory accepts more dimensions than
four (3 + 1 time), it opens a wide range of possibilities. If the physics
community would try to find a lot of new ideas derived from the String
theory, instead of trying to fix old ones, a renovated and vigorous
String theory would appear and a new string revolution would be
possible.
155. Fundamental bit of information
John Wheeler affirmed that all material objects are composed of bits of
information. Moreover, a “fundamental bit” (with one bit of information)
exists, which has the minimum size.
According to String theory, the minimum size in our Universe is λp (Planck
length). The information is dependent on its area (like the entropy of a black
hole) and not on its volume. Planck length exists in any place of the
Universe, and we could see it, if we use the energy necessary.
In that way, our Universe can be divided into pieces of this fundamental bit.
And so, any information (of any object in any Universe) is formed by
copies (clones) of this fundamental bit. Because it is impossible to decrease
Planck length (even with the best technology available in any time of the
future), this unity of information can’t be discarded. If that could be
possible, our Universe would collapse.
This fundamental bit (area=λp2=2.611391055 x10-66 cm2) will never be
evaporated nor destroyed in any form during the life of our Universe.
This miniature information package is the key of the chain. All the
information of our Universe is some kind of continuous repetition of this
key, in different angles, ways, and forms; representing now, the variety of
our Universe, which comes from the diverse repetition of the unity. This
fundamental bit can't have all the information. It’s the repetition of the key
that does, which forms different and numerous chains, which are the ones
that do. Lastly, we insist that size 0 can't exist. Using it would produce
infinities and singularities, and in that way, absurdities.
Like we explained before, Planck length is a hole, which is unbounded and
impossible to divide or to reduce. In the Big Bang, we had one bit of
information. This confirms that the entropy at the beginning of the Big
Bang was Ø (cozero or almost zero). The continuous increment of entropy
(when a Universe is stretching or shrinking or in an intermediate Big Crush
between Universes) is used to develop the new spatial dimension. A
cyclical Universe is an impossibility without a dimensional change.
156. Big Bang, fundamental bit of
information. Prequarks
The Big Bang was formed by only one fundamental bit of information,
attached to another bit of information in our parallel Universe. This small
size has had the basic information since the beginning and will continue to
have it until the end of the Universe. In effect, it had the four forces joined
together, that will rule the evolution of the Universe; the fundamental
constants: ℏ, c, G were fixed; the minimum length, and in consequence the
maximum expansion of Universe, according to T-symmetry; the first Higgs
field, with maximum energy (or mass); the maximum mass for a particle (or
the fundamental string); the first Higgs boson; the mathematical relation for
the new Higgs bosons; the expansion of Universe; the uncertainty principle,
obtaining the mass of particles ℏ/cλ=m; the relation of the cosmic mass
Rc2/G=m; the basic unit of entropy; the basic relation among particles (we
don’t need to wait until the Higgs weak boson to appear, to give mass to
each particle: The first mass for a particle is 2.4x1018 GeV, obtained by
dividing Planck mass/√(8π), according to String theory. (Named
gravitational scale; although it is a fundamental scale to particles). All the
particle families are derived from this information. There are no different
families of particles; (for most people, 3 or 6), it is the same family, but
with different manifestations; basically in their mass, depending on the λ
involved. Even the four particles, which form a quadrupole in the first
chronos, are heavy-quarks, two positives and two negatives. The
information used to form leptons is already programmed. In effect, if we
used the prequarks theory (that we will explain later), we have 4 quarks
detailed as:
Using this sequence, we can obtain at least, informatically speaking, the
four leptons: AAA, BBB,
, KKK: positron, electron, neutrino, and
antineutrino, in their heaviest variety. We know that the families are exactly
equal and that their difference resides only in their mass. And that the mass
of particles has the relation k=mλ.
We know that all the numbers come from a unit. Big proteins come from
small chains of amino acids; the genetic code, from the repetition of simpler
units. The Universe comes from the fundamental unit of information, fixing
the initial conditions and forming a colossal variety, using the different
sequences of these units.
This is only a schematic idea and needs to be better developed. If we could
see the Universe in a logical manner and in a logical development, we could
obtain simple answers to many concepts that we consider mysteries right
now.
157. Variety in the masses of particles
One of the big problems in particle physics is the question of why the
masses of particles vary without an apparent pattern. Notwithstanding, to
obtain these masses a simple pattern fixed in the Big Bang exists, more
specifically in the first level of information (The fundamental bit). In first
place, the Universe has two limits: minimum and maximum, each with a
finite value (The Universe would be infinite, only if the Big Bang was
zero). We now know, according to String theory, and obtained by the
relation of the fundamental constant λp=±√(Gℏ/c3) that its value is
1.615979906 x10-33 cm (And in natural logarithms = -75.50536654).
The maximum according to T-symmetry, in String theory, is R=α/R', where
there would be a perfect reciprocal only if α=1. However a small
asymmetry exists, where α has a value less than 1, if R' is the minimum
value and R is the maximum.
According to the different ways of expansion, in Macroscopic objects (six
ways instead of one), the correction factor is six times bigger in the
maximum, like we explained before, -18/28 instead of -3/28; α=e-18/28-3/28 = e21/28, α=e-0.75=0.472366552 cm2. And so, we also have the maximum
expansion of the Universe: R=0.472366552/(1.615979906 x10-33 cm) x1
cm2
Where the maximum would be 2.923096698 x1032 cm or 2.923096699
x1032 cm. The particles are produced in microcosmos space using two
scales: one, by using the maximum limit logarithmic factor, producing,
basically, the known particles (-74.75536654/24=-3.114806939). Two,
using
the
minimum
limit
in
logarithmic
value
(-75.50536654/24=-3.146056939), would produce the supposed unknown
particles, heavier than the others, by a factor of around 1016. The way to
utilize these factors was explained in former sections.
158. Masses of particles; Uncertainty
Principle
We insist, the masses of particles of matter have a perfect design and
sequences, and it is basic to use the uncertainty principle: m=ℏ/cλ or
mλ=k
The masses of particles are ruled by quantum mechanics; and in that
way it is impossible for particles of matter with mass 0 to exist.
Notwithstanding, the theory of Weinberg, Salam, and Glashow; which
predicted the existence of the three bosons (W+, W-, Z0), requires the
existence of a Higgs field, with which the Higgs boson is associated, in
order to give mass to the three particles of forces. This is totally true. The
insistence that the Higgs weak boson gives mass to all the particles of
matter is a supposition of the Standard Model, and this last supposition is
wrong. The Higgs weak boson will appear at the LHC and nothing else will
appear, except for a new class of heavy neutrino. Even some physicists
consider the density of energy of LHC to be a big one, but it is only
relatively big; and is almost negligible in comparison with the density of
energy at the Big Bang, necessary to form black holes. Any black hole, with
all sizes of its event horizon, needs to have a cosingularity in the center, of
Planck length. LHC can find the Higgs weak boson<500 GeV and this is in
the middle of the natural logarithmical scale, equivalent to e-37.75268327 or 4.02
x10-17 cm, which is only √(λp). A black hole can form it by gravitational
collapse, using the gravitational force and the center would be derived from
it; but colliding particles, using the electromagnetic force, need to form the
center first, with energy around Planck mass =1.2 x1019 GeV. Maybe
humanity will be able to develop the technology necessary to do this in a
very distant future; only if it doesn't destroys itself before they can do it
(produce black holes)
Could it be done with the LHC? We don’t have to worry about it right now.
LHC is a big collider for us; but in the way of technology, we are still in
diapers.
159. Age of our Universe and bits of
information
The scientific community considers the age of our Universe to be between
13.7~15 billion years. Few years ago, most physics books considered that it
was 15 Gyr; but more recently, the same authors changed this number and
now they use 14 Gyr, and sometimes, more specifically, 13.7 Gyr. If we
obtain the light radius of the Universe (h=ct), it would be between
1.2961x1028 cm and 1.4191 x1028 cm and their areas would be
approximately 1.6799 x1056 cm2 and 2.01385x1056 cm2. The area of the
fundamental bit would be λp=2.6114x10-66 cm2. And so, our Universe in this
moment would have around 10121 bits (units of information).
Considering Λ as a variable, we can see that this is the same difference that
exists between the theoretical quantum calculations of Λ (equivalent to its
value in the Big Bang) and the experimental value in the actual moments. In
that way, we can affirm that with time, the Universe increases: its mass, its
information, its entropy; and decreases: its temperature and its cosmological
“constant”. Moreover, the increase in the units of information is inversely
proportional (and mathematically exact) to the decreasing of the
cosmological “constant”. Nevertheless, even if Λ decreases with time (Λ
being a determinant factor of dark energy in its value the mass), the radius
(ct) of the Universe also intervenes, whose value increases with time. In that
way, dark energy also increases with time, even if Λ decreases.
Notwithstanding, the gravitational energy and the dark energy, like potential
energies, have negative values.
160. Prequarks forming leptons and
quarks
The Hadrons are formed by quarks. But quarks and leptons are considered
fundamental structures. However, the possibility that quarks and leptons
may in fact be themselves complex bodies exists, composed of smaller
entities, that we call prequarks.
However, there have been no successful experiments that confirm this
position. It is highly probable, that we could never divide quarks or leptons;
but using gravity, in highly sensitive experiments, pre–quarks could be
detected inside leptons and quarks.
We will try to write some theoretical concepts over this topic.
The charges are: ±1, ±2/3, ±1/3, 0, if the base is 3. But in the “real string”,
in the first spatial dimensional world, their charges would be ±1, 0 (in that
Universe).
Logically, If we adapt the charges to our world, charge 1 in the string
Universe would be 1/3 in ours. Basically, the minimum components of
charge are:
Positive and its neutral. (A, K).
Negative and its neutral. (B, ).
In brief, they are: A (positive); K (neutral A); B(negative);
(neutral B).
In a Universe with 1 spatial dimension, the particles would be:
In two spatial dimensions:
(with 2 “colors” in
quarks).
In three spatial dimensions:
The 3 “colors” are possible only in quarks: AAK, AKA, KAA, and
In leptons, “colors” don’t exist, because only a class of prequark exists.
The first mesons are:
(Pions)
The pion (zero) is a 50% - 50% mixture of both.
They are like different families; we can show their intensity by increasing
the intensity of its letters, making them darker, so:
✓ First family: electron: BBB
✓ Second family: muon: BBB
✓ Third family: tauon: BBB
More intensity means more energy, and in consequence, more mass.
Other different mesons and hadrons can be obtained by means of different
combinations among them. The former examples are enough to show all the
other possibilities.
If we take the prequarks of the main particles, we obtain a total charge of 0;
Ex.: proton + neutron + electron + neutrino =0
With the antiparticles, we have the same thing: antiproton + antineutron +
positron + antineutrino =0.
While prequarks cannot be showed experimentally, they would only be
science fiction.
But our “real” world is also an illusion, even if it is ours.
We can show other possibilities using A, B, K, in different intensities and
we can even form all the known structures or even new ones, in process to
be obtained; and all are arithmetical exact. Using a simple perspective, the
prequarks are “real” like our Universe. But it is necessary to find the
complex structure of quarks and leptons experimentally, and we need to use
gravity to do it.
161. Equations and combinations of prequarks
The numbers of prequarks needs to be exactly equal in both sides of the equation. When
the numbers are different, we can add pairs of energy: AB or K , which are equivalent to
photons in order to equalize the equations; we can also change a group into the other.
Examples:
Or, to change K
to AB:
The β decays of a neutron into a proton, electron, and antineutrino (according to the lepton
classification scheme, indicates that this is an “antiparticle”, even if others nominations
call it “neutrino”.
Using the prequark scheme, we see an antiparticle that accompanies the prequarks B (B,
), to be considered as antimatter. BBB forms the electron (a particle).
162. Prequarks and different dimensions
We talked about prequarks: A, B, K, from the normal world of a string, 2
dimensions (1+1). A similar theory was pursued in the 1970s. The more
fundamental particles were named preons; this explained some of natural
features unexplained in the Standard Model.
Nevertheless, the preon theory, at least at that moment, didn’t explain a
fundamental question; and inexplicably, instead of finding the answer, the
theory was discarded in 1980. The question was:
What kind of force must bind the preons together into the observed
particles?
The answer has relation with the spatial dimensions of our Universe. The
Universes began with zero spatial dimensions (0+1) and in that moment, no
particles were formed and the two preons (or the 4 prequarks) didn’t exist.
That Universe had a minimum and a maximum limit, but it was impossible
to divide it into particles. It is possible to represent a “virtual space”, with
divided space, but this would be a hypothetical division, with no real
existence.
In the natural world of strings (1+1), the preons or prequarks, appeared and
they could never combine to form more complex particles. A Universe
(1+1) has “particles” with one spatial dimension, with a string alone, in four
different presentations:
and a charge, in relation to our
Universe: +1/3, -1/3, and 0.
A Universe with 3(2+1) dimensions has “membranes” with two spatial
dimensions; with two strings joined together, in different compositions:
and a type of
“proton”:
“antiproton”:
; and “neutron”
that it is its own
antiparticle.
Our Universe (3+1) has particles with 3 spatial dimensions, and its
fundamental unit is a particle with 3 prequarks (1x3), and their composites
form 2x3 (mesons) or 3x3 (hadrons), like neutrons and protons.
It is impossible to have real strings in our world, because it is impossible to
have matter or particles with only one spatial dimension; for that reason, the
dimensions of strings are 2, 10, and 26 (in space-time), never 4. Remember,
in our physical world, only 3 spatial dimensions can exist (not 4, 2, nor 1).
That is the reality.
163.
D'branes in String
Ekpyrotic model of the Universe
Theory.
Even now, there are some physicists that are not in accordance with the
development of D’branes in String theory. It is a very special issue that it is
important to consider. Sundrum, Randall, Johnson, Steinhardt, and Turok
have important references to its study and application.
One of the more important scientific study over its technological application
have been the “Ekpyrotic” model about the origin of the Universe, in which
it is proposed that the Big Bang arose from the collision of two D–Branes in
a previous phase of the Universe, although it doesn’t explain which, were,
and why the original conditions of the beginning of our Universe, specially
its very low entropy. The important affirmation is that before our Big Bang,
there was a collision, which means a very chaotic stage, of destruction and
high increase in entropy, in an accelerated contraction phase (Big Crush).
We explained before, our Universe has 3 spatial dimensions, and so, “our”
D-branes (D-3-branes) would be 3+1 dimensions. According to this, the
collision of D-branes, before our Big Bang, is explained. It needed to be
two D -2 branes, and so, the increase to a new spatial dimension, resolves
the “disappearance” of the entropy. It was transformed into the new spatial
dimension, and its energy was needed to form it. If matter is a “storehouse
of energy” according to E=mc2; a spatial dimension is a much bigger
storehouse. The extraordinary “specialness” of the Big Bang, that it must
have necessary low entropy, is true, after forming a new spatial dimension.
Moreover the thermal state, considering the thermal equilibrium of matter
in the early Universe, in conjunction with the Universe’s fast expansion, can
be considered as a high-entropy state (thermal state), but this is not correct.
The smallness of Big Bang had a big matter density (or energy density), but
at the same time, it was a minimum mass or energy, considered in cosmic
terms, leads to a basic concept of any black hole: less mass – higher
temperature – less entropy. And: more mass - less temperature - more
entropy. We considered the Big Bang as a black hole united to another, in
our gravitational parallel Universe, with 2λp as distance, λp in each
Universe.
164. Nature's efficiency
Nature prefers economy and efficiency in its creation and always seems to
avoid unnecessary redundancies in creating physical, chemical, cosmic, or
biological structures. Nature uses simple formulas and derives from them,
more than an enormous variety, a cofinite one. It uses simple mathematical
representations of the different symmetry laws. It repeats a fundamental
chain or a simple bit of information, using different angles, number of
repetitions, or different forms, as a reference in order to form complex
structures of different and unimaginable forms. This is practically an
essential law of nature. If the scientific community considers an inefficient
and uneconomical natural work, it does not have the complete knowledge of
it. In those cases, it is necessary to go deeper inside the concept in order to
find the complete truth.
For example, the existence of 3 families (at least, only of the known
particles) is considered a violation to this rule; but this is a partial point of
view.
Above all, only one family is necessary in our physical world.
The repetition of the same units using different orders, is a natural privilege;
using the economy and efficiency, to produce different effects, with the
same rule and the same “pieces”.
When nature creates animals, ADN, black holes or any kind of “things”, it
is sparing in its design. Even when producing different families of particles.
It is the same family, only changing in its mass, according to its formula:
ℏ/cλ=m, derived from the uncertainty principle: ℏ=mcλ. We can obtain
photocopies, smaller or larger or the same size, but always, a copy. In any
case, the fundamental change is in its λ.
Those λ are obtained in a Higgs sequence that we explained before. ℏ/c is a
constant; and so, the different masses are obtained. We must remember:
Higgs space is a abstract space, whose limits are between Planck length and
approximately 1 cm (0.687289278 cm), and in the development of the
Microcosmos, coincided with the light radius of the Universe (h=ct).
Besides that, the infinitesimal period of time (microcosmos era) can make
you think on the why of the need for a lot of families in a very brief period
of time (2.292550264 x10-11 s)? But this is a very long time, practically all
the microcosmos era, where its space is exactly equal to all of the
macrocosmos, with the whole development of our Universe until now, and
including the remaining space in the future development of the Universe,
until its end. Of course, logarithmically speaking, that is the natural
measure of time and space.
In that way, to find other families, in the heavier scale, that is still almost
unknown, using the same rule is not more complex, but it is only the same
family in other presentations, new and identical carbon copies. We said “the
heavier scale to be “almost unknown”, because the top quark; its small
companion, the bottom quark, both in matter and antimatter variety, W± ,Z0,
and even, the next to be discovered, the Higgs weak boson, use this scale,
according to the hook system that it transfers from a scale to another;
normally at the end of a scale and at the beginning of the other, common in
the Universe. We explained this before in this book.
165. Aether
“Nature abhors vacuum”. This is a basic principle, but there is another
principle called Occam’s razor, which establishes that nature takes the
simplest possible path and ignores more difficult alternatives, especially if
these alternatives can never be completed. In that way, Occam’s razor
dismissed the old aether theory that pervades all space, including the
“vacuum”. Einstein showed that aether was unnecessary. But he never said
that aether doesn’t exist. He showed that it is irrelevant in our physical
reality; although Planck length is the minimum length, and it is impossible
to shrink it or to reduce it; it is only real, in our dimensional Universe of 3
spatial dimensions (1.61597996 x10-33 cm.).
Between 3 and 4 spatial dimensions, it exists a lot of shorter lengths until
the 4th spatial dimension is reached (1.896333025 x10-44 cm.), with a
difference equivalent to 8.52x1010 between the two of them. This space is
not completely empty, and constitutes the “foamy” state that John Wheeler
named to the sub-Planck distance. This “element” is much lighter than
“our" light, the maximum speed limit in our Universe.
“Our” light is the frontier, traveling in our Universe as a wave or particles;
but it seems to be at rest in a four spatial dimension Universe. Light would
be as a static object. The light of the four-spatial dimension would be
approximately, with the comparison of space, 4.99x 1010 times faster.
This “foam” is basically the “esoteric” aether or the “old physics" aether,
existent in the fractal dimension, between Universes with different
dimensionalities.
Aether is irrelevant and practically inexistent in our physical world; for this
reason, it has no influence in the speed of light. But it exists, as a
convenient medium in fractal dimension Universes; physically in the
moment of the Big Crush; and also in the life of any Universe, filling
virtually (with no physical reality) the area inside the corresponding holes
of Planck. The aether theory provided a convenient answer to a difficult
question: if light is a wave, and light travels in a vacuum, what is actually
waving? However, Occam’s razor made physicists stop referring to aether.
But String theory speaks of more spatial dimensions than 3, and so, aether
needs to be re-discovered, but farther away from our physical world of 3
spatial dimensions.
166. Separation of Theory of Relativity
and Quantum Mechanics
The appearance of a single graviton is enough to collapse the wave
function. The quantum wave, as an incoherent wave, produces different
configurations, present in the particles’ world of microscopic level. But
once these configurations have become magnified, or increased their masses
to a certain critical point, they produce real gravitons, known as
gravitational waves. At this moment, the quantum wave function
collapses. In other words, the quantum waves become virtual and the
gravitational waves occupy the place of real existence. The paradox of
measure is basically a mass measure. Above, is the appearance of a simple
quantum of space-time curvature that is sufficient to produce enough
curvature in space-time to collapse the wave function (probabilistic wave)
and produces a definitive result. The mass known is the key to resolve the
quantum measurement problem. Below this measure, gravitation is not real,
and the wave function, quantum or probabilistic, quantum or incoherent
wave acts with all its strength. The measure is between Planck mass (field
2.17x10-5 g), and the gravitational scale, or mass of each pole of the
gravitational quadrupole (4.32x10-6 g), and has influence, although
diminished, until roughly about 10-7 g. Quantum gravity is exact only in this
period of time, the frontier between both waves. Later, both theories,
General Theory of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics need to be separated.
These concepts were detailed in former sections, from other standpoints.
167. Information in String Theory that
need to be rescued
Superstring theories are formulated in a flat ten-dimensional space, like a
ten–dimensional Minkowski space-time. But at the same time, the theory
describes particles and fields in a four-dimensional space-time. In that way,
uses the terms M10 and M4.
The flat space is derived to a general curved space-time, which would
emerge naturally out of the same theory. Besides that, M10 must compactify
into K6 (six-dimensional compactified space), whose size of the dimensions
of K must be too small, even in comparison with the elementary particle
level. The original flat ten-dimensional space-time, M10, is broken down
into four flat dimensional and six-dimensional torus. This idea can be
extended to an orbifold space, with 3 three special “singular” points, and to
combine orbifolds to form more “singular” points (in superstring theory, a
six-dimensional compactified space with 27 special points is obtained). It
turns out, the orbifold predicts 36 generations of elementary particles. Too
many, but some are known particles. Generally, it uses 0(32).
In addition, the E8 x E8 symmetry, known as heterotic String theory, seems
to act a little better. One of the E8 groups breaks into SU(3) and E(6). E(6)
breaks into an even finer structure.
Those Superstring and String theories don’t need to be cancelled only
because the superpartners don’t appear. These theories deserve to be
improved.
First: There is a lot of good information in superstring theory that is
necessary to be saved. In first place, it considers a multidimensional space,
more than our four-dimensional space–time. String theory considers 10
dimensions (9 spatial + 1 time) or 10: (8)+2 and 26:(8)(8,8)+2.
Second: There exists a minimum size, the smallest possible, but it is never
zero (Planck length).
Third: At the beginning, in a pre-Big Bang scenario, the dimensions are flat.
Fourth: The pre-Big Bang scenario (when space is flat) is massless.
Fifth: Immediately after that, a general curved space-time emerged
naturally, with mass, movement, and all the derived functions.
Sixth: There exists the possibility of more than three generations (families)
of elementary particles.
Seventh: the dimension of strings are 10 and 26, and according to the world
sheet of string itself, is a two-dimensional object; and so, the dimensions of
strings are also two.
For us, the first is true. A multidimensional Universe exists. But a
dimensional modulus has 8 dimensions (7 spatial dimensions + 1 time
dimension). However, there exist 28 dimensional components to add all the
involved spatial dimensions: 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 =28. The first
sequences in the dimension of string are 2, 10, 26, …
Second: it is true. All the components of any dimension have the same
footing, but have different size with the others components of other
dimensions. Planck length (λp) is only the size of the three components of
our three-spatial Universe. The others dimensions have different footing.
Third: Correct. We explained before the flat condition of our pre-Big Bang
scenario. This is completely flat. We are not speaking about our Universe in
expansion that will never be flat, only almost flat.
Fourth: Correct. No mass existed in the flat pre-Big Bang scenario; but
neither did particles.
Fifth: From the first chronos and on, curved space-time began to exist,
exactly round. With the corresponding spatial form: (1) circumference, (2)
circle, (3) sphere, and later in the next Universes, there will exist: 4-sphere,
5-sphere, 6-sphere and 7-sphere. In our Universe, since the first chronos, G,
ℏ, and c, appeared. And mass and space, began their relation by mean of
two different formulas k=λM and k1=M/R.
Sixth: For us, in our Universe, there are 6 generations (families) of
particles, three in the known lighter scale and three in the almost unknown
heavier scale. All the families are derived from only one family, like
photocopies, smaller or larger, according to their sizes and in consequence,
their masses.
Seventh: Correct. The dimensions of string are 2, 10, 26, …
We explained before, there is a contradiction in the breakdown of an
original Universe of 10 dimensions. In first place, each dimensional
modulus has 8 dimensions (7+1) instead of 10; and it is a fundamental
dimensional unit, as a virtual entity, as abstract space. And for that, it never
disappears even if a new dimensional Universe is developed. This modulus
contains the smallest limits possible in each component. Besides that, it
exists another virtual entity that contains the largest limits possible,
inversely proportional (smaller minimum length, larger maximum length,
and vice versa).
We explained these concepts in more detail in former sections. Right now,
we are comparing them with the Superstring and the String theories, and
clarifying some concepts.
168. Compactified space in String Theory
We know that in String theory there exists a compactified space. It turns out
that the smaller the radius of the compactified space, the larger the spacing
between the notes on the mass scale. Using quantum mechanics we can say
the same thing with different words: the smaller the wave’s length, the
larger the masses in compactified space. In distances closer to the Big Bang,
masses correspond to energies from 1.64 x1013 GeV (heavy electron Higgs
k-20π) to 2.4x1018 GeV (heavy top quark, maximum mass of a particle, or
mass of each pole, in the quadruple, existing in Higgs k-24π). Those masses
are much farther away from the power of the present colliders, including the
LHC, that it can detect particles of no more than 103 GeV.
Particles with colossal masses, could only have existed at the beginning of
the Universe (chronos 5.4x10-44 s) until 1.5x10-38 s, in light time (h=ct); and
they would also appear, when humanity has the technology to reach that
power, or the knowledge to find natural colliders, with enormous power.
We insist, a heavier scale needs to exist, and the fabulous Standard Model,
fails to theoretically calculate the masses of the particles, and in
consequence cannot suppose the existence of masses that are impossible to
test, at least right now; too heavy, like the particles of heavy scale, or too
light, like neutrinos 1, 2, and 3. In former sections, we explained that there
exist two scales. The known particles have lighter masses, enormously
smaller than the Planck mass of 1019 GeV. This is one of the great questions
of modern physics. And the proposed solution, we insist, is unacceptable
and incorrect: it is an error to affirm that all the particles of matter are
massless and existed since the beginning of the Universe; and to suppose
they obtained their masses at around the point that the electroweak
interaction breaks down, and the Higgs weak boson, our “creator” appeared,
giving mass to all the particles of matter. We accept that the Higgs weak
boson gives mass only to the particles of force, the intermediate vector
bosons, W+, W-, and Z0.
Besides that, using logarithmical measures, the colossal difference among
the masses, or better, among the λs of the fields of particles, and between
time in the Macrocosmos and Microcosmos, is reduced or disappears
completely.
In order to use the Higgs mechanism correctly, we modified it like we
explained in former sections.
The system of the String theory that begins with the lowest note and has
only massless particles that remain massless until the appearance of Higgs
weak boson is incorrect.
169. Vacuum with limits and without
them. Limit of our Universe
If the Universe is expanding, what’s it expanding to? The answer for some
scientists is: nothing, because it’s the Universe, and for that reason it
doesn’t have to be embedded onto anything else. There is no reason to think
in the “outside” of the Universe.
For us, this answer needs clarification.
We know a minimum limit exists in any Universe (in our Universe it is
λ 1.616 x10-33 cm), and according to T-symmetry, there exists a maximum
limit (λm 2.9231x1032 cm), approximately its inverse.
The Universe is expanding to reach this maximum limit, and outside the
Universe, the virtual space necessary to do it, exists. Besides that, the
horizon of success (h) is expanding, according to the limit of the speed of
light h=ct; but the radius of the Universe is expanding in an accelerated
way. If h is now between 13.7 to 15 Gyr; the cosmic radius is stretching
between 21 to 22 Gyr, and even most cosmologists consider it stretched
from 42 to 44 Gyr.
Space is the fundamental unit of the Universe; and in the physical world,
independent of how many spatial dimensions it has, it is always conditioned
and limited; even the vacuum. In physical terms there only exists a
vacuum with limits; always including one temporal dimension.
Vacuum without limits, means no time dimensions; and with 0 or ∞
spatial dimensions. This entity has no physical reality, and in consequence,
is outside of any physical Universe, including a Universe with cofinite
dimensions.
For that reason, speaking about infinities or singularities, forming part in
any physical world, is an absurdity, and so, unacceptable.
≅
≅
170. Early Universe. Dark matter
The early Universe was opaque, it was hot enough that electrons could not
stay around atomic nuclei, but flew freely in the space. But temperature
cooled down, and began the recombination process, and atoms where
formed, and photons began to travel alone, 380,000 years after the Big
Bang.
At that moment, the Universe was transparent; the light traveled unimpeded
from then on. The hot radiation, from that period has been stretched into
microwaves of about 1 cm in wavelength, reaching a temperature of 2.7K.
This microwave radiation destroyed the last possibility of the Steady state
theory. In which the temperature of Universe would be constant through
time. This microwave radiation showed this principle is not true.
However, the other condition, of the Steady State theory, that new matter is
continually created, could be only partially incorrect.
This theory considered the new matter was aggregated; this is normal
matter, capable to form atoms and so, planets, stars, and galaxies. This is
wrong. But if we consider the Universe, in the inflation era, was capable to
form particles, albeit heavier. Why can’t space make more mass, even in the
normal evolution of the Universe? If it is possible, it has acted in a state of
permanent accelerated expansion, like in this moment, and so, the cosmic
relation Rc2/G=M is approximately exact; the mass of the Universe can
continuously increase in a direct relation to the radius of the Universe; if it
is expanding in an accelerated way. Since particles are formed first. What
kind of particles? To get masses, the particles use the uncertainty principle,
basic in quantum mechanics: ℏ/cλ=m.
We know the Higgs mechanism (modified) acts until λ 1cm; and
moreover, it pervades the entire Universe. The background microwave
radiation pervades the entire Universe, and it has the λ exact to produce
neutrinos. It may be possible, as an idea, that a lot of Higgs field with
λ 1cm, are acting, using this heat of 2.7K and taking the microwaves as
collision distance. It is possible that the background microwave radiation
and the accelerated expansion of the Universe are in just the exact point to
produce mass.
≅
≅
The particles–antiparticles pairs and the enormous existence of black holes
separate them and produce positive matter in our Universe and sends
antimatter to our parallel Universe. The mass of neutrinos is very small, but
there exists another supposition. The gravity in the big black holes in the
center of galaxies, can produce a big pull of gravity, capable of deforming
space, and shrink λ of the field of the formed particles, and changing them
to another family, decreasing their λ and increasing their mass, and this
process can continue inside black holes in a irreparable way to the center of
the hole. This is only a supposition, and needs to be studied more.
The neutrinos in their three varieties, and the supposed fourth family of
neutrinos, the neutronio, the LHP, can be dark matter, and this matter is
increasing deeply in our Universe. The halos around the galaxies can be
neutronios, the LHP. The lighter neutrino is traveling almost like photons in
the entire Universe. The LHP, or neutronio, can form halos around galaxies.
Our conclusion, matter in our Universe is being produced permanently, but
not ordinary matter, in the form of neutrinos (hot dark matter), or neutronio
1; both of them, neutral particles. Moreover, the increase in black holes in
number and size, also add to the increase in dark matter of the Universe
(cold dark matter). Exotic dark matter is in doubt.
171. Functions of black holes. Laws of
thermodynamics
Black holes have practically two fundamental functions: to contain a huge
amount of entropy and to interchange antimatter with matter, to and from
our parallel Universe.
They don’t act as deposits of mass, neither do the supermassive black holes
in the center of galaxies. A supermassive black hole often has several
million times the mass of the sun. But a normal galaxy has a mass around
100 billion times the mass of the sun.
In that way, only a tiny fraction of the mass of Universe appears to be inside
black holes.
However, the total entropy of the Universe is mostly inside black holes and
the entropy of the Universe has increased by an enormous amount since the
beginning. The evaporation of black holes increases the entropy even more
(around 1/3 more), but the density of entropy has diminished, because
radiation spreads out over a huge region of space, and in black holes, it is
packed into a small volume.
The entropy of the Universe is considered to be between ten googols: 10101
(or 10x10100) to 10121, considered the maximum possible entropy. We know,
right now, the maximum bits of information of the Universe are equivalent
to that maximum entropy. The rule is simple: the information of the
Universe is directly proportional to the increase of entropy. Less possible
entropy in a system is at the same time, less information. Zero entropy
doesn’t exist, because the information of Universe will never be zero. The
first bit of information will always be present, like it was just at the
beginning.
We have two tendencies to zero entropy. According to thermodynamics, it
will be 0, when the temperature reaches 0 K; but this temperature cannot be
reached, and only is a limit.
In systems with big gravitational influences, like black holes, the Big Bang,
or even, the whole Universe, entropy increases according to a mass increase
(and decreases its temperature). In that case, entropy will never be zero,
because the mass will never be zero. In the Big Bang, with maximum
temperature 1032K, and minimum mass, 2.17x10-5 g, the entropy was
minimum. In the maximum length of Universe, the temperature will be
minimum (a tiny fraction of a microKelvin) and the entropy will be
maximum.
The Universe acts like a black hole (or more accurately like two black
holes, attached one with the other that exists in our parallel Universe).
In that way, the laws of thermodynamics have to be extended according to
the gravitational effects, from a deep and exotic gravitational context.
172. Dark energy and cosmological
"constant"
The dark energy comes from the energy of the cosmological “constant”.
Even if the cosmological “constant” decreases with time, the dark energy
always increases until the end of Universe. This concept seems to be a
contradiction. If the Universe is always, not only expanding but also
accelerating, apparently it will never re-collapse in a big crunch and will
continue forever. This would be true, without a dimensional change. The
expansion of Universe is a hyperbolic function and that means its expansion
will never cease even if it arrives to cofinity. But if a new spatial dimension
appears, and in a fractal dimension (in our case between 3 and 4 spatial
dimensions), the Universe will change to a parabolic function and begin to
collapse, reaching zero speed when it arrives to the new cofinite limit; we
call this period Big Crush. After that, when a new spatial dimension
develops, the Universe will reach its inflection point, changing its direction,
realizing a new phase of hyperbolic function. In the case of our Universe,
after the Big Crush, the Big Crunch begins. For that reason, the paradox has
its solution.
Our Universe is expanding and accelerating, but will also re-collapse.
Eventually, in the future, in our Universe, its temperature will fall down,
producing ultra-cold temperatures, but never dropping to zero. And at the
same time, it will have maximum entropy.
We know that, like in black holes, large amounts of mass means large
entropy and cold temperatures. The minimum density of the Universe will
be a state of maximum mass. The mass increases in a linear proportion and
volume increases to the third power.
✓ Maximum mass: Approx. 3.94x1060 g
✓ Maximum volume: Approx. 1.05 x1098 cm3
✓ Minimum density: 3.76x10-38 g/cm3
The minimum mass density of our Universe, at the end of it, will be
practically the density of a Higgs field of 1 cm. approx. or exactly
0.687289278 cm of λ (neutrino 1), like we explained before.
The density of vacuum energy at the end of the Universe would be
equivalent to a sea of neutrino fields, with a of collision distance of
approx. 1 cm (exactly 0.687289278 cm).
173. Minimum entropy at Big Bang and
Big Crunch
We explained why the Big Bang began with a low entropy state; and by the
same reason, the condition or low entropy is also true, in the beginning of
the Big Crunch, just when the new Universe has its maximum length and its
beginning to shrink. In both cases, the reason is the new spatial dimension
involved.
When the Universe is stretching, the entropy increases. When a new spatial
dimension appears, there is an inflection point, where the Universe ends and
the new Universe, with one more dimension, begins to move again in an
opposite way. The big quantity of entropy is consumed to form the new
dimension, and the new system begins with almost zero entropy, starting to
increase newly, until the end of that Universe including the new Big Crush.
In both, Big Bang and Big Crunch, there exist symmetry conditions. If the
Universe would expand forever, we would consider the future to be
absolutely unlike the past. This is unnatural and ugly, and also would be
against the simpler mathematics. The only reason the Universe would
expand forever, would be if it began from zero space. This is impossible.
String theory affirms that the Big Bang began with λp as minimum space,
and according to T-symmetry, the Universe will re-collapse after arriving to
the maximum length, and a new dimension will appear.
The solution of the puzzle is simple: the formation of a new spatial
dimension. This affirmation solves the problem of the initial low entropy,
and closes the Universe, even if the condition to be expanding (or
contracting) and accelerating permanently, in a hyperbolic function, tends to
expand (or contract) it apparently forever.
174. Absurdities in Physics: infinities and
singularities
To a mathematician, a dimension is a “degree of freedom”, an independent
way of moving in space. And so, zero dimensions, has zero degrees of
freedom, and is effectively confined to a single point, totally immobilized.
Mathematically, we can talk about zero dimensions; point particles;
singularities and infinities. But in physical terms, these are wrong positions.
We insist, zero doesn’t exist in Physics. Nature uses logarithmical scales
and we know log 0 or ln 0 are errors.
Einstein and Minkowski affirmed that time is inextricably intertwined with
the three dimensions of space, forming a new geometrical construct known
as space-time, which Riemann had incorporated in his equations before. We
can add: time is necessary for any universe with any spatial dimensions, and
so, a zero dimensional universe doesn`t exist, but a one (0+1) dimensional
Universe does. For that reason, the first universe was 0+1, and so, exists
inherently to it, a tendency to movement, with one degree of freedom. Even
the principles of geometry also tell us that strange places, known as
singularities, can exist. This is not true in physical terms. We know space
zero doesn´t exist, and String theory explains that the minimum length is λp
(1.615979906 x10-33 cm) and this concept has been conveniently applied to
the Big Bang. The same concept needs to apply in the center of any
black hole, where the singularity would be only a cosingularity. And the
end of the time inside the black hole, doesn’t exist, only an opening to a
parallel Universe. This is another reason why information is not lost in
black holes.
The inverse of a singularity is infinity; but existing only cosingularities,
only confinities can exist. Besides that, plural singularities admit plural
infinities. And this position is even worse. Plural infinities are impossible to
exist, not only in any physical world; but also in a metaphysical concept.
Infinity can’t have another besides it. Two infinities (or more) cancel the
concept of infinity. The infinities in plural conditions would be only
cofinities. Besides that, point particles don't exist.
175. Differential geometry
Differential geometry is designed to operate on infinitesimal, small lengths
that can work as close to zero, including sub-Planck distances scales. From
a mathematical standpoint, there is no problem to extrapolate General
Relativity to the smallest (sub-Planck) distances, but never, zero space; subPlanck distances are impossible to obtain, or to exist in our Universe; but
they exist in the compactification space of worlds with bigger number of
dimensions.
The Standard Model theory and also, previous theories of fundamental
physics, considered their basic building blocks, the particles, as infinitely
small, zero dimensional point objects, that mathematics is equipped to
handle, but not physics. String theory determines minimum sizes, and
avoids zero and sub Planck distances. And so, the quantum fluctuations
diminish their strength and make the fluctuations more manageable. In that
way, the curvature and density of space-time never blows up to infinity.
This is a very important issue, and needs to be present in all physical
concepts, not only in particles, but also in the size of the Big Bang and in
the center of any black hole.
Even, mathematically speaking, in String Theory, a non-simple connected
manifold, is like a torus, with one or more holes, where some loops sitting
on the surface cannot be shrunk down to points (zero sizes). This is chosen
in order to obtain particles of matter with their respective masses, keeping
in mind that they are not simple points. However, the process to obtain the
masses of the particles, by means of theoretical calculations in String
Theory, is very complicated, and until now, with no very successful results.
The Standard Model theory has not even the minimum knowledge of how
to obtain the masses of particles; and it obtains its results experimentally.
But, obtaining masses is a very simple process, as we explained it
before. We repeat again: using the uncertainty principle, fundamental in
quantum mechanics.
ℏ=mcλ or ℏ/cλ=m
Without supersymmetry, String theory predicts impossible particles like
tachyons, which travel faster than the speed of light and have a negative
squared mass, this is, their mass is expressed in terms of the imaginary term
i. Tachyons cannot exist in our world, but it is possible for them to exist in
worlds with a larger number of dimensions, where the speed of “our” light
is slow. However, particles of matter without mass are impossible to
exist in any physical world, with any number of dimensions. We insist
in this concept.
The only reason to speak about zero mass of particles is during the absence
of particles of matter, or particles of force at rest.
176. Curvature of spheres
According to mathematics, the curvature of a sphere is inversely proportional to its squared
radius. As the radius increases, the curvature decreases; and in a maximum expression:
when the radius goes to infinity, the curvature goes to zero. Conversely, as the radius goes
to zero (or in physical terms, cozero), the curvature blows up, and goes to cofinity (the
maximum size possible). Nevertheless, only changing the mathematical terms (zero (0) and
infinity (∞), to cozero (Ø) and cofinity (
)) is not enough.
Even the concept “the smaller the sphere, the sharper the curve”, (conversely, as the radius
of a sphere increases, its curvature decreases) needs a physical explanation.
In effect, like we see in the figure, this concept is apparently true, but it depends from the
standpoint of the observer.
Einstein said that the results have to be the same to any observer, and in this sense, the
former concept is only apparently valid. If the observer increases in size in the same scale
as the observed object, the curvature of the sphere would remain the same to him.
This effect is used to explain the change in the curvature of the Universe, considering the
continuous accelerated expansion and even more, the period of inflation in the microcosmos
era, capable “to flatten the Universe” from a big curvature at the beginning, to almost flat
right now. But the Universe is not spherical, neither elliptical, but hyperbolic. If we see the
development of a hyperbola (or a hyperboloid of 3 spatial dimensions), the curvature
changes, from a big curvature at the beginning, in an asymptotic way, independent of the
observer. The change to being almost flat is a function of its hyperbolic function; and it is
inherent to its nature.
177. Calabi-Yau, Euler characteristics
The Calabi-Yau, with all of its beauty and mathematical inspiration, has
been adapted to the Standard model, in the concept that all the elementary
particles are divided into only three families or generations.
Candelas and others worked a manifold, which yielded 4 families of
particles; even if the difference was only one, the scales of particles are
logarithmical, and so, it is logical that the difference between 3 and 4 is
enormous. A heavy neutrino (the fourth one), found in other theories,
has room in Candela’s approach.
In order to adapt the conditions of the Standard Model, the Calabi-Yau
needed a manifold with an Euler characteristic of 6 or -6.
Using a manifold with an Euler number of -6, Yau obtained 4 complex
dimensions. He cut this into 3 complex dimensions (or six real dimensions).
The manifold yielded 9 families of particles, rather than the desired 3.
Creating a quotient manifold in which every point corresponds to three
points in the original, taking the quotient and dividing the original into 3
equivalent pieces, the number of points was decreased by a factor of 3, and
so the Standard Model’s number of families was obtained: 3. The geometry
and mathematics uses have been spectacular; but there has been a
deficiency in the concepts of theoretical physics. The Standard Model is
excellent for talking over the known particles and forces that can be tested,
but it is impossible to guess about unknown particles or at least, particles,
whose corresponding scales of power (too heavy or too light), have been
impossible to reach.
Since the mathematical concept is one half of Euler’s Number, +6 or -6, it
is possible to obtain two manifold, one to Euler +6, and the other, to Euler
-6 obtaining 1/2 (6)+1/2 (6)=6 families.
The importance is in the physical theory, solving first some fundamental
doubts:
How many dimensions does the dimensional modulus have?
How many components does each particular dimension have?
Does all the components of each dimension have the same footing?
Does each dimension have a different footing among other dimensions?
Does the number of dimensions in a dimensional modulus diminish when
the dimensions stretch (4 in our Universe)?
Why do the dimensions of string are 10 and 26?
How many families (or generations) of particles have existed in our
Universe, from its beginning to its end?
Will all the dimensions eventually stretch out?
How did massless particles of matter existed before the appearance of the
Higgs weak boson?
Why does the Higgs weak boson give mass to the particles of matter?
Why do massless particles of matter existed before the Higgs weak boson?
Why is the Higgs field destroyed by heat?
Etc., etc.
It is impossible to request a solution to mathematics and geometry if
the physical theory is still incomplete.
178. Calabi-Yau; heavypartners
In order to accommodate only 3 families of particles, the Calabi-Yau has
been accommodated to it. But superpartners (if they exist), or heavy
partners (like heavier fermions, with only opposite helicity), double the
number of particles, and needs room for another 3 families. Besides that,
mass is a fundamental characteristic of particles, and in that way, particles
without mass need other scales. Considering that massless particles don’t
exist, other three families are necessary to accommodate the heavier
partners of the known particles. The families would be six in total, 1/2(6) +
1/2(6). The sign (-) is discarded, because Euler’s number only uses absolute
values. The Higgs field (we explained this before) is not destroyed by heat,
and so, a heavier scale, with 3 families, has a perfect room to accommodate
the heavier partners of the normal known particles of matter. They are really
heavy, and from a symmetrical standpoint, need a similar logarithmical
room to accommodate them.
We insist, it is necessary to discard the supposition (which has no
scientific explanations) that the Higgs field is destroyed by heat, which
leaves a big enough room to accommodate the heavy partners. The
String theories could also accommodate their superpartners in the
corresponding masses of the heavy partners that we prefer. But both
need to eliminate the concept of the destruction of Higgs mechanism by
heat.
The particles of the heavier scale, in a symmetrical way, need a similar
room to the normal scale to put them. Ranging from the heaviest particle,
equivalent to Mp/√8π 2.4x1018 GeV, until K-12π. It is necessary to form a
new room with 3 new families, with heavier particles (around 1x1016 times
heavier).
≅
179. πminus, πplus; lighter and heavier scales; hook
union
Like we explained before, the lightest scale uses the corresponding πminus: -3.114806939,
and it is dependent of the maximum length of the Universe. The heavier scale uses
πplus:-3.146056939, and it is dependent of the minimum length of the Universe (or Planck
length).
And so, we have incorporated two Euler numbers: +6 and -6. For three families, it is
necessary +6 or -6. With 6 families, it is necessary +6 and -6.
The heavypartners (or the superpartners) need room to be accommodated. To accept a
small room, means piling up the superpartners (or the corresponding heavy partners) in an
ugly symmetry, or in more exact terms, in a disastrous asymmetry.
Each known particle and its corresponding partner, according to T-symmetry, have mirror
symmetry. The antiparticles and the heavy partners have different helicity (opposite spin)
compared to known particles.
We insist, the Standard model has yet eluded the theoretical masses of particles, or to
predict new ones, while physicists now, have pursued strategies that only consider the
Calabi-Yau manifolds.
Masses of the supposed heavy partners, in a new 3 families scale, are detailed in former
sections. Using symmetry with the normal particles, these heavy masses, could be used for
the supposed superpartners. But we insist, it is necessary to eliminate the restriction of
the Standard Model for another heavier scale.
In the LHC energy, it will be only possible to find the LHP (or LSP), the Higgs weak
boson, and some combinations with the top quark; (or perhaps a Higgs boson with two
varieties light and heavy), but no additional particles will appear in the range of 102 - 103
GeV.
180. M theory. Dimensional manifolds.
Standard model in 8 dimensions
The last theory in the road of “String” theories is M theory, in which eleven
dimensions exist, instead of ten. We insist, the mathematics and geometry
have a wonderful development in this field, but physics is completely
delayed. Like Maldacena notes: “Physicists claim to have a beautiful and
consistent theory of quantum gravity, yet they cannot agree on the number
of dimensions: some say ten, and some say eleven. Actually, our Universe
may have both, ten and eleven dimensions.“ Some physics choose eleven,
because they unite the five string theories in only one (we explained why
this is so). But others prefer 10, because (6+4) is easier to work with. The
big problem with 11 dimensions (M theory) is breaking it into two worlds: 4
and 7. Seven-dimensional manifold, unlike normal Calabi-Yau manifold,
cannot be complex, and nature works with complex numbers, and in
consequence, with imaginary numbers. It even uses natural logarithms.
Complex manifolds must have an even number of dimensions, like 4, 6,
8…, including spatial dimensions plus one time dimension. Complex
manifolds are much better to work with, much better to understand, and
much better behaved. But the most important thing is that nature works
better with complex manifolds.
For that reason, we explained in former sections, Universes with odd
dimensions (space-time) are not prospects for the development of
communications or for promoting intelligent life. They need to exist in a
rhythmic and symmetric way, returning to another Big Bang; in our case,
until the sixth dimension (5+1) appears. After the Universes reaches its
maximum in (3+1) dimensions in a hyperbolic way, a Big Crush will follow
in a fractal dimension (3~4+1), in a parabolic way, in a complete chaos, or a
cataclysmic event, until it reaches the maximum length with a new spatial
dimension (4+1). Entropy began at its minimum in the Big Bang, but will
continue to increase in our Universe and in the chaotic Big Crush; using this
enormous quantity of entropy to form a new spatial dimension. Even at the
maximum length in (4+1), the entropy will begin again in a minimum
quantity; in a process known as Big Crunch, increasing its entropy, but
shrinking in size, from the maximum expansion to the minimum length,
reaching the cosingularity, in an accelerated hyperbolic contracting phase.
Then a new Big Crush (4~5+1) will begin in a parabolic way until it reaches
a new spatial dimension (5+1), starting a new Big Bang. The process
follows in a rhythmical way: Big Bang – Big Crush –Big Crunch – Big
Crush - Big Bang – etc.
With the appearance of a new dimension in a new period, the increase of
entropy disappears; it is used to form the new spatial dimension.
No matter what configuration is selected for the internal dimensions, or how
many dimensions the dimensional modulus has; all the dimensions
eventually unwind and open up, but the modulus as an abstract space, will
always exist. The dimensions become decompactified, but the modulus,
with the abstract minimum limits, will always be present; even with the
development of new moduli, and will continue adding (8) hidden
dimensions to the continuous moduli series.
Right now, a new strategy to apply the Standard model in eight-dimensional
modulus (rather than in six-dimensional Calabi-Yau manifold) exists.
However, the Calabi-Yau can also be described in an eight-dimensional
(7+1) modulus, and include a satisfactory explanation for theoretical
physics, but it is impossible to continue developing new geometrical and
mathematical strategies, when physics are not only delayed, but even worse,
confused or mistaken in some concepts.
181. Black holes as dark matter
We wrote before that black holes are a kind of dark matter, but they deposit
a tiny fraction of the mass of the Universe. Besides that, the three normal
neutrinos have masses, but their mass is too small to have any significant
influence in the amount of dark matter. It’s necessary to find another
heavier particle, with at least some stability or even better, completely
stable, in order to yield the big % of dark matter existing in our Universe.
The string theorists are looking for superpartners of the particles we know.
The supposed lowest mass supersymmetric partner, could be the sneutrino,
or the neutralino or the gravitino, considering that they exist. The lightest
superpartner would be totally stable, because there would be nothing lighter
in its class that it could decay into. Like we mentioned in several former
sections, we include, as another possibility the neutronio, the lightest
heavy partner, which is in the supposed case than no superpartner
appears. All of them have remained invisible and hence “dark” matter.
Already the superpartners (or its new version: the heavypartners), are much
more massive than ordinary particles. In order to keep a new symmetry, the
relation between an ordinary particle and its partner is around 1016 and so,
only the partner of the lightest ordinary particle can appear in the LHC, or
even in former colliders; with very careful experiments and calculations.
The neutronio is a fermion (spin 1/2), but its matter-antimatter pair is a
scalar boson (spin 0), like the Higgs boson. Moreover, the particle is
neutral. Our calculations shows us that neutrino 1, has a mass of
approximately 1.1256x10-14 GeV. The relation with its partner is around
1016 (approx. 1.175x1016) or 132.26 GeV, obtaining the mass of the LHP,
or we may be find around this range, the LSP.
182. Eigenstates of the Universe. Kaluza-Klein
graviton
In the Randall–Sundrum theory of warping, the extra-dimensional space is bounded by
two branes, with space-time between them curved everywhere, with gravity in two
different scales of energy. This theory can be adapted to the eigenstates of our Universe,
with 2 limits. In one limit, the Big Bang, in a high-density energy scale, gravity is strong,
and just at the beginning, is united with the other three forces. In that moment, the first
Higgs boson appears, gravitationally united. The graviton acquires mass, just at the first
chronos, or in other words, this “heavy” graviton is the Kaluza-Klein graviton, that some
physicists are looking for in the LHC Collider. However, in order to find it, it is necessary
to arrive at Planck length, which is too far for now. According to this scale, the masses of
the heavier scale are formed in relation to Planck scale: 1.2x1019 GeV. Logarithmically
speaking, this scale acts until √(λp) =4.02x10-17 cm, where the Higgs weak boson appears
(before that, close to Planck length, the second Higgs boson appeared at 8.731x10-31 cm
or 2.22x1016 GeV). The other limit, on which we live, is a low-density energy scale. The
light scale particles exist in distances longer than 4.02x10-17 cm. The limit of minimum
energy density is the maximum length, 2.9231x1032 cm and the square root of its inverse
is:
√(1⁄λM)=5.849x10-17 cm (scale of known particles)
The lighter scale has relation with this measure as explained before.
In the intermediate point, we have 2 measures, and in consequence, two Higgs fields, but
only one Higgs boson.
The different 2 scales: lighter ↑ heavier ↓.
In k-12π there is a “hook”, interchanging values.
183.
Sizes
experiments
of
dimensions.
Gravitational
Arkani-Hamed, Dimopoulos, and Dvali (often abbreviated ADD) considered that the
extradimensions could be much larger than Planck scale, at least 10-12 cm and possibly as
big as 10-1. They said that this would be possible, if our Universe has 4(3+1) dimensions
and that a three spatial dimensional world is all we can see.
This affirmation needs an additional explanation. In effect, we live on a world with 3
spatial dimensions, with an additional temporal dimension, known as time. All these three
dimensions have the same footing, each equivalent to Planck length=1.615979906x1033cm. Universes with bigger number of dimensions have smaller minimum lengths, and
larger maximum lengths (according to T-symmetry). But in Universes with less number of
dimensions, it is the opposite. The minimum limits of Universes with fewer dimensions
are considerably bigger than our λp.
In effect:
The other Universes, with bigger number of dimensions have minimum sizes, smaller than
our Planck length, and they will be not considered.
The other condition of that theory is fundamental. “We cannot see more than the three
spatial dimensions in our world” (neither less).
And so, even if some dimensions are smaller, belonging to other worlds and impossible to
see them, in our world of feeble gravity. Regrettably, the particle accelerators probe the
microcosmos utilizing the strong, weak and electromagnetic forces. The gravitational force
is totally ignored. Remember, gravity is the only force that communicates among
branes, and in the case of worlds with less dimensions, a large gravity and a considerably
large pressure is necessary.
New, highly sensitive gravitational experiments using big gravity would look for those
larger curled-up dimensions, and before that, in the same way, to see the supposed
prequarks, forming the interaction point of the particles and the prequark scenario.
184. Masses of particles and in cosmic
scale. Broglie wavelength
Repeating some concepts we explained before, in order to obtain the masses
of particles, we use the uncertainty principle, which is basic to the Higgs
mechanism. In that way, we use the formula ℏ=mcλ, where c is the speed of
light in the vacuum.
In the same way, we use in the accelerated stretching Universe the formula
Rc2=GM, where c is also the speed of light in vacuum. In accelerated
expansion, space is always stretching faster than light, but we use c as the
maximum speed of matter; c is then, the speed considered in both cases,
independent of the speed of particles or the macroscopic objects.
Differently, when we use Broglie wavelength, the momentum used is mv,
where the velocity (v) is the exact velocity of particles or any material
object. ℏ=mcλ is an exact formula; Rc2=GM is approximately exact, but at
the first chronos, it was totally exact, and equivalent to another formula;
c is always the speed of light in vacuum. And so:
✓ Rc /G = M and ℏ/cλ = m
✓ Rc /G = ℏ/cλ in the Big Bang, λ and R are equals, and so
✓ Rλc = Gℏ or c λ = Gℏ
✓ λ = ±√(Gℏ/c )
2
2
3
p
3 2
3
We have the minimum length, λp, approximately =±1.616x10-33 cm.
According to our theory, we can obtain the Planck length from a standpoint
of space only, and so, we use the formula:
✓e
✓e
where n=3
-75.50536654=1.615979906x10-33 cm
-8πn-n/28
The dimensional measure constant is k'=1 cm, and proportional with other
measures.
185. Influence from extradimensional Universe
According to the Superstring theory, all the fundamental properties of our Universe are
determined, in large influence, by the geometrical size and shape of the extra dimensions.
Moreover, the extradimensional theory determines fundamental physical measures, like
particles masses and their charges.
For us however, they have less influence, and they have relation only with λ and in
consequence, with their masses. Their action is derived from the number of components of
dimensions, not from their sizes or shapes. Even if string theory considers 10 dimensions
for strings, we consider that each modulus is formed by 8 dimensions (7 spatial + 1 time).
Nevertheless, there are not 8 dimensions, but 28 components, or degrees of freedom
(0+1+2+3+4+5+6+7).
Here are some examples; some results are in comparison with normal values.
186. Impossibility to see more or fewer
spatial dimensions than 3
It is impossible to see more than 3 spatial dimensions in our Universe,
because bigger dimensions have a curled-up dimension smaller than Planck
length. Besides that, even an apparent two space dimensional object in our
Universe, would be tridimensional; because the third space dimension is
curled-up in λp, which is physically measurable.
Remember, the third spatial dimension was formed by utilizing all the
entropy from the Universe before the Big Bang, thus leaving the Big Bang
with cozero entropy.
In our Universe, all matter (including dark matter, normal matter and
shadow matter) has 3 spatial dimensions and the fundamental particles of
matter are formed by 3 prequarks and 3 varieties: 3x1 (leptons and quarks)
3x2 (mesons) and 3x3 (hadrons). For that reason: monopoles, cosmic
strings, and domain walls don’t exist in our Universe.
It is impossible to separate the prequarks
,(even with enormous
pressure or gravity. At the most, we could see the prequarks united. Gravity
is the relation between dimensions, but it is impossible to have a big enough
gravity capable of changing the number of dimensions, but we can bring
them near, close to the frontier. The same energy that forms our Big Bang
in three spatial dimensions, the fundamental force, (gravity and the
other 3 forces united), is the same force that units the prequarks into
the fundamental units.
Moreover, by explaining the force that binds the preons (or prequarks), we
can explain a lot of other properties, such as: color, charge, different color
in quarks and leptons, unit of charge: 0, ±1/3, ±2/3, ±1…etc.
187. Cosmic rays and heavy scale
Concerning cosmic rays, there are a lot of particles that a group of scientists
consider to be mainly protons that travel trough the Universe. They arrive to
the Earth’s atmosphere, where they collide with other particles or atoms
producing others kinds of particles.
They have been observed at energies of more than 1011 GeV. In that way it
is impossible for them to be protons, because with energy at rest of only 1
GeV, most of its energy would be kinetic energy, and it would be necessary
to have a speed with practically the value of the speed of light. This is
against the Special theory of relativity.
In that way, these particles with extremely high-energy are not protons; they
could be, still unknown particles, possible to explain with a heavier scale;
and so, without having to wait for more powerful future accelerators, we
could use natural colliders, such as cosmic rays. If we review the masses of
the supposed heavier partners of the normal 3 neutrinos; we have,
approximately:
✓ Mass of the heavy partner of neutrino (1) ----- 132 GeV. (neutronio 1).
✓ Mass of the heavy partner of neutrino (2) ----- 5.6x107 GeV. (neutronio
2).
✓ Mass of the heavy partner of neutrino (3) ----- 3x1010 GeV. (neutronio 3).
According to the energy considered, of around 1010 GeV, the energy is
equivalent to the heavy partner of neutrino (3), but being unstable, it is
possible for it to change its state to the second one, 5.6x107, until it reaches
the LHP at 132 GeV probably, stable, (at least, after its separation with its
antimatter partner), traveling, and possibly forming halos around galaxies.
The decrease of its mass is balanced by the kinetic energy.
But insisting that a heavier scale of particles doesn’t exist, is putting
unnecessary problems, with a lot of evidence of heavier particles, even if
they are still unknown. A heavier scale would be the solution; and also, its
existence is necessary to accommodate the superpartners, or the heavy
partners, in case they exist.
The explanations about the masses of particles of matter are relatively
simple, and we explained them in former sections.
188. Smooth phase transition. Higgs
bosons
In physics, when we talk about the change of the state of matter, we need to
distinguish between a smooth phase transition (also called “second order
phase transitions") and a “first order phase transition”, like boiling water at
normal conditions at 100°C or the melting of ice at 0°C, where the
properties of matter change permanently and discontinuously. In the Higgs
mechanism, we have both types of transitions, where in different λ of the
system, the different particles are formed, according to their λ and in
consequence, obtaining different masses. The different λ determine the
“different influence” in the Higgs mechanism; a type of Yukawa coupling,
capable of forming different masses. All the transitions of particles occur
with different temperature. Less temperature means longer length, and in
consequence, less mass.
In determined circumstances (in special points of the heavier scale) special
kinds of smooth transitions also exist, where a special energy of change of
symmetry acts, which forms in Higgs mechanism particles known as Higgs
bosons, which is equivalent to the so-called latent heat, where a change in
the state of matter, without a change in temperature exists. Examples: it
takes a measurable amount of energy to convert ice at 0 °C to liquid water
at the same temperature; or liquid water at 100 °C to water vapor at the
same temperature. In both cases, a change in state of matter or a change of
symmetry exists.
In the three normal states of matter there are two points of this “smooth”
phase transitions. In the Higgs mechanism, with 4 forces involved, there are
3 points of this “smooth” phase transitions, where the remaining energy
forms three Higgs bosons: Higgs gravitational boson at k-24π, Higgs strong
force boson at k-22π, and Higgs weak boson at k-12π. There is no “smooth”
transition in the electromagnetic point at k-20π; for that reason a Higgs
electromagnetic boson doesn’t exist, and because of that, the photon always
remains with zero mass at rest. Just in the Maximum, at the end of the
Universe, a new gravitational Higgs boson will appear at k+24π, which will
act outside of this Universe, just at the beginning of the Big Crush,
generating, or in better terms, announcing a cataclysm along a chaotic era,
which will destroy our entire Universe of three spatial dimensions and its
corresponding parallel Universe. That would really be the “end of the
world”. This Universe (3+1) will disappear, and the (4+1) Universe will
begin to appear, passing previously through an epoch of fractal dimension,
from 3~4+1.
In brief, Higgs particles (known and still unknown particles) are formed
permanently, at different points on the scales.
And so, all particles are bundles of that energy, each pair in its
corresponding field. The bundles of leptons have the energy of the field
divided by √(2π). The bundles of quarks or particles, where the strong force
acts, have the energy of the field divided by √(8π), when they have similar
masses, and by √(2π), when they are different. Sometimes resonances exist,
making that division only approximate.
Higgs bosons are only formed in three special points, which were detailed
before, all of them, in the heavier scale.
189. Hierarchy problem. Particles in
LHC range
The appearance of three Higgs bosons determines a heavier range of
masses. In the case of the strong force boson, from around 4.43x1015 to
2.22x1016 GeV, can be identified as the energy contained in the masses
of these new heavy particles.
Stronger forces are necessary in trying to unify gravitation with the other
three forces of nature.
Nobody has ever observed any effect of the gravitational forces among
particles or within a single atom or molecule, and there is not much hope
that anybody ever will.
Our position is that all the particles have a measurable quantum wave; and
their gravitational waves (real gravitation) are smaller than λp and so, the
particles alone have no real gravitational effects. Planck energy (the energy
at which the four fundamental force are equal) is 1.2x1019 GeV. It is the
minimum mass, where particles have real gravitational waves. The heaviest
particle has a mass of approx. 2.4x1018 GeV.
The value of Planck energy is simply the fundamental unit of energy.
However, science has an unresolved question
Why do the known energies of particles are much smaller?
In the original version of the Standard Model, the masses of known
particles are proportional to the mass of the Higgs weak boson. Physicists
consider the Higgs boson mass could not be greater than 1000 GeV (and we
add, it could not be greater than 482.4 GeV).
But Planck energy is 1.2x1019 GeV, this is, 2.49x1016 times heavier.
The puzzle of explaining this enormous difference in fundamental energy is
known as the hierarchy problem.
The explanation however, is very simple. The scales in nature are
logarithmical, and the mass of a particle depends fundamentally in the
involved wavelength. Planck length determines the beginning of the heavier
scale; (the shortest λ and so, the heaviest mass), and the length of the field
of the Higgs weak boson determines the end of the heavier scale (the
longest λ and so, the lightest mass). There apparently exists a big difference,
but in logarithmical measure, it's only its half. In effect:
✓ lnλHwB=-37.75268327
✓ lnλp=-75.50536654
Relation: 1/2 (or the square root in arithmetical values) of their
corresponding λ.
Higgs weak boson acts with W+ W- and Z0 in its massive style (k-12π).
Higgs strong force boson acts with new extra-strong force, and massive
gluons (k-22π). Higgs gravitational boson acts with a new
hypergravitational force, and massive gravitons (this is exactly true, only in
k-24π, at the Big Bang). We expect that the three Higgs bosons or the other
heavier particles, required to satisfy the hierarchy problem, will be
identified in a sufficiently powerful accelerator, or natural colliders, such as
cosmic rays, in the future.
With the LHC, the Higgs weak-boson and the lightest heavy partner, a
neutral particle that we named neutronio, will appear as new particles,
and no more, except for some combinations of the top quark.
190. Standard Model. Neutrinos
Steven Weinberg is clear to affirm in his book “Dreams of a Final Theory”,
that the Standard Model is only a low-energy approximation to a really
fundamental unified theory and that it loses its validity at energies like
Planck energy. And later adds, “In the Standard Model keeping the
neutrinos massless, but we would expect neutrinos to have small masses,
about a hundredth to a thousandth of a volt or in other words, about one
billionth the mass of an electron.
The mass is much too small to have been noticed in any laboratory
experiment done so far, but it could have a subtle effect, of allowing
neutrinos that start out as electron-type neutrinos to turn slowly into
neutrinos of other types (decreasing its λ). This may explain a long-standing
puzzle, that fewer neutrinos than expected are detected to be coming from
the sun”.
These suppositions are correct, and so:
1. The Standard Model fails in to deny the masses of neutrinos.
2. The Standard Model is only an approximation to the particles of matter of
our Universe, considering only the lighter scale approximately.
3. This supposed mass of the electron-type neutrino, according to Steven
Weinberg, is practically exact; and it is the best approximation of all the
former supposed masses of this neutrino.
4. The electron-type neutrinos seem to be missing, because as they pass
through the sun, they turn into neutrinos of other types.
191. Standard Model and the light and
heavy scale
The Standard Model considers almost all of the lighter scale (leaves outside
the neutrinos) and includes a small part of heavier scale (when the Higgs
weak boson is formed). Only the heavier scale has the three Higgs bosons
and in consequence, in those moments, the particles of force acquire mass.
For that reason, reaching the range of the Higgs weak boson, even if it is
still pending discovery, the particles of force: W+, W- and Z0 acquire mass.
In the same way, when it is possible to access the range of the Higgs strong
force boson, the gluon will acquire mass.
Moreover, when the energy in the range of the Higgs gravitational boson is
reached, just at the beginning of Big Bang, when gravitation and the other
three forces were equal, exactly at Planck energy, the graviton, as a particle
of force, will acquire mass.
In the beginning of String Theory, a particle was discovered, almost equal
to the common graviton, except that this particle would produce forces that
are like gravitational forces but 1038 times stronger. This particle and the
normal graviton were considered to be both massless.
Even if it is possible to correct this difference, increasing the string tension,
it is possible to consider that those gravitational forces were 1038 times
stronger, only because gravitons, at those moments, had mass, around
Planck mass. In any case, if the symmetry was broken in the Big Bang,
separating gravity from the other three forces, a Higgs gravitational boson
would have been formed and the graviton would have acquired mass. It
would have established a quadrupole with 4 identical-mass quarks of
(1.2x1019 GeV)/√(8π)
2.4x1018 GeV each. These gravitational effects
disappeared almost immediately, and the common graviton, the particle of
gravitational radiation, with zero mass and always with spin 2, without
strong neither weak nuclear forces, appeared. And so it will remain, without
mass, and without change, until the end of our Universe.
≅
192. Gravitational waves. Hyperforce and
prequarks
Gravitational waves carry detailed information of the emitter; they are
coherent: coherent bulk motions of matter or coherent vibrations of spacetime curvature.
Gravity waves are transverse and traceless, and this is classical consequence
of the spin–2 of the graviton. According to that, the letters TT are
accompanied on the gravitational wave-field.
Because of its TT nature, any gravitational wave tends to produce a
quadrupole.
In the Big Bang, just at the beginning of the Universe, the four forces had
the same strength, and the quantum wave and gravitational wave were
equal. In that moment, there existed only one Higgs field, whose nature is
gravitational. The quadrupole (four poles) determines four quarks of the
same strength, with approximately 2.4x1018 GeV each. The graviton
acquires mass at that very moment. The quadrupole exists at the four points
of the graph: x, x1, y, and y1.
This Higgs gravitational boson gives mass to the graviton. The four quarks
acquire mass by means of λp.
The λp gives the mass of the field. Each pole (quark) is obtained by dividing
it by √(8π).
The quadrupole formalism in gravity is equivalent to the dipole formalism
in the radio-wave generation.
The Higgs gravitational boson is at k-24π, the moment of the Big Bang, and
Mplanck=1.2 x1019 GeV or 2.17x10-5 g.
This is a kind of hypergravity that begins at the very Big Bang at 1.616x1033 cm, and disappears, diminishing step by step, at around 3.50x10-31 cm,
when the heavy strong force begins to establish its control. This
“hypergravity” force, acts with the appearance of the first Higgs boson
(gravitational); and the graviton, acquires mass. After that, normal gravity
acts with a zero mass graviton and a very feeble force. This hypergravity
is the fundamental cause of the appearance of the third spatial
dimension in the Big Bang, and so, although already inexistent, is
immerse in any object or particle in our Universe. All of them have
three spatial dimensions. It is impossible for objects of 0, 1 or 2 spatial
dimensions to exist in our world. And so, the particles, the fundamental
blocks of our Universe, need three “strings” to exist. The existence of
prequarks, (or preons) detailed before, is not only possible; it is impossible
that they don’t exist, albeit only in hidden structures.
193. Hypergravity's sphere of influence.
Heavy protons
The sphere of influence of this kind of “hypergravity” force is until 1x10-7
g, 5.53x1016 GeV, or k-22.29π. In k-22π the strong force Higgs boson
appears, but its influence begins when the gravitational influence
disappears, at around k-22.29π.
At λ=5.916x10-31, 3.278x1016 GeV, or 5.93x10-8 g is the range of the mass of
the heavy proton (with the neutron a little heavier than the proton). The
calculation to obtain this mass (we can also get it with exact k):
(k-23π)=(-23)(3.146056939)=-72.3593096
λ=(exp-72.3593096)=3.756220925x10-32 cm=5.166x1017 (field)
heavy proton=5.1626x1017 GeV/(√2π)3=3.278x1016 GeV approx. or
5.93x10-8 g
In similar terms, the calculation used to obtain the mass of normal proton
(k-11π), where we use the lighter scale: 3.111480939 and so:
(k-11π)=(-11)(3.114806939)=-34.26287633
λ=(exp-34.26287633)=1.317716173x10-15 cm=14.71637095 GeV (field)
Normal proton= 14.71637095/(√2π)3=0.9344GeV or 1.69x10-24 g (approx.)
The heavy neutron and the normal neutron, are unstable and decay into their
corresponding proton (or heavy proton); electron (or heavy electron); and
“neutrino” (or heavy “neutrino”, named neutronio).
But this heavy proton is unstable too. The theory, speaking about the decay
of the proton, is really referred to this heavy proton. As we explained
before, the time of supposed decay of the normal proton is considerably
longer than the time of our Universe, which will occur at 9.7504x1021 s or
3.0897x1014 years.
This supposed decay of a normal proton violates some long-established
properties in quantum field theory; but remember, they have been
considered point particles. Every particle, like every object in our Universe,
has 3 spatial dimensions and it is necessary to invoke new theoretical
principles.
Moreover, heavy protons don’t form complex structures. They will be
constructed in the macrocosmos era, when the Universe is cooler and the
formation of complex structures is done. Definitely, the decay of heavy
proton violates baryon and lepton number conservation, but this principle is
correct only in the first scale, in order to maintain the normal proton stable,
and in consequence, to form (completely stable) aggregated matter, atoms,
and complex structures. The normal proton is stable. This gives the
necessary stability to our macrocospic world. The stability of the normal
proton is due to the fact that in the first scale there is no symmetry breaking
(or appearance of Higgs bosons); only in the second scale, where the heavy
proton appears. The instability of the heavy proton (including the violation
of the lepton and baryon number conservation, is not only possible, but it is
absolutely necessary to avoid the production of “heavy” matter. The second
scale makes heavy partners, but only heavy particles. The heavy partners
existed in the precise moment of the microcosmos era and disappeared at
least in normal conditions, except for the lightest of them, the neutronio,
that acts as the other members of the first family of the first scale, using π
minus, like we explained before.
However it is necessary to separate it from its antiparticle. The pair is
unstable and decays basically into 2 photons, and sometimes into ZZ. The
neutronio (the only particle of the second scale that is stable) is an ideal
candidate to constitute dark matter.
194.
Fundamental
mathematical
formulas: Einstein's and Euler's
This book has incorporated minimum mathematical operations, normally
easy to understand. To read it, is not necessary to be a mathematician. It is
only necessary to know fundamental and simple concepts. Hawking
mentioned in his book “A Brief History of Time”, that using only one
formula, their lectors would diminish considerably. However, he still used
in his book Einstein’s formula: E=mc2, which most physicists consider as
the most famous physical relation. This is no doubt; this formula is
practically the most (or the least one of the most) important physical
relations in our world of three spatial dimension + one time, but it has no
application in other dimensionally different worlds. In that way, we need to
use complex numbers, and their fundamental relation is Euler’s formula:
eiπ+1=0. Which relates the five fundamental numbers: 0, 1, e, i, π, seeming
an esoteric formula, or a mystical expression; but it is real, physically and
mathematically. If we use the unit circle of complex numbers, we obtain a
derived formula (Cottes-Euler): eiθ=cosθ+isenθ.
The plan is to convert the complex equation, with an imaginary part, into
only its real part. In that way, p can wind around the origin many times, and
so, we can allow p to wind, adding any integer multiple from 2π to θ.
Using String theory, we have a two-position eigenstate in this unit circle.
One for a vibration mode and another, approximately its inverse, is related
to a winding mode. Like we explained in former sections, by deriving these
formulas and relations, we can obtain a general formula to obtain the
minimum (Planck) and another formula to obtain the maximum.
Minimum: e-8πn-n/28 cm
Minimum =1.615979906x10-33 cm
Maximum: e+8πn-(2n^2)/28 cm
Maximum= 2.923096699x1032 cm
Where n in our Universe is 3.
We explained before, the number of dimensions of the first modulus is 8;
including time with 0 spatial dimensions, but with defined space.
Einstein defined a reality in any dimension of all Universes: Space and time
are not two separated entities. They are always united. Moreover, all the
spatial dimensions have the same footing in a particular Universe; but are
different between others. Even if the modulus is 8, the dimensional
components or degrees of freedom would be: 0+1+2+3+4+5+6+7 = 28.
The dimensions of the strings are 10 and 26 because they are the closer
dimensions of strings, with enough room to incorporate our Universe. The
first sequence, logically derived from a string, is 2 (1+1), but it has no room
to accommodate a world of 4 (3+1). 10 is the dimension of strings too,
because this is the relation with the second modulus: 8 + 2 (1+1) and 26,
with the third active modulus (8+8+8)+2 (1+1), an so on. For the first
dimensional package, the dimensions of string are: 2, 10, 26, 50,
82,132,170, and 226. The first package has 224 dimensions. 226 represents
28(8) + 2. These two new dimensions are the dimensions from the string,
(1+1) of the second package. Michio Kaku, in his book “Hyperspace”,
wrote: “In others words, physicists have not the slightest understanding of
why 10 and 26,are single out as the dimensions of string”. Completing this
information with the information detailed in former sections about this
issue, we consider our position is more than a slightest idea.
One concept is fundamental:
It is inconvenient, or even worse, impossible, to establish as exact rules,
a theory with 10 (or eleven) and 26 dimensions, in a world with only 4.
195. Dimensional moduli in 8 dimensions.
Valence of Universes
All the dimensional moduli have 8 dimensions, even in String theories, in
mathematicians investigating lattices, in higher dimensions, including
lattices that are self-dual (are coincident with the dual lattice). It is
important to reaffirm that even self-dual lattices only occur in 8 dimensions
or in multiples of 8.
The general position, actually, is that the Universe began with 10
dimensions (and for others, eleven). This is a mixture of mathematical
accuracy and confusing physical terms.
• It is correct that 10 and 26 are the dimensions of string, but also 50,
82,122, . . . etc.
• The fundamental dimension of strings is two (1+1), but it has not enough
room to accommodate the particles or forces of our world.
• The moduli have 8 dimensions each.
• The reason, why the dimension of strings is 10, is because a modulus
(with eight-dimensional construction) has the dimensions of the string (2)
of the second modulus attached to it. The total of the dimensions are 10,
but the “valence” is two (like in chemistry, with electron orbitals).
• The valence of membranes (2+1) is 3 and so, the sequence is 3,11,27…
• The valence of particles (3+1) is 4 and so, the sequences are 4 (our
world), 12, 28, …
• We can represent every dimension until 11, because until this limit, our
Universe is still inside the first sequence. Dimension 12 is already in the
second sequence, and in that way, there are some differences, according
to its participation in a new dimensional modulus. One of them: a theory
of 12 dimensions, or more, necessarily produces massless particles with
spin greater than 2, something that experimental and theoretical reasons
eliminate in our world.
• Mixing the second modulus of string (10) with the first modulus of
particles (4)(our world) is an error. The result 10-4 =6 doesn’t have any
physical significance, and so, the construction of a Calabi-Yau of 6
dimensions, results mathematically valid but physically incorrect.
• Our world is not a world of strings. The string universe began and has
already ended, and will return, when the second modulus of strings
appear, in 10 dimensions.
A lot of other considerations about this topic were detailed in former
sections.
196. Substructure of 3 virtual strings.
Hypergravity. Big Bang
To consider leptons or quarks to be simple particles with no structure is to
accept the existence of point-particles, with 0 spatial dimensions, 1(0+1) in
space-time. We insisted before, in our world, it is impossible for particles,
different from our Universe of 3 spatial dimensions, to exist. We accept that
the fundamental string (1+1) is the basic entity of space. But we live in a
world of 3 spatial dimensions, and so each particle has a substructure of
3 virtual strings.
String theory already considers a three-string vertex, based on two
multiplications and one integration, and also uses symmetry in order to treat
the 3 strings.
(Remember the figure about the distribution of quarks inside a proton or a
neutron). Returning to strings (prequarks), two of the segments are
consequence of multiplications and the third is a result of integration of a
symmetric expression. There is a significant curvature at the interaction
point; even if in two dimensions (like our apparent space, it is almost flat
everywhere).
If we adapt this concept to the Big Bang, the cosingularity with Planck
length in each of the three spatial dimensions is this interaction “point”,
better yet, it is a “dot”, because from the moment that there exists a
graphical interaction, there exists at least one spatial dimension; in our case,
three spatial dimensions. This dot is like a germ, with a tendency to stretch.
This process is true in cosmic space and in the hidden space of particles.
Planck length in the Big Bang has three spatial dimensions, with a big
curvature, applied by a kind of “hypergravity”, where all the four forces
have the same value, and this is inherent to any structure of matter, even
in particles. but before the first chronos, there exists a pre-Big Bang
scenario, completely flat, like a vacuum with limits, with no movement,
only a tendency to it. The interaction point is a "germ", always in three
dimensions, but virtual and without borders, whose size of influence is λp
for each dimension. And this is inherent to any structure of matter,
including particles.
In the Universe, expanding in a hyperbolic way, the big curvature at the
beginning quickly converts into an asymptotic flat space. But we know, in
our world, space has three spatial dimensions, the tendency to expand and
the way to do this is in only these 3 spatial dimensions (six directions). For
that reason all the particles in our Universe, like any object, including black
holes have this interaction “point” of Planck length, and any object could
theoretically be divided until this interaction “point” in three spatial
dimensions is reached. And so, the Big Bang can be found anywhere in
our Universe. In the pre-Big Bang scenario, when the Universe is stopped
for a “while”, a cubic form, with Planck length, constitutes the fundamental
support of our Universe, and at the same time, a brick in the foundation of
the Universe. This was clarified before.
Particles have their own expansion, and in consequence, their own lengths.
Nevertheless, in order to obtain the corresponding mass of a particle, the
radius is not used, but its collision distance, its Higgs length. Getting the
mass of the field and dividing by some factors is how we obtain the masses
of the particles. To visualize the Y or form, like the helixes of an electric
fan, we can see them only when the fan is off. When it is moving, the
helixes move and it is impossible to see them. We can only see the point of
integration, its vertex. For that reason, the known particles have relation
with λ of the field of the Higgs weak boson, even if the correct relation is
with Planck length; both lengths are already related in a simple relation:
λ field of Higgs weak boson = √(λp)
That gives an erroneous conclusion that the Higgs weak boson gives mass
to all particles of matter, when the correct relation of the masses are
obtained from their lengths, according to the parameter:
3.5178x10-38/λ=mass in grams or 1.9392x10-14/λ=mass in GeV
As we mentioned several times in former sections, the Higgs weak boson
only gives mass to the particles of force: W+, W-, Z0. The photon is always a
massless particle; and particles of matter always have masses, according to
their corresponding λ.
197. Gravitational and electromagnetic
waves moving at c
Gravitational waves and electromagnetic waves always move at the same
speed, c, the speed of light in vacuum. This is 2.99792458x1010 cm/s. For
that reason we use c instead of v when we are calculating the masses of
particles and the mass of the Universe. In both cases, we are talking about
waves.
We use both formulas:
For mass of fundamental particles:
ℏ/cλ=m
λ: the wavelength of the Higgs field.
For cosmic matter:
≅
(Rc2)/G M
Where R means the gravitational wave of the Universe, or gravitational
radius, and it is equivalent to the product ct (speed of light times time).
But what happens in the real world, when all the matter moves at velocities
slower than the speed of light?
There exist three kinds of waves: advanced waves, retarded waves, and
normal waves. Normal waves can be obtained by the sum of many phase
waves, constituted by the exact disposition of advanced and retarded waves,
giving an average of c; although, in many cases, the average is a retarded
wave, never an advanced wave. Besides that, they also are composed by
zero-mass particles of force, called luxons, that always travel at the speed of
light and can neither be accelerated, nor slowed down; examples, photons
and gravitons.
In cosmic space, we have the cosmic radius, stretching always faster than
light. It’s a kind of advanced wave; the gravitational radius works like a
normal wave, ct, and for that reason, the formula uses c as the speed
considered. This kind of radius is the maximum distance that we can
observe with the current technology at our disposal. It is logical to suppose
(and this is according to Einstein’s special theory of relativity) that the
tangible objects always move to velocities slower than the speed of light.
However, there exists a quantum relation using particles-antiparticles, and
relating them with the parallel Universe, it is possible to have FTL waves:
retarded wave (particle) – light wave (Higgs distance) – advanced wave
(antiparticle).
Broglie described that there exist advanced and retarded waves, but
particles of matter and aggregated matter always travel at velocities slower
than speed of light in our Universe.
In former sections, we divided the gravitational force acting on the
macroscopic world and the quantum wave, fundamental in quantum
mechanics, acting on particles; and both acted together, only at the Big
Bang. Gravitational waves (real gravitons) and electromagnetic waves
travel at the speed of light. This is true, when c is used in relativistic terms.
But in macroscopical objects, considering only its apparent velocity with an
imaginary fixed point, traveling much slower than the speed of light, we can
obtain a very negligible quantic effect; with no practical application in
reality. This effect, besides its negligible value, is only virtual. The apparent
small velocity of the macroscopical objects, subject to a “fixed” point,
doesn’t consider the real movement of the macrocosmos, and for that
reason, we use v instead of c.
The movement of any object on Earth is complex. Beside its own
movement considering a fixed point; it has components from the rotation of
the planet around its axis; from the translation around the sun; from the
movement of the sun around its apex point in our galaxy, from the
movement of our galaxy in relation to other galaxies, the movement of the
local group of galaxies in respect to the Universe; and the total movement
of our Universe. For that reason, the velocity of any object by its mass, that
constitutes its momentum, is only relative. The real movement of any object
is related to the expansion of space, with speed limit c (space is expanding
faster than light, but this accelerated expansion is only possible to itself, as
an abstract entity). The horizon distance (refers to how far we could see, or
how far light can travel) is always ct. Matter cannot avoid this limit.
Moreover, ℏ is used in particles. For macrocospical objects, we use G. If we
use ℏ in macroscopical objects, even using velocities much slower than c,
we obtain absurd short wavelengths and high frequencies, far beyond the
most energetic and deadly cosmic rays. If we use c instead of v, the result is
even worse. The wavelengths are smaller than Planck length, and in
consequence, are unreal, or at least, outside of our Universe.
Besides that, particles of matter, when they are acting like particles, not in
their duality, like waves, especially when they are heavier, can move (in
their own frame of reference) at velocities much slower than c.
In some cases, the heaviest particles can have gravitational effects, but
negligible, or virtual. Real gravitons, known as gravitational waves, need to
travel at the speed of light. Some real gravitational effects, but negligible,
exist only in the heavier particles, whose range is between 2.17x10-5 and
1x10-7 grams.
198. Impossibilities in macroscopical time
travel and messaging
Although quantum mechanics determine the possibility of time travel to the
past, for macrocosmical objects, it is physically impossible. Physical time
traveling is permitted, but only to the future. It is enough to travel in a
spacecraft at fast speeds, but always slower than light, and you will
automatically go to the future in a shorter time, according to time distortion.
But it would be impossible to return to the past in our physical body.
Traveling to the past is physically impossible for macroscopical objects.
First of all, quantum mechanics don’t apply to anything heavier than mp
(Planck mass).
Even with antiparticles, that can be considered as particles traveling to the
past (and that means traveling FTL), it’s only a difference with the frame of
reference of time. Unlike the classical world, in which it has only one arrow
of time, the quantum world is described with two arrows of time, in a CPT
connection. In macroscopical objects, the connections are outside of our
world, in a parallel Universe, which is impossible to arrive to. In quantum
mechanics, particles and antiparticles exist together in both parallel
universes, although they are destroyed when they are joined, and each
group, in each Universe, is separated, probably through black holes. The
mathematical condition for particles to travel FTL (or to travel to the past)
is only to travel in the opposite temporal frame of reference.
But what happens with waves. There are advanced waves, faster than light,
but are not useful to carry a message, and in that way, they are not capable
of being used as an FTL communication medium. Each advanced wave
exists alone as a perfectly regular sine wave. According to its cofinite
extension and perfect monotony is not useful to send any message. And so,
superluminal communication is discarded.
It is necessary to have a group wave, as the sum of many waves, that is
always a normal wave or a retarded wave and traveling as a short, localized
pocket of energy for sending a message.
Travel to the past with our physical body, or carrying and bringing
information, is impossible. It can only exist in our imagination and science
fiction. Using these concepts can only produce absurdities and paradoxes.
199. Traveling using wormholes
But what happens if we travel to other very distant region of space using
wormholes and in consequence, slower than the speed of light?
We could arrive in our future, but it would be the present in the new frame
of reference. But wormholes exist in two fundamental classes:
a) Wormholes with 2λp of length, communicating with our parallel Universe
(λp in each Universe). This size is too small for macroscopical objects (even
for known particles) and the parallel Universe is an antimatter Universe,
and any matter that enters it would be destroyed.
b) Wormholes smaller than λp and in consequence, with no physical reality.
Lengths smaller than Planck length would only be accessible in Universes
with more than three spatial dimensions. In hypothetical terms, it is
necessary to tear space and use a new spatial dimension. From these bigger
dimensions, our travel would look like slower than light, but it would be
FTL according to the speed of light in our Universe. For that reason, in
theory, leaping across light–years of space, and without exceeding the speed
of light, traveling a longer distance than that light would travel in the same
time, is only apparent. Inside this wormhole, if we could access it, we
would need to travel FTL, because the new dimension is curled up, and the
distance is not a geodesic, but a cofinite ring. And in any way, it is
impossible to access these wormholes, since they are smaller that λp, and in
consequence, inexistent in our world. The solution is only mathematical,
not physical.
200. Curvature of the Universe. Different
kinds of Universes
Our space (3+1) began with a big curvature at the beginning, and it was
expanding in a hyperbolic function in an asymptotic way, and now, it is
almost flat, but it will never be flat. This curvature, even if right now is
negligible, indicates the existence of at least another spatial dimension.
How many dimensions are there? A lot, but defined in ordered and coherent
ways, forming different and similar moduli. Each modulus, is formed by 8
dimensions (7+1); each dimension with a minimum and maximum limit.
The minimum limit is longer when the number of dimensions is smaller,
but also, the distance between two points is shorter, when the number
of dimensions increases.
The smallest number of dimensions is (0+1) and in this case, the Universe is
practically a monopole (+). This “particle” wouldn’t be divisible, and so,
the whole Universe would be a monopole. A parallel Universe exists with
this Universe, with an opposite time, and the same size, constituting one
antimonopole (-). The size of this Universe and antiuniverse would be
1.036359701 cm each.
We will explain this with more detail in further sections. Space-time is
quantified, and so, a continuum always has a “thickness”. It isn’t null in
respect to another Universe with n+1 dimensions.
In that way, we can see “shadows” or two-spatial-dimensional Universes,
and four-spatial dimensions entities (if they exist) could detect our presence.
Each “thickness” has a corresponding Planck length, different in each
dimension, equivalent to 1.173487998x10-11 (the size of the string) to the
(n) power (the number of spatial dimensions), and so, each Planck would
be: (length of string)n.
In that way, our Universe has a Planck of (1.173487998x10-11)3 =
1.615979906x10-33 cm. Besides that, even if the Universe is almost flat and
the Big Bang was a smooth expansion, some irregularities still exist
(galaxies clumped in super clusters); even most of space is “empty” space.
The irregularities can be explained by the fluctuations in the beginning of
the Big Bang. At the very beginning, the quantum gravitational force had
the same strength as the other three, and quantum fluctuations acted in the
Universe as a whole. After that, quantum mechanics, acts fundamentally in
particles; and gravitation basically acts in macroscopical objects.
201. End of the Universe
For cosmologists and theoretical physicists, it is a certainty that the
Universe will die in a determined moment. It is impossible for it to live
forever, if the Big Bang had a beginning. The only discussion is how will
the death of our Universe be? If Earth dies, a future human civilization can
travel to other planets to avoid its main destiny. If our sun dies, maybe with
better technology, we will be able to travel to other planets on a different
star. If the Milky Way has problems with life, in a more distant future, with
even bigger development, we could travel to other galaxy. The only
problem here is the technology at our disposal, but these three possibilities
are not forbidden. But what can humans do, to avoid the death of our
Universe as a whole? The answer is nothing, at least in our physical
existence. To use another dimension has a real limitation. First of all,
wormholes that could be used to travel to bigger dimensions are smaller
than our Planck length, and it is impossible to access them. In the final
moments of the collapse of our Universe, the modulus will open, tearing the
fabric of space, and a new spatial dimension will begin to appear. That will
be a cosmic cataclysm, and the whole Universe will collapse chaotically.
The fourth spatial dimension will begin to grow and our third spatial
dimension in its maximum size will begin to decrease. All space-time will
be cracked, and all the spatial tridimensional entities, practically all of our
Universe, with its entire physical context, will be destroyed and crushed.
To use other dimensions for travel has another limitation: In higherdimensional Universes our physical entity cannot survive. And there is no
physical solution for that. Abstract entities could survive, only if it would be
possible to save our minds and our feelings, and have an existence outside
of our physical body.
But the time of destruction of our Universe is far away. We live
according to arithmetical time, and in logarithmic time that our
Universe uses, the following very tiny fraction of it, is more than the
sum of all the time that has passed. Even if the Universe has a
remaining minimal fraction left, this would still be billions or even
trillions of years.
202. Stability of proton. Unstable heavy
proton
In the Standard Model, SU(3) symmetry rotates three quarks, and under
certain conditions, a quark can turn into one of the other quarks. However,
quarks cannot turn into electrons or neutrinos. The limit of SU(3) is k-12π,
the field energy with λ 4.02x10-17 (√(λp)).
Into the range of the Standard Model, the normal proton is permanently
stable, but GUT theory uses SU(5) symmetry, and there are five particles
than can rotate into others: three quarks, the electron, and the neutrino. In
other terms, the proton would be unstable. But what kind of proton?
GUT energy is considered to be around 2.22x1016 GeV, and its
λ 8.7x10-31 cm, and in this energy, normal protons don’t exist and neither
do massless protons (particles of matter without masses are against the
uncertainty principle), and besides that, the λ of the collision distance of a
single normal proton is considerably much longer than all the visible
Universe that existed during that time.
An unstable heavy partner of proton is necessary to be considered.
Around GUT energy, the heavy proton decays in shorter time than the time
the normal proton is supposed to decay. However, the heavy proton,
existing in a period of large density, with an enormous gravity, almost like
in the center of a black hole, has a big time distortion in its own frame of
reference (faster speeds and bigger gravities causes time contraction) and
so, the stability of the heavy proton is longer in normal time. But eventually,
heavy protons will decay into heavy positrons, heavy neutrinos, and heavy
antineutrinos. Heavy neutrons are also unstable and decay into heavy
protons, heavy electrons, and heavy antineutrinos.
The existence of heavy leptons is obtained first, by the decay of heavier
neutrons and protons. Later when the Higgs field arrives at k-20π (around
10-28cm), heavy electrons and heavy positrons will begin to appear; and
even later, in a longer space, relatively lighter particles, heavier neutrinos
will appear from k-18π, k-16π to k-12π, where the LHP (lightest heavy
partner), the supposed neutronio, appears at 331.55 GeV, approximately the
≅
≅
energy of the field, and 132.27 GeV, the approximate mass of this neutral
particle.
Even if GUT energy is defined at tremendous energy, the gravitational
effect will appear at an even larger energy, but GUT is close to it. Moreover,
GUT theory also considers the presence of three families of particles. If the
energy is enormous, the resulting particles would be heavier. The heavy
scale is demonstrated once more with another three families of
particles.
203. Gates to our parallel Universe
If the Big Bang is everywhere in our Universe and the Big Bang is
connected to our parallel Universe, billions upon billions of connecting
gates to our parallel Universe exist, and not billions of billions of
different parallel Universes. But the size of this kind of wormholes is too
small to permit human travel, with 2λp, λp on each Universe. Besides that,
our twin Universe is formed by antimatter, and this condition reinforces the
impossibility for human travel by using them. But, with Planck length size,
it would be physically possible to access them.
We mentioned before, our parallel Universe is the deposit of our waste
(antimatter), and in an interchange, both Universes change waste in an exact
quantity. We receive, in compensation, the waste of our parallel Universe,
(our matter), increasing the mass of the Universe, using wormholes by
means of black holes. Any black hole in our Universe is attached to another
black hole in our twin Universe. The symmetry is exact; the interchange of
matter needs to be in exact equilibrium. For that reason, our parallel
Universe needs to be a twin Universe.
Using another kind of wormholes, in multidimensional travel is impossible.
FTL or sub-Planck distances are outside of our physical Universe; and in
consequence, impossible to reach for any physical entity, including the
human body.
We insist, in our Universe of three spatial dimensions, all the particles of
matter and aggregated matter that live in it need to inherit the same
dimensions of that space and its same symmetry.
Traveling in the multidimensional modulus, existing in compactified
modulus space is physically impossible.
The fundamental effect that made the acceptance of the existence of billions
upon billions of parallel Universes was leaving the cosmological constant as
zero.
But, like we mentioned before, the cosmological “constant” was never zero.
It is not zero and will never be zero; and that cofinite quantity of parallel
Universes doesn’t exist, only the quantity of gates to one parallel Universe
does.
204. Prequarks and three virtual strings. Gravity
and hypergravity
In former sections, we referred to prequarks and in consequence, three virtual strings,
representing the three degrees of freedom that form any fundamental particle. Those three
virtual strings are formed in the Pre-Big Bang scenario, with λp each. When, at the very
beginning, in the first chronos, a spherical Big Bang is formed, mass appears, and the
constants G, ℏ, and c are established. The space in all three dimensions begins to stretch;
movement appears and the accelerating expansion acts.
Using considerable pressure, an enormous gravitational force, or colossal energy, we could
see these “strings", united in their point of interaction, but we could never see them as free
particles. A similar procedure is obtained with quarks and electrons. If quarks have never
been directly observed as free particles, that don’t mean they don't exist. Quarks will
always be confined, and will never be in isolation. Besides that, electrons can only be
observed indirectly, by the side effects they cause. Prequarks, like quarks, have to exist
only inside particles, not in isolation; prequarks inside quarks and leptons; and quarks,
inside mesons and hadrons. In both cases, it is only a question of the energy, and in
consequence, its λ.
Prequarks, like quarks, can never be in isolation. But they have another property. When the
fundamental particles are in movement, and the energy is less than Planck, the prequarks,
like virtual strings, practically “disappear”, integrating themselves into the movement. The
only solution to see them is to get to distances close to λp, where it will be possible to see a
Planck unit, stopped, or almost stopped, and to see the three prequarks united in a real
“point of interactions”. The force that joins them is the force of gravity at Planck length, a
“hyperforce”.
This process is reversible. When the particle is stopped again, the three strings appear,
because they have also 3 degrees of freedom, and this unit never disappears in our
Universe.
205. Spherical "volume" and spatial
dimensions
In our Universe of three spatial dimensions, we consider a sphere. But a
corresponding “sphere” is obtained by the number of the spatial dimensions
involved.
Mathematics indicates us which are the formulas needed to obtain this
spherical “volume”.
(πn/2/(n/2)!) rn If the spatial dimensions of the Universe is even.
2nπ(n-1)/2(n-1/2)!/n! rn if the spatial dimension of the Universe is odd.
According to the spatial dimensions involved in a dimensional modulus the
formulas are the following:
We observe that outside 0 and 1 dimension; all the volumes: “volume” (2);
volume (3) and hypervolumes (more than 3) exhibit a curvature, impossible
to fill space completely if they are piled up together, and in that way, it is
necessary to use straight objects, in a pre-Big Bang scenario, where the
evolution of space is stopped, in the period when the inflection point is
obtained. This pre-Big Bang scenario also exists anywhere in our Universe,
and it acts as its support. It never disappears, and so, it is possible to go to
the origin of the formation of particles to reproduce the instant moment of
their creation, or just the beginning of the Universe, a way for the
microcosmos to return to the past using powerful particle colliders.
We observe that in a Universe with zero spatial dimensions, its division of
Universe into smaller pieces is not possible. This Universe is like a (only
one) monopole and with an antimonopole partner in a parallel Universe. A
hypothetical division of this Universe would produce a lot of virtual
monopoles. Notwithstanding, an evolution of the Universe exists, changing
its size, according to a different kind of quantum fluctuations, in relation to
the time correction factor, where time is converted into inverse space,
equivalent to e+1/28 cm and e-2/28, which we detailed before.
One spatial dimension Universe is formed by normal strings, straight lines,
and this is at the same time, the typical pieces for the foundation of that
Universe, where gravity doesn’t change with distance, and in that position,
it would always be constant.
Since the two spatial dimensional Universe, there has been gravity that
varies according to distance. Each n Universe, divides by dn-1 distances, and
so, if 2 spatial Universe is divided by d; 3 is by d2; 4 by d3 and so forth. In
that scenario, the curvature of this Universe always changes, and it is
impossible to use them as the “foundations” of the Universe, repeating
them. It is necessary to use the “straight form” of any particular pre-Big
Bang scenario.
However, a quantitative relation between the spherical “volume” and
“straight volume” exists, considering that like the “packaged fraction”
continues to decrease until the maximum spatial dimension of the modulus.
(7).
8 is the maximum dimension of a modulus, 7 space plus 1 time). However
more dimensions exist, but they appear, considering n(8) as a hidden
dimensions moduli and having the difference (valence) as its specific kind
of Universe.
206. Fraction of package of the Universes
All Universes are repetitive copies, but with some differences, specifically according to
different spin partners and a lot of new additional particles.
The formulas of the spherical “volume” have been detailed; and according to the specific
formulas for straight volumes, we have:
If we consider this fraction of package in our Universe:
(4/3 πR3)/(8R3)=π/6=0.523598775
Considering the space correction factor, detailed in former sections, of -18/28 we obtain a
similar fraction, even if it’s only approximated:
e-18/28=0.525788024.
The difference between these two factors is only 0.41637%.
We explained before these two kinds of presentations of the pre-Big Bang; the straight
figure (a cube) as the fundamental brick of the foundation of our Universe, and the
spherical form, when the Universe begins to expand in an accelerated way, giving the
initial mass of the Universe, and the fundamental constants G, ℏ, and c, and the secondary
measures start to develop.
In two or more spatial dimensions, the circular form cannot fill the whole space, straight
lines are necessary, and in consequence, the hyperbola (2) or hyperboloids of 3 more
dimensions, need a pre-Big Bang scenario with straight lines.
207.
Time
determinism
symmetrical
dynamical
We know that dynamics is a specification of how a physical system will
develop through time, given the physical conditions of the system at one
particular time. For when mathematics are referred, it is feasible to consider
any specific condition at some remote future, and evolve backwards in time.
Or inversely, the final or any intermediate conditions depend on the initial
ones, determining, in both cases, the evolution of the system. This relation
is called time-symmetrical dynamical determinism.
In the Universe, in the Big Bang, at the very beginning; in the fundamental
bit of information, the whole tendency for future evolution is marked; the
conceptual laws have been regulated and the initial conditions will rule the
dynamic evolution of the Universe. This basic information, fundamentally
important, will never be destroyed during the life of our Universe. Since
Planck length is impossible to decrease, obtaining a complete evaporation
of a black hole, turning the “singularity” that is practically nothing into
space zero is impossible in any physical world. The minimum length is
Planck length; and the primordial information is imprinted in its area, the
fundamental bit is never destroyed until the final time of our Universe.
Time–reversal symmetry is not only true for classical mechanics, but it is
also true for the sub-microscopic dynamics of the microcosmos, including
the individual particles.
According to quantum mechanics, the position and momentum of a particle
can never be exactly detailed; but this is unnecessary for the overall
behavior of the system.
The general information, fixed in the first unit of information, is enough to
determine the dynamical behavior of the system, in this case, our Universe.
208. Discontinuity in energy and matter
Although nature abhors vacuum; neither matter nor energy are continuos.
Visible spaces exist; apparently empty among the different “pieces” of
them. And this is true in the microscopical as in the macroscopical world.
Examples:
Photons: little bundles or “quanta” of light (light is then, lumpiness energy).
Graviton: smallest bundles of the gravitational force field.
ℏ: Planck constant is the fundamental parameter in quantum mechanics. It
determines the size of the discrete units of different measures, into which
the microscopic world is divided.
Space and time are not continuous. It is impossible to access distances
shorter than λp (approx. 1.616x10-33 cm) and in consequence, the minimum
fraction of time is (approx. 5.39x10-44 s).
All matter (and energy) in the macrocosmos, as in the microcosmos worlds,
have a sequence of concentration and “empty” space. An atom for example,
has more than 99.9% of its mass inside a nucleus (center); whose radius is
10-5 less than the size of atom. The electrons revolve around the nucleus at
velocities near to the speed of light, “filling” the space with electromagnetic
energy that seems as solid chunks of matter.
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in orbitals. Planets revolve around the
sun in orbits, all of them mathematically constituted. Between orbitals or
orbits it is impossible for electrons or planets to exist.
The same rule applies even when increasing the outer space or decreasing
the inner space. This is true in the microscosmos as in the macrocosmos.
But, what happened farther away from our Universe? As we explained
before, after the end of our Universe, a fractal dimension exists until we
arrive to the four spatial dimensional Universe. In this fractal space, 3~4, it
is impossible to form a Universe; and so, this is a state of chaotic evolution,
that we named Big Crush.
But what happened with a dimensional modulus of 8 Universes (7+1)? We
mentioned that the dimensional modulus is formed, not for 8 dimensions,
but for 28, because a Universe has the same footing within its dimensions
but they are completely different among others, and so, we add
0+1+2+3+4+5+6+7=28. The dimensions among them have a big difference,
and it is only possible to reduce it using logarithmical measures.
A dimensional modulus, in arithmetical measures, has an enormous
“empty” space among dimensional Universes, because the difference
between one dimension with the next consecutive is 8.52x1010. The
minimum length of the Universe of strings (1+1) is 3.83x1065 times bigger
than that of the Universe of 7-sphere (7+1) particles. It is impossible to
draw them both in a sheet of paper at least without using logarithmical
measures. But we can imagine that between a Universe and the next, there
is an enormous “empty” space; and also, inside the “sub-Planck” spaces in
any Universe.
We wrote “empty” because the modulus is filled with gravitational energy,
measuredly and different in any Universe, but also, with “virtual particles”
of the next dimension. The energy among Universes is gravitational because
the gravitational force is the only force that unites different classes of
dimensional Universes in a spatial modulus; and we suppose it unites
different moduli in a dimensional package; and different packages in a
dimensional cluster; and so on successively. This tendency to cofinity needs
to end, and a deeper study is necessary. As we said before, gravity is the
only force between dimensional Universes, but not the feeble normal
gravity we know. It is a kind of hypergravity (we didn't name it supergravity
in order to avoid the confusion with an old and discarded theory).
For that reason, in the beginning or in the end of any Universe, gravity
is united with the other forces, and it has a considerable strength. It
acts with the appearance of a Higgs gravitational boson, at the very
beginning of any Big Bang and any Big Crunch. It is separated from
the other forces almost immediately; but in the Big Crush, the force
acts permanently united, but the time here is even more limited.
209. Jumped and quantified space.
Sequence of Universes
If our Universe works with jumped or quantified space, it is similar with
other dimensional Universes. We talked about a dimensional modulus of
eight dimensions, but not every dimension can form Universes. Remember,
physical reality is not continuous; and the relation with Universes with
more dimensions is similar.
The “physical” Universes began with 1 dimensional Universes. (0+1). We
explained that before.
A zero dimensional Universe (0+0) is impossible to exist in any “physical”
existence. It’s the same as a ∞ dimensional Universe.
But if any Universe works with jumps, not all dimensions can form
Universes. The modular relation is 8 [(n(n-1))/2]+valence, where (n) is the
dimension, beginning with one (1); and valence is the kind of space-time
Universe. In String Universes, the valence is two.
From this manner, even using all the consecutive numbers, beginning with
1, instead of n, it is impossible to form Universes with all the dimensions;
utilizing quantum jumps (or quantum gravitational jumps that in the Big
Bang is the same thing). All the possible Universes, always united in a
modulus, are related to the former formula, whose summarized form is: 4n2
-4n + valence.
If all the dimensions could form Universes, this would distort the form of
the evolution of the Universe. Besides that, the Universe after eight would
be the continuous repetition of moduli, and it would continue to cofinity.
A hook is necessary with the next group, each with more complex
aggregations, whose number of elements continues to diminish.
A cofinite-dimensional Universe would be the most complex structure
possible.
We know that our Universe, in all its manifestations, including the
macrocosmos and microcosmos, have “empty space” “Empty” doesn’t
mean absolute vacuum, but space with smaller energy density, almost zero;
but never zero. This is necessary in any “physical” world, not only in our
Universe of 3+1 dimensions, but in every Universe, from one space-time
Universe to cofinity (the maximum number of dimensions possible). The
first modulus, or fundamental Universes, is: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (in
space-time). The actual evolution of the Universes (the one where we
are now) is number 4. We have named all of them, the first sequence, and
the nature of their fundamental ingredients are:
The second sequence of Universes is: 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16; and they
are formed mainly by the fundamental ingredient of the corresponding
Universe of the first sequence; but they could have secondary elements,
other ingredients of the Universes of the first sequence, due to fact that
every Universe of the second sequence has more room that any Universe of
the first sequence; and moreover (and this is basic), they have the first
modulus attached, which includes eight dimensional Universes.
Each Universe of the first modulus has only its corresponding ingredients.
Our Universe with valence 4 (3+1), even with enough room, has no
anomalies: monopoles; or cosmic strings; or membranes (domain
walls); and with more reason, neither does it have more complex
particles (4, 5, 6, 7-spheres), which need more room that our Universe
has available.
The second Universe of our sequence is 12, and in that Universe, the
particles of our Universe will exist, with more complex particles, not only
the superpartners, but also massless particles of force with spin greater than
two, moreover, secondary elements or anomalies, and fundamental
ingredients of all the Universes of the first modulus. But in our Universe,
only particles (3-sphere) exist; this means, particles with three spatial
dimensions. Remember, particles and our cosmic space are inherited to the
dimensional matrix of our Universe, the (3+1) Universe in its first
dimensional modulus.
The second and third sequence of a string Universe is 10 and 26. But the
first number of the sequence was 2, and this is its corresponding valence to
all the sequence of string Universes. 10 and 26 have strings as the
fundamental elements (or ingredients). But with 1 or 3 active moduli
respectively attached to them, They can have, as secondary elements or
anomalies, all the fundamental elements of the first modulus, including
monopoles, cosmic strings, domain walls, and our particles, but it is totally
different to include our Universe in a world of strings, even if they have 10
or 26 dimensions.
210. Table of dimensional Universes
In the following table, we have put all the dimensional Universes, forming the moduli
permitted according to the jump of dimensional Universes.
Note: numbers in bold are the only possible dimensional Universes.
As we saw, a dimensional modulus has 8 dimensional Universes; but seven moduli form a
dimensional package, but they are attached to the first modulus of the second package,
maintaining eight physically. Permitting among them, a lot of non-valid dimensional
Universes. The arrows on the former table indicate the valid sequences.
The number of possibilities for more complex structures decreases until it arrives to the
cofinite-dimensional Universe, the largest dimensional structure. But this complex
structure with cofinite dimensions needs time to exist. Even being the most complex
structure, it is still limited, needing time to complete itself. It is necessary to realize this in
a deeper study.
211. Code of string Universes
Returning to the string and the fundamental modulus with eight dimensions
(7+1) that are in our vicinity, and in consequence, easy to demonstrate,
equations of String theory show us that the dimensions of the string are 10
and 26. These are the second and third terms in the string sequence. We
know the first term in the sequence of the string. Its fundamental nature, or
valence, is 2(1+1).
The general formula is 4n2 – 4n and adding 2, the valence of string, gives
us: 4n2 – 4n + 2, the formula of the string. Considering n= 1,2,3,4,5,6,7, and
8, we have the string sequence: 2, 10, 26, 50, 82, 122, 170, and 226. This
last number pertains to the first modulus of the second package.
It is easy to see that the sequence can be also obtained with: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11,
13, 15, etc. (the square of odd numbers, plus one).
This result can have a physical interpretation. The Universes with physical
conditions for the development of intelligent life need to have odd spatial
dimensions. But moreover, it is easy to prove the sequence with a simple
algebraic calculation.
In effect, if n is a real number beginning with 1; 2n-1 would be an odd
number, beginning with one. Equaling:
4n2 – 4n + 2 = (2n – 1)2 + 1
4n2 – 4n + 2 = 4n2 – 4n + 2
The String Universe, like our Universe, has an odd spatial dimension (even,
in space-time) and in consequence, both began with a small Big Bang with
λp1 and λp3 respectively, increasing its size until it reaches a cofinite
expansion; and according to the physical laws, have the physical conditions
for a plentiful development. But string (1+1) and our Universe (3+1) have
totally different physical entities. String is a world of strings and our
Universe is a world of particles. In our Universe, all the particles, and
objects formed by them, have three dimensions, or three degrees of
freedom. In our Universe, point particles don’t exist; neither does string
particles (with 1+1 dimensions). The spatial structure was formed in the
Pre-Big Bang scenario and it had a cubic form. It was a “vacuum with
limits”(with size λp). At the beginning of Big Bang, movement began. The
cubic reached a big curvature, mass, energy, G, ℏ, c, and the secondary
measures acquired their values, some being constant and others, variable.
And the Universe began to expand in a continuous and accelerated fashion,
with some periods of exponential inflation, in three moments of the
microcosmos era.
Remember, even if the Big Bang had the maximum energy density; the
energy of the Universe is greater now.
(But there is no net change of energy. The increase of the positive energies
is equilibrated by the increase of negative energy).
The energy of the Universe in the Big Bang was:
(Rc4)/G = energy = (1.615979906x10-33 cm x (2.99792458x1010
cm/s)4)/(6.672x10-8) g-1 cm3 s-2)
=1.9564x1016 g cm2 /cm2
E=mc2 E=2.176814085x10-5 x (2.99792458x1010)2
=1.9564x1016 g cm2/s2
E=Gmm/d = 6.672x10-8 x (2.176814085x10-5)2/1.615979906x10-33
=1.9564x1016 g cm2 s2
We can adapt the fundamental structure of our Universe in String theory,
forming all the particles with three strings, instead of one.
212.
Coherent
sequences
Dimensional packages
of
Universes.
We talked about the jumps in microcosmos and the macrocosmos. Even in the formation of
the Universe, we used a mathematical formula to form the different dimensional moduli
existing in a dimensional package, in order to obtain the sequence of different Universes
with dimensions 1 to 8. We add the valence to the formula (8)(n)(n-1)/2+valence=4n24n+valence.
But why? Qualitatively, we accept that the matter of the Universes is not continuous,
including the Universes themselves; in that way, not all the dimensions are valid to form
Universes. Quantitatively, the formula gives us the mathematical results. But a deeper
physical understanding is necessary. We remember gravity (in its version of
“hypergravity”) is the force that unites the Universes. But we know how this force acts in
our Universe. It is attractive in shorter distances, decreasing with the square of the
distance, and it is repulsive at larger distances (it is the contrary to the nuclear strong
force). In that way, applying the gravitational force, as the force that unites or separates the
different moduli, we can have an ordered and coherent sequence, just like the gravitational
force.
If we draw different moduli, in circles, only to order them as an example, we can see (dark
circles as valid dimensional moduli and white circles as invalidated dimensional moduli).
Near is attractive, begins to weaken with the distance and in long distances, the force is
repulsive or we can say, in other words, gravity is weaker the greater the distance. The
dark circle outside the dimensional package is the first modulus of the second dimensional
package. The number of dimensions of a dimensional package is 224 (28x8). The last
dimension of string is 226 (224+valence 2), but this is outside the first dimensional
package. This is another common form of using a hook to join the different sections of a
Universe or different Universes.
213. Known scale and separation of particles
We explained before, the scale of known particles is derived in 12π minus. The leptons are
six (with six antimatter leptons), with no “color”, and in consequence, with no varieties. In
contrary sense, quarks have a big quantity of different particles, with 3 “colors”, 3
families, and 2 different quarks in each family with
and
, and their
corresponding antimatter.
Besides that, there are a lot of mesons and hadrons, product of the different combinations
of quarks. A lot of them have appeared, but in the future, more will appear. It is easy to
determine, at least from a theoretical point of view, how many quarks and combinations
are there. We can wait for them to appear, but a lot of them are very unstable and some of
them are impossible to exist in physical reality. The mathematical position is to join a
quark–antiquark pair into mesons; and three quarks or three antiquarks into hadrons, and
to use the different charges ±2/3 and ±1/3 in order to obtain a whole number: 0, +1, and -1
in mesons; and 0, +1, -1, +2, and -2 in hadrons.
It is possible to join quarks of different families, including a relative heavy quark and a
lighter quark. In this position, when the strong force is used, there exist an arbitrary
number of varieties, of different masses, known as excited heavy states. In that way, each
excited state with different mass, even with the same quarks, is considered as a new
particle. This is specially observed in k-11π, which is the field of c and s.
The first scale (the only one in the Standard Model) is composed from 0π to -12π (we
explained this before). The leptons are only 6, but they use more than 2/3 of the scale;
longer wavelengths mean lighter masses. All the quarks (and even the second and third
family of electrons) are constituted in the last circle. The sequence is divided into three
circles of 4π each, and the subdivisions are (in order): none, 2, and 4. And the sequence is:
The sequences of leptons are constituted by multiples of 2π; but the sequences of quarks
are constituted by π. Then, the circle is not complete, and in that way, resonances and
excitations are permitted, and so, a big variety of quarks and their compounds exist, using
all the possible combinations amongst quarks.
0 π →is the field of the neutrino 1
-4 π →is the field of the neutrino 2
-6 π →is the field of the neutrino 3
-8 π →is the field of the electron.
-9π ~-12π are the fields of many compounds (using quarks and antiquarks) and the
electrons 2 and 3.
Resonances exist in all of this space, because π is not a complete frequency and so, they
have interferences (resonances), where the factor used to divide the field is different. This
is not an impediment, but gives an abundance of particles. And when a relatively heavy
quark forms compounds with one or two lighter quarks, excited states also exist, with
different masses, even with the same components.
-9π →is the field of quarks u and d.
-10π→is the field of pions: π0, π'0, π+,π-.
-11π → mesons:
, and all of their compounds, including others quarks;
without t and b.
-12π→is the field of t and b, and all of their compounds, including with lighter quarks.
Most of the particles are derived from e-11π, where the strong force acts. In e-12π, quarks act
using the electro-weak interaction).
The energy of the field of e-10π is 0.653 GeV. Its field is composed by four π mesons
(pions):
. Each individual mass has an approximate value of 0.653/
√(8π)=0.130 GeV. The total energy of the four masses in e-11π is 11.74 GeV; or 14.716
GeV, the mass of the field.
Even if it is possible to incorporate other mesons or hadrons, the basic ingredients are:
. The sum of them is smaller than 11.74 GeV, but we need to take into account
the excited states of the mesons, when c, as a heavier quark, forms compounds with itself
and with s (also possible to combine with u and d).
The studies about these classes of heavy hadrons (and in relative minor extension, heavy
mesons), normally composed by a heavy quark and one or two lighter quarks, have a long
extension.
214. Masses of known quarks
The purpose of this book is not to detail old concepts; only new
concepts; to choose the answer of doubtful items, and to show a new
possible way of study. It not only contains answers, but also tips,
probabilities, and possibilities; and sometimes, only ideas that need
deeper studies, or even, some of them to be discarded.
Normally in the way to explain new concepts, it is necessary to detail old
concepts as a small introduction, or to repeat new concepts previously
stated in this book, but deriving them to new and different perspectives.
The light u, d, and s quarks have masses that are small in comparative
terms. But c, b, and t have “heavy” masses, even bigger when compared to
the scale of non-perturbative strong dynamics.
Examples:
The combination
has two states: D+ =1.87 GeV and the excited state:
D*+ =2.01 GeV. The combination cuu has two states: Σc++=2.45 GeV and the
excited state: Σc*++=2.52 GeV. The combination bū has two states,
=5.28
GeV and the excited state,
=5.33 GeV, etc.
There are other combinations, heavy + light mesons, like c and s with more
than two states; and two heavy
with more than four excited states, and
other heavier states, which are still unknown.
It is important to point out the combination of c and s and their
corresponding antiparticles, because they fix the k-11π field.
In effect: the sum of the 4 mesons:
and
, in their more
energetic, even unknown, states needs to give 11.74 GeV. It is necessary to
add the most excited states in order so that we can accommodate them, and
also all the ground states and other less excited states. Those mesons are the
fundamental units in the k-11π field, whose total energy is equal to 14.716
GeV. However, the maximum total of the four masses of the most excited
states of mesons in this field, is obtained, which is equivalent to: (14.716
GeV/√8π) 4 = 11.74 GeV.
k-11π, with field energy of 14.716 GeV, and an energy at disposal to form
particles of 11.74 GeV, can sustain any mesons or hadrons, whose sum of
the quartet is heavier than 0.66 GeV, and lighter than 11.74 GeV. The
relation is obtained in a fractal k; or in a normal k, by changing its division
factor.
215. Energy in Big Bang and present day Universe
In a system with constant volume and constant mass, the temperature is a correct way to
calculate its energy; higher temperature, more energy. However, this is not the case of the
Universe as a whole; where it is expanding permanently in inflationary character, and in
other moments, in exponential inflation, increasing both volume and mass. In that case, a
higher temperature doesn’t mean higher energy.
The Standard Model consideration of the Big Bang, at 1032K, as a state of cosmic higher
energy is erroneous. There is more energy in the present Universe, even at 2.7K (100.43K),
according to the increasing mass.
We can see a similar relation in black holes. High temperature means less mass, energy,
and entropy; and lower temperature means more mass, energy, and entropy.
The Universe and black holes have an intimate relation, and their corresponding formulas
indicate that the Universe has double the mass of a black hole of the same size.
Remember the idea that the Big Bang is like two black holes attached to each other:
one in our Universe and the other in the parallel universe, realizing a interchanging
process, duplicating mass.
In effect, the mass of the Big Bang can be calculated with the formula Rc2/G=M; and black
holes have the formula Rc2/2G=M. The reason why black holes are considered heavy
objects, with a big energy density, is because we compare them to the actual Universe,
which is predominantly “vacuum” space. But if they are compared to the early Universe,
exactly at the Big Bang or close to it, we could observe that the mass and energy of the
Universe was double the mass of a black hole of the same size.
As we explained before, black holes don’t act as deposits of mass; they act by
interchanging matter-antimatter between Universes, and increasing the entropy
inside them. For that reason, the formation of black holes is always maintaining a
huge quantity of entropy inside them. This entropy, adding itself to the entropy of the
normal Universe, will be reduced to a cozero value, exactly in the beginning of the Big
Bang, and in the beginning of the Big Crunch, where in both, the entropy will be
utilized to form a new spatial dimension (spatially odd-numbered in the Big Bangs and
even-numbered in the Big Crunches).
For particles, the field of maximum energy is obtained in the Big Bang, but this is to form
particles. The formula is: ℏ/cλ=m or (ℏc)/λ=E, the relation in this case of E, or mass, is
inversely related to space. In cosmic space, the relation is direct.
As we explained before, in the graphs of the Higgs field, Planck length must be almost at
the origin and not farther to the right. In consequence, from Planck length to 0.687289278
cm (the maximum wavelength corresponding to the neutrino field), practically all the
microcosmos era, particles can be formed, but only at determined points, according to the
jumping systems of nature. And so, there would exist the 3 families of Standard Model
(lighter scale) and the 3 families of GUT theory (heavier scale), 6 families in total.
216. Hubble "constant"
The Hubble constant is a variable and changes continuously with time,
decreasing in value. An approximate formula indicates us:
Λc2=3H2 or ±√((Λc2)/3)=H
Since H is variable, Λ needs to be variable.
Besides that, Einstein’s equation indicates how matter affects the geometry
of space and vice versa. Action and reaction is also a fundamental physical
principle. Any entity that affects another entity must be itself affected by
these interactions. If Λ is constant, nothing influences it, and this is against
the fundamental principle of action and reaction.
In former sections, we spoke about the variability of Λ.
Our position is clear: The cosmological “constant” (Λ) is a variable,
decreasing with time, and has a nonzero value from the beginning to
the end of our Universe.
The formula to obtain the value of the cosmological “constant” is very
simple: Λ=6/R2 in cm-2 or (6/R2)c2 in s-2 in order to obtain the Hubble
parameter, also variable; and whose value also changes continuously in
each new experiment (due to human discrepancies). To obtain it (although
very approximately) by theoretical calculations, we use Λ.
Λ 3x10-56 cm-2
H √(Λc2/3) ±2.99792458x10-18 s-1
The (+) sign pertains to our Universe
The (-) sign pertains to our parallel Universe.
If the Universe expanded at its present rate from the beginning, its age
would be time= 1/H. But the Universe is expanding in an accelerated way,
from the beginning to the end, and so, the time of the Universe would be
larger.
Besides that, the average expansion of the Universe is always FTL and
according to the kinetic energy: (1/2)mv2=mc2, where v2=2c2 and v=±√2c
(the positive term is for our Universe).
And so, the increasing factor is √2=1.4142… we can calculate
approximately the time of the Universe using time
(1/H)(√2)
≅
≅
≅
≅
≅
4.7173x1017 s
≅1.49483x10
10
years
217. Static limit. Schwarzschild radius or event
horizon
The static limit is the limiting distance in which an inevitable dragging takes place. The
Ergosphere is where Roger Penrose showed how energy could be extracted. The inner
boundary is the event-horizon, Schwarzschild radius, or gravitational radius. Inside that,
we irremediably go to the center. We need to point out some new concepts.
1. The center is not a singularity. It is a hole, with no drawn circumference, unbounded,
with radius λp, but with no material limit. If a material frontier would exist, we could
divide it into smaller fractions than Planck length, and this is impossible. With no
singularity, the end of time doesn't exist. It is just the beginning of time in the new
(parallel) Universe. Another black hole exists on the other side, doing the same thing,
but in an inverse process.
2. A naked cosingularity, within a bigger Universe, doesn't exist. The only moment where
a naked cosingularity existed was during the Big Bang, because the size of the Universe
was λp.
3. The virtual Schwarzschild radii of the particles, is double their collision distance. It is
necessary to obtain their mass. The gravitational radius of a virtual black hole of a
proton: 2.5x10-52 cm
And the virtual gravitational wave of a proton: 1.25x10-52. The formulas can explain it:
Gravitational radius: RC2=2GM.
Gravitational waves: RC2=GM.
218. Supposed composition of Higgs weak
boson
∓
The Higgs weak boson is composed by t±2/3; b 1/3; W±1, and Z0 in weak
force formation (k-12π); that means that the components have more
individual mass, than compared with strong force interaction. There is
another Higgs Boson, united by means of a “hypergravitational” force,
exactly at Planck time and around it. It is formed by 4 quarks, but united by
the gravitational force. Each quark would be a heavy version of t and b,
where in Planck era (k-24π), they had the same mass: 2.39x1018 GeV each,
forming a quadrupole. The 4 quarks (2 matter and 2 antimatter) are
differentiated only by their charge ±2/3 and 1/3.
Higgs strong force boson, at field k-22π, with λ=8.73x10-31 cm, and
2.22x1016 GeV; equivalent to 1016.35±0.35 GeV, is composed by two doublets
or four mesons, formed by heavy versions of d(hd) and u(hu). They are
∓
and have a sum of 1.77x1016 GeV, according to
the normal formula and the common factor division (2.22x1016/√(8π)) x 4.
The field of k-23π is formed by mesons, constituted by two heavy versions
of c(hc) and s(hs) and their corresponding antiparticles:
and
.
They are:
and
The sum of the masses of these 4
heavy mesons, in the most excited states, is 4.12x1017 GeV and its entire
field is 5.16x1017 GeV. When the mesons and hadrons are formed with a
much heavier quark and one or two lighter ones, the difference between
them, produces different “copies” of them, but with larger masses,
according to their excited states. Three of those mesons have excited
varieties, since one of those quarks is much heavier than the other. Normal
states of the 4 quarks have a sum of masses lighter than 4.12x1017 GeV in
their normal states. There is definitively enough room to accommodate
them, including the heaviest versions of excited states, similar to k-11π.
219. Symmetry breakdown gives mass to
particles
The symmetry breakdown gives mass to the gauge bosons, and only
particles of force: graviton, gluons, and the already experimented W+,W-,
and Z0, acquire mass, exactly at their corresponding level. Only the photon
never obtains mass It neither has a heavy partner. A single Higgs
doublet would be the simplest way to achieve this energy of symmetry
breaking; but nature uses a different pattern: all the three Higgs Bosons
use two doublets in scalar vectors, using four quarks or four mesons
united by its corresponding force: weak force (four quarks), strong
force (four mesons), and gravitational force (four quarks).
GUT predicts heavy quarks, and in this position, establishes the presence of
three new almost identical “photocopies”, or families of particles, changing
only their λs and in consequence, their mass, among them. The change of
mass, including the mass hierarchy Mw/Mp =10-17 cm, was explained before.
These three new families of particles are the explanation to the new heavier
particles, observed in cosmics rays and in other natural effects. The
appearance of three other families doesn’t complicate the “strangeness” of
even more families and the doubt about their need, considering one family
is enough in our macroscopical world. But this relation k'/λ=m is a natural
relation, and when our universe had a microscosmic size, the big masses
and smaller lengths were necessary, and automatically constituted. λ is
practically the distance of microcosmos light space, but it can also be
considered as Compton wavelength, that represents the wavelength
associated with a particle of mass m; and its relation in relativistic quantum
mechanics is ℏ/mc=λ. This is also considered as the Heisenberg principle
ℏ=mcλ, where λ is the length in which we see the particle's quantum
mechanical properties at collision distance or scattering distance. Also we
can point it out as a Higgs length, forming a Higgs field, which has the
total energy of particles; or the compound of them and their respective
links, in a doublet or two doublet scalar field, forming a Higgs ocean,
composed by a lot of Higgs fields vacuum expectation value, or simply,
many Higgs fields, in a particular time of our Universe; except in the
Big Bang, when there was only one Higgs field.
In our macroscopical world, the first family is the only one that is
necessary; but the others were necessary in the microcosmos era, when λ
were smaller, but masses were much heavier.
But time was too short in that moment? Remember, the Universe works
with logarithmical measures, and so, the minimum time and minimum
space are similar to the maximum measures. Microcosmos time lasted a
very tiny fraction of time, and space less than 1 cm and less than 3.33x10-11s
(according to the limit of speed of light). To the Universe, small space and
time are similar to the macrocosmic space and time.
220. Two scales of Higgs fields (graphs)
Two scales:
If in the Higgs equations m3/c2 > A; where A is a constant, the mathematical
relation is correct, even with maximum limits of m, but it would be
incorrect at certain minimum value of m (mass). The minimum mass
accepted to form particles is the Higgs field of neutrino 1, and in
consequence, the maximum length ≤ 0.687289278 cm. If the relation is
correct even with the minimum mass of neutrinos, it is mathematically
logical that it would be correct with heavier masses. Maximum mass has a
limit (cofinite mass), but it doesn’t derive from the formula. The limit of
maximum mass is conditioned by its λ, this is, the minimum length of
space, equivalent to planck length and in consequence, particles are
producing jumping space in the microcosmos; from λp to λ less than 1 cm,
exactly equal to 0.687289278 cm. Longer distances or lighter particles
than neutrino 1 are invalidated. And so, we obtained the conclusion,
using another way, that Higgs fields are produced from Planck mass, and
the maximum mass of particles is λp/√(8π); and in consequence, the
conclusion of GUT theory, that three families exist in the heavier scale
is correct, and three new families of heavier partners of particles are
necessary to consider. The three families of the Standard Model need to
add three more families of the GUT theory, and the unproved supposition of
the Standard Model that the Higgs field is destroyed by heat, is again
discarded.
221. Quarks in k-11π and k-12π
We spoke of the k-11π field, which is already known and experimented, and the mass of
the field is considered to be 14.716 GeV and the maximum energy at the disposal of 4
mesons or baryons is 11.74 GeV. The fundamental particles of this field are:
and
forming mesons:
and
: even most hadrons (mesons and baryons) can be
accepted in this field, except t and b. The strong force acts in k-11π, and so it is necessary
to form mesons united by this force.
Is impossible for quarks to be in isolation, and so a single doublet of quarks is impossible
to produce because it will produce quarks by themselves. Leptons are constituted by a
single doublet, because leptons can live alone.
The t and b quarks and their compounds are included in the Higgs field,
k-12π, using π plus instead of π minus, according to the hook needed, that was explained
in the case of two levels of k-12π (using π plus and π minus). The Higgs weak boson will
appear at the k-12π level with π plus, but using the weak force. Quarks (and no mesons)
are formed in 2 doublets, and so
and
would act in this level. If the strong force
acted here, it would be necessary to form the
and
mesons, and there would
be insufficient room, or the t quark would have to be much lighter. The influence of the
weak force, instead of the strong force, gives the top quark the heavy mass, apparently
distorted for one simple quark, in the first scale. The quartet of mesons could be:
Moreover, the strong force acts in k-11π, and it has enough room to accommodate all the
mesons and baryons heavier than the pions, in which mesons with t and b are not
incorporated in its formation. For example, the lighter quartet (2 doublets) of mesons, b,
would be: using
(u).
or
(b- or b+), whose mass are: 5.723 GeV each, and
(T)=9.46
Its mass: 5.273 + 5.273 + 9.46 + uū; even uū (or in another similar field
) is relatively
negligible, only the other three mesons would have a total of 20 GeV, which is impossible
to fit in k-11π because there is not enough room; and they need to be in k-12π.
These masses are much heavier than the total energy of the field, k-11π.
The heavy mass of t, around 174 GeV also needs to be in k-12π, because it's too heavy.
The k-11π field doesn’t admit compounds with b or t quarks. But, the compounds formed
by c and , or one of those quarks with u and d are accepted. Even with their heaviest
masses, including resonances and excited states.
Examples:
Adding the masses of mesons: 1.02 GeV + 2.45 GeV +2.45 GeV + 4.26 GeV= 10.18 GeV,
but the energy at disposal to form particles is 11.74; there is still more room to
accommodate new heavier states.
Definitively new versions of heavier excited states of
the future.
and
will appear in
222. Standard Model and GUT's scales of
particles; hook union
The Standard Model is a scale of lighter particles, and the GUT’s scale, of heavier
particles. Both use a different π and different numerical value.
The numbers are different, but k-12π has two different values. But even if all the lighter
scale used π minus, a hook in k-12π exists, where this is interchanged. All known
particles use π minus; except in k-12π, where t, b, W+, W-, Z0, and the Higgs weak
boson use π plus. In that way, even with this partial example, the utilization of both scales
has been, at least, partially proved.
It would be an ugly asymmetry to use a scale for 11 levels of energy and the other scale for
only one. The logical explanation (and it is reinforced by the common system in our
Universe to use a “hook relation” between scales); is that both scales have 12 levels,
interchanging one.(In this section, we use three different representations of this
interchange).
k-12π has 2 different energetic values.
331.5 GeV and 482.4 GeV. We suppose that the first one has a doublet (leptons) and the
second has a quartet (two doublets) of quarks.
The sum of the masses of t and b is 174+4.8 approximately 178.8 GeV. And the sum of the
4 quarks is 357.6. The difference with the theoretical value is used to have an additional
room for excited states. But the Higgs weak boson is formed by quarks, using the forces
W± and Z0, and not by mesons.
The Higgs weak boson, included in this field of 482.4 GeV, needs to be, not only less than
1000 GeV, but also no more than 482.4 GeV, which is the maximum mass of the field. We
suppose a range between:
384.88GeV ≤ Higgs weak boson ≤ 482.4 GeV
The other (K-12π) with 331.50 is the supposed fourth field of the family of the neutrino,
(or better), the first neutrino of the second scale, that we named neutronio, whose mass is
around 132 GeV.
This would be the lightest heavy partner.
Another representation of these two scales would be
Between scales in k-12
482.4/331.55 1.45499 approx.
Its exact value is √(e0.75)=√2.117000017=1.454991415 or anti ln(0.75/2)
This mathematical relation of the two scales gives the factor between them and so:
331.55x√2.117000017=482.4GeV
≅
The experiments of the LHC need to look around these 2 points in both scales: k12πminus and k-12πplus, where they could discover two particles: the Higgs weak
boson, around 482.4 GeV (maximum value, and no less than 384.88 GeV) and a new
type of a heavier neutral particle, the neutronio, around 132 GeV. Using these values
to look for these particles is, at least better, than blindly looking for them.
223. Opera neutrino anomaly at CERN
The Opera neutrino anomaly is considered as a violation to the Special
theory of Relativity, since it measured the speed of those neutrinos as faster
than the maximum limit of velocity, the speed of light in a vacuum.
The Opera Experiment (at CERN) had found the result 3 years back, but it
had never published it before. The Opera team checked and re-checked
everything, correcting any error, and found that the result survived. In that
way, faster than light particles (mu-neutrinos) were presented as a real
thing. However, some months later (on February 2012), in an official
announcement of the Opera Experiment, it was informed that two errors
that could significantly affect the reported result were identified. Both
effects can modify the neutrinos flight time in opposite directions. So, the
experimental result in Opera, about FTL neutrinos, is in doubt. Other
complementary experiments are necessary.
The problem in Physics, especially in recent years, is to find the
experimental results before the theory is completed. If it is supposed that
FTL neutrinos exist, we need to find the theoretical concepts, in order to
accept or discard them.
Independently of the final result on the Opera collaboration, by continuing
its campaign of verifications on the neutrino velocity measurement, we will
try to find the theoretical possibility about the existence of FTL neutrinos.
Even considering that particle physicists detected neutrinos traveling faster
than light, the possibility of a way to send information back in time, erasing
the line between past and present, and breaking the fundamental principle of
cause and effect is forbidden, like we will explain further. In the first Opera
experiment, the particles arrived at Gran Sasso, sixty billionths of a second
earlier, with a error margin of plus or minus 10 billionths of a second (732
km were completed in 2.441629177 milliseconds; since the speed of light is
2.99792458x1010 cm/s; the neutrinos were traveling at approximately
2.99799825x1010 cm/s (approx.>7.37 km/s faster than the speed of light in
vacuum). These results are in doubt right now.
If this is proven to be true, we need to apply the known principles, or to find
other unknown principles, to complete the actual theory.
FTL neutrinos were obtained before, in the Minos experiment, near Chicago
in the U.S., where hints were seen of neutrinos moving FTL in 2007.
Nevertheless, the Special theory of Relativity is beautiful and always
proven; and these results don’t discard it; even more, they confirm it, as we
will explain further on.
224. Experimental neutrinos in supernova
1987A
According to the experiment on supernova 1987A, it was suggested that if
neutrinos travelled faster than the speed of light, they would have arrived
and been detected much earlier than they were, following this cosmic
explosion (in the Large Magellanic Cloud galaxy).
The Kamioka Nucleon Decay Experiment detector in Japan picked up
neutrinos from the explosion 3 hours before light reached earth.
But this does not necessarily mean the neutrinos traveled FTL. It just means
that the neutrinos left the supernova first, while the light, perhaps was
trapped for a while, said Bell. If the neutrinos had been traveling FTL, like
the CERN suggests, they would have reached Earth years, rather than hours
earlier.
But this process was a natural explosion. In a process of a high-energy
accelerator, the neutrinos can be accelerated with a big performance, even
though reaching the speed of light is forbidden, or obtaining ∞ mass is
impossible in a classical or relativistic way,
To matter, the speed of light in vacuum is an unreachable limit. Even more,
there are other mass limits, such as: the maximum mass for a particle of
matter, and even more, the maximum mass for a lepton, for a neutrino, or
inclusively the maximum mass of the Universe. In other words, the speed at
maximum levels of the neutrino would be always slower than the speed of
light. Even if theoretically permitted, it would be a useless task. In a
practical sense, it would be impossible to pass, or even to reach the
maximum mass limits mentioned before, especially the maximum mass of
the Universe, or to try to reach the speed of light in the vacuum, an
impossibility for any particle of matter. Nature is wise and efficient. The
neutrino, instead of performing a useless effort, uses quantum mechanics
and realizes a convenient work.
But what about quantum mechanics rules?
Remember the process used by older calculators, that we detailed in former
sections of this book that they tried to reach infinity in an operation when
dividing by zero. The new calculators simply give the answer "e" (error),
trying to avoid the task. The neutrino avoids trying to reach the unattainable
limit and use quantum mechanics, in a permitted and easier way that we
will explain in next sections.
225. Four solutions of the mass and speed
formula
Before talking about quantum mechanics, we will talk about the Special
theory of relativity.
The Special theory of Relativity considers a mathematical relation between
mass and speed, according to the formula:
m1=m0/√(1-v2/c2)
This has 4 solutions:
a) The speed of particles of matter, or aggregated matter, known as
tardyons, will always be slower than the speed of light. In that case,
mass increases with speed, in a permissible way and with a positive
result. Its effect is measurable in particles traveling slower than the
speed of light. At the beginning, of imparting energy to particles, the
speed increases more than the mass; closer to the speed of light, the
effect on mass is much bigger.
b)
No particle of matter, or aggregated matter, can reach the speed of
light, reserved to particles of force (luxons): photons and gravitons,
whose mass at rest is zero. To any other particle (with non zero mass
at rest), where the former formula is applied, its mass would be ∞ at
speed of light, and this is impossible.
c)
Particles of matter, or aggregated matter, with a speed FTL (faster
than light), will obtain an imaginary mass. These theoretical
particles are known as tachyons, nonexistent in our physical world
of 3 spatial dimensions + one time.
The tachyons can exist in Universes with larger number of
dimensions, where the speed of their light is faster than our light. In
those worlds, they would travel slower than speed of their
corresponding light; but according to our measure, they would travel
FTL.
a)
The particle-antiparticle pair relation. Using this relativistic formula,
with the laws of quantum mechanics, and especially for leptons, and
even better, neutrinos, in an FTL condition. In that way, we need to
write the square of the formula.
226. Restriction of light speed limit on
matter, not space
Special theory of Relativity determines that all the objects in our Universe
obey the light speed limit, but there isn't any restriction on the speed of
expansion (or contraction) of space itself.
Our 4th dimensional Universe (3 spatial dimensions + 1 time) is at least, in
the microcosmos inflation era and in the present time, always accelerating.
In that way, our cosmic space is expanding faster than the speed of light
(FTL).
Besides that, considering space-warps: shortcuts in curved space-time, we
need to increase at least one spatial dimension.
Increasing dimensions, the corresponding speed of light is faster. But these
wormholes are impossible to access since their size is always smaller than
Planck length.
Einstein’s General theory of Relativity enforces Einstein's limit.
Time contracts when speed is increased or gravity (mass is increased); two
opposite effects. While reaching the speed of light in vacuum or reaching
the cofinite mass in the Big Bang or in the center of a black hole, time
totally vanishes. In both cases, a wormhole is opened to our parallel
Universe of antimatter, with size of 2λp (λp in each Universe). This concept
was explained in former sections. In the case of cofinite mass, gravity, or
mass density, the value is approx. 1.23x1093 g/cm3. In next section we will
apply this concept to the speed of light.
227. Neutrinos in FTL motion; particleantiparticle pairs
For the consideration of letter d) of section 225, we need to write the
formula in squared form. And so:
m12=(m02)/(1-v2/c2)
If v>c the formula would give a negative term -m12.
-m12 has two imaginary roots: +m1i and –m1i; but it also has 2 real values,
with opposite sign:
-m12=(m1)(-m1)
We would have the relation between +m (mass in our Universe) and –m (the
mass in the Universe of antimatter). We obtained this relation before, when
we obtained Planck mass. In effect, mp2=(ℏc)/G and mp=±roots, showing
that our Universe and our parallel Universe of antimatter have existed since
the beginning of the Big Bang.
Both Universes have a connection in CPT symmetry and according to the
rules of quantum mechanics, including Bell's theorem (or quantum
connection), a neutrino can reach an FTL motion, but close to the barrier,
without canceling the Special Theory of Relativity, but applying it in a more
sophisticated way, mixing quantum mechanics with it. This process is in
accordance with Einstein's formula and would be detailed in the next
section.
228. Impossibility to propel large objects
at FTL speeds
The possibility to propel large objects past the light barrier is null, as we
explained before in this book. The paradox of measure is Planck mass
(2.17x10-5 g) and so, any object with mass above this limit cannot use
quantum mechanics laws and so, FTL travel is totally forbidden for them.
Pushing microscopical objects (particles) past the light barrier (or Einstein
barrier), is a real possibility according to quantum mechanics, but even so,
it would be impossible for FTL travel or FTL signaling.
However, it is forbidden for any particle of matter to exactly reach the speed
of light in vacuum, because only particles of force, massless at rest,
“luxons” (photons in any time and gravitons after the first chronos), can
travel at the speed of light. Any particle of matter, with mass at rest,
increasing in speed in a moving frame, obtains ∞ mass at the light barrier,
and this result is impossible. Quantum mechanics accept the possibility
of passing the light barrier, while avoiding it, never reaching it. In other
words, it is possible to put a particle on the other side of the Einstein barrier,
without passing through the region of infinite mass, by means of the
tunneling effect.
229. Quantum processes
In Quantum mechanics, our concept of reality is vanished. For example: a
particle can vanish without a trace (quantum annihilation); or appear out of
nowhere (quantum creation); move from one location to another without
passing through the intermediate space (quantum tunneling), or quickly
turning over from one state of being to another (quantum jumping).
So far, no one in science has attempted to use quantum mechanics for FTL
communication.
To use Quantum mechanics for a superluminal communication focus is
called “quantum connection” (Bell's theorem). Briefly interacted, particleantiparticle pairs remain always connected by an almost instantaneous link
and their effect doesn’t change even with interposed shielding or large
distances. We will try to explain this “phenomenal” effect later.
Quantum waves do not dwell in normal space (3rd space), but in a larger
multidimensional space, called configuration space (3rd dimension by each
particle=6), better written as 2x3rd, to avoid any confusion with
multidimensional universes.
230. Wrong position to apply Quantum
Mechanics to macrocosmos
The physicist, Daniel M. Greenberger, wrote:
“Einstein said that if Quantum mechanics were correct, then the world
would be crazy. Einstein was right, the world is crazy”.
But even after quantum mechanics are completely proven and accepted by
all the scientific community, our macroscopical world must be forever
classical. A wrong position is to apply Quantum mechanics laws on it; just
like applying classical concepts, without considering Quantum mechanics
in the microcosmos.
But we see an opposite position in practice. For example: Quantum
mechanics are used in the development of our parallel Universe and
multidimensional Universes, obtaining an erroneous conclusion of 10500
Universes or even much more, including an absurdity: ∞ Universes. And
classical concepts are applied, forgetting Quantum mechanics, to explain
FTL neutrinos. (?!).
231. Quantum Mechanics, time. Tachyons
In contrast to classical physics, where time runs in one way only (temporal
direction of the Big Bang), quantum mechanics permits two directions. For
that reason, particles and antiparticles coexist, and so, there exists a time
symmetry, and both directions are possible: past and future time directions.
Theoretically, particles that travel faster than light are: tachyons and
particles that travel backwards in time (antiparticles). Tachyons are still in
doubt, but antiparticles are not. They have negative energy or negative
mass. Tachyons have imaginary mass or imaginary energy mass. In leptons,
in the creation of particle-antiparticle pairs, a doublet of particles is formed
after they separate (in opposite ways), permanently maintaining an
instantaneous FTL connection. In every particle acts the uncertainty
principle, where its position, speed, and spin, has an uncertainty. But if in
any particle, a measure is obtained, the other particle immediately acquires,
in an FTL connection, the same result.
Classically, when a formidable obstacle exists, including a barrier limit, any
object is stopped in front of it.
But for a particle, this is different. In the microcosmos there is a possibility
that it can penetrate the wall and emerge on the other side. But also, in an
apparent FTL motion, with a better concept, emerge on the other side,
without having to penetrate the wall.
Within Quantum mechanics (and more accurately, in this tunneling
process), this doesn’t depend on the barrier width. This consists on
superluminal and on any kind of large (group) velocities, v. In other words,
it becomes an evanescent wave (with FTL motion).
But this FTL motion is only on the other side of the light barrier, with a
minimal difference, but always being an FTL motion. For example: 0.99999
and 1.00001, their product is 12 or 1. In that way, the general formula would
be:
Retarded wave x advanced wave =c2 where the roots are ±c; and
retarded wave + advanced wave 2c where the average is 2c/2=c.
The speed in the retarded wave is slower than c, but almost c; the speed
in the advanced wave is faster than c, but almost c.
≅
The explanation about this apparent anomalous performance is based in the
principle of efficiency of nature. The neutrino is accelerated continuously
and its speed is increased trying to reach the speed of light, but this is
impossible. At the same time, its mass increases permanently, but this
cannot continue eternally. The solution: to pass to the other side, by means
of the tunneling effect.
232. Advanced and retarded waves
The light barrier has two sides, and the “FTL motion” of mu-neutrino in
Opera experiment, is only one side of the barrier, not exactly a faster than
light measure.
In effect, according to that experiment, the speed of the neutrino was
1.000024574c, the advanced wave of the pair. This result was published
because it was a crucial and very important anomaly, but it was incomplete.
Normally both waves (advanced and retarded) are together; and it is
incorrect to consider one alone. However, it is possible to separate both
waves in two situations: a) when a black hole is close to them (Big gravity)
or when light particles, especially neutrinos, are arriving at the speed of
light. It is necessary to consider both cases, not only our Universe, but also
in our antimatter Universe. In the case of neutrinos, there exits a moment
where both waves are separated and it is feasible to detect both waves,
retarded and advanced, in individual results in the neutrino detector. The
equivalent retarded wave would be 0.999975426c, in order to have a
consistent result.
For us, tachyons are inexistent in our world, because they always need to
travel FTL and they don't have a retarded wave. A tachyon is alone and
possesses an imaginary rest mass. A tachyon is always a tachyon. But
antiparticles are different, they act in pairs: (particle-antiparticle) or
(retarded-advanced waves).
Like Dirac’s equation, Maxwell’s wave equation for light has also two
solutions. In particles: “retarded solution” (normal direction, from the past
to the future) that describes a wave traveling forward in time, and the
“advanced solution” that describes a light wave, traveling backwards in
time (from the future to the past, or traveling to the parallel Universe of
antimatter).
A negative-mass particle traveling backwards in time can always be
reinterpreted as a positive mass particle traveling forwards in time.
The forward and backward waves are part of a single inseparable process.
The two waves are always in pair, and cannot be separated in a normal
process, but it is feasible to have a separation, considering the other
Universe of antimatter.
233. Both waves and their relation
Both waves have an intimate relation. Their average is always c. This is the
complete explanation of why we use c in the formula to obtain the mass of
the particles of matter; different to the Standard Model expectation, that the
Higgs weak boson gives mass to the particles of matter. According to our
position, the formula of the uncertainty principle, key of Quantum
mechanics, is the correct way for the particles of matter to obtain mass, just
like we explained before. The Higgs weak boson gives mass to the particles
of force W+, W-, and Z0. In our modified Higgs field, we use λ as the
variable value to obtain different masses. This λ, known as collision
distance, Higgs length, or Compton wavelength, is the key.
We need to explain another concept in this moment. The particleantiparticle pair related in CPT symmetry uses a retarded (particle) and an
advanced (antiparticle) wave, but their average is c. The speed of light is
never applied to these particles (we use >c or <c, but never =c). λ (as
abstract space), which determines the mass of particles, uses c, the average
value.
And so, m=ℏ/cλ or k'/λ
In the Opera (neutrino) experiment, the relation between particleantiparticle is the same, but we use a relation with the antimatter Universe.
The Icarus experiment, also located at Gran Sasso, found that the
neutrinos were traveling at an average speed of light. This doesn’t
refute the Opera results, because that average indicates neutrinos
slower than the speed of light, but also complementary neutrinos FTL.
The other way to obtain this average, the speed of light, would be that
all neutrinos have a velocity exactly as the speed of light, which is
forbidden. No particle or antiparticle can have exactly the speed of light.
The average could be the speed of light; so in conclusion, some of them
need to travel FTL.
234. Quantum connections
This integrated relation in the corresponding particle-antiparticle pair is the
basis for the quantum connection, Bell’s theorem, existing but still
inexplicable: each particle has with its partner (another particle which had a
special relation or contact with it) a permanent link with a real superluminal
effect, with an almost simultaneous reaction between them, even if they are
very far apart).
A particle-antiparticle pair is applied in this connection. The pair, if it is not
destroyed by the particles making contact, is put apart in opposite ways.
The quantum connection is a permanent link. Here's a virtual example: try
moving yourself in front of a mirror. Your “partner” (your image) will do
exactly the same thing in a CPT and instantaneous connection. But this is a
virtual example. The particle-antiparticle pair has a more real connection.
However, the inverse process is mathematically correct too.
In our world, the relation between a particle-antiparticle pair is only exact at
the beginning, when the production of particles-antiparticles is 100%
(50%-50% each), but later, when the particles are separated, matter will be
kept, but the antiparticle will be sent to the antimatter Universe. The Bell
connection is maintained with our parallel Universe of antimatter.
Remember, a negative-energy particle traveling backwards in time can
always be reinterpreted as a positive-energy particle traveling forward in
time.
235. Particle-antiparticle pairs, advancedretarded waves
The advanced waves can be considered as oscillations that travel backwards
in time. Ordinary light waves are called “retarded” waves. But both kinds of
waves coincide at all times and the resultant is always a retarded way
traveling from past to future, or a light wave. There's a similar process with
a particle-antiparticle pair.
Even existing advanced waves never occur alone. They are always paired
with retarded waves. For the same reason, the creation of a single particle or
antiparticle (one without the other) is impossible. The creation is always
made in pairs. And as we mentioned before, the pair has a relation in which
one is slower and one faster than light, also one goes forward and the other
goes backward in time. Both waves always act together, never alone. In
microscopic objects, in the special moment of creation, we can see that both
waves are linked together in our same world. But when they are separated,
normally only a retarded wave appears, because the advanced wave is in
our parallel Universe of antimatter, where the flow of time is for us, inverse.
In that way, the antiparticles can be seen to be traveling FTL, or traveling
back in time, to the past. However in their own frame of reference, they
always travel in a normal way: from the past to the future. The inverse
process is also true.
And so, an advanced wave may be reinterpreted by an observer as a
retarded wave by changing the signs of the energy momentum and time
direction of the wave, and so, an observer may reinterpret a retarded wave
as an advanced wave or vice versa.
236. Velocity and mass increase (table).
Limits to maximum velocity
According to the Special theory of Relativity, the mass-speed relation of a
particle has an ultimate limit, the speed of light in vacuum, which is
impossible to reach. But there are more limits before, which are also
forbidden to reach.
At speeds near the speed of light, the increase in the mass is considerably
big. The mass increasing factor is √10 for each “nine” at a new decimal
place in the sequence (√10=3.16227766), or 10 for every two decimal
“nines” included; but this factor (10) is approached when the sequence
increases in size; at the beginning, this value is only approximated.
Increment
of
Speed in terms
mass
of c
(Initial mass= 1)
0.9
2.2942
0.99
7.0888
0.999
22.3663
0.9999
70.7124
0.99999
223.6074
0.999999
707.1068
0.9999999
2236.0680
0.99999999
7071.0678
0.99999999
9
22360.6798
We can conclude that if the speed is 0.999999c (sequence with six nines),
the mass of the mu-neutrino would be outside of the maximum mass for
neutrinos; and so, the maximum possible speed in a retarded wave to have a
successful experiment would have to be: 0.999998059c, and its equivalent
advanced wave would be 1.000001941c. But there are other farther limits.
In a sequence of 56 “nines”:
0.99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999, the
supposed mass of the mu-neutrino would be larger, in this case, than the
maximum value for a particle: mp/√(8π)=2.393653682x1018 GeV. In a
sequence of 187 “nines”, the mass of the neutrino would be larger than the
mass of the whole Universe (?!), and this is completely forbidden. In
another way, the Universe would be destroyed. Definitively Einstein's
formula is totally correct, but it needs other limits (aside from the
impossibility to reach the speed of light), for it to apply.
237. Range of maximum velocity of muon
neutrinos
Besides that, the retarded wave has an inverse relation with the advanced wave. A retarded
wave with a long sequence of nine’s (almost c) will have a corresponding advanced wave,
almost c. The minimal difference (almost zero) is much smaller than any incongruence in
disturbances in measure. But even supposing we could obtain a mathematical result 100%
correct, there are some intrinsic conditions about the limitation of the value of the retarded
wave. Our calculations put the maximum speed of the retarded wave for mu-neutrino
experiment in the 0.999995c > v > 0.9998c range.
The corresponding advanced wave would be between 1.000005c and 1.00020004c. A
sequence of 25 “nines”, would give a corresponding advanced wave of
1.0000000000000000000000001c (almost c).
Remember, the retarded wave corresponds to the particle traveling to the future (from the
past) slower than the speed of light; and the advanced wave would be an antiparticle
traveling to its future (from its past) in the parallel Universe, which in our own frame of
reference would be FTL or backwards in time.
Considering the speed of the retarded wave, we can obtain a FTL relation that gives the
following
results.
238. Neutrinos; reactions. Two ways to
our parallel Universe
Neutrinos are practically not absorbed, they neither have a reaction with
matter; even 1.5x1020 cm of lead can't stop them, and normally, they can go
through it without any minimum change in their movement. According to
Paul Csonka's point of view, the stronger a particle interacts with the
Universe, the stronger it participates in the conventional one-way flow of
time.
In general terms, every particle uses Quantum mechanics, particularly
leptons, and especially neutrinos. They can't distinguish between past and
the future. Even in our physical world, the relation between particles and
antiparticles is formed. Besides that, considering our antimatter parallel
Universe, we have a complete and permanent relation with it.
It is possible to go to our twin Universe by two ways: one, by means of
black holes, through their centers, with the possibility to change matterantimatter (this was detailed in former sections of this book). However,
there is a second way. The relation in both is to diminish time to zero or
almost zero. And so, the other way is to increase the speed, preferably in a
FTL connection. Time is zero or negative. In this last result, we can obtain a
“travel to the past” but to our parallel Universe, and exclusive to particles.
In the case of huge quantities of mass (by means of black holes), the
transfer is done by sending antimatter (our waste) and receiving our matter
(its waste) in big quantities, increasing the mass of each Universe
continuously.
In the other case, the process is the opposite: minimum quantity of matter,
only particles, preferably lighter ones (like neutrinos); in summary, particle
by particle. The relation of the wave-particle, FTL neutrino, or an advanced
wave measured in neutrino’s detector, is with a wave-particle, slower than
the speed of light neutrino.
But this FTL neutrino has extra energy and it needs to lose energy rapidly.
At FTL, the travel to the parallel Universe is granted, in connection with the
twin Universe, in a simultaneous interchange. Our neutrino in FTL travel
goes to the other Universe, in inverse time (or in our backward time), but in
a normal time in the other Universe. In that way, the process is exactly
equal in the opposite way. When our momentaneous FTL neutrino goes to
the past (the immediate future of the antimatter Universe), an equivalent
FTL neutrino in the other Universe comes to its “past”, which is our
immediate future. Both lose energy, and so they are converted to normal
neutrinos, traveling to the future in a normal way in both Universes.
FTL is a normal appliance of nature, observing Einstein’s laws, to avoid
increasing the speed and the mass of the particles unnecessarily and
dangerously, or working permanently in a futile effort.
FTL neutrinos (with restrictions) are theoretically admissible, and don’t
break any law of physics. Inversely, if this result were false, it would break
the effectiveness of Physics.
Remember, there is no FTL travel, neither FTL signaling; the limit of the
speed of light is avoided; quantum mechanics are used in a correct way,
instead of applying them erroneously to the macrocosmic reality.
It is necessary to put a complementary limit, besides the speed of light
limit, to the relation of mass and speed of matter.
239. FTL neutrinos; impossiblity of time
traveling and signaling
The FTL neutrinos are theoretically possible, but this doesn’t open the
possibility for time travel. First of all, macroscopic objects are outside of
the quantum effect that acts on particles. But what about FTL signaling?
The answer is the same. The FTL neutrino is only a necessary effect to
avoid the problems mentioned before, but its relation backward in time is
only related to our parallel Universe, where our mathematical past is its
future. A FTL wave of a neutrino (or in general terms, of any particle) is
like a phase wave that is cofinite and has a complete monotony.
The only waves that can be used to send a message, or to use for FTL
signaling are waves, in group, that change continuously. And these waves
are retarded waves; like normal particles waves, that travel slower than the
speed of light.
In another sense, quantum tunneling, or quantum jumps occur completely at
random, and this kind of event is totally useless for sending a message.
Even the pattern, produced by many times of random effects, is not linked
by FTL connection, and so, quantum partners act according Einstein's limit.
FTL phases (like waves of particles) are perfectly ordered, utterly
predictable, totally periodic, each of them being cofinitely long sine waves,
with identical peaks and valleys, totally monotonous, a perfect order and
perfect randomness, unable to send any message.
Only a signal between these two extremes can send meaningful
information.
240. Quantum connection. FTL neutrinos
Besides that, quantum connection, even if it is immediate (or almost
immediate) and devoid of any randomness, is neither controllable nor
asymmetric, and it doesn’t qualify as a “causal” connection. It is not
forbidden by the postulate that demands a causal ordering. And so, even
considering that quantum connection is FTL, it's not in conflict with the
Special theory of Relativity.
Even quantum connections that use superluminal links between particles are
totally inaccessible to humans for communication uses. The prohibition of
the special theory of relativity is only for FTL causal connections, and
quantum connection (or Bell's theorem) are not causal.
Besides that, the relation with a backward time is not in our Universe; it’s in
our parallel Universe of antimatter. Notwithstanding, our past in that
Universe is its future, and it is the same thing in the inverse way.
Any quantum connection with our parallel Universe (and vice versa),
sending “FTL” signals, is changed in the parallel Universe to a retarded
wave, forward into the future.
241. Possibility to obtain FTL leptons in
accelerators
In accelerators, it is possible to obtain leptons yielding a speed faster (but
very close) than the speed of light, but associated to a wave slower than the
speed of light, whose product gives 1c2, with roots ±c.
That was explained before considering an advanced wave and a retarded
wave acting together. This result can be taken as a range between an FTL
wave and a STL wave.
For example, we can include a range between 0.999976c (STL) and
1.00026c (FTL), but they are different waves. The exact relation would be:
•
•
•
•
0.999976c related to 1.000024001c
Product: 1c2, roots=±c, sum 2c, average: c.
1.0000126c related to 0.9999874c
Product: 1c2, roots ±c, sum 2c, average: c.
≅
≅
Nevertheless, it's always important that the speeds of both waves (retarded
and advanced) are close to the speed of light, being slower and faster than
the speed of light, respectively. The special range is approximately between:
0.999995c > v > 0.9998c
Using a speed of 0.999995c, its related advanced wave would be
1.000005c. Using this value in the Opera experiment, this advanced wave
would have traveled 12.2 nanoseconds faster than the speed of light. The
scientists of the Opera experiments calculated the margin of error at just 10
nanoseconds (10-8 s). The result would be very adjusted.
The speed needs to be less, in order for the corresponding advanced wave to
be enough to pass to the other side of Einstein’s barrier. For example:
0.99995c gives a FTL wave equivalent to 1.000050003c and would travel
14.99 km/ s faster than light or 122 nanoseconds.
Notwithstanding, it is also necessary to have a minimum retarded wave
(normal neutrino STL), because the particle needs to be conveniently
excited. The advantage of having a corresponding faster FTL wave is
discarded, because without the minimum excitement needed, the effect of
opening out would be null.
Example: 0.99c: its reciprocal wave would be inexistent. It is necessary to
have a speed faster than 0.9998c, whose advanced wave would be
approximately 1.0002c.
242.
Impossibility
for
Quantum
connection in macroscopic objects
These FTL mu-neutrinos in Opera experiments are not against the Special
theory of Relativity, neither with the established limits. It is only a
minimum, but crucial, artifact that nature can use, by means of quantum
mechanics rules, to protect the world, including the classical world.
First of all, quantum mechanics don’t apply to the macroscopic world,
where the ordered and coherent gravitational waves act. Quantum
Mechanics act in the microscopic world, from the maximum mass of mPlanck,
approximately equivalent to 1.2x1019 GeV or 2.17x10-5 g, to the minimum
Higgs field mass 2.82x10-14 GeV or 5.10x10-38 g. approx.
The heaviest particle is equivalent to mp/√(8π), in consequence, the full
effect of gravity is outside of any particle, known or unknown.
Neutrinos act only through the weak force (electromagnetic; strong force;
and gravity have no effect on them).
Moreover, they are not absorbed, and individually have almost no reaction
with the rest of the world. They are like a ghost particle, ideal to participate
in the privileged world of quantum mechanics.
Macroscopic objects can never be accelerated FTL, even with the most
powerful accelerators theoretically possible. The quantum effects are
outside their sphere of action. Tunneling effect and quantum connection are
discarded in those objects. Their quantum waves are smaller than Planck
length and so, even if theoretically and mathematically existent, they are
outside of our physical world. Human travel to the past will always be
science fiction, at least until humanity starts to consider the possibility of
this as an absurdity. Besides that, from a theoretical point of view, all the
known and unknown particles can use quantum effects to obtain FTL
particles, but we should note that, according to the development of our
technology, particles with minimum reactions with the 4 forces of nature are
better subjects for this use. Gravity doesn't act in all of them. Neutrinos are
the best choice and electrons are the second one.
The system to be used is to accelerate them in a convenient way: enough
energy to produce enough excitement, but not too much that makes a
minimum advanced wave, impossible to test.
243. Experiment with electrons in SLAC
The Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC) was designed to accelerate
electrons close to the speed of light (the electrons are the easiest particles to
accelerate). Its top speed was equivalent to 0.99999999992c, faster than the
maximum speed to find the FTL effect.
If that measure is the retarded wave, its corresponding advanced wave
would be 1.00000000008…c and this FTL almost 2.5 cm/s faster than the
speed of light, which is impossible to test.
To test electrons it is necessary:
a) To accelerate them at a speed equivalent to the range described before,
between 0.9998c ~ 0.999995c
b) To build a tunnel, because the electrons differ from the neutrinos.
Electrons are absorbed and the neutrinos aren’t.
It is definitely better to work with neutrinos. It isn't only sufficient to
review the experimental result of Opera at CERN; it is necessary to
complete the theory.
244. Nobel prize in Physics 2011
The 2011 Nobel physics prize obtained by 3 US-born scientists: Saul
Perlmutter, Brian Schmidt, and Adam Riess, was a deserved prize.
They realized experimental measures that confirmed that the Universe is
expanding at an accelerating pace, by analyzing light from dozens of
exploding stars, called supernovas. They found the light was weaker than
expected, signaling that the expansion of the Universe was accelerating.
The experimental results were correct and so, the calculations are exact.
However, the problem with Physics today is the theoretical studies.
Normally, the experimental data is amazing; the mathematical calculations
are spectacular, but the theoretical considerations are not at the same level.
The problem consists in the order of the actual studies, not the experimental
ones.
First the experimental results and mathematical conclusions are obtained,
and the theory generally comes later. And sometimes, physicists try to apply
the concepts in a forced manner. Differently, Albert Einstein wrote his
theories, and later found the mathematical calculations and after that, he
waited for the experimental results. Now, it is generally the opposite.
With the supernova experiments, other theoretical physicists are saying that
such experimental results are a stunning revelation that suggests that the
future will be nearly devoid of light.
However Paul Steinhardt, a physics professor a Princeton University said:
“It was one of the truly great discoveries in the history of science, and one
whose implications are not understood.”
And Robert Kirshner, a Harvard astronomer said: "Scientists don’t know
enough about dark energy to predict what will happen to the universe
hundred of billions of years from now."
In this book we wrote about the cosmological “constant”, considering it a
variable, its value decreasing over time (even if the energy of the
cosmological “constant” is always increasing). The hyperbolic expansion of
the Universe determines that it will expand forever; but even so, it will
eventually collapse, by the appearance of a new spatial dimension,
which will be developed in a fractal dimension, reaching the complete
formation of the new five-dimensional Universe (4 spatial dimensions + 1
time). It will begin from the maximum expansion, shrinking until it reaches
the new minimum space, in a triple process: Big Bang, Big Crush, and Big
Crunch.
If the Big Bang begins from a non-zero minimum length, then it needs to
stop at a maximum length, necessarily at α/λp (in T-symmetry), and in an
almost symmetric way, if Planck is approximately 1.616x10-33 cm, our
Universe will collapse at around 10+32 cm in an inverse relation; exactly at
1x0.472366552 cm2/1.615979906x10-33 cm
cm 9.7504x1021 s
≅
≅2.9231x10
32
The complete collapse of our Universe is very far away. But our solar
system will collapse much earlier. Even so, human beings will die before it.
But don’t worry, there is much more time left after our lives.
Glossary
of New Scientific Terms and Concepts Used in this Book
(In Order of Appearance)
1-Cosmological variable: It’s the cosmological constant that has existed since the
beginning until the final destiny of our Universe, but with a crucial difference: it’s a
variable. It changes continuously since the beginning of time, decreasing in force. It’s the
cause of dark energy stored in the vacuum of space.
2- Equivalent waves: Any particle of matter or cosmic space has two waves: one quantum
and another gravitational, whose product is always equivalent to the square of Planck
length. Both waves are real only when both of them are equal, λp each, specifically at Big
Bang or in the cosingularity of the center of black holes.
3- Minimum and maximum mass: For particles, Planck mass is the maximum; and the
mass of the neutrino field is the minimum. For the cosmic scale: Planck mass is the
minimum and the mass in the end of the Universe will be the maximum.
4- Paradox of measure: It is related to mass instead of length; and it is the maximum
mass after which Quantum mechanics fail to have any effect. (Limit = Planck mass
=2.17x10-5 g or 1.2x1019 GeV.)
5-Heaviest particle: Planck mass divided by √(8π) equivalent to 4.33x10-6 g or 2.4x1018
GeV. It’s a quadrupole.
6-Fundamental unit of measurement of the Universe: It is space. All other measures are
derived from it.
7- Zero space and Zero time: Inexistent concepts in our physical Universe.
8-Vacuum without limits: Equivalent to absolute zero or infinite space-time. This concept
is also outside of physical existence.
9- Vacuum with limits: The beginning of our Universe. The pre-Big Bang scenario. In
general terms, the beginning of any Big Bang.
10- Vanished time: When time and space melt together. It is not the relation between
interwoven space-time. It is only space, because time is converted into space, vanishing.
This process happens in the beginning and in the final steps of any Universe, when the
time correction factors are used in the correspondent formulas. It’s the main principle of
Quantum cosmological, just like the uncertainty principle is fundamental in Quantum
mechanics.
11-Quantum cosmological: It is a different kind of “Quantum mechanics” applied to the
gravitational wave or macroscopic scale.
12-Quantum mechanic gravity: It’s when Quantum mechanics principles act with
gravity; and this is only correct when we use Planck length (In the Big Bang and in the
center of black holes).
13- Cosingularity: When we use Plank length instead of zero length. It’s the minimum
measure.
14- Cozero: It is the minimum quantity in any physical system.
15- Cofinity: It is the maximum quantity in any physical system
16- First event: Since time doesn’t exist at the beginning of any Universe, its impossible
to talk about the first moment; it is better to use the concept of first event.
17- Minimum length: Planck length is the minimum length or cozero length. Its size is
1.615979906x10-33 cm in our Universe. Sub-Planck distances don’t exist in our Universe.
18- Maximum length: According to T-symmetry, it is the approximate inverse of Planck
length. Its size is 2.923096699x1032 cm. It is also known as cofinite length.
19- Spatial correction factor: Equivalent to α in T-symmetry, in order to change Planck to
the maximum length. In our Universe, the factor is e-0.75 or 1/e0.75. This is, multiply by
0.472366552 cm2 or divide by 2.117000017 cm-2 the inverse value of Planck length.
20- Period: Time it takes to close any Universe. In our Universe, it will be
9.750401056x1021 s.
21- Big Crush: when a Universe expands, arriving at the maximum limit or when a
Universe shrinks, arriving to the minimum limit; in both cases, an enormous, suddenly
accelerated phenomenon exists, destructive, almost instantaneous, that occurs in fractal
dimensions, until a new spatial dimension appears.
22-Minimum limits modulus: Space forms moduli with 8 dimensional Universes each: 7
spatial + 1 time, but with 28 components, instead of 8: 0+1+2+3+4+5+6+7. The limits, as
abstract space, always remain even if there are extended dimensions. Their values are the
corresponding values of λps, which are different in each Universe.
23- Maximum limits modulus: Counterpart of minimum limits modulus, with the same
dimensional Universes and the same components. That remains with maximum limits,
even if there are not any developed dimensions. Matter will eventually reach them. Their
values are the corresponding maximum lengths, different in each Universe.
To draw both of them (Minimum and Maximum limits moduli), we need to use
logarithmical scales.
24-First Big Bang: Universe with 1 space-time dimensions (zero spatial dimension+1
time). Its necessary to develop a time correction factor, besides that, the spatial correction
factor it's not applicable in this Universe
25- Time Correction factor: It acts considering time as inverse space (-1). Its value is
fundamental in the first Big Bang, fixing the evolution of the future Universes.
26- Abstract Space: The original entity produced. It is only limits. It is also called prebig-bang scenario or primordial space. It existed alone with no matter in existence. In
the evolution of Universes, it exists in the inflection point, when the Universe is stopped
for a “while”.
27- Cuboide: In our Big Bang, before the first chronos, we had a flat scenario, with 3
limits, one in each spatial dimension. Immaterial and unbounded. It was a “cuboide”
instead of a cube.
28- Parallel Universe of antimatter: According to mirror symmetry, our Universe has a
parallel Universe of antimatter, related to ours by means of a CPT symmetry with 2λp of
distance between them, λp in each side. Using gravitational waves, it is coherent and
ordered. The formulas, obtaining λp and mp in our Universe, are always represented by two
roots: (+) in our Universe, and (-) in the antimatter Universe. The geometrical relation is
hyperbolic; or hyperboloid, considering the 3rd spatial dimension.
29- Higgs length: Every relation of the mass of the particles, has a correspondence with
space, according to the relation k=mλ. λ is then the collision distance, the Compton
wavelength, or the Higgs length, forming a field with its corresponding mass, and deriving
from it, the masses of the particles. This length is what gives mass to the particles of
matter, and not the Higgs weak boson, which gives mass only to the particles of force: W+,
W- and Z0.
30- Cosmic mass: The mass of the Universe, increasing with time, in direct relation with
the increase of the cosmic radius. Relation: k1=R/M. Our Universe is always expanding in
an accelerated way.
31- Interchange of matter-antimatter: Theoretical supposition which states that
antiparticles of our Universe go to our parallel Universe and particles come from it,
interchanging the “waste” in both Universes, thus increasing their matter in equal quantity.
32- Stability of the protons: Normal protons are stable, because their theoretical time of
decay is from about 1033 to 1044 years; an unreachable time, because our Universe will
collapse at approximately 1021 seconds or 1014 years.
33- Instability of heavy protons: GUT theory predicts the instability of the proton; but if
the normal proton is stable; another proton exists (the heavy proton), existing around GUT
energy, and it is unstable.
34 –Fundamental functions of black holes:
a. They are the bridges necessary to interchange matter-antimatter between our
Universe and its twin parallel Universe.
b. They keep the entropy that will be used when a new spatial dimension needs to
appear.
35- Naked co-singularity: The Big Bang is the only naked co-singularity in our Universe,
whose size is Planck length. A naked singularity doesn’t exist, because size zero doesn’t
exist.
36- Cosingularity in the center of any black hole: Like in the Big Bang, the center of
any black hole is always Planck length, the minimum possible size; it is never zero.
37- Gravitational collapse: A mechanism to liberate energy; using gravitation, instead of
heat. It would be a very important event in giant black holes, in the center of galaxies.
38- Neutronio: the normal left-handed neutrino is supposed to have a right-handed partner
with an enormous mass, both of them with their correspondent antimatter. Its mass is
around 132 GeV. Instead, this mass can be used for the LSP (Lightest superpartners), in
the case the superpartners appear; or maybe a kind of a light Higgs boson. Nevertheless it
is necessary to find a heavier boson Higgs if a lighter one is found.
39 – Last event: Before the end of the Universe (like at the beginning), time vanishes and
converts into space. For that reason, it is preferable to talk about the last event instead of
the last moment.
40- Higgs modified field: each particle with its correspondent antiparticle form a doublet
(leptons) or a quartet (two doublets) of quarks. Independently, if a Higgs boson is formed
or not, the particle gets mass according to its corresponding Higgs length, using the
uncertainty principle: ℏ/cλ=m. The Higgs field is actually applied when a Higgs boson
appears. Nevertheless, the Higgs modified field gives mass to all particles of matter,
according to their correspondent Higgs lengths.
41– Code of String Universes: 4n2-4n+2; or (2n-1)2+1; or (8(n)(n-1))/2+2. In which the
sequence is n from 1 to 8, their results: 2, 10, 26, 50, 82, 122, 170, and 226.
42- Masses of normal neutrinos: They are no longer supposed to be massless. Their
theoretical values are approximately:
Electron neutrino: 1.13x10-14 GeV
Mu neutrino: 2x10-9 GeV
Tau neutrino: 1x10-6 GeV
43- Massless particles of matter: Don’t exist, because they are against the uncertainty
principle; primordial in quantum mechanics.
44- One family: The existence of 3 or 6 families of particles is an apparent supposition. It
is the same as one family, but with different manifestations according to the length; and in
an inverse relation with their masses.
45- Numbers of Higgs bosons: There are 3 Higgs bosons, where the particles of force
acquire mass (Gravitational, strong, and weak).
Their fields, with masses of approximately: 1.2x1019 GeV, 2.22x1016 GeV, and 482.4 GeV
respectively.
46- Heavier scale: Another scale also integrated by 3 families, in a symmetric way,
similar to the lighter scale, but with much heavier masses. Its value is between 1.2x1019
GeV and 482.4 GeV, the places of the gravitational Higgs boson and weak Higgs boson,
respectively.
∅
∅
47- Code of Higgs bosons: !, 1!, 2!, 3!, 4!. ! is used instead of 0!, because 0! is 1, and
origin is cozero (Planck), that means: , 1, 2, 6, 24, according to the detail:
(origin) is the gravitational boson.
1 is the Strong boson.
2 is the electromagnetic control; (no boson).
6 is the weak or electroweak boson.
24 is the new gravitational boson (outside of our Universe, immediately after its collapse).
∅
∅
48- Lengths of the sequence of Higgs bosons:
k= -24π = 1.615979906x10-33 cm
k= -22π = 8.731046397x10-31 cm
k= -20π = 4.717334068x10-28 cm
k= -12π =4.01992527x10-17 cm
k= +24π =2.923096699x1032 cm
Using Ockham’s razor, k+24π disappears and k-20π is just a term used to maintain the
sequence, but Higgs bosons don’t appear in it. And so, the real values correspond to k-24π,
k-22π, and k-12π; only three Higgs bosons.
49- Two scales for particles of force: There are two scales for particles of force: heavier
(with mass) and lighter (massless), except for the photon, that will never have mass; and
the photino, which doesn’t exist. Actual experiments only consider the heavier scale in
weak force, and the lighter scale in gravitational and strong forces.
50- Co-minimum limit: Limit obtained when we add the time correction factor in its
corresponding formula. It is longer than the real minimum limit or Planck length.
51- Co-maximum limit: Limit obtained when we add the time correction factor in its
corresponding formula. It is smaller than the real maximum measure.
52- Multidimensional Universes:
The reason why our Universe has 4 extended dimensions (space-time) is because it was
developed in order: 1, 2, 3, and 4 dimensional Universe, and 5, 6, 7, and 8 will develop
later.
In any case, Universe with one space-time dimension was the first Universe, and the
simplest. The Universe normally begins from a simpler to a more complex entity. It is
more logical to suppose it began from one dimension, and then to 2, 3, and 4, than to break
10 dimensions into 4 and 6.
53- Zero spatial dimensions: Although zero space doesn’t exist, zero spatial dimensions
can exist when space is not developed and an independent axis or direction of space is not
formed. There is no length longer than Planck length in the whole development of that
Universe.
54- Hook union: System used by nature in different opportunities, unifying different
scales, where the last value of the first scale is bigger than the first value of the second
scale (or interchanging places) forming a hook, and maintaining both scales together.
55- Dimensional wedge: To close the 8th Universe (7+1) of the first modulus, we use a
dimensional wedge; a small piece, equivalent to the time correction factor; to close the
first modulus, and at the same time, to form the 1st Universe of the second modulus,
unifying both moduli.
56- Dimensional package: 8 dimensional Universes form a dimensional modulus. Seven
moduli form a dimensional package.
57- A “while”: Any Universe needs movement and it is always either expanding or
contracting, except for a “while”, when a complete new dimension appears; producing an
inflection point; when movement ceases, and change its direction.
58- Fractal dimension: After the collapse of a Universe, a time exists where the new
dimension begins to increase step by step, in fractions of unit (fractal), until the new
dimension completely appears.
59- Contracting interphase: Big Crush in fractal dimension, from an even to an odd
spatial Universe.
60- Expanding interphase: Big Crush in fractal dimension, from an odd to an even
numbered spatial Universe.
61- Gravity dimensional Universes: Based on gravitational waves; ordered, coherent,
derived one by one (the former and the next); in beautiful, physical and mathematical
sequences. Any dimensional Universe begins with a gravity boson in the first event, and
ends with another one in the last event.
62- Footing and foundation of any Universe: All human constructions require
foundations and footings with a resistance proportional to the weight of the mass that
needs to support; but the Universe was built in a completely different manner, a very
efficient one. Its footing is simply a vacuum with limits, very tiny, existing in the entire
Universe, each with a minimum limit of Planck length; impossible to shrink or stretch. It is
the pre-Big Bang scenario.
63- Efficient nature: Nature is always totally efficient. Any inefficient natural process
detailed, is simply a product of human ignorance, or the product of not having full
knowledge of the real facts.
64- Squaroide: The foundation or support of the Universe with two spatial dimensions.
65- Objective of inflation: The real objective of the inflation of the Universe is to create
matter and antimatter, by means of the residual heat produced by inflation. The elimination
of monopoles and the flatness of the Universe are only apparent effects of inflation.
66- Minimum density of Universe: It will be in the last event. Equivalent to around
3.76366x10-38 g/cm3; approximately the density of the Higgs field of the electron neutrino;
confirming that this particle of matter is the lightest subatomic particle.
67- π plus: Our Universe has a minimum limit or Planck length, whose value in natural
logarithms is -75.50536654. Since the exponential factor is -24π, we can obtain including
the spatial correction factor, a value of π plus equivalent to -3.146056939.
68- π minus: Our Universe has a maximum limit. Its value in inverse natural logarithm is
-74.75536654, and the value of π minus is -3.114806939, both values are used to find the
mass scales.
69- Scales of mass: It is necessary to use the uncertainty principle: ℏ=mcλ or ℏ/cλ=m. π
minus is used for known particles, except in k-12π. π plus is used for unknown particles;
and known particles only in k-12 π.
70- Relation between densities: The average density of a Higgs field in a determined step
is equivalent to the average density of the Universe in its corresponding step.
λ2=Rλp or λ2=Rαλp
Using π plus Using π minus
71- Permanent accelerated expansion: It started at the Big Bang and will continue until
our Universe collapses. Space is always stretching faster than light in our Universe.
72- Real job of Higgs weak boson: It is fundamental for the electroweak theory; it is the
result of the spontaneous symmetry breaking, between electromagnetic and weak forces;
gives mass to W± and Z0; left the photon with no mass and leads the level k-12π with π
plus. (Maximum value of the field: 482.397 GeV and it has a relation with t and b quarks,
and their correspondent antiparticles, and nothing more. It is not the god particle, neither
its role is to give mass to the particles of matter.
73- Higgs fields and heat: Heat can destroy matter, but not space. Even more, Higgs
fields are “abstract” spaces. The supposition of the Standard Model that the Higgs field is
destroyed by heat is not proven, and moreover, it doesn’t give any explanation as to why.
74- Instability of Higgs bosons: All the Higgs bosons are unstable. They would rapidly
decay to lighter particles, which would interact among them and possibility undergo
subsequent decays.
The Higgs bosons are similar to the changing of phases of a substance. A thermal energy
with a temperature gradient exists; but in a change of phase, energy at constant
temperature also exists, named latent heat. Higgs bosons only exist in a change of phase,
or spontaneous symmetry breaking.
75- Relation between the cosmological “constant” and the age of Universe: If the
experimental value of Λ is exact, the age of the Universe will be exact, according to the
formula: Λ=6/R2
If Λ=2.979371259x10-56 cm-2, the age of the Universe would be 15 billion years.
If Λ=3.571626263x10-56 cm-2, the age of the Universe would be 13.7 billion years.
76- Expansion or explosion of the Big Bang: The explosion needs to be substituted by a
silent (like almost all the phenomena of nature) high expansion, from cozero space,
cofinite density of energy, and cozero entropy, at Planck length, in 3 spatial and one time
dimensions. The expansion of our Universe is a natural condition of any odd spatial
dimension Universe, and will expand permanently in a hyperbolic way (in an accelerated
expansion) until the maximum space is reached, and it will begin to close, by means of the
appearance of a new spatial dimension, step by step, in fractal dimension.
77- Fundamental restrictions of our Universe: Any Universe has two fundamental
restrictions relative to space. (And all the different measures, including secondary
restrictions are derived from it. None single entity in our Universe (neither space as a
whole) can have, travel or decrease to a length smaller than Planck length
(1.615979906x10-33 cm); or to a length larger than the maximum limit (2.923096699x1032
cm).
78- Graviton and collapse of the quantum wave: Even a single graviton collapses the
quantum wave. And so, the gravitational waves and electromagnetic waves are
incompatible, and only coincide in the first chronos at the Big Bang.
79- Door to any Universe: Gravity is the entrance door and exit door to any Universe. Its
value decreases when the number of spatial dimensions increases.
80- Existence of the superpartners: The Superstring theory needs that superpartners
masses not to be very much larger than the Z boson mass, in order for its whole proposed
approach to be valid.
But there is not much room for them to appear; and if they did appear in such a small
room, this would be ugly and totally asymmetric. The “normal” particles have a big room
and very different masses, and if the superpartners appear, they would need to pile up in a
very reduced space. It is necessary to expand the available room.
81- Higgs fields range: Higgs fields form particles from the Big Bang (space ø or Planck
length), to the maximum space of the microcosmos era, exactly 0.687289278 cm.
And so, 0 < H < 1 and 0 cm < λ < 1 cm.
or 1.615979906x10-33 cm ≤ λ ≤ 0.687289278 cm
82- Black holes and parallel Universes: An enormous number of black holes doesn’t
mean that each black hole has a different parallel Universe. Every black hole (1016 ~1018)
in our Universe, communicates with different sections of our parallel Universe, the same,
and only one, equal to ours, in a CPT connection.
83- Formulas of the cosmological “constant”:
Λ=6/R2 or (8πGδv)/c2 in cm-2
Λ=8πGδv or (6c2)/R2 in s-2.
Where δv is the average vacuum density of the Universe, in a determined time.
84- Difference between theoretical and experimental value of Λ: The experimental
result, compared to the theoretical value of Λ, has a difference of approximately 10120, the
biggest difference in a quantity in the history of science. The explanation for that is very
simple, considering Λ variable.
The theoretical value is obtained by Quantum mechanics, and so, is its exact value at the
Big Bang. The experimental result is obtained in this time, when the Universe is much
longer and Λ is much smaller. Its difference is very similar.
Ex. (R12)/R2 = (approx. 2x1056 cm2)/(2.611391056x10-66 cm2) = difference 7.65x10121
≅
85- Size of the dimensions: Each dimension in any universe has the same initial footing,
but they are different between other universes.
86- Center of Black holes: Since the Big Bang has a nonzero size, specifically Planck
length, in each of the 3 spatial dimensions (6 ways, two in each dimension). If we use
Planck length in the center of black holes, we can obtain a gateway to our parallel
universe. This is, where time in our Universe comes to an end, time in the parallel universe
just begins. But we need to apply CPT connections.
87- Pores of the cosmic space: The cosmic space has pores (size = λp) like the human
being. Planck length is impossible to fill up. It is an open space, unbounded. It is a vacuum
with limits that exists in the entire Universe.
88- Big Bang: two black holes attached: The Big Bang acted like a black hole attached
to another in our parallel Universe, each with size λp. Each hole is at the same time, black
and white. By a procedure that needs to be explored more, the double-mechanism of
sending antimatter (our waste) to the other Universe, and receiving antimatter (its waste),
in the same quantity. The Big Bang, like two united black holes, gives a formula to
calculate the mass of our Universe, the double of the corresponding mass of a black hole
(Rc2/G=M and Rc2/2G=M). The quantitative process is obtained using the circular motion
ratio (1.5 of the Schwarzschild radius), in the initial formation of particle-antiparticle pairs.
89- Emission of particles by means of intense gravity: Near the surface of medium and
big black holes, gravity is so intense that the vacuum (or ergosphere space) can intervene
with a continual stream of newly created particle-antiparticle pairs.
In the classic Newtonian sense, this is impossible, but in Quantum mechanics or in
Quantum cosmological, it could be possible. If gravity is a warping of space-time, we
could say that gravity induces the creation of space-time and this space-time induces the
creation of matter. The action of gravity can produce heat (strike, friction, compression,
and collapse).
90- Gravity force and Universes: The relation with our parallel Universe, and moreover,
with the other extradimensional Universes, is by means of the gravitational force. In any
creation of a Universe or in its destruction, in the beginning and in the end, gravity has the
same value as the other forces.
91- Duality of gravity: The dual nature of all the forces, with the principle of attractionrepulsion is common in all of them, including gravity. And so, gravity would be attractive
at shorter distances and would be repulsive at cosmic distances.
92- Lost Information: Information is never lost, neither in the center of black hole,
because “singularities” don’t exist. The center of any black hole is Planck-sized and so, the
fundamental bit of information is never lost, besides that, the center of black holes
produces a wormhole to the other Universe (parallel Universe of antimatter). The
evaporation doesn’t lose mass or information, because mass is recovered in an inverse
process.
93- Prequarks: Quarks and leptons cannot be divided, but using big gravity in highly
sensitive experiments, prequarks could be detected inside them.
94- New “aether” (ether) theory: Einstein showed that ether was unnecessary; but he
never said that ether doesn’t exist.
Considering that nature abhors the vacuum, the ether, even if it is irrelevant in our physical
reality, exists as a convenient medium, filling virtually the “space” inside the
correspondent holes of Planck length, with no physical measure. But String theory speaks
of more spatial dimensions than 3, and so, ether needs to be rediscovered, but in higher
dimensions.
95- Flat dimension: Just at the beginning, in the pre-big-bang scenario, the dimensions
are flat. But this is not true with the developed Universe, where the Universe will be
almost flat, but never flat.
96- Entropy in Universes: When the Universe is stretching or shrinking, the entropy
increases until the last event, where a big quantity of entropy has been formed. But that
entropy is consumed to form a new dimension. And so, the new system begins with almost
zero entropy, which starts to increase again, until the end of the new Universe; and so the
same process begins all over again.
97- Eternal expansion: In both, the Big Bang and the Big Crunch, symmetrical
conditions exist. If the Universe expanded forever, we would consider the future to be
absolutely unlike the past. This is anti-natural and ugly, and would also be against simpler
mathematics. The only reason for the Universe to expand forever, would be if it began
from zero space. This is impossible. String theory affirms that the Big Bang began with λp,
as a minimum space, and according to T-symmetry, the Universe will recollapse after it
arrives to its maximum length; and a new dimension appears.
98- Kaluza-Klein graviton: Only in the first chronos of the Big Bang, gravity is strong
and has the same value as the other forces. In this moment, the first Higgs boson appears,
gravitationally united. The graviton acquires mass, just in the first chronos; or in other
words, this “heavy graviton” is the Kaluza-Klein graviton, traveling between dimensions
(in our case, from two spatial dimensions, to three), that some physicists are looking in the
LHC collider. However, to find it, it is necessary to arrive to Planck length, which is too
far for now. The spontaneous symmetry breaking placed the gravity force outside after this
point, and it will be weak in the development of our Universe until the last event.
Remember, gravity is the only force that communicates among branes.
99- k-12π duality: In the k-12π point there are 2 measures, considering π plus and π
minus, and so, there two Higgs fields will be formed.
In a “hook” interchange, the heavier field is the last term of the first scale; and the lighter
field is the first term of the second scale.
100- Gravity in particle accelerators: Particle accelerators test the microcosmos using
the strong, weak and electromagnetic forces. The gravitational force is totally ignored. The
minimum limits of Universes with less dimensions, are considerably bigger than our λp.
New, highly sensitive gravitational experiments using big gravity would look for those
larger curled-up dimensions, and before that, in the same way, to see the supposed
prequarks forming the different particles.
101- Obtaining λp measure: Using the constants of nature, obtained experimentally:
λ=±√((Gh)/c3) ±1.616x10-33 cm
≅
Theoretically, using only space:
e-8πn-n/28 where n=3.
e-75.50536654=1.615979906x10-33 cm
102- Extradimensional influences: Their influences have relation only with λ and in
consequence with the masses. Their actions are derived from the number of components of
dimensions, or degrees of freedom; not from their sizes or shapes.
103- Force to unite prequarks: The same energy used to form the Big Bang in three
spatial dimensions, the fundamental force (gravity, strong, electromagnetic and weak force
combined) or hypergravity, is the same force used to unite the prequarks into the
fundamental particles. All the particles in our Universe, (including any object and black
holes) have an “interaction” point of Planck length.
104- Quadrupole: The quadrupole (4 poles) determines 4 quarks of the same strength, at
the Big Bang, united by the fundamental hypergravity force, where the 4 forces are
together.
105- Valence: The residual number, after subtracting each of the moduli of 8 dimensions
and their multiples, and so: 10 is 8+2 and 26 is (8+8+8)+2, etc.
106- Point particles: To consider simple particles like leptons or quarks, with no
structure, is to consider the existence of point particles, which don’t exist.
In our world it is impossible for particles, different to our Universe of three spatial
dimensions, to exist. Although the fundamental string (1+1) is the basic entity of space, we
live in a world of three spatial dimensions, and so, each particle, has a substructure of 3
virtual strings, even if they are hidden. The String theory already considered a 3-string
vertex.
107- Travel to the past: With our physical body, carrying, or bringing information is
impossible.
108- Multidimensional travel: Using another spatial dimension (>3) has a real limitation.
First of all, the wormholes that could be used to travel are smaller than Planck length, and
it is impossible to access them.
Besides that, in higher dimensional Universes our physical entity cannot survive. And
there is no physical solution for that; at least, for now.
109- The death of our Universe:
The Universe, as a whole, will eventually die. If the Big Bang had a beginning, it’s
impossible for it to live forever. If our planet dies, or our sun dies, or even if our galaxy
dies, a future human civilization could travel to other places in our same Universe. But in
the final moment of the collapse of our Universe, the modulus will be open, tearing the
fabric of space, and a new spatial dimension will begin to appear. This will be a cosmic
cataclysm, and the entire Universe will collapse chaotically. All the space-time will be
cracked, and all the spatial tridimensional entities, practically our whole Universe, with its
entire physical context will be destroyed and crushed.
110- Time of death of our Universe: The time of the destruction of our Universe is far
away. We live according to arithmetical time, and in the logarithmic time that our Universe
uses; the following very tiny fraction of it is more than all the sum of the past time. Even if
the Universe only had a remnant minimal fraction left to exist, there would still be billions,
or even trillions of years, for it to end. The maximum life of our Universe, would be, its
period. The time is 9.75401055x1021 seconds or 3.089734259x1014 years.
111- Twin Universe: Our parallel Universe (only one) is in a CPT connection with our
Universe. The symmetry is exact and the interchange of matter needs to be in exact
equilibrium. Even when a FTL neutrino, from our Universe, goes to the parallel Universe,
another FTL neutrino, from the parallel Universe, comes to our Universe, leaving the
quantity of mass intact in both. Also with the interchange of matter-antimatter by means of
a black hole, although the mass increases, there is an exact symmetry, because in both
Universes the increase of mass is exactly the same.
112- Appearance of the mass and the fundamental constants:
Just at the beginning, in the first chronos, “after” the pre-Big Bang scenario, mass appears,
and the constants G, ℏ, and c are established, until the end of our Universe. The space in
all three dimensions begins to stretch, movement appears and the accelerating expansion
acts.
113- Hyperforce: Prequarks can never be in isolation. But they have another property.
When the fundamental particles are in movement, the prequarks, like virtual strings,
practically “disappear” integrating themselves with the movement. The only way to see
them is to arrive to a distance close to λp, where it would be possible to see a Planck unit,
stopped or almost stopped, and to see the three prequarks unit in an “interaction point”.
The force that joins them is the force of gravity at Planck length, a hyperforce. This force
is the entrance door to our Universe, and all the four forces are united in a same value.
114- Support of the Universes: One spatial dimensional Universe is formed by normal
strings, (like straight lines), and this is at the same time, the typical pieces of the
foundation of this Universe. Gravity doesn’t change with distance, and because of that, it
will always be constant. Since the two spatial dimensional Universe have different gravity
according to distance, the curvature of these Universes always changes, and it is
impossible to use them as the “foundations” of the Universe, by repeating them. It is
necessary to use the “straight form” of each and any particular pre-Big Bang Universe.
115- Packaged fraction of each Universe: A quantitative relation between the spherical
“volume” and “straight” volume exists; whose value is 1 or < 1. Each bigger dimension
has a decreased packaged fraction.
In the 0 and 1 spatial dimensional Universes, it is 1; in our Universe, it is approximately
0.52; in the seven spatial dimensional Universe, its value is approximately 0.036.
116- The fundamental bit will never be lost: In the Big Bang, just at the beginning, in
the fundamental bit of information, all the tendency for future evolution is marked, the
constants and the conceptual laws have been regulated and the initial conditions will rule
the dynamic evolution of the Universe. This basic and fundamental information will never
be lost during the life of our Universe. The minimum area is (Planck length)2=
2.6113091056x10-66 cm2 and it’s in this area where the first information is imprinted, the
fundamental bit, will never be destroyed, until the end of our Universe.
According to Quantum mechanics, the position and momentum of a particle can never be
exactly detailed, but this is unnecessary to know the overall behavior of the system.
The general information, fixed in the first unit of information, is enough to determine the
dynamical behavior of the system; in this case, our Universe.
117- Jumping dimensional Universe: If any Universe works with jumps, not all
dimensions can form Universes. The modular relation is 8[(n(n-1))/2]+ valence; where (n)
is the dimensional modulus, beginning from one (1); and valence is the kind of space-time
Universe.
Even using all the consecutive numbers, it is impossible to form Universes with all the
dimensions.
118- The most complex structure: As always, a hook is necessary with the next group.
Each more complex aggregation diminishes its number of components (8 dimensions a
modulus; 7 moduli, a package etc.). A cofinite dimensional Universe would be the most
complex structure possible.
119- First modulus:
The first modulus, fundamental Universes, or first sequence are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8
(in space-time). The actual step in the evolution of the Universes is number 4.
The natures of the fundamental ingredients of different Universes are:
Valence
1
0+1 Monopoles
2
1+1 Strings
3
2+1 Membranes
4
3+1 Particles (3 sphere)
5
4+1 Macroparticles (4 sphere)
6
5+1 Per-particles (5 sphere)
7
6+1 Super-particles (6 sphere)
8
7+1 Hyper-particles (7 sphere)
120- The cofinite dimensional Universe: This is the largest dimensional Universe and
would be only one. It can’t increase its number, neither duplicate at the least; but this most
complex structure with cofinite dimensions needs time to exist, and so, it would always be
limited. Infinity is outside of any physical Universe.
121- Higgs fields energy: They have the total energy of particles, compound, or doublet
scalar field. They form a Higgs ocean, composed by a lot of Higgs fields in any particular
time of our Universe, except at the Big Bang, when there was only one Higgs field.
122- Possible new particles in LHC: The experiments on the LHC need to look around
two points in both k-12π scales, where two particles could be discovered: the Higgs weak
boson, at around 482.4 GeV (as a maximum and most probable value, and no less than
384.88 GeV) and a new type of heavier neutral particle, the neutronio, at around 132 GeV.
Using these values to look for these particles is, at least, better than blindly looking for
them.
123- Conclusion over Opera Experiments at CERN: Independently of the results of the
Opera Experiments at CERN, particle physicists could detect mu neutrinos travelling
faster than light. But the possibility of a way to send information back in time, erasing the
line between past and present, and disappearing the fundamental principle of cause and
effect doesn’t exist. But FTL neutrinos don’t discard the Special relativity laws, even
more, they confirm them.
Quantum mechanics accept the possibility to pass the light barrier, avoiding it, but never
reaching it. It is possible to put a particle on the other side of the Einstein barrier, without
having to pass through the region of infinite mass, by means of the tunneling effect.
124- Travel to the past: The backward in time relation of the FTL neutrino experiments is
only related to our parallel Universe, where our mathematical past is its future. It is
impossible to exchanges messages with them. It is also impossible to travel to the past
physically, in our same Universe.
125- Relation mass-speed in squared form:
m12=(m02)/(1-v2⁄c2)
If v>c and m0=1 and c=1.
-m12=1/(v2-1)
-m12=(mi)2 or (-mi)2
But it also has 2 real values.
-m12=(m1)(-m1)
This last equation indicates, matter in our Universe, and antimatter related to our parallel
Universe.
Particles and antiparticles act like a united process of advanced waves (>c) and retarded
waves (<c). To obtain a FTL neutrino, it is necessary to obtain a retarded neutrino as a
complementary partner. The addition of both waves is practically 2c and the product, 1c2,
average ±c.
The way to obtain FTL neutrinos is to accelerate them in a convenient way, to use enough
energy to produce enough excitement, but not too much to avoid a minimum advanced
wave, which is impossible to test. Range between 0.999995c > v > 0.9998c in retarded
wave; equivalent to 1.000005c < v <1.00020004c in advanced wave.
Contents of Sections
1.
Cosmological “constant”. Its variability. Decreases with time. It will
never be zero. Dark energy. Explanation of why the big difference
between experimental and theoretical results about Λ.
2.
Formula for the cosmological “constant” (variable) Λ =6/R2. Enormous
change in its value in the microcosmos era. Change imperceptible right
now. Definition of Λ.
3.
Fundamental difference between microcosmos and macrocosmos.
Equivalent waves in the Big Bang, with gravitational and quantum
waves. Product of both waves equivalent to λp2. Inverse relation
between particles and cosmic space. Mass as frontier measurement
between them. 4 forces together (same value) only in Planck length.
4.
Quantum mechanics acting only in microscopic level. Gravitational
framework acting only with masses equal or heavier than Planck mass.
5.
Space as a fundamental measure of the Universe. Space exists even if
matter doesn’t exist. Inexistence of sub-Planck lengths in our Universe.
Inexistence of zero space in any Universe. After the first chronos,
Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity take separate ways.
Inexistence of time zero in any physical Universe. Nature (or physical
reality)”lives” in logarithmic space ex, where x is a complex term.
6.
Existence of time. Since time exists, there must be a beginning,
because the eternal entity has no time. Initial appearance of the first
Universe. Change its condition of “vacuum without limits”, and space
appeared.
Just in the beginning (and also in the final of the cycle of any
Universe) vanished time, as a fundamental principle of quantum
cosmological.
7.
Time zero doesn’t exist, even if it had a beginning. But there is no
singular origin of time. Time “emerges” gradually from space. The
appearance of the Universe was the first event, but not the first
moment. A complete continuity of time is impossible. Minimum time
or chronos, exactly λp/c=5.39032875x10-44 s.
8.
Planck length as minimum length. Maximum, approximately its
inverse, is the maximum space, according T symmetry. Cozero and
cofinity. The Universe is always in accelerated expansion, and would
expand forever, but it will contract. Exact formula for maximum:
α1/λp =2.923096699x1032 cm
or 9.750401051x1021 s (period).
α=e-0.75=0.472366552 or 1/2.117000017. Chaotic destruction of our
Universe (and our parallel Universe of antimatter), including every
stable particle and black hole, in an enormous and colossal Big Crush
(not Big Crunch).
9.
At the beginning, all the spatial dimensions of a Universe are equal.
But are different between other Universes' with different
dimensionality. Space is no matter. Minimum lengths always exist
even when dimensions are developed. Modulus with minimum limits.
Modulus with maximum limits. Space has 8 dimensions (7 spatial
dimensions + 1 time dimension). Mathematical sequence: 8-4-8 and
not 4-4. It is necessary to draw the moduli using logarithmical scale.
Relation of dimensions: around 1010 between one and the next. Both
moduli are inverse. Less dimension means, a larger minimum limit and
a shorter maximum limit. According to the differences among
dimensions of different Universes, the number of components (degrees
of freedom) is not 8, it's 28. (0+1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8). But one time
dimension is zero spatial dimension, but it is also -1.
10. Abstract
space is the original entity produced. Normal space has
relation with matter. Any Universe is always expanding or contracting,
except in the inflection point, when it stops for a “while” and changes
its way. Pre-Big-Bang scenario: flat scenario forming 8 “cuboides”(4
in our Universe and 4 in the antimatter Universe), after that, the
beginning was forming with hyperbolic (or hyperboloid) space, from
the center, in two Universes: + and -, our Universe and our parallel
Universe of antimatter.
Simple mathematical conclusion about the parallel Universe of
antimatter. Distance between them: 2λp: λp in each size.
11.
12. Abstract
space also in Higgs fields. Mass of the field of particles:
ℏ/cλ=m where λ is the collision distance or Higgs length. Cosmic
mass: approximately (Rc2)/G=m (where R is the cosmic visible radius
equivalent to ct). Masses of particles. Mass of the Universe.
13. Particles
and antiparticles. Collisions among them. Interchange with
our parallel Universe. Black holes and Big Bang. Stability of the
known protons. Values of G, ℏ, c and λp.
14. Black
holes. Stephen Hawking’s works. Classes of black holes.
Relation between temperature, mass, and entropy in black holes.
Naked co-singularity in the Big Bang.
15. Size
in the center of any black hole. Singularity or only co-singularity?
Gateway to our parallel Universe. Relation with time. Inexistent loss of
information in black holes.
16. Interchange
of matter-antimatter in the center of black holes.
Separation of the particle-antiparticle pair close to the event horizon.
Duplicated mass.
17. Hawking
radiation in primordial black holes. Gravitation as energy, in
medium and giant black holes. Reduction of space, increasing
efficiency. Radiation produced inside black holes.
18. Life
of known proton. Stability during the life of our Universe.
Neutrinos have masses: 1.13x10-14 GeV; 2x10-9 GeV and 1x10-6 GeV.
Existence of a fourth type of neutrino. Neutronio, mass approximately
132 GeV, the lightest heavy-partner (LHP); or instead of it, another
particle with similar mass.
19. Mass
of electron-neutrino. Steven Weinberg’s practically exact
calculation. Superpartners. Neutronio as the first heavy partner. Higgs
weak boson level. Number of families. Photon will always be the
same. It has no partner and its rest mass will always be zero.
20. Primordial
(abstract) space is only limits. Exact value of constants
since the Big Bang. Length, mass, and energy in the Big Bang. Energy
of the Big Bang: maximum for a Higgs field, but minimum for the
Universe. Standard Model proposition about maximum mass of the
particles.
21. Nature
never works unnecessarily and always uses the easiest way.
Particles without mass, before Higgs weak boson appearance, are a
mistake. Each particle and its correspondent companions, according to
the Standard model. Rotations of the number 6, in 4 scenarios.
(particle-antiparticle, heavypartner-antiheavypartner), according to our
supposition. Mass as a fundamental property of particles of matter.
22. Symmetry
about spin in particles in our Universe of 4 spatial–time
dimensions and one modulus only. Code of string Universes.
23. Particles
of matter without masses and the uncertainty principle of
Quantum Mechanics. Process in a new Higgs field (modified) to obtain
masses. Space as the origin of masses and in consequence, as the origin
of different families.
24. Nature
needs only one family. Other families, as photocopies of the
same one, needed in the microcosmos era. Natural time is logarithmic,
not arithmetic. Microcosmos time is exactly equal to the macrocosmos
time, considering it until the collapse of our Universe.
25. Four
forces united at the first chronos. Three Higgs bosons, instead of
one: gravitational, strong, and weak. The particles of force, acquire
mass, but this is not the procedure for the particles of matter, neither
for the photon.
26. Last
event and appearance of another gravitational Higgs boson. But
will act outside of our Universe. The Higgs bosons sequence is n!,
beginning with
. Lengths of the Higgs bosons fields and their
correspondent mass (or energy).
∅
27. Two
scales for the particles of force, except photon. The lighter, with
their mass as 0; the heavier, when the Higgs boson appears, with
masses.
28. Minkowski-Einstein
space-time. Imaginary time. Mathematical
formulas for maximum and minimum length. Complex numbers.
29. Use
of Euler formula to derive the formulas and to use in real
numbers. 4320° or 12(2πr) in each limit. Division of both scales.
30. Approximate
value of the limits. Correct values using spatial
correction factors.
31. Extradimensional
geometry. Number of dimensions in the modulus
and in our Universe. Correction factor n/28; or 3/28 in minimum
limits; and 2n2/28 in maximum limits or 18/28. We call them: spatial
correction factors.
32. String
theory, mathematically correct, but need to be adjusted in a new
physical theory. Superpartners or heavy-partners. String theory has a
vast amount of results completely correct that need to be rescued.
33. Exact
value of limits.
Maximum: e8πn-2n^2/28 (n=3)=e+74.75536654=2.923096699x1032 cm.
Minimum: e-8πn-n/28 (n=3)=e-75.50536654=1.615979906x10-33 cm.
Different values of Planck and maximum, in our universe and in other
universes with different dimensionality.
34. Time
correction factor. With fundamental use in the first Big Bang,
with spatial dimension 0 + 1 time dimension. But in the other
Universes is useless to fix the limit and only is useful to calculate the
vanishing of time, at the beginning and at the end of any Universe.
35. Order
of appearance of the cycles of Universes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
Actual is developing number 4 (3+1), our Universe. Universe begins
from a simpler to a more complex entity.
36. Without
the time correction factor, the first Universe would be stopped
with no evolution, like a cosingularity, with no change. With the time
correction factor, the evolution was possible. Contraction of the first
Universe.
37. Differences
among space, time, and dimension. Dimension zero in
space-time doesn’t exist. But spatial dimension zero can exist, when
there is no development to obtain a length longer that the initial length.
Hook union between macrocosmos and microcosmos.
38. Frontier
dimensional Universes. Our Universe is 4 in space-time; and
has a direct relation with 3 and 5. Light and gravity in dimensional
Universe. Space always expanding or contracting FTL (faster than
light). Effects in a system moving close to the speed of light or in a
intense gravitational field, similar to time dilation and Lorentz
contraction.
39. Frontier
Universes with one-dimensional space-time Universe (0+1).
(0,0) or (∞,∞) can’t have any frontier. Relation with 2(1+1) and
8(7+1). Minimum wedge, completing 8 and forming 9th, or (8)+1st
dimension, the first Universe dimension of the second modulus.
40. Differences
between logarithmical and arithmetical values. Efficiency
of nature. 9th Universe is (8)+1st, or the first Universe of the second
modulus.
41. Reason
to complete 8th Universe with the 1st Universe of the second
modulus. 9th dimensional Universe is only a (8)+1 Universe.
42. 10th
will be fundamentally a string Universe. (8)+ 2. Explanation of
why in 10th dimensions (or in bigger dimensions of the string
sequence) are the superpartners necessary. Explanation why 10 is
clock-wise and 26 is counter-clockwise. Ingredients in the first
modulus. Secondary ingredients in the second modulus. Monopole or
zero branes.
43. Membranes
as fundamental ingredients in M-theory. Sequences of Mtheory. Why eleven dimension can unite the 5 types of Superstring
theory. Universes in expansion (even-numbered in space-time).
Universes in contraction (odd-numbered in space-time). Advantages of
Universes with even number in space-time like ours.
44. Development
of 12th Universe =(8)+ 4 (3+1). Theoretical existence of
particles inexistent in our world. 12th is a more complex Universe, the
second in the sequence of Universes like ours, whose valence is 4.
45. Formation
of moduli. Alternating ways: Shrinking and stretching in
the cycles of Universes. Movement is fundamental in the evolution of
Universes. Fractal dimension in Big Crush. Speed of light is constant
in a Universe, but changes with the dimensionality.
46. Hyperbolic
function when the Universe acts with constant speed of
light. Need to eliminate infinities and singularities in Physics.
Substitutive terms: cofinity (
); cozero or cosingularity (ø), where
the line means limit.
47. Theoretical
form of our Universe. Origin and destiny of our Universe.
48. Tendency
of our Universe to expand. Cosmological “constant”
(variable) and dark energy. Action of the gravity at enormous
distances. Hyperboloid (Two sheets). Our Universe is almost flat
(asymptotic). The curvature was more pronounced at the beginning.
49. Delay
in using of zero in mathematics. Delay in avoiding zero in
physical measures. Explanation of the fate of our Universe.
50. Fractal
dimension. Contraction phase of the former dimension and
expanding phase of the new dimension (Big Crush) in a parabolic way.
After it will come the Big Crunch.
51. Dimensional
modulus, with maximum and minimum limits. Figures.
Explanation about the wedge to complete 8th Universe and to form 9th
Universe =(8) + 1st of the second modulus.
52. First
Universe. Space-time. First Event or first Big Bang. Zero branes.
Time is the only dimension developed. Time and inverse time, both as
two parallel Universes. Non-commutative geometry. In brief: in the 1st
Universe: spatial dimension is zero; temporal dimension is one.
53. Dipoles
and monopoles: Impossibility to isolate a magnetic monopole
in our Universe. Magnetic monopole would be point particle, with no
mass, impossible to divide, different to the monopoles predicted by the
GUM theory. The 1st Universe, gives the basis fixing the charges of
the particles of our Universe.
54. Monopoles
formed in the 1st Universe, probably one in the positive
Universe and the antimonopole in the negative Universe. Each
Universe of the first modulus has entities plenty adapted to it. In the
next modulus there can exist other secondary entities,as anomalies.
55. First
Event and measures. Maximum time fixed for all the dimensional
Universes, as conventional unit. Period in the first Universe is smaller
than chronos. Maximum and minimum space limits are the only real
measure; the other measures in the first Universe are derived of our
normal concepts in the other ordinary Universes.
56. An
oscillating Universe, without change of number of dimensions,
cannot exist. Entropy always increases. Four fundamental laws for the
existence of an oscillating Universe. Explanations.
57. Expansion
out of any Big Bang. Contraction out of any Big Crunch.
Are smooth and regular, very low in entropy. Explanations. Entropy is
necessary to form a new spatial dimension. Black holes. Big Crush.
Increase of entropy and its disappearance. Explanations.
58. Process
in the 1st Universe, when the 2nd Universe is reached. Limits
of the 2nd Universe. Other Universes. More detail in our Universe.
59. Table
about process that forms dimensional modulus. Space-time
Universes from 1 until 8.
60. Graph
of the development of Universes (sketch). One modulus.
61. Measures
in the space-time Universes (From 1 to 8), in the first
modulus.
62. Time
of our Universe. Standard calculations. Astrophysical
calculations. Infinite Universes. Multiverses. Dimensional Universes
based in gravitational waves. Gravity and gravity bosons are the doors
of entrance or exit to any universe. Inexistent gravitational wave in
Higgs fields, except in the Big Bang.
63. Gravitational
energy is always negative. The gravitational field
contains negative entropy. Relation among different energies. The total
result is cozero, or almost zero energy. Increase in the mass of the
Universe. Speed of the expansion of the Universe is always faster than
light. The Cosmological “constant” decreases with time, the
mathematical value of the negative energy of it, increases with time.
Footing and foundations of human constructions. The Universe was
built in a completely different way. Efficiency of nature. Pre-Big Bang
scenario. Footing and foundations of our Universe. Each unit formed
by 8 cuboides, with Planck length. The dimensions in the Pre-Big Bang
scenario are completely flat, forming a wormhole with 2λp length. In
that way, footing and foundations of our Universe and the wormhole to
the antimatter Universe are the same thing, existing in any place of the
Universe, at Planck level.
1.
1.
Pre-Big Bang scenario. Perfect foundation and footing of our
Universe. Sub-Planck distances. Movement and mass. Expansion of
the number of Big Bang wormholes to our parallel Universe.
2.
Hyperbolic functions of the Universe. Hyperboloid of 2 sheets in our
Universe. Inflection point. Inefficient processes are unnatural.
Foundation and footing without change. Hyperbole formulas.
Squaroides and cuboides. Directions of space. Inflation and curvature
in the Universe.
3.
Causes of the inflation of the Universe. Objective of inflation: creation
of matter. Dilution of monopoles and perspectives about curvature, are
only apparent.
4.
Our Universe. Curvature and inflation. Curvature and time. Hyperbolic
character and curvature. Non zero space and curvature. Relation
between x and y in our apparent Universe. (2 spatial dimensions).
Difference between x2 and y2. λp2 as constant difference.
5.
Mass and space. Uncertainty principle in mass of particles of matter.
Cosmic mass and cosmic radius. Permanent constants of G, ℏ, c since
the beginning to the end of our Universe.
6.
Cosmological “constant” and density of vacuum. Change with time.
Minimum density and minimum value of Λ. Relation between density
of the Universe and its corresponding density, with Higgs fields.
7.
Values of πplus and πminus. Range of Higgs fields. Negative product
of kπ. Logarithmical division between macrocosmos and microcosmos.
8.
Symmetry between them. Division of cycles of 4π (3 and 3). Longer
space for leptons. 2 scales. Known and unknown scales.
9.
Hook relation in k-12π. Bigger masses for W±, Z0, and t±2/3 by this
interchange. Symmetry in both scales, logarithmically speaking.
10. Range
of known particles.
Value of πminus in k0π. Higgs field (modified). Value in πplus. Higgs
field (with bosons). Lengths of different modified Higgs fields.
11. Masses
of known particles.
Formula to obtain them theoretically. Relation between Planck mass
and weak boson, Higgs field mass.
12. Mass
of neutronio. Uses of k-12πminus.
13. Supposed
masses of the heavier scale.
14. Mathematical
relation between Higgs scale and cosmic scale.
Consideration about mass density of both.
15. Physical
relation between Higgs scale and cosmic scale. Average
density.
16. First
scale and the former relation. Formula λ2=Rαλp. Table of results.
17. Second
scale and the former relation. λ2=Rλp. Table of results.
18. Ways
to obtain those results. Minimum and maximum mass to
particles of matter. Maximum mass of our Universe.
19. Similar
procedure to get masses in both scales. Unified method and
efficiency. Exact values for microcosmos limits: 0.687289278 ≥ λ ≥
1.615979906x10-33 cm.
20. Logarithmical
way of nature. Similarity between extremely small and
extremely big. Changing our mind's point of view. Time and space
logarithmically symmetric, between macrocosmos and microcosmos.
In arithmetical values, macrocosmos and microcosmos are totally
different.
21. Normal
Higgs fields and Spontaneous symmetry breaking. Higgs
fields are scalar. Change of symmetry. Power of LHC collider.
Appearance of Higgs weak boson. Successes of Standard Model
theory, except in extremes. Particles of matter always have masses.
22. Higgs
boson gives masses only to the particles of force. Functions of
the Higgs weak boson. It is not the “god” particle.
23. Modified
Higgs fields. Masses of the particles of matter with the
appearance of the Higgs boson or without it. Theoretical calculation of
the mass of the electron.
24. Propositions
of the Standard Model about Higgs boson. Supposed
destruction of Higgs weak boson by heat. Higgs fields are abstract
space. Uses of the last values of the Higgs length to get matter in our
macrocosmos. Maximum length of a Higgs field. Same mechanism to
produce masses at any time.
25. Higgs
bosons are unstable. Symmetry breaking is necessary. Similar
condition to change phases in a substance. Latent heat similar to Higgs
bosons. Higgs bosons act according to their correspondent force.
26. Higgs
bosons act with πplus. Higgs weak boson and weak force. Total
mass of the field. One doublet in leptons and two doublets in quarks.
With any Higgs boson, its correspondent particles of force have
masses, except the photon.
27. Difference
between Planck scale and electroweak scale. Arithmetically
colossal. In logarithmical scale, it is only 2.
28. Level
of electromagnetic force. No Higgs boson in k-20π. Photon
accompanies the W and Z, to k-12πplus. 4 forces=3 bosons. Photino
doesn’t exist. BEC (Bose-Einstein-Condensate) of photon. 4 particles
of force: W+, W-, Z0, photon. According to the theory, only one Z0 and
one photon exist.
29. Microcosmos
range. Normal value: πplus, in horizontal relation. Slope
divides the microcosmos in 2 scales, using πminus and πplus. Detailed
graphs.
30. Order
of appearance of particles of matter. Uses of graphs and the
formulas. Graphic relation between πminus and πplus in k-12π. Hook
relation in both scales. Value of the fields in those points.
Backwards time travel. Penrose diagram about positive and a negative
Universe. Big Bang and centers of black holes. Wormholes between
both Universes. Maximum gravity of enormous masses, or lighter
particles approaching the speed of light; ways to use them.
31.
32. Accelerators
(colliders) as time machines for particles of matter.
Colliders, inverse process with the development of our Universe.
Microcosmos: two arrows of time. Macrocosmos: only one. Using
sophisticated and more powerful telescopes. Physical travel to future is
real; to the past, is impossible. Graph of arrows of time.
33. Axions
doesn’t exist. Its supposed mass is equivalent to electron
neutrino mass (approx. 1.13x10-14 GeV).
34. Proton
decay time is theoretically much longer that the life of our
Universe.
Existence in the heavier scale of another proton (heavy proton),
unstable, at level of GUT theory. Speed and our traditional technology.
The need to change our way of thinking radically.
35. Scale
of the heavier particles. Range of the heavy-proton decay, close
to the scale of X-force (1014 GeV and 10-29 cm.λ). Mass of the strong
Higgs bosons. Heavy pion. Heavy proton.
1.
Formation of particles since the Big Bang. Size of the Universe and
size
of known particles. 4 massed neutrinos. Neutronio as dark matter.
Gravity in a united mass of neutronios.
2.
Nonzero value of the cosmological “constant”.
Diminishes with time, but its energy increases with time. Formula.
3.
4 kinds of energy. Mass increases, but the final result is unchanged.
mc2, as universal formula, in each of the 4 energies.
4.
Experimental value of the Λ and the age of the Universe.
Different values between 13.4 Gyr ~ 14.7 Gyr. 1 Gyr is a minimal
fraction of the total time of the Universe.
1.
Importance over microcosmos time; and it is practically discarded in
arithmetical time (our time). Human arrogance.
2.
Mass of the Universe increases with time. Planck mass (or Planck
energy), double frontier.
3.
Relation of space and time with Λ. Cause of the Big Bang. Explosion
or silent expansion. Natural condition of any odd spatial dimension
Universe. Cosmological “constant” had, has and will have a non-zero
value.
Restrictions of the Universe.
New hook in maximum and minimum limits. Graphs. Values inverse
in one dimensional space-time Universe. Other derived restrictions.
Photon never changes. Graviton, particle that unites Universes. Gravity
related to dimensional Universes.
4.
5.
Higgs field equations. h and λ directly related. Higgs mechanism is
also active when λ is smaller.
6.
Graph according to Higgs field and its relation with λp. Wrong graph
considering that Higgs field is destroyed by heat.
7.
Value of Α, constant in Higgs formulas.
8.
Neutrinos interact with Higgs field; and gluons only in its heavier
state.
A graviton collapses the quantum wave. Particles have no gravity.
9.
Graph over the symmetry explanation of Higgs mechanism. Wrong
position about Planck scale. Superpartners masses cannot be very
much larger than Z. Insufficient room at disposal. It’s necessary to
extend the room.
10.
Energy of Higgs fields. Value of each field x n (number of Higgs
fields). E=nH. Higgs fields pervade all of space. Ranges of the Higgs
length.
11.
Values of Higgs fields. Graph. Higgs is destroyed by heat? Higgs
mechanism can make new matter even in the macrocosmos, but λ
cannot be larger than 0.687289278 cm. Analysis of how this relation
behaves.
12.
Energy density of vacuum and cosmological “constant”. Former
formula. Results in cm-2 and in s-2. Cosmological “constant” and its
relation with Ω.
13.
Microcosmos era. Natural logarithms of time in microcosmos and
macrocosmos. Differences. Mass in cosmic scale and in Higgs fields.
14.
Variability of the Hubble constant.
Different measurements. Age of the Universe.
Universe.
Λ
and the age of the
15.
Dark matter. Black holes, neutrinos, neutronio. The neutronios
couldn’t decay into normal matter, similarly as supposed with the LSP.
A possible decay, in ZZ and/or energetic photons. Electrically neutral
and with weak force influence only.
16.
Oscillating Universes, with technical difficulties. With change of
dimensions the difficulties disappear. Detail of difficulties. Quantum
multiverse, 10500 or even more. Gravitational Universes. Wormholes to
our parallel Universe. Wormholes to different dimensional Universes.
Black holes and different parallel Universes. Black holes communicate
with different sections of our parallel Universe.
17.
Age of the Universe. New calculations lead by astronomers.
Experimental value of Λ. Its exact result over the age of the Universe.
1.
Lot of astronomical and physical concepts that need to be elucidated.
The most important, to find the most exact experimental value of Λ.
1.
Einstein barrier only acts on matter. Cosmic space is always FTL. 44
or 22 billion light-years, distance of the cosmic radius R. Differences
in luminosity distance are different between matter and empty
Universe.
2.
Dimensions of the string. Actual suppositions and our position.
3.
Graphs over possible representations in minimum and maximum
limits, in dimensional modulus.
4.
String theory successful to avoid size 0 in Big Bang.
It is necessary to apply the same concepts in the center of black holes.
Our parallel Universe is a twin Universe. Sub-Planck distances don’t
exist, neither does size 0.
Each dimensional Universe has a corresponding λp (λp0, λp1, λp2 …)
5.
New phase of accelerated expansion or permanent acceleration.
Dark energy. Gravity acting at large distances. A force that’s always
attractive is against the thermodynamic principle. Attraction needs a
counterpart action with repulsion. Gravity acting inversely like the
Strong force.
6.
Primordial black holes in microcosmos era. Particles can never
transform into black holes.
7.
Approach to the multidimensional Universe. Gravitation is necessary
to do it. Gravitational waves predicted by General relativity. Difficult
to detect them. Their weakness and nature of spin 2 wave. Gravity and
the relation-communication with other dimensional Universes.
8.
Mass concentration in Big Bang and in medium black holes.
Cosingularity in the center of any black hole. Pores of cosmic space.
9.
The ergosphere, between static limit and event horizon of any black
hole, where energy could be extracted. (Penrose process). Creation of
virtual particles. Breaking them into two separated particles.
Antiparticles go inside the black hole and particles go to our Universe.
10.
Circular motion limit. 1.5 times the event horizon radius. Place where
the particle-antiparticle pair is divided. Interchange between matterantimatter with our parallel Universe. Increase of mass. Total energy
equilibrated by the same increasing values of positive energy and
negative energy. The relation, mass of the Universe, is double the
Schwarzschild mass of a black hole.
11.
Arithmetical calculation in the increase of mass. Circular motion ratio.
Particle-antiparticle pairs. Interchange with the parallel Universe.
12.
Black holes acting with gravitational waves. Quantum equation in the
center of a black hole. Inexistence of charged black holes. Gravity
collapses the quantum wave. Values of constants and variables of
nature. Formulas.
13.
Gravitational force is negative. Even with mass increasing, the
principle of conservation of energy is maintained without change. Four
energies of the Universe: two positive and two negative. Net increment
is zero. Change of these energies with time.
14.
Temperature of any black hole inversely proportional to its mass.
Emission of particles considering analogous temperature process
involving gravity.
15.
Standard Model particles no heavier the 103 GeV. Cosmic rays with
energies up 1011 GeV, containing very heavy particles. Human colliders
and natural colliders.
16.
Quantum foam and sub-Planck distance.
Infinities using zero length limits. Paradox of measure is not fixed by
length; it is fixed by mass. Quantum gravity and Planck length.
17.
Vibrational patterns and extremely heavy particles. Maximum mass for
the heaviest particle. Higgs gravitational boson, quadrupole of heavyquarks particles. Mass of neutrino 1. Its λ. Uncertainty principle and
masses of the particles. Matter with many times Planck mass, exist in
the cosmic space. Space is electrically neutral.
18.
The fabric of space cannot tear, until the Universe begins to develop
the four spatial dimension. Quantum mechanics, gravitationally
speaking only in the first chronos. In the Big Bang, space is only a
simple hole.
19.
Tear of space, superpartners, and travel to the past are physically
impossible. All the dimensions in different Universes have different
footings. Abysmal arithmetical differences between dimensions.
Macrocosmos and coherent gravitational waves. Quantum waves and
particles.
20.
Our parallel Universe is a twin Universe, with the same constants; and
with variables with same values and opposite sign.
Both Universes began and will end at the same time.
Difference of space between them 2λp (λp in each side). Creation of
particle-antiparticle pairs, 50%-50%. When they are joined, they are
destroyed immediately. Need to be separated. To increase matter
interchanged with our twin Universe. The destruction of 109 pairs to
get 1 particle or to send antimatter to the farthest sections of our same
Universe are failed processes. Black holes, keys of interchange matterantimatter. Chance conditions would conduce to the permanent
destruction of Universes, as annihilations of particles-antiparticles
pairs.
21.
Creation of 50%-50% particle-antiparticle pairs is common in our
Universe and in our twin Universe. Destruction and separation depends
on the distance of black holes. Super expensive cost to make
antimatter. System to deposit antimatter.
22.
Graph of our Universe and our parallel Universe. Antimatter falls in an
antiearth’s gravitational field and experiments repulsion or expansion,
at astronomical scales like our Universe. Gravity and particles.
Complete similarity between both Universes.
23.
Dimensional Universes gravitationally united.
The same Planck in our Universe and in our parallel Universe.
Different
Plancks
in
different
dimensional
Universes.
Multidimensional Universes, gravitationally speaking, are totally
different with supposed Universes that act with quantum mechanics
rules.
24.
Gravity in the beginning. Reversed gravity for a very short time or
permanent tendency to accelerated expansion. Attraction-repulsion,
universal principle. Big Bang (even space-time dimensions); Big
Crunch (odd space-time dimensions); Big Crush (fractal dimension,
between them) accelerated expansion phase, and accelerated
contraction phase, respectively.
25.
Fruitless search for the superpartners. Asymmetric relations about
masses. Time is almost over to find normal superpartners. There is no
much room to find them. Heavy partners instead of superpartners, or to
increase the available room to find the superpartners. Neutronio at 132
GeV, being the first of them.
26.
String theory, common points to unite the forces. 1015K (electroweak);
1028K (strong); 1032K (gravity) diagrams. Higgs bosons and supposed
mass.
27.
Differences among masses of known particles. Higgs effects different
among masses. Higgs weak boson and other 2 symmetric bosons. Real
jobs of Higgs weak boson. Its mass needs to be heavier than all the
particles of the Standard Model. Higgs weak boson joined the quarks
by means of the weak force, doesn't form mesons.
28.
Reciprocal relation between maximum and minimum space or between
wounded and winding mode. Constant k=1cm2
α = 0.472366552 cm2; n=3 and 28 components; String theory avoids
singularities, eliminating point particles. Universes, dimensions and
footings, relations.
29.
Grand unification MGUT 1016.1±0.3 GeV or 1016±0.35 GeV.
30.
Gravitational scale needs to be close to GUT theory values. Higgs
weak boson accessible to the power of LHC. The other 2, at energies
for a long time inaccessible.
31.
Higgs weak boson gives mass to the particles of force. W+, W-, Z0 and
not to the particles of matter. Room at disposal for superpartners is
very small. It’s necessary to increase it.
32.
Information is never lost. There is no singularity at the center of a
black hole. Minimum length λp. Inward line has a correspondent line,
creating an exact inverse process. Black hole as interchange of matter,
duplicating it.
33.
Difference in natural wormholes (to travel to our parallel Universe)
and artificial wormholes, impossible to access physically, to travel to
multidimensional Universes. Travel to the past with our physical body
is impossible. To accept dimensions bigger than 4 is a big triumph of
the Superstring theory. A renovated and invigorated String theory
needs to appear.
34.
All the material objects are composed of bits of information.
Fundamental bit. Information is dependent on its area.
λp2=2.611391055x10-66 cm2. It will never be destroyed. Key of the
chain.
35.
The Big Bang was formed from only one fundamental bit of
information, attached to another, in our parallel Universe.
Pre-quarks theory (A, B, K,
).
36.
Variety of the masses of the particles. Pattern fixed in the Big Bang.
Heavier particles and light particles, around 1016, the conversion factor.
37.
Masses of particles of matter with a perfect design and sequence. Basic
use of the uncertainty principle. Impossibility for particles of matter
without mass to exist. Particles of force with zero and non-zero mass at
rest. LHC energy is only relatively big, but is totally negligible
according to the energy of Planck mass. Mathematically is √(λp) or in
logarithmical terms is 1/2, but their arithmetical values are totally
different.
38.
Age of our Universe. Units of information (bits) of the Universe in this
moment. Difference with the Big Bang, inversely equal to Λ.
Calculations of the age of the Universe, increasing and decreasing in
our Universe, even with the same researchers.
39.
Pre-quarks forming leptons and quarks. Leptons and quarks never will
be divided. Using big gravity, the pre-quarks, could be detected.
Theoretical concepts about this topic. Charges of particles according to
the spatial dimensional Universe. Types of pre-quarks. Particles
formed. Total charge of sum of particles = 0. Total charge of sum of
antiparticles = 0. Possibility to form new structures using arithmetical
balances of pre-quarks: A, B, K,
40.
.
Numbers of pre-quarks exactly equal in both sides of the equation. Use
of pairs of energy: AB, K , or photons. Change of a group to the
other. The β decays production of an antiparticle, even some
nominations call it “neutrino”. Some combinations.
41.
Prequarks. Similar theory proposed in the 1970s. Kind of force that
binds the preons together, inside quarks and leptons. Differences
according to dimensional Universes. Impossible to have real strings in
our Universe. Dimensions of string are 2, 10, 26… but never 4. Only 3
spatial dimensions in our Universe and in the particles inherent with it.
42.
D’branes in String theory. Ekpyrotic model about the origin of our
Universe. Collision of D’branes. Disappearance of entropy. Low
entropy at the Big Bang. Thermal state and gravitational state.
43.
Nature prefers economy and efficiency. Cofinite variety using simple
formulas. Complex structures. Only one family. Different repetitions
form derived families, only changing their size, like photocopies. λ and
mass. Microcosmos time. Logarithmical time. Known and almost
unknown scale: t, b, W, Z, and Higgs weak boson use the “unknown”
scale.
44.
Nature abhors the vacuum.
Aether theory. Einstein showed that ether was “unnecessary”, but
never said that ether doesn’t exist. Possibility of its existence in fractal
dimensions and in Universes with more dimensions. Space is never
completely empty. Speed of light in different dimensions. String theory
and multidimensional Universes.
45.
Collapse of the wave function. Mass measure as paradox of measure.
Each pole of the gravitational quadrupole. Point of direct gravitational
force and some gravitational effect around that point. Quantum gravity.
Separation of General Theory of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics.
46.
Superstring theories are formulated in a flat ten dimensional space.
Necessity to improve the String theories even if the superpartners
don’t appear. Good information than needs to be rescued. Dimensional
modulus. Footing of the dimensions. Flat condition of the Pre-Big
Bang scenario. Inexistence of masses in the Pre-Big Bang scenario.
First chronos and curved space. Generations (or families) of particles.
Mass in particles and in cosmic space. Dimensions of string.
Maintaining the moduli even if the dimensions are developing.
47.
Compactified space in String theory. Relation between mass and
space. Particles with colossal masses just at the Big Bang and around
it. Two scales. Higgs weak boson is not “our creator”, giving mass to
all the particles of matter. Using logarithmical measures, the
differences are negligible.
48.
Outside of our Universe. Maximum limit. Actual distance, h and R, in
our Universe. Vacuum with limits. Space as fundamental unit of the
Universes. Vacuum without limits, outside of any physical Universe.
Infinities and singularities, in any physical world, are absurdities.
49.
Early Universe was opaque. Travel of photons. Condition of our
Universe. Black holes separating particle-antiparticle pairs. Reduction
of space through gravity. Neutrinos 1, 2, 3, and if neutronio exists, they
are dark matter. Halos around galaxies.
50.
Functions of black holes. Entropy and bits of information of the
Universe. Two tendencies to zero entropy (almost zero). Laws of
thermodynamics also must consider gravitational effects.
51.
Dark energy and cosmological “constant”. Permanent expansion and
recollapse of our Universe. Dimensional change. Hyperbolic and
parabolic processes. Maximum mass and volume and minimum
density. Density of vacuum energy to the end of Universe, equivalent
to a sea of neutrino fields.
52.
Minimum entropy in Big Bang and Big Crunch. Entropy increases
when Universe is stretching or shrinking. Big Bang and Big Crunch
and symmetry conditions, with cozero entropy.
53.
Dimension, like λ, “degrees of freedom”. Time and space intertwined.
Cofinities and cosingularities. Plural infinities is a double absurdity,
and it doesn't exist in any physical world, neither in metaphysical
concepts. Point particles are inexistent.
54.
Differential geometry. Our sub-Planck distances exist in other worlds
with larger number of dimensions. Particles according to Standard
Model and Superstring theory. Masses according to them. Infinite
curvature and infinite density are inexistent in any physical Universe.
Particles are not simple points. Mass 0 of particles, is during the
absence of particles; if they exist, mass appears.
55.
Curvature of a sphere is inversely proportional to the squared radius.
This concept depends on the standpoint of the observer. If the observer
increases in size in the same scale, the curvature of the sphere is the
same. Universe is hyperbolic. The change of its curvature is intrinsic to
its nature.
56.
Calabi-Yau. With beauty and mathematical inspiration is adapted to
the Standard Model. Calabi-Yau manifold with an Euler characteristic
6 or -6, is equivalent to 3 families (1/2 x 6). But if there are 2 realities,
the Euler characteristic would be 6 and -6. And so, there would exist
1/2 (6+6)=6 families.
57.
Calabi-Yau accommodates to support only 3 families of particles. A
bigger room is necessary to contain the heavy-partners or try to
accommodate the super-partners (if they exist) in the same places. How
will they come? Subject to wait. Heavier particles approximately
1x1016 heavier.
58.
π minus: lighter scale; π plus: heavier scale; except in k-12π where
there exists a “hook union”. Masses of the heavy partners. It is
absolutely necessary to eliminate the restriction of the Standard Model
about Higgs field and heat.
59.
M theory in 11 dimensions, 5 String theories together.
String theory in 10 dimensions, because it’s easier to work with. Seven
dimensional manifold cannot be complex. Evolution of dimensional
Universes. All the dimensions eventually unwind and open up, but the
modulus, will always continue to exist. Standard Model in an eightdimensional modulus. Physical study needs to reach the geometrical
and mathematical development.
60.
Black holes are a kind of dark matter, but they deposit a tiny fraction
of the mass of the Universe. It is necessary to incorporate a new
heavier particle. The supposed LHP, the Neutronio, could be the
solution.
61.
Eigenstates of our Universe with 2 limits. Kaluza-Klein graviton
acquires mass at k-24π. Masses at k-12π, where both scales connect.
Diagram.
62.
Sizes of dimensions. Some bigger, some smaller. Sizes of dimensions
from Universe 1 to Universe 4 (in space-time). We can see only 3
spatial dimensions in our world. Gravity, the only force that
communicates among branes. Gravitational experiments, using big
gravity and big pressure, to see the supposed pre-quarks.
63.
Masses of particles. ℏ/cλ=m. Cosmic scale Rc2/G=M calculations.
Broglie wavelength. Minimum length, using only theoretical terms or
using experimental results.
64.
Influences on our Universe from the extradimensional Universes,
especially in λ, and in consequence, in mass. 8 dimensional modulus
instead of 10. Some different results with extradimensional influence
or without it.
65.
More or fewer spatial dimensions are impossible to see in our
Universe. We can see only apparent fewer dimensions. Monopoles,
cosmic string and domain walls don’t exist in our Universe. It is
impossible to separate pre-quarks. Hyperforce, the same force that
forms our Big Bang in 3 spatial dimensions, is the same force that
unites the prequarks. Other properties explained.
66.
Cosmic rays at energies of more than 1011 GeV. They aren’t protons
whose energy at rest is approximately 1 GeV. Those particles are
unknown particles, probably neutronio (3) equivalent to 3x1010 GeV,
but unstable. Neutronio 1 and 2. It is necessary a new scale: heavier
scale.
67.
Smooth phase transition or second order phase transition, and the first
phase transition. λ determines the different influences of the Higgs
mechanism. Different temperature. Change of state of matter or change
of symmetry at the same temperature. Higgs bosons in 3 points (k-24π,
k-22π, k-12π).
68.
Particles of matter have no real gravitational waves. Hierarchy
problem. Enormous differences simplified using logarithmical scale.
With the LHC, the Higgs weak boson and probably the lightest heavy
partner, a neutral particle, that we named neutronio will appear. And no
more.
69.
Standard Model is a low-energy approximation. It is successful to
identify particles of matter, that aren’t too light nor too heavy. Steven
Weinberg’s mass of neutrino, approximately exact. Other
considerations about neutrinos.
70.
Standard Model considers almost all of the lighter scale (without
neutrinos) and includes a small part of heavier scale (where the Higgs
weak boson is formed). Only the heavier scale has 3 Higgs bosons and
in those moments the particles of force acquire mass, examples: the
known W+, W-, and Z0 and the unknown, graviton and gluon, with
mass.
71.
Gravitational waves carry detailed information of the emitter.
Coherent, transverse and traceless. Graph about a quadrupole. Range of
the hyperforce. Fundamental blocks needs 3 “strings” to exist. Prequarks (or preons) are fundamental, although in hidden structures, and
a real “interaction point”.
72.
Sphere of influence of hypergravity. Approximate mass of unstable
heavy proton and the stable normal proton. Heavy protons don’t form
complex structures. Stability of our macroscopic world. Violation of
the lepton and Baryon number conservation in the second scale; but
maintaining it in the first scale and in consequence, the stability of
aggregated matter. Neutronio, ideal candidate to form dark matter.
73.
Minimum mathematical calculations in this book. Fundamental
formulas: Einstein formula E=mc2 in our world of 3 spatial dimensions
and Euler formula eiπ+1=0 for all dimensional Universes. And CotterEuler formula eθ=cosθ+isenθ. Conversion of complex equations into
real equations. 2 position eigenstate: vibration mode and winding
mode. Minimum and maximum length. Space and time are not 2
separated entities. Degrees of freedom. Code of dimensions of string.
First package. Explanation of why 10 and 26 are the dimensions of
string. Our Universe, 4th in space-time is not a Universe of strings.
74.
Each dimensional modulus has 8 dimensions. Self-dual lattices only
occur in 8 dimensions or in multiples of 8. The Universe didn’t begin
with 10 dimensions. Modalities about strings, valences and
dimensional Universes.
75.
"Simple particles with no structure" is to accept the existence of pointparticles. Each particle has a sub-structure of 3 virtual strings. String
theory already considered a three-string vertex. Graphic interaction
point curvature, with hypergravity. Big Bang is everywhere in our
Universe. Collision distance (λ) to get masses.
76.
Gravitational waves and electromagnetic waves are always moving at
the same speed, c. Real world where all the matter moves at velocities
smaller than the speed of light. Advanced, retarded, and normal waves.
Cosmic radius or gravitational radius, stretching always FTL. Apparent
velocity with an imaginary fixed point. Real movement of the
macrocosmos. Real movement of any object on the Earth is complex.
Some real gravitational effects in particles, only in heavier particles,
around Planck length.
77.
Travel to the past impossible for macrocoscopical objects. Time
traveling is physically permitted, but only to the future. Impossible to
return in our physical body. Traveling to the past of particles of matter
is only a difference about time; it is only possible to travel in the
opposite frame of reference. Messages to the past, also impossible.
78.
Travel to distant regions of space, using wormholes. Kind of
wormholes: size too small for macroscopical objects. Some
considerations about particles.
79.
Big curvature at the beginning of the Universe. Curvature, right now,
negligible, but never flat. Minimum limits are longer, when the number
of dimensions is less. In maximum limit it is the opposite. The distance
between two points is shorter, when the number of dimensions
increases. Different kinds of dimensional Universes.
80.
The Universe will die in a determined moment. If it is partially
destroyed it is possible to travel to other places. But at the collapse of
the Universe there is no place to travel. Multidimensional travels need
wormholes smaller than Planck length, and that is impossible. Our
physical entity cannot survive in other dimensional Universe. Time of
destruction of our Universe is far away. Time is logarithmic and so, a
new very tiny of fraction of it is more than the sum of all its past time.
81.
Standard Model uses (SU)3 symmetry, and the proton is stable. GUT
theory uses (SU)5 and the proton is unstable. GUT energy is
considered at around 2.22x1016 GeV and λ
10-31 cm, where normal
protons don’t exist, neither do massless protons do. An unstable heavy
partner of the proton is necessary to consider. Heavy scale with other 3
families of particles.
≅
82.
Enormous quantity of gates to our parallel Universe (which is only
one) and not, an enormous quantity of parallel Universes. Our parallel
Universe needs to be a twin Universe. Impossibility of a
multidimensional travel. Permanent non-zero value of the cosmological
“constant”.
83.
3 virtual strings representing 3 degrees of freedom.
Uses of colossal energy or enormous gravitational force, could see
these “strings”, united at their interaction point. Particles in movement
and at masses smaller than Planck mass. The prequarks almost
stopped, united in a real “interaction point”. The force that joins them
is a “hyperforce” or “hypergravity”. Graphs.
84.
Spherical “volume” and spatial dimensions. Formulas to obtain it.
Results from 0 spatial dimension to 7 (1~8 in space-time). Outside of 0
and 1 spatial dimension, all the “volumes” exhibit a curvature. It is
necessary to use straight objects. Pre-Big Bang scenario. Details about
dimensional Universes.
85.
Fraction of package of the Universes. Relation between straight
“volume” and spherical volume. Straight figures as fundamental brick
of the foundation of our Universe. Graphs.
86.
Relation among conditions according to time. Time-symmetrical
dynamical determinism. In the Big Bang, the entire tendency for future
evolution is fixed. The first bit of information will never be destroyed.
Time-reversal symmetry is true for classic mechanics and particles,
consider the overall behavior of the system.
87.
Even if nature abhors the vacuum; energy and matter are
discontinuous. There exists visible spaces apparently empty. Examples.
Energies that join multidimensional moduli are gravitational.
88.
Universe works with jumped and quantified space. It is impossible to
form Universes with every dimension (Quantum jumps). First
modulus. Fundamental ingredients of the first modulus: first sequence
Universes. The second sequence has much more room than Universes
of the first sequence. Secondary elements or anomalies in the second
and the following sequences.
89.
Table of dimensional Universes (number of dimensions in space-time).
Permitted Universes and non-valid Universes, considering the moduli
permitted and dimensions accepted. More complex structures. All of
them need time to complete.
90.
10 and 26 dimensions, they are second and third in the sequence of
string worlds. 226 dimensions, is the first in the sequence of the second
package.
Code: 4n2-4n+2 or the square of odd numbers plus one. The string
Universe like our Universe has an odd spatial dimension, and in
consequence both began with a small Big Bang. Each Universe has its
own physical entities. The 3-spatial structure was formed in the PreBig Bang scenario. Big Bang energy in that time.
91.
Jumps in the Universes' reality.
Coherent sequences of Universes. Gravity: weaker, when increasing
the dimensions or weaker at longer distances. Graph with validated
and invalidated dimensional moduli. Hook union between the
dimensional packages.
92.
Known scale and separation of particles. Leptons and different
combinations of quarks. Excited heavy state. Leptons use more than
2/3 of the length of the scale. Every quark and their combinations are
constituted in the last circle. Sequence divided into 3 circles of 4π
each. Sub-divisions of them. Resonances and excitations. π is not a
complete frequency. 2π is necessary, or multiples of it. Section e-11π,
place where most of the particles are derived. Different combinations.
93.
Masses of the known quarks. Light and “heavy” quarks. Combinations
and states of excitation. Range of k-11π.
94.
Energy in systems at constant volume and mass. Energy in cosmic
space. Big Bang is not a state of bigger cosmic energy. There is more
energy in the present Universe at 2.7K, even if in the Big Bang the
temperature was 1032 K. Intimate relation between Big Bang and black
holes. Black holes don’t act as deposits of mass. Microcosmos can
form particles, but in determined points, according to the jumping
system of nature. 6 families of particles, instead of 3. Corrected graph
of Higgs fields.
95.
Hubble “constant” is variable, like the Cosmological “constant”.
Both change continuously with time, decreasing their values. Action
and reaction is a fundamental physical principle. Direct relation
between Hubble “constant” and Cosmological “constant”.
Mathematical formula. Time of the Universe, much larger than 1/H,
because of its accelerated expansion.
96.
Static limit. Schwarzschild radius or Event horizon. Circular motion
radius in black holes. Graph. Center of black hole is not a singularity.
The consigularity existed at Big Bang and in the center of any black
hole. Virtual Schwarzschild radii of the particles are double the
collision distance.
97.
Supposed composition of Higgs weak boson. Other Higgs bosons:
strong and gravitational. Heavier scale at k-23π. Repetition of excited
states.
98.
Symmetry breakdown gives masses to the gauge bosons; and these
bosons give masses to the particles of force.
Higgs bosons use two doublets in scalar vector. GUT indirectly
predicts heavy quarks and 3 new families of particles of matter. One
family is enough in our macroscopic world, but the other families, are
only "photocopies". Compton wavelength, collision distance, Higgs
length, and scattering distance are similar terms. Higgs field forming a
Higgs ocean that is composed by a lot of Higgs fields, except in the
Big Bang, where there was only one Higgs field. Microcosmos time
and macrocosmos time are similar terms for nature.
99.
Graphs about two scales of Higgs fields. In Higgs equation m3/c2 > A.
If it is correct for lighter particles, it is correct for heavier particles.
Maximum mass of particles has a limit, conditioned by λp, the
minimum length. Maximum mass of a particle is mp/√(8π).
100.
Quarks in k-11π and k-12π. In k-12π have 2 points: πminus and πplus.
k-11π has enough room to accommodate all the mesons and baryons
heavier than the pions, and in whose formation are not incorporated
mesons with t and b. Incorporate resonances and excited states.
101.
Standard Model is a scale of lighter particles and GUT’s scale of
heavier particles.
Values of πplus and πminus. 3 different graphs about 2 different values
of k-12π, where there exists a “hook union”. Reduced range over the
Higgs weak boson mass 384.88 GeV ≤ Higgs weak boson ≤ 482.4 GeV.
On the other scale, 331.55 GeV is the supposed neutronio field, whose
mass is around 132 GeV. Relation e0.375 between masses of k-12π in
both scales.
102.
Opera neutrino anomaly at CERN. FTL Mu neutrinos. Special theory
of relativity is solid, but FTL neutrinos exist. Minos experiment at
Chicago. The results are in doubt. Theoretical possibility of FTL
neutrinos.
103.
Experimental neutrinos in Supernova 1987A. Suggested FTL
neutrinos. To reach the speed of light or to obtain ∞ mass is
impossible. Other limits necessary to consider. Neutrinos try to avoid
reaching c, and in consequence, ∞ (infinite) mass, but use quantum
mechanics, solving problem.
104.
Quantum Mechanics and Special Theory of Relativity. Mass and speed
formula. 4 solutions. The last solution, in an apparent FTL way, we
need to put the formula in square form.
105.
Matter, according to the Special Theory of Relativity, obeys the light
speed limit, but there is no restriction for space. Parallel Universe of
antimatter.
1.
-m2 has 3 solutions: +(mi)2; (-mi)2, and (m)(-m). 2 imaginary roots,
and a product with two real values with opposite sign. A neutrino can
reach an FTL motion, but close to barrier, using particle-antiparticle
pairs and our parallel Universe.
1.
Possibility to propel large objects faster the light barrier is null. On
particles is possible, although FTL travel or FTL signaling is
impossible. Impossibility for any particle to reach exactly the speed of
light. Quantum mechanics accept the possibility to pass the light
barrier, avoiding it but never reaching it, by means of tunneling effect.
2.
In Quantum mechanics, our concept of reality is vanished. Quantum
processes: quantum annihilation; quantum creation, quantum
tunneling, quantum jumping, quantum duality, quantum connection.
3.
Quantum mechanics is completely proven, but our macroscopical
world must forever remain classical.
Two wrong positions: to apply quantum mechanics in classical world
and to not consider Quantum mechanics in the microcosmos.
Examples: to use it in multidimensional Universes and forgetting to
use it as an explanation for FTL neutrinos.
4.
Quantum mechanics permits two directions of time.
Particles and antiparticles are coexistent. Two possibilities in FTL
motion: Tachyons and antiparticles. Tachyons probably don’t exist in
our world. Antiparticles have a proven real existence. Quantum
connection explained with particle-antiparticle action. Retarded and
advanced waves. Slower, but almost c; and faster, but almost c.
Passing to other side by mean of tunneling effects.
5.
The light barrier has two sides.
According to the Opera experiment, the FTL neutrino is an advanced
wave, related to a retarded wave. (1.000024574c and 0.999975426c).
Particle-antiparticle pair in our world, can be separated in a retarded
wave (in our world) and an advanced wave (in the parallel Universe).
Tachyons are inexistent in our world, because always need to travel
FTL and they have no retarded wave. An antiparticle traveling
backwards in time can be reinterpreted as a particle traveling forwards
in time. The 2 waves always occur in pairs, and can be released, with a
relation with our Universe of antimatter.
6.
Both waves have an intimate relation. The average is always c. the
average is applied to λ, it is an abstract space. Graph, where c>v
(particle); v>c (antiparticle). Higgs length uses c.
7.
Explanation about quantum connection. Explanation using our parallel
Universe.
8.
Antiparticle-particle pair similar to advanced-retarded waves. Particles
always produced in pairs. Both waves or particles linked together in
our same world. Antiparticles can be seen and measured as traveling
FTL or traveling back in time (to the past) in the neutrino detectors, but
in its own frame or reference, they travel from past to the future. The
inverse process is also true.
9.
Table considering increasing c and increasing mass. Speed of neutrinos
and massic limits reached. The relation between mass and velocity is
correct but it needs new limits (much before the impossibility to reach
the speed of light) to apply it.
10.
Range of the maximum acceleration of mu-neutrino to reach a
correspondent FTL wave: 0.999995c > v > 0.9998c. The correspondent
advanced wave would be between 1.000005c and 1.00020004c.
11.
Neutrino has almost no reaction with matter. Particles, especially
leptons, cannot distinguish between past direction and the future.
Two ways to go to our twin Universe: increasing colossally the mass
through black holes or traveling in a FTL connection. FTL neutrino
has extra energy, and needs to lose energy rapidly. It realizes an
interchange with our parallel Universe. Graphs. Our momentaneous
FTL travel to the past (the immediate future of the antimatter
Universe), and an equivalent neutrino, FTL, in the other Universe,
comes to its “past”, or our future. By losing energy they are converted
into normal neutrinos.
12.
FTL neutrinos doesn’t open the time travel possibility, neither time
signaling. Explanations.
13.
Quantum connection doesn’t qualify as a causal connection and it is
not in conflict with Special theory of relativity. Any Quantum
connection, even sending FTL neutrinos, are changed in the parallel
Universe, to a retarded wave, forward from the past to the future; and
vice versa.
14.
In accelerators, it is possible to obtain leptons yielding a speed FTL.
The acceleration needs to have a minimum value to excite the particle,
and not too big, in order not to produce an advanced wave too adjusted
and impossible to test.
15.
Some consideration about Special theory of Relativity and Quantum
mechanics rules. Impossibility to use quantum connection in
macroscopic objects, as the human body. Consideration on the particles
and FTL motion.
16.
Experiment with electrons in SLAC. Its top speed was farther to the
maximum limit to find the FTL effect. The advanced wave was only
2.5 cm/s faster than speed of light, impossible to test. Definitely is
better to work with neutrinos. Opera experiment at CERN had the
special values to obtain momentaneously FTL neutrinos, but its
results are in doubt. In any way, it is theoretically possible to find FTL
neutrinos, but with restrictions.
17.
Nobel prize in physics 2011, a deserved price. The experimental
values were exact. The Universe is in an accelerated expansion. But the
Universe will eventually collapse.
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editorial hispano americana-1965
Ray Skinner-Relativity for Scientists and Engineers-Canada -Dover Publications-1969
Colin A. Román-Secretos del Cosmos-Londres-Biblioteca Básica Salvat-1969
Benjamin Bold-Famous Problems of Geometry and How to solve them-New York-Dover
Publications, Inc.-1969
P.D. Ouspensky-A New Model of the Universe-New York-Vintage Books-1971
Mario Bunge-Filosofía de la Fisica-Holanda-Ariel-1973
E.F. Shumacher-Small is beautiful - Economics as if people mattered-New York-Perennial
Library-1973
Henry Semat - Philip Baumel-Fundamentos de Física-México-Interamericana-1974
Peter Gabriel Bergmann with a Foreword by Albert Einstein-Introduction to the THEORY
OF RELATIVITY-New York-Dover-1976
Danielle Hemmert & Alex Roudene-Universos Paralelos-Bogotá-Ariel Esoterica-1976
Pablo Marni-El Universo en la Tierra-Buenos Aires-Editorial Caymi-1976
David McMahon-Quantum Mechanics, demystified-New York-McGraw- Hill-1976
Steven Weinberg-The First Three Minutes-United States of América-BasicBooks-1977
Robert M. Wald-Space, Time, and Gravity-United States of América-Chicago-1977
David Tansley -Mensajeros de la luz-Madrid, España-Edaf-1977
Nigel Calder-Einstein's Universe -New York-Penguin books-1979
J.C. Willmott- Física Atómica-México D.F.-Limusa-1980
Carl Sagan-Cosmos-New York-Planeta-1980
John Boslough-Stephen Hawking's Universe-New York-Avon Book's-1980
Philip J. David & Reuben Hersh-The Mathematical Experience-Boston-Houghton Mifflin
Company Boston-1981
Harald Fritzsch-QUARKS- The Stuff Of Matter-New York-BasicBooks-1983
Stan Gibilisco-Understanding Einsteins's Theories of Relativity- Man's New Perspective
on the Cosmos-New York-Dover-1983
Paul Davies-God & The New Physics-New York-Toushstone, Simon & Shuster-1983
Timothy Ferris-The Red Limit- the search for the edge of the Universe-New York-Quill1983
Albert Einstein-Sidelights on Relativity-New York-Dover Publications-1983
Paul Davies-Superforce-New York-Toushstone, Simon & Shuster-1984
Harald Fritzsch-The Creation of Matter- The Universe Beginning to the end-GermanBasicBooks-1984
Isaac Asimov-Contando los Eones-New York-Plaza & Janes-1984
Ilya Prigogne and Isabelle Stengers-Order Out Of Chaos - Man's new dialogue with
Nature-New York-Batam Books-1984
John Gribbin-In Search of Schödinger's - Quantum Physics and Reality-United States and
Canada-A Bantam New Age Book-1984
Georges Ifrah-From one to Zero- A Universal History of Numbers-New York-Peguin
Books-1985
K, Eric Drexler-Engines of Creations - The coming era of nanotechnology-New YorkAnchor Press Doubleday-1986
Michael Talbot-Beyond the Quantum-Toronto, New York, London, Sydney, AucklandBatam Books-1986
Jean K. Foster-The God-Mind Connection-Kansas-Uni-Sun /Stillpoint-1986
Marcia Bartusiak-Enigmas del Universo-Madrid, España- Espasa mañana-1986
James Gleick-Chaos-Making a New Science-United States of America-Peguin Books-1987
Michael Riordan-The Huting of the Quark-United States of America -Touchstone, Simon
& Shuster-1987
Stephen Hawking and Werner Israel-300 Years of Gravitation-United States of América Cambrige University Press-1987
Neil McAleer - Omni Space Almanac-New York-An Omni Book-1987
George Greenstein-The Symbiotic Universe-United States of America-Pandora/ Maria
Epes-1988
F. David Peat-Superstrings and the Search for the theory of Everything-United States of
America-Contemporary Books-1988
Paul Davies-The cosmic blueprint-New York-Touchstone, Simon & Shuster-1988
Nick Herbert, Ph.D.-Faster Than Light-Superluminal Loopholes In Physics-Canada-Pekin
Books-1988
Eric Chaisson-Relatividad, Agujeros Negros y el destino del Universo-Barcelona, EspañaPlaza & Janes-1988
Barry Parker-Creation-New York-Plenum Press-1988
Fred Alan Wolf-Parallel Universes - the search for other worlds-New York-Touchstone,
Simon & Shuster-1988
F. David Peat-Superstrings and the search for the theory of everything-United States of
America-Contemporary books-1988
J.P. Holman-Thermodynamics-Boston-McGraw- Hill-1988
Owen B. Hardy & R. Clayton McWhorter-Management Dimensions - New Challenges of
the Mind-United States of America-An Aspen Publication-1988
Stephen Hawking-HISTORIA DEL TIEMPO-México D.F.-Editorial Critica-1988
Fred Alan Wolf-Parallel Universe-New York-Simon & Shuster-1988
Barry Parker-Invisible Matter and the Fate of the Universe-United States of AméricaPlenum-1989
Tony Rothman-Science á la Mode -Physical fashions and fictions-New Jersey-Princeton1989
Bernard Dixon-From Creation to Chaos - Classic Writings in Science-United States of
América-Blackwell-1989
Leon M. Lederman and David N. Schramm-From Quarks to the Cosmos-New YorkScientific American Library - Paperbacks-1989
Paul Davies-The New Physics-United Kingdom-Cambridge University Press-1989
Jerome Clayton Glenn-Future Mind: Artificial Intelligence-Washington D.C,-Acropolis
Books-1989
B. Alan Wallace-Choosing Reality-Boston & Shafterbury-New Science Library -1989
John L. Casti-Paradigms Lost-New York-Avon Books-1989
Royston M. Roberts-Serendipity - Accidental Discoveries in Science-Canada-Wiley-1989
Ivars Peterson-Islands of Truth - A mathematical mystery cruise-United States of AméricaFreeman-1990
John A, Wheeler- Into Gravity and Spacetime-New York-Scientific American Library Paperbacks-1990
David Layzer-Cosmogénesis-New York-Oxford-1990
Stan Gibilisco-En busca del Infinito- Rompecabezas, Paradojas y enigmas.-Madrid,
España-McGraw-Hill-1991
Michael Talbot-The Holographic Universe-New York-Harper Perennial-1991
Steven Weinberg-Dreams of a final theory-United States of América-Vintage-1992
Paul Davies-The Mind of God-New York-Simon & Shuster Paperbanks-1992
Peter G. Bergmann-The Riddle of Gravitation-New York-Dover-1992
John Gribbin-Unveiling the Edge of Time-New York-Crown Trade Paperbacks-1992
Isaac Asimov-Atom Journey across the subatomic cosmos.-New York-Plume Books-1992
Paul Halpern-El tiempo imperfecto - En busca del destino y significado del cosmos España-McGraw-Hill-1992
Edwin F. Taylor-Space Time Physics-New York-W.H. Freeman and Company-1992
George Smoot and Keay Davison-Wrinkles in Time-New York-Morrow-1993
Federick J. Keller/ W. Eduard Gettys/ Malcolm J. Skove-Physics - Second Edition-New
York-McGraw-Hill, Inc.-1993
I.I. Gol'dmand and V.D. Krivchenkov-Problems in Quantum Mechanics-London-Dover1993
Stephen Hawking-Black Holes and Baby Universes and other Essays-United States and
Canada-Bantam Books-1993
Robin Marantz Henig-A Dancing Matrix-New York-Vintage Books-1993
Daniel McNeill and Paul Feiberger-Fuzzy Logic - The Revolutionary Computer
Technology that is changing our world-New York - London-Touchstone Book-1993
David Lindley-The end of Physics - The Myth of a unified theory-New York-BasicBooks1993
Martin Gardner-The New Ambidextrous Universe-New York-Freeman-1994
Michio Kaku-Hyperspace-New York-Oxford-1994
Stephen Hawking-Agujeros Negros y Pequeños Universos-México-Editorial Planeta-1994
Albert S. Schwarz-Topology for Physicists-USA-Springer-1994
Kips. Thorne-Black Holes & Time Warps - Einstein’s Outrageous legacy-New York and
London. Norton & company-1994
Paul Davies-About the Time-United States of America- Touchstone, Simon & Shuster-1995
Michio Kaku & Jennifer Thompson-Beyond Einstein-United States of America-Anchor
Books-1995
J.P. Mc Evoy and Oscar Zarate-Introducing Stephen Hawking-United States of AméricaTotem-1995
Rudy Rucker-Infinity and the Mind-New Jersey-Princeton-1995
Robert H. March-Physics for Poets-United States of América-McGraw-Hill-1996
Alan C. Tribble-Princeton Guide to Advanced Physics-New Jersey-Princeton University
Press-1996
Jerry D. Wilson-Física - Segunda Edición -México -Prentice Hall-1996
Nelson Lodoño - Hugo Guarin- Dimensión Matemática - Serie para educación básica y
media-Bogotá, Colombia-Editorial Norma-1996
Michio Kaku --Visions-United States of America-Anchor Books-1997
Rudolf v. Rucker-Geometry, Relativity and the fourth dimension-United States of AméricaDover-1997
D.A. Danielson-Vectors and Tensors in Engineering and Physics-United States of America
-Perseus Books-1997
Gregory L. Naber-Topology, Geometry, and Gauge Fields-Foundations-New YorkSpringer-1997
Garnett P. Williams-Chaos Theory Tamed-Washington D.C.-Joseph Henry Press-1997
David Deutsh-The Fabric of Reality-London-Peguin Books-1997
Joseph Polchinski-String Theory - Volume I-Madrid, Spain-Cambrige-1998
Joseph Polchinski-String Theory - Volume II-United Kingdom-Cambrige-1998
Hal Hellman-Great Feuds in Science-New York-Barnes & Novile-1998
Charles P. Poole, Jr.-The Physics Handbook-New York -Wiley Inter -Science-1998
Brian Greene -The Elegant Universe-New York-Vintage-1999
Henning Genz-Nothingness-Massachusetts-Helix Books-1999
D.I. Olive & P.C. West-Duality Supersymmetric Theorys-New York-Cambrige University
Press-1999
Lajos Pukánszky-Characters of Connected Lie Groups-United States of America-American
Mathematical Society-1999
Amir D. Aczel-God's Equation -New York-Four Wall eight windows-1999
Gordon Kane-Supersymmetry-United States of America-Perseus Publishing-2000
Aneesh V. Manohar and Mark B. Wise-Heavy Quark Physics-Madrid, Spain-Cambrige2000
John D. Barrow-The Book of Nothing. Vacuums, Voids, and the latest ideas about the
origins of the Universe.-New York-Vintage-2000
Julian Barbour-The end of time -New York-Oxford-2000
Alan Lightman-Great Ideas in Physics.-New York-McGraw-Hill-2000
Scott Thorpe-How to think Like Einstein- -New York-Barnes & Nobles -2000
Charles Seife- Zero - The Biography of a Dangerous Idea-New York-Viking-2000
Yavuz Nutku-Conformal Field Theory -Massachusetts-Perseus Publishing-2000
Stephen Hawking-The Universe in a Nutshell-United States and Canada-Bantam Books2001
J. Richard Gott-Time Travel In Einstein's Universe-Boston, New York-Mariner Books2001
Stephen Hawking-A hombros de Gigantes -Barcelona-Critica-2002
Mario Livio-The Golden Ratio-New York -Broadway Books-2002
Janna Levin-How the Universe got its spots - New York-Anchor Books-2002
George Johnson-A Shortcut Through Time - New York-Knopf-2003
Joao Magueijo-Faster Than the Speed of Light-United States of America- Perseus
Publishing-2003
David Foster Wallace-A Compact History of Infinity-New York-Atlas Books-2003
Charles Seife-Alpha & Omega - The search for the beginning and end of the UniverseUnited States Of América-Viking-2003
Merriam- Webster-Webster College Dictionary-New York-Barnes & Robles -2003
Cynthia Philips & Shana Priwer- Todo sobre Einstein-United State of America -Manon
Troppo-2003
Brian Greene-The Fabric Of The Cosmos-United States of América-Knopf-2004
Erwin Laszlo -Science and the Akashic Field-United States of America-Inner Traditions
Rochester, Vermont-2004
Royer Penrose-The Road To Reality- A complete guide to the laws of the Universe-New
York-Vintage Books-2004
Paul Halpern-The Great Beyond-New Jersey-John Wiley & Sons-2004
Roger Penrose-El camino a la realidad-Londres-DEBATE-2004
Víctor Torres Roldán-Ciudades Estelares - Cosmología y simbología de las pirámidesMéxico D.F.-Plaza Janés-2004
Brian Greene-The Fabric of the Cosmos-New York-Vintage Books-2004
Michio Kaku-Parallel Worlds-United States of America-Anchor Books-2005
James Kakalios-The Physics of Superheroes-New York-Gotham-2005
Lisa Randall-Warped Passages Unraveling the Mysteries of the Universe's Hidden
Dimensions-New York-Harper Perennial-2005
Leonard Sussikind-The Cosmic Landscape-New York, Boston, London-Back Bay Books2006
Peter Woit-Not Ever Wrong-New York-Basic Books-2006
Robert Oerter-The Theory Of Almost Everything-United States of America-Plume Books2006
Charles Seife-Decoding the Universe-USA, Canada-Pekin Books-2006
Dan Hooper-Dark Cosmos in Search of our Universe's Missing Mass and Energy-New
York-Smithsonian Books-2006
Lee Smolin-The Trouble with Physics-Boston, New York-Houghton Mifflin-2006
Sandra Anne Taylor-Éxito Cuántico-United States of América-Grupo Editorial Norma-2006
Scott Olsen-The Golden Section-New York-Walker & Company-2006
Paul J. Steinhardt and Neil Turok-Endless Universe-United States of America-Broadway
Books-2007
Ira Flantow-Present at the Future-United States of América-Collins-2007
Peter Atkins-Four Laws - That Drive the Universe-New York-Oxford University Press2007
Neil DeGrasse Tyson-Death by Black Holes and another cosmic quandaries-New York London-W.W. Norton & Company-2007
Frank Close-The Void-New York-Oxford University Press-2007
Lucy & Stephen Hawking-La clave secreta del universo -New York-Montena-2007
Michio Kakú-Physics of the Impossible -The United States of América-DoubleDay-2008
Bryan May, Patrick Moore and Chris Lintott- Bang- The complete history of the UniverseUnited States of America-Johns Hopkins-2008
Steven Weinberg-Cosmology-New York-Oxford University Press-2008
Leonard Susskind-The Black hole war-New York-Back Bay Books-2008
Manjit Kumar -Quantum Einstein, Bohr And The Great Debate About The Nature Of
Reality -New York-NORTON-2008
Paul Halpern-Collider- The search for the world's smallest particles-New Jersey-Wiley2009
John Gribbin-In search of the multiverse-United States of America-Wiley-2009
Stephen Hawkings and Leonard Mlondinow-The grand Design-New York-Batam Books2010
Martin Bojowald -Once before time: a whole story of the Universe -New York-alfred a
knopf-2010
Frank Close-Antimatter-New York-Oxford University Press-2010
Ian Sample-Massive-New York-Basic Books-2010
Anton Zeilinger -Dance Of The Photons-New York-Farrar -2010
Sean Carroll-From Eternity To Here-New York-Duton-2010
Michael d. Fayer -Absolutely small- new york-amacom-2010
Frank Close-Neutrino-New York-Oxford-2010
Amir D. Aczel-Present at the Creation -New York-Radom -2010
Shing Tung Yau-The Shape of Inner Space-New York-Basic Books-2010
David A. Weintraub-How old is the Universe-New Jersey-Princeton University Press-2011
Dr. Steven Manly-Visions of the Multiverse-New Jersey-New Page Books-2011
Brian Greene-The Hidden Reality-New York-alfred a knopf-2011
John D. Barrow-The Book of Universes-New York-Norton-2011
Jim Baggott-The Quantum Story -New York-Oxford-2011
Richard Panek-The 4% Universe-New York-Bamard College-2011
David Deutsch-The Begining of Infinity-New York-Peguin Books-2011
The human being can understand anything,
and discover any hidden knowledge,
except encompass Infinity.
Armando Bukele Kattán