MileDown's MCAT Decks Biochemistry

#separator:tab #html:true "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Transcription</div> A <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""positive"" data-ordinal=""1"">[positive or negative]</span> sense RNA strand is itself an mRNA and can be transcribed <b>directly</b> into DNA </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Transcription</div> A <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">positive</span> sense RNA strand is itself an mRNA and can be transcribed <b>directly</b> into DNA <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><font color=""#e12727""><img src=""Positive and Negative Sense Strands of RNA.png"" /></font></div><div><font color=""#e12727""><br /></font></div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lQtJdiOUv0I"">YouTube Link</a></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Glycine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glycine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Glycine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glycine</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Gly, G</div><div><div>Hydrophobic</div></div><div><br></div><div>The only amino acid that is <i>not chiral</i></div><div><br></div> <a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Alanine.png""><div><br><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Alanine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Alanine.png""><div><br><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Alanine</span><br></div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Ala, A<br></div><div>Hydrophobic</div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Valine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Valine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Valine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Valine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Val, V<br></div><div>Hydrophobic</div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Leucine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Leucine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Leucine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Leucine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Leu, L<br></div><div>Hydrophobic</div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Isoleucine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Isoleucine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Isoleucine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Isoleucine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Ile, I<br></div><div>Hydrophobic</div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Methionine.png""><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Methionine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Methionine.png""><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Methionine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Met, M<br></div><div>Hydrophobic</div><div><br></div><div>Contains a <u>thioether</u> group</div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Proline.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Proline"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Proline.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Proline</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Pro, P<br></div><div>Hydrophobic</div><div><br></div><div>Typically found in <b>β-pleated sheets</b> at the turns</div><div><br></div><div>""<i>Kinky</i>""</div><div><br></div><div><font color=""#e12727""><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></font></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Phenyalanine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Phenylalanine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Phenyalanine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Phenylalanine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Phe, F<br></div><div>Hydrophobic</div><div><br></div><div>Aromatic, can <b>absorb UV light</b></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Tryptophan.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Tryptophan"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Tryptophan.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Tryptophan</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Trp, W<br></div><div>Hydrophobic</div><div><br></div><div>Aromatic</div><div>Contains the <i>indole</i> group</div><div>Emits <u>fluorescent light</u><br></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Serine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Serine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Serine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Serine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Ser, S<br></div><div>Polar Neutral</div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Threonine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Threonine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Threonine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Threonine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Thr, T<br></div><div>Polar Neutral</div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Tyrosine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Tyrosine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Tyrosine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Tyrosine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Tyr, Y<br></div><div>Polar Neutral</div><div><br></div><div>Aromatic</div><div><br></div><div><div>Tyrosine is the precursor to <i>catecholamines</i></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Phenylanlanine to Epinephrine.jpg""></div></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Cysteine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cysteine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Cysteine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cysteine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Cys, C<br></div><div>Polar Neutral</div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Asparagine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Asparagine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Asparagine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Asparagine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Asn, N<br></div><div>Polar Neutral</div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Glutamine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glutamine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Glutamine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glutamine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Gln, Q<br></div><div>Polar Neutral</div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Lysine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Lysine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Lysine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lysine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Lys, K<br></div><div>Positively Charged</div><div>Hydrophilic</div><div>Basic<br></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Arginine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Arginine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Arginine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Arginine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Arg, R<br></div><div>Positively Charged</div><div>Hydrophilic</div><div>Basic</div><div><br></div><div>Contains the <b>guanidinium</b> group<br></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Histidine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Histidine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Histidine.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Histidine</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>His, H<br></div><div>Positively Charged</div><div>Hydrophilic</div><div>Basic</div><div><br></div><div>Contains the <u>imidazole</u> group<br></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Aspartate.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Aspartate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Aspartate.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Aspartate</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Asp, D<br></div><div>Negatively Charged</div><div>Acidic</div><div><br></div><div>Related to Asparagine<br></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Glutamate.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glutamate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Glutamate.png""><div><br></div><div>This amino acid is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glutamate</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Glu, E<br></div><div>Negatively Charged</div><div>Acidic<br></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Indole.png""><div><br></div><div>This is the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""indole"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> group<br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Indole.png""><div><br></div><div>This is the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">indole</span> group<br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Found in <b>Tryptophan</b></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Imidazole.png""><div><br></div><div>This is the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""imidazole"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> group</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Imidazole.png""><div><br></div><div>This is the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">imidazole</span> group</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Found in <u>Histidine</u></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Guanidinium.png""><div><br></div><div>This is the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""guanidinium"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> group</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <img src=""Guanidinium.png""><div><br></div><div>This is the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">guanidinium</span> group</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Found in <i>Arginine</i><br></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <i>Amino acids</i> are simple organic compounds containing both a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""carboxyl&nbsp;(—COOH)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> group and a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""amino&nbsp;(—NH<sub>2</sub>)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> group </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <i>Amino acids</i> are simple organic compounds containing both a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">carboxyl (—COOH)</span> group and a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">amino (—NH<sub>2</sub>)</span> group <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Amino Acid 1 (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/amino-acid-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glycine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the only amino acid that is <i>not</i> <i>chiral</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glycine</span> is the only amino acid that is <i>not</i> <i>chiral</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b style=""color: rgb(225, 39, 39);""><img src=""Glycine.png""></b></div><div><b style=""color: rgb(225, 39, 39);""><br></b></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/classification-amino-acids"">Khan Academy Link</a><b style=""color: rgb(225, 39, 39);""><br></b></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> The stereochemistry of the α-carbon in all eukaryotic <i>amino acids</i> (except glycine) is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""L"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>  </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> The stereochemistry of the α-carbon in all eukaryotic <i>amino acids</i> (except glycine) is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">L</span>  <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><div><img src=""All Amino Acids Are L Config.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HG4bqgGR3DI"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <div><u>All chiral amino acids</u> except cysteine have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""(S)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> configuration</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <div><u>All chiral amino acids</u> except cysteine have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">(S)</span> configuration</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""L Configuration.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddVGGlPyRP0"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <b>L</b> and <b>D</b> indicate <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""relative"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> configuration<div><br></div><div><i>S</i> and <i>R</i> indicate <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""absolute"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> configuration</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <b>L</b> and <b>D</b> indicate <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">relative</span> configuration<div><br></div><div><i>S</i> and <i>R</i> indicate <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">absolute</span> configuration</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""R and S vs D and L.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/HG4bqgGR3DI"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases</div> <i>Amphoteric</i> molecules can act as either a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""base"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> or a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases</div> <i>Amphoteric</i> molecules can act as either a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">base</span> or a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acid</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Amphoteric Molecule.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Amphoteric Molecule2 (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bHWNeIL1Cbg"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> The pH at which <i>half of the species is deprotonated</i> is called the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pK<sub>a</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> The pH at which <i>half of the species is deprotonated</i> is called the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pK<sub>a</sub></span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>[HA] = [A-]<div><br></div><div><img src=""Titration Curve of Acetic Acid.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/organic-chemistry/organic-structures/acid-base-review/v/ka-and-pka-review"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> A <u>low</u> pH will cause amino acids to be <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""full protonated"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> A <u>low</u> pH will cause amino acids to be <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">full protonated</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Effect of pH.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-j0796RPGtI"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Isoelectric point"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the <i>pH</i> at which an amino acid is in <u>zwitterion</u> form </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Isoelectric point</span> is the <i>pH</i> at which an amino acid is in <u>zwitterion</u> form <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The charges cancel out to make a neutral molecule</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Isoelectric Point.png""></div><div><br></div> <a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/isoelectric-point-and-zwitterions"">Khan Academy Link</a><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HL1qx8bTDnA"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""zwitterion"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is when <b>all charges cancel out</b>, so the molecule is neutral </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">zwitterion</span> is when <b>all charges cancel out</b>, so the molecule is neutral <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Zwitterion 2 (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/isoelectric-point-and-zwitterions"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <div>The isoelectric point formula when there is <u>no side chain</u> is:<br></div><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""<img src="pI No Side Chain.png">"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> <div>The isoelectric point formula when there is <u>no side chain</u> is:<br></div><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1""><img src=""pI No Side Chain.png""></span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Amino Acid Structure pka Groups (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HL1qx8bTDnA"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> The isoelectric point formula when there is a <b>neutral side chain</b> is:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""<img src="pI Neutral Side Chain.png">"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> The isoelectric point formula when there is a <b>neutral side chain</b> is:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1""><img src=""pI Neutral Side Chain.png""></span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Amino Acid Structure pka Groups (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HL1qx8bTDnA"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> The isoelectric point formula when there is a <u>basic side chain</u> is:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""<img src="pI Basic Side Chain.png">"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> The isoelectric point formula when there is a <u>basic side chain</u> is:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1""><img src=""pI Basic Side Chain.png""></span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Amino Acid Structure pka Groups (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HL1qx8bTDnA"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> The isoelectric point formula when there is an <i>acidic side chain</i> is:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""<img src="pI Acidic Side Chain.png">"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> The isoelectric point formula when there is an <i>acidic side chain</i> is:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1""><img src=""pI Acidic Side Chain.png""></span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Amino Acid Structure pka Groups (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HL1qx8bTDnA"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::Buffers_and_Titrations MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> At the <u>midpoint</u> of a titration, the pH = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pK<sub>a</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::Buffers_and_Titrations MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> At the <u>midpoint</u> of a titration, the pH = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pK<sub>a</sub></span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Titration Curve.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r20BiheYBSc"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::Buffers_and_Titrations MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> At the <i>equivalence point</i> of a titration, pH = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pI"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::Buffers_and_Titrations MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> At the <i>equivalence point</i> of a titration, pH = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pI</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Titration Curve.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/titrations-and-solubility-equilibria/a/acid-base-titration-curves"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1°"" data-ordinal=""1"">[1°, 2°, 3°, or 4°]</span> structure of <i>proteins</i> is the linear<i> sequence of amino acids</i> in a peptide </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1°</span> structure of <i>proteins</i> is the linear<i> sequence of amino acids</i> in a peptide <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Stabilized by <i style="""">peptide bonds</i></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Protein Structure.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Amino Acid Sequence (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/v/overview-of-protein-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2°"" data-ordinal=""1"">[1°, 2°, 3°, or 4°]</span> structure of <i>proteins</i> is the <b>local folding</b> of neighboring amino acids including <i>α-helices</i> and <u>β-pleated sheets</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2°</span> structure of <i>proteins</i> is the <b>local folding</b> of neighboring amino acids including <i>α-helices</i> and <u>β-pleated sheets</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Stabilized by <b style="""">hydrogen bonding</b><br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Beta Pleated Sheets 5.png""></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Protein Structure.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/v/overview-of-protein-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3°"" data-ordinal=""1"">[1°, 2°, 3°, or 4°]</span> structure of <i>proteins</i> is the <u>3-D shape</u> of a single polypeptide chain </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3°</span> structure of <i>proteins</i> is the <u>3-D shape</u> of a single polypeptide chain <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Stabilized by <u>hydrophobic interactions</u>, acid-base interactions, hydrogen-bonds, and disulfide bonds</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Tertiary Protein Structure.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Protein Structure.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/v/overview-of-protein-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""4°"" data-ordinal=""1"">[1°, 2°, 3°, or 4°]</span> structure of <i>proteins</i> is the <b>interaction between peptides</b> in proteins that contain multiple subunits </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">4°</span> structure of <i>proteins</i> is the <b>interaction between peptides</b> in proteins that contain multiple subunits <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Protein Structure.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><div>The 4° structure of hemoglobin:</div><div><img src=""Hemoglobin Structure.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/v/overview-of-protein-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""α-helices"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are clockwise <b>coils</b> around a central axis and are a common <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2°"" data-ordinal=""1"">[1°, 2°, 3°, or 4°]</span> protein structure </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-helices</span> are clockwise <b>coils</b> around a central axis and are a common <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2°</span> protein structure <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Beta Pleated Sheets 5.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/v/overview-of-protein-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""β-pleated&nbsp;sheets"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are <u>rippled strands</u> that can be parallel or antiparallel and are a common <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2°"" data-ordinal=""1"">[1°, 2°, 3°, or 4°]</span> protein structure</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">β-pleated sheets</span> are <u>rippled strands</u> that can be parallel or antiparallel and are a common <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2°</span> protein structure</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><u>Proline</u> is typically found at the turns in β-pleated sheets<br></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Beta Pleated Sheets 5.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/v/overview-of-protein-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Proline"" data-ordinal=""1"">[Amino acid]</span> has a <i>rigid cyclic structure</i> and can <b>interrupt</b> <b>2°</b> <b>protein</b> <b>structure</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Proline</span> has a <i>rigid cyclic structure</i> and can <b>interrupt</b> <b>2°</b> <b>protein</b> <b>structure</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Proline is ""kinky""<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Proline in Beta Turn.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/amino-acids-peptides-proteins-5d/v/special-cases-histidine-proline-glycine-cysteine"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Denaturation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is when a protein (or nucleic acid)<b style=""""> l</b><b style="""">oses its 4°, 3°, and 2° structures</b> due to breaking non-covalent interactions  </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Denaturation</span> is when a protein (or nucleic acid)<b style=""""> l</b><b style="""">oses its 4°, 3°, and 2° structures</b> due to breaking non-covalent interactions  <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Denaturation.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/proteins/v/conformational-stability-protein-folding-and-denaturation"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <div>The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hydrophobic effect"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> pushes hydrophobic R groups to the interior of a protein, which <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""increases"" data-ordinal=""1"">[increases or decreases]</span> <i>entropy</i> of the surrounding water molecules<br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <div>The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hydrophobic effect</span> pushes hydrophobic R groups to the interior of a protein, which <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">increases</span> <i>entropy</i> of the surrounding water molecules<br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>When multiple <b>hydrophobic molecules</b> are in water, the molecules group together spontaneously</div><div><br></div><div>The <u>combined</u> molecules have <u>less surface area</u> touching water so fewer water molecules are needed to interact with the hydrophobic surface</div><div><br></div><div>This means <i>more water molecules can roam freely</i> which is an <i>increase</i> in entropy<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Hydrophobic Effect.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nfZL0tmcIPM"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Disulfide bonds"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> occur when <u>two cysteine molecules</u> are oxidized and create a covalent bond between their thiol groups </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Disulfide bonds</span> occur when <u>two cysteine molecules</u> are oxidized and create a covalent bond between their thiol groups <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>This forms <u>cystine</u><br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Disulfide Bond.png""></div><div><br></div> <a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/v/tertiary-structure-of-proteins"">Khan Academy Link</a></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Conjugated proteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are complex proteins, such as hemoglobin, consisting of amino acids <i>combined</i> <i>with other substances</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Conjugated proteins</span> are complex proteins, such as hemoglobin, consisting of amino acids <i>combined</i> <i>with other substances</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Conjugated Protein (1).png""><br></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""prosthetic group"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the <b>attached molecule in a conjugated protein</b> and can be a metal ion, vitamin, lipid, carbohydrate, or nucleic acid </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">prosthetic group</span> is the <b>attached molecule in a conjugated protein</b> and can be a metal ion, vitamin, lipid, carbohydrate, or nucleic acid <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Conjugated Protein (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qO2DvzAvnPY"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <div><img src=""Peptide Bonds.png""></div><div><br></div><u>Peptide bonds</u> link the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""α-carboxyl&nbsp;group"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... group]</span> of one amino acid to the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""α-amino&nbsp;group"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... group]</span> of the next amino acid </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <div><img src=""Peptide Bonds.png""></div><div><br></div><u>Peptide bonds</u> link the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-carboxyl group</span> of one amino acid to the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-amino group</span> of the next amino acid <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Polypeptide Sequence.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/peptide-bond-formation-and-cleavage"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Enzymes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are reusable <b>catalysts</b> that are <u>unchanged by the reactions they catalyze</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Enzymes</span> are reusable <b>catalysts</b> that are <u>unchanged by the reactions they catalyze</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Catalyze both the forward and reverse reactions<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Enzyme.gif""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Enzyme Free Energy.gif""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-energy-and-transport/hs-enzymes/v/enzymes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <i>Exergonic</i> reactions <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""release"" data-ordinal=""1"">[require or release]</span> energy </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <i>Exergonic</i> reactions <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">release</span> energy <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>-∆G <br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/energy-and-enzymes/free-energy-tutorial/v/endergonic-exergonic-exothermic-and-endothermic-reactions"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <u>Endergonic</u> reactions <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""require"" data-ordinal=""1"">[require or release]</span> energy </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <u>Endergonic</u> reactions <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">require</span> energy <div> </div> <div id='extra'>+∆G<br><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/energy-and-enzymes/free-energy-tutorial/v/endergonic-exergonic-exothermic-and-endothermic-reactions"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oxidoreductase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[type of enzyme]</span> catalyzes <i>REDOX</i> reactions that involve the transfer of electrons </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxidoreductase</span> catalyzes <i>REDOX</i> reactions that involve the transfer of electrons <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Oxidoreductase.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-structure-and-function/v/the-six-types-of-enzymes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""transferase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[type of enzyme]</span> <b>moves a functional group</b> from one molecule to another<br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">transferase</span> <b>moves a functional group</b> from one molecule to another<br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Transferases.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-structure-and-function/v/the-six-types-of-enzymes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hydrolase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[type of enzyme]</span> catalyzes cleavage <u>with the addition of H<sub>2</sub>O</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hydrolase</span> catalyzes cleavage <u>with the addition of H<sub>2</sub>O</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Hydrolases.gif""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-structure-and-function/v/the-six-types-of-enzymes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lyase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[type of enzyme]</span> catalyzes cleavage without the addition of<i> H<sub>2</sub>O</i> and without the transfer of<b> electrons</b></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lyase</span> catalyzes cleavage without the addition of<i> H<sub>2</sub>O</i> and without the transfer of<b> electrons</b></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Lyases.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-structure-and-function/v/the-six-types-of-enzymes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""isomerase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[type of enzyme]</span> catalyzes the <i>interconversion of isomers</i></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">isomerase</span> catalyzes the <i>interconversion of isomers</i></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Isomerase.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-structure-and-function/v/the-six-types-of-enzymes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ligase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[type of enzyme]</span> <b>joins two large biomolecules</b>, often of the same type </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ligase</span> <b>joins two large biomolecules</b>, often of the same type <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Ligase.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-structure-and-function/v/the-six-types-of-enzymes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lipase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[type of enzyme]</span> catalyzes the <i>hydrolysis of fats</i></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lipase</span> catalyzes the <i>hydrolysis of fats</i></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Lipase.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/overview-of-amino-acid-metabolism"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""kinase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[type of enzyme]</span> <i>adds</i><b> </b>a phosphate group <b>from ATP</b> to a substrate </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">kinase</span> <i>adds</i><b> </b>a phosphate group <b>from ATP</b> to a substrate <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Kinase and Phosphatase.png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Kinase Meme (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-structure-and-function/v/the-six-types-of-enzymes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphatase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[type of enzyme]</span> <u>removes</u> a phosphate group </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphatase</span> <u>removes</u> a phosphate group <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Kinase and Phosphatase.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-structure-and-function/v/the-six-types-of-enzymes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphorylase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[type of enzyme]</span> <i>adds</i> a phosphate group from an <u>inorganic phosphate</u> like HPO<sub>4</sub> to a substrate</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphorylase</span> <i>adds</i> a phosphate group from an <u>inorganic phosphate</u> like HPO<sub>4</sub> to a substrate</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Phosphorylase.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W11XV-_tI04"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> A <b>Michaelis-Menten</b> curve is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hyperbolic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[shape]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> A <b>Michaelis-Menten</b> curve is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hyperbolic</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Michalis Menten Curve (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/energy-and-enzymes/enzyme-regulation/a/basics-of-enzyme-kinetics-graphs"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""K<sub>m</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the <u>substrate concentration</u> that gives you a reaction<i> </i>rate that is<i> halfway to V<sub style="""">max</sub></i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">K<sub>m</sub></span> is the <u>substrate concentration</u> that gives you a reaction<i> </i>rate that is<i> halfway to V<sub style="""">max</sub></i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Km and Vmax.png"" style=""vertical-align: sub;""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/energy-and-enzymes/enzyme-regulation/a/basics-of-enzyme-kinetics-graphs"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""V<sub>max</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the <b>maximum rate</b> at which an enzyme can catalyze a reaction </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">V<sub>max</sub></span> is the <b>maximum rate</b> at which an enzyme can catalyze a reaction <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>This is when <u>all enzyme active sites are saturated</u> with substrate<br></div><div><br></div><div><div><sub><img src=""Km and Vmax.png""></sub></div><div><sub><br></sub></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/energy-and-enzymes/enzyme-regulation/a/basics-of-enzyme-kinetics-graphs"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> <div>The <b>Michaelis–Menten equation</b> is:</div><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""<img src="Michalis Menten Equation.png">"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> <div>The <b>Michaelis–Menten equation</b> is:</div><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1""><img src=""Michalis Menten Equation.png""></span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-kinetics/v/steady-states-and-the-michaelis-menten-equation"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> <div><b>Cooperative</b> enzymes display a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sigmoidal"" data-ordinal=""1"">[shape]</span> curve</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> <div><b>Cooperative</b> enzymes display a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">sigmoidal</span> curve</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>Sigmoidal because of the change in activity following initial substrate binding<div><br></div><div><img src=""Cooperative Binding Curve.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-kinetics/v/cooperativity"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cooperative binding"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is when the binding of the first molecule of B to A <i>changes the binding affinity</i> of the second B molecule, making it more or less likely to bind </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cooperative binding</span> is when the binding of the first molecule of B to A <i>changes the binding affinity</i> of the second B molecule, making it more or less likely to bind <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Results in a sigmoidal curve</div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Cooperative Binding Curve.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-kinetics/v/cooperativity"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""active site"" data-ordinal=""1"">[part of enzyme]</span> is the <i>site of catalysis</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">active site</span> is the <i>site of catalysis</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Enzyme.gif""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-energy-and-transport/hs-enzymes/v/enzymes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lock and key theory"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... theory]</span> states that the enzyme and substrate are <u>exactly complementary</u> and fit together like a key into a lock </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lock and key theory</span> states that the enzyme and substrate are <u>exactly complementary</u> and fit together like a key into a lock <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Lock and Key Model.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/qO2DvzAvnPY"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""induced fit theory"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... theory]</span> states that the enzyme and substrate undergo <i>conformational changes</i> in order to interact fully </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">induced fit theory</span> states that the enzyme and substrate undergo <i>conformational changes</i> in order to interact fully <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Induced Fit (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-structure-and-function/v/the-induced-fit-model-of-enzyme-catalysis"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cofactor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a <i>metal cation</i> that is required by some enzymes </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cofactor</span> is a <i>metal cation</i> that is required by some enzymes <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Cofactor and Coenzyme.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-structure-and-function/v/cofactors-coenzymes-and-vitamins"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cofactor or coenzyme"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is an <b>organic molecule</b> that is required by some enzymes<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cofactor or coenzyme</span> is an <b>organic molecule</b> that is required by some enzymes<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Cofactor and Coenzyme.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-structure-and-function/v/cofactors-coenzymes-and-vitamins"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Feedback inhibition"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... inhibition]</span> of an enzyme is when an enzyme is <i style="""">inhibited</i> by high levels of a <b>product from later in the same pathway</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Feedback inhibition</span> of an enzyme is when an enzyme is <i style="""">inhibited</i> by high levels of a <b>product from later in the same pathway</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Feedback Inhibition.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKiXfqaWNHI"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <div><div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""competitive inhibitor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... inhibitor]</span> <i>binds at the active site</i> and thus prevents the substrate from binding </div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <div><div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">competitive inhibitor</span> <i>binds at the active site</i> and thus prevents the substrate from binding </div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Can be overcome by adding more substrate<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Inhibition (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/energy-and-enzymes/enzyme-regulation/v/competitive-inhibition"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""uncompetitive inhibitor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... inhibitor]</span> binds only with the <u>enzyme-substrate complex</u></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">uncompetitive inhibitor</span> binds only with the <u>enzyme-substrate complex</u></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Inhibition (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-kinetics/v/enzymatic-inhibition-and-lineweaver-burke-plots"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""noncompetitive inhibitor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... inhibitor]</span> <b>binds at the allosteric site</b>, away from the active site </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">noncompetitive inhibitor</span> <b>binds at the allosteric site</b>, away from the active site <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>It does <i>not</i> prevent the substrate from binding to the active site<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Inhibition (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/energy-and-enzymes/enzyme-regulation/v/noncompetitive-inhibition"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> In <i>competitive inhibition</i>:<div><br></div><div>V<sub>max</sub>: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""has no change"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>K<sub>m</sub>: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""goes up"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> In <i>competitive inhibition</i>:<div><br></div><div>V<sub>max</sub>: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">has no change</span></div><div>K<sub>m</sub>: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">goes up</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Inhibition (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/energy-and-enzymes/enzyme-regulation/v/competitive-inhibition"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> In <u>uncompetitive inhibition</u>:<div><br></div><div><div>V<sub>max</sub>: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""goes down"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>K<sub>m</sub>: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""goes down"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> In <u>uncompetitive inhibition</u>:<div><br></div><div><div>V<sub>max</sub>: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">goes down</span></div><div>K<sub>m</sub>: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">goes down</span></div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Inhibition (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-kinetics/v/enzymatic-inhibition-and-lineweaver-burke-plots"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> In <b>noncompetitive inhibition</b>:<div><br></div><div><div>V<sub>max</sub>: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""goes down"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>K<sub>m</sub>: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""has no change"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> In <b>noncompetitive inhibition</b>:<div><br></div><div><div>V<sub>max</sub>: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">goes down</span></div><div>K<sub>m</sub>: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">has no change</span></div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Inhibition (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/energy-and-enzymes/enzyme-regulation/v/noncompetitive-inhibition"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <img src=""Lineweaver Burk.png""><div><br><div><u>Lineweaver-Burk Plot</u>: </div><div><br></div><div>X-intercept = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""-1/K<sub>m</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Y-intercept = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1/V<sub>max</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>Ratio indicated by the slope = <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""K<sub>m</sub>/V<sub>max</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <img src=""Lineweaver Burk.png""><div><br><div><u>Lineweaver-Burk Plot</u>: </div><div><br></div><div>X-intercept = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">-1/K<sub>m</sub></span></div><div>Y-intercept = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1/V<sub>max</sub></span></div><div>Ratio indicated by the slope = <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">K<sub>m</sub>/V<sub>max</sub></span><br></div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Lineweaver Burk Complete.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVUkZL1jCw0""">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <img src=""Lineweaver Burk Competitive .png""><div><br></div><div>This graph shows the activity of a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""competitive inhibitor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... inhibitor]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <img src=""Lineweaver Burk Competitive .png""><div><br></div><div>This graph shows the activity of a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">competitive inhibitor</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Lineweaver Burk All.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVUkZL1jCw0"""">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <img src=""Lineweaver Burk Uncompetitive.png""><div><br><div>This graph shows the activity of a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""uncompetitive inhibitor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... inhibitor]</span></div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <img src=""Lineweaver Burk Uncompetitive.png""><div><br><div>This graph shows the activity of a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">uncompetitive inhibitor</span></div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Lineweaver Burk All.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVUkZL1jCw0"""">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <img src=""Lineweaver Burk Noncompetitive .png""><div><br><div>This graph shows the activity of a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""noncompetitive inhibitor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... inhibitor]</span></div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <img src=""Lineweaver Burk Noncompetitive .png""><div><br><div>This graph shows the activity of a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">noncompetitive inhibitor</span></div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Lineweaver Burk All.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVUkZL1jCw0"""">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> Lineweaver-Burk plots are described as <b>double reciprocal</b> plots because the <i>X-intercept</i> is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""-1/K<sub>m</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and the <u>Y-intercept</u> is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1/V<sub>max</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; both of them reciprocals </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> Lineweaver-Burk plots are described as <b>double reciprocal</b> plots because the <i>X-intercept</i> is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">-1/K<sub>m</sub></span> and the <u>Y-intercept</u> is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1/V<sub>max</sub></span>; both of them reciprocals <div> </div> <div id='extra'> <img src=""Lineweaver Burk Double Reciprocal.png""><div><br><div><img src=""Lineweaver Burk Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVUkZL1jCw0"""">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <div>An <i>irreversible inhibitor</i> is any inhibitor that <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""covalently binds"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to the active site of some enzyme, thus eliminating its activity</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <div>An <i>irreversible inhibitor</i> is any inhibitor that <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">covalently binds</span> to the active site of some enzyme, thus eliminating its activity</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Irreversible Inhibition.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ixDdTbeby6s"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Suicide inhibition"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... inhibition]</span> is an irreversible form of enzyme inhibition that occurs when an enzyme binds a <i>substrate analog</i> and forms an <u style="""">irreversible complex</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Suicide inhibition</span> is an irreversible form of enzyme inhibition that occurs when an enzyme binds a <i>substrate analog</i> and forms an <u style="""">irreversible complex</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Suicide Inhibitor.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K1uq9AXwo5Q"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""allosteric effector"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... effector]</span> binds at the <i>allosteric site</i> and induces a change in the conformation of the enzyme so the <b>substrate can no longer bind to the active site</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">allosteric effector</span> binds at the <i>allosteric site</i> and induces a change in the conformation of the enzyme so the <b>substrate can no longer bind to the active site</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><u>Positive Effectors</u>: Activity goes <u>up</u><br></div><div><i>Negative Effectors</i>: Activity goes <i>down</i></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Allosteric Effector.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-kinetics/v/allosteric-regulation-and-feedback-loops"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""homotropic effector"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... effector]</span> is an allosteric regulator that is <u>also the</u> <u>substrate</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">homotropic effector</span> is an allosteric regulator that is <u>also the</u> <u>substrate</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Example: O<sub>2</sub> is a homotropic allosteric regulator of hemoglobin<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Homotropic Effector.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rn7coZMUv6c"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""heterotropic effector"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... effector]</span> is an allosteric regulator molecule that is <i>different from the substrate</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Regulation</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">heterotropic effector</span> is an allosteric regulator molecule that is <i>different from the substrate</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Homotropic Effector.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rn7coZMUv6c"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Phosphorylation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the chemical <u>addition</u> <u>of a phosphoryl group</u> (PO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>) to an organic molecule </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Phosphorylation</span> is the chemical <u>addition</u> <u>of a phosphoryl group</u> (PO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>) to an organic molecule <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Phosphorylation.jpg"" style=""color: rgb(225, 39, 39);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zHJexIQbHvc"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glycosylation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the chemical <b>addition of a carbohydrate</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glycosylation</span> is the chemical <b>addition of a carbohydrate</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycosylation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/dna/v/protein-modifications"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Zymogens"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are <b>precursors to an enzyme</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Zymogens</span> are <b>precursors to an enzyme</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Zymogen.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-kinetics/v/covalent-modifications-to-enzymes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> The <u>Michaelis-Menten</u> reaction scheme is:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""<img src="Michaelis Menten Reaction Scheme.jpg">"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes::Kinetics</div> The <u>Michaelis-Menten</u> reaction scheme is:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1""><img src=""Michaelis Menten Reaction Scheme.jpg""></span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b>E</b> = <b>enzyme</b></div><div><br></div><div><u>S</u> = <u>substrate</u></div><div><br></div><div><i>ES</i> = <i>enzyme-substrate complex</i></div><div><br></div><div><b>K<sub>1</sub></b> = the <b>binding of the enzyme to the substrate</b> forming the enzyme substrate complex</div><div><br></div><div><u>K<sub style="""">2</sub></u> = the <u>catalytic rate</u>; the catalysis reaction producing the final reaction product and regenerating the free enzyme. This is the rate limiting step.</div><div><br></div> <a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NVDxNal06zM"">YouTube Link</a></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Structural proteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[.. proteins]</span> compose the <b>cytoskeleton</b>, <b>anchoring proteins</b>, and much of the <b>extracellular matrix</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Structural proteins</span> compose the <b>cytoskeleton</b>, <b>anchoring proteins</b>, and much of the <b>extracellular matrix</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The most common structural proteins are: </div><div><br></div><div><u>Collagen</u></div><div><u>Elastin</u></div><div><u>Keratin</u></div><div><u>Actin</u></div><div><u>Tubulin</u></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Structural Proteins.jpg""><br></div><div><br></div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O5Xr8IhGYm0""">YouTube Link</a></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Motor proteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... proteins]</span> convert chemical energy into <i>mechanical work</i> by the hydrolysis of ATP </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Motor proteins</span> convert chemical energy into <i>mechanical work</i> by the hydrolysis of ATP <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Common applications include:</div><div><br></div><div><b>Muscle contraction</b></div><div><b>Vesicle movement</b></div><div><b>Cell motility</b></div><div><br></div><div>Examples include: </div><div><i><br></i></div><div><i>Myosin</i></div><div><i>Kinesin</i></div><div><i>Dynein</i><br></div><div><br></div><div><i><img src=""Motor Protein.png""></i></div><div><i><br></i></div> <a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/enzyme-kinetics/v/non-enzymatic-protein-function"">Khan Academy Link</a></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""binding protein"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... protein]</span> is any protein that acts as an agent to <b>bind two or more molecules together</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">binding protein</span> is any protein that acts as an agent to <b>bind two or more molecules together</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>Examples include: <div><br></div><div><u>DNA-binding protein</u></div><div><u>Single-strand binding protein</u></div><div><u>Telomere-binding protein</u><br></div><div><u><br></u></div><div><img src=""DNA Binding Protein.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/dna-as-the-genetic-material/dna-replication/a/molecular-mechanism-of-dna-replication"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cell Adhesion&nbsp;Molecules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> allow cells to <i>bind to other cells or surfaces</i></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cell Adhesion Molecules</span> allow cells to <i>bind to other cells or surfaces</i></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Cell Adhesion Molecules.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kybc4jJ3xoE"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cadherins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[Type of proteins]</span> are calcium dependent glycoproteins that <u>hold similar cells together</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cadherins</span> are calcium dependent glycoproteins that <u>hold similar cells together</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Cadherins.gif""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-cell/cytoskeleton-junctions-and-extracellular-structures/a/cell-cell-junctions"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Integrins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[Type of proteins]</span> have two <u>membrane-spanning chains</u> and permit cells to <b>adhere to proteins</b> in the extracellular matrix </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Integrins</span> have two <u>membrane-spanning chains</u> and permit cells to <b>adhere to proteins</b> in the extracellular matrix <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Integrin.png""><div><br><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-cell/cytoskeleton-junctions-and-extracellular-structures/a/the-extracellular-matrix-and-cell-wall"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Selectins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[Type of proteins]</span> allow cells to <i>adhere to carbohydrates</i> on the surfaces of other cells and are most commonly used in the <b>immune system</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Selectins</span> allow cells to <i>adhere to carbohydrates</i> on the surfaces of other cells and are most commonly used in the <b>immune system</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Selectins.png""><div><br><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HiJ_tcQJUwM"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Antibodies"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are used by the immune system to target a specific <i>antigen</i>, which may be a protein on the surface of a <b>pathogen or a toxin</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Antibodies</span> are used by the immune system to target a specific <i>antigen</i>, which may be a protein on the surface of a <b>pathogen or a toxin</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Antibodies are also known as <u>immunoglobulins</u></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Antibody (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/immunology/v/b-lymphocytes-b-cells"">Khan Academy</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Ion channels"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are protein molecules that span across the cell membrane allowing the <i>passage of ions</i> from one side of the membrane to the other<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ion channels</span> are protein molecules that span across the cell membrane allowing the <i>passage of ions</i> from one side of the membrane to the other<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Examples of ion channels include:</div><div><i><br></i></div><div><u>Ungated channels (always open)<br></u></div><div><div><u>mechanically-gated channels</u></div><div><u>voltage-gated channels</u></div><div><u>ligand-gated channels</u></div></div><div><br></div><div><i><img src=""Ion Channels.jpeg""></i></div><div><i><br></i></div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s1yT8BAme9I"">YouTube Link</a></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <b>Ungated</b> ion channels are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""always"" data-ordinal=""1"">[sometimes or always]</span> open </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <b>Ungated</b> ion channels are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">always</span> open <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Ungated Ion Channels.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s1yT8BAme9I"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Voltage-gated channels"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... channels]</span> open within a range of <u>membrane potentials</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Voltage-gated channels</span> open within a range of <u>membrane potentials</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Voltage Gated Ion Channel.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s1yT8BAme9I"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Ligand-gated channels"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... channels]</span> open in the presence of a <i>specific binding substance</i>, usually a hormone or neurotransmitter</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ligand-gated channels</span> open in the presence of a <i>specific binding substance</i>, usually a hormone or neurotransmitter</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Ligand Gated Ion Channel.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/organ-systems/biosignaling/v/ligand-gated-ion-channels"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <div><b>Enzyme-linked receptors</b> participate in cell signaling through extracellular ligand binding and initiation of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2nd messenger&nbsp;cascades"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <div><b>Enzyme-linked receptors</b> participate in cell signaling through extracellular ligand binding and initiation of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2nd messenger cascades</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""G-Protein Coupled Receptor.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/organ-systems/biosignaling/v/enzyme-linked-receptors"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""G protein-coupled receptors"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> <b>detect molecules outside the cell</b> then activate <u>internal signal transduction pathways</u> and, ultimately, cellular responses</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">G protein-coupled receptors</span> <b>detect molecules outside the cell</b> then activate <u>internal signal transduction pathways</u> and, ultimately, cellular responses</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The 1st messenger ligand initiates the <u>2nd messenger</u> and the cascade response<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""G-Protein Coupled Receptor.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-communication-and-cell-cycle/signal-transduction/v/g-protein-coupled-receptors"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <img src=""G-Protein Coupled Receptor.png""><div><br></div><div>The <i>1st messenger</i> in the above example of a G-protein coupled receptor is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""epinephrine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Biosignaling</div> <img src=""G-Protein Coupled Receptor.png""><div><br></div><div>The <i>1st messenger</i> in the above example of a G-protein coupled receptor is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">epinephrine</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-communication-and-cell-cycle/signal-transduction/v/g-protein-coupled-receptors"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""D and L system"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the convention that is used to designate the configurations of <i>chiral carbons</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">D and L system</span> is the convention that is used to designate the configurations of <i>chiral carbons</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Based on the D- and L- forms of <i>glyceraldehyde</i><br></div><div><br></div><div>Nearly all carbohydrates in nature are in the <u>D-configuration</u><br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""D and L System (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Book:_Basic_Principles_of_Organic_Chemistry_(Roberts_and_Caserio)/19:_More_on_Stereochemistry/19.05:_Absolute_And_Relative_Configuration"">Chem Libre Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Carbohydrates"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are ""<u>hydrates of carbon</u>"" </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Carbohydrates</span> are ""<u>hydrates of carbon</u>"" <div> </div> <div id='extra'> <div><div>Usually have the formula <b>C<sub>m</sub>(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub></b></div></div><div><br></div><div>Example: Glucose is <b>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub></b></div><div><br></div><div>H:O ratio is usually 2:1 due to the ""hydration"" with H<sub>2</sub>O</div><div><br></div><div>Glucose:</div><div><img src=""Glucose.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUo4c2f9rpI"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Enantiomers"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are stereoisomers that are non-superimposable and <u>are</u> <u>mirror images</u> of each other </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Enantiomers</span> are stereoisomers that are non-superimposable and <u>are</u> <u>mirror images</u> of each other <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Enantiomer.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/organic-chemistry/stereochemistry-topic/chirality-r-s-system/v/stereoisomer-enantiomer-jay"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> A <i>chiral</i> molecule is a type of molecule that <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lacks"" data-ordinal=""1"">[lacks or has]</span> an internal plane of symmetry and has a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""non-superimposable"" data-ordinal=""1"">[superimposable or non-superimposable]</span> mirror image </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> A <i>chiral</i> molecule is a type of molecule that <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lacks</span> an internal plane of symmetry and has a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">non-superimposable</span> mirror image <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Chiral 2 (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Chiral 3.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/organic-chemistry/stereochemistry-topic/chirality-r-s-system/v/introduction-to-chirality"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Diastereomers"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are stereoisomers that are non-superimposable and <i>are not mirror images</i> of each other </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Diastereomers</span> are stereoisomers that are non-superimposable and <i>are not mirror images</i> of each other <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Diastereomers.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/organic-chemistry/stereochemistry-topic/diastereomers-meso-compounds/v/stereoisomers-enantiomers-diastereomers-constitutional-isomers-and-meso-compounds"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Enantiomers"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> <i>only come in pairs</i> because they are mirror images while there <b>can be many more than two</b> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""diastereomers"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> depending on the number of stereocenters </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Enantiomers</span> <i>only come in pairs</i> because they are mirror images while there <b>can be many more than two</b> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">diastereomers</span> depending on the number of stereocenters <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Diastereomers.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/organic-chemistry/stereochemistry-topic/diastereomers-meso-compounds/v/stereoisomers-enantiomers-diastereomers-constitutional-isomers-and-meso-compounds"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Epimers"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are a subtype of <i>diastereomers</i> that differ at <b>exactly one chiral carbon</b><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Epimers</span> are a subtype of <i>diastereomers</i> that differ at <b>exactly one chiral carbon</b><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Epimer (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-acids-lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/carbohydrates-epimers-common-names"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Anomers"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are a subtype of <b>epimers</b> that differ at the <i>anomeric carbon</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Anomers</span> are a subtype of <b>epimers</b> that differ at the <i>anomeric carbon</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Anomer.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/carbohydrates/v/carbohydrates-cyclic-structures-and-anomers-1"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""anomeric carbon"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a carbon that,<i> in the acyclic form, is not a stereocenter</i>, but once it takes on the <b>cyclic form, it becomes a stereocenter</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">anomeric carbon</span> is a carbon that,<i> in the acyclic form, is not a stereocenter</i>, but once it takes on the <b>cyclic form, it becomes a stereocenter</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Anomeric Carbon.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Anomer.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/carbohydrates/v/carbohydrates-cyclic-structures-and-anomers-1"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cyclization"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is when <u>straight-chain carbohydrates form into rings</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cyclization</span> is when <u>straight-chain carbohydrates form into rings</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Cyclization.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/carbohydrates-5d/v/carbohydrates-cyclic-structures-and-anomers"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""α-anomer"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... anomer]</span> is an anomeric carbon with the group <i>pointing down</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-anomer</span> is an anomeric carbon with the group <i>pointing down</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Anomers (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/carbohydrates-5d/v/carbohydrates-cyclic-structures-and-anomers"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""β-anomer"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... anomer]</span> is an anomeric carbon with the group <u>pointing up</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">β-anomer</span> is an anomeric carbon with the group <u>pointing up</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Anomers (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/carbohydrates-5d/v/carbohydrates-cyclic-structures-and-anomers"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <img src=""Haworth Projection 2.png""><div><br></div><div>This is an example of a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Haworth projection"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... projection]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <img src=""Haworth Projection 2.png""><div><br></div><div>This is an example of a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Haworth projection</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Haworth projections are way of writing a structural formula to represent the<font color=""#5fa136""> </font><u>cyclic structure</u><font color=""#5fa136""> </font>of monosaccharides with a simple <b>three-dimensional perspective</b></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ORrnmBVmeBQ"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Mutarotation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the <i>spontaneous shift from one anomeric form to another</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Mutarotation</span> is the <i>spontaneous shift from one anomeric form to another</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The straight-chain form is an intermediate</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Mutarotation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/carbohydrates/v/carbohydrates-cyclic-structures-and-anomers-1"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Monosaccharides"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are <i>single carbohydrate units</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Monosaccharides</span> are <i>single carbohydrate units</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><i>Glucose</i> is the most common monosaccharide</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Monosaccharides (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/carbohydrates-and-sugars/a/carbohydrates"">Khan Academy</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <u>Reducing sugars</u> have a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""-OH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> group attached to the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""anomeric carbon"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <u>Reducing sugars</u> have a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">-OH</span> group attached to the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">anomeric carbon</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The -OH cannot be attached to any other structures<br></div><div><br></div><div>Reducing sugars:</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Reducing Sugars.png""></div><div><br></div><div><i>Sucrose</i> (shown below) is a <i>non-reducing</i> sugar because the anomeric carbon does not have an -OH group attached by itself</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Sucrose (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zBEzJyNXVT4"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Deoxy sugars"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are sugars that have had a <u>hydroxyl group</u> replaced with a <b>hydrogen atom</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Deoxy sugars</span> are sugars that have had a <u>hydroxyl group</u> replaced with a <b>hydrogen atom</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>Deoxy = ""deoxygenated""<div><br></div><div><img src=""Deoxy Sugar (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div> <a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_-6JXLYS-k"">YouTube Link</a></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> In a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sugar esterification"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, a sugar reacts with a carboxylic acid or one of its derivatives to <b>form an ester</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> In a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">sugar esterification</span>, a sugar reacts with a carboxylic acid or one of its derivatives to <b>form an ester</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Esterification (1).png""></div><div><i><br></i></div><div><i>Sucrose ester</i>,<i> </i>a surfactant and emulsifier, is synthesized from esterification of sucrose and a fatty acid:<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Sucrose Ester (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/organic-chemistry/carboxylic-acids-derivatives/reactions-carboxylic-jay/v/preparation-of-esters-via-fischer-esterification"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glycoside formation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the basis for building <i>complex carbohydrates</i> and requires the <u>anomeric carbon to link to another sugar</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glycoside formation</span> is the basis for building <i>complex carbohydrates</i> and requires the <u>anomeric carbon to link to another sugar</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycoside Formation.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-acids-lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/carbohydrate-glycoside-formation-hydrolysis"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Disaccharides"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> form as a result of a <b>glycosidic bond</b> between <u>two monosaccharide subunits</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Disaccharides</span> form as a result of a <b>glycosidic bond</b> between <u>two monosaccharide subunits</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Disaccharides.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-acids-lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/disaccharides-and-polysaccharides"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <div>Lipids are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""insoluble"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in water and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""soluble"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in nonpolar organic solvents</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <div>Lipids are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">insoluble</span> in water and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">soluble</span> in nonpolar organic solvents</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Lipids.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/lipids/v/lipid-overview"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <u>Phospholipids</u> contain a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hydrophilic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> head and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hydrophobic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> tails </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <u>Phospholipids</u> contain a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hydrophilic</span> head and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hydrophobic</span> tails <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><div><i>Hydrophilic</i> = <i>polar</i><br></div></div><div><b>Hydrophobic</b> = <b>nonpolar</b><br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Phospholipid Bilayer.png""></div><div><br></div><div>Schematic of a phospholipid is shown below. It may use <i>glycerol</i> or <i>sphingosine</i> for the backbone<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Phospholipid Schematic.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cell-membrane-overview/v/phospholipid-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> A <i>saturated fatty acid</i> has <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""no"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> double bonds in its tail and is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""less"" data-ordinal=""1"">[more or less]</span> fluid </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> A <i>saturated fatty acid</i> has <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">no</span> double bonds in its tail and is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">less</span> fluid <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Saturated Fatty Acid.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/lipids/v/saturated-fats-unsaturated-fats-and-trans-fats"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glycerophospholipids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are phospholipids that contain a <u>glycerol backbone</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glycerophospholipids</span> are phospholipids that contain a <u>glycerol backbone</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Make up the <i>cell membrane</i></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Glycero vs Sphingo (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Glycero vs Sphingo Backbones.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-acids-lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/lipids-structure-in-cell-membranes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Sphingolipids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> contain a <b>sphingosine backbone</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Sphingolipids</span> contain a <b>sphingosine backbone</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><i>Protect the cell surface</i> against harmful environmental factors<br></div><div><br></div><div>Many (but not all) sphingolipids are also phospholipids with a phosphodiester bond. These are <u style="""">sphingophospholipids</u></div><div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Glycero vs Sphingo (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Glycero vs Sphingo Backbones.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-acids-lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/lipids-structure-in-cell-membranes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sphingomyelin"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a type of sphingolipid found in animal cell membranes, especially in the membranous <b>myelin sheath</b> that surrounds some nerve cell axons </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">sphingomyelin</span> is a type of sphingolipid found in animal cell membranes, especially in the membranous <b>myelin sheath</b> that surrounds some nerve cell axons <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Sphingomyelin.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xrn9qeVM9o4"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glycosphingolipids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are a subtype of <i>glycolipids</i> and contain a <b>sphingosine</b>, <b>fatty acid</b>, and a <b>sugar unit</b><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glycosphingolipids</span> are a subtype of <i>glycolipids</i> and contain a <b>sphingosine</b>, <b>fatty acid</b>, and a <b>sugar unit</b><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Example: <i>Cerebroside</i>, which contains 1 sugar group<br></div><div><br></div><div>Cerebroside Structure:</div><div><img src=""Cerebroside.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/c_RTc7aSFp4"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ganglioside"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a molecule composed of a <u>glycosphingolipid</u> with one or more <i>sialic acids</i> linked on the sugar chain </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ganglioside</span> is a molecule composed of a <u>glycosphingolipid</u> with one or more <i>sialic acids</i> linked on the sugar chain <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>A component of the cell membrane that <b>modulates cell signal transduction</b> events, and appears to concentrate in <b>lipid rafts</b><br></div><div><font color=""#e12727""><br></font></div><div><img src=""Ganglioside.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-nWO63QvayI"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Terpenes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are steroid precursors </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Terpenes</span> are steroid precursors <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Terpene.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/advanced-endocrine-system/biological-basis-of-behavior-endocrine-system/v/terpenes-to-steroids1"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <i>Steroids</i> contain <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> cyclohexane ring(s) and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> cyclopentane ring(s) </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <i>Steroids</i> contain <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3</span> cyclohexane ring(s) and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1</span> cyclopentane ring(s) <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>""Three rooms and a garage""<br></div><div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Steroid Structure.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/advanced-endocrine-system/biological-basis-of-behavior-endocrine-system/v/terpenes-to-steroids1"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> The <i>precursor </i>to steroid hormones is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cholesterol"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>  </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> The <i>precursor </i>to steroid hormones is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cholesterol</span>  <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Cholesterol (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/lipids/v/lipid-overview"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Prostaglandins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are <u>lipid compounds</u> that are <b>signaling molecules</b> and regulate cAMP levels </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Prostaglandins</span> are <u>lipid compounds</u> that are <b>signaling molecules</b> and regulate cAMP levels <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Affect the following functions:</div><div><br></div><div><b>Smooth muscle contraction</b></div><div><b>Body temp</b></div><div><b>Sleep-wake cycle</b></div><div><b>Fever</b></div><div><b>Pain</b><br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Prostaglandin.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-acids-lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/lipids-as-cofactors-and-signaling-molecules"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> The four <u>fat soluble vitamins</u> are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""A"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""D"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""E"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""K"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> The four <u>fat soluble vitamins</u> are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">A</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">D</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">E</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">K</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Fat Soluble Vitamins.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-biology-foundations/hs-biological-macromolecules/v/introduction-to-vitamins-and-minerals"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Triacylglycerols"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are the <b>storage form of fatty acids</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Triacylglycerols</span> are the <b>storage form of fatty acids</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Also known as <u>triglycerides</u></div><div><u><br></u></div><div><img src=""Triglycerol (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/lipids/v/molecular-structure-of-triglycerides-fats"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Adipocytes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are cells used for <b>storage of triacylglycerol deposits</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Adipocytes</span> are cells used for <b>storage of triacylglycerol deposits</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Make up <u>adipose tissue</u></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Adipocyte.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/lipids/a/lipids"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Free fatty acids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are unesterified fatty acids that travel in the bloodstream </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Free fatty acids</span> are unesterified fatty acids that travel in the bloodstream <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Free Fatty Acid.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/fatty-acid-synthesis-part-i"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Saponification"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the <u>ester hydrolysis</u> <u>of triacylglycerols</u> using a strong base like sodium or KOH </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Saponification</span> is the <u>ester hydrolysis</u> <u>of triacylglycerols</u> using a strong base like sodium or KOH <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Saponification.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-acids-lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/saponification-base-promoted-ester-hydrolysis"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""micelle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> can <i>dissolve</i> <i>a lipid-soluble molecule</i> in its fatty acid core </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">micelle</span> can <i>dissolve</i> <i>a lipid-soluble molecule</i> in its fatty acid core <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>It then <u>washes away with water</u> because of its shell of carboxylate head groups</div><div><br></div><div><b>Formation of micelles is spontaneous</b> because ∆S > O. Overall entropy increases because there are now more unbound water molecules</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Micelle (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MTwUy3c5Etc"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Nucleic_Acids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Nucleic acids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are <b>polymers of nucleotides</b><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Nucleic_Acids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Nucleic acids</span> are <b>polymers of nucleotides</b><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Include deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Nucleic Acid.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Wc4jTH2v_w"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Nucleic_Acids</div> The <i>primary structure of nucleic acids</i> is the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""linear sequence of nucleotides"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Nucleic_Acids</div> The <i>primary structure of nucleic acids</i> is the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">linear sequence of nucleotides</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Nucleic Acid Structure.png""><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Nucleic_Acids</div> The <i>secondary structure of nucleic acids</i> is made up of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""interactions between bases within the same molecule"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>  </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Nucleic_Acids</div> The <i>secondary structure of nucleic acids</i> is made up of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">interactions between bases within the same molecule</span>  <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><div>The secondary structure is responsible for the <i>shape</i> that the nucleic acid assumes</div><div><br></div><div>RNA 2° structure has 4 basic elements: <b>loops</b>, <b style="""">helices</b>, <b>bulges</b>, and <b>junctions</b></div></div><div><br></div><img src=""Nucleic Acid Structure.png""></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Nucleic_Acids</div> The <u>tertiary structure of nucleic acids</u> is made up by the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""location of the atoms in 3D space"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Nucleic_Acids</div> The <u>tertiary structure of nucleic acids</u> is made up by the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">location of the atoms in 3D space</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Nucleic Acid Structure.png""><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Nucleic_Acids</div> The <i>quaternary structure of nucleic acids</i> is made up of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""interactions of nucleic acids with&nbsp;other molecules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Nucleic_Acids</div> The <i>quaternary structure of nucleic acids</i> is made up of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">interactions of nucleic acids with other molecules</span><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><div>Example: <u>chromatin interacting with histones<br></u></div></div><div><br></div><img src=""Nucleic Acid Structure.png""></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a polymer made up of monomers called <i>nucleotides</i>. Long strands form a <b>double helix</b> which runs antiparallel </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)</span> is a polymer made up of monomers called <i>nucleotides</i>. Long strands form a <b>double helix</b> which runs antiparallel <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""DNA Structure 2 (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-discovery-and-structure-of-dna/v/dna-deoxyribonucleic-acid"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <i>DNA</i> is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""negatively"" data-ordinal=""1"">[positively or negatively]</span> charged due to its <u>phosphate backbone</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <i>DNA</i> is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">negatively</span> charged due to its <u>phosphate backbone</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""DNA Backbone.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-discovery-and-structure-of-dna/v/molecular-structure-of-dna"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> A <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nucleoside"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a 5-carbon sugar plus a nitrogenous base and <i>no phosphate groups</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> A <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleoside</span> is a 5-carbon sugar plus a nitrogenous base and <i>no phosphate groups</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Nucleoside.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-biology-foundations/hs-biological-macromolecules/v/introduction-to-nucleic-acids-and-nucleotides"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> A <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nucleotide"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a <b>nucleoside with 1 to 3 phosphate groups added</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> A <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleotide</span> is a <b>nucleoside with 1 to 3 phosphate groups added</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Nucleotide.png"" style=""color: rgb(25, 90, 179);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-biology-foundations/hs-biological-macromolecules/v/introduction-to-nucleic-acids-and-nucleotides"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <div>The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Watson-Crick model"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... model]</span> states that DNA is a <i>double-stranded, helical structure</i> </div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <div>The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Watson-Crick model</span> states that DNA is a <i>double-stranded, helical structure</i> </div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The two strands are <b>antiparallel</b></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Watson Crick (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/dna-as-the-genetic-material/dna-discovery-and-structure/v/the-discovery-of-the-double-helix-structure-of-dna"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <div>The <b>nitrogenous bases</b> in DNA and RNA include:</div><div><br></div><div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Guanine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cytosine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Adenine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""<div>Thymine (DNA only)</div><div></div><div>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Uracil (RNA only)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <div>The <b>nitrogenous bases</b> in DNA and RNA include:</div><div><br></div><div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Guanine</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cytosine</span></div></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Adenine</span><br></div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1""><div>Thymine (DNA only)</div><div></div><div></span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Uracil (RNA only)</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Nitrogenous Bases (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-acids-lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/nucleic-acid-structure-1"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> The <u>pyrimidines</u> in DNA and RNA have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> ring(s) </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> The <u>pyrimidines</u> in DNA and RNA have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1</span> ring(s) <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Nitrogenous Bases.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-acids-lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/nucleic-acid-structure-1"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> The <i>purines</i> in DNA and RNA have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> ring(s) </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> The <i>purines</i> in DNA and RNA have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2</span> ring(s) <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Nitrogenous Bases.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-acids-lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/nucleic-acid-structure-1"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> The DNA double helix has a <i>diameter</i> of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""20"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> angstroms </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> The DNA double helix has a <i>diameter</i> of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">20</span> angstroms <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><i>purine + pyrimidine = uniform width</i><br></div><div>purine + purine = too wide</div><div>pyrimidine + pyrimidine = too narrow</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""DNA Width.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yelx2ZSh7RA"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> The <b>DNA backbone</b> is held together by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphodiester&nbsp;bonds"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... bonds]</span>  </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> The <b>DNA backbone</b> is held together by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphodiester bonds</span>  <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Form between the sugar and the phosphate groups<br></div><div><br></div><div>Nucleotide bases are held together by <u>hydrogen bonds</u></div><div><br></div><div><font color=""#195ab3""><img src=""DNA Structure.png""></font></div><div><font color=""#195ab3""><br></font></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/dna-as-the-genetic-material/dna-replication/v/molecular-structure-of-dna"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <div><b>Adenine and Thymine</b> are held together by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> hydrogen bonds</div><div><br></div><div><i>Guanine and Cytosine</i> are held together by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> hydrogen bonds</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <div><b>Adenine and Thymine</b> are held together by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2</span> hydrogen bonds</div><div><br></div><div><i>Guanine and Cytosine</i> are held together by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3</span> hydrogen bonds</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Note: RNA has U instead of T<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""DNA Structure.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ILWTGC8KHM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Chargaff’s rules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... rules]</span> states that, in DNA, the <b>number of purines must equal the number of pyrimidines</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Chargaff’s rules</span> states that, in DNA, the <b>number of purines must equal the number of pyrimidines</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>This is due to the base pairing of A-T and G-C</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Nitrogenous Bases.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/dna-as-the-genetic-material/dna-discovery-and-structure/v/the-discovery-of-the-double-helix-structure-of-dna"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> DNA <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""replication"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the process of producing an <i>identical replica</i> of a DNA molecule </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> DNA <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">replication</span> is the process of producing an <i>identical replica</i> of a DNA molecule <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Occurs in the S (synthesis) phase of the cell cycle<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""DNA Replication (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-rna-and-protein-synthesis/v/rna-transcription-and-translation"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Topoisomerase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[Enzyme]</span> <u>unwinds the DNA double helix</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Topoisomerase</span> <u>unwinds the DNA double helix</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""DNA Replication (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-rna-and-protein-synthesis/v/rna-transcription-and-translation"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Helicase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[Enzyme]</span> <i>breaks the hydrogen bonds</i> between nitrogenous bases in order to separate the DNA strands </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Helicase</span> <i>breaks the hydrogen bonds</i> between nitrogenous bases in order to separate the DNA strands <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""DNA Replication (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-rna-and-protein-synthesis/v/rna-transcription-and-translation"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <div><b>Single strand binding protein</b> binds to single-stranded DNA and serves to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""prevent annealing of single-stranded DNA into&nbsp;double-stranded DNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <div><b>Single strand binding protein</b> binds to single-stranded DNA and serves to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">prevent annealing of single-stranded DNA into double-stranded DNA</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""DNA Replication (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-rna-and-protein-synthesis/v/rna-transcription-and-translation"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA primase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[Enzyme]</span> <u>catalyzes the synthesis of the RNA</u> primer </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA primase</span> <u>catalyzes the synthesis of the RNA</u> primer <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""DNA Replication (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-rna-and-protein-synthesis/v/rna-transcription-and-translation"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""RNA primers"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are short RNA nucleotide sequences that are complementary to the ssDNA and <i>allow DNA replication to start</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">RNA primers</span> are short RNA nucleotide sequences that are complementary to the ssDNA and <i>allow DNA replication to start</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""DNA Replication (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-rna-and-protein-synthesis/v/rna-transcription-and-translation"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA polymerase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[Enzyme]</span> <i>adds nucleotides</i> to the growing strand during DNA replication </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA polymerase</span> <i>adds nucleotides</i> to the growing strand during DNA replication <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>DNA Polymerase also removes the RNA primer at the end of the strands</div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""DNA Replication (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-rna-and-protein-synthesis/v/rna-transcription-and-translation"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Okazaki fragments"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are <u>short, newly synthesized DNA fragments</u> that are formed on the <i>lagging template</i> strand during DNA replication</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Okazaki fragments</span> are <u>short, newly synthesized DNA fragments</u> that are formed on the <i>lagging template</i> strand during DNA replication</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""DNA Replication (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-rna-and-protein-synthesis/v/rna-transcription-and-translation"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA ligase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[Enzyme]</span> <i>joins DNA strands together</i> by catalyzing the formation of <u>phosphodiester bonds</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA ligase</span> <i>joins DNA strands together</i> by catalyzing the formation of <u>phosphodiester bonds</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""DNA Replication (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-rna-and-protein-synthesis/v/rna-transcription-and-translation"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Repair</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Oncogenes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> develop from <b>mutations of proto-oncogenes and</b> promote cell cycling. <i>They may lead to cancer</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Repair</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Oncogenes</span> develop from <b>mutations of proto-oncogenes and</b> promote cell cycling. <i>They may lead to cancer</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><u>Oncogenes = stepping on gas pedal</u><br></div><div><br></div><div><font color=""#5fa136""><img src=""Oncogene.jpeg""></font></div><div><font color=""#5fa136""><br></font></div><div><a href="""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/gene-control/v/oncogenes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Repair</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Tumor suppressor genes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> code for proteins that <u>reduce</u> cell cycling or promote DNA repair</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Repair</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Tumor suppressor genes</span> code for proteins that <u>reduce</u> cell cycling or promote DNA repair</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Mutated tumor suppressor genes = <u>no brakes</u><br></div><div><i><br></i></div><div><font color=""#195ab3""><img src=""Oncogene.jpeg""></font></div><div><font color=""#195ab3""><br></font></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/gene-control/v/tumor-suppressors"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Repair</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""DNA polymerase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[Enzyme]</span> <b>proofreads its work</b> and excises incorrectly matched bases </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Repair</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">DNA polymerase</span> <b>proofreads its work</b> and excises incorrectly matched bases <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The daughter strand is identified by its lack of methylation and corrected accordingly</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""DNA Proofreading (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/dna/v/dna-repair-1"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Repair</div> <div><u>Mismatch repair</u> of DNA occurs during <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""G2 phase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[cell cycle phase]</span> using the genes MSH2 and MLH1</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Repair</div> <div><u>Mismatch repair</u> of DNA occurs during <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">G2 phase</span> using the genes MSH2 and MLH1</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""DNA Proofreading (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/dna/v/dna-repair-1"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Repair</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Nucleotide excision repair"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... repair]</span> fixes <u>helix-deforming </u>lesions of DNA such as <b>Thymine dimers</b></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Repair</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Nucleotide excision repair</span> fixes <u>helix-deforming </u>lesions of DNA such as <b>Thymine dimers</b></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>A cut-and-patch process. Excision Endonuclease<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Excision Repair (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/dna/v/dna-repair-2"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Repair</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Base excision repair"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... repair]</span> fixes <i>nondeforming</i> lesions of the DNA helix such as <b>cytosine deamination</b> by removing the base, leaving an apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) site</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Repair</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Base excision repair</span> fixes <i>nondeforming</i> lesions of the DNA helix such as <b>cytosine deamination</b> by removing the base, leaving an apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) site</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>AP endonuclease then removes the damaged sequence, which can be <i>filled in with the correct bases</i></div><div><i><br></i></div><div><img src=""Base Excision Repair (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-discovery-and-structure-of-dna/a/dna-proofreading-and-repair"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> Humans have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""23"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> pairs of <u>chromosomes</u>, for a total of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""46"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> chromosomes </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> Humans have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">23</span> pairs of <u>chromosomes</u>, for a total of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">46</span> chromosomes <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""23 Pairs of Chromosomes.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-reproduction-and-cell-division/hs-chromosome-structure-and-numbers/v/chromosomes-chromatids-chromatin-etc"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Chromatin"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> <b>packages DNA into a smaller volume</b> to fit in the cell </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Chromatin</span> <b>packages DNA into a smaller volume</b> to fit in the cell <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><i>Heterochromatin</i>: Dark, dense, and silent<br></div><div><div><u>Euchromatin</u>: Light, uncondensed, and expressed</div></div><div><br></div><div><font color=""#195ab3""><img src=""DNA Packaging.png""></font></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-reproduction-and-cell-division/hs-chromosome-structure-and-numbers/v/chromosomes-chromatids-chromatin-etc"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Telomeres"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are at the <i>ends of chromosomes</i> and contain high GC-content to <u>prevent unraveling of the DNA</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Telomeres</span> are at the <i>ends of chromosomes</i> and contain high GC-content to <u>prevent unraveling of the DNA</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b>During replication, telomeres are shortened</b>, but this can be partially reversed by <i>telomerase</i><br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Telomere (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cellular-development/v/telomeres-and-cell-senescence"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Centromeres"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are located in the <i>middle of chromosomes</i> and <b>hold sister chromatids together</b> until they are separated during anaphase in mitosis </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Centromeres</span> are located in the <i>middle of chromosomes</i> and <b>hold sister chromatids together</b> until they are separated during anaphase in mitosis <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><u>High GC-content</u> to maintain a strong bond between chromatids<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Centromere.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-reproduction-and-cell-division/hs-chromosome-structure-and-numbers/v/chromosomes-chromatids-chromatin-etc"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acrocentric chromosome"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... chromosome]</span> is one in which the <b>centromere</b> is located<b> </b>near<b> </b>one<b> end of the chromosome </b>and<b> </b><i>not in the middle</i></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acrocentric chromosome</span> is one in which the <b>centromere</b> is located<b> </b>near<b> </b>one<b> end of the chromosome </b>and<b> </b><i>not in the middle</i></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Acrocentric Chromosome.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vbGw4VanNjk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <b>Prokaryotes</b> have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> origin(s) of replication and <u>eukaryotes</u> have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""multiple"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> origin(s) of replication </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Replication</div> <b>Prokaryotes</b> have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1</span> origin(s) of replication and <u>eukaryotes</u> have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">multiple</span> origin(s) of replication <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Origin of Replication.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FBmO_rmXxIw"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Recombinant DNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is DNA composed of nucleotides from <i>two different sources</i>, created in only in labs </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Recombinant DNA</span> is DNA composed of nucleotides from <i>two different sources</i>, created in only in labs <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Recombinate DNA.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-technology/dna-cloning-tutorial/v/dna-cloning-and-recombinant-dna"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""The central dogma"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> states that <u>DNA is transcribed to RNA</u>, which is <b>translated to protein</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">The central dogma</span> states that <u>DNA is transcribed to RNA</u>, which is <b>translated to protein</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Central Dogma.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/amino-acids-and-proteins1/v/central-dogma-of-molecular-biology-2"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> The genetic code is considered <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""degenerate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> because <b>multiple codons can code for the same amino acid</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> The genetic code is considered <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">degenerate</span> because <b>multiple codons can code for the same amino acid</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Degenerate Code.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-rna-and-protein-synthesis/a/the-genetic-code"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <div><u>Initiation (start) Codon</u>: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""AUG"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div><div><br></div><div><i>Termination (stop) Codons</i>: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""UAA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""UGA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""UAG"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <div><u>Initiation (start) Codon</u>: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">AUG</span><br></div><div><br></div><div><i>Termination (stop) Codons</i>: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">UAA</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">UGA</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">UAG</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Start Stop Codons (1).png"" style=""color: rgb(225, 39, 39);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/central-dogma-transcription/a/the-genetic-code-discovery-and-properties"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> The <u>start codon</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""AUG"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> codes for <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Methionine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[amino acid]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> The <u>start codon</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">AUG</span> codes for <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Methionine</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Start Stop Codons (1).png"" style=""color: rgb(225, 39, 39);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/central-dogma-transcription/a/the-genetic-code-discovery-and-properties"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3rd base"" data-ordinal=""1"">[which base]</span> in a codon can <b>wobble</b> and <i>break standard Watson-Crick rules</i> but still code for the intended protein </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3rd base</span> in a codon can <b>wobble</b> and <i>break standard Watson-Crick rules</i> but still code for the intended protein <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b>Wobble is caused by redundancy found in the genetic code</b></div><div><br></div><div>Wobble base pairings are <u>less stable</u></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Wobble (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/translation-polypeptides/a/trna-and-ribosomes"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation MileDown::Biology::Genetics</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""point mutation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a genetic mutation where a <u>single nucleotide</u> base is <i>changed</i>, <i>inserted</i> or <i>deleted</i> from a sequence of DNA or RNA </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation MileDown::Biology::Genetics</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">point mutation</span> is a genetic mutation where a <u>single nucleotide</u> base is <i>changed</i>, <i>inserted</i> or <i>deleted</i> from a sequence of DNA or RNA <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b>Silent</b></div><div><b>Nonsense (truncation)</b></div><div><b>Missense</b></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Point Mutations.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.google.com/search?q=point+mutations+khan+academy&oq=Point+Mutations+khan+a&aqs=chrome.0.0j69i57.1377j0j9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation MileDown::Biology::Genetics</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""silent mutation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... mutation]</span> has <u>no effect on protein synthesis</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation MileDown::Biology::Genetics</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">silent mutation</span> has <u>no effect on protein synthesis</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Usually found in the 3rd base of a codon<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Silent Mutation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.google.com/search?q=point+mutations+khan+academy&oq=Point+Mutations+khan+a&aqs=chrome.0.0j69i57.1377j0j9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation MileDown::Biology::Genetics</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nonsense mutation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... mutation]</span> produces a <i>premature stop codon</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation MileDown::Biology::Genetics</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nonsense mutation</span> produces a <i>premature stop codon</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Nonsense Mutation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.google.com/search?q=point+mutations+khan+academy&oq=Point+Mutations+khan+a&aqs=chrome.0.0j69i57.1377j0j9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation MileDown::Biology::Genetics</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""missense mutation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... mutation]</span> produces a codon that <u>codes for a different amino acid</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation MileDown::Biology::Genetics</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">missense mutation</span> produces a codon that <u>codes for a different amino acid</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Missense Mutation.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.google.com/search?q=point+mutations+khan+academy&oq=Point+Mutations+khan+a&aqs=chrome.0.0j69i57.1377j0j9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation MileDown::Biology::Genetics</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""frameshift mutation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... mutation]</span> results from a nucleotide addition or deletion, and <b>changes the reading frame of subsequent codons</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation MileDown::Biology::Genetics</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">frameshift mutation</span> results from a nucleotide addition or deletion, and <b>changes the reading frame of subsequent codons</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Frameshift Mutation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.google.com/search?q=point+mutations+khan+academy&oq=Point+Mutations+khan+a&aqs=chrome.0.0j69i57.1377j0j9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <b>RNA</b> uses a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ribose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> sugar and uses <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""uracil"" data-ordinal=""1"">[nucleotide]</span> instead of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""thymine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[nucleotide]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> <b>RNA</b> uses a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ribose</span> sugar and uses <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">uracil</span> instead of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">thymine</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><u>RNA is single-stranded</u></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""RNA.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/nova/rnawondermolecule/v/rnaenigma"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Transcription</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Messenger RNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is <u>transcribed from DNA</u> in the nucleus and then <b>travels into the cytoplasm for translation</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Transcription</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Messenger RNA</span> is <u>transcribed from DNA</u> in the nucleus and then <b>travels into the cytoplasm for translation</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""mRNA.jpg"" style=""color: rgb(25, 90, 179);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/transcription-of-dna-into-rna/v/transcription-and-mrna-processing"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Transfer RNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> <i>brings amino acids to the ribosome</i> and recognizes the codon on the mRNA using its own <b>anticodon</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Transfer RNA</span> <i>brings amino acids to the ribosome</i> and recognizes the codon on the mRNA using its own <b>anticodon</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""tRNA.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/translation-polypeptides/a/trna-and-ribosomes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Ribosomal RNA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> <b>makes up the ribosome</b> and is enzymatically active </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ribosomal RNA</span> <b>makes up the ribosome</b> and is enzymatically active <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""rRNA.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/translation-polypeptides/a/trna-and-ribosomes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Transcription</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Transcription"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the first step of gene expression, in which a <u>segment of DNA is copied into RNA</u> by the enzyme <i>RNA polymerase</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Transcription</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Transcription</span> is the first step of gene expression, in which a <u>segment of DNA is copied into RNA</u> by the enzyme <i>RNA polymerase</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Transcription (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/transcription-of-dna-into-rna/v/transcription-and-mrna-processing"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""nucleosome"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a segment of DNA wound in sequence<i> around eight histone protein cores</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Structure</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">nucleosome</span> is a segment of DNA wound in sequence<i> around eight histone protein cores</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Nucleosome.png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""DNA Packaging Stages.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MsQHwXfYkAs"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::RNA_Processing</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Post-transcriptional modification"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the process in eukaryotic cells where <b>primary transcript RNA is converted into mature RNA</b></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::RNA_Processing</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Post-transcriptional modification</span> is the process in eukaryotic cells where <b>primary transcript RNA is converted into mature RNA</b></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><u>Introns are cut out</u><br></div><div><br></div><div><font color=""#e12727""><img src=""Posttranscriptional Modification.jpeg""></font></div><div><font color=""#e12727""><br></font></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/transcription-and-rna-processing/v/post-translational-regulation"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::RNA_Processing</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Exons"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are regions of a gene that <i>code for proteins</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::RNA_Processing</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Exons</span> are regions of a gene that <i>code for proteins</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><i>Exons exit the nucleus</i> and form mRNA <br></div><div><u>Introns stay in the nucleus</u> since they are cut out and not included in mRNA<br><div><br></div><div><img src=""Posttranscriptional Modification.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/transcription-of-dna-into-rna/v/transcription-and-mrna-processing"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::RNA_Processing</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Introns"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are segments of a DNA or RNA molecule which do <u>not code for proteins</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::RNA_Processing</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Introns</span> are segments of a DNA or RNA molecule which do <u>not code for proteins</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><i>Exons exit the nucleus</i> and form mRNA <br></div><div><u>Introns stay in the nucleus</u> since they are cut out and not included in mRNA<br><div><br></div><div><img src=""Posttranscriptional Modification.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/transcription-of-dna-into-rna/v/transcription-and-mrna-processing"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div><br></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::RNA_Processing</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Alternative splicing"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a regulated process during gene expression that <b>results in a single gene coding for multiple proteins</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::RNA_Processing</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Alternative splicing</span> is a regulated process during gene expression that <b>results in a single gene coding for multiple proteins</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>In normal gene expression, <u>introns are cut away</u> and <i>exons remain</i> in the sequence</div><div><br></div><div>In <b>alternative splicing</b>, a certain exon may be cut out, or an intron may stay. This allows for the RNA segment to code for more than one gene<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Alternative Splicing (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xZwSmUNRBQQ"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> The purpose of the <i>5’ cap and poly-A tail</i> on mRNA is that they <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""protect&nbsp;mRNA for translation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> The purpose of the <i>5’ cap and poly-A tail</i> on mRNA is that they <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">protect mRNA for translation</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Cap and Tail of mRNA (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/transcription-and-rna-processing/v/post-translational-regulation"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""polycistronic&nbsp;gene"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a segment of <b>prokaryotic</b> <b>mRNA</b> that <i>encodes several proteins</i></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <div>A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">polycistronic gene</span> is a segment of <b>prokaryotic</b> <b>mRNA</b> that <i>encodes several proteins</i></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Multiple translation sites lead to different gene products being created<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Polycistronic Genes .png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Amfz59f87YU"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <b>Ribosomes</b> are factories where <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""translation (protein synthesis)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> occurs </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <b>Ribosomes</b> are factories where <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">translation (protein synthesis)</span> occurs <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Ribosome (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/translation-polypeptides/v/translation-mrna-to-protein"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> In <u>translation</u>, a succession of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""tRNAs"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> add their <i>amino acids</i> to the polypeptide chain as the mRNA is moved through the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ribosome"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> one codon at a time </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> In <u>translation</u>, a succession of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">tRNAs</span> add their <i>amino acids</i> to the polypeptide chain as the mRNA is moved through the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ribosome</span> one codon at a time <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Ribosome (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/translation-polypeptides/v/translation-mrna-to-protein"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <u>Translation</u> occurs in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytoplasm"" data-ordinal=""1"">[part of cell]</span>, at the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ribosomes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[organelle]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <u>Translation</u> occurs in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytoplasm</span>, at the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ribosomes</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Tranlsation Site.png"" style=""color: rgb(225, 39, 39);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/translation-polypeptides/v/translation-mrna-to-protein"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> The three steps in <u>translation</u> are:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Initiation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Elongation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Termination"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> The three steps in <u>translation</u> are:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Initiation</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Elongation</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Termination</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Translation Steps.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/translation-polypeptides/v/translation-mrna-to-protein"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> In <u>prokaryotic translation</u>, the <b>30S ribosome</b> subunit attaches to the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Shine-Delgarno sequence"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and scans for a start codon </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> In <u>prokaryotic translation</u>, the <b>30S ribosome</b> subunit attaches to the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Shine-Delgarno sequence</span> and scans for a start codon <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>It lays down <b>N-formylmethionine </b>in the P site of the ribosome</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Translation Initiation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/translation/v/differences-in-translation-between-prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> A <u>Svedberg</u> is a measure of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""sedimentation time"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>; the tendency of particles to settle out of a fluid </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> A <u>Svedberg</u> is a measure of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">sedimentation time</span>; the tendency of particles to settle out of a fluid <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The value depends on both <b>mass and shape</b><br></div><div><i><br></i></div><div>Svedberg units are <i>not additive</i>. For example, prokaryotic ribosomes have a 50S subunit and a 30S subunit, but the total Svedberg unit for the combined ribosome is only 70s</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Ribosome Subunits.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1fUswlOwslw"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <u>Prokaryotic</u> ribosomes are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""70"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> Svedberg units  </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <u>Prokaryotic</u> ribosomes are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">70</span> Svedberg units  <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Ribosome Subunits.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1fUswlOwslw"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <b>Eukaryotic</b> ribosomes are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""80"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> Svedberg units  </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <b>Eukaryotic</b> ribosomes are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">80</span> Svedberg units  <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Ribosome Subunits.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1fUswlOwslw"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> In <b>translation elongation</b>, the new tRNA enters the ribosome at the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""A"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> site </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> In <b>translation elongation</b>, the new tRNA enters the ribosome at the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">A</span> site <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The growing polypeptide chain is transferred from the P site to the A site to meet the new tRNA</div><div><br></div><div>Before leaving the ribosome, the tRNA stops in the E site. <i>The order of sites for the tRNA is A-P-E</i></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Translation Elongation.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/translation-polypeptides/v/translation-mrna-to-protein"">Khan Academy Link</a></div> </div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> In <b>translation</b>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""termination"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> will occur when the codon in the A site is a <i>stop codon</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> In <b>translation</b>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">termination</span> will occur when the codon in the A site is a <i>stop codon</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Release factor places a <u>water molecule</u> on the polypeptide chain and thus releases the protein<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Translation Termination.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-central-dogma/translation-polypeptides/v/translation-mrna-to-protein"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Post-translational modifications"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are modifications that occur to a protein <u>after it has been fully formed in translation</u></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Translation</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Post-translational modifications</span> are modifications that occur to a protein <u>after it has been fully formed in translation</u></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>PTMs can happen at any step of the protein lifespan. The most common PTM is <i>phosphorylation</i><br></div><div><br></div><div><i><img src=""Post Translational Modifications (1).png""></i></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/dna/v/protein-modifications"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> <b>Eukaryotes</b> have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""multiple"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> chromosome(s)<div><br></div><div><u>Prokaryotes</u> have <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""one"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> chromosome(s)</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> <b>Eukaryotes</b> have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">multiple</span> chromosome(s)<div><br></div><div><u>Prokaryotes</u> have <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">one</span> chromosome(s)</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>The prokaryotic chromosome is circular<br><div><br></div><div><b>Eukaryote</b>:</div><div><img src=""Chromosome Eukaryote (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><u>Prokaryote</u>:</div><div><img src=""Chromosome Prokaryote (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div>Note: <i>Plasmids</i> are different from chromosomes and contain DNA that is <i>not essential for survival</i></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i9AbkNGh2u8"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chromatid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is <u>one half of a chromosome</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">chromatid</span> is <u>one half of a chromosome</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>One of the chromatids is an <i>identical copy</i> of the other</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Centromere.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-reproduction-and-cell-division/hs-chromosome-structure-and-numbers/v/chromosomes-chromatids-chromatin-etc"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chromosome"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a deoxyribonucleic acid molecule with <i>part or all of the genetic material</i> of an organism </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Chromosomes</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">chromosome</span> is a deoxyribonucleic acid molecule with <i>part or all of the genetic material</i> of an organism <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b>Eukaryote</b>:</div><div><img src=""Chromosome Eukaryote (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><u>Prokaryote</u>:</div><div><img src=""Chromosome Prokaryote (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div>Note: <i>Plasmids</i> are different from chromosomes and contain DNA that is <i>not essential for survival</i></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i9AbkNGh2u8"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Operons"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are found in <u>prokaryotic DNA</u> and contain groups of genes that are <b>regulated together</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Operons</span> are found in <u>prokaryotic DNA</u> and contain groups of genes that are <b>regulated together</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The advantage is that a group of genes whose products are all needed for a common function can be <b>transcribed together</b><br></div><div><br></div><div>Operons contain <i>activators</i>, <i>inducers, </i>and <i>repressors</i></div><div><br></div><div><i><img src=""Operon.jpg""></i></div><div><i><br></i></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-regulation/gene-regulation-in-bacteria/v/operons-and-gene-regulation-in-bacteria"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> An operon <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""promoter"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the <i>binding site for RNA polymerase</i>, the enzyme that performs <u>transcription</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> An operon <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">promoter</span> is the <i>binding site for RNA polymerase</i>, the enzyme that performs <u>transcription</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Operon Promoter (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-regulation/gene-regulation-in-bacteria/a/the-lac-operon"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> An operon <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""operator"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a short region of DNA that lies partially within the promoter and <b>interacts with a repressor</b> that controls the transcription of the operon </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> An operon <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">operator</span> is a short region of DNA that lies partially within the promoter and <b>interacts with a repressor</b> that controls the transcription of the operon <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Operon Promoter (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-regulation/gene-regulation-in-bacteria/a/the-lac-operon"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> An operon <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""repressor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> <i>turns the operon off</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> An operon <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">repressor</span> <i>turns the operon off</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The repressor <b>binds to the operator</b> and then blocks the movement of RNA polymerase down the DNA strand<br></div><div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Operon Inducer (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-regulation/gene-regulation-in-bacteria/a/the-lac-operon"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> An operon <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""activator"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> <u>turns the operon on</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> An operon <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">activator</span> <u>turns the operon on</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Example: <i>lac</i> <i>operon</i> uses catabolite activator protein (CAP)<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Operon Activator (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-regulation/gene-regulation-in-bacteria/a/the-lac-operon"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> An operon <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""inducer"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a small molecule that <b>triggers expression of a gene or operon</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> An operon <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">inducer</span> is a small molecule that <b>triggers expression of a gene or operon</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Example: The <i>lac</i> <i>operon</i> is considered an <b>inducible operon</b> because its default state is to be turned off (repressed), but can be turned on in the presence of the inducer <b>allolactose</b></div><div><font color=""#195ab3""><br></font></div><div><img src=""Operon Inducer (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-regulation/gene-regulation-in-bacteria/a/the-lac-operon"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> An <b>inducible operon</b> under normal conditions is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bonded to a repressor"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> An <b>inducible operon</b> under normal conditions is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">bonded to a repressor</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b>Inducible operons</b> are turned on when an inducer pulls the repressor from the operator site<br></div><div><br></div><div>Example: <i>lac operon</i> is an inducible operon</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Operon Inducer (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-regulation/gene-regulation-in-bacteria/v/operons-and-gene-regulation-in-bacteria"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> A <i>repressible operon</i> under normal conditions will <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""proceed with transcription"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> A <i>repressible operon</i> under normal conditions will <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">proceed with transcription</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><i>Repressible operons</i> can be turned off by a corepressor coupling with the repressor and the <u>binding of this complex to the operator site<br></u></div><div><br></div><div>Example: <i>Trp operon</i></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Repressible Operon.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-regulation/gene-regulation-in-bacteria/v/operons-and-gene-regulation-in-bacteria"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Transcription factors"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are proteins that help turn specific<b> </b>genes<b> ""on"" or ""off""</b> by binding to nearby DNA</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Transcription factors</span> are proteins that help turn specific<b> </b>genes<b> ""on"" or ""off""</b> by binding to nearby DNA</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Transcription Factors.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Enhancer.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/regulation-of-gene-expression-and-cell-specialization/v/regulation-of-transcription"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Promotors"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are regions of DNA that <u>initiate transcription</u> of a particular gene </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Promotors</span> are regions of DNA that <u>initiate transcription</u> of a particular gene <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Are <u>within 25</u><b> </b>base pairs of the transcription start site<br></div><div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Transcription Factors.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/regulation-of-gene-expression-and-cell-specialization/v/regulation-of-transcription"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Enhancers"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are sequences of DNA that function to <i>enhance transcription</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Enhancers</span> are sequences of DNA that function to <i>enhance transcription</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Are <i>more than </i>25 base pairs away from the transcription start site<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Enhancer.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Enhancer 2.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/regulation-of-gene-expression-and-cell-specialization/v/regulation-of-transcription"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Histone acetylation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> <i>increases the accessibility of chromatin </i>and allows DNA binding proteins to interact </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Histone acetylation</span> <i>increases the accessibility of chromatin </i>and allows DNA binding proteins to interact <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b>This activates transcription</b><br></div><div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Histone Acetylation.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/regulation-of-gene-expression-and-cell-specialization/v/dna-and-chromatin-regulation"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <i>DNA methylation</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""decreases"" data-ordinal=""1"">[increases or decreases]</span> the <u>accessibility of chromatin</u> and stops DNA binding proteins from interacting </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <i>DNA methylation</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">decreases</span> the <u>accessibility of chromatin</u> and stops DNA binding proteins from interacting <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><i>This inhibits transcription</i><br></div><div><div><br></div><div><img src=""DNA Methylation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/regulation-of-gene-expression-and-cell-specialization/v/dna-and-chromatin-regulation"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Lac operon"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> contains genes that <b>code for proteins in charge of transporting lactose</b> into the cytosol and digesting it into glucose </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lac operon</span> contains genes that <b>code for proteins in charge of transporting lactose</b> into the cytosol and digesting it into glucose <div> </div> <div id='extra'>This glucose is then used to make <i>energy</i><div><br></div><div>The <i>lac</i>, or <i>lactose</i>,<i> operon</i> is found in <u>E. coli</u> and some other bacteria<div><br></div><div><img src=""Lac Operon.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-regulation/gene-regulation-in-bacteria/a/the-lac-operon"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> The <i>Lac operon</i> is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""inducible"" data-ordinal=""1"">[repressible or inducible]</span> operon </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> The <i>Lac operon</i> is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">inducible</span> operon <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Under normal conditions it is <i>bonded to a repressor</i><br></div><div><div><br></div><div>It is turned on when an inducer pulls the repressor from the operator site</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Operon Inducer (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-regulation/gene-regulation-in-bacteria/v/operons-and-gene-regulation-in-bacteria"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> The genes in the <i>lac operon</i> will be expressed if the following <u>two conditions are met</u>:<div><br></div><div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Lactose is available"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><br></div><div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glucose is low"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div></div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> The genes in the <i>lac operon</i> will be expressed if the following <u>two conditions are met</u>:<div><br></div><div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lactose is available</span></div><div><br></div><div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glucose is low</span></div></div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>When <b>lactose is available</b>, the inducer (allolactose) binds to the repressor and the repressor detaches from the DNA:<br></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Operon Inducer (1).png""><br></div><div><br></div></div><div>When <u>glucose is low</u>, the activator, <i>catabolite activator protein</i> (CAP), binds to the DNA:</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Operon Activator (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-regulation/gene-regulation-in-bacteria/v/operons-and-gene-regulation-in-bacteria"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Allolactose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> binds to the <i>lac repressor</i> and makes it change shape so the <b>repressor detaches from the DNA</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Allolactose</span> binds to the <i>lac repressor</i> and makes it change shape so the <b>repressor detaches from the DNA</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>When lactose is available, <u>some lactose molecules will be converted to allolactose</u><div><br></div><div><b>This increases the lac operon gene expression</b><br><div><br></div><div><img src=""Operon Inducer (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/gene-regulation/gene-regulation-in-bacteria/v/operons-and-gene-regulation-in-bacteria"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <div><img src=""Glycosidic Bond Alpha (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div>This is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""alpha"" data-ordinal=""1"">[alpha or beta]</span> <b>glycosidic bond</b><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <div><img src=""Glycosidic Bond Alpha (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div>This is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">alpha</span> <b>glycosidic bond</b><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycosidic Bonds.png"" style=""color: rgb(225, 39, 39);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/carbohydrates-and-sugars/a/carbohydrates"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <div><img src=""Glycosidic Bond Beta (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div>This is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""beta"" data-ordinal=""1"">[alpha or beta]</span> <b>glycosidic bond</b><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <div><img src=""Glycosidic Bond Beta (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div>This is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">beta</span> <b>glycosidic bond</b><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycosidic Bonds.png"" style=""color: rgb(225, 39, 39);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/carbohydrates-and-sugars/a/carbohydrates"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fluid mosaic model"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... model]</span> accounts for the presence of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates in a dynamic, <u>semisolid plasma membrane that surrounds cells</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fluid mosaic model</span> accounts for the presence of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates in a dynamic, <u>semisolid plasma membrane that surrounds cells</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>It explains various observations regarding the structure of functional cell membranes</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Fluid Mosaic Model.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-structure-and-function/membrane-permeability/v/cell-membrane-overview-fluid-mosaic-model"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <u>Lipids</u> move freely in the plane of the cell membrane and <b>can assemble into</b> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lipid rafts"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <u>Lipids</u> move freely in the plane of the cell membrane and <b>can assemble into</b> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lipid rafts</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Lipid Raft 2.png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Lipid Raft.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t9MG6_2d2EY"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""flippase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[enzyme]</span> is a specific membrane protein that maintains the <u>bidirectional transport of lipids</u> between the layers of the phospholipid bilayer in cells </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> A/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">flippase</span> is a specific membrane protein that maintains the <u>bidirectional transport of lipids</u> between the layers of the phospholipid bilayer in cells <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Flippase.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cell-membrane-overview/v/membrane-dynamics"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><b>Proteins </b>and<b> carbohydrates</b><i> </i>may move within the membrane, but <i>are slowed by</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""their relatively large size"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><b>Proteins </b>and<b> carbohydrates</b><i> </i>may move within the membrane, but <i>are slowed by</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">their relatively large size</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Protien and Carb Movement.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cell-membrane-overview/v/membrane-dynamics"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><i>Triacylglycerols</i> and <i>fatty acids</i> act as precursors to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phospholipids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><i>Triacylglycerols</i> and <i>fatty acids</i> act as precursors to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phospholipids</span> </div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Phospholipid Precursor.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cell-membrane-overview/v/phospholipid-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glycerophospholipids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are the same as <b>triacylglycerols</b> except <i>one of the fatty acids is replaced with a phosphate group</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glycerophospholipids</span> are the same as <b>triacylglycerols</b> except <i>one of the fatty acids is replaced with a phosphate group</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycerophospholipids.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cell-membrane-overview/v/phospholipid-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cholesterol"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> contributes to membrane <u>fluidity and stability</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cholesterol</span> contributes to membrane <u>fluidity and stability</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Cholesterol.png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Cholesterol 2.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cell-membrane-overview/v/cell-membrane-fluidity"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> At <u>low temperatures</u>, cholesterol will <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""increase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[increase or decrease]</span> fluidity </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> At <u>low temperatures</u>, cholesterol will <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">increase</span> fluidity <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>At <u>low temperatures</u>, cholesterol <i>increases</i> membrane fluidity by <b>preventing fatty acid hydrocarbon chains from coming together</b> and crystallizing<br></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Cholesterol.png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Cholesterol 2.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cell-membrane-overview/v/cell-membrane-fluidity"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> At <i>high temperatures</i>, cholesterol will <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""decrease"" data-ordinal=""1"">[increase or decrease]</span> fluidity </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> At <i>high temperatures</i>, cholesterol will <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">decrease</span> fluidity <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>At <i>high temperatures</i>, cholesterol <u>decreases</u> membrane fluidity by <b>immobilizing a few methylene groups</b> in the fatty acid tails of the lipids<br></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Cholesterol.png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Cholesterol 2.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cell-membrane-overview/v/cell-membrane-fluidity"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Waxes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in cell membranes provide <u>waterproofing</u> and <i>defense</i> for the cell </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Waxes</span> in cell membranes provide <u>waterproofing</u> and <i>defense</i> for the cell <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b>Present in very small amounts, if at all</b>. They are most prevalent in plants<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Waxes.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-acids-lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/lipids-structure-in-cell-membranes"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Transmembrane proteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... proteins]</span> are a type of integral protein that <b>spans the entire membrane</b></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Transmembrane proteins</span> are a type of integral protein that <b>spans the entire membrane</b></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>They are often <b>glycoproteins</b><br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Transmembrane Protein.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-cells/hs-the-cell-membrane/a/structure-of-the-plasma-membrane"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <u>Embedded proteins</u> are embedded in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cell membrane"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <u>Embedded proteins</u> are embedded in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cell membrane</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Are most likely part of a <i>catalytic complex</i> or involved in <b>cellular communication<br></b></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Integral Protein.png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Embedded Proteins 2.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-structure-and-function/plasma-membranes/v/cell-membrane-proteins"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Integral proteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... proteins]</span> have one or more segments that are <b>embedded in the phospholipid bilayer</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Integral proteins</span> have one or more segments that are <b>embedded in the phospholipid bilayer</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Integral Protein.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-structure-and-function/plasma-membranes/v/cell-membrane-proteins"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><b>Carbohydrates</b> in cell membranes can form a protective <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glycoprotein"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> coat </div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><b>Carbohydrates</b> in cell membranes can form a protective <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glycoprotein</span> coat </div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>They also function in cell recognition<br></div><div><br></div><div><font color=""#df5d26""><img src=""Glycoprotein Coat.jpg""></font></div><div><font color=""#df5d26""><br></font></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-cells/hs-the-cell-membrane/a/structure-of-the-plasma-membrane"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <i>Extracellular ligands</i> bind to membrane receptors and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""initiate a response within the cell"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <i>Extracellular ligands</i> bind to membrane receptors and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">initiate a response within the cell</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Ligand 2.png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Ligand.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-communication-and-cell-cycle/signal-transduction/v/membrane-receptors"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Tight junctions"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in cell membranes <i>prevent solutes from leaking into the space between cells</i> <i>via a paracellular route,</i> <b>but</b> <b>do not provide intercellular transport</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Tight junctions</span> in cell membranes <i>prevent solutes from leaking into the space between cells</i> <i>via a paracellular route,</i> <b>but</b> <b>do not provide intercellular transport</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Tight Junction 2.png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Junctions (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cell-cell-interactions/v/cell-junctions"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Gap junctions"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in cell membranes allow for <u>rapid exchange of ions</u> and other small molecules between <b>adjacent cells</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Gap junctions</span> in cell membranes allow for <u>rapid exchange of ions</u> and other small molecules between <b>adjacent cells</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Gap Junction 2.png"" style=""color: rgb(223, 93, 38);""></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Junctions (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cell-cell-interactions/v/cell-junctions"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Desmosomes"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> bind adjacent cells by <i>anchoring to their cytoskeletons</i></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Desmosomes</span> bind adjacent cells by <i>anchoring to their cytoskeletons</i></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b>Hemidesmosomes</b> are similar, but their main function is to <b>attach epithelial cells</b> to underlying structures<br></div><div><font color=""#195ab3""><br></font></div><div>Found in tissue that experience intense <u>mechanical stress</u>, such as: </div><div><br></div><div><u>Cardiac muscle tissue</u></div><div><u>Bladder tissue</u></div><div><u>Gastrointestinal mucosa</u></div><div><u>Epithelial tissue</u></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Desmosomes 2.png""></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Junctions (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/cell-cell-interactions/v/cell-junctions"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane MileDown::General_Chemistry::Solutions</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Osmotic pressure"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the <b>pressure</b> that needs to be applied to a solution to <u>prevent the inward flow of water</u> (prevent osmosis)</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane MileDown::General_Chemistry::Solutions</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Osmotic pressure</span> is the <b>pressure</b> that needs to be applied to a solution to <u>prevent the inward flow of water</u> (prevent osmosis)</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Osmotic pressure is used to express the <b>concentration of a solution</b></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Osmotic Pressure 2.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Osmotic Pressure 2.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9rnghq1rDS0"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Passive transport"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... transport]</span> is when the molecule moves <b>down its concentration gradient</b>, so no energy is required</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Passive transport</span> is when the molecule moves <b>down its concentration gradient</b>, so no energy is required</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Transport.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/transport-across-a-cell-membrane/v/how-do-things-move-across-a-cell-membrane"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <u>Simple diffusion</u> is when molecules <b>passively</b> move form an area of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""high"" data-ordinal=""1"">[low or high]</span> concentration to an area of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""low"" data-ordinal=""1"">[high or low]</span> concentration <b>until equilibrium is achieved</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <u>Simple diffusion</u> is when molecules <b>passively</b> move form an area of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">high</span> concentration to an area of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">low</span> concentration <b>until equilibrium is achieved</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Transport.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/transport-across-a-cell-membrane/v/how-do-things-move-across-a-cell-membrane"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Osmosis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a form of <b>passive transport</b> and describes the <u>diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Osmosis</span> is a form of <b>passive transport</b> and describes the <u>diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Osmosis.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-energy-and-transport/hs-osmosis-and-tonicity/v/osmosis"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Facilitated diffusion"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a form of <u>passive transport</u> that uses transport proteins to <i>move impermeable solutes across the cell membrane</i></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Facilitated diffusion</span> is a form of <u>passive transport</u> that uses transport proteins to <i>move impermeable solutes across the cell membrane</i></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Transport.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/transport-across-a-cell-membrane/v/how-do-things-move-across-a-cell-membrane"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Active transport"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... transport]</span> <i>requires energy in the form of ATP </i>or an existing favorable ion gradient (an ion other than the solute being transported) </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Active transport</span> <i>requires energy in the form of ATP </i>or an existing favorable ion gradient (an ion other than the solute being transported) <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b>Moves solutes against their concentration gradient<br></b></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Transport.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/transport-across-a-cell-membrane/v/how-do-things-move-across-a-cell-membrane"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div>In <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""primary active transport"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... transport]</span>, the energy needed for the transport is <b>derived directly</b> from the <i>breakdown of ATP</i></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div>In <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">primary active transport</span>, the energy needed for the transport is <b>derived directly</b> from the <i>breakdown of ATP</i></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Primary Secondary Active Transport.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/transport-across-a-cell-membrane/v/how-do-things-move-across-a-cell-membrane"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Secondary active transport"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... transport]</span> harnesses the energy released by one particle going <u>down</u> <u>its electrochemical gradient</u> to <i>drive a different particle up its gradient</i></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Secondary active transport</span> harnesses the energy released by one particle going <u>down</u> <u>its electrochemical gradient</u> to <i>drive a different particle up its gradient</i></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>“Coupled transport”</div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Primary Secondary Active Transport.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/transport-across-a-cell-membrane/v/how-do-things-move-across-a-cell-membrane"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> The term <i>antiport</i> is used during membrane transport when <b>two particles flow in</b> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""opposite directions"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> The term <i>antiport</i> is used during membrane transport when <b>two particles flow in</b> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">opposite directions</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Primary Secondary Active Transport.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/transport-across-a-cell-membrane/v/how-do-things-move-across-a-cell-membrane"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> The term <i>symport</i> is used during membrane transport when <u>two particles flow in the</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""same direction"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> The term <i>symport</i> is used during membrane transport when <u>two particles flow in the</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">same direction</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Primary Secondary Active Transport.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/transport-across-a-cell-membrane/v/how-do-things-move-across-a-cell-membrane"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Endocytosis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a method of <i>engulfing material into the cells</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Endocytosis</span> is a method of <i>engulfing material into the cells</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Includes <b>phagocytosis</b> and <b>pinocytosis</b><br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Endocytosis.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/membranes-and-transport/bulk-transport/v/endocytosis-phagocytosis-and-pinocytosis"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <u>Pinocytosis</u> is the ingestion of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""liquids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> via vesicles </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <u>Pinocytosis</u> is the ingestion of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">liquids</span> via vesicles <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Endocytosis.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/membranes-and-transport/bulk-transport/v/endocytosis-phagocytosis-and-pinocytosis"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <b>Phagocytosis</b><i> </i>is the ingestion of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""large solid materials"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <b>Phagocytosis</b><i> </i>is the ingestion of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">large solid materials</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Endocytosis.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/membranes-and-transport/bulk-transport/v/endocytosis-phagocytosis-and-pinocytosis"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Exocytosis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the process by which the contents of a cell vacuole are <u>released to the exterior</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Exocytosis</span> is the process by which the contents of a cell vacuole are <u>released to the exterior</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Exocytosis.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/membranes-and-transport/bulk-transport/v/exocytosis"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><b>Membrane potential</b> is maintained by the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Na<sup>+</sup>/K<sup>+</sup> pump"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""leak channels"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div><b>Membrane potential</b> is maintained by the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Na<sup>+</sup>/K<sup>+</sup> pump</span> and by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">leak channels</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Membrane Potential.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous-system/a/the-membrane-potential"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> The <b>resting potential</b> of most cells is between <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""-40"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""-80"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> mV </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> The <b>resting potential</b> of most cells is between <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">-40</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">-80</span> mV <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Resting Potential.gif""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Resting Potential 2 (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous-system/a/the-membrane-potential"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane MileDown::General_Chemistry::Electrochemistry</div> <div>The <i>Nernst equation</i> is used to calculate <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cell potential"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in non-standard conditions</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane MileDown::General_Chemistry::Electrochemistry</div> <div>The <i>Nernst equation</i> is used to calculate <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cell potential</span> in non-standard conditions</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>It accounts for varying temperature and concentrations<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Nernst.png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Nernst 2.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/physical-processes/intro-electrochemistry-mcat/v/nerst-equation-edited"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div>The <b>outer mitochondrial membrane</b> is highly permeable to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""metabolic molecules"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""small proteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> <div>The <b>outer mitochondrial membrane</b> is highly permeable to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">metabolic molecules</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">small proteins</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Mitochondrial Membranes.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/eukaryotic-cells/v/mitochondria"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""inner"" data-ordinal=""1"">[inner or outer]</span> mitochondrial membrane <i>surrounds the mitochondrial matrix</i>, where the citric acid cycle produces electrons used in the ETC </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">inner</span> mitochondrial membrane <i>surrounds the mitochondrial matrix</i>, where the citric acid cycle produces electrons used in the ETC <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Mitochondrial Membranes.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/eukaryotic-cells/v/mitochondria"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glucose transporters"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are transport proteins that <u>move glucose across the cell membrane</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glucose transporters</span> are transport proteins that <u>move glucose across the cell membrane</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""GLUT 4.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""GLUT Proteins.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i9S5_KZa_Is"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glucose_Transport</div> <i>GLUT-2</i> is found in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""liver"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glucose_Transport</div> <i>GLUT-2</i> is found in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">liver</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>GLUT-2 has a<font color=""#195ab3""> </font><u>low</u> affinity for glucose</div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""GLUT Proteins.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i9S5_KZa_Is"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glucose_Transport</div> <b>GLUT-4</b> is found in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""adipose tissue"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""muscle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glucose_Transport</div> <b>GLUT-4</b> is found in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">adipose tissue</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">muscle</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>GLUT-4 has a <i>high</i> affinity for glucose</div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""GLUT Proteins.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i9S5_KZa_Is"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glycolysis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is process in which one glucose<b> </b>molecule is broken down to form <i>two molecules of pyruvic acid</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glycolysis</span> is process in which one glucose<b> </b>molecule is broken down to form <i>two molecules of pyruvic acid</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis (1).png"" style=""color: rgb(225, 39, 39);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism</div> Metabolic Pathways Overview<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""<img src="Metabolism Overview.png">"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism</div> Metabolic Pathways Overview<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1""><img src=""Metabolism Overview.png""></span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/hormonal-regulation/v/overview-of-metabolism-anabolism-and-catabolism"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis.png""><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glycolysis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> converts <b>glucose to pyruvate</b> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""gluconeogenesis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> converts <u>pyruvate to glucose</u></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis.png""><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glycolysis</span> converts <b>glucose to pyruvate</b> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">gluconeogenesis</span> converts <u>pyruvate to glucose</u></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Complete (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link - Glycolysis</a><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydhr0QAyxYg"">YouTube Link - Gluconeogenesis</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> <img src=""Glycogenesis.png""><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glycogenesis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> converts <i>glucose to glycogen</i> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glycogenolysis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> converts <b><u>glycogen to glucose</u></b></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> <img src=""Glycogenesis.png""><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glycogenesis</span> converts <i>glucose to glycogen</i> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glycogenolysis</span> converts <b><u>glycogen to glucose</u></b></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycogenesis Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hejzJ03kZ9E"">YouTube Link - Glycogenesis</a><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y1nSZA-A7f8"">YouTube Link - Glycogenolysis</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Fate of Pyruvate 1.png""><div><br></div><div>The 3 compounds that <b style="""">pyruvate will convert</b><i> </i><b>to</b> are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetaldehyde"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lactate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetyl-CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Fate of Pyruvate 1.png""><div><br></div><div>The 3 compounds that <b style="""">pyruvate will convert</b><i> </i><b>to</b> are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acetaldehyde</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lactate</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acetyl-CoA</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Fate of Pyruvate.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=It4j3sdz9R4"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Fate of Pyruvate 3.png""><div><br></div><div>When <b>pyruvate</b> converts to <i>acetaldehyde</i>, the next step converts acetaldehyde to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ethanol"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Fate of Pyruvate 3.png""><div><br></div><div>When <b>pyruvate</b> converts to <i>acetaldehyde</i>, the next step converts acetaldehyde to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ethanol</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Fate of Pyruvate.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=It4j3sdz9R4"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <img src=""PDC.png""><div><br></div><div>The protein complex that performs <u>pyruvate decarboxylation</u> and converts <i>pyruvate to acetyl-CoA</i> is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pyruvate dehydrogenase complex"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <img src=""PDC.png""><div><br></div><div>The protein complex that performs <u>pyruvate decarboxylation</u> and converts <i>pyruvate to acetyl-CoA</i> is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pyruvate dehydrogenase complex</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""PDC Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FJBNkXAajrk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Acetyl CoA.png""><div><br></div><div>When pyruvate undergoes <u>pyruvate decarboxylation</u>, it is converted to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Acetyl-CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Acetyl CoA.png""><div><br></div><div>When pyruvate undergoes <u>pyruvate decarboxylation</u>, it is converted to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Acetyl-CoA</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Acetyl CoA Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FJBNkXAajrk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <img src=""Acetyl CoA Fate.png""><div><br></div><div><i>Acetyl-CoA</i> feeds into the following two processes:</div><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Citric acid cycle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Fatty acid synthesis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <img src=""Acetyl CoA Fate.png""><div><br></div><div><i>Acetyl-CoA</i> feeds into the following two processes:</div><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Citric acid cycle</span></div><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Fatty acid synthesis</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Acetyl CoA Fate Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/fatty-acid-synthesis-part-i"">Khan Academy Link - Fatty Acid Synthesis</a><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cellular-respiration-and-fermentation/pyruvate-oxidation-and-the-citric-acid-cycle/v/krebs-citric-acid-cycle"">Khan Academy Link - Citric Acid Cycle</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis (1).png""><div><br></div><div>The process that converts <i>acetyl-CoA</i> to a <u>fatty acid</u> is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fatty acid synthesis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis (1).png""><div><br></div><div>The process that converts <i>acetyl-CoA</i> to a <u>fatty acid</u> is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fatty acid synthesis</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5SMNesTN90"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation.png""><div><br></div><div>The process that converts <u>fatty acid</u> to <i>Acetyl-CoA </i>is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""β-Oxidation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation.png""><div><br></div><div>The process that converts <u>fatty acid</u> to <i>Acetyl-CoA </i>is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">β-Oxidation</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Beta Oxidation Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pmfeF1DUTOM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Urea_Cycle</div> <img src=""NH3.png""><div><br></div><div><i>Amino acids</i> undergo <b>degradation</b> and send <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NH<sub>3</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to the urea cycle</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Urea_Cycle</div> <img src=""NH3.png""><div><br></div><div><i>Amino acids</i> undergo <b>degradation</b> and send <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NH<sub>3</sub></span> to the urea cycle</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>NH<sub>3</sub> = Ammonia</div><div><br></div><img src=""NH3 Complete.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/overview-of-amino-acid-metabolism"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <img src=""Electron Transport Chain.png""><div><br></div><div>The <u>citric acid cycle</u> sends electrons to the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""electron transport chain"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <img src=""Electron Transport Chain.png""><div><br></div><div>The <u>citric acid cycle</u> sends electrons to the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">electron transport chain</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The electron transport chain converts <i>ADP to ATP</i></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Electron Transport Chain Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C8VHyezOJD4"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <u>Glycolysis</u> is the process in which one glucose molecule is broken down to form <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""two molecules of&nbsp;pyruvic acid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <u>Glycolysis</u> is the process in which one glucose molecule is broken down to form <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">two molecules of pyruvic acid</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <u>Glucose</u> has <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""6"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> carbons and <b>pyruvate</b> has <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> carbons </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <u>Glucose</u> has <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">6</span> carbons and <b>pyruvate</b> has <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3</span> carbons <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glucose to Pyruvate (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> The three major regulatory enzymes in <u>glycolysis</u> are:<div><br></div><div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Hexokinase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Phosphofructokinase (PFK)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Pyruvate kinase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> The three major regulatory enzymes in <u>glycolysis</u> are:<div><br></div><div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Hexokinase</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Phosphofructokinase (PFK)</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pyruvate kinase</span></div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Hexokinase (3).png""><div><br></div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i style="""">enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hexokinase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Hexokinase (3).png""><div><br></div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i style="""">enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hexokinase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Hexokinase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Phosphoglucose Isomerase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><br></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction  is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphoglucose isomerase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Phosphoglucose Isomerase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><br></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction  is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphoglucose isomerase</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Phosphoglucose Isomerase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Phosphofructokinase (1).png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphofructokinase (PFK)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Phosphofructokinase (1).png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphofructokinase (PFK)</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Phosphofructokinase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Aldolase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""aldolase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Aldolase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">aldolase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Aldolase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Aldolase 2.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""aldolase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Aldolase 2.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">aldolase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Aldolase 2 Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Glyceraldehyde 3-Phospate Dehydrogenase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Glyceraldehyde 3-Phospate Dehydrogenase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Glyceraldehyde 3-Phospate Dehydrogenase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Phosphoglycerate Kinase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphoglycerate kinase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Phosphoglycerate Kinase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphoglycerate kinase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Phosphoglycerate Kinase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Phosphoglycerate Mutase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphoglycerate mutase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Phosphoglycerate Mutase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphoglycerate mutase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Phosphoglycerate Mutase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Enolase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""enolase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Enolase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">enolase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Enolase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Pyruvate Kinase (1).png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pyruvate kinase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Pyruvate Kinase (1).png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pyruvate kinase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Pyruvate Kinase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Triose Phosphate Isomerase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""triose phosphate isomerase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Triose Phosphate Isomerase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">triose phosphate isomerase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Triose Phosphate Isomerase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> Glycolysis <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> ATP and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""4"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> ATP </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> Glycolysis <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2</span> ATP and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">4</span> ATP <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b>A net gain of 2 ATP</b><br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Glycolysis Abbreviated.png""></div><div><br><div><img src=""Glycolysis Reactants and Products (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> Glycolysis <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> NAD<sup>+</sup> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> NADH </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> Glycolysis <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2</span> NAD<sup>+</sup> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2</span> NADH <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><div><img src=""Glycolysis Abbreviated.png""><br></div><div><br><div><img src=""Glycolysis Reactants and Products (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div><div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Hexokinase Produces.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ADP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Hexokinase Produces.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ADP</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Hexokinase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Phosphofructokinase Produces.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ADP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Phosphofructokinase Produces.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ADP</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Phosphofructokinase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Phosphoglycerate Kinase Produces.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ADP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Phosphoglycerate Kinase Produces.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ADP</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Phosphoglycerate Kinase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Pyruvate Kinase Produces.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ADP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Pyruvate Kinase Produces.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ADP</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Pyruvate Kinase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Glyceraldehyde 3-Phospate Dehydrogenase Produces.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Pi"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NAD<sup>+</sup>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and it <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Glyceraldehyde 3-Phospate Dehydrogenase Produces.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pi</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NAD<sup>+</sup></span> and it <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADH</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Glyceraldehyde 3-Phospate Dehydrogenase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Enolase Produces.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""H<sub>2</sub>O"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Glycolysis Enolase Produces.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <u>glycolysis</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">H<sub>2</sub>O</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis Enolase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <b>Gluconeogenesis</b> is the process in which <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pyruvic acid"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is converted to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glucose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <b>Gluconeogenesis</b> is the process in which <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pyruvic acid</span> is converted to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glucose</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Gluconeogenesis (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydhr0QAyxYg"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <img src=""Gluconeogenesis Pyruvate Carboxylase.png""><div><br></div><div>The above reactions are from <b>gluconeogenesis</b></div><div><br></div><div>The <i>enzymes</i> involved in these two reactions are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pyruvate carboxylase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <img src=""Gluconeogenesis Pyruvate Carboxylase.png""><div><br></div><div>The above reactions are from <b>gluconeogenesis</b></div><div><br></div><div>The <i>enzymes</i> involved in these two reactions are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pyruvate carboxylase</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK)</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Gluconeogenesis Pyruvate Carboxylase Complete (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydhr0QAyxYg"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <img src=""Gluconeogenesis Enolase.png""><div><br></div><div>The above reaction is from <b>gluconeogenesis</b></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""H<sub>2</sub>O"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <img src=""Gluconeogenesis Enolase.png""><div><br></div><div>The above reaction is from <b>gluconeogenesis</b></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">H<sub>2</sub>O</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Gluconeogenesis Enolase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydhr0QAyxYg"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <img src=""Gluconeogenesis Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <b>gluconeogenesis</b></div></div><div><br></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <img src=""Gluconeogenesis Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <b>gluconeogenesis</b></div></div><div><br></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Gluconeogenesis Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydhr0QAyxYg"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <img src=""Gluconeogenesis Glucose 6-phosphatase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <b>gluconeogenesis</b></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <u>enzyme that catalyzes</u> this reaction <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glucose 6-phosphatase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <img src=""Gluconeogenesis Glucose 6-phosphatase.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from <b>gluconeogenesis</b></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <u>enzyme that catalyzes</u> this reaction <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glucose 6-phosphatase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Gluconeogenesis Glucose 6-phosphatase Complete.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydhr0QAyxYg"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> The two major regulatory enzymes in <b>gluconeogenesis</b> are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pyruvate carboxylase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> The two major regulatory enzymes in <b>gluconeogenesis</b> are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pyruvate carboxylase</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Gluconeogenesis (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydhr0QAyxYg"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <img src=""Gluconeogenesis Pyruvate Carboxylase Activation.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reactions are from <b>gluconeogenesis</b></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The conversion of <i>pyruvate to PEP</i> is activated by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetyl-CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <img src=""Gluconeogenesis Pyruvate Carboxylase Activation.png""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reactions are from <b>gluconeogenesis</b></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The conversion of <i>pyruvate to PEP</i> is activated by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acetyl-CoA</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Gluconeogenesis Pyruvate Carboxylase Complete (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydhr0QAyxYg"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> In <b>gluconeogenesis</b>, the combination of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pyruvate carboxylase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[enzyme 1]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[enzyme 2]</span> is used to circumvent the action of <i>pyruvate kinase</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> In <b>gluconeogenesis</b>, the combination of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pyruvate carboxylase</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase</span> is used to circumvent the action of <i>pyruvate kinase</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Gluconeogenesis Pyruvate Carboxylase Complete (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydhr0QAyxYg"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""citric acid cycle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a series of reactions that <u>oxidizes</u> <u>acetyl-CoA</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">citric acid cycle</span> is a series of reactions that <u>oxidizes</u> <u>acetyl-CoA</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>It produces <i>ATP</i>, <i>NADH</i>, <i>FADH<sub>2</sub></i>, and <i>CO<sub>2</sub></i><br></div><div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Citric Acid Cycle (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Citrate Synthase.jpg""><div><br></div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div><div><br></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""citrate synthase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Citrate Synthase.jpg""><div><br></div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div><div><br></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">citrate synthase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Citrate Synthase Complete.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Acpnitase.jpg""><div><br></div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>Name the <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""aconitase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Acpnitase.jpg""><div><br></div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>Name the <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">aconitase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Acpnitase Complete.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Isocitrate Dehydrogenase (1).jpg""><br><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""isocitrate dehydrogenase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Isocitrate Dehydrogenase (1).jpg""><br><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">isocitrate dehydrogenase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Isocitrate Dehydrogenase Complete (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Alpha-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase Complex.jpg""><br><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Alpha-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase Complex.jpg""><br><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Alpha-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase Complex Complete (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Succinyl CoA Synthetase.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""succinyl CoA synthetase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Succinyl CoA Synthetase.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">succinyl CoA synthetase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Succinyl CoA Synthetase Complete.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Succinate Dehydrogenase.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""succinate dehydrogenase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Succinate Dehydrogenase.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">succinate dehydrogenase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Succinate Dehydrogenase Complete.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Fumarase.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fumarase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Fumarase.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fumarase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Fumarase Complete.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Malate Dehydrogenase.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""malate dehydrogenase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Malate Dehydrogenase.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>The <i>enzyme that catalyzes</i> this reaction is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">malate dehydrogenase</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Malate Dehydrogenase Complete.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Citrate Synthase Reactants.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oxaloacetate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetyl-CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <i style="""">produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""citrate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Citrate Synthase Reactants.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxaloacetate</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acetyl-CoA</span> and <i style="""">produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">citrate</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">CoA</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Citrate Synthase Complete.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Isocitrate Dehydrogenase Reactants.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><br></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""isocitrate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NAD<sup>+</sup>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""α-ketoglutarate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""CO<sub>2</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Isocitrate Dehydrogenase Reactants.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><br></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">isocitrate</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NAD<sup>+</sup></span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-ketoglutarate</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADH</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">CO<sub>2</sub></span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Isocitrate Dehydrogenase Complete (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Alpha-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase Complex Reactants.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""α-ketoglutarate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NAD<sup>+</sup>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""succinyl CoA,"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""CO<sub>2</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Alpha-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase Complex Reactants.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-ketoglutarate</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NAD<sup>+</sup></span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">CoA</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">succinyl CoA,</span> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADH</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">CO<sub>2</sub></span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Alpha-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase Complex Complete (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Succinyl CoA Synthetase Reactants.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""succinyl CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""GDP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Pi"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""succinate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""GTP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Succinyl CoA Synthetase Reactants.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">succinyl CoA</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">GDP</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pi</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">succinate</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">GTP</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">CoA</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Succinyl CoA Synthetase Complete.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Fumarase Reactants.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""H<sub>2</sub>O"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Fumarase Reactants.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">H<sub>2</sub>O</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Fumarase Complete.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Malate Dehydrogenase Reactants.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""malate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NAD<sup>+</sup>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oxaloacetate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""H<sup>+</sup>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <img src=""Malate Dehydrogenase Reactants.jpg""><div><br></div><div><div>The above reaction is from the <u>citric acid cycle</u></div></div><div><b><br></b></div><div>This reaction <u>requires</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">malate</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NAD<sup>+</sup></span> and <i>produces</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxaloacetate</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADH</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">H<sup>+</sup></span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Malate Dehydrogenase Complete.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The three <b>regulatory enzymes</b> in the <u>citric acid cycle</u> are:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Citrate synthase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Isocitrate dehydrogenase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The three <b>regulatory enzymes</b> in the <u>citric acid cycle</u> are:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Citrate synthase</span><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Isocitrate dehydrogenase</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex</span></div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Citric Acid Cycle Regulatory Steps.png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Citric Acid Cycle Regulatory Enzymes (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <i>rate limiting enzyme</i> in the <u>citric acid cycle</u> is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""isocitrate dehydrogenase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <i>rate limiting enzyme</i> in the <u>citric acid cycle</u> is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">isocitrate dehydrogenase</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Citric Acid Cycle Regulatory Steps.png""></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Citric Acid Cycle Regulatory Enzymes (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <u>citric acid cycle</u> requires <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> <b>NAD<sup>+</sup></b> and produces <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> <u>NADH</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <u>citric acid cycle</u> requires <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3</span> <b>NAD<sup>+</sup></b> and produces <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3</span> <u>NADH</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Citric Acid Cycle Reactants and Products (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <u>citric acid cycle</u> requires <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> <i>FAD</i> and produces <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> <b>FADH<sub>2</sub></b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <u>citric acid cycle</u> requires <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1</span> <i>FAD</i> and produces <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1</span> <b>FADH<sub>2</sub></b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Citric Acid Cycle Reactants and Products (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <u>citric acid cycle</u> requires <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> <b>ADP</b> and produce <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> <i>ATP</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <u>citric acid cycle</u> requires <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1</span> <b>ADP</b> and produce <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1</span> <i>ATP</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Citric Acid Cycle Reactants and Products (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a></div><div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <u>citric acid cycle</u> sends electrons to the <i>electron transport chain</i> within the electron carriers <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""FADH<sub>2</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <u>citric acid cycle</u> sends electrons to the <i>electron transport chain</i> within the electron carriers <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADH</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">FADH<sub>2</sub></span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C8VHyezOJD4"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> The ETC creates a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""proton&nbsp;concentration gradient"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> that is used to <i>power ATP synthase</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> The ETC creates a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">proton concentration gradient</span> that is used to <i>power ATP synthase</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Protons are pumped into the <u>intermembrane space</u><b> </b>so the concentration gradient is across the <b>inner mitochondrial membrane</b></div><div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/C8VHyezOJD4"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <b>Complex I</b> in the ETC is also known as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADH dehydrogenase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <b>Complex I</b> in the ETC is also known as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADH dehydrogenase</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Complex I <u>removes hydrogen</u> from NADH to form NAD<sup>+</sup><br></div><div><sup><br></sup></div><div>It is also called <b><i>NADH Oxidoreductase</i></b> because when the hydrogen is removed from NADH, electrons are removed with it which makes this a REDOX reaction</div><div><br></div><img src=""ETC Complex 1 (1).png""><div><br><div><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ay9WIAkoa1Y"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <u>Complex II</u> in the ETC is also known as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""succinate dehydrogenase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <u>Complex II</u> in the ETC is also known as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">succinate dehydrogenase</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Complex II <b>removes two hydrogens</b> <b>from</b> <b>succinate</b> and adds them to FAD to make FADH<sub>2</sub><br></div><div><br></div><div>The result is, <i>succinate is oxidized to fumarate</i> and <u>FAD is reduced to FADH<sub>2</sub></u></div><div><br></div><div><b>FADH<sub>2</sub> is then oxidized back to FAD</b></div><div><div><br></div><div><img src=""ETC Complex 2 (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ay9WIAkoa1Y"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <i>Complex III</i> in the ETC is also known as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytochrome reductase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <i>Complex III</i> in the ETC is also known as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytochrome reductase</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Cytochrome is <u>reduced</u><br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""ETC Complex 3 (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E0YGToDEKeE"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <b>Complex IV</b> in the ETC is also known as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytochrome oxidase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <b>Complex IV</b> in the ETC is also known as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytochrome oxidase</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b>Cytochrome is oxidized</b> as it <u>reduces O<sub style="""">2</sub> to H<sub style="""">2</sub>O<br></u></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""ETC Complex 4 (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/C8VHyezOJD4"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP synthase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[Enzyme]</span> uses a proton gradient to power the conversion of <i>ADP to ATP</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP synthase</span> uses a proton gradient to power the conversion of <i>ADP to ATP</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The <b>electron transport chain</b> generates the proton gradient</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""ATP Synthase.png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""ATP Synthase.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_UG3WnsW3o"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <b>NADH</b> powers the creation of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2.5"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> ATP </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <b>NADH</b> powers the creation of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2.5</span> ATP <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""NADH and FADH2 to ATP.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_UG3WnsW3o"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <u>FADH<sub>2</sub></u> powers the creation of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""1.5"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> ATP </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <u>FADH<sub>2</sub></u> powers the creation of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">1.5</span> ATP <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""NADH and FADH2 to ATP.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_UG3WnsW3o"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <b>Complex I</b> in the ETC oxidizes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to form <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NAD<sup>+</sup>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <b>Complex I</b> in the ETC oxidizes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADH</span> to form <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NAD<sup>+</sup></span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>NADH gives up 2 electrons</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""ETC Complex 1 (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ay9WIAkoa1Y"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <u>Complex II</u> in the ETC oxidizes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""succinate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to form <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fumarate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <u>Complex II</u> in the ETC oxidizes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">succinate</span> to form <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fumarate</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Complex II directly receives <i>FADH<sub>2</sub></i>, which does not pass through complex I<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""ETC Complex 2 (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C8VHyezOJD4"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> ETC <u>complex II</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""is not"" data-ordinal=""1"">[is or is not]</span> a proton pump </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> ETC <u>complex II</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">is not</span> a proton pump <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Since <u>complex II </u>uses FADH<sub>2</sub>, but is not a proton pump, that means <b>less ATP is formed from FADH<sub>2</sub></b> compared to NADH</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""NADH and FADH2 to ATP.png""></div><div><div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C8VHyezOJD4"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> ETC <u>Complex II</u> removes 2 hydrogens from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""succinate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and adds them to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""FAD"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> ETC <u>Complex II</u> removes 2 hydrogens from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">succinate</span> and adds them to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">FAD</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>This produces <b>Fumarate</b> and <b>FADH<sub>2</sub></b><br></div><div><br></div><div>FADH<sub>2</sub> is then reduced back to FAD</div><div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Succinate Dehydrogenase Complete.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""ETC Complex 2 (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ay9WIAkoa1Y"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <u>Complex II </u>in the ETC is part of the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""citric acid cycle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <u>Complex II </u>in the ETC is part of the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">citric acid cycle</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Succinate Dehydrogenase Complete.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ay9WIAkoa1Y"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <i>Complex III</i> in the ETC is the site of the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Q Cycle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <i>Complex III</i> in the ETC is the site of the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Q Cycle</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""ETC Complex 3 (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rOv-X7VFbp0"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> The <i>Q Cycle</i> is the process by which <b>electrons</b> travel from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""QH<sub>2</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytochrome C"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> The <i>Q Cycle</i> is the process by which <b>electrons</b> travel from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">QH<sub>2</sub></span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytochrome C</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Occurs in <i>complex III</i> of the ETC<br></div><div><div><br></div><div><img src=""ETC Complex 3 (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rOv-X7VFbp0"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <b>Complex IV </b>in the ETC transfers <u>electrons</u> from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytochrome C"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oxygen"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <b>Complex IV </b>in the ETC transfers <u>electrons</u> from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytochrome C</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxygen</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Produces <u>water</u> and contributes to the proton gradient</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""ETC Complex 4 (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E0YGToDEKeE"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Oxygen"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the <i>final acceptor of electrons</i> in the ETC during aerobic respiration </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Oxygen</span> is the <i>final acceptor of electrons</i> in the ETC during aerobic respiration <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Oxygen Final Acceptor.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E0YGToDEKeE"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <b>Fatty acid synthesis</b> includes the following 5 steps:<div><br></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Attach"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Condense"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>3. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Reduce"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>4. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Dehydration"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div>5. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Reduce"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <b>Fatty acid synthesis</b> includes the following 5 steps:<div><br></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Attach</span></div><div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Condense</span></div><div>3. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Reduce</span></div><div>4. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Dehydration</span></div><div>5. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Reduce</span></div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><b>ACR DR</b> mnemonic</div><div><br></div><div>This adds two new carbon atoms to a fatty acid chain</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Initiation.png""></div><div><br></div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis (3).png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5SMNesTN90"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <b>Fatty acid synthesis</b> begins with the transfer of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetyl-CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> from the <i>mitochondria to the cytosol</i> via the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""citrate shuttle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <b>Fatty acid synthesis</b> begins with the transfer of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acetyl-CoA</span> from the <i>mitochondria to the cytosol</i> via the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">citrate shuttle</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Initiation.png""></div><div><br></div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis (3).png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5SMNesTN90"">YouTube Link</a></div><br></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <b>Fatty acid synthesis</b> begins with the transfer of acetyl-CoA from the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mitochondria"" data-ordinal=""1"">[cell part]</span> to the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytosol"" data-ordinal=""1"">[cell part]</span> via the <u>citrate shuttle</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <b>Fatty acid synthesis</b> begins with the transfer of acetyl-CoA from the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mitochondria</span> to the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytosol</span> via the <u>citrate shuttle</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Initiation.png""></div><div><br></div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis (3).png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5SMNesTN90"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> During the initiation of <b>fatty acid synthesis</b>, <i>acetyl-CoA</i> is activated through the synthesis of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""malonyl-CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>  </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> During the initiation of <b>fatty acid synthesis</b>, <i>acetyl-CoA</i> is activated through the synthesis of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">malonyl-CoA</span>  <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Initiation.png""></div><div><br></div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis (3).png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5SMNesTN90"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> The <i>regulatory enzyme</i> for <b>fatty acid synthesis</b> is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetyl-CoA carboxylase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> The <i>regulatory enzyme</i> for <b>fatty acid synthesis</b> is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acetyl-CoA carboxylase</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>It activates acetyl-CoA<div><br></div><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Initiation.png""><div><br></div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis (3).png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5SMNesTN90"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Attach.png""><div><br></div><div>The first step of <b>fatty acid synthesis</b> is 1: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Attach"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Attach.png""><div><br></div><div>The first step of <b>fatty acid synthesis</b> is 1: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Attach</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>Acetyl-CoA <i>attaches</i> to acyl carrier protein<br><div><br></div><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis (3).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5SMNesTN90"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Condense.png""><div><br></div><div>The second step of <b>fatty acid synthesis</b> is 2: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Condense"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Condense.png""><div><br></div><div>The second step of <b>fatty acid synthesis</b> is 2: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Condense</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Malonyl-CoA <b>condenses</b> with acetyl-CoA, kicking off a CoA and CO<sub>2</sub></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis (3).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5SMNesTN90"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Reduce 1.png""><div><br></div><div>The third step of <b>fatty acid synthesis</b> is 3: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Reduce"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Reduce 1.png""><div><br></div><div>The third step of <b>fatty acid synthesis</b> is 3: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Reduce</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>NADPH <u>reduces</u> C=O to C-OH </div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis (3).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5SMNesTN90"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Dehydration.png""><div><br></div><div>The fourth step of <b>fatty acid synthesis</b> is 4: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Dehydration"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Dehydration.png""><div><br></div><div>The fourth step of <b>fatty acid synthesis</b> is 4: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Dehydration</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The -OH group is removed through <b>dehydration</b> which produces a water molecule</div><div><br></div><div>This leaves behind a C=C<b> </b>double bond<br><div><br></div><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis (3).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5SMNesTN90"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Reduce 2.png""><div><br></div><div>The fifth step of <b>fatty acid synthesis</b> is 5: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Reduce"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis Reduce 2.png""><div><br></div><div>The fifth step of <b>fatty acid synthesis</b> is 5: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Reduce</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>NADPH <u>reduces</u> the double bond to make it a single bond</div><div><br></div><div>This completes the process of adding 2 new carbon atoms to the fatty acid chain<div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis (3).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5SMNesTN90"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <b>Fatty acid synthesis</b> occurs in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytosol"" data-ordinal=""1"">[part of cell]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <b>Fatty acid synthesis</b> occurs in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytosol</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis in Cytosol.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/fatty-acid-synthesis-part-i"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <i>Acetyl-CoA</i> uses the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""citrate shuttle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to <b>exit the mitochondria</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <i>Acetyl-CoA</i> uses the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">citrate shuttle</span> to <b>exit the mitochondria</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Synthesis in Cytosol.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6W5dntsodvo"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Beta oxidation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the process by which <u>fatty acids are oxidized and broken down</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Beta oxidation</span> is the process by which <u>fatty acids are oxidized and broken down</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>It generates multiple molecules of 2 carbon <b>Acetyl-CoA</b>, plus the electron carriers <u>NADH</u><b> </b>and <u>FADH<sub style="""">2</sub></u><div><br></div><div><b><img src=""Beta Oxidation (1).png""></b></div><div><b><br></b></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__jS-pjzb5k"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <u>Beta oxidation</u> occurs in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mitochondrial matrix"" data-ordinal=""1"">[part of cell]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <u>Beta oxidation</u> occurs in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mitochondrial matrix</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Beta Oxidation Occurs in Mit Matrix.gif""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__jS-pjzb5k"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <i>Acyl-CoA</i> must use the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""carnitine shuttle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to pass through the <b>inner mitochondrial membrane</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <i>Acyl-CoA</i> must use the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">carnitine shuttle</span> to pass through the <b>inner mitochondrial membrane</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Acyl-CoA can pass through <u>porins in the outer membrane</u>, but it needs the assistance of <i>carnitine</i> in order to move through the inner membrane<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Carnitine Shuttle.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__jS-pjzb5k"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation Acyl CoA.png""><div><br></div><div><u>Beta oxidation</u> starts with the oxidation of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acyl-CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation Acyl CoA.png""><div><br></div><div><u>Beta oxidation</u> starts with the oxidation of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acyl-CoA</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Beta Oxidation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZufZvbhPpws"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation Oxidation 1.png""><div><br></div><div>The first step of <u>beta oxidation</u> is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oxidation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation Oxidation 1.png""><div><br></div><div>The first step of <u>beta oxidation</u> is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxidation</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Two hydrogens are removed from Acyl-CoA and donated to FAD<br></div><div><br></div><div>This means <u>acyl-CoA is oxidized</u> and <b>FAD is reduced to FADH<sub>2</sub></b></div><div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Beta Oxidation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZufZvbhPpws"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation Hydration.png""><div><br></div><div>The second step of <u>beta oxidation</u> is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hydration"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation Hydration.png""><div><br></div><div>The second step of <u>beta oxidation</u> is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hydration</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Water is added<br></div><div><div><br></div><div><u>-OH is added to the β carbon</u> and -H is added to the α carbon</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Beta Oxidation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZufZvbhPpws"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation Oxidation 2.png""><div><br></div><div>The third step in <u>beta oxidation</u> is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oxidation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation Oxidation 2.png""><div><br></div><div>The third step in <u>beta oxidation</u> is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxidation</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>A hydrogen is removed and donated to NAD<sup>+</sup><br></div><div><br></div><div>This means NAD<sup>+</sup> is reduced to NADH</div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Beta Oxidation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZufZvbhPpws"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation Thiolysis.png""><div><br></div><div>The fourth step of <u>beta oxidation</u> is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""thiolysis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation Thiolysis.png""><div><br></div><div>The fourth step of <u>beta oxidation</u> is a/an <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">thiolysis</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The <i>acyl-CoA</i> undergoes <b>thiolytic cleavage</b> of the thioester<br></div><div><font color=""#e12727""><b><br></b></font></div><div>An acetyl-CoA molecule is broken off of the <b><i>acyl-CoA</i></b></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Beta Oxidation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZufZvbhPpws"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation Products.png""><div><br></div><div>The two main products of <u>beta oxidation</u> are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetyl-CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acyl-CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> <img src=""Beta Oxidation Products.png""><div><br></div><div>The two main products of <u>beta oxidation</u> are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acetyl-CoA</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acyl-CoA</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><i>Acetyl-CoA</i> is sent to the <i>citric acid cycle</i></div><div><br></div><div><b>Acyl-CoA</b> is now <b>2 carbons shorter</b> than before the round of beta oxidation started</div><div><b><br></b></div><div><div><img src=""Beta Oxidation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZufZvbhPpws"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> If a <i>C<sub>16</sub> fatty acid </i>is completely processed by <u>beta oxidation</u>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""8"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> acetyl-CoA molecules will be produced </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> If a <i>C<sub>16</sub> fatty acid </i>is completely processed by <u>beta oxidation</u>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">8</span> acetyl-CoA molecules will be produced <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Beta Oxidation Energy Products.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/pmfeF1DUTOM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> A<i> C<sub>16</sub> fatty acid</i> will undergo a maximum of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""7"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> rounds of <u>beta oxidation</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> A<i> C<sub>16</sub> fatty acid</i> will undergo a maximum of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">7</span> rounds of <u>beta oxidation</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Beta Oxidation Energy Products.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/pmfeF1DUTOM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> A <i>C<sub>16</sub> fatty acid</i> that undergoes complete <u>beta oxidation</u> will produce <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""7"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> NADH and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""7"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> FADH<sub>2</sub> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids</div> A <i>C<sub>16</sub> fatty acid</i> that undergoes complete <u>beta oxidation</u> will produce <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">7</span> NADH and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">7</span> FADH<sub>2</sub> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>This is because a <i>C<sub>16</sub> fatty acid</i> <i>undergoes</i> <i>7 rounds</i> of beta oxidation and each round produces <u>1 NADH and 1 FADH<sub>2</sub></u></div><div><u><sub><br></sub></u></div><div><img src=""Beta Oxidation Energy Products.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/pmfeF1DUTOM"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> The <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b> produces <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADPH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pentose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> The <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b> produces <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADPH</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pentose</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>The NADPH is used as a <i>reducing agent</i> in metabolism<div><br></div><div>The pentoses (5-carbon sugars, i.e. ribose) are used in <u>nucleotide synthesis<br></u><div><br></div><div><img src=""Pentose Phosphate Pathway (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkTDi2WIm4w"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> <div><img src=""Pentose Phosphate Pathway NADPH (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div>The <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b> converts <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADP<sup>+</sup>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADPH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> <div><img src=""Pentose Phosphate Pathway NADPH (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div>The <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b> converts <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADP<sup>+</sup></span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADPH</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Pentose Phosphate Pathway (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/carbohydrate-metabolism/v/pentose-phosphate-pathway"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> <div><img src=""Pentose Phosphate Pathway Ribose 5-Phosphate (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div>The <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b> produces <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ribose 5-phosphate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and sends for use in <u>nucleotide synthesis</u><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> <div><img src=""Pentose Phosphate Pathway Ribose 5-Phosphate (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div>The <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b> produces <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ribose 5-phosphate</span> and sends for use in <u>nucleotide synthesis</u><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Pentose Phosphate Pathway (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/carbohydrate-metabolism/v/pentose-phosphate-pathway"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> <div><img src=""Pentose Phosphate Pathway Glucose 6-Phosphate (2).png""></div><div><u><br></u></div><div><u>Glycolysis</u> sends <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glucose 6-phosphate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to the <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> <div><img src=""Pentose Phosphate Pathway Glucose 6-Phosphate (2).png""></div><div><u><br></u></div><div><u>Glycolysis</u> sends <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glucose 6-phosphate</span> to the <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Pentose Phosphate Pathway (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/carbohydrate-metabolism/v/pentose-phosphate-pathway"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Urea_Cycle</div> The <i>urea cycle</i> converts <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ammonia"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to <b>urea</b> which is then excreted in urine  </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Urea_Cycle</div> The <i>urea cycle</i> converts <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ammonia</span> to <b>urea</b> which is then excreted in urine  <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><u>Amino acid metabolism</u> produces ammonia which is toxic to the body and must be excreted</div><div><br></div><img src=""Urea Cycle.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3rVr_SfXo8"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Urea_Cycle</div> The <i>urea cycle</i> takes place in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytosol"" data-ordinal=""1"">[part of cell]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mitochondrial matrix"" data-ordinal=""1"">[part of cell]</span> of the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""liver"" data-ordinal=""1"">[organ]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Urea_Cycle</div> The <i>urea cycle</i> takes place in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytosol</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mitochondrial matrix</span> of the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">liver</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Urea Cycle.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3rVr_SfXo8"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Urea_Cycle</div> The <i>urea cycle</i> connects to the <u>citric acid cycle</u> using the compounds <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oxaloacetate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fumarate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Urea_Cycle</div> The <i>urea cycle</i> connects to the <u>citric acid cycle</u> using the compounds <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxaloacetate</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fumarate</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Urea Cycle.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3rVr_SfXo8"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> Give the chemical reaction formula for <u>glycolysis</u>:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glucose + 2NAD<sup>+</sup>&nbsp;+ 2ADP + 2Pi"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> → <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H<sub>2</sub>O"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> Give the chemical reaction formula for <u>glycolysis</u>:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glucose + 2NAD<sup>+</sup> + 2ADP + 2Pi</span> → <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H<sub>2</sub>O</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycolysis (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qij1m7XUhk"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <u>Hexokinase</u> is inhibited by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glucose 6-phosphate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <u>Hexokinase</u> is inhibited by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glucose 6-phosphate</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Hexokinase Regulation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OG4A3Fkitvw"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Phosphofructokinase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the <i>enzyme that catalyzes the committed step</i> of <u>glycolysis</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Phosphofructokinase</span> is the <i>enzyme that catalyzes the committed step</i> of <u>glycolysis</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>After this step, the sugar molecule is <b>committed to completing Glycolysis</b> </div><div><br></div><div>Prior to this step, the sugar molecule could have been <u>redirected to be converted to glycogen</u></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Glycolysis (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QEIWcOY0x0g"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> The <u>storage form of glucose</u> in animals is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glycogen"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> The <u>storage form of glucose</u> in animals is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glycogen</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycogen Storage Form of Glucose.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kei2AmB3sfw"">YouTube</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <i>Phosphofructokinase</i> is <u>inhibited</u> by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""citrate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <i>Phosphofructokinase</i> is <u>inhibited</u> by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">citrate</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Phosphofructokinase Regulation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OG4A3Fkitvw"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <i>Phosphofructokinase</i> is <b>activated</b> by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""AMP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <i>Phosphofructokinase</i> is <b>activated</b> by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">AMP</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Phosphofructokinase Regulation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OG4A3Fkitvw"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <b>Pyruvate kinase</b> is <u>inhibited</u> by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <b>Pyruvate kinase</b> is <u>inhibited</u> by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Pyruvate Kinase Regulation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OG4A3Fkitvw"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <b>Pyruvate kinase</b> is <i>activated</i> by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fructose 1,6-bisphosphate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <b>Pyruvate kinase</b> is <i>activated</i> by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fructose 1,6-bisphosphate</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Pyruvate Kinase Regulation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OG4A3Fkitvw"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <u>Pyruvate dehydrogenase</u> converts <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pyruvate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetyl-CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <u>Pyruvate dehydrogenase</u> converts <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pyruvate</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acetyl-CoA</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>This is called <i>pyruvate decarboxylation</i><br><div><br></div><div><img src=""Pyruvate Dehydrogenase.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FJBNkXAajrk"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glycogenesis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the <i>production of glycogen</i> from sugar </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glycogenesis</span> is the <i>production of glycogen</i> from sugar <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Occurs in the <b>liver</b> and <b>muscles</b></div><div><b><br></b></div><div><font color=""#195ab3""><img src=""Glycogenesis (4).png""></font></div><div><font color=""#195ab3""><br></font></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3FHKw2aS_Z0"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> The two main <i>enzymes in glycogenesis</i> are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glycogen synthase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""branching enzyme"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> The two main <i>enzymes in glycogenesis</i> are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glycogen synthase</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">branching enzyme</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycogenesis Enzymes.png"" style=""color: rgb(25, 90, 179);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3FHKw2aS_Z0"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> <u>Glycogen synthase</u> creates <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""α-1,4 glycosidic bonds"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... glycosidic bonds]</span> between molecules of glucose </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> <u>Glycogen synthase</u> creates <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-1,4 glycosidic bonds</span> between molecules of glucose <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycogenesis Enzymes.png"" style=""color: rgb(25, 90, 179);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3FHKw2aS_Z0"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> <b>Branching enzyme</b> creates branches with <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""alpha-1,6 glycosidic bonds"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... glycosidic bonds]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> <b>Branching enzyme</b> creates branches with <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">alpha-1,6 glycosidic bonds</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycogenesis Enzymes.png"" style=""color: rgb(25, 90, 179);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3FHKw2aS_Z0"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glycogenolysis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the <i>breakdown of glycogen</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glycogenolysis</span> is the <i>breakdown of glycogen</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycogenesis (4).png"" style=""color: rgb(25, 90, 179);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/Y1nSZA-A7f8"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> The two main enzymes in <i>glycogenolysis</i> are <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glycogen phosphorylase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""debranching enzyme"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> The two main enzymes in <i>glycogenolysis</i> are <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glycogen phosphorylase</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">debranching enzyme</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycogenolysis Enzymes.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eovh2X4sLLA"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> In glycogenolysis,<i> </i><b>glycogen phosphorylase</b> removes single glucose molecules by breaking <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""α-1,4 glycosidic bonds"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... glycosidic bonds]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> In glycogenolysis,<i> </i><b>glycogen phosphorylase</b> removes single glucose molecules by breaking <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-1,4 glycosidic bonds</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycogenolysis Enzymes.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eovh2X4sLLA"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> In glycogenolysis,<i> </i><u>glycogen debranching enzyme</u> breaks branches of glucose molecules off by hydrolyzing <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""α-1,6 glycosidic bonds"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... glycosidic bonds]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen</div> In glycogenolysis,<i> </i><u>glycogen debranching enzyme</u> breaks branches of glucose molecules off by hydrolyzing <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">α-1,6 glycosidic bonds</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>This creates a <i>single chain of glycogen</i><br></div><div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Glycogenolysis Enzymes.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eovh2X4sLLA"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> The <u>glycolysis intermediate</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glucose 6-phosphate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> feeds into <i>glycogenesis</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> The <u>glycolysis intermediate</u> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glucose 6-phosphate</span> feeds into <i>glycogenesis</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Glycogenesis (4).png"" style=""color: rgb(25, 90, 179);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3FHKw2aS_Z0"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Gluconeogenesis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the process in which <b>pyruvic acid is converted to glucose</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Gluconeogenesis</span> is the process in which <b>pyruvic acid is converted to glucose</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Gluconeogenesis (1).png"" style=""color: rgb(25, 90, 179);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydhr0QAyxYg"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <b>Gluconeogenesis</b> takes place in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""liver"" data-ordinal=""1"">[organ]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""kidneys"" data-ordinal=""1"">[organ]</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""intestines"" data-ordinal=""1"">[organ]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <b>Gluconeogenesis</b> takes place in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">liver</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">kidneys</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">intestines</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Gluconeogensis Sites.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydhr0QAyxYg"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> The glycolysis enzyme <i>pyruvate kinase is irreversible</i>. This is why in <b>gluconeogenesis</b>, pyruvate must first be converted to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""oxaloacetate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> before becoming phosphoenolpyruvate </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> The glycolysis enzyme <i>pyruvate kinase is irreversible</i>. This is why in <b>gluconeogenesis</b>, pyruvate must first be converted to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">oxaloacetate</span> before becoming phosphoenolpyruvate <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Gluconeogenesis Pyruvate Carboxylase Complete (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydhr0QAyxYg"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Gluconeogenesis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> occurs during periods of <b>fasting</b>, <b>starvation</b>, <b>low-carbohydrate diets</b>, or <b>intense exercise</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Gluconeogenesis</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Gluconeogenesis</span> occurs during periods of <b>fasting</b>, <b>starvation</b>, <b>low-carbohydrate diets</b>, or <b>intense exercise</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""When Does Gluconeogensis Occur.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydhr0QAyxYg"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> The <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b> is also known as the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> The <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b> is also known as the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The pathway allows for carbon atoms from glucose 6-phosphate to take a <b>brief detour</b> (a shunt) before they proceed down the <u>glycolysis pathway</u></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Pentose Phosphate Pathway (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkTDi2WIm4w"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> The <i>rate limiting enzyme</i> of the <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b> is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> The <i>rate limiting enzyme</i> of the <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b> is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>This step creates <u>NADPH</u><br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Pentose Phosphate Pathway Oxidative Stage.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nMWmmJLEI9I"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> The <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b> occurs in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytosol"" data-ordinal=""1"">[part of cell]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Pentose_Phosphate_Pathway</div> The <b>pentose phosphate pathway</b> occurs in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytosol</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""HMP Shunt Location.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkTDi2WIm4w"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Reaction Pathway Locations Blank.png""><div><br></div><div><b>Glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, glycogenolysis, and fatty acid synthesis</b> all occur in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytoplasm"" data-ordinal=""1"">[part of cell]</span></div><div><br></div><div><u>The citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, and beta oxidation</u> all occur in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mitochondria"" data-ordinal=""1"">[part of cell]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Fatty_Acids MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycogen MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Glycolysis</div> <img src=""Reaction Pathway Locations Blank.png""><div><br></div><div><b>Glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, glycogenolysis, and fatty acid synthesis</b> all occur in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytoplasm</span></div><div><br></div><div><u>The citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, and beta oxidation</u> all occur in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mitochondria</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Reaction Pathway Sites.png""><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Monosaccharides</div> <u>Galactose</u> comes from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lactose in milk"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Monosaccharides</div> <u>Galactose</u> comes from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lactose in milk</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Galactose.gif""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Monosaccharides (2).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y6kVNOs89D4"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Monosaccharides</div> <i>Fructose</i> comes from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""honey, fruit, and sucrose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Monosaccharides</div> <i>Fructose</i> comes from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">honey, fruit, and sucrose</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Sucrose (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Monosaccharides (2).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y6kVNOs89D4"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Monosaccharides</div> <img src=""Glucose.jpg""><div><br></div><div>This is the monosaccharide <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glucose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Monosaccharides</div> <img src=""Glucose.jpg""><div><br></div><div>This is the monosaccharide <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glucose</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Monosaccharides (2).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUo4c2f9rpI"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Monosaccharides</div> <img src=""Fructose.jpg""><div><br></div><div>This is the monosaccharide <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fructose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Monosaccharides</div> <img src=""Fructose.jpg""><div><br></div><div>This is the monosaccharide <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fructose</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Monosaccharides (2).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUo4c2f9rpI"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Monosaccharides</div> <img src=""Galactose.jpg""><div><br></div><div>This is the monosaccharide <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""galactose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Monosaccharides</div> <img src=""Galactose.jpg""><div><br></div><div>This is the monosaccharide <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">galactose</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Monosaccharides (2).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUo4c2f9rpI"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <i>Acetyl-CoA</i> contains a high energy <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""thioester"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> bond that can be used to drive other reactions  </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <i>Acetyl-CoA</i> contains a high energy <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">thioester</span> bond that can be used to drive other reactions  <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Acetyl-CoA (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Fate of Acetyl CoA.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/GA2bkKtUaOc"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <i>Acetyl-CoA</i> can be formed from the following three sources:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Amino acids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Pyruvic acids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Fatty acids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <i>Acetyl-CoA</i> can be formed from the following three sources:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Amino acids</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Pyruvic acids</span></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Fatty acids</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Fate of Acetyl CoA.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/GA2bkKtUaOc"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <u>Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex</u> is a complex of three enzymes that converts <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pyruvate"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetyl-CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> by a process called <i>pyruvate decarboxylation</i> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <u>Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex</u> is a complex of three enzymes that converts <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pyruvate</span> into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acetyl-CoA</span> by a process called <i>pyruvate decarboxylation</i> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex 2.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FJBNkXAajrk"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <u>Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex</u> is turned <i>off</i> when it is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""phosphorylated"" data-ordinal=""1"">[phosphorylated or dephosphorylated]</span>  </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <u>Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex</u> is turned <i>off</i> when it is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">phosphorylated</span>  <div> </div> <div id='extra'>The enzyme that adds a phosphate is <i>pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase</i><div><br></div><div><img src=""Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jZg8JHiLaBA"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <u>Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex</u> is turned <b>on</b> when it is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""dephosphorylated"" data-ordinal=""1"">[phosphorylated or dephosphorylated]</span>  </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Acetyl-CoA</div> <u>Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex</u> is turned <b>on</b> when it is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">dephosphorylated</span>  <div> </div> <div id='extra'>The enzyme that removes a phosphate is p<b>yruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase</b><div><br></div><div><img src=""Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jZg8JHiLaBA"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <u>citric acid cycle</u> produces <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""FADH<sub>2</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""CO<sub>2</sub>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <u>citric acid cycle</u> produces <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADH</span>, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">FADH<sub>2</sub></span>, and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">CO<sub>2</sub></span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Citric Acid Cycle (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <u>Isocitrate dehydrogenase</u>, the rate limiting enzyme in the citric acid cycle is <b>activated</b> by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ADP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <i>inhibited</i> by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <u>Isocitrate dehydrogenase</u>, the rate limiting enzyme in the citric acid cycle is <b>activated</b> by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ADP</span> and <i>inhibited</i> by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>High ADP means the system is low on ATP and the citric acid cycle is needed to create more ATP<br></div><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Citric Acid Cycle Regulatory Steps.png""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Citric Acid Cycle Regulatory Enzymes (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <u>citric acid cycle</u> is also known as the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""krebs cycle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> or the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <u>citric acid cycle</u> is also known as the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">krebs cycle</span> or the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>It is sometimes called the <b>tricarboxylic acid cycle</b> because citric acid contains <b>3 carboxyl groups</b></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Citric Acid (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <div><i>Isocitrate dehydrogenase</i>, the rate limiting enzyme of the citric acid cycle is <b>activated</b> by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ADP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> or <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NAD<sup>+</sup>"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <div><i>Isocitrate dehydrogenase</i>, the rate limiting enzyme of the citric acid cycle is <b>activated</b> by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ADP</span> or <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NAD<sup>+</sup></span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Citric Acid Cycle Regulatory Enzymes (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <i>Isocitrate dehydrogenase</i>, the rate limiting enzyme of the citric acid cycle is <u>inhibited</u> by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> or <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""NADH"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> <i>Isocitrate dehydrogenase</i>, the rate limiting enzyme of the citric acid cycle is <u>inhibited</u> by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP</span> or <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">NADH</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Citric Acid Cycle Regulatory Enzymes (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a></div><div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <i>citric acid cycle</i> occurs in the following parts of the cell:<div><br></div><div><div><b>Eukaryotes</b>: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mitochondrial matrix"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div><div><br></div><div><u>Prokaryotes</u>: <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""cytoplasm"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Citric_Acid_Cycle</div> The <i>citric acid cycle</i> occurs in the following parts of the cell:<div><br></div><div><div><b>Eukaryotes</b>: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mitochondrial matrix</span></div><div><br></div><div><u>Prokaryotes</u>: <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">cytoplasm</span></div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Example of a <b>eukaryotic</b> cell:</div><div><img src=""Eukaryotes CAC Location.jpg"" style=""color: rgb(25, 90, 179);""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Electron transport chain"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a series of complexes that <b>transfer electrons</b> from electron donors to electron acceptors <u>via redox reactions</u> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Electron transport chain</span> is a series of complexes that <b>transfer electrons</b> from electron donors to electron acceptors <u>via redox reactions</u> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>This electron transfer is coupled with the transfer of protons across a membrane to create a <i>proton gradient</i></div><div><i><br></i></div><div><img src=""Oxidative Phosphorylation (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/C8VHyezOJD4"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Chemiosmosis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the <u>movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane</u>, down their electrochemical gradient </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Chemiosmosis</span> is the <u>movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane</u>, down their electrochemical gradient <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>An example of this would be the <i>generation of ATP</i> by the movement of H<sup>+</sup> across the inner mitochondrial membrane<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""ATP Synthase.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_UG3WnsW3o"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <div>The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""proton-motive force"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... force]</span> is the <i>proton electrochemical gradient</i> generated by the electron transport chain across the inner mitochondrial membrane</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <div>The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">proton-motive force</span> is the <i>proton electrochemical gradient</i> generated by the electron transport chain across the inner mitochondrial membrane</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""ATP Synthase.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_UG3WnsW3o"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> A <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""negative"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> sense RNA strand has a nucleotide sequence <b>complementary</b> to the mRNA that it encodes </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> A <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">negative</span> sense RNA strand has a nucleotide sequence <b>complementary</b> to the mRNA that it encodes <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Like DNA, this RNA <b>cannot</b> be translated into protein directly. Instead, it must <b>first be transcribed</b> into a positive-sense RNA which acts as an mRNA</div><div><font color=""#e12727""><br /></font></div><div><font color=""#e12727""><img src=""Positive and Negative Sense Strands of RNA.png"" /></font></div><div><font color=""#e12727""><br /></font></div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lQtJdiOUv0I"">YouTube Link</a></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> A <i style="""">high</i> <i>pH</i> will cause amino acids to be <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fully deprotonated"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> A <i style="""">high</i> <i>pH</i> will cause amino acids to be <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fully deprotonated</span><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Effect of pH.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-j0796RPGtI"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> If <b>pH = pI </b>then the amino acid is a <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""zwitterion"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids MileDown::General_Chemistry::Acids_and_Bases::pH_and_pKa</div> If <b>pH = pI </b>then the amino acid is a <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">zwitterion</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Effect of pH.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-j0796RPGtI"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> The <i>amino acid sequence</i> of a peptide chain is written <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""N"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>-terminus to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""C"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span>-terminus<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Amino_Acids</div> The <i>amino acid sequence</i> of a peptide chain is written <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">N</span>-terminus to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">C</span>-terminus<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Amino Acid Sequence (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/v/overview-of-protein-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The N-terminus of a peptide chain is <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""positively"" data-ordinal=""1"">[positively or negatively]</span> charged <br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The N-terminus of a peptide chain is <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">positively</span> charged <br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>Due to the –NH3<sup>+</sup><div><span style=""font-size: 16.6667px;""><br></span></div><div><img src=""N Terminus Positvely Charged.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/v/overview-of-protein-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <u>1°</u> structure of proteins is stabilized by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""peptide bonds"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <u>1°</u> structure of proteins is stabilized by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">peptide bonds</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Polypeptide Sequence.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/v/overview-of-protein-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <i>2°</i> structure of proteins is stabilized by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hydrogen bonds"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <i>2°</i> structure of proteins is stabilized by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hydrogen bonds</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Secondary Protein Struccture.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/v/overview-of-protein-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <u>3°</u> structure of proteins is stabilized primarily by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""hydrophobic interactions"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> The <u>3°</u> structure of proteins is stabilized primarily by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">hydrophobic interactions</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Tertiary Protein Structure.jpg""><br><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/v/overview-of-protein-structure"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> Enzymes <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""do not alter"" data-ordinal=""1"">[alter or do not alter]</span> the <u>∆G</u> or <u>∆H</u>, and the final <u>equilibrium</u> position </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Enzymes</div> Enzymes <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">do not alter</span> the <u>∆G</u> or <u>∆H</u>, and the final <u>equilibrium</u> position <div> </div> <div id='extra'><b>Enzymes only change the rate of reaction</b><br><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Enzyme Free Energy.gif""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-energy-and-transport/hs-enzymes/v/enzymes"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <b>Triacylglycerols</b> contain a glycerol attached to 3 fatty acids by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ester"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> bonds<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <b>Triacylglycerols</b> contain a glycerol attached to 3 fatty acids by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ester</span> bonds<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Triglycerol (2).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/lipids/v/molecular-structure-of-triglycerides-fats"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Soap"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a form of lipid which is a mixture of <b>sodium salts</b> of various naturally occurring <i>fatty acids</i><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Soap</span> is a form of lipid which is a mixture of <b>sodium salts</b> of various naturally occurring <i>fatty acids</i><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Soap (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-acids-lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/saponification-base-promoted-ester-hydrolysis"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> DNA polymerase <i>reads the template strand from</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3'"" data-ordinal=""1"">[# prime]</span> → <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""5’"" data-ordinal=""1"">[# prime]</span> and <b>synthesize the new strand from</b> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""5’"" data-ordinal=""1"">[# prime]</span> → <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3’"" data-ordinal=""1"">[# prime]</span><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> DNA polymerase <i>reads the template strand from</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3'</span> → <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’</span> and <b>synthesize the new strand from</b> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’</span> → <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3’</span><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""DNA Polymerase (1).png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/dna-as-the-genetic-material/dna-replication/a/molecular-mechanism-of-dna-replication"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> In <b>eukaryotic translation</b>, the <i>40S ribosome</i> subunit attaches to the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""5’&nbsp;cap"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and scans for a start codon;  </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA</div> In <b>eukaryotic translation</b>, the <i>40S ribosome</i> subunit attaches to the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">5’ cap</span> and scans for a start codon;  <div> </div> <div id='extra'>It lays down <i>methionine</i> in the P site of the ribosome<br><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Translation Initiation.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/translation/v/differences-in-translation-between-prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane MileDown::General_Chemistry::Solutions</div> <div>During osmosis, <b>water moves from an area</b> of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""low"" data-ordinal=""1"">[low or high]</span> solute concentration to an area of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""high"" data-ordinal=""1"">[low or high]</span> solute concentration</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Cell_Membrane MileDown::General_Chemistry::Solutions</div> <div>During osmosis, <b>water moves from an area</b> of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">low</span> solute concentration to an area of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">high</span> solute concentration</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>""Water wants to go to where the party is""<br><div><br></div><div><div><img src=""Osmotic Pressure.gif""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Osmotic Pressure 2.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9rnghq1rDS0"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <i>Polysaccharides</i> are formed by repeated monosaccharide or polysaccharide <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""glycosidic"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> bonding </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <i>Polysaccharides</i> are formed by repeated monosaccharide or polysaccharide <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">glycosidic</span> bonding <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Polysaccharides.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/nucleic-acids-lipids-and-carbohydrates/v/disaccharides-and-polysaccharides"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Cellulose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the main <b>structural component</b> for plant cell walls</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Cellulose</span> is the main <b>structural component</b> for plant cell walls</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Cellulose.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/carbohydrates-and-sugars/a/carbohydrates"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <div>In <b>plants</b>, energy is stored in the form of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""starch"" data-ordinal=""1"">[type of carbohydrate]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Carbohydrates</div> <div>In <b>plants</b>, energy is stored in the form of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">starch</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Starch.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/carbohydrates-and-sugars/a/carbohydrates"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Transcription</div> The <u>5' cap</u> on mRNA is made up of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""7-methylguanosine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><div><br></div><div>The <i>poly-A tail</i> is made up of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""adenine<b>&nbsp;</b>nucleotides"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA::Transcription</div> The <u>5' cap</u> on mRNA is made up of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">7-methylguanosine</span><div><br></div><div>The <i>poly-A tail</i> is made up of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">adenine<b> </b>nucleotides</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""5 Prime Cap.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zGnxkmE4n1w"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> The bulk of chemical lipid digestion occurs in the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""small intestine"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> due to <i>pancreatic lipase</i><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> The bulk of chemical lipid digestion occurs in the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">small intestine</span> due to <i>pancreatic lipase</i><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Lipases.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/digestion-mobilization-and-transport-of-fats-part-i"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div>Upon entry into the duodenum, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""emulsification"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> occurs, which is the <b>mixing of two normally immiscible liquids</b>; in this case, fat and water</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div>Upon entry into the duodenum, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">emulsification</span> occurs, which is the <b>mixing of two normally immiscible liquids</b>; in this case, fat and water</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><div>Emulsification increases the surface area of the lipid, which permits greater enzymatic interaction and processing</div></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Emulsification.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zqvr20ZOtvM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><i>Emulsification</i> of lipids is aided by <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bile salts"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><i>Emulsification</i> of lipids is aided by <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">bile salts</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Emulsification increases the surface area of the lipid, which permits greater enzymatic interaction and processing<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Emulsification.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zqvr20ZOtvM"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><u>Long-chain fatty acids</u> are absorbed as <b>micelles</b> and assembled into <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""chylomicrons"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> for release into the lymphatic system</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><u>Long-chain fatty acids</u> are absorbed as <b>micelles</b> and assembled into <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">chylomicrons</span> for release into the lymphatic system</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Short-chain fatty acids are absorbed across the intestine</div> <div>into the blood</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Chylomicrons.jpeg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/digestion-mobilization-and-transport-of-fats-part-i"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><u>Chylomicrons</u> transport lipids through the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""lymphatic system"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... system]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><u>Chylomicrons</u> transport lipids through the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">lymphatic system</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Chylomicrons 2.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/digestion-mobilization-and-transport-of-fats-part-i"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Lipoproteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> transport <i>fat molecules throughout the body</i><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Lipoproteins</span> transport <i>fat molecules throughout the body</i><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Lipoproteins.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/digestion-mobilization-and-transport-of-fats-part-ii"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <i>Lipoproteins</i> are named based on their overall <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""density"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <i>Lipoproteins</i> are named based on their overall <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">density</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><b>Protein</b> is more dense than triglyceride<div><br></div><div>The lipoprotein with the most protein is the most dense and is named <b>high-density lipoprotein (HDL)<br></b><div><br></div><div><img src=""Lipoprotein Densities.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkKH8lTxvzA"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><i>Low-density lipoproteins (LDL)</i> are considered <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""bad"" data-ordinal=""1"">[good or bad]</span> because they <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""have a high amount of cholesterol which they deliver to tissues"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><i>Low-density lipoproteins (LDL)</i> are considered <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">bad</span> because they <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">have a high amount of cholesterol which they deliver to tissues</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Lipoprotein Densities.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkKH8lTxvzA"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <u>High-density lipoproteins (HDL)</u> are considered <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""good"" data-ordinal=""1"">[good or bad]</span> because they <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""pick up extra cholesterol and return it to the liver&nbsp;"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <u>High-density lipoproteins (HDL)</u> are considered <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">good</span> because they <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">pick up extra cholesterol and return it to the liver </span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Types of Lipoproteins.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkKH8lTxvzA"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> The main function of <i>very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL)</i> is to transport fatty acids to from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""the liver"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""tissues"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> The main function of <i>very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL)</i> is to transport fatty acids to from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">the liver</span> to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">tissues</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Types of Lipoproteins.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkKH8lTxvzA"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <b>Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) </b>are converted to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and then to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""low-density lipoproteins (LDL)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> before arriving at a tissue </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <b>Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) </b>are converted to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL)</span> and then to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">low-density lipoproteins (LDL)</span> before arriving at a tissue <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""VLDL to LDL.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkKH8lTxvzA"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> The main function of <u>low-density lipoproteins (LDL) </u>is to <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""transport cholesterol to tissues"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> The main function of <u>low-density lipoproteins (LDL) </u>is to <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">transport cholesterol to tissues</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""LDL.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkKH8lTxvzA"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Apolipoproteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are receptor molecules that <i>control interactions between lipoproteins</i></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Apolipoproteins</span> are receptor molecules that <i>control interactions between lipoproteins</i></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><div></div></div><div><img src=""Lipoprotein Structure.jpg""><br></div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2dzT-l84Mgk"">YouTube Link</a></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><b>Cholesterol</b> may be obtained through dietary sources or through <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""de novo synthesis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in the liver</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><b>Cholesterol</b> may be obtained through dietary sources or through <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">de novo synthesis</span> in the liver</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""De Novo Synthesis.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VXWyWzbigrg"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""HMG-CoA reductase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[Enzyme]</span> is the rate-controlling enzyme of the <i>mevalonate pathway</i>, the metabolic pathway that produces <i>cholesterol</i><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">HMG-CoA reductase</span> is the rate-controlling enzyme of the <i>mevalonate pathway</i>, the metabolic pathway that produces <i>cholesterol</i><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""HMG-CoA Reductase.gif""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3utYm3ouzaU"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <img src=""Alpha Linolenic Acid (1).png""><div><br></div><div>The <b>omega end</b> of a fatty acid is the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""methyl"" data-ordinal=""1"">[methyl or carboxylic acid]</span> end<br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <img src=""Alpha Linolenic Acid (1).png""><div><br></div><div>The <b>omega end</b> of a fatty acid is the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">methyl</span> end<br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Omega End of Fatty Acid.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5FlEcQ9-XQA"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biology::Immune_System</div> <b>Omega fatty acids</b> are classified according to the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""location of the first double bond from the omega end"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism MileDown::Biology::Immune_System</div> <b>Omega fatty acids</b> are classified according to the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">location of the first double bond from the omega end</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Omega End of Fatty Acid.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5FlEcQ9-XQA"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <img src=""Omega 3.png""><div><br></div><div>The above molecule is an Omega-<span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""3"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> fatty acid<br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <img src=""Omega 3.png""><div><br></div><div>The above molecule is an Omega-<span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">3</span> fatty acid<br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>The first double bond, counted from the omega end, is located on the 3rd carbon<div><br></div><div><img src=""Fatty Acid Classification.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5FlEcQ9-XQA"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <i>Ketogenesis</i> is the biochemical process through which organisms produce <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ketone bodies"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> through breakdown of fatty acids and ketogenic amino acids<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <i>Ketogenesis</i> is the biochemical process through which organisms produce <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ketone bodies</span> through breakdown of fatty acids and ketogenic amino acids<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Ketogenesis.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dbno1Aa-E_4"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div>Ketone bodies form via ketogenesis due to excess <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""acetyl-CoA"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> in the liver during a prolonged <b>starvation</b> state</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div>Ketone bodies form via ketogenesis due to excess <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">acetyl-CoA</span> in the liver during a prolonged <b>starvation</b> state</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Starvation State.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dbno1Aa-E_4"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Ketolysis"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> <b>regenerates acetyl-CoA</b> for use as an energy source in peripheral tissues </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ketolysis</span> <b>regenerates acetyl-CoA</b> for use as an energy source in peripheral tissues <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Ketolysis.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IC9NmcaKX-w"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Ketone bodies"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are produced from acetyl-CoA, mainly in the mitochondrial matrix of liver cells when carbohydrates are so scarce that <u>energy must be obtained from breaking down of fatty acids</u><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ketone bodies</span> are produced from acetyl-CoA, mainly in the mitochondrial matrix of liver cells when carbohydrates are so scarce that <u>energy must be obtained from breaking down of fatty acids</u><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Ketone Bodies.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AK9Q2ClI8y4"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Diabetic&nbsp;ketoacidosis&nbsp;(DKA)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> occurs when your blood sugar is very high and acidic substances called <b>ketones</b> build up to dangerous levels in your body<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)</span> occurs when your blood sugar is very high and acidic substances called <b>ketones</b> build up to dangerous levels in your body<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>The condition develops when your body can't produce enough insulin</div><div><br></div><img src=""Ketosis.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LwLWo6kUst4"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div>The brain can derive up to 2/3 of its energy from <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ketone bodies"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> during <i>prolonged starvation</i></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div>The brain can derive up to 2/3 of its energy from <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ketone bodies</span> during <i>prolonged starvation</i></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Ketone Bodies Brain.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/how-does-the-body-adapt-to-starvation"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><u>Catabolism of cellular proteins</u> occurs only under conditions of <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""starvation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <div><u>Catabolism of cellular proteins</u> occurs only under conditions of <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">starvation</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Protein Metabolism.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/how-does-the-body-adapt-to-starvation"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Glucogenic amino acids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... amino acids]</span> are amino acids that <u>can be converted into glucose</u> through gluconeogenesis<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Glucogenic amino acids</span> are amino acids that <u>can be converted into glucose</u> through gluconeogenesis<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>A product of protein catabolism</div><div><br></div><img src=""Glucogenic vs Ketogenic.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/overview-of-amino-acid-metabolism"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Ketogenic amino acids"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... amino acids]</span> are amino acids that can be converted into <i>acetyl-CoA </i>and<i> ketone bodies</i><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipid_Metabolism</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Ketogenic amino acids</span> are amino acids that can be converted into <i>acetyl-CoA </i>and<i> ketone bodies</i><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>A product of protein catabolism<br></div><div><br></div><img src=""Glucogenic vs Ketogenic.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/fat-and-protein-metabolism/v/overview-of-amino-acid-metabolism"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> When the terminal phosphate linkage in <i>ATP</i> is broken using water, <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""30"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span> \(\frac{kJ}{mol}\) of energy is released<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> When the terminal phosphate linkage in <i>ATP</i> is broken using water, <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">30</span> \(\frac{kJ}{mol}\) of energy is released<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""ATP Energy.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/energy-and-enzymes/atp-reaction-coupling/v/atp-hydrolysis-mechanism"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <img src=""ATP Structure.jpg""><div><br></div><div>The above molecule is known as <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""ATP"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <img src=""ATP Structure.jpg""><div><br></div><div>The above molecule is known as <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">ATP</span><br></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""ATP Structure 2.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/energy-and-enzymes/atp-reaction-coupling/v/atp-hydrolysis-mechanism"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Flovoproteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> are a subclass of electron carriers that are derived from <b>riboflavin</b></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Flovoproteins</span> are a subclass of electron carriers that are derived from <b>riboflavin</b></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Examples: FAD and FMN</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Flavoproteins.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tt5flm9BoQo"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <b style="""">FAD</b> and <b style="""">FMN</b> are both <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""flavoproteins"" data-ordinal=""1"">[class of proteins]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::ETC</div> <b style="""">FAD</b> and <b style="""">FMN</b> are both <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">flavoproteins</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Derived from <b>riboflavin</b></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Flavoproteins.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tt5flm9BoQo"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Regulation</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Postprandial"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> means <i>after</i> eating a meal while </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Regulation</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Postprandial</span> means <i>after</i> eating a meal while <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Postprandial state = fed-state</div><div><br></div><img src=""Postprandial Postabsorptive.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZEm8cxKaas8"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Regulation</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""absorptive state"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... state]</span> occurs postprandially and is the period in which the gastrointestinal tract is full and <u>anabolic processes dominate</u><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Regulation</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">absorptive state</span> occurs postprandially and is the period in which the gastrointestinal tract is full and <u>anabolic processes dominate</u><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Absorptive State.jpg""><br></div><div><div><div><img src=""Postprandial Postabsorptive.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZEm8cxKaas8"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Regulation</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""postabsorptive state"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... state]</span> occurs <i>after</i> digestion and absorption. The body must rely on energy stores such as <b>glycogen</b> for its energy<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Regulation</div> The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">postabsorptive state</span> occurs <i>after</i> digestion and absorption. The body must rely on energy stores such as <b>glycogen</b> for its energy<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Postabsorptive state = fasting state</div><div><br></div><img src=""Postabsorptive State.png""><div><br><div><img src=""Postprandial Postabsorptive.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9wb-XexfkEY"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism</div> <u>Calorimeters</u> measure the <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""heat generated by an organism"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> which can be used to calculate the metabolic rate </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism</div> <u>Calorimeters</u> measure the <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">heat generated by an organism</span> which can be used to calculate the metabolic rate <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Calorimeters.png""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ssQhZiO6vqs"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism</div> <div>The <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""respiratory quotient"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is the ratio of the volume of <b>carbon dioxide produced to that of oxygen consumed</b></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism</div> <div>The <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">respiratory quotient</span> is the ratio of the volume of <b>carbon dioxide produced to that of oxygen consumed</b></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Respiratory Quotient.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TTSYaqjYpm8"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Regulation</div> <div><i>Orexin</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""increases"" data-ordinal=""1"">[increases or decreases]</span> appetite</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism::Regulation</div> <div><i>Orexin</i> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">increases</span> appetite</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Orexin.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qbcr9RAOWtM"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism</div> Give the formula used to calculate a person's <i>body mass index (BMI)</i>:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""\(\frac{weight~in~kg}{(height~in~meters)^2}\)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Metabolism</div> Give the formula used to calculate a person's <i>body mass index (BMI)</i>:<div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">\(\frac{weight~in~kg}{(height~in~meters)^2}\)</span></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Body Mass Index.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/healthcare-misc/v/calculate-your-own-body-mass-index"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> Triglyceride storage in <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""adipose tissue"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... tissue]</span> comprises the <u>principal energy reserve</u> in mammals<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lipids</div> Triglyceride storage in <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">adipose tissue</span> comprises the <u>principal energy reserve</u> in mammals<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Adipose Tissue.jpeg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/lipids/a/lipids"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <b>Gel electrophoresis</b> is a technique commonly used in laboratories to separate charged molecules like DNA, RNA<span style=""font-size: 16.6667px;""> </span>and proteins according to their <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""size"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""charge"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <b>Gel electrophoresis</b> is a technique commonly used in laboratories to separate charged molecules like DNA, RNA<span style=""font-size: 16.6667px;""> </span>and proteins according to their <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">size</span> and <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">charge</span><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><div>Small molecules move fast</div><div><br></div><div>Large molecules move slow</div></div><div><br></div><img src=""Gel Electrophoresis.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-technology/dna-sequencing-pcr-electrophoresis/v/gel-electrophoresis-dna"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> In gel electrophoresis:<div><br></div><div><div><u>Small</u> molecules move <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""fast"" data-ordinal=""1"">[fast or slow]</span></div><div><br></div><div><i>Large</i> molecules move <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""slow"" data-ordinal=""1"">[fast or slow]</span></div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> In gel electrophoresis:<div><br></div><div><div><u>Small</u> molecules move <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">fast</span></div><div><br></div><div><i>Large</i> molecules move <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">slow</span></div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>Shorter molecules migrate more easily through the pores of the gel<br><div><br></div><div><img src=""Gel Electrophoresis Fragment Size.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-technology/dna-sequencing-pcr-electrophoresis/v/gel-electrophoresis-dna"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> In gel electrophoresis:<div><br></div><div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Agarose"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> gel has large pores so it is used to separate <i>nucleic acids</i></div><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Polyacrylamide"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> gel has small pores so it is better for separating <b>proteins</b></div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> In gel electrophoresis:<div><br></div><div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Agarose</span> gel has large pores so it is used to separate <i>nucleic acids</i></div><div><br></div><div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Polyacrylamide</span> gel has small pores so it is better for separating <b>proteins</b></div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>Nucleic acids are usually larger than proteins</div><div><br></div><img src=""Agarose vs Polyacrylamide.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/separations-purifications/v/gel-electrophoresis"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <div><u>Native-PAGE</u> is a polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis method for proteins using <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""non-denaturing"" data-ordinal=""1"">[denaturing or non-denaturing]</span> conditions</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <div><u>Native-PAGE</u> is a polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis method for proteins using <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">non-denaturing</span> conditions</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>It is run in the <b>absence of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)</b>, which would denature the proteins<br><div><br></div><div><img src=""PAGE Types.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FfM5Fuyy600"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> denatures proteins and gives them a <u>uniform negative charge</u></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)</span> denatures proteins and gives them a <u>uniform negative charge</u></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""SDS.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/tM0VNhjiFSU"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <i>SDS-PAGE</i> denatures proteins and separates them solely based on <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""mass"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <i>SDS-PAGE</i> denatures proteins and separates them solely based on <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">mass</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>This allows you to estimate the protein’s molecular mass<div><br></div><div><img src=""SDS PAGE.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://youtu.be/tM0VNhjiFSU"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> In SDS-PAGE, you can add an additional <u>reducing agent</u> called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""2-mercaptoethanol"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> to reduce disulfide bonds. This further denatures the protein<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> In SDS-PAGE, you can add an additional <u>reducing agent</u> called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">2-mercaptoethanol</span> to reduce disulfide bonds. This further denatures the protein<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Reducing SDS-PAGE.jpg""><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> In <b>isoelectric focusing</b>, the gel has a pH gradient and the proteins will migrate through the gel until they reach the pH that matches their <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""isoelectric point"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> In <b>isoelectric focusing</b>, the gel has a pH gradient and the proteins will migrate through the gel until they reach the pH that matches their <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">isoelectric point</span> <div> </div> <div id='extra'>At the pI, the protein has a <u>neutral charge</u>, so it will no longer be attracted to the anode or the cathode and it will stop migrating<br><div><br></div><div><img src=""Isoelectric Focusing.png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x62WZGd3VCM"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Blotting"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a method of transferring fragments of protein, DNA, or RNA that have been separated via electrophoresis and applying them to a <b>blotting membrane</b> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Blotting</span> is a method of transferring fragments of protein, DNA, or RNA that have been separated via electrophoresis and applying them to a <b>blotting membrane</b> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div>You can then visualize the fragments with a colored stain<br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Northern Blotting (1).jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Snow Drop.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EoTq-Ql_Zzc"">YouTube Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Southern blotting"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... blotting]</span> is used to detect a specific <i>DNA</i> sequence</div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques</div> <div><span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Southern blotting</span> is used to detect a specific <i>DNA</i> sequence</div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Southern Blotting.png""><div><br><div><div><img src=""Snow Drop.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EoTq-Ql_Zzc"">YouTube Link</a></div></div></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Northern blotting"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... blotting]</span> is used to detect a specific <b>RNA</b> sequence<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Northern blotting</span> is used to detect a specific <b>RNA</b> sequence<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Northern Blotting (1).jpg""><br></div><div><img src=""Snow Drop.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EoTq-Ql_Zzc"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Western blotting"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... blotting]</span> is used to detect a specific <u>protein</u> in a sample<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques MileDown::Biochemistry::Proteins</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Western blotting</span> is used to detect a specific <u>protein</u> in a sample<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""Western Blotting.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><br></div><div><img src=""Snow Drop.jpg""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EoTq-Ql_Zzc"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Sanger sequencing"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... sequencing]</span> is a method of <i>DNA sequencing</i> based on the selective incorporation of chain-terminating <b>dideoxynucleotides</b><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Sanger sequencing</span> is a method of <i>DNA sequencing</i> based on the selective incorporation of chain-terminating <b>dideoxynucleotides</b><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Sanger Sequencing.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FvHRio1yyhQ"">YouTube Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Polymerase chain reaction&nbsp;(PCR)"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> is a fast and inexpensive technique used to <i>amplify</i>, or make many copies of, a <i>specific target region of DNA</i> in the lab<br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques</div> <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)</span> is a fast and inexpensive technique used to <i>amplify</i>, or make many copies of, a <i>specific target region of DNA</i> in the lab<br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""PCR (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-biotechnology/v/the-polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr"">Khan Academy Link</a><br></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques</div> PCR relies on a <b>thermostable DNA polymerase</b> called <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Taq&nbsp;polymerase"" data-ordinal=""1"">[... polymerase]</span><br> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques</div> PCR relies on a <b>thermostable DNA polymerase</b> called <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Taq polymerase</span><br> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><img src=""Taq Polymerase.jpg""><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-technology/dna-sequencing-pcr-electrophoresis/a/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>" "<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"">MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques</div> Give the three steps and the temperatures of each step in a <u>PCR cycle</u>:<div><br></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Denaturation"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> at <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""96"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span>°C</div> <div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Annealing"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> at <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""55 - 65"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span>°C</div> <div>3. <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""Extension"" data-ordinal=""1"">[...]</span> at <span class=""cloze"" data-cloze=""72"" data-ordinal=""1"">[#]</span>°C</div></div> </div>""<div id=""kard""> <div class=""tags"" id='tags'>MileDown::Biochemistry::DNA_and_RNA MileDown::Biochemistry::Lab_Techniques</div> Give the three steps and the temperatures of each step in a <u>PCR cycle</u>:<div><br></div><div><div>1. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Denaturation</span> at <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">96</span>°C</div> <div>2. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Annealing</span> at <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">55 - 65</span>°C</div> <div>3. <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">Extension</span> at <span class=""cloze"" data-ordinal=""1"">72</span>°C</div></div> <div> </div> <div id='extra'><div><img src=""PCR (1).png""></div><div><br></div><div><a href=""https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-biotechnology/v/the-polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr"">Khan Academy Link</a></div></div> </div>"

MileDown's MCAT Decks Biochemistry

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